to the new editio n o f

THE MONTESS ORI METH OD

by Maria Mo ntesso ri

Wh i l e Ma r i a Mon t e ssor i w as p u ttin g t og e th e r t h e

b as ic d e s c r i p ti on of h e r e du c ati on al p ro c e dur e s an d
p hi loso p hi e s A lb e r t E ins te in w as at w ork i n S wit z e r
,

l and A rnold S c ho enb e rg an d S i gm und F r e ud i n

,

V i e nn a J ame s J oy c e i n T ri e ste Igor S t r avi nsky

, , ,

P ablo Pic asso M ar c e l P rous t an d G e r t rud e S t e i n i n

,

P ar i s W i ll i am R u th e rford an d Ni e ls B ohr i n Man

,
~

c h e s t e r Be r t r and R uss e ll Alfr e d Nor th Wh ite h e ad

, , ,

J ohn Mayn ard Keyn e s an d J ame s G e org e F r az e r i n

C ambr i dge Wolfg ang K ohl e r at T e n e r i f e B ron i sl aw
, ,

Mal i no w sk i i n t h e T robr i and Isl ands .

“
A lr e ady mass i ng b e hi nd th e s e gr e at fi gur e s ho w ,

eve r ,
e v e n the n w e r e t he ar mie s of follo w e rs an d
,

ex p and e rs w ho w ould s e e fur t h e r i n Is aac Ne w t on s ’

,

g en e rous p hr as e b e c aus e th e y s t ood on th e should e rs

,

of gi an t s O nly i n e du c ati on w as th e r e t o b e a sudde n

.

an d dr as tic e n d t o t h e burs t o f i nnov ati on an d an al y

s i s syn t he si s an d c h ange w h ic h w as r e m ak i ng al m os t
, ,

e v e ry ar e a o f s e r i ous hu man i n t e r e s t W ith t h e r e j e c

.

ti on o f M on te ssori i n f avor of r e c oll e cti ons fro m t h e

,

l e ss p e r c e p ti v e F ro e b e l an d p roj e cti ons fro m th e l e ss

s p e ci fi c D e w e y e du c ati on t urn e d aw ay fro m t h e l i gh t
,

of g e ni us t o d ark e r c orn e rs th at c ould b e fi ll e d wit h

t h e c o m for t abl e s tu fi of m e d i o c r ity .

“
A s r e c e n t ly as fi v e y e ars ago anyon e so r ash as t o
,

me n ti on M on t e ssor i t o a grou p of A me r ic an e du c at ors

.

w ould h av e b een t old n o t t o t roubl e h i s h ead abou t it

Wi ll i am H e ard Ki l p at r ic k h ad d i s p rov e d h er T w o
‘
.
’

fac t ors hav e brought M on t e ssor i s w ork b ac k t o ’

p romine n c e i n th e U n ite d S t at e s : th e gr e at curr ic ulum

r e for m m ov eme n t s i n mat h an d s cie n c e w h ic h h av e ,

p our e d ou t e du c ati on al e vi de n c e that fl o w s n atur ally

in t o a M on t e ssor i mold ; an d t h e n ew c on c e rn ov e r t h e
e du c ati on of unlu c ky c h i ldr e n bo t h t h e ge n e tic ally an d
,

t h e e nv i ron me n t ally c r i pp l e d w hic h i n e v it ably looks

,

b a c k t o t h e f e w exam p l e s of su cc e ss wit h th i s i n tr ac
t abl e t ask an d fi nds t h e h andso me D o tt or e ss a w orking
c h ee rfully an d p rodu cti v ely with c h ildr e n i n h O S p it al s ,

at h e r C a s e d e i B am b i m i n t h e p r i mi t i v e hous i ng
’

c o n t in u e d o n b ac k flap
 Mar i a Mon t e ssor i born i n w as for mal e du c ati on an d h er c h i l
1 8 7 0 an d s h e w as th e fi rs t w o man
, dr e n p ass e d t h e exam .

e v e r gr an t e d a m e d ic a l d e g r e e by an T y p ic ally s h e dr e w fro m h e r e x
,

I t al i an un i v e rs it y A s a c h i ld sh e
.
, p e r i e n c e t h e v i gorous c on clus i on
sho w e d gr e at ab i l it y i n m ath em a t hat i f t h es e c h il dr e n c oul d b e
tic s an d ori gin ally i n te nd e d t o b e brough t t o t h e ac ad e mic l e v els
c o m e an e ngi n e e r S he d i d p os t . r e ach e d by normal c h i ldr e n th e n ,

gr adu at e w ork in p sy ch i at ry . t h e r e h ad t o b e so me th ing horr ibly

A t t h e age o f 2 8 M on t e ssor i b e ,
w rong with t he e du c ati on o f norm al
c ame d i r e ct r e ss of a t ax-su p p or te d ch i ldr e n A n d so s h e m ov e d on t o
.

s chool for d e fe cti v e ch i ldr e n Work . t h e n o r m a l c h il dr e n of t h e slu m s .

ing th i r te e n hours a day w i t h t h e T h e r e af te r by h e r o w n d e s i r e an d

,

c h i l d r en ,
sh e d e v e l o p e d m at e r i als by p ubl ic d emand s h e w as an e du ,

an d me t ho d s w h ic h allo w e d t h e m t o c at or no t a me dic al do ct or
, .

p e rform r eason ably w e ll on s chool Mon t e ssor i s i nsi gh t s an d me t h ’

p robl e ms p r e v i ously c ons i d e r e d f ar ods ar e c on t ai n e d i n t hr e e b as ic

b e yond th e i r c a p acity Her gr e at . t ext s no w r e p ubl i sh e d : T H E MO N
,

t r iu m p h i n re al ity an d i n t h e n e w s
,
T E S S O RI M E T H O D S P O N TA N E O U S A C ,

p ap e rs c ame wh e n s h e p r e s e n te d
,
T IVIT Y IN E DU CAT IO N ( T h e A dv a n c e d
c hi ldr e n fro m m en t al ins titu ti ons at M o n t es s o r i M e t h o d, volu m e an d
t h e p ubl ic ex ami n ati ons for p r i THE MO N T E S S O R I E L E M E N T A R Y MA
mar y c e r ti fi c at e s w h ic h w as as f ar
,
T E R IAL ( T h e A dvan c e d M o n t ess o r i
as t h e a v e r ag e I t al i an e v e r w e n t i n M e t h o d, v olu me

T HE MO N T E S S O R I ME T H O D , b y Mar i a M on t e ssor i Intro .

du cti on by Mar ti n May e r Illus t r at e d T h e e du c ati on of

. .

c hi ldr e n fro m 3 t o 6 . 44 8 p a ge s .

S P O N T A N E O U S A C T I V I T Y IN E D U C A T I O N , by Mar i a M on t e s
sor i T h e A dv an c e d M o n t e ss o r i M e t h o d, volu me 1 T h e
. .

e du c ati on of c h i ldr e n fro m 7 t o 1 1 38 4 ag e s . p .

T HE MO N T E S S O R I E L E M E N T A RY MAT E R I A L by Ma r i a Mo n ,

te sso ri . T he A d v an c e d M o n t es s o r i M e t h o d, volu me 2 .

T he e du c ati on of c hildr e n fro m 7 to 11 . 51 2 p age s .

NE W E D I T I O NS P U B LI S H E D BY
R O BE R T B E N T LE Y IN C ,
.

18 P l e asant St .
,
C a m b r i d ge M assa c h us e tts 021 39
,
 T HE
A D VA N C E D M O N T E S S O R I ME T HOD

T HE
MO N T E S S O R I
E L E ME N T A R Y MA T E RIA L

BY

MA R IA M O NT E S S O R I
A UT H O R OF T HE M O N TE S S O RI M ET H O D ,
” “
PE D AGO GI C AL
ANT H RO P O L O GY ,
”
ET C .

T R A N S L AT E D F ROM T HE I T AL IAN BY

A R T H U R LI V ING S T O N
A S S O C IA T E P R O F E S S OR O F IT ALIA N AT C O L U M B IA U N IVE R S T Y I

WI TH F O R T Y~F O UR I L L US T R A TI ON S FR O M P H O T O GR AP HS
AND WI TH N UM E R O US DIA GR A M S

1 96 5
R O B E R T B E N T L E Y , IN C .

18 PLE A S A N T ST .
, C A M B R I D GE , MA S S A C H U S E T T S 021 39
 C om/ r i gh t , 1 91 7, b y

FR E D E R I C K A . S T O K E S C O M P AN Y

All r igh t s r e s er v ed , i n c l u di n g t h a t o f t r an s l a ti o n i n t o

f o r eign l an gu ages .

P rin t e d i n t h e U S A . . .
 T RA N S LA T O R S N O T E
’

So far as D r M ontessori s e xperi m ents c o ntain the af

.
’

fi rmat i o n of a n e w do c trine and the illustration of a n e w

m ethod in r e ga r d to the tea c hing of G ramm a r Reading ,

and M etri c s t h e follo w ing page s ar e w e hop e a faithful

, , ,

rendition of h e r w ork But it i s only in th e s e r e sp e c ts that

.

the c hapt e r s d e vot e d to th e se subj e c ts are to b e c onsider e d

a translation It w ill b e observ e d that D r M ontessori s
. .
’

tex t is not only a theoreti c al tr e atise but also an a c tual

te xt -book for the tea c hing of Itali an gramm ar Itali an read
,

ing and Italian m e tri c s to young pupils Her exer c is e s

.

“ ”
c onstitut e a rigidly test e d m aterial : her Italian w o r d
lists are lists w hi c h in a c tu al pra c tise have a c c o m plish e d
, ,

thei r purpose ; h e r gramm ati c al c at e gori e s w ith their r el a

tiv e illustration ar e those a c tually m ast e red by h er Itali an
stud e nts ; her reading s el ec tions and h e r m e tri c al analys e s
ar e those w hi c h f r om an o ffe ring doubtl e ss far m or e ex
,

t ensiv e a c tually su rviv e d t h e experi m ent of use in c l ass

,
.

It i s obviou s th at no su c h valu e c an be c lai m ed for an y

translation of the original m at e rial T h e c at ego r i e s of
.

Italian gramm ar ar e n o t exa c tly t h e c ategori e s of E nglish

gram m ar T h e m orphology and to a c e r tain e xtent t h e
.
, ,

syntax of the various parts of sp e ec h diffe r in the t w o lan

guage s T h e i mm e diate result is that th e Montesso r i m a
.

t e r i al offers m u c h that is inappli c abl e and fails to tou c h on

mu c h th at i s ess e ntial to the tea c hing of E nglish gra mm a r .

T h e n ature and e xtent of t h e diffic ulti e s thus arising a r e

more fully set forth in c onn ec tion w ith sp e c ifi c c ases i n
vi i
vi ii T RAN S LA T O R S N O T E’

our te x t S uffic e it here t o indi c ate that the E nglish m a

.

”
t e r i al offered belo w is but approxi m at e ly e xperi m e ntal,

app r o x i m ately s c i e ntifi c T h e c onstitution of a definitive

.

M ontessori m at e ri al for English gra m m ar and the de fi n i

tive m anne r and order of its pr e sentm ent m ust a w ait th e
results of ex peri m ents in a c tual use Fo r the c learer o r.

i e n t at i o n of su c h ev e ntual e x peri m ents w e o ff er even for

,

those parts of Itali an gramm ar w hi c h bear no rel ation to

English a virtually c o m pl e te transl ation of the original
,

text ; v e nturing m ean w hil e the suggestion th at su c h studi e s

as D r Montessori s treatis e on th e t e a c hing of Itali an noun
.
’

and adj e c tive infle c tions entirely foreign to E nglish

m ay prove valuable t o all teac hers of m odern langu ages .

Whil e it m ight seem desirable t o i solate su c h super fluou s

“ ”
m ateri al from the E nglish gra mm ar given below , w e
dec ided to r e tain the relative paragraphs in their a c tual
position in the Ital ian w ork in order to preserve th e literal
,

i nt e grity of th e ori ginal m e thod Am ong our addition s

.

t o the text w e m ay c ite th e exer c ises on the possessive pr o

nouns — i de n t ifi e d by D r M ont e ssori w ith t h e possessiv e
.

adj e c tives the int e rrogativ e s and the c om p arison of ad

j ec t iv e s and adverbs .

Ev e n w her e as r egards m orphology a reason ably c l o se

, ,

adaptatio n of th e Italian m ateri al to E ngli sh us e s has b e e n

possibl e it by no m e ans follow s th at the p e dagogi c al prob
,

l em s involved rem ain the sa m e T h e tea c hing of the rela

.

tive pronoun for instan c e is far m ore c om pli c ated in E n g

, ,

lish than in Italian ; in the sense that the steps to be taken

by the c hild are for E nglish m ore num erous and of a
high e r order L ikew ise for the verb if Italian is m ore
.
,

di ffic ult as regards vari e ty of fo rm s it i s m u c h m o r e sim ple

,

as r e gards negation int e rrogation and progressive a c tion

,
.

We hav e m ade no attem pt to be c onsistent in adapting th e

 T RA N S LA T O R S N O T E
’

translation to su c h di ffic ulti e s In gen e ral w e hav e tr e ated

.

th e pa r ts of sp e e c h in the ord e r in w hi c h th e y app e ar in

th e Italian t e xt though a c tual e xp e ri m e nt m ay prov e that
,

som e oth e r ord e r is d e sirabl e for t h e tea c hing of E nglish

g r a m m ar T h e E nglish m at e ri al giv e n b e low is thus in
.

part a translation of the original e x e r c is e s in Italian in ,

part n ew III c ases w her e it p r ov e d i m possibl e to utilize

.

any of t h e Itali an m at e rial an att em pt has b e e n m ad e to

,

find senten c e s illust r ating the sam e p e dagogi c al p r in c ipl e

and involvi n g the sa m e nu m b e r and c hara c t e r of m e ntal
pro c e ss e s as ar e r e qui r e d by t h e o r iginal t e xt .

T h e sp ec ial em phasis l aid by D r M ont e ssori upon s e l ec

.

tions fro m M anzoni is due si m ply to the p e c uliar c onditions

sur r ounding the tea c hing of langu ag e in Italy w h e r e gen ,

e ral c o n c e pts of t h e n ational languag e are affe c t e d by the

e xist e n c e of po w erful dial e c ts and t h e unstabl e n atur e of

t h e g r a m m ar vo c abulary and synt ax of t h e n ational lit e ra

,

ture \Ve h ave m ad e no effort to find a w rit e r w orthy of

.

b e ing s e t up as a lik e authority sin c e n o su c h p r obl em

,

e xists for t h e A m e ri c a n and E nglish publi c O u r c itations

.

ar e dra w n to a large e xt e nt fro m t h e

“
Book of Kno w l
”
e dg e and f r om a nu m b e r of c lassi c s O c c asionally for
.

S p ec ial r e asons w e h av e t r anslated t h e It alian original .

T h e c hapt e r on Ital ian m e tri c s has b e e n transl at e d e ntir e

a s an illust r ati o n of m e thod ; w h e r e as th e po r tion r e l ating
to E nglish i s as e xplained b elo w e ntir e ly of sp ec ul ative
, ,

c h a r a c ter .

T o M iss H e len P arkhurst and M iss E m ily H G r e e n .

m an th anks ar e du e for th e t r ansl ation of the c hapters on

Arithm e ti c G e om etry and D ra w ing
, ,
.
 CO N T E N T S

T RA N S L A TO R NOT E
’
S

C H AP T E R
I . T HE T RA N S I T I O N F RO M T HE ME C H A N I C A L TO T HE

T E LL E C T U A L DE VE LO P M E N T OF LA N G U A GE
II . WO R D S T UD Y
S uffix e s an d Pr e fi xe s
S u ffix e s
P r e fi xe s
C o m pound Words
Wor d -Fam ili e s
III . A R T I C LE A N D N O U N
S ingul ar an d P lur a l
M as c u l in e Fe m inine
'

an d

S ingul ar an d P lur a l in English

IV . LE S S O N S — C O M M A N D S
N ouns
C om mands on N ouns
V . AD J E C T I VE S
An alys e s
Des c riptiv e Ad j ctiv
e e s
P e r m ut a tions
In fl e c t i o n o f Ad j c tiv
e s e

L ogi c l a d
a n G r amma ti c al A gr e ement o f N ouns
A d j e c tiv e s

D e s c riptiv e A dj c tiv s e e

A d j e c tive s o f Q uanti ty

O rdin a ls
D e m onstr ativ e A d j c tiv
e e s
P oss e ssiv e d j e c tiv e s
A
C om p arison o f A d j e c tiv e s
xi
xi i C ONT ENTS
C H AP TE R
VI V . R
E BS

A n alys e s
r mut ations
Pe

L e ssons an d C omm ands on th e V e rb

L e ssons w ith E xp e ri m ents

V II . P R EPO S I T I O N S
n alys e s
A

P e r m ut ations
L e ssons an d C ommands on P r e posi t ions

VIII . A DVE RB S
A n al y s e s

P e r m ut a tions
L e ssons an d C o m mands on A dv e rbs
A B urst o f A c tivit y t h e F utur e o f t h e Writt en
:

guage in P opul ar E duc ation

C omm ands Improvise d b y t h e C hildr en

IX . PRO N O U N s
A n alys e s

P e rson als

D e mons tr at iv e s
R e l ativ e s an d In t errogat iv e s
P oss e ssive s

Pe rm ut ations
Le ssons an d C om mands on t h e Pronoun
P ara dym s
A gr e e m e nt o f P ronoun an d V e rb
C on j uga tion of V e rbs
X . C ON J U N C T IO N S
nalyse s
A

C oordin at e s
S ubordin a t e s
P e rmut a tions
L e ssons an d C o m m ands on t h e C on j un c tion
C o mp arison of A d j e c tiv e s

XI INT E RJ EC T I O N S
A n a lys e s
C l assi fi c ation
 CONT E NT S xii i
C H A PTE R PA G E
S E N T EN C E A N A L Y S I S 1 24
S i m pl e S e nt en c s
e 1 24
T h e O rd e r o f El e m ents in t h e S e nt e n ce : P e r m ut ations 1 32
C om pound a nd C o m pl e x S e nt e n c s
e 1 36
T e st C ards 1 40
T h e O rd e r o f C l aus e s in t h e S e nt en ce : S e nt en c e For m s
in Pros e V an d e rs e

P e rm ut a tions
T e s t C ards
C oordin a ting a n d S ubordin ating C onj un c tions
S e q u en c e o f T e ns e s
P un c tu ation

XIII . WO R D C LA S S IF I C A T I O N
K inds o f Words
C l a ssi fi e d A cc ording t o Form at ion
C l a ssi fi e d A cc ording to In fl e c t io n
C l assi fi e d A cc ording t o T h e ir U s e

EX P R E S S I O N A N D I N T ER P R E T A T I O N
M e ch ani c al P ro c e ss e s
A n alysis
E xpe ri ment a l S ec tion : R e ading A lou d
Int e rpr et ations
A udition
T h e Most P o p ul ar B ooks

PAR T III

A RI T HM E TI C
I . AR I T H M E T I CA L O PE R A T I O N S
N um b e rs 1 - 1 0
T e ns , Hundr e ds an d T hous ands
C ounting-fr ame s
II . T HE M UL T IPL I C A T I O N T A B L E
 CONTENTS XV

C H A PT E R
I . THE S C AL E
II . T H E RE A D I N G AND WR I T I N G OF MU S I C
T r e bl e an d B a ss C l e fs

III . T HE MA J O R S C AL E S
IV . EX R C I S E S I N R H YT H M
E

S inging
M usi c a l P hr as e s f o r Rhyth m i c E xe r c is e s
V . M U S I C A L AU D I T I O N S

T HE S T U D Y OF M ET R I C S IN E LE M E N T A RY S C H OO L S

S t anz a an d line
R hy m e

T onic acc en t s ( str e ss e s )

P arisyll abi c lin e s

Im parisyll abi c lin s e

Th e c sura
ae

M tri c a l n lys s
e a a e

s not e o n E nglish
T r ansl a tor
’
me t ri c s
M a t e ri a l for nom e n c l atur e
APP E N D I X I

A PP E N D IX II
 IL L U S T R A T I O N S
FAC IN G
P A GE

T h e fi rs t Mon t e ssor i E l e m e n t ar y C l ass i n Am e r ic a F r o n tisp i e c e

O ne of t s t e ps i n gr am m ar
t h e fi rs

G r am m a r Bb xe s sho wi ng r e sp e ctive ly tw o
, an d t hr ee p arts
of S p e ec h
G r amm ar B oxe s , sho wi ng r e sp e ctive l y four an d fiv e p ar t s
of sp ee c h
G r amm a r B oxe s , sho w i ng r e sp e cti v e l y s ix an d s e v e n p ar t s
of sp e e c h
G r amm ar B oxe s , sho w i ng r e sp ec ti v e l y e i gh t an d n i n e p ar t s
of sp e e c h
T he c h i ldre n w ork i ng at t h e i r v ar i ous o c c up ati ons i n com

p l e t e fr e e do m

In t e rpr e t e d r e ad i ng : S mile an d C a l p your h ands

Int e rpr e t e d r e ad i ng : T ak e off y our h at an d m ak e a lo w
bo w
In t e rpr e t e d r e a d i ng : Wh i sp e r t o h im

In t e rpre t i ng the pos e an d e xp res s i on of a p ict ur e

In t e rpr e t e d re ad i ng : S h e w as sl e e py ; sh e l e an e d h e r ar m s
on t h e t abl e h e r h e ad on h e r ar m s an d w e n t t o S l e e p
, ,
2 00

E xe r ci s e s i n i n t e rpr e t e d r e a d i ng an d i n ar i th m e tic 20 1

T he b e ad m at e r i al us e d for add iti on an d sub t r acti on 21 4

C oun ti ng an d c al c ul ati ng b y m e an s of the b e ad c h ai ns 21 4

Th e b e ad c h ai n s q u ar e
, , an d c ub e 21 5

T h e fi rs t b e ad fr am e 21 5

Th e s e c ond c oun ti ng -fr am e us e d i n a r i th m e ti c 22 6

xv i i
xv ii i I LLU S T RA T I O N S

Worki ng ou t p ro b l e m s i n s e ve n fi g ur e s

S olvi ng a p robl em i n long d ivi s i on

Be ad s q u ar e s an d c ub e s ; an d t h e ar it h m e ti c -bo ard for m u lti
p l ic ti on
a an d d i v i s i on
T h e he ad nu m b e r c ub e s bu i l t i n t o a t ow e r
The d e c agon an d th e r e ct angl e c o m pos e d of the s am e t r i an
gul ar i ns e ts
Th e t r i angul a r i ns e t s fi tt e d i n t o t h e i r m e t al pl at e s
S ho wi ng t h at t h e t w o rho m bo i ds are e q u al to t h e t w o
r e ct angl e s
S ho w i ng t h at t h e tw o rho m bo i ds ar e e q u al t o t h e tw o s q u ar e s

Hollo w ge o m e t r ic sol i ds
D e s i gns for m e d by arr ang i ng s ec ti ons of t h e i ns e t s wit h i n
t he fr am e s
Mak i ng de c or ative d e s i gn s w it h t h e ai d of g e o m e t r ic i ns e t s
Wat e r -c o l or p ai n ti ngs fro m n at ure
T h e m o n o c o rd

Mat e r i al for i nd i c ati ng th e i n t e rvals of t h e m aj or s c al e

T h e m us i c b ars
T he c h i ldre n us i ng th e m u S Ic b e lls an d t h e w ood e n k e y
bo ards
An alyz i ng the b e at of a me asur e w h il e w alki ng on a line
 PAR T I

G R A MMAR
 MO NT E SS O R I E LE ME NT A R Y
MA T E R IA L

T HE T RA N S I T I O N F R O M T HE M E C HA N I C A L
T O T HE I N T E LLE C T U A L D E V E LO P M E N T
O F LA N G U A G E

“ ’
In the C hildr e n s Hous e s w e had r e a c hed a stage
of dev e lop m ent w here the c hildren c ould w rite w ords and
even s e nt en c es T hey read littl e slips on w hi c h w ere
.

w ritten di ffe rent a c tions w hi c h they w er e to exe c ute thus ,

de m onstrating that th e y had und e rstood the m T h e m a .

t e r i al for t h e dev e lop m e nt of w riting and reading c o n

sisted of t w o alph ab e ts : a la r ge r o n e w ith vo w el s and c o n
sonants in di ffe r e nt c olors and a s m aller o n e w ith all th e
,

l e tt e rs in o n e c olo r
.

( In English,
to di m inish the phoneti c diffi c ulti e s of t h e

l anguage c o m binations of vo w els and c onsonants kno w n

, ,

a s phonogra m s are u s e d T h e phonogra m s w ith f ew ex

,
.

c e pt i o n s h ave c onstant sounds and littl e attention i s paid to

t h e t e a c hing of the separat e valu e s of t h e di ffer e nt l e tte r s

not until th e c hild has built up his r ul e s indu c tiv e ly do e s
h e r e alize the m eaning of s e parat e vo w e l sym bols ) .

Ho w ever the a c tu al am ount of progr e ss m ad e w as n o t

,

v e r y prec is e ly as c e r tain e d We c ould b e sur e only that

.

the children had a c qui r ed th e m e c hani c al t e c hni que of

3
 G RA MM AR 5

T his only p r ov e s ho w e v e r that on b e ginning el e

, ,

m entary grad e w ork w e did not d e p art fro m t h e C hil

dr e n s Hous e id e a ; on t h e c ont r a r y w e return e d to it to
’

giv e distin c t r e alization to t h e n e bulous hop e s w ith w hi c h

’
ou r fi r st c ours e c on c lud e d H e n c e t h e . C hildr e n s
Hous e and t h e lo w e r grad e s ar e not t w o distin c t things
as is t h e c as e w ith th e F r Ob e l Kind e r garten an d t h e o r di
na r y pri m ary s c hool in fa c t th e y ar e o n e and t h e s am e
,

thing t h e c ontinuation of an id e nti c al pro c e ss

,
.

“ ’
Le t us r e turn th e n to t h e C hildr e n s House and
c onsid e r t h e c hild of fi v e and o n e h alf y e ars
- T o day in
-
.

”
thos e C hild r e n s Hous e s w hi c h hav e k e pt u p w ith th e
’

i m provem e nts in our m e thod t h e c hild i s a c tually

start e d on his el e m e nta r y e du c ation F r om th e s e c ond .

”
alphab e t of th e C hild r en s Hous e w e go on to a thi r d
’

alphabet H e r e th e m ovabl e l e tt e r s ar e a gr e at d e al
.

sm all e r and ar e ex e c ut e d in m od e l hand w riting T h e r e —

.

are t w enty sp e c i m ens of e a c h l e tt e r w h e r e as for m erly ,

th e re w e r e but fou r ; furth e rm o r e th e r e are three c o m ,

l e t e alph ab e ts o n e w hite one bla c k and o n e r e d T her e

p , , ,
.

ar e th e r e for e
,
sixty c opi e s of ea c h letter of the alphab e t
,
.

We in c lud e also all t h e pun c tuation m a r ks : period ,

c om m a ,
a c c ents ( fo r Itali an ) apostroph e int e rrogation
, ,

and e x c la m ation points T h e lett e rs ar e m ade of plain

.

glaz e d pap e r .

T h e u s e s of thi s alphab e t are m any ; so b e for e w e stop

to e xam i ne the m l e t us look som ew hat ahead E v e rybody .

has r ec ognized the naturalness of t h e e xer c is e us e d in the ,

”
C hildren s Hou se w her e t h e c h i ldren pla c e d a c ard
’
,

b e aring the n am e of an obj e c t on th e obj e c t referred to .

T his w as the first lesson in r e ading We c ould se e that .

th e c hild kne w h o w to read as soon as h e w as abl e to iden

t i f y the obj e c t indi c ated on t h e c a r d In s c hools all over .
6 M O N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

the w orld a si m ilar pro c e dure w ould I i m agine be c o n , ,

s i de r e d logi c al I suppos e that in all th e s c hools w here

.

th e O bj ec tiv e m ethod is us e d m u c h t h e s a m e thing is done ;

and this i s found to be not a hind r an c e but a help to the
c hild in l e arning t h e na m e s of obj e c ts As r e gards the .

tea c hing of th e noun a c c ordingly w e hav e be e n using

, ,

m e thods alr e ady in use th e obj e c tive m ethod w ith pr ac ,

ti c al e x e r c ises But w hy should w e restri c t su c h m ethods

.

to t h e noun ? Is the noun not j ust as truly a par t o f

S pe e c h as t h e adj e c tive or the ve r b ? ,
If there i s a me thod
by w hi c h the kno w ledge of a noun i s m ade easy m ay ther e ,

not b e sim ilar w ays of fa c ilitating the learning of all the

oth e r pa r ts of speec h ( arti c l e adj e c tive v e rb pronoun , ad
, , ,

verb interj e c tion c onj un c tion and pr e position ) ?

, , ,

When a slip w ith the interpret e d w o r d i s pla c ed on the

obj ec t c o r responding to it t h e c hildre n a r e a c tually dis
,

t in gu i sh i n g t h e noun fro m all t h e other p arts of sp e e c h .

T h ey ar e learning intuitively to d e fin e it T h e first st e p .

has thus been taken into the real m of gram m ar But if .

”
thi s reading has brought th e c hild dire c tly into w ord
c l as s i fic ati o n the transition has not b e e n for h i m so abrupt
,

as m ight at first appear T h e c hild has built all his w ords

.

w ith th e m ovable alph abet and he h as in addition w r i tten

, , ,

th e m . He has thus traversed a t w o fold pr e paratory ex

-

e r c i se involving first t h e analysi s of the sounds and s e c

, , ,

ond th e analysis of the w ords in their m eaning In fa c t ,

,
.

w e have s e e n that as the c hild r e ads it is his dis c overy

, ,

of th e toni c a c c e nt that brings h im to r e c ogniz e th e w ord .

T h e c hild has begun to analyze not only the sounds and

a c c e nt but also th e for m of t h e w ord 1
.

1 Th e proc ss of l e arning to r e ad h a s b e en mor e fully s e t forth in

e

T h e M o n t es s o r i Me t h o d : t h e c hild at first pronoun c e s t h e sounds

r ep r e s en t e d by t h e individu a l l e t t e rs ( phonogr am s ) w ithou t under ,
 GRA MMAR 7

Ho w absu r d it w ould s e em to suggest a study of ph o

n o l o gy and m orphology in a nurs e r y w ith four year old
- -

c hild r e n as inv e stigato r s ! Yet ou r c hild r e n hav e ac c o m

li s h e d this v e ry thing ! T h e an alysis w as t h e m e ans of

p
attaining the w ord It w as w hat m ad e the c hild able to
.

w rite w ithout e ff ort Why should su c h a pro c e dur e b e

.

us e ful fo r singl e w ords and not so fo r c onn ec t e d dis c ours e ?

P r o c e e ding to t h e c lassi fi c ation of w ords by distingu ishing
t h e noun fro m all oth e r w ords w e hav e r e ally advan c e d
,

into the analysi s of c onne c ted sp e ec h j ust as truly as , ,

”
by having the sand paper e d l e tt e rs tou c hed and t h e
-

w ord pronoun c ed , w e took t h e fi r st st e p into t h e analysis

of w ords We have only to c ar r y th e pro c e ss farther an d

.

perhaps w e sh all su c c e e d in ge tting th e analysis of w hol e

sent e n c es j ust as w e su c c ee d e d i n ge tting at t h e c o m posi
,

tion of w ords — di s c overing m ean w hil e a m e thod w hi c h

w ill prov e effi c a c ious in l e ading t h e c hild to w rit e hi s

thoughts m ore p e rfec tly than w ould se e m possible at su c h

a t e nd e r age .

F o r so m e ti m e th e n , w e h av e b e e n a c tu ally in the fi e ld
,

of gra mm ar It i s a question si m ply of c ontinuing along

.

the sam e p ath T h e und e rtaking m ay inde e d s e e m haz

.

”
ar do u s. N e ver m ind ! T hat a w ful gra mm a r that ,

horrible bugaboo n o less t e r r ible than t h e frightful

,

m e thod on c e in u se of l e arning to r e ad and w r ite m ay

, , ,

p e rhaps b ec o m e a delightful e x e r c i se a loving gu id e t o ,

l e ad th e c hild along pl e asant path w ays to the dis c o v ery

of things he has ac tu al ly per fo rm ed Y e s th e c hild w ill .
,

suddenly find hi m s elf one d ay in possession of a littl e

, ,
“ ”
c o m position a littl e w ork of a r t that has issu e d from
, ,

standing wh at th ey m e an A s h e r ep e ats t h e w ord s e v e r al ti m e s h e

.

c om e s to r e ad m or e r apidly E v e ntu all y h e dis c ov e rs t h e toni c ao

.

c ent o i t h e w ord w hi ch is th e n i m me di at e ly identifi e d

,
.
8 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL
his o w n pen ! And h e w ill b e as h appy over it as h e w as
w h e n for the first ti m e w ords w ere for m ed by his tiny
hands !
Ho w di ff e r e nt gramm ar w ill seem to the young pupil ,

if inst e ad of being t h e c ru e l assassin that tears t h e s en

,

t en c e to pie c es so that nothing c an b e understood it b e ,

“
c om e s the a m iabl e and indispensable help to the c o n
stru c tion of c onne c t e d disc ourse It used to b e so easy
“
t o say : Th e sent e n c e i s w ritten ! Please l e ave it
alon e ! Wh y put asunder w hat G od has j oined ? Wh y
take a w ay from a senten c e its m e aning the ve r y thing
,

w hi c h gave it life ? Why m ake of it a m e re m ass of sens e

less w ords ? Why spoil som ething already p e rfe c t j ust for
the annoyan c e of plunging into an analysis w hi c h has no
appar e nt purpose ? Indeed to i m pos e upon people w h o
,

c an already read the task of r e du c ing e very w ord to its

p r i m al sounds w ould be to dem and of them an effo rt of

,

w ill s o giganti c that only a professional philologist c ould

apply hi m self to it w ith the n e c e ssary diligen c e and then ,

only be c ause he has h is o wn parti c ular interests and ai m s

involved in su c h w ork Yet th e four-ye ar-old c hild w hen
.
,

he p asses from those m eaningl e ss sounds to the c omposi

t ion of a w hole, w h i c h c orresponds to an idea and r e pr e
sents a useful and w onderful c onquest i s j ust as att e ntiv e
,

as th e philologist and perhaps even m ore enthusiasti c .

He w ill find the sa me j oy in grammar if starting from

, ,

analyses it gains progr e ssively in S i gnific an c e a c quiring

, , ,

st e p by step a great e r inter e st w orking finally up t o a

, ,

c li m ax u p to the m o m ent th at i s w hen the fini shed sen

, , ,

ten c e i s b e fore h im its m eaning c lear and fe l t in its sub

,

tl e st e ssen c es T h e c hild has c r e ated som ething b e autiful

.
,

full grow n and pe rfe c t at its birth not n o w to be tam pered

,

w ith by anybody !
 G R A MMAR 9

The analysis o f sounds w hi c h in our m e th o d l e ads to , ,

spontaneous w riting is not to b e su r e adapt ed to all age s

, , ,
.

It i s w h e n the c hild is fou r o r fou r and a half that h e ,

sh o w s the c ha r a c t e r isti c ally c hildlike passion for su c h

w ork w hi c h k e e ps h im at it longer than at any oth e r age
, ,

and leads h im to d e v e lop p e rfec tion in the m ec hani c al as

p ec t of w r iting S i m ilarly
. t h e analyti c al study of pa r ts

of sp e ec h the passionate linge ring ov e r w o r ds is not fo r

, ,

c hild r e n of all ages It is the c hildren b e t w een five and

.

s e v e n w o are t e w o l o ve rs It is th e y w h o Sho w a pr e
h h r d -
.

disposition to w ard su c h study T h e ir undev e loped m inds .

c an not yet g r asp a c o m pl e te idea w ith distin c tn e ss T h ey .

do how e v e r unde r stand w o rds And th e y m ay b e e n

, ,
.

t i r e l y c a r ri e d a w ay by th e ir e c stati c their t i r e l e ss inter e st ,

in t h e par ts of sp eec h .

It is t r ue that our w hol e m e thod w as born of h e r e sy .

T h e fi r st departure f r o m orthodoxy w as in holding th at

t h e c hild c an best lea r n to w r ite b e t w e e n the age s of fou r
and fi v e We are n o w c onstrain e d to advan c e anoth e r
.

h e r e ti c al proposition : c h ildr e n should begin t h e study of

gra mm ar b e t w e e n th e age s of five and a half and s e ven
and a half o r e ight ! ,

T h e id e a that analysis m ust b e p r e c e d e d by c onst r uc tion

w as a m att e r of m er e p r e j udi c e O nly things produ c e d .

by natur e m ust b e analyzed b e for e they c an b e und e r

stood T h e violet for instan c e i s found p e rfec t in n a
.
, ,

tur e We hav e to t e ar o ff t h e p e tals c u t the fl o w e r into

.
,

s e c tion s to s e e h o w it gr e w But in m aking an artifi c i al

,
.

viol e t w e do just the opposit e We prep are the st em s .

pi e c e by pi ec e ; then w e w o r k out the p e tals c utting c olor , ,

ing and ir o ning th em o n e b y one T h e pr e paration of

,
.

the st am e ns e v e n of th e glu e w ith w hi c h w e put th e w hole

,

togeth e r i s a distin c t pro c ess A f e w si m pl e—

,
m inded pe o
.
10 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T AR Y M AT E RIAL

pl e ,
w ith a gift f o r light m anual labor tak e unbound e d ,

delight in th e se singl e operations th e s e w ond e r fully v a ,

ri e d st e ps w hi c h all c onv e rge to t h e c reati o n of a pr e tty

fl o w e r ; th e beauty of w hi c h d e p e nds on th e am ount of
pati e n c e and skill applied to the w ork on t h e individual
parts .

Analysis furtherm ore i s involv e d quit e as mu c h i n

, ,

building as in taking to piec e s T h e building of a hous e

.

is an analyti c al pro c e s s T h e ston e s ar e t r eat e d o n e by

.

one from c ellar to ro of T h e p e r son w h o puts t h e hous e

.

toge th e r kno w s it in its m inut e st d e tails and has a far

m ore acc urate id e a of it s c onstr uc tion th an t h e m an w h o
tears it do w n T hi s i s tru e fi r st be c aus e t h e p r o c e ss of
.
, ,

c onstru c tion lasts m u c h longe r than that of d e m olition

m ore ti m e is spent o n t h e study of t h e diff erent parts .

But besid e s thi s th e build e r ha s a point of Vi e w diffe r e nt

,

f r om that of th e m an w h o i s d e st r oying T h e s ensation of .

se e ing a harm onious w hol e fall into m e aningl e ss bits h as

nothing in c omm on w ith t h e alt e r n ating i m puls e s of hop e ,

su rpris e or satisfa c tion w hi c h c om e to a w o r km an as h e

se e s his e difi c e slo w ly assu m ing its destin e d form .

Fo r thes e and still oth e r r e asons the c hild w h e n in , ,

t e r e st e d in w ords at a c ertain age c an utilize gra mm ar ,

to good pu rpose d w e lling an alyti c ally upon th e va r iou s

,

parts of spee c h a c c ording as th e proc e sses of his inn e r

spiritu al gro w th d e t e r m in e In this w ay h e c om es to o wn
.

his language perfe c tly and t o a c qui r e some apprec i ati on

,

of its qualiti e s and pow e r .

O u r gramm ar is n o t a book T h e nouns ( nam e s )

.
,

w hi c h t h e c hild w as to pla c e on th e obj ec t s they r e fe r r e d

to as soon as h e und e rstood th e i r m e aning w e r e w ritt e n ,

on c ards S i m ilarly th e w ords b elonging to all th e other

.
,

p arts of speec h are w ritten on c ards T hes e c ards are all

,
.
 G RA MMAR 11

of the sam e di m e nsions : oblongs ( 5 X c mm ) of dif

.

f e r e n t c olo r s : bla c k fo r t h e noun ; tan for t h e arti c l e

b r o w n fo r t h e adj e c tiv e ; r e d fo r t h e v e r b ; pink for th e
adv e r b ; violet fo r t h e p r e position ; y e llow for the c o n
j un c tion ; blu e for the int e rj e c tion .

T h e s e c a r ds go in sp ec i al box e s e ight in n u m b e r
,
. The
fi r st box has t w o c om pa r tm ents si m ply ; t h e s ec ond h o w ,

e v e r thr e e ; t h e thi r d fou r ; and so on do w n to th e e ighth

, , ,

w hi c h is divid e d into nin e O n e w all in ea c h s e c tion i s

.

som e w hat h igh e r than th e oth e rs T his is to provid e

.

spa c e for a c a r d w ith a title desc ribing th e c ontents of the

s ec tion It b e a r s that i s t h e na m e of the r el ativ e p art
.
, ,

of speec h . T h e titl e c ard

-
,
furtherm ore i s of t h e sam e
,

c olor as that us e d for t h e p art of spe ec h to w hi c h it r e fers .

T h e t e a c h e r is exp ec ted to a r range th e se box e s so as to

provide for th e study of t w o or m or e parts of spee c h .

Ho w ev e r our e xp e ri m ents have enabl e d us to m ak e the

,

e x e r c ises v e r y sp e c ifi c in c h ara c t e r ; so that t h e t e a c h e r

has at h e r disposal not only a thoroughly prepar e d m a

t e r i al but also som e thing to fa c ilitat e h e r w ork and to
c h ec k up t h e a c c ura c y of it .
 G R AMMAR 13

tion T h e e xerc ises ar e e asy for som e c hildren and very

.

hard for oth e r s nor i s the ord e r of s e l e c tion t h e sa m e

,

a m ong all t h e c hildren T h e tea c h e r S hould know this m a

.

t e r i al thoroughly S h e should b e abl e to r ec o gniz e t h e

.

favorabl e m om e nt for pr e s e nting t h e m at e ri al to the c hild .

As a m att e r of fa c t a littl e e xperien c e w ith t h e m at e r i al

,

i s su ffic i e nt to S ho w t h e t e a c h e r that the e du c ational fa c ts

d e velop spontan e ously and in su c h a w ay as to si m plify
the t e a c h e r s task in a m ost surprising m ann e r
’
.

S UF F I X E S AND P RE F I X E S
He r e we harts
p r int e d lists of w ords w hi c h
u se c w ith
m ay b e hung on t h e w all T h e c hild r en c an look at th em .

and also take th em in th e ir hands .

L IS T I
S U F F IX E s : A U G M E N T A T I V E S D I M I N U T I V E S P E G G I O RA
, ,

T IVE S ETC ,
.

buono ( g o o d) : b u o n u c c i o buon i no buon i ss i mo

, ,

c as a ( h o u s e) : c ason a c as e tt a c as e tti n a c asu cci a c as acci a

, , , , ,

c as e t t ac c i a

f o r mi ca ( an t) : for m ic u c ci a form ic ol a for m ic h e tt a

f o rm i c o n a, , ,

r ag azz o bo y ) r ag azzon e r ag azz i no r ag az ac c i o r ag azz e t t o

, , ,

l e tt er a ( l e tt e r) : l e t te r i n a l e tt e ron a l e tt e ru cci a l e tt e r a cci a

, , ,

c amp an a ( b e l l) : c am p anon e c am p an e llo c am p an e ll i no c am

, , ,

p an i no c am p an ac ci o
,

g i o v an e ( y o u th ) : g i ov an e tt o g i o vi n c e l lo g i ov i n as t ro
, ,

fio r e ( flo w er) : fi o r e t t o fi o r e l l i n o fi o rac c i o fi o ro n e
, , ,

ta vo l o ( b o ar d) : t av ol i no t avol e tt a t av olon e t av ol acci o

, , ,

s e gg i o l a ( c hai r ) : s e gg i o l on e s e gg i ol i n a s e gg i ol acci a
, ,

p i e tr a ( s t o n e ) : p i e t ruzz a p i e tr i n a p i e t ron e p i e t r ac c i o
, , ,

s ass o ( r o c k) : s ass e tt o s assol i n o s ass e t t i no s asson e s as s ac c io

, , , ,

c e s to ( b as k e t) : c e s ti n o c e ston e , c e s t e llo c e s t ell in o , ,

p i a t to ( p la te ) : p i at t i no p i at t e llo p i atton e
, ,

p ia n ta ( p lan t or t r e e ) : p i ant i n a p i an tic e ll a p i an tici n a p i , , ,

an t e r e l l a, p i an t on a ,
p i nt cc ia
a a
14 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M AT E RIAL

f u o c o ( fir e) : fuo c h e t to , fuo c h in o , fuo c h e r el l o , fu o c on e , fuo

c h et tin o

f es ta ( f es ti val) : fe s ti c c i o l a f es to n a f e st ac c i a, ,

p i e de ( f o o t) : p i e d i no p i e done p i e du c c i o p i e dac c i o
, , ,

man o ( h an d) : ma n i n a m anon a m an ac c i a m anu c ci a

, , ,

s e m e ( s e e d) : se m i no s e m e tt o s e m on e s e m ac c i o s e m e t t in o
, , , ,

s emp li c e ( s i m p l e p ers o n ) : s e mpl i c i n o s e mpl i c e tt o s e m pl ici o tt o , , ,

sem p li c i on e
g hi o tto (
“
s w e e t-t o o th gh i o tt on e , g hi o t t o n c e l l o , gh i o tt ac ci o ,

gh i o tti ss i m o
v e c c hi o ( o ld ma n ) ve c c h i e tt o v e c c h i on e ve cc h i ac c i o
, , , vec

c h i ss i m o

i
c ec o ( b li n d) : i h i no cic c h e tt o
c ec , , c ie c o l i n o , ci c c on e , c i e c ac c i o

N o te ‘ — T he mi le
of augm e n t ati v e an d d i m i n u tive suffixe s in
E ngl i sh i s v as t ly l e ss i m por t an t t h an i n I t al i an H e r e are a .

f e w s p e c i me n s

l am b l am bki n mo u s e m ous i e
du c k du ckl i ng gi rl i e
gi r l
bi r d b i rdl i ng bo o k bookl e t
n es t n e s tli ng b ro o k brookl e t
go o s e gosl i n g s tre am s t r e aml e t
po et p o e t as te r
The hild s exer c i se i s as follow s : he c omp o ses the firs t
c
’

w ord in any l in e w ith the alph ab e t of a S ingl e c olor

bla c k ) N ext underneath and u sing th e alphabet of t h e
.

sa m e c olor h e repeats the l e tters in the se c ond w ord w hi c h

,

he se e s als o in the first But j ust as soon as a l e tter .

c hanges he uses th e alphabet of another c olor r e d) .

In thi s w ay th e roo t i s al w ays sho w n b y one c olor th e ,

s uffixes by another ; for e xa m pl e

 G RAMMAR 15

F o r E nglis h

T hen the c hild c hoos e s another w ord and repeats th e

sa m e e xerc ise O ften h e finds for hi m self w ords not i n
.

c luded in the list w hi c h is giv e n h i m .

In t h e follo w ing c hart t h e s u fli xe s are c onstant w hil e

t h e r oot varies Her e th e suffix c hange s th e m eaning of
.

the w ord F rom the original m e aning is d e rived the

.

w ord for a trad e a pl a c e of busin e ss an a c tion a c oll e c tiv e

, , ,

or an abstra c t id e a N aturally t h e c h ild does not r e alize

.
,

all this at fi r st but li m its hi m self m e rely to building the

w ords m e c hani c ally w ith the t w o alphab e ts L at e r on .
,

ho w ever a s gra mm a r i s d e v e loped h e m ay r e turn to the

, ,

reading of thes e c harts w hi c h are al w ays at his disposal ,

,

and b e gin to realize the value of th e di ff eren c e s .

IS T
L II
mac e llo ( sl augh t er ) m ac e ll a io ( bu tch er )
s e ll a ( s addl e ) s e ll a io ( s addl er )
forno ( ov en ) forn a io ( bake r )
c appe llo ( h at ) c app e llaio ( h atte r )
v e tro ( gl ass ) v e tr e ri a ( gl azi e ry )
c alzol a io ( sho e -maker ) c alzol e ri a ( sho e -shop )
libro ( book ) libr eri a ( book -stor e )
oste ( host ) ost e ri a ( inn )
pan e ( bread ) p an e tt e ri a ( b ak e ry )

c e r a ( w ax ) c e r e ri a ( Ch andl er s sho )
’
p
dent e ( tooth ) de ntist a ( dentist )
far mac i a ( ph arm acy ) far mac ist a ( druggist ) '

e l e ttri c it a ( e l e c tri c ity ) e l e ttri c ist a ( e l e c tri c i an )

t e l efono ( t e l e phone ) te l efonist a ( t e l ephon e ope r at or )
art e ( ar t ) artist a ( artis t )

b e s t i a ( b e ast ) b e sti am e ( c at t l e )
osso ( bon e ) oss ame ( bon e s c o l l e c ti v e )
,

c orda ( string ) c ordam e ( strings co ll e c t i ve )

,

f ogli a ( l e af ) fogli am e ( foli age )

16 M O N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL
pollo ( chi ck n )
e poll ame ( p oultry )
gr ato ( gr at e f ul ) gra titudin e ( gr atitude )
be ato ( bl e ss e d ) bea titudin e ( bl e sse dne ss )
inqui et o ( un e asy ) inqui e tudin e ( un ea sine ss )
gr ano ( gr a in ) gr ana i o ( barn )
c olombo ( dove ) c o l o mb ai o ( dov e -cot e )
paglia ( straw ) p agli aio ( h ay-stack )
f rutto ( fruit ) f rutt e to ( or ch ard )
c anna ( r e e d ) c ann eto ( brake )
oliv a ( olive ) O liv e to ( oliv e - grove )
q u e r c i a ( o ak ) u r c to k - r o ve
q e e ( o a g )

E N GL IS H E XAM PLE S
te ac h e r
s i nge r
w orke r
c ate re r
w r i ng e r
c ondu c t or

d i r e ct or
l aundry
s e am s t r e ss
songs t r e ss
pr i e s t e ss
mi s t r e s s
c ow h e r d

p i an i s t
ar ti s t

ph arm ac i st
drugg i s t
ph ys i c i an
pr i son er
h ous e ho l d
e ar l dom

ki ngdo m
c oun t y

re al it y

m od e rnn e s s
goodn e ss
s adn e s s

al o ofn e s s
 G R A MMAR 17

hild s e x e r c is e w ith t h e t w o alphabets w ill b e as

’
Th e c

follo w s
fru tt o
c ann a

F o r E n gl is h

song
ar t

LIS T III
P RE F IXE S
n o de ( k n o t) : annod ar e snod ar e r isn o dare
, ,

s c ri v er e ( w ri t e ) : r i s c r ive r e tr a s c r i v e r e so tt os c r ive r e
, , , de s c ri
v e re
c op r ir e ( c o v er ) s c opr i r e r i s c opr i r e
: ,

g an c i o ( h oo k) : a gg a n ci a r e sg an ci ar e r i agg an c i are
, ,

l eg ar e ( b i n d) : c oll e g ar e r i l e g are all e g ar e sl e g ar e

, , ,

b o t to n e ( b u t to n ) : abbo tt on ar e sbot t on ar e r i abbot t o n ar e , ,

mac c h iar e ( s p o t ) : s m ac c h i ar e r i s m ac c h i ar e ,

c hi u d e r e ( c l o s e ) : so cc h i u de r e s c h i ud e r e r ic h i u d e r e r i n c h i n
, , ,

d e re
g u ar dar e ( l o o k a t) : r i gu a rd a r e t r ag u a rd ar e soggu ard ar e , ,

v e der e ( s e e ) : t r av e d e r e r i v e de r e i ntr a v e d e r e
, ,

p e r der e ( l o s e ) : d i sp e rd e r e sp e rd e r e r i p e rd e r e
, ,

m e t t er e ( p u t p lac e ) : s m e t t e r e e m e t t e r e r i m e t t e r e p e r m e tt e r e
, , , , ,

c o mm e tt e r e pro m e t t e r e so tt o m e tt e r e
, ,

vi n c er e ( o v er c o m e) : r ivi n c e r e avv i n c e r e c on vi n c e r e s t r av i n
, , ,

c e re

Fo r E n glis h
c o v er : un c ov e r d i s c ov e r r e c ov e r
, ,

p o s e : i m pos e c o m pos e d i spos e r e pos e t r anspos e

, , , ,

do undo ov e rdo ,

p lac e : d i spl a c e r e p l ac e m i spl a c e

, ,

s u b m i t : r e m it c om m it o m i t p e rm it
, , .

c l o s e : d i s c los e for e c l os e
, r e c los e ,

arran g e : r e arr ang e d i s a rr a ng e,

18 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL
’
Th e c hild s e x e rc ise w ith the two alphabets w ill be as
follow s

F o r E nglis h

LI S T IV
COMPO UN D \V O R D S

cartap c or a ( p ar chment )
e m e zz a lun a ( h alf m oon )
cart p st ( p pi r m a h é )
a e a a e c m e zz anott e ( m idnight )
fals ariga ( guide ) p al c os c eni c o ( st age )
m a dr e p e rl a ( m oth e r -o f -p e arl ) a cchi ppacani
a dog-c at ch e r )
m e l agr an a ( po m e gr an at e ) c ant a stori e st ory -t e ll e r )
m e l ar an c i a ( or ang e ) guard aboschi ( for e st er )
bi an c ospino ( h aw thorn ) lustr a scar p e ( boot -bl ack )
fi c c an aso ( busybody ) port al e tte r e l e tt e r -c arri e r )
l avamano ( w a sh -stand ) port am on e t e po cke tbook )
me zzogiorno ( noon ) port a sigar i ( c igar -case )
pass ate m po ( pa sti m e ) port a l apis ( pen c il -ca se )
r agn at e l a ( c obw eb ) port abandi e r a ( st andard be are r )
madr e vit e ( vin e ) gu ardaroba ( wardrobe )
guard aporton e ( doork eep e r ) as c iugama no ( to w e l )

c apoluogo ( c apit a l ) c assapan c a ( woode n ben ch )

c apomae stro ( boss ‘
a r c ob al eno ( r a inbo w )

c apo fi l a ( pivot -soldi e r ) t err api eno ( r amp art t e rrac e )

,

capopopolo ( dem agogu e ) ba ssorili e vo ( h as-r e li ef )

caposquadr a ( c omm odor e ) gr andu ca ( gr and duke )
-

capogiro ( dizzine ss ) pi anofort e ( pi ano )

c apol avoro ( mast e rp i e c e ) spazzac am ino ( chi mney -swee p )
gir avolt a ( w hirl ) pe t t o ro s s o ( r e dbr e as t )
.

F o r E n gl is h :
sh e e psk i n
c ardbo ard
sho e s t r i ng
m i dn i gh t
m i dd ay
n oon t i me
 G RA MM AR 19

b e d ti m e
d ay ti m e
S pr i ngt i me

fl ag s t aff
r ai nbo w
w orkm an
hous e k e e p e r
p as ti m e
c h i mn ey sw e e p
sh e e pfol d
b arny ard
s i d e w alk
sno w sho e
sho e bl a c k
fi r efly
st e am bo at
m i lkm an

T he hild r en read one w ord at a ti m e and try to re

c

produ c e i t fro m m e m ory di stinguishing th r ough t h e t w o

,

alphab e ts th e t w o w ords of w hi c h e a c h o n e is c om posed :

c ar t a p e c o r a sp azz a c am i n o
b i an c o s p i n e l av a m an e
p i ano f o r t e

F o r E n gl is h

In follo w ing c h art th e w ords ar e grouped i n f am

th e
i l ie s
. T his c hart m ay b e u s e d by c hildr e n w h o are al
r e ady w ell advan c e d i n t h e identifi c ation O f t h e part s of
sp e e c h All the w o r ds are deriv e d f r o m som e oth e r m o r e
.

si m ple w ord w hi c h i s a root and of w hi c h th e othe r w ords ,

either by suffix or pr e fix are m ad e up All th e s e roots

,
.

ar e pri m itiv e w ords w hi c h som e day th e c hild m ay look

for in a group of d e rivatives ; and w hen h e finds them he

 G RA MM AR 21

o p er a ( w o rk) o p e r ai o op e r ar e op e r az i on e op e roso op e ros a

: , , , ,

me n t e c oop e r ar e c oop e r az i on e i n o p e r ar e
, , ,

c an t o ( so n g ) : c an t or e c ant ant e c an t ar c c ant ar e ll ar e c an tic

, , , ,

c h i ar e, r i c an t ar e
gi o c o ( g am e ) : g i o c a r e g i o c at tolo g i o c ar e l l ar e g i o c ator e g i o
, , , ,

c oso g i o c os am e n t e
,

do lo r e ( p ai n ) : doloroso doloros am e n t e dol e n t e a ddolor ar e

, , , ,

dol e rs i c on dol e rs i c ondogl i anz a a ddolor ato

, , ,

p i e tra ( s to n e) : p i e t ri fi c ar e p i e t r i fi c az i o n e p i e t roso i m p i e t r i r e
, , , ,

p i e t rai o
s o l e ( s u n ) : a sso l at o sol e gg i an t e ,sol e gg i ar e ,

f es ta ( f es ti v a l) : fe s t e gg i ar e f e st i no fe st e gg i at or e f e s t e gg i at o
, , , ,

fe st ai olo f e s t a nt e fe st e vol e fe st e vol m e nt e fe stos am e nt e

, , , ,

a ll e g r o ( h app y ) : all e gr i a a ll e gr am e nt e r all e gr ar e r all e gr a

, , ,

m e n to
s o m e ( s e e d) : s e m i n a s e m e nz e s e m i n ar e s e m e nz a i o s e m i n at or e
, , , , ,

r i s e m i n ar e s e m i n az i on e d i ss e m i n ar e s e m i n at r ic e
, , ,

F o r E n gl is h
wo od : w ood e n , w ood w orke r , w oo dy , w oods ma n , w oodl an d
e ar th : ea rt h e n e ar t hy e ar thl y e arthborn e ar t h w ard e ar t h
, , , , ,

q u ak e e ar t hl i ng
,

fis h : fi sh i ng fi sh e r m an fi sh e ry fi shy fi sh m o n g e r fi sh n e t
, , , , ,

w e l l : w e l c o m e w e ll m e a n i n g w e llkn it
, ,

w ar : w arr i or w arl i k e w arsh i p w arhors e w ar -w hoop w ar s o n g

, , , , , ,

w ar -c ry

p lay : pl aye r p l ayfu l p l ay hous e p l ay m at e

, , ,

p o l i ti c : pol itic s pol i t ici an pol i t ic al p ol i t y pol itic a lly

, , , ,

h ard : h ardly h ard e n h ardn e ss h ardsh i p h ard y h ard i hoo d

, , , , , ,

h ard w ar e
t u r n : r e t urn t urn e r t u rns ti l e
, ,

c l o s e : d i s c los e c los e t un c los e c losur e for e c los e

, , , ,

T hehild s e es th at th e m oth e r w o r d i s al w ays the

c

shortest T h e r o o t r em ains in one c olo r

. .
 AR T I C LE AN D N O U N

[ N o te z— T h e E ngl i sh
l an g u age pr e s e n t s a f ar s i m pl e r s it u a
ti o n t h an t h e I tal i an as r e g ar ds t h e agr e e m e n t of art i c l e an d
adj e ctive s G e nd e r i ts e l f b e i ng i n t h e c as e of E ngl i sh nouns
.
, ,

m or e a m atte r of log ic al t h e ory t h an of w ord -e nd i ng adj e c ti v al ,

agr e e m e n t i n t h e for m al s e ns e i s pr ac ti c ally unkn o w n t o E n g

l i sh gr amm ar L i k e w i s e t h e for m ati on of t h e plur a l i s m u c h

.

s i mpl e r i n E ngl i sh t h an i n I t al i an w h e r e t h e s i ngul ar an d

,

plur al w ord -e n d i ngs ar e c los e l y as so c i at ed w i th g e nd e r It i s .

a q u e s ti on i n fac t w h e th e r t h e w hol e subj e c t of t h e g e n de r of

, ,

E ng l i s h n o u ns should n o t b e take n up so m e w h at l at e r i n c o n
n e c t i o n wit h t h e p rono u n s w h e r e E ngl i sh sho w s t hr e e s i n g ul a r
,

for m s m as c u li n e fe m i n i n e n e u t e r ( h im h e r it ) as ag ai n s t
, , , ,

th e I t al i an t w o m as c ul i n e an d f e m i n i n e ( l o la p l ur al li l e
, , , , ,

S i g n o r a M ont e ssor i s d i s c uss i on of t h e s it u at i on i n

’

I ta l i an s ti l l r em ai ns i nstru cti v e t o t h e t e ac h e r of E ngl i sh as

an i llus t r ati on of m e t hod We r e t ai n h e r t e xt ac c ord i ngly i n
.
, ,

i ts e n ti r e ty T R ] . .

As hav e alr e ady said t h e w o r ds c h osen for gram

we ,

m at ic al study ar e all p r inted on s m all r e c tan gular pie c e s

of c ardboa r d T h e l ittl e c ards ar e h e ld toge th e r in pa c k
.
~

age s by an e lasti c band and are kept in th e ir resp e c tiv e

boxe s T h e first bo x w hi c h w e p r e s e nt has t w o c o m part

.

m ents In th e holders at the ba c k of e a c h c om partm e nt

.

ar e pla c ed th e c ards w hi c h sho w t h e part of spee c h to b e

studied in thi s c ase ar ti c l e and n o un T h e arti c le

, .

c ards ar e pla c e d in the a r ti c l e c o m part m ent and t h e noun s

in the n o un c om p artm ent When th e c hildren hav e fi n .

22
 G R A MMAR 23

their e x er is th y r pla h ards — the nouns

i sh e d c e e e c e t e c

in t h e pla c e for the nouns and the arti c l e s in t h e pl a c e for

t h e a r ti c les If the w ords ar ti c l e and n o un are n o t a
.

su ffi c ient guide for the c hild th e c olor at l e as t w ill m ake

,

th e task e asy In fa c t the c hild w ill pla c e the bla c k c ards

.

for the noun in the c om part m ent indi c ated by the bla c k
g u ide -
c ard ( m ark e d n o u n ); t h e t an c ards for t h e a r ti c le

w ith the tan gu id e -c a r d ( m arked ar ti c l e ) T hi s e x e r c ise

.

r ec alls t h e c hild s e xp e ri en c e w ith the alphabet boxe s

’
,

w h e re o n e c opy of e a c h l e tt e r is p asted to t h e bottom of

the bo x a s a guide fo r the c hild in r e pla c ing the other
lett rs
e .T h e c h ild b gins to speak of the t l e s ec ti o n
e a r i c -
,

h
t e n ou n -se c ti o n r i l - r d
and a t c e c a s and n o u n c ards In - .
,

so doing h e begins to dis tin gu is h b e t w een the p arts of

sp e e c h T h e m ateri al m ust b e pr e pared very a c c urat e ly
.

and in a definit e ly det e rm in e d quantity F o r th e first e x .

c r o ise ,
the c hild r e n are giv e n boxes w ith the arti c l e s and
nouns shuffle d together in th e i r r e spe c tive c o m partm ents .

But ther e m ust b e j ust e nough arti c l e s of e a c h g end e r to

h ’
g o w ith t e r e sp e c tiv e nouns T .h e c hild s task is t o pu t

t h e right a r ti c l e in front of t h e right noun a long and

pati e nt r e searc h w hi c h ho w ever i s singularly fas c inating
, , ,

to him .

We h ave pr e par e d the follo w ing w ords We should re .

c all ho w e v e r that the c ards ar e not found in the boxes in

, ,

this o r d e r but ar e m ix e d toge th e r

, t h e arti c l e s shu ffled
—

in their box s e c tion and t h e nouns in th e irs

-
.

il fazzol e tto ( t h e h andk e r chi f ) e i c olori ( t h e c olors )

il libro ( t h e book ) i fi i ( t h e fl owe rs )
or

i1 ve stito ( t h e dr e ss ) i dise gni ( t h e dr aw ings )

il t avolino ( t h e l i t t l e t abl e ) i c omp agni ( t h e c o mp anions )
to sp e cchio ( t h e m irror ) gli zo cc oli ( t h e w o o de n shoe s )
10 zu cch e ro ( t h e sugar ) g l i uo m ini ( t h e m e n )
10 zio ( t h e un c l e ) gli arti c oli ( t h e arti c l e s )
10 stiv al e ( t h e boot ) 1 e s e di e ( t h e ch a irs )
24 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL
la s t o ff a ( t h e c loth ) 1e s carpe ( t h e sho e s )
la p e rl a ( t h e p earl ) le ad d izioni ( t h e su m s )

la pir am ide ( t h e py r amid ) le p i ant e ( t h e p l ant s t h e t re es )

,

la fi n e s t r a ( t h e w indow )

o c c h io
’
l ( th e ey e )
l am i c o ( t h e fr i e nd )
’

l ac q u a ( t h e w at e r )
’

l al b e r o ( t h e t r e e )
’

g l i n v i t at i ( t h e gu e s t s )
’

gl i n c as t r i ( t h e i ns e t s )
’

g l i t al i an i ( t h e I t al i ans )
’

g l in s e t t i ( t h e i ns e c t s )
’

( We suggest as a c orresponding E nglish e xer c i s e the

introdu c tion of th e i n d efin i te a r ti c l e T hi s substitution .

involves four pro c esses against th e eight of the Itali an

e xer c ise .T h e use of an b e fore a vo w el i s quit e anal
o go u s to t h e probl e m of t h e Itali an l and gl
’ ’
How ever , .

the theor e ti c al distin c tion bet w een the d e finite and i n

d e finite arti c le as regards m eaning i s r e s e rv e d by S ig
, ,

nora M ontessori to a m u c h lat e r p e r iod though the pra e ,

ti c al distin c tions app e ar in the earliest L ess o n s and C o m

mand s . Tr ) .

t h e h and ke r c h i e f t h e c o l ors
t h e book t h e fl o w e rs
t h e dr e ss t h e dr awi ngs
t h e t abl e t h e c h i ldr e n
t h e m i rror t h e sho e s
th e sug ar t h e m en

a m an an or ange
a p e arl an appl e

a pr i s m an un c l e
a c ard an eye

a w i ndo w i n s e ct an

a c h ai r an Am e r ic an

a t re e an a un t

T h e c hild tri e s to c om bine a rti c le and noun and put s

them sid e by sid e on his l ittle t able In this e xer c ise h e i s
.
 GRA MMAR 25

gu ided by sound j ust as he w as i n building w ords w ith

T h e r e the c hild s fi r st st e p w as to
’
t h e m ovabl e alphabet .

find relationships b e t w een real obj e c ts and t h e linguisti c

sounds c orresponding to them N o w he s e e s sudd e nly r e .

veal e d to h im hithe rto unsuspec ted relationships bet w een

these sounds these w ords T o have an em piri c al w ay of
,
.

d em onstrating and testing these relationships to p r a c ti s e ,

ve r y thoroughly o n t w o kinds of w ords suddenly brought ,

forth int o syst em ati c distin c tness from th e c h aos of w ords

in his m ind offe rs the c hild not only a ne c essary e xe r c ise
,

but the sensation of reli e f w hi c h c o m es from satisf y ing an

inn e r spiritual n e e d W ith t h e m ost intens e att ention
.

h e p e rsists to the v e ry e n d of the e xer c ise and takes gr e at

prid e in hi s su c c e ss T h e tea c h e r a s she passes m ay
.

glan c e ab o ut t o s e e if all t h e c a r ds are p r op e rly pla c e d ,

but the c hild doubtl e ss w ill c all her to ad m ire or ve r ify

, ,

the w ork that h e has done b e for e h e b e gins to gather to

,

ge th e r first all th e arti c les then all the nouns to r e turn

, , , , ,

them to their boxes .

T hi s is the fi r st st e p ; but h e p r o c e e ds w ith in c reasing

”
enthusiasm to s e t t h e w o r ds in hi s m ind “
in orde r ,

ther e by en r i c hing hi s vo c abulary by pla c ing n ew a c qu isi

tions in an already d e t e r m in e d pla c e T hus he c ontinu e s .

to c onstru c t w ith resp e c t to e xt e r ior obj e c ts an inn e r

, ,

spi r itual syst e m w h i c h had already been be gun by his

,

sensory exer c ises .

S I N G U LA R AN D P L U RA L
T heexer c is e s on the nu m ber and ge nder of nouns are
done w ithout th e h e lp of th e box e s T h e c hild al r e ady .

kn ow s that those w ords ar e arti c l e s and nouns so w e give ,

him n e w s m all groups of fort y c ards ( nouns and a r ti c l e s )

held together by an elasti c band In e a c h one the grou p .
,
 GRA MMAR 27

S i n go l ar e S i n gu l ar
il pi e d e the foot
i l q u ad e rno t h e c op y book
l a r ap a t h e turnip
l a s c arpa t h e sho e
l a t as c a t h e po cke t
i l t a volino t h e t abl e
l a t e st a t h e h ead
u n gh i a t h e n a il ( fing e r )
’
l

Lik e m at e r ial
h as be e n prepar e d for t h e m as c uli n e and
fem inin e fo r m s : T h e m a sc ulin e g r oup is k e pt by its e lf ,

w hil e t h e fe m inin e s ar e shuffl e d

.

M as c u l i n e
th e c o u nt

th e fri end
t h e donk ey
t h e fath e r
t h e b en e fa c tor
t h e shop -k e ep e r
t h e c ousin
t h e c ook
t h e hunt e r
t h e hors e

Ma s c u l i n e
the duk e
t h e c an ary
t h e do c tor
t h e st enogr aphe r
t h e e l e ph ant
t h e son
t h e broth e r
t he c o ok

the c at

M as c u l i n e
the lion
t h e insp e c tor
t h e w olf
t h e r e a de r
t h e s chool m a st e r
t h e m ar q uis
t h e m ul e
t h e gr andfath e r
t h e en e my
28 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T ERIAL
M as c h i l e F e mm i n i l e M as c u l i n e F e mi n i n e
l ost e
’ ’
l o s t e s sa th e host t h e host es s,
o r o l o gi a i o t h e w at ch -m ake r
’
l l o ro l o g i a i a
’
et c .

il poe t a l a po e t e ss a t h e po e t
i 1 p e lli cc i a io l a p e lli i a i acc t h e furri e r
i 1 p adr e l a m adr e t h e fa th e r
il re l a r egin a t h e king
i1 r ano cchio la r ano cchi a t h e frog
lo sposo l a s p os a t h e husb and
i 1 s e rvo l a s e rva t h e man -s e rv ant
il somaro l a somar a t he as s

F inall y
there are three series of nouns in four form s
S ingular and Plural M as c ul in e and F em inine ,
E ac h .

group has e ighty c ards c ounting both nouns and arti c les ,

and t h e ten singul ar m as c ulines in the guiding group are

k e pt together, apart from the others T h e titl e c ards .

( t w elve i n nu m b e r ) are s i ngu lar and p lu ral and for ea c h

of them i s a c ard m arked m as cu lin e and a c ard m arked
fe mi n in e T h e follo w ing is th e order of th e m at e rial
.

w hen properly arranged by the c hild

S I NGO L ARE S I N GU LA R
Mas c hi l e F e mmi n i l e Mas c u li n e
l am i c o
’
l am i c a
’
th e fri end
i1 bambino l a b ambin a the chil d
i1 bur attin a io l a bur a ttin a i a t h e pupp e t -p l ay e r
i 1 c ont adino l a c ont adin a t h e p e a sant
i l c av a llo l a c av a ll a t h e hors e
i l c o m p agno l a c o mp agn a t h e c om p anion
i1 dis egn a tor e l a dis egnatri c e t h e de sign e r
i 1 d attilogr afo l a d a ttilogr afa t h e st e nogr ap he r
1 e br e o t h e Jew
’ ’
l e b re a

i 1 fan c iullo la fanc iull a th e boy

PL U R AL E P L U RA L
F e m mi n i l e Mas c u l i n e
1 e am i h e c the fri ends
l e b ambin e t h e c hildr e n
l e bur at in ai e t t h e pupp e t -pl aye rs
c
l e ont adin e t h e p e asan t s
c
1 e av a ll e t h e hors e s
c
l e om agn e p t h e c o mp anions
 G R AMM AR 29

PLU RA L E PLURAL
F e mmi ni l e M as cu l i n e F emi n i n e
le disegn atri c i th e d e sign ers
1 e d a ttilogr afe the st enogr aph e rs
t h e J ew s
’
l e b re e

le fan c iull e t h e boys

S I N GO LA R E S I N GU L AR
Mas c hi l e F e mmi n i l e Mas c u l i n e
i 1 ga t t o l a g att a th e c at

i l gi ardini e r e l a gi ardini e r a the gard ene r

il giovin e tto l a giovin e tt a t h e youth
l i n f e r mi ere l i n f e r m ie r a t h e nurs e
’ ’

l i t ali an o l i t al i a n a t h e w ork e r
’ ’

i l l avor ator e la l avor atri c e t h e It a li an

c
il m e di o l a m e di ch e ss a t h e physi c i an
t
i l m a e r ass aio l a m at e r a ss a i a t h e m attr e ss -m ake r
o pe rai a t h e w ork m an
’ ’
l o per ai o l
i l pittor e la p ittri c e t h e p a int e r

PLU R AL E P LU R A L
F e mm i n i l e Mas c u l i n e
1 e g att e the c ats
l e gi ardini e r e the gard ene rs
1 e giovin e tte t h e y ouths
l e infe r m i e r e t h e nurs e s
l e it a li an e t h e It a li ans
le l avora tri c i t h e w ork e rs
1 e m e di ch e ss e t h e ph y si c i ans
1 e m at e r a ss a i e t h e m attr e ss mak e rs
-

1 e op e r a i e t h e w ork m e n
1 e pittri c i t h e p aint e rs

S I N GO LA R E S I N GUL A R
Ma s c h il e F e mm i n i l e Ma s c ul i n e
il r aga zzo la r agazza the boy
i 1 ro m ano 1 a rom an a t h e R om an
lo s c ol ar e 1 a s c ol ar a t h e s chol ar
i1 s arto l a s art a t h e t a ilor
i1 s anto l a t agli a t ri c e t h e sa int
il t agli a tor e l a donn a t h e c utt e r
l uom o l a v e cchi a t h e m an
’

i1 v e cchio l a visit atri c e the old m an

i 1 visit ator e l a zia t h e visitor
lo zio la s an ta t h e un c l e
30 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T A R Y MA T E RIAL
PLUR A LE PLU RA L
F e m mi n i l e Mas c u li n e
1e r agazze t h e boys
Ie rom an e t h e R o m ans
l e s c ol ar e the s chol ars
1 e s art e t h e t a ilors
l e s ant e t h e s a ints
l e t agli a t ri ci t h e c utt e rs
1 e donn e t h e me n
1 e v e cchi e th e old m en
l e visit atri c i t h e visitor
1e z ie t h e un c l e s

O c c asion ally lass exer c is e s ar e used in our s c hools for

c

t h e four form s of the Itali an noun m as c uline and f e m ,

inin e singular and plural T h ey tak e the form al m ost

,
.

of a gam e w hi c h the c hildr e n find a musing A c hild for

, .

instan c e distributes around the c lass all the plural nouns .

T h e n he reads aloud a noun in t h e singular T h e c hild .

w h o hol ds the c orresponding plu r al ans w ers i mm e di at e ly .

T h e sa m e thing i s n e xt don e for m as c ulin e and f em inine ,

and finally for all four fo r m s at on c e

, ,
.

Wh e n these ex e r c is e s h av e b ec om e fa m iliar to th e c hild ,

others som ew hat m or e diffic ult m ay b e presented T hese .

n ew on e s c om pris e : n ouns w hi c h c h ange form c o m

pl e t el y as they c h ange gender and of w h i c h so far only , ,
“ ”
t h e m ost fa m iliar exa m ples ( b ab b o fathe r m amma , , ,

“
m other e t c ) have been given ( S eries A ) ; nouns in
,
.

w hi c h t h e form i s the sa m e in th e sin gular of both gen

d e rs ( S eries B ) those in w hi c h both ge nd e rs h av e a c o m

m o n form in the sin gular and a c o mm on form in t h e
plu r al ( S eries C ) ; nouns w hi c h h ave only one form for
both singular and plural ( S e r i e s D ) ; nouns w h e r e the
sa m e form appears in both genders but w ith a di ff erent
m e aning ( S e ri e s E ) ; finally nouns w hi c h c hange gen
,

de r as th e y pass fro m t h e singular to t h e plural ( S e rie s

F) .
 GRA MMAR 31

S E RIE S A
S I N GO LA R E S I N G UL A R
Mas c h i l e F e m mi n i l e F e mi n i n e
il b abbo l a m am m a t he m oth e r
il be cc o la c apr a t h e s h e go a t
-

i1 fr a t e la suor a t h e nun
i1 fr at e l l o l a sor e ll a t h e sist e r
il ge n ero l a nuor a t h e d aught e r -in .

l aw
th e ew e

the fe m a l e
t h e w ife
t h e m o th e r
t h e god m oth e r
the so w

the c ow
t he wom n a

t h e qu e e n

PLU R A L E PL U R A L
F em m in i l e Ma s c u l in e Fe m i n i n e
l e m amm e the fath e r s t he m oth e rs ,

1e c apr e t h e h e go a ts
-
et c .

le suor e t h e fri ars

1 e sor e ll e t h e broth e rs
1 e nuor e t h e sons i n l aw
- -

l e p e c or e t h e r am s
l e f e mm in e t h e m al e s
1 e m o gli t h e husbands
l e m a dri t h e fa th e rs
1 e m adrin e t h e godfath e rs
1 e s c rofe t h e hogs
l e v a cch e t h e bulls
l e donn e th e men
1 s r egin e th e kings
S E RI E S B
S I N GOL A R E S I N GUL A R
Mas c h i l e F em mini l e F em inin e
l ar t i s t a t h e a rtist ,
’ ’
l ar t i s t a
c
i l oll eg a c
l a oll ega et c .

i l d entist a l a d entist a
i 1 pi anist a l a pi anist a
il t e l efonist a l a t e l e fonist a

i1 t e l e gr a fi s t a l a t e l e gr a fi s t a

i1 violinista la violinist a
32 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T A RY MA TE R IAL
PL U RAL E PL U RA L
Mas c h i l e F e mm i n i l e M as c u l i n e F e mi n in e
gli artisti le a rtist e th e artists the a rtists ,

i c oll eghi 1e c oll egh e t he c olle agu e s et c .

i d entisti le de ntist e t h e d entists

i pi anisti 1e p i anist e t h e pi anists
i t e l efonisti le t e l efonist e t h e t e l e phon e
op er ators
i t e l egr afi st i l e t e l egr a fi s t e t h e t e l e gr aph
op e r ators
i violinis t i le violinist e t h e violinist s

S E RIE S 0
S I N GOL A R E S I N G UL A R
F e m m i n/il e Ma s cu l i n e F em in i n e
Ea c onsort e the husband the w ife ,

1 a c ustod e the k e ep e r etc .

l a c ant ant e t h e singe r

t h e h e ir
’
l e r e de

l a giovan e t h e youth
l i n gl es e t h e E nglish m an
’

1 a ni p ot e t h e n eph e w
( gr andson )
PL U R ALE PL UR A L
F e mmi n i l e Ma s c u l i n e F e mi n i ne
1e c onsorti t he husbands the w ive s ,

1 e c ustodi t h e gu ards et c .

l e c ant anti t h e singe rs

l e r ed i t h e h e irs
’

l e giov ani t h e youths

1 e ingl e si t h e Englishm e n
1 e ni p o t i t h e n e ph ew s
gr andsons )

S E R IE S D

S i n gu l ar
t he b a za a r
t h e c o ff ee
t h e gas
c
t h e rane
th e pen c il
the libe rty
t h e o mnibus
t h e vir t u e
 G R A MM A R 33

S E RI E S E
S I N GO LA R E S I N GUL A R
Ma s c hil e F e mmi n/i l e M as c u l i/ne F e m in in e
i l m e lo l a me l a th e ppl e tr e e
a the ppl e
a

c
il pes o la p e sc a t h e p ea c h t r ee t h e p e ac h
l u l ivo
’
l u l iv a
’
t h e olive tr e e t h e oliv e
i1 pugn o 1a pugn a t h e blow ( pun ch ) t h e b attl e
i1 mani c o l a m ani c a t h e h an dl e t h e sl e e v e
i 1 suolo l a suol a t h e fl oor t h e sol e

PLU RA LE PL U R A L
F e m mi n i l e Mas cu l i ne F e mi n i ne
l e me l e th e ppl e tr e e s
a t he ppl e s
a

le p e s ch e t h e p e ac h tr e e s t h e p e ache s
l e uliv e t h e oli ve tr e e s t h e oliv e s
l e pugn e t h e blow s ( pun c h e s ) t h e b attl e s
1 e m ani ch e t h e h andl e s t h e sl e e v e s
1 e suol e t h e fl oors t h e sol e s

S E RI E S F

S i n gu l ar
th e hundr e d
t h e finge r
t h e e ch o
t h e p air
t h e s m il e ( l augh )
t h e e gg

T H E S I N G U LA R AND P L U R AL IN E NGLI S H
TR AN S LA TO R ’
S Norm — Wh ile the form ation of the
E nglish plural does not present the c om pli c ation s of gen
der th at appear i n Italian , th e phoneti c adaptations r e
uired by the plural ending -s along w ith c ertain o r
q
t h o gr aph i c al c apri c es and h isto ri c al su r vivals of the lan

g uage result
,
in a s ituation so m e w h at m ore c o m ple x than
th at tr e ated by S ignora M ont e ssori In fa c t her analysis .
,

of th e Ital ian plural requi r es eight w ord-lists w hile E ng ,

lish re quir e s at least fourteen not in c luding the question,

of foreign nouns T h e S pec i al stres s on the art i c l e is

.

h ardly ne c e ssary in E nglish An analogous treat m ent f o r

.

E n glish w ould b e s o mew hat as follo w s :

 G R A MM A R 35

S E R IE S III

-
( Pl ur al s of N ouns in 0 )
LI S T A

LI ST B

S i n g ul ar
d y n am o
c anto
solo
m em en to
c hro m o
S E RI E S IV

( N oun s i n -f or -f e )
LI S T A
S i n g u lar
S he lf
th i e f
l e af
s el f

LI S T B

S i n g u l ar
l i fe

LI S T 0
S i n gu l ar
s c arf
c h ie f
fif e
36 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY M A TE RIAL
S E RI ES V

in -
( N o un s y)

LI ST B

S i n g u lar
day
de rby

S E RIES VI

( Pl ur als i n -e n
)
S i n g u la r P lu ral
b ro th e r b r e th r e n
( b ro th e r s )

S E RI E S VII
( Pl ur al s w it h i n te rn al c h ange ( u ml au t ) )
P l u r al S i n g u lar P l u ra l
fe e t m ous e m ic e
t e e th m an men
ge e se w o man w o me n
l ice

S E RIE S V III

( S i ngu l ar an d Pl ur al i d e n ti c al )
P l u r al S i n g u lar
sh e e p d ee r
fi sh sw i n e
 G R A MM A R 37

S E RIE S IX

( C o m poun d w or ds )

L I ST A
S i n g u lar P l u ra l
bl ac k-b i rd bl ac k -b i rds
s t e am bo at st e am bo at s
r e d c o at r e d c o at s
r e dbr e as t r e dbr e a s t s
forge t -me -no t forg e t -m e —no ts
spoonful spoonfuls
m ou t hfu l m ou t hfu l s

L IS T B
S i n g u l ar Pl u r a l
bro t h e r -in -l aw bro t h e rs -in -l aw
m o t h e r -i n -l aw m o t h e rs -i n -l aw
c our t -m ar ti al c our t s -m art i al
at torn e y - ge n e r al at t orn e y s -g e n e r al s

g e n e r al -in -c h i e f ge n e r als -i n -c h i e f
Kn i gh t -T e m pl ar Kn i gh t s -T e m pl ar

All these gr oups of w ords in their ord e r are rep r odu c e d

i n spe c i al bookl e ts w hi c h the c hildren m ay t ake home and
r e ad In a c tual pra c tis e su c h books h ave p r oved both
.

c onv e nient and n e c e ssary T h e c hild r e n ge nerally spend

.

m u c h ti m e on the m and delight in r e ading the w ords over

and over in th e ord e r in w h i c h th e y th e m s elves have dis
c over e d th e m i n t h e c ard ex e r c ise T his r ec alls and fixes
.

th e i r o wn ideas indu c ing a so r t of inn e r m aturation w hi c h

,

is often follo w e d by th e S pontan e ous dis c overy of gra m

m at ic al la w s on the r e lations of nouns or by a l ively inter
,

est w hi c h thro w s th e c hildre n into exc la m ations or l augh

ter as they observ e w h at great di ff er e n c e s of m e aning are
som eti m es c aus e d by a very slight c hange in the w ord .

At the sam e ti m e these si m pl e e xer c ises so fruitful in r e ,

su l t s m ay be used for w ork at ho m e and w e ll m eet the

,
38 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

d em ands for so me thing to do w ith w hi c h c hildr e n a r e

c ontinually assailing their par e nts . F o r ho m e w ork w e
have prepar e d alphab e ts w here th e lette r s ar e printed in
typ e -w riting ord e r With th em th e c hild c an c om pose
.

w ords or later s e nt e n c es at the sa m e ti m e b ec om ing f a

, , ,

m iliar w ith the alphabet arrangem e nt of standa r d typ e

w riter s .
 LE S S O N S C O MM AN D S

The first l e ssons in gramm a r w hi c h I gav e t o c hildren

go ba c k fully sixt e e n y e a r s I fi r st att e m pt e d t h e e du
.

c ation o f d e f ec tiv e s in t h e S c uol a M a gistral e O r t o f r e n

ic a in Rom e in t h e y e a r 1 8 99 foll o w ing a c ou r s e of l e c
tur e s I h ad given to t e a c h e r s in t h e no r m al s c hool of ou r
c apital . In this e xp e r i m e nt I w e nt f ar e nough w ith p r i
m ary w ork to p r e pa r e so m e of th e d ef ec tiv e c hildren for
su c c e ssful exa m inations i n the publi c s c h o ols A v e r y.

b r i e f and in c o m pl e t e su m m ary of m y p e dago gi c al studi e s

’
d e liv e r e d in th e tea c her s c ou r ses is giv e n in t h e appendi x
to thi s volu m e .

T h e t e a c hing of gra mm ar w as not at that ti m e so c o m

pl e t e as it has sin c e b e e n m ad e in m y w o r k w ith nor m al

c hild r en ; e v e n so it w as a m a r k e d su c c e ss
. G ram m ar w as
a c tually li ved by th e c hildr e n w h o b ec am e d e e ply inter
,

e s t e d in it . Even those w r e t c h e d c hild r e n w h o c am e like

,

rubbish throw n out of th e publi c s c hools di r ec tly o ff the

,

str e e t o r fro m t h e insan e asylu m s pass e d d e lightful half

,

hou r s of j oyous laught e r ov e r thei r e xer c is e s in gramm ar .

H e r e ar e so m e e xc e rpts fro m t h e old pa m p h l e t of 1 900

giving an id e a of t h e dida c ti c m at e ri al w hi c h w as th e n
us e d and so m e noti on of a l e sson on nouns .
“
As e a c h
w ord i s r e ad o r w ritt e n for ev e r y obj e c t -l e sson for every
,

a c tion print e d c a r ds are being ass e m bled w hi c h w ill l at e r

,

b e us e d to m ake c laus e s and s e nt e n c es w it h w ords tha t

39
4O MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

m ay b e m ov e d about j ust as the individual letters w ere

m ov e d about in m aking the w ords th em selv e s T h e s im .

ple c laus e s or sentenc es should refer to a c tions perf orm e d

by the c hildren T h e first step should b e to bring t w o or .

m o r e w ords together : e g , r ed-w o o l s w e e t-c and y f o u r . .

, ,

fo o ted d o g e tc T hen w e m ay go on to the sent e n c e itself

, .

T h e w o o l is r ed ; th e s o up i s h o t ; th e d o g h as f o u r fe e t ;
M ar y eats th e c an dy, et c . T h e c hildren first c om pose t h e
senten c es w ith their c ards ; then they c opy them in th e ir
w riting b o oks T o fa c ilitate the c hoi c e of th e c ards th ey
.
,

m ay b e arranged in spec i al b o x es : for instan c e one box ,

m ay be label e d n o u n : or the boxes m ay b e distinguish e d

thus : fo o d c l o thin g an i mals p e o pl e e t c T her e S hould
, , , , .

be a bo x f o r adj e c ti ves w ith c o m part m ents for c olors ,

shap e s qualities e t c T here S hould be another for par

, ,
.

ti c l es w ith c o m part m e nts for a rti c l e s c onj un c tions pr e p

, , ,

o s it i o n s e t c A bo x should be res e rv e d for ac ti o n s w ith

,
.
,

the l abel v e r b s above it , and c ontaining c om part m e nts

for the infinitiv e pr e sent past and future T h e c hildr e n , ,
.

gradu ally l e arn by pra c tise to tak e th e ir c ards f r om t h e

boxes and put them ba c k in th e ir prop e r pl a c es T h ey .

soon l e a r n to know their w ord box e s and th e y r e adily

find the c ards they w ant a m ong t h e c o l o r s s h apes qua li , ,

ti es e t c
, or a m ong an i m als f o o ds e t c U lti m at ely th e
.
, , ,
.

t e a c her w ill find o c c asion t o e xplain th e m e aning of the

big w ords w ritten at th e top of th e d r aw e rs n o u n adj e c , ,

ti v e v er b e t c and this w ill be the first step into the sub

, , .
,

j ec t o f gr am mar .

NO UN S

We m ay all p e rsons and obj e c ts by t heir n am e th e ir

c ,

n o un . P e opl e answ er if w e c all them so do ani m als ,

.
 GRA M MAR 41

Inani m ate obj e c ts how ev e r never answ er b e c aus e th e y

, , ,

c annot ; but if they c ould th e y w ould F o r e xa m pl e if .

,

I say Mary M ary answ ers if I say pe as t h e p e as do not

, ,

answ er be c ause they c annot You c hildren d o unde r

,
.

stand w h e n I c all an obj ec t and you b r i n g it to m e I .

say for exam ple b o o k b e ans peas If I don t tell you

, , , , .
’

t h e na m e of the obj e c t you don t understand w hat I am

’
,

talking about ; b e c au se e v e ry obj e c t has a diffe r e nt na m e .

T his n a m e is the w ord th at stands for t h e obj e c t T his .

na m e is a n o u n .

Wh e n e ver I m ention a noun to you you und e rstand ,

i mm ediately th e obj e c t w hi c h t h e noun r e p r e s e nts :

tr e e c hai r pen book la m b e tc If I do not giv e this
, , , , ,
.

noun you don t kno w w hat I am talking about ; fo r if I

,
’
,

say si m ply b ring m e a t o n c e I w an t i t you do not , ,

kno w w hat I w ant , unless I t ell you th e na m e of t h e o h

j c e t U nl e ss I give you t h e n o u n you do not und e rstand
.
,
.

T hus e v e r y obj ec t is r e p r e s e nt e d by a w o r d w hi c h i s its

n am e ; and this n a m e i s a n o un T o und e rstand w h e th e r
.

a w ord is a noun o r not you si m ply ask : Is i t a th i n g ?

,

Wo u ld i t an s w e r if I s po k e to i t ? or C o u ld I c arry i t to
th e te ac h e r ? F o r instan c e b r ead : ye s bread i s an o h
, ,

j c e t ; tab l e : yes it is an o b e j c t ; c o nd u c to r : y e s the c o n

, ,

du c tor w ould ans w er if I w e r e to S peak to h im

,
.

Le t us look through ou r c ards n o w I tak e several .

c ards fro m diffe r e nt box e s and shuffle th e m H e re i s the .

w ord s w ee t Bring m e s w e e t ! Is th e r e anything to an

.

s w e r w hen I c all s w ee t ? But you a r e b r inging m e a pi e c e

’
of c andy ! I didn t say c an dy : I said s w ee t And n o w .

you have given me su gar ! I said sw e e t ! S w ee t you see , ,

i s not an obj e c t You c annot guess w hat I have in m ind

.

w hen I say sw e e t If I say c an dy s u gar then y o u under

.
, ,

s tand w h at I w ant w h at obj e c t I am thinking about b e

, ,
 GR AMM AR 43

t e a c her s ingenu ity ; nor are th e y d e p e nd e nt sol e ly up on

’

h e r d r am ati c s e nse som ething essential if Sh e is to sti m

u l at e t h e w e ak nervous rea c tions of littl e d e fe c tiv e s and

so gai n and hold th e i r attention T h e c o mm ands to

.

day a r e w r itten and m ay be read T hey are c ombined.

w ith t h e c a r d e xer c i s e s w h e r e the c ards a r e read in sil e n c e

-

and interp r e t e d th r o ugh a c tions — a m e thod w hi c h grew

spontaneously and w ith su c h great su c c e ss from t h e w ork
“ ’ ”
in t h e C hildr e n s House . T hat i s w hy to -day w e
, ,

sp e ak in the el e m entary c ourses of readin g c omm ands

”
or e ven of w riting c omm ands .

T h e study of gra mm ar h as finally been arrange d in a

m e thodi c al seri e s of ex e r c ises and the m at e ri al has been
prepared after c areful and rigid e xperi m ent T hose w h o .

r e ad this m e thod w ill get a c l e ar idea of the tea c her s task ’

.

S h e has a m at e r i al r eady for use . S h e need n ot bother

to c om pose a singl e s e nten c e nor to c onsult a single pro
gram T h e obj e c ts at h e r disposal c ontai n all that is
.

n e c essa r y S h e need kno w si m ply w hat they are and

.

h o w th e y are to be used . T h e l e ssons w hi c h Sh e m ust

giv e are so S i m ple and require so f e w w ords that th e y
, ,

be c o m e l e ssons rath e r of gesture and a c tion than of w ords .

It m ust be borne in m ind further that t h e w ork i s not a s

, ,

uninter e sting as w ould appear fro m th is arid su mm ary .

T h e a c tual s c hool is a real intell e c tual laborato r y w here ,

t h e c hildr e n w ork all the ti m e and by the m s e lves Aft e r

.

th e m at e ri al has b e e n pr e s e nt e d to th e m th e y r e c o gn i ze it
,

and lik e to hunt for it T h e y kno w h o w to fi n d fo r th e m

.

s elv e s the pr e c ious obj ec ts w hi c h th e y w ant to u s e T h e y .

oft e n ex c h ange m at e r i als and e v e n l e ssons w ith oth e r c hil

dren T h e f e w l e ssons t h e t e a c h e r giv e s c onn ec t as it
.
,

w e r e a system of l iv e w ir e s w hi c h s e t in m otion a c tivities

, ,

quit e disp r oportionat e to th e e n e rgy e xp e nd e d in t h e s im

44 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIAL

pl e ac t s h e p e rfo rm s S h e pushes so to speak a button

.
, ,

and h e r e a b e ll rings there a light go e s on th e r e a m a

, ,

c hin e begins to buzz V e ry oft e n th e t e a c her sees a w hole

.

w e e k go by w ithout any n e ed of interv e ntion on her pa r t .

And yet w h at d e li c a c y and ta c t are nec essa ry properly

to o ffer this m aterial to gi v e in an interesting w ay a
,
’
lesso n c al c ulated to e x e rt a di r e c t a c tion upon the c hild s
sp iritual a c tivity ! Ho w skilful w e must b e to l e av e al l
the c hild s S pontan e ou s i m pulses free t o develop them
’

s e lves to ke e p c areful w at c h over so m any different i n

,

dividual i m puls e s ! T his w e m ust do if w e are to k e ep “

the lam p burning ! When for exam ple on passing a

”
, ,

table w h e re t h e c hild h as analyzed a sent e n c e w ith the

c olor e d c ards the tea c her shifts about as if in play one of
, , ,

the l ittl e slips not only m ust she b e possessed of t h e

,

psyc hologi c al insight n ec essary for interv e ning in this

c hild s w o r k at the proper ti m e , but Sh e m ust also have in
’

m ind t h e gram m ati c al rule of w hi c h she w i shes to give the

c hild his first intuition It follow s tha t every single ac t
.

of the teac h e r h o w ever insignific ant apparently is like

, , ,

t h e a c ts of t h e priest in t h e s er vi c e of t h e great e st i m por

,

tan c e and sh o uld c om e from a c ons c iousn e ss thoroughly

,

a w ake and full of potentiality Inst e ad of giving out

,
.

w hat sh e h as in hers e lf the tea c her m ust bring out t h e

,

full possibilities of the c h ildren .

T h e tea c her s e x trinsi c prep aration i s a m atter of thor

’

ough a c quaintan c e w ith the m aterial It S hould be so .

m u c h a part of h e r that Sh e kno w s at on c e w hat i s n e eded

for ea c h individual c as e as soon as i t arises Ac tual .

pra c tise soon dev e lops this skill .

Th e e x er c is es ar e perform e d w ith these little pa c kages

of sp e c ially pr e par e d c ards T h e m ost i m port ant probl em
.

( for Italian gra mm ar ) is in the agr eemen ts ; the agree

 G RA MMAR 45

m ent of arti c l e and noun as w e have already sho w n the

, ,

agr e em ent of noun and adj e c tive and lat e r on of pronoun

,

and verb and pronoun and noun T here are t w o kinds

,
.

of ex e rc ises w hi c h w e hav e ter med r e spe c tively

,
an

alys e s and c omm ands .

T h e c o m m and s involve both w ork done by the tea c h e r

and exe rc i s e s pe rform ed by th e c hildren T h e purpos e .

here is to c larify the m eanings of w ords and often to sug

gest a pr ac ti c al int e rpretation of th em T his explan a .

ti o n i s follo w e d by an ex e r c is e of the c hildren the m s e lv e s ,

w h o in turn pra c ti c ally inte r pret t h e m e aning of one or

m ore senten c e s w ritten on a c a r d w hi c h they read j ust a s
they did i n th e first e xer c ises of re ading in the C hil
”
dre n s H o use O n this c ard are the w ords w hi c h th e
’
.

tea c her has j u st e xpl ained In our ex peri m ents w e gave

.

th e se l e sson s i mm ediately after S ilen c e j ust a s w e did

’ ”
for reading in the C hildren s Hous e All the c hil .

d ren ho w e ver do not ne c essarily tak e part in thes e e xec u

, ,

tions — oft e nest it i s only a group of c hildr e n so m eti m e s ,

one c hild alone again at other ti m es al m ost all of them

, , ,
.

If possibl e t h e c omm an ds are giv e n i n another room w h ile ,

th e other c hildren c ontinue their w ork i n the large hall .

If this i s not possible it t ak e s pla c e in the sa m e room .

“
T h e se c om m ands m ight b e c all e d an introdu c tion t o
”
dram ati c art for right there littl e d r a m ati c s c enes full
,
“ ”
of viva c ity and inter e st ar e a c t e d out T h e c hildr e n
.

are singula r ly delight e d in w orking for t h e one exa c t i n

t e r pr e t at i o n w h i c h a given w o r d r e qui r e s .

T h e an alys es on the other h and ar e of quit e di ff erent

, ,
“ ”
c ha r a c te r
. Analysis i s don e at th e tabl e It i s w ork .

w hi c h requires quiet and c on c e ntration Whil e the c o m

.

m and gives th e i n tu i ti o n t h e analysis provid e s for t h e

,

matu r atio n of t h e idea T h e gramm ar bo x es ar e us e d in

.
46 M O N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

thes e ex e r c is e s In a large r c om part m ent w hi c h ea c h

.

box c ontains are pla c ed s e veral slips b e aring a pri nted

,

s e nten c e ; f o r exa m ple Th r o w do w n y o u r handkerc h i ef

, .

T h e c hild dra w s a slip and pla c e s it to one side on the

t able T h e n he takes f r om th e diffe rent box e s th e c olored
.

slips c orresponding to the di ff erent w ords in the sent e n c e

and pla c es them side by sid e one after the oth e r In this .

w ay h e c om pos e s t h e e ntir e senten c e : T hr o w d o wn y o u r

h an dk er c hi ef T h e c hild is a c tually doing h e r e a very
.

s i m ple thing : h e i s m e rely translating into c olored c a r ds

the s e nten c e w hi c h is printed on hi s slip He c om poses
.

this sent e n c e in th e sam e w ay in w hi c h he h as already

c o m pos e d w ords w ith the m ov e abl e alphab e t But h e re
.

the e xer c ise is even m or e si m pl e be c aus e the c hild need not

rem em ber the s e nt e n c e for it i s ther e right b e fore his eyes
,
.

His att e ntion m ust b e c on c e ntrat e d on other fa c ts so that ,

all int ell ec tual e ff ort in the c om position of th e senten c e

itself is eli m inat e d T h e c hild has to note the c olors and
.

t h e p o sition of t h e c ards in the d iffe r e nt bo x e s S in c e he ,

m ust take the c ards n o w from the noun box n o w fro m the ,

adverb bo x n o w from that of the preposition e t c and

, ,
.

the c olors t o geth e r w ith t h e position ( e a c h s e c tion has a

t itle a s w e hav e already seen ) str e ngth e n his c ons c ious
,

n e ss of a c lassific ati o n of w ords a c c ording to gram mar .

But w h at r e ally m akes this exe r c ise in analysis so i n

t e r e st in g is the tea c h e r s r e peated per m utation of the dif
’

f e r e n t c ards .A s she go e s by a table she c hange s as ,

though in fun t h e position of a c ard and in this w ay

, ,

provokes th e intuition of gram m ati c al rules and de fi n i

tions Inde e d w h e n Sh e tak e s out t h e c ard w hi c h refe r s
.
, ,

to som e n e w pa r t of t h e ex e rc is e th e r em aining s e nten c e

,

w ith its c hanged m e aning e m ph asiz e s the fun c tion of t h e

part of s p e ec h w hi ch has been m oved T h e effec t show s
.
 G RA MMAR 47

a distant analogy t o th e light that p athology and v i v i s ec

tion thro w on physiology . An organ w hi c h fails in its
fun c tion illustrat e s e xa c tly that fun c tion for n e v e r does
,

one r e aliz e t h e pr ec is e u se of an organ m or e c learly than

w h e n it has lost i t s po w e r of fun c tioning F u r the r m or e
.

t h e r em oval of t h e w o r ds d e m onst r at e s that t h e m e aning

of th e s e nten c e i s not giv e n by the w ord alon e but by t h e
o r der of the w ord in t h e s e nt e n c e ,
and thi s m ak e s a g r e at
i m pression on the c hild H e s e e s the sa m e c a r ds fi r st
.

in a c h aoti c m ass and then in an ord e r ly a r r angem e nt .

Wh at w as first a c oll e c tion of m e aningl e ss w ords has sud

den l y b ec om e t h e e xpression of a th o u gh t .

F rom n o w on t h e c hild begins to e xp e r i e n c e a k e e n i n

t e r e st in t h e o r de r of w o r ds .T h e m e aning t h e only thing
,

t h e c hild is aft e r is n o long e r hidd e n in c onfusion

,
He .

b e gins to enj oy subtl e p e r m utations c h ange s w hi c h w ith

, ,

out destroying the exp r e ssion o f a thought obs c u r e its ,

“ ”
c la r ity c o m pli c at e it
, ,
o r m ake i t sound w r ong It i s .

h e r e that th e t e a c h e r m ust h ave at h e r finge r tips t h e rules

gov e rning the position of th e v a r ious pa r ts of sp e e c h .

“
T his w ill give her t h e n ec e ssary lightness of tou c h
p e r haps e v e n th e opportunity of m aking som e b r illiant
littl e e xplanation so m e c asu al obs e rvation w h i c h m ay
, ,
“
sudd enly d ev elop in t h e c hild a p r ofound g r a mm ati c al
insight .
”
Wh e n th e c hild h as und e r stood this h e w ill b e
”
c om e a d ee p
“
strat e gist i n m obilizing disposing and
,

m oving about th e s e c a r ds w hi c h e xp r e ss th o ugh t ; and if he

really su c c e e ds in m ast e ring thi s se c ret he w ill not b e
,

e asily sati at e d w ith so fas c inating an e x e r c i s e N o one .

but a c hild w ould ev e r h ave t h e p ati e n c e to study g r a m m ar

so profoundly and at su c h l ength T his subtl e w o r k i s
.
,

aft e r all not so easy for th e t e a c h e r T hat i s w h y t h e m a

,
.

t e r i al m ust be su c h as to suggest ea c h st e p in d e tail The .

48 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIAL

tea c her should be r e li ev e d as m u c h as possibl e of the labor

of prepa r ation and re s e arc h : for her deli c at e w ork of i n
te rv e n ti o n is a t ask hard enough in itself In preparing .

this m ateri al w e h av e w orked f o r her : w e have a c ted as

t h e w orkm en w h o produ c e t h e vari ou s obj e c t s ne c ess ar y
“ ” “ ”
to life ; sh e h as but to live and m ak e liv e T his .

w ill sho w still m ore c l e a r ly h o w f ar from t ruth is t h e

m odern c on c eption of p e dago gy w hi c h attem pt s t o r e alize
its d e si r e for fre e dom in th e s c hool by saying t o th e
t e ac her ,
T ry to r e spond to t h e n e e ds of the pupil s w ith
out b e ing c ons c ious o f you r author ity ove r them ”
When .

w e ask a tea c h e r t o r e spond to t h e n e ed s of the i nner life

of m an w e are asking a great deal of h e r S h e w ill n e ver
,
.

b e able to a c c om plish it unless w e have first done some

,

thing f o r her by giving h e r all th at i s nec e ssar y to that

end H e re i s our m at e ri al :
.

C O M M AN DS ON N O U NS
CA LL I N G
C all loudly
Mary !L u c y !E t h el !
Later all again :
c

B l on de !B e au ti ful G oo d !

C all
Pe te r !b r i ng a c h ai r .

G e orge !br i ng a c ub e .

Lo u i s !g e t a fr am e .

C h ar l e s !C h arl e s !q u ick !b r i ng m e th e br i n g it to me ,

q u i c k q u ic k
,
.

C all slow ly thi s w ay

C o m e !C o m e !g ive me a k i ss — p l e as e , c ome !
T hen s ay :
'
Mary !c o m e !g i v e me a ki s s
 G RA MMAR 49

T hes e comm ands lend th em selves t o a littl e d r am ati c

s c en e . It is r e ally a so rt of pl ay w hi c h the c hildren r e
,

c ite.

T he tend e n c y to re c itation and to i m itation is very

st r ong and oft e n w e ll develop e d at th e age of fi v e years .

L ittl e c hild r e n e xp e ri e n c e a singular fas c ination in pro

n o u n c i n g t h e w o r ds w ith senti m e nt and in a c c o m panying

th em w ith ge stu r es O n e c an hardly i m agin e t h e S i m

.

p li c i ty of t h e little dra m ati c a c ts w hi c h int e rest t h e five

year old c hild N othing but a c tual expe r i m e nt c ould pos

.

s i b l y have r e vealed it to us O n e d ay in fa c t our little

.
, ,

c hildren w e r e invit e d to be p r e sent at a dra m ati c e nter

t ain m en t giv e n by t h e old e r c h ild r en of th e Publi c S c hools .

T hey follow ed it w ith really surp r ising interest Ho w .

ev e r they r em em be r e d only thr e e w ords of t h e play th e y

,

had h e ard ; but w ith th e s e th r e e w o r ds th e y m ad e 1 1 p a

little dra m ati c a c tion of th e i r o w n w hi c h they r e peat e d,

ov e r and ov e r again t h e follo w ing day .

T h e c o mm ands of th e se c all c ards ar e a c c o r dingly , ,

r e al plays for o u r littl e on e s T h e c hild c alls pr o n o u n c

.
,

ing th e na m e w ith a sort of sustain e d dra w l ; th e c hild w h o

i s c all e d c o m es for w ard ; th e n t h e sa m e thing is don e w ith .

the other nam e s an d e a c h c hild ob e ys as h e i s c al l e d

,
.

T h e n t h e in c o m plete c alls b e gin : b l o n d e ! b l o nd e ! b eau ti

n e m ov e s ! T his m ak e s a gr e at i m pres
f u l ! And no o

sion on t h e c h ild r e n I m p e r ative c o mm ands like r e

.
,

qu e sts lend th e m s e lv e s to a c tiv e dra m ati c a c tion Peter

,
.

has b e e n c all e d an d has brought hi s c hair ; G e orge has

b r ought th e c ub e ; Loui s has tak e n out a fra m e ; but
C ha r l e s S its ther e int e nt e xp e c tant w hil e the c hild c alls
, ,

out ,
B u t b r i n g i t to m e b r i n g i t to m e qu i c k ly ! And
,

h o w e xpr e ssiv e w e found t h e vain requ e st C o me c o me ! , ,

p l eas e gi ve m e a k i s s c o me
, c o m e ! At last t h e c r y
, ,
 AD J E C T I V E S

A N A LY S E S

M A T E R IA L Gr amm ar b o x .

V ari o u s j
o b e c ts al r e ad y fam i liar
dr e n .

N ew j
o b e c ts .

T h e m at e r i al for w ord analysi s c onsists of sm all c ards

for a r ti c l e s ( tan ) nouns ( bla c k ) and adj ec tiv e s ( bro w n )
,
.

T her e i s o n e b o x w ith th r e e c o m part m e nts e a c h s ec tion ,

m a rked w ith a c a r d bearing th e r e sp e c tiv e titl e : ar ti c l e ,

n o un , ad j e c ti v e . At th e f r ont of t h e box is a spa c e for

oth e r c a r d s c ontaining p r int e d sent e n c e s t o b e analyz e d .

D E S C RI P T I V E A D J E C T I V E S

Th e hild i s t o r e ad t h e s e nt en c e s find th e obj ec ts de

c ,

s c r ib e d i n th e m and fi nally bu ild t h e sent e n c e s w ith hi s

,

c ards a s follo w s : suppos e t h e c a r d r e ads :

i1 c olor e v e rd e the gr e e n c olor

il c olor e t ur c hi no the blu e c olor
i1 c olor e rosso the r e d c olor

T he c hild find s th e th r e e c olored tabl e ts u s e d in t h e f a

m ili ar e x e r c is e of t h e C hild r e n s Hous e ” ’
f o r t h e e du
c ation o f the s e nse of c olor He pla c e s th e s e t abl e ts on
.

h is tabl e T hen he builds the phrases out of hi s w o r d

.

c a r ds :
52 M O N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL

Beside the c om pl e ted expression he pl ac es the green

c olor — tablet P assing to the next phras e he does not d is
.
,

turb the w ords th e and c o l o r He r e m ov e s only th e w ord .

gr een and substitut e s for it th e adj ec tiv e b l u e at the sam e ,

ti m e rem oving t h e g r e e n tablet and substituting for it th e

blu e S i m ilarly fo r t h e third phras e he c h anges the ad
.
, ,

j e c t iv e putting t h e r e d tabl e t at the end T hus th e thr ee

,
.

d ifie r en t o bj e c ts w er e distinguished o n ly b y th e adj e c tive

{ v e rd e
il c o lo r e t ur c h i n o
[ rosso

All the phrases and senten c es refer to obj ec ts used i n

the pr e vious e du c ational m aterial O c c asionally t h e .

tea c her w ill have to p r e pare som ething h e rs elf hot ,

c old w ar m or i c ed w ater ; c l e ar w at e r ; c olored w ate r )

, ,
.

F o r thi s e x e rc is e on w ate r the box c ontains six S lips w ith

,

th e six print e d phrases In t h e box se c tion s the c hild

- .
,

finds t h e c orr e sponding w ord c a r ds w hi c h are e xa c tly in

-

the num b e r need e d for th e exerc ise ( not c orresponding ,

that is to the nu m ber of w ords in the phrases sin c e t h e

, ,

arti c les and noun s ar e not rep e ated ) T her e are five .

groups of su c h exer c ises dealing w ith various kinds of ,

s e nsation .

A . S E N S O C RO M AT I C O S E NS E or C OLO R

il c olor e rosa the p ink c olor

i1 c olor e rosa s c uro t he dark pink c olor
i1 c olor e rosa chi aro the light p ink c olor

il prism a a zzurro the blue prism

i1 p rism a m arron e the brown p rism
 G RA MM AR 53

A . S E N S O C BO M ATI C O S EN S E OF C O LO R

il c olor v erdee th e gr e en c olor

il c olor e tur chino the blue c olor
i1 c olor rosso e t he r e d c olor

i l apis n eri the bl ac k p en c ils

i l api s c olor ati the c olor e d p en c ils
l
’
a c qu a c olor at a the c olor e d w t er
a

l
’
ac qu a in c olor a the c l r w at r
ea e

i1 c olor e gi llo a th e ye llow c olor

il c olor e ar an c ion e the a or nge c olor

B . S EN S O V I S I VO : D IMEN S IO N I SENS E OF S IGH T : SI Z

E

l ast a lunga
’
th e long st aff
l a st a c orta the S hort st aff
’

i1 c ubo gr ande the l arge c ub e

i1 c ubo pi cc ol o the s m all c ub e
il c ilindro alt o th e t all cylind e r
i1 c ilindro b sso a t he s h o rt cy lind e r

il prism a m arron e grosso t he thi ck brown prism

i1 pris m a m arron e fi n o the thi n brown prism
il r e tt angolo l argo the broa d r e c t angl e
il r e tt angolo str e tto t he n arro w r e c t angl e
’
solido
l i n c as t r o the solid inse t
1 in c astro p i an o pl an e ins e t
’
th e

C . S E N S O V I S Iv o : FO R M A S ENS E OF S I G HT : S H A PE
il tri angolo e q uil at e ro eq uil at e r al tri angl e
i1 tri angolo i so c e l e i s o c e l c s tri angl e
il tri angolo s c al eno s c a l en e tri angl e
il tri angolo a cut angolo a c ut e -angl d tri angl e
e

il t r i an gol o ottusangolo obtus e -an gl e d tri angl e

i1 tri angolo r e tt angol o right angl e d tri angl e
-

1 in c astro c ir c ol ar e
’
t he c ir c ul ar ins t e

l i n c a s t r o q u adr at o s q u ar e ins e t
’
t he
1 in c astr o r e tt angol ar e r e c t an gul ar ins e t
’
t he

la pir am ide q u adr ango l ar e t h e q u adr angu l ar p y r am id

la pir am i de tri angol ar e t h e tri angul ar pyr am i d
54 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MAT E RIAL
C . S E N S O V IS Ivo : FO R M A SEN SE 0F S I G H T : S H APE
i1 prism a a zzurro r e tt angol ar e th e blu e r e c t angul ar p rism
i1 prism a azzurro qu adr angol ar e the blue q u adr angul ar prism
la s c atol a c ilindri ca th e cylindri c al b x o

la s c atol a prismati ca th e prism ati c b x o

D . SEN SO T A TT I
L E S ENS E OF TO UC H : M U S C UL AR
M U S C O LA R E SEN S E
1a s u pe r fi e e pi ana t h e fl a t surfa e c
1a s u per fi c e c urva c
t h e urv e d surfa ce
1a
‘

st o fl a ruvi da the rough c loth

1a stoff a lis c i a th e sm oo th c loth
l
’
ac q u a c alda the ho t w at r e

l
’
ac q u a fr e dda c
t h e old w tr
a e

l
’
a c qu a ti epida the w a r m w at e r
l a o gn a fr e dda
’
t he c old w at e r
l a c q u a ghi acc i at a th e ic d w t r
’
e a e

la t avol e tt a p e sant e the h e avy bl a ck bo ar d-

la t a vol e tt a l egge r a th e light bl ack -bo ard

la
'

st o fl a m orbida the so f t c loth

la stoff a dur a the h ard c loth

E . S E N S O U D I T I VO ; O L F A TT I VO ; S EN S ES OF A
HE R I N G ; S M ELL ;
G u s T A T Ivo TAS TE
il rum or e fort e the lou d nois e
il rum or e l egge ro th e fa int nois e
i1 suono acu t o th e sh arp sound
i1 suono b a ss o the dee p sound
l
’
ac qu aodorosa th e fr agr ant w at e r
1 a c q u a inodor a th e odorl e ss w at e r
’

l odor e buono
’
the good sm e ll
l odor e c attivo
’
the b ad s m e ll

il s apor e am ar o t he bitt e r t a st e
i1 s ap or e do l c e th e sw e e t t ast e
i1 sa p or e ac ido the sour t as t e
i1 sapor e s also t he s alty t a st e
 G RA MMAR 55

T he t e a c h e r w h o i s o bs e rving noti c es w h e the r th e c hild

h as tak e n t h e right obj ec ts ; if s o sh e pro c e e ds t o t h e
,

pe r m utations .

PE RM UT A T IO N S
At this point th e tea c her should rec al l ( in dealing w ith
,

Ital ian ) t h e gra mm ati c al rul e s f o r t h e position of ad

j ec t iv e s som e of w hi c h ( t h e funda m e ntal on e s ) w ill c e r
,

t ai n l y b e very us e ful t o h e r i n e x e c uting th e se first per

m utations :
I In ge n e r al t h e adj e c tiv e fol low s t h e noun If
.
,
.

pla c e d b e fo r e t h e noun it i s l e ss c onspi c u o us ; if pl a c ed

,

aft e r it assu m e s m ore i m portan c e and has a diffe r e nt

,

fo r c e .

II Wh en th e adj e c tive i s u s e d to si gn ify t h e ex c lusive

.

sup e r lativ e of a quality it i s not only pl a c e d aft e r t h e

,

noun but i s pr e c e d e d by t h e arti c l e ( Um b er to i l b u o n o

,
.
,

“ ”
Hum b e rt th e G oo d )
E xam pl e : T h e c hild h as c o m pos e d the follo w ing
“
phr as e w ith hi s c a r ds : i l tri an go l o r e ttan go l o th e r ight
”
angl e d t r i angl e T h e t e a c her c an int e r c h ang e t h e w o r ds
.

”
thus : i t r e ttan go l o tr i an go lo t h e tri angl e r ight angl e d
,
- .

S i m ilarly also for oth e r phras e s :

,

il prism a r e t t angol ar e a zzurro the r e c t angul ar blu e pris m

i l r e tt angol ar e azzurro pris m a the prism r e c t angul ar blu e
, ,

i l apis n e ri the bl a ck p en c ils

i n e ri l apis th e p en c ils bl ack
i 1 c olor e rosso th e r e d c olor

i 1 rosso c olor e the c olor r e d

Both th e m eaning and the c hild s h abits S h o w h im th e
’

norm al position of t h e adj e c tive In som e ph r as e s su c h

.
,

as
il ru m or e l e gge ro th e f ai n t soun d
il s apor e dol c e the s w e e t t as t e
56 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL

th e pla c ing of the adj e c tiv e b e fore the noun r e nd e r s t h e

m eaning vague figu r ative em otional or ge neri c w her e as
, , , ,

it w ould b e c l e arly d e s c r iptive and prec ise w er e t h e ad

j ec t i v e in its no r m al position
i1 dol c e s apor e t h e t as t e s w ee t
i1 l e gge ro ru m or e th e n o i s e f ai n t

( In E nglish the norm al position of th e adj e c tiv e i s

b e for e t h e noun T h e p e rm utation dev elops a st r ong
.

rhetori c al fl avor of w hi c h th e c hild w ill b ec o m e c onsc ious

,

later in his studi e s on poeti c inversion s Tr ) . .

After the t e a c h e r has m ad e th e s e c hange s if th e y h ave ,

int e rest e d th e c hild she m ay say for e xam pl e

,
T he
adj e c tiv e c om e s aft e r its noun ( for Italian ) T h e ad
”
j ec t i v e c o m e s b e fore its noun ( for English ) In this .

w ay she w ill have given a lesson in th eo r e ti c al gra mm ar .

INF LE C T I O N 0F AD J E G T IVE S

( E x c lusively for th e Italian lang uage )

An o ther exer c ise to be done at th e tabl e d e als w ith the
form ation of the singular and plural of adj ec tives in the
t w o gend e rs T hi s ex e r c ise brings th e c hild in c onta c t
.

w ith a great m any adj e c tives of quality T w o s e ri e s o n e

.
,

of t w enty m as c uline the other of t w enty f em inin e adj ec

,

t iv e s ( in the t w o nu m b e rs ) and t w o other s e ri e s t w e nty ,

S in gular s and t w enty plu r als ( in the t w o g e nd e r s ) form ,

four groups of c ards o n e half of w h i c h ( ti e d s e parately )

-
,

se r v e s to di r ec t the pla c ing of th e othe r half Here are .

t h e w ords in their grou p s

S i n g o l ar e P la r al e
a cuto ac u ti S h arp
a ll e gro all e gr i j oy ous
a tte n t a at t e n t e c ar e ful ,
a tt e n tive
G RA MMAR

low
good
ho t
b ad
s we e t
h ard
e du c at e d w e ll m an n e re d
,

h appy
c old
l arge
gr a c e ful pr e t ty
,

m e rry
k i nd
I t al i an
an g r y

bro ad
S lo w

i ll
fr agr an t
ai ry

pr e ci ou s
ful l
h e avy
c l e an
rough un c ou th
,

re d
robus t
s in c e re
stud i ous
n a rro w
s t up i d
ol d
soft
li gh t ( w e i gh t )
long
t h ic k
c o l or e d
 GRA MMAR 59

o b e dien t
on t e n t h appy
c ,

j oyou s

He r e j us t as w ith th e four noun form s ( m asc ulin e

, ,

fem inine sin g ular and plural ) c lass ga m e s m ay b e found

, ,

us e ful T h e plural fo r m s m ay b e d e alt out to the c lass

.
,

w hile o n e c hild r e ads aloud t h e S in gu la r s o n e after the ,

oth e r T h e c hild w h o in a giv e n c as e h as t h e proper

.
, , ,

plural r eads hi s c ard in ans w er S i m ilarly for m as c uline

,
.
,

and fem inin e .

LO G I C A L AND GRA M M AT I C A L A G RE E M E N T OF NO UNS AN D

AD J E C T I V E S
( Fo r Itali an Ex c lu siv ely )
Another tabl e e x e r c is e c onsists in arranging t w o groups
of fifty c ards of w hi c h t w enty-fi v e ar e nouns ( c o n s t i tu t
,

ing t e dir c ting group ) w hil e the other t enty fi ve a r e

h e ,
w -

adj ec tiv e s T h e nouns are put in a r o w and t h e c hild

.

looks a m ong t h e adj e c tiv e s ( w hi c h h ave be e n tho r oughly

shuffled ) for thos e w hi c h ar e b e st suited to th e d i ff e r e nt
nouns As h e finds th em h e pl a c e s th em by t h e nouns
.

w ith w hi c h they b e long S o m e ti m e s t h e n ouns and ad

.

j ec t i v e s pla c e d togeth e r c ause a gr e at d e al of m e r r i m e nt by

t h e a m u sing c ontrasts that aris e T h e c hild r e n try to
.

put as m any adj e c tiv e s as possibl e w ith t h e s am e noun

and d evelop in thi s w ay th e m ost int e r e sting c om bina
tions H e r e a re t w o groups w h i c h c om e prepared w ith
.

the m at e ri al :
 60 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL
No me A gge t t i v o A dj ec t i v e No un
c ont adina a ll egra h appy p s nt -girl
ea a
c as a be ll a b e autiful house
z ia br a va goo d a unt
mam ma c ar a d e ar m oth e r
profe ssor e al t o t a ll p rofe ssor
mae str a m agr a thin ( l ean ) t e ach e r
l a vandai a pulit a n e at wa sh er wom an
m arin a io robusto strong s a ilor
c arr e tti e r e abbronzato sunburn t w agon -driv e r
b ambino buono good child
l avagn ett a r e tt angol ar e s qu ar e sl at e
fo glio bi an c o whit e paper ( she e t o f )
pan ch e t t o b asso low b en c h
prism a gross o t hi ck p rism
v aso l argo bro ad v ase
fo gli a ve rde gr e e n l eaf
c ir c olo p e rfe tto p e rfec t c ir c l e
p izzi cagnolo grosso f at but che r
te sta un ta . oily ( dir ty ) h e ad
gomma densa h ard dense ,
rubbe r
fan c iullo stizzito c ross angry ,
c hild
fi gl i o obb e di e nt e ob e di ent son
p i e tra ner a bl ac k roc k s t on e
,

l at t e bi an c o whit e m il k
formaggio t ene ro soft t e nde r
,
ch ee se
carn e fr e sca fre sh m e at
v ino rosso r ed w ine
dis egn o gr azi o so pr ett y dr aw ing
p erla lu c ent e shining p rl
ea

ve tro t r aspar en t e t r ansp ar e nt gl as s

r agazzina i mp e rtin e nt e i mp e rtin ent l ass
asino p azi ent e p ati ent donkey
ga llina gr ass a . f at h en
top o agil e q ui ck ni mbl e
, mo us e
a c qu a li mpida c l e ar w at e r
s apo n e t t a odor o s a p rfume d fr agr ant so ap
e ,

m e di c o br avo go o d doc t or
gi ardini er e bizzarro surly garden e r
cane a rr abbi a to mad dog
mani c o t t o m orbido soft mu ff
gatto a rru ff a to
‘
ruffl e d c at

c olombo vi aggi ato r e tr av e ling ( c arri e r ) p ige on

u om o
‘

bron t olon e grumbli n g m an

r agno p eri coloso d ange rous S pide r

s e rpente v e l enoso p oisonous snake

 G RA MMAR 61

A dj ec t i v e
bitt e r
indulgen t kind
,

stri c t
c ru e l
orde rly

Fo r a c lass ga m e w ith th e se lists t h e nouns m ay be

,

pl a c e d on o n e tabl e and th e adj ec tives on anoth e r Mo v .

”
ing as during th e sil e n c e l e sson ea c h c hild s el e c ts first
,

a noun and th e n an adj ec tiv e When t h e s el ec tions hav e

,
.

all b e e n m ad e the pairs ar e r e ad one after the oth e r am id

,

ge neral enthusiasm .

D E S C RI P T I V E AD J E C T I V E S
C O M MAN D S ( In di vidua l Less o n s )
T h e study of t h e adj e c tive m ay furnish o c c asion for
giving t h e c hild a kno w l e dg e of physi c al p r op e r ties ( of
substan c e s ) so far unkno w n to h im F o r e xa m pl e th e
.
,

t e a c h e r m ay pr e s e nt a pi ec e of transpar e nt gl ass ; a pi e c e
of bla c k glass ( or any opaqu e s c r e e n ) ; a she e t of w hite
pap e r w ith an oil stain T h e c hild w ill se e th at through
.

t h e tr an s par en t glass obj e c ts m ay b e s e en distin c tly ; that

through the oil sta i n only t h e light is visible ; that nothing

at all c an b e s e e n through the o paqu e s c r e e n O r sh e m ay .

tak e a s m all glass funn e l and put into it a pie c e of filter

pap e r then a S ponge th e n a pi ec e of w at e rproof c loth
, ,
.

T h e c hild obs e rv e s that the w at e r pass e s th r ough t h e filt e r

pap e r that the S ponge absorbs w at e r and that the w ater
, ,

c lings to t h e su r fa c e of the w aterproof O r tak e t w o glas s

.

graduators and fill th em w ith w at e r to di ffer e nt heights .

In t h e e as e of t h e g r aduator fill e d t o th e v e ry top the su r ,

fa c e o f the w ater i s c o n v ex ; in the oth e r it is c o n c ave

,
.

T h e c o mm ands a r e print e d on little S lips of p aper w hi ch

62 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL

are fold e d and all h e ld toge ther by an e lasti c band w ith a

s e r ies of bro w n c ar ds c ontaining the adj e c tive s used in th e
c o mm ands Her e i s t h e m at e rial pr e pared
.

F i ll gr adu at or wit h w at e r t o t h e p o i n t of o ve r -fl o w in g
o ne ,

an d ano t h e r no t s o full N o tic e t h e fo rm assu m e d b y t h e sur

.

fa c e o f t he w ate r i n e ac h c as e an d apply t h e prop e r adj ec tive

c o n vex c o n- c av e
, .

T ak e v ar i ou s ob j e c t s su c h as fi lt e r p ap e r c lo t h a sponge
, , ,

an d se e w h e th e r w at e r c an p a ss t hrough t h e m app l y i ng t h e
,

adj e c tive s : p e r m e a b l e i m p er m e a b l e p o r o u s
, , .

T ake a p i e c e of c l e a r gl ass a Sh e e t of bl ac k p ap e r a S h e e t
, ,

of o i l e d p ap e r ; loo k at t h e l i gh t t hrough t h e m apply i ng t he ,

adj e ctive s : tr an s p ar e n t o p aq u e , tr an s l u c e n t
,
.

l e ssons d em onstrating c om pa r ative w eights m ay

O bj ec t
also b e given by putting su c c essively into a glass of w ater ,

oil al c ohol c olor e d w ith aniline a pi e c e of c ork a littl e

, , ,

l e ad en ball ( to be dropp e d ) T hen the c o mm and w ould

.

be :
C o mp ar e t h e w e i gh t s
of w at e r an d of c olore d al c oho l ;
w at e r an d o i l ; w at e r an d c ork ; an d w at e r an d l e a d T h en tell .

w h ic h i s h eavi er an d w h i c h i s li g h t e r t h an t h e o t h e r .

As an answ e r t h e c hild should give a little w ritt e n e x

e r c i se so m ething lik e t h e follo w ing : Wate r i s h eavi er
th an o il e t c ,
T h e c hildr e n a c tually p e r form these little
.

exp e ri m ents l e arning to handl e g r aduators funnels fi l

, , ,

t e rs e tc and to pour the last drops of w at e r v e ry c are

,
.
,

fully so as to obtain t h e c on c ave and c onv e x surfa c es .

T h e y a c qui r e a very deli c ate tou c h in pouring t h e c olored

al c ohol and oil on the w at e r T hus th e y take th e first .

step into th e fi e ld of pra c ti c al s c i e n c e .

T o c on t inu e t h e study of adj e c tiv e s of quality ther e i s a ,

s e ri e s of c o mm ands r e lating to th e c om parative and sup e r

lative An exam pl e of th e c om parative c r e pt into these
.
 G RA MM AR 63

exp e r i m e nts on w e ight . H e r e ar e additional c omm ands

w her e t h e littl e S lip and t h e b r o w n c ards ar e k e pt toge th e r .

T ak e t h e blu e s t ai rs or an y o th e r obj e c t s an d p ut wit h

e ac h obj e c t t h e prop e r adj e c t i v e s fro m t h e follo wi ng l i s t :
th i c k t h i n th i c k es t ( I t al gross i ss i m o ) t h i n n es t ( It al fi n i s
, , .
, .

s im o ) .

T ak e t h e e i gh t t abl e ts of t h e c olor you l i k e b e s t arr ang e ,

th e m ac c ord i ng t o S h ad e s an d appl y t h e prop e r a dj e c t i v e s of

q u al it y fro m t h e follo wi ng : li gh t l ig h t es t dar k dar k es t , , , .

T ak e t h e s e r i e s of ci r c l e s i n t h e pl an e i n s e t s an d p ick ou t ,

t h e ci r c l e s w h ic h c orr e spond t o t h e s e a dj e cti v e s : l ar g e s m a ll , ,

i n te r m e di a t e .

T ak e t h e c loths o r o t h e r obj e ct s ad ap t e d t o t h e s e ad e c j
t iv e s : s mo o th , s m o o th es t, r o u gh , ro u g h es t s o f t s of te s t
, , .

T ak e t h e ub e s of t h e c p i nk t o w e r o r an y o t h e r obj e ct s
ad ap t e d t o t h e s e adj e cti v e s : l a r g e l a r g es t s m al l s m a ll es t
, , , .

G r a d e a n u m b e r of obj e ct s ac c ord i ng t o w e i gh t so as to
fi t t h e s e a dj e cti v e s t o th e m : h e av y h ea vi es t lig h t l i g h te s t , , , .

AD J E C T I V E S OF Q U AN T I TY
C O M MAN D S ( I n d i vid ua l L es s o n s )

J ust as abov e th e
slip i s ti ed w ith the s e rie s of bro w n
,

c ards by an elasti c band T hus a gr o up i s for m e d In

. .

our m at e r i al t h e follo w ing th r e e gr o up s ar e availabl e

— c oun t e rs an d m ak e l itt l e p i l e s w h ic h c orr e spon d
T ak e t h e
i n q u an tity t o t h e s e adj e c t i v e s : o n e t w o thr e e f o u r fiv e s ix , , , , , ,

et c .

— T ak e t h e b e ads an d m ake l itt l e p il e s of th e m t o fit th e se

adj e c tive s : f e w n o n e ma n - , y s ome , , .

— D e ci d e fi rs t of all on so me d e fi n i t e nu m b e r of b e ads t w o
( )
'

an d t h e n m ak e o t h e r l itt l e p i l e s to fi t t h e s e adj e c t i v e s : do u b l e ,

tri p l e q u adr u p l e q u i n t u p l e s e xtu p l e t e n f o ld h a lf e q ua l

, , , , , , .
64 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

O RD IN A L S

( Ind i vid ua l C o mm ands )

— B u i ld t h e blu e s t ai r an d o n e ac h st e p pl ac e t h e prop e r
a dj e cti v e fro m t h e follo wi ng : fi s t s e c o n d th i r d f o u r th fif th
r , , , , ,

s i xt h , s ev en th, e i g h t h , n i n t h, t e n th .

— P l ac e the follo wi ng adj e cti v e s on t h e di ffe r e n t dr aw e rs

of the c ab i n e t,
b e g i nn i ng with t h e t op dr awe r : firs t , s ec ond ,

thi r d , f o u r th fif th
, .

— D i ffe r e n t i ate
b e tw e e n t h e dr aw e rs of t h e c ab i n e t by t h e
follo wi ng adj e cti v e s b e g i nn i ng w ith t h e lo w e s t : firs t s ec o n d
, , ,

th i r d f o u r th fif th
, , .

D E M O N S T RA T I V E AD J E C T I V E S
( C l ass L e s s o n s)

AS o c c asion m ay o ff er th e t e a c her m ay assem ble a group

,

of c hildren and give th em a f e w S i m ple e xplanations o n

”
t h e m eaning of c e rtain w o rds : qu e s to this ( near u s ) ,

“ “ ”
c o tes to , th at ( n e ar you ) ; qu e l l o that ( over there ,

a w ay f r om both of us ) ( N ot e : E nglish la c ks the dem

.

o n s t r at iv e of the sec o nd p e rson ) .

T h e n sh e c an dist r ibut e thes e c omm and s w hi c h r e quir e

c oll e c tiv e a c tions of the c lass

G ath e r in th a t ( c od e s t o ) c orn e r of
roo m n e ar you ; th e
th e n all of you c o me ov e r t o this ( q u e st o ) c orn e r n e ar me ;
‘

t h e n all of you run ov e r t o t h at ( q u e ll o ) c orn e r o ve r t h e re .

C hoos e o n e of your s c hoo l -m at e s an d t e ll h i m t o pu t a

b o x on th i s ( q u e s t o ) t abl e ; a s m all p l at e on th a t ( q u e llo )
t abl e ov e r th e r e .

T e l l o n e of y our c o m p ani on s p o i n ti n g at t h e p l ac e t o p u t
, ,

a gr e e n b e a d i n th i s ( q u e s t o ) v a s e ; a blu e o n e i n th at ( c od e s t o )

v as e ; a w h it e o n e i n th a t ( q u e llo ) v as e ov e r t h e r e .

Arrange the c hildren in groups in th r e e di ff erent pla c e s

in the room an d then give this c omm and
,
 G RA M MAR 65

Le t t h a t( q u e llo ) group ov e r th e r e t ak e t h e p l ac e of th is
( q u e s t o ) group Le t th a t ( c od e s t o ) group br e ak u p t h e c h i l
.
,

dre n go i ng b ac k t o t h e i r t abl e s .

P O S S E S S I V E AD J E C T I V E S
( C las s L e s s o ns )

In like m anner th e tea c her e xpl ains th e m e aning of the

w o r ds m y y o u r h is h e r e tc
, S h e m ay do thi s w ith a
, , , .

si m pl e gestur e Here are th e c o mm ands :

.

-P o i n tou t v ar i ou s obj e cts s ay i ng : T h i s i s m y sl at e ; t h at

i s y o u r sl ate ; t h at ( o ve r t h e r e ) i s h e r sl ate .

P o i n t at t h e d iffe r e n t s e at s s ay i ng : T h at ( ov e r t h e r e )
,

i s h i s pl a c e t h at i s y o u r p l ac e an d th i s i s m y pl ac e
, , .

Pass around t h e l i ttl e b ask e t s s ay i ng : T h i s i s m y b ask e t

,
.

Whos e i s t h at o t h e r b aske t ? IS it y o u r b as k e t ? And th i s o n e ?

Ah t h i s o n e i s h is b ask e t
, .

Le t u s t ak e a t urn around t h e roo m an d t h e n r e t urn t o o u r

s e at s Yo u go t o y o u r s e at an d th ey w i ll go t o t h ei r s e at s
. .

T h e n w e wi l l di v i d e up ou r t h i n gs L e t u s p u t o u r t h i ngs h e r e
.

an d th e i r t h i ngs th e r e We wi ll go t o y o u r s e at s an d y o u go
.

t o t h ei r s e at s Me an w h i l e th e y wi ll g e t up an d t h e n c o m e o ve r
.

h e r e t o t ake o u r pl ac e s .

[ S i gno r a M ont e ssori do e s not di ff e renti at e bet w een the

possess iv e adj e c ti v e and t h e po ssessiv e pr on o u n ; p e r haps
b e c aus e th e r e i s in Italian no c h ara c t e r isti c p r ono m inal
fo r m S tri c tly speaking th e Itali an p r e di c at e form m i o
.

Qu e s to l i b r o e m i o ) i s adj ec tival w hil e t h e form i l ,

mio w ith the d e finit e a r ti c le ) i s pronom inal

Qu es to e i l m i o ) E nglish has how ever, t h e pronom inal

.
,

poss e ssives : m in e y o u rs ( thin e ) h is h ers o u rs y o u r s

, , , , , ,

th eirs us e d also as p r e di c at e adj ec tiv e s

,
T h e abov e e xer .

c ise S hould th e r e fo r e b e rep e at e d l at e r und e r t h e subj e c t

of pronoun s in a slightly di ffe rent form TR ] .

 G RAMMAR 67

Fo r exa m pl e : if the follo w ing s e nten c es are w ritten on

th e c ards :

los e the door !

Lo c k the door !

on th e c orrespondin g c ard s w ill b e found t h e w ords

Lo c k
th e doo r
C l os e
.

An d so th e c hild aft e r he h as c om posed his first s e nten c e

n e eds to c hange only o n e c ard ( l o c k for c l o s e ) for the
s ec ond s e nt e n c e T his brings out t h e for c e of t h e v e r b
.
,

sho w ing that o n e s e nten c e m ay b e c hanged into anoth e r

by indi c ating an e ntir ely diff e rent a c tion T h e c hild pe r .

fo rm s th e a c tion and th e n on his tabl e h e builds t h e s e n

t e n c es w ith t h e c ards In th e seri e s w e h av e pr e pa r e d
.
,

the v e rbs are either synonym s or a ntonym s H e re i s t h e .

m ate r ial
S E RIE S A
C lo se t h e door Fold t h e p ape r
Lo ck the door U nfold t h e p ap e r

T ie akno t O p en t h e book
U nti e a knot S hut t h e book
Sp r e ad y our h e ads S p e akw ord a

c
C oll e t your h e a d s Whisp r a w or de

S E R IE S B
R a is eyour h ands T ou ch t he v e lv e t
L ow e r your h ands F ee l t h e v e lve t
T oss t h eb all Writ e a short w ord
T hrow t h e b a ll Er a es a shor t w or d
S ho w your right h and D ra w a c ir c l e
Hide your right h and F ill a c ir c l e
S E RIE S '
C
Bring a ch air La ce fr am e
a
Dr ag a ch ir
a U nl ac e a fr ame
68 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M AT E RIAL
R a is e your h e ad A rr ange t h e brown c ards
B o w your he ad M ix t h e brown c ards
F ill gl as s
a R oll t h e whi t e h andker chi f e

Emp ty a gl ass w
T ist t h e whit e h andker chi e f
S E R IE S D
Embr your n ea r e st s chool m at e
ac e C ov e r your fa e c
K iss your n ear e st s choolmat e c
U n ov e r your fa ce
G ath e r your pri sm s L ift t h e r e d co unte r
S e p ar a t e your prism s D rop t h e r e d c ount r e

B orro w a bl ack p en c il S m ooth t h e w hit p ap r

e e

L e nd a bl ac k p en c i l C rum pl e t h e whit e p ap e r
S E RI E S E
C l en ch your two h ands R ub t h e t abl e
O p en your t wo h ands S c r at ch t h e tabl e

S pr ea d t h e l arg e c ar p e t P our t h e w at e r
Fo ld t h e l a rge ar c pe t S pill t h e wat e r
B end your l eft arm C o mb your h air
S tr a ight e n your l eft ar m P a rt your h air

P E RM U T AT IO N S
T h e tea c her should have in m ind the gramm ati c al r ules
for th e position o f th e v e rb in t h e senten c e to giv e the ,

c hild a c lear id e a of its norm al lo c ation b e fo r e the dir ec t

obj ec t :

first th e v e rb then th e obj e c t upon w hi c h i t

,
”
a c ts .

Exam pl e
S m oo t h t h e wh it e p ap er .

T he verb should for the first perm utation

, ,
be t r ansfe r r e d
to t h e end

t h e w h i t e p ap e r s m oo th .

O r, if you w ish ,

Arr ange th e bro w n c ar d s .

t h e bro w n c ards arr ang e .

 G RA MM AR 69

When th e v e r b i s tak e n a w ay e ntirely th e a c ti o n vanishes

Li f t
the re d c oun t e r
D rop
.

the re d c oun t e r .

M aking all possibl e p e r m utation s t h e c hild se e s that only

o n e ord e r of w o r ds is c apable of b r inging a m eaning out

of th e c onfusion
R oll t h e w h it e h an dke r c h i e f .

t h e w h it e h andk e r c h i e f roll .

w h it e t h e h a ndk e r c h i e f roll .

w h it e rol l h an d k e r c h i e f t h e .

LE S S O N S AND C O M M A N DS O N T HE VE RB
T he hild r e n t ak e c onsiderabl e delight in our verb l e s
c

sons w hi c h develop through int e rpretations o f a c tions .

We use pa c ks of r e d c ards ti e d w ith an e lasti c ea c h pa c k , ,

c ontaining t e n c ards T h e c hild e xe c ut e s t h e a c tions i n

.

dic at e d on e a c h c a r d o n e aft e r t h e oth e r ,

He m ay aft e r .

w a r d c opy t h e c a r ds an e xe r c is e S p e c ially attra c tive to

v e r y young c hildren .

E xam ples
w alk s i ng j u m p d an c e bo w s i t sl e ep w ak e pr ay s i gh
, , , , , , , , ,
.

w r i t e e r as e w e e p l a ugh h i d e dr aw r e ad sp e ak l i s t e n
, , , , , , , , ,

run .

arr ang e c l e an d u s t s w e e p button l ac e t ie hook gr ee t

, , , , , , , , ,

brush .

— c o m b w as h w i p e e m br ac e ki ss s m i l e y aw n
, , , s c o w l s t ar e, , , , , ,

b r e at h e .

T hese are fairly c o mm on w ord s, repres e nting a c tions

m ore o r less fam ili a r to the pupils But thi s ex e r c ise i s .

only an introdu c tion t o the r e al verb l e ssons F o r these

-
.

t h e tea c h e r s e l ec ts as subj e c t for a l e sson a seri es of

, ,

synonym ous v e r bs T h e ir S hades of m eaning are t au ght

.
70 MO N T E S S O RI E L E ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

to the c hildren by t r anslating th em into a c tion the t e a c h e r ,

e x e c uting t h e a c tion h e rself S h e then distributes around .

the c lass c omm ands m aking u se of the verbs in qu e stion .

T h e r e m ay b e several c opies of a giv e n c omm and if th e

pupils ar e v e ry nu m erous T h e c h ild r e ads by hi m s e lf .

t h e c ard he has r ec e ived exe c uting the a c tion from m em ,

o r y of w hat h e has seen the teac h e r do We have t e st e d .

ex p e ri m e ntally th e Italian m aterial th e verbs in

par e ntheses ) as follow s ,

S ubj e c t
l ay , t hrow t oss hurl ( pos ar e g e ttar e l an c i ar e s c ag li ar e )
, , , , ,
.

C o mm ands
T ake a c oun t e r an d l ay it on t h e fl oor Pick it u p ag ai n .

an d th r o w it on t h e fl oor .

R o l l your h andk e r c h i e f i n t o a b all T o ss it i n t o t h e ai r . .

Pic k it up ag ai n an d h u r l it ag ai ns t t h e w all .

L ay your h andk e r c h i e f c ar e full y v e r y c ar e fully on t h e , ,

fl oor Pic k it up ag ai n an d th r o w it on t h e floor M ak e a

. .

b all of it an d h u r l it a c ross t h e roo m P i c k it up an d t o s s it .

i n t o t h e air .

S ubj e c t
l ie , c rou c h s it r i s e ( so l l e var e
, , , r
alz a e , l e v ar e ) .

C o mm ands :
Go to
sofa an d l i e w it h your f ac e t o t h e w all N o w
the .

r is e go t o y o u r t abl e an d s i t w it h h e a d e r e c t
, .

R i s e fro m your c h ai r an d c r o u c h b e h i nd t h e t abl e as ,

t hough you w e r e pl ay i ng h i d e -an d—s e e k R i s e an d go b ac k t o .

t h e sof a .

S ubj e c t
op e n c los e lo c k unl o c k ( apr i r e sp al an c ar e
, , , , , c h i ud e r e , so c

c h i ud e re s e rr ar e d i ss e rr ar e )
’

.
, ,

C o mm ands
— Go to a w i ndo w an d o p en it a l i t t l e ; w a it a m ome n t an d
 G RA M M AR 71

the n it ag ai n
c lo s e . O p en t h e wi ndo w as w ide as you c an an d

c lo s e it i mm e d i at e ly .

G o t o t he door o s e t h e door
an d o p en it wi d e . T he n cl

g e ntly If t h e k e y i s i n t h e k e y -hol e l o c k t h e door ; bu t b e for e

.

y o u go a w ay u n l o c k it ag ai n so t h at e ve ry t h i ng i s l e ft j ust a s
, ,

y o u found it .

S ubj ec t
bre at h e , i nh al e , ex h al e ( r e sp i r ar e sosp i r ar e
, , i ns p i r ar e , es

p ir ar e ) .

C o mm ands
— Go to t he w i ndo w op e n it , , an d i n h a l e an d e xh al e t h e
fr e sh a i r fi v e t i m e s T h e n aft e r a . m o m e nt i n ha l e on c e an d
hold y our br e ath as long as y o u c an Wh e n y o u c an h old .

your br e ath no long e r e xh a l e as slo w l y a s y o u c an ,

.

T ak e a h an d m i rror an d b r e a th e upon t h e gl ass W h at .

h app e ns ?

S ubj e c t
h ang , t t ac h ( app e n de r e
a , affigg e re , sosp e nd e r e ) .

C omm ands
Han g of y our b e st dr awi ngs on a hook i n t h e room
one .

A ttac h t h e dr awi ng y o u l i k e b e st wi th tw o p i n s t o t h e
w al l n e a r t h e door .

S ubj ec t
c ove r w r ap
, , t i e, undo ( avvolg e r e i n v olge r e s v ol g e r e )
, ,
.

C o mm ands
T ak e book a str i ng an d a l arge p i e c e of c loth L ay
a ,
.

t h e book on y our t abl e an d c o v e r i t wi th t h e c loth .

T ak e t h e c loth an d w r ap it aroun d t h e book so t h at t h e

book c annot b e s e e n .

— T i e a str i ng aroun d t h e c lo t h so t h at t h e book wi ll no t

f all ou t .

Un do t h e bundl e an d r e t urn e ac h obj e ct t o t h e pl ac e

,

w h e r e y o u found it .
72 MO N TE S S O R I E L E ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

S ubj e c t :

t urn i n ve r t r e v olv e w h i rl r eve rs e ( v olge re c apov olge r e

, , , , , ,

rov e s ci ar e )
C o mm ands
T u r n a p i c t ur e t o w ard o n e of your s c hool -m at e s so t h at
h e c an s e e it c l e arl y .

I n v e r t t h e p i c t ur e s o t h at it w i ll b e ups i d e do w n
,
.

R e v ers e t h e p i c t ur e so t h at t h e b ac k only c an b e s e en by
your s c hool m at e .

R e vo l ve t h e s e at of t h e p i an o -s t oo l as r ap i d ly as y o u c an .

S t and w i th your b ac k t o t h e w i ndo w an d t u r n slo w ly on

you r h e e l ti ll y o u f ac e t h e w i ndo w Wh i r l on y our h e e l c o m .

p l e t e l y around ti ll you a g ai n f a c e t h e w i ndow .

S ubj e c t
br e ath e b l o w pu ff p an t ( sbuff ar e
, , , , s o ffi are , a l it ar e ) .

C o mm an ds
— T e arl arg e p i e c e of p ap e r i n t o t i ny b it s on y our t abl e
a .

B l o w s t e ad i ly upon t h e t abl e ti ll t h e p i e c e s of p ap e r are al l on

t h e fl oor .

— Pic k up t h e p i e c e s of p ap e r an d p l a c e t h e m on t h e t abl e .

P u ff t hr e e ti m e s up o n th e m an d s e e i f t h e y al l f all t o t h e
fl oor G at h e r u p t h e p i e c e s an d t hro w t h e m i n t o t h e w as t e
.

b as k e t .

B r eath e sof t ly u pon t h e b ack o f your h and Wh at do you .

B low pon t h e b ac k of your h and Wh at do you fe e l ?

u .

P u ff upon t h e b a c k of y our h and Wh at do you fe el ? .

Pa n t no i s i ly as though you h ad b e e n runn i ng a l ong

w ay .

S ubj e c t
m ur m ur , m u tt e r , w his pe r , S pe ak , gr u mb le ( m or mor ar e ,

sussurr are bron t ol ar e ), .

C o mm ands
As k of y our s c hool -m at e s t o li s t e n c ar e fu ll y t o
one wha t
you s ay ; t h e n m ur m u r a shor t s e n t e n c e as t hough you w ere
sp e ak i ng t o y ours e lf .
 G RA MMAR 73

—
M u t ter the s am e w ords in a loud e r vo ic e an d s e e wh ethe r
he und e rs t ands .

Wh is p er the s am e w ords i n t h e e ar of o n e of tw o c h i ldr e n .

T hen ask the o t h e r w h e th e r h e h as h e ard .

C r u mb l e t h e s am e w ords an d w atc h h o w t h e tw o c h i ldr e n

l ook at you .

— S p e ak th e s am e w ords a lou d an d as d i s ti n c t ly as you c an .

D o the c h i ldre n und e rs t and ?

S ubj e c t
c h rub gr az e ( t o c c ar e t as t ar e p alp ar e S fi o r ar e )
t ou , , , , , .

C o mm ands
—
G o t o your t ab l e an d w it h your e y e s sh u t t o u c h it as
t hough t o r e c o g n i z e it .

— R u b t h e t abl e wit h t h e ti ps of your fi ng e rs b e ar i ng do w n ,

as h a rd as y o u c an Wh at do y o u fe e l ?
.

Gr az e t h e t ab l e wi th t h e t i ps of your fin ge rs t r y i ng not ,

t o t ou c h it .

S ubj e c t
S pr e ad , spr i nkl e ,
c oll e ct s c atte r ( sp arg e r e
, ,
spruzz ar e , as

p e rge re ) .

C o m m ands
— T ak e ful l of b e ads an d s pr e a d t h e m e v e nl y aroun d
a box
t h e c e n t e r of y our t abl e T h e n c o l l e c t th e m i n a p i l e i n t h e
.

c e n t e r of t h e t abl e

T ak e a h andful of t h e b e a ds an d s c a t t e r t he m ov e r t h e
tab l e R e t urn all t h e b e ads t o t h e b o x
. .

— T ak e a gl a ss of w at e r an d s p ri n k l e t w o or t hr e e h andful s

o n a p l ant i n t h e roo m .

S ubj e c t
w alk, s t agge r , m ar c h ( b ar c ol l ar e , don dol ar e , e r i ge rs i ) .

C omm ands :

Walk n at ur ally t o th e en d of the roo m fart h e s t fro m your

-Mar c h b ac k t o your s e at as t hough you w e re k e e p i ng t im e

to m us i c .
 G RA MMAR 75

w it h th e v an i ll a . F l av o r a no t h e r gl ass of wa te r w it h vi n e g ar .

S ubj ec t
d i ssolv e s at ur at e
, , be i n susp e ns i on ( s ci ogl i e r e f ar e ,
la sos
p e ns i on s s atur a re )
, .

C o mm ands
P l ac e a spoonful of sug ar i n a gl ass of w ar m w at e r an d
di s s o l v e t h e sugar by st i rr i ng with a S poon Is t h e w at e r st i ll
.

l r?
c ea

S a tu r a t e t h e w at e r wit h sug ar by c on ti nu i ng to sug ar add

an d s ti rr i n g t i ll y o u c an s ee t h e sug ar at t h e botto m of t h e
gl ass Allo w t h e w at e r t o r e s t a
. m omen t Is t h e w at e r st i ll
.

c l e ar ?

Mix a S poonful of st ar c h i n t h e w at e r T h e w at e r b e .

c o m e s w h it e s i n c e t h e st ar c h do e s no t dis s o lv e b ut r e m ai ns i n
,

s u s p e n s i o n i n t h e w at e r .

S ubj ec t
s t r ai n , fi lte r ( d e c an t ar e fi l t r ar e )
, .

C o mm ands
T ak e t h egl ass c on t ai n i ng t h e w at e r s atur at e d wit h sug ar
an d t h e o n e wi th t h e st ar c h i n susp e ns i on an d a llo w t h e s t ar c h ,

an d sug ar t o s e t tl e for so m e ti m e un ti l t h e w at e r i s c l e ar
,
.

T as t e t h e w at e r i n e ac h gl ass an d t h e n s tr ai n e a c h gl ass of
,

w at e r s e p ar at e ly .

F i l te r t h e w at e r s at ur at e d wit h sug ar an d t h e w at e r wit h

t h e susp e nd e d s t ar c h T h e n t as t e of e a c h
. .

By th e ti m e all th e s e c o mm ands h ave b e e n e x ec ut e d the ,

c hild w ill have d e v e lop e d a k e e n d e si r e to go on b e c o m ing ,

so int e r e st e d in t h e m e aning of v e rbs as not to r e qui r e fu r

th e r c omm ands to sti m ulate his study of th e s e w o r ds .

T h e m ost fr e quent qu e stion n o w i s Ho w m any v e rbs are

”
th e r e in th e lan guage ? A r e there m or e in oth e r lan
guages ? e t c T o satisfy thi s n ew c uriosity of th e c hil
.

dr e n w e h ave di c tion aries of synonym s and antonym s and ,

76 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

w ord-c h arts . Bu t m e anti m e th e y have b e e n building

th e ir o w n di c tionaries O n e by one they begin to o wn
.

c opy books ( r ubri c s ) w ith illu m inated letters of t h e al

h ab e t U nder t h e prop e r l e tt e r t h e c hild c opies h i s

p .

w ords as fast as he lea r ns th e m . We are stil l exp erim ent

ing on th e question of the exa ct a m ount of inform atio n
that m ay su c c e ssfully b e offe red to e l e me ntary s c hool c hil
dren of various ages and stages of d e v e lop m ent w ith the ,

word m aterial required for the notions of natural history,

hysi c s and c he m istry they m a be expe ted to a qui r e
p y c c .

We c an say at this m om e nt S i m ply that ea c h exp e ri m ent

, ,

involves t h e use of a c ertain nu mb e r of n e w w ords ( nouns ,

adj ec tives and verbs ) ,

w hi c h ar e c o p i e d int o t h e w ord
bo o ks ( rub r i cs ) as fast as they oc c u r .
 P RE P O S I T I O N S

ANA LY S E S
Her e also th e first exe rc is e i s t o c om pose senten c e s
analyzed w ith th e c olored c ards T his gramm a r box has .

fi v e c om pa rt m ents e a c h w ith a s m all titl e c ard of t h e

,

c olor c orresponding to the di ffe r e nt parts of S p ee c h r ed ,

for the v e rb bla c k for t h e noun b r o w n f o r t h e adj e c tiv e ,

, ,

tan fo r the arti c l e and vi o l e t fo r t h e pr ep o si ti o n In t h e .

c o m part m ent at t h e r e ar of t h e box ar e S ix c ards w ith

printed s e nten c es Th e c olor e d c ards do not c o r r e spond

.

exa c tly t o t h e nu m b e r of w ords us e d in the s e nt e n c e s b e

c aus e t h e w ords of o n e s e nt e n c e w hi c h ar e r e p e at e d in

the n e xt ar e not dupli c ated in th e c ard s In this c ase it .

is th e c hange i n p r e position only w hi c h alt e rs t h e me an

ing of t h e senten c e H e re ar e t h e s e r i e s of s e nten c e s
.
,

som e of w hi c h t h e t e a c h e r m ay h ave us e d alr e ady in pre

vio n s lessons ( c o mm ands ) .

A
S E R IE S

( P re pos iti ons of S p a c e r e l ati o ns )

T ake t h e bo x w i th t h e c olor e d b e ads ( c on s e nz a i ns i em e
.
, ,

con ) .

T ak e t h e bo x w i th o u t t h e c olor e d b e ads .

T ak e t h e b o x to g e th er w i t h t h e c olor e d b e a ds .

— P l ac e th e pr i s m u n de r th e c yl i nd e r .
( so tt o a, s o p r a a) .

Pl ac e th e pr i s m upo n the c y l i nde r.

77
 GR AMM AR 79

poss e ss ive i n fl ec ti on w ith -s : th e drawi n g o f Ge o rg e = Ge o r g e s

’

dr aw i n g . In I t al i an t h e y ar e e xpr e ss e d by t h e pr e pos iti ons

”
di p er da e t c : s to ff a di c o to n e c o tt o n c lo t h
“
, , , .
p i a tti n o di ,

v e tr o gl ass s au c e r F o r S i gn or a M o n t e ssor i s s i m pl e e xe r
“ ” ’
.

ci s e w e sugg e s t for E ngl i sh t h e follo wi ng d e fi n iti o n s

C o tt on c lo t h i s c lo t h o f c o tt on .

Wooll e n c lo t h i s c lo t h o f w ool .

S i lk c lo th i s c lo t h o f s i lk .

The i ron t r i angl e i s a t r i angl e o f i ron .

The w ood e n tr i angl e i s a t r i angl e o f w ood ’

.

T he gl ass s au c e r i s a s au c e r o f gl ass .

T he c h i n a s au c e r i s a s au c e r o f c h i n a
/
.

A sho e -brush i s a brush f o r sho e s .

A c loth e s -brush i s a brush f o r c loth e s .

G e orges h at i s t h e h at o f G e org e ; G e org e s h at b e longs to

’ ’

G e org e .

M ary s h at i s t h e h at o f M ar y ; M ary s h at b e longs t o M ary

’ ’
.

A dr i n ki ng -c u p i s a c up f o r dr i n k i ng .

A c opy -boo k i s a book f o r c op y i ng .

S ER I E S D

( D i r ec ti on an d sour c e of m ot i on )

T urn fr o m the r i gh t t o t h e l e ft ( da da)

’

. . . a, a . .

T urn f r o m the l e ft t o t h e r i ght .

D r aw l i n e f r o m t h e bo t to m of t h e p ap e r t o t h e to p
a .

D r aw a l i n e f r o m t h e t op of t h e p ap e r t o t h e botto m .

G o f r o m y our s e at to t h e c ab i n e t .

G O f r o m t h e c ab i n e t t o y our s e at .

C h ang e t h e p e n f r o m y our r i gh t h and t o y our l e ft h and .

C h ang e t h e p e n f r o m your l e ft h and to your r i ght h and .

 G RA MMAR

S tr e t c h s t r i ng fro m t h e door t o t h e wi ndo w

a .

F ro m t h e door t o t h e wi ndo w s t r e tc h a str i ng .

S t r e tc h fro m t h e door a s t r i ng t o t h e wi ndo w .

F ro m t h e door to t h e wi ndo w a s t r i ng str e tc h .

F ro m t h e door s t r e tc h t o t h e wi ndo w a str i ng .

But th e c hild w ill r e c ogniz e that th e right s e nt e n c e i s

th e si m pl e st and t h e c l e arest

S t re t c h a s t r i ng fro m the door t o the wi ndo w .

O n th e oth e r hand if w e s e parat e th e pr e position f r om

its obj e c t o r inv e rt th e i r norm al p o sition t h e m e aning is ,

e nti r e ly l o st

S t r e tc h s t r i ng t h e door fro m t h e wi ndo w t o

a .

S t r e tc h a str i ng fro m t h e door wi ndo w t o t h e .

S tr i ng fro m t h e str e tc h door t o t h e a wi ndo w .

And lik e w ise w ith thes e oth e r s e nt en c es

R un fro m t h e w ash -s t an d t o t h e t abl e .

R u n w a sh -s t a n d t abl e ( defin i ti o n o f m o ti o n l a c ki n g ) .

R u n w ash -s t an d fro m t h e t abl e t o t h e .

F ro m t h e run w ash -s t an d t o t h e t abl e .

W a sh -s t and fro m t h e t o t h e ru n t abl e .

LE S S O N S AN D P RE P O S IT IO N S
C O M M AN DS ON

T h e tea c her m ay also tak e groups of c hildr e n and giv e

them short l e ssons on th e p r e position to e xplain t h e me an
ing s el ec ting if possibl e t w o or thr e e synonym s or anto
,

nym s e a c h ti m e T h e l e ssons S hould al w ays b e pra c ti c al

.

and full of a c tion T h e c hild S hould c om e to understand

.

i n thi s c as e th e r e lationship e stablish e d by th is or that

pre position b e t w e e n t h e obj e c t ( noun ) and t h e a c tion
( v e rb ) to b e p e rfor m e d As S oon as this has been m ad e
.

c l e ar by th e tea c her the c o mm ands are distribut e d to t h e

c hildr e n w h o put the m into exe c ution Her e i s the ma .

t e r i al that w e use
82 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

S ubj e c t
Of ( di ) .

C omm and
— Go an d g et a boxful o f c oun t e rs . Go an d ge t a gl ass
w at e r . B r i ng m e a p i e c e o f c loth .

S ubj ec t
n e ar ( t o ) n e xt ( t o ) b e s i d e
, , ,
f ar a w ay fro m ( v ici no , ac c os t o ,

lon t ano ) .

C o mm and
of y o u bo y s s t and i n t h e m i ddl e of t h e roo m N o w y o u
One .

o t h e rs go an d st an d n e ar h i m O n e of y o u st an d n ext t o h i m .

on t h e r i gh t a no t h e r b es ide h im on t h e l e ft No w all go f ar
,
.

a w ay f r o m h im .

S ubj e c t
i n i n t o i n s i d e o u t of ( i n de n t ro fuor i )
, , , , , .

C o mm and
R i s e fro m you r c h ai rs an d go i n to t h e n e xt roo m S t ay i n .

t h at roo m a m o m e n t an d t h e n c o me b ac k i n to t h i s o n e G o b ac k .

o n ti p -t o e an d lo ck y ours e lv e s i n s i de t h e n e xt roo m C o me o u t .

o f t h e n e xt roo m i n t o t h i s o n e .

S ubj e c t
On t h i s s i de of on t h at s i d e of b eyon d ( d i
, , l a da , di q u a da,
ol t r e ) .

C omm and
— your p l a c e s an d form a ci r cl e o n th at s i de o f t h e
L e av e
door ; form a ci r c l e th e n o n th is s i de o f t h e door All of y o u go .

an d s t an d so m e w h e r e b ey o n d t h e door .

S ubj e c t
xc e p t s ave ( t r ann e e c c e tt o )
e , , .

C omm and
Al l t h e c h i ldr e n exc ep t G e org e , an d M ary ,
w alk on ti p -t o e
a roun d t h e room .

— All t h e c h il dr e n , s av e G e org e an d M ary , wa k l on ti p -t o e

a ro u nd t h e roo m .
 G RA MMAR 83

S u b j ec t
s i d e by s i d e wit h oppos it e , , in fron t of , long ( d i
a fi an c o ,
fro n te a v an t i )
,
.

C o mm and
F or m a l i n e s i de b y s i de w i th e ac h o t h e r .

F or m a l i n e a l o ng t h e w a ll o p p o s i t e t h e door .

F or m tw o l i n e s i n f r o n t o f t h e p i ano .

S ubj e c t
b e for e b e h i n d ( d i r i m p e tt o d i e t ro )
, , .

C omm an d
T wo of y o u c o m e a n d st an d b ef o r e m e .

T he r e s t of y o u go an d st an d b e h i n d m e .

S ubj e c t
on , a bou t , a long ( s u s e c on do lungo )
, , .

C o mm and
E ac h of y o u pl ac e o n e c o un t e r o n t h e t abl e . No w rr ang e
a

th e s am e c ount e rs al o n g t h e f ar e dge of t h e t abl e . No w s c att e r

the s am e c oun t e rs a b o u t t h e c e n t e r of t h e t abl e .

S ubj e c t
b e twe e n , am ong ( f ra i n ,
m e zzo a ) .

C o mm and
One of y o u go an d s t a nd b e tw e e n t h e door an d t h e p i ano .

P l a c e t e n w h i t e c ount e rs on t h e t abl e N o w g o an d s c att e r .

t wo or t hre e r e d c oun t e rs a m o n g t h e w h i t e on e s .

S ubj ec t
fro m t o , , as f ar as ( da , a, fino a ) .

C omm and :
— R i se
w alk f r o m your pl a c e s t o t h e p i ano ; w ait a
an d mo
me n t an d t h e n c on ti nu e as f a r as t h e door of t h e n e xt roo m .

S ubj e c t
a round , a bou t ( att orn o i n t orno ) , .

C omm and — 7

Walk i n c oupl e s , ar m in ar m , ar o u n d th e roo m twic e ; w h e n

 A D V E RB S

AN A L Y S E S
Again th e ex e r c ise c onsists of s e nten c es analyz e d by
m eans of c olo r e d c a r ds and c omm ands T h e g r a mm ar
.

box c ontains six c o m pa r tm e nts having lik e t h e oth e r s th e

, ,

na m es of t h e diffe r e nt pa r ts of S p e e c h on titl e c a r ds of
prop e r c olor T h e c a r d fo r t h e adv e r b i s pink In t h e
. .

r e ar c om partm ent are six sl ips fo r ea c h e x e r c i se and in ,

t h e s ec tions the usual num b e r of c orresponding c olored

c ards for the ne c essary w ords .

G ROU P A
( Adv e rbs of M an n e r )
Wal k s l o w ly t o t h e wi ndo w .

Walk r ap i dl y t o t h e wi ndo w .

R ise s i l en t ly fro m y ou r s e at .

R i se n o i s i ly fro m you r s e at .

S p e ak o f t ly i n t o th e
s e ar of your n e ar e s t c o m r ade .

S p e ak l o u dly i n t o t h e e ar of y our n e ar e s t c o m r ad e .

T ake fi v e s t e p s t o w ard t h e door ; t urn ab r up t ly to th e l e ft .

T ake fi v e s t e ps t o w ard t h e door ; t urn g radu ally t o the l e ft .

T ake your n e ar e s t c o m r ad e li g h t ly b y t h e arm .

T ak e y ou r n e ar e s t c o m r ad e r o u gh ly by t h e arm .

L ook s in to t h e m i rror
mi li n g l y .

L oo k s c o w li n g l y i n t o t h e m i rror .

85
86 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL
RO U P B
G

( Adve rb s of p l a c e an d ti me )
P l ac e your p e n ci l th e r e .

P l ac e y our p e n c i l h er e .

Lay your book s o m e w h er e o n th e t abl e .

L ay your b oo k e ls ew h er e on t h e t abl e .

Walk t o t h e w i n do w c o n s tan tly c l app i ng your h an ds .

Wal k t o t h e w i ndo w o c cas i o n ally c l app i ng yo u r h an ds .

D r i nk t h e w at e r i n t he gl ass n o w .

D r i nk t h e w at e r i n t h e gl ass b y a nd b y .

C arry t h e p i n k t o w e r u p s tai rs .

C arry t h e p i nk t o w e r do w n s tai rs .

Wr it e a w ord on t h e bl ac kbo ard i m m e diate ly .

Wr it e a w ord on t h e bl ac kbo ard s o o n .

G ROU P 0

( Adve rb s of q u an tit y c o mp ar i son ) ,

Wal k along t h e h al l s w i ng i n g y our arm s s o m ewh at .

Wal k along t h e h all sw i ng i ng your ar m s a g r eat de al .

B e nd y our h e a d a li t t l e .

B e n d y our h e ad m u c h .

Walk s lo w ly t o th e wi ndo w .

Wal k l ess s l o w ly t o t h e wi n do w .

Walk m o r e s l o w ly t o t h e wi ndo w .

Pl ac e on th e t abl e your m o s t b e aut i fu l dr awi n g .

P l ac e on th e t abl e y our b e au ti ful dr awi ng .

M ak e a bro ad m ark on t h e bl ac kbo ard .

Mak e a v ery b ro a d m ar k on t h e bl ac kbo ard .

G ROU P D

( Adve rbs of c o mp ar i son , c orr e l ative ad e v rb s )

Lo ok for a p i e c e of c lo t h soft e r th an ve lv e t .

L ook for a p i e c e of c loth as sof t as v el v e t .

 G RA MMAR 87

F i nd ong your c olors a sh ad e as b l ac k as t h e b l ac kbo ard

am .

F i nd a p i e c e of c lo th n o t s o sh i n y as s ati n .

F i n d am ong t h e pl an e i ns e t s a r e c t angl e as bro ad as h alf

t h e s q u ar e .

B r i ng a rod longe r t h an yo u r c opy -boo k .

B r i ng a rod as long as you r c opy -book .

B r i ng a rod n o t s o lon g as y our c op y -boo k .

F i n d a p i e c e of c lo t h l ess rough than t h e c anvas .

P E RM UT A T IO N S
Th e s e nten c e s t o b e analyz e d are reprodu c ed as usual
by building th e fi r st s e nt e n c e on e a c h Sl ip ; and then by ,

c hanging t h e adv e r b th e c hil d ge ts t h e s ec ond or third

,

s e nt e n c e O n e of t h e first perm utations i s to r em ove the

.

adve r b from tho s e senten c es w here it perform s the func

tion of an adj e c ti ve to th e ve r b thereby c ausing one a c tion
,

to b e c hange d into another F o r exam p le t ake the t w o

.

s e nt e n c e s :
Walk S lo w l y t o t h e w i ndo w .

Walk r ap i dl y t o t h e w i ndo w .

T aking a w ay th e adv e rb we h av e
Walk t o the w i ndo w .

T he h ild c an perform the a c tion w hi c h n o w i s a S im

c

pl e one T h
. e adverb ho w e ve r c h ange s
,
m o d i fie s t h,
e ao , ,

tion If the t e a ch e r in play puts t h e t w o adv e rbs t o

.

gether in the sam e s e nt e n c e t h e c hild has th e problem of

int e rpreting t w o c ont r ary m ovem e nts T hat is h e is to .
,

go to the w indo w s l o w ly and r apid ly at the sa m e ti m e .

T aking a w ay t h e adverb c ards the s e nten c e l e ft i s Go t o

th e w ind o w T hi s a c tion the c hild c an p e rform
. But .

h o w S hall h e per form it in w h at w ay ? W ith t h e help

,

of adv e rbs ! S i m ilarly in th e follo w ing sent e n c es

 G RA MMAR 89

quit e for e ign to norm al Italian usage We r etain t h e .

t e xt entire ) .

In t h e senten c es an alyz e d by th e c hild it is su ffi c i e nt

to rec all that th e adve r b m odifies the verb and follow s t h e
verb it m odifies T ake the sent e n c e
.

Be n d your h e ad a littl e as you wr it e .

If th e adverb i s pla c ed after the se c ond verb the m eaning

c hanges

B e n d y our h e ad as you wr it e a littl e .

T he sam e is tru e in the follo w in g

Walk along t h e h all s wi ng i ng you r ar m s so m e w h at .

Walk so m e w h at al ong t h e h all s w i ng i ng y our ar m s .

G e neral shifting of position w ould give r e sults as fol

low s :
B e nd a l itt l e y our h e ad as you w r it e .

A l itt l e b e nd y our h e a d as you w r i t e e t c e t c ,

.
, .

S o m e w h at w alk a long t h e h al l s wi ng i ng y ou r ar m s .

Walk along so m e w h at th e h all s wi ng i ng you r arm s , etc .

, etc .

T he c hild is qui c k to rec ognize by ear the a c c urat e t h e ,

no r m al position of the adverb .

O n t h e other hand adv e rbs of qu antity and c o m pa r ison

,

p r ec e d e the adj ec tive

M ak e a v e ry bro ad m ark on t h e bl ac kbo ard .

P l ac e on your t abl e t h e p r i sm t h at i s l e as t t h i c k .

P e rm utation giv e s the follow ing results

M ak e a bro a d ve ry m ark on t h e b l ac kbo ard .

P l ac e on your t abl e t h e pr i s m w h ic h t h ic k l e as t i s , etc .

, etc .

Adv e r bs of ti m e and pla c e oft e n ring lik e tru m pet c alls

to attention at the beginning of the s e nt e n c e
90 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T AR Y M AT E R I AL
D r i nk t h e w at e r i n t h e gl as s n o w .

No w dr i nk th e w at e r i n t h e gl ass .

( N ote : In E nglish the adv e rb of ti m e pla c ed at th e ,

e n d of t h e s e nten c e gains uite as m u h e m phasis S for

q c
, o .

adverbs of pla c e ) .

L E S S O N S A ND CO M M A NDS ON AD V E R B S
S ubj e c t
s t r ai gh t z i z -z ag ( d i r itt o
, , a z i g -z ag ) .

C omm and
— R un s tr ai g h t i nto th e o t h e r roo m ; r e t urn to your pl ac e
w alk i ng z ig -z ag .

S ubj ec t
l i gh t ly h e avi ly s e d at e ly ( l e gg e n n e n t e
, , , gr a vement e , p e san te
m e n te ) .

C o m m and
— Wal k i n t o th e o th e r roo m ; r e t urn t o y our p lac e
li g h tly
w a lk i ng s e da te l y as t hough y o u w e r e a ve r y i m por t an t p e rson ;
w alk ac ross t h e roo m an d b ac k ag ai n r e s ti ng h e avi ly o n e ac h
s t e p as t hough it w e r e hu r ti ng you t o w alk .

S ubj e c t
su dde n ly gr adu ally ( ad u n t r att o
, , g r ada t ame n te ) .

C omm and
— F orm i n l i n e an d w alk fo rw ar d b e g i nn i ng s u dden ly t o
s t am p w it h y our l e f t foo t Re t urn t o your pl ac e s l e tti n g t h e
.

s t am p i ng gradu ally c e as e .

S ubj e c t
m e an w h i l e, fr e q u e n tl y , o c c as i on ally ( s em pr e , s p e ss o , r ara
m e n te ) .

C omm and
F or m i n li n e sl o w ly i n t o t h e n e xt room s t o p
an d m ar c h ,

p i ng f r e q u e n t ly R e t urn t o your pl ac e s s t opp i ng o c c as i o n ally

. .

Wa lk i n t o t h e n e xt roo m an d b ac k agai n mean whi l e kee p ,

i ng you r e ye s c los e d .
 G RA MM AR 91

S ubj e c t
b ac k for w ard t o
, , an d fro ( avan ti i nd i e t ro , , su e gi u ) .

C o mm and
— li n e
F or m i n an d w alk f o rw ar d t o t h e oth e r s i d e of t h e
roo m ; t h e n c o me b ac k t o your pl ac e s .

-Wal k to a n d r o a c ross t h e roo m i th your h e ads l ow e r e d

f w
an d your h ands b e h i n d y our b ac k .

S ubj ec t
for w ards b ackw ar ds
, .

C omm and
S t an d in i ddl e of
roo m ; t h e n w alk b ac kw a r ds t o
the m the
t h e wi ndo w b e i ng c ar e ful to w alk i n a str ai gh t l i n e
, R e turn t o .

y our pl ac e s w alk i ng f o r w ar ds .

S ubj e c t
slo w ly , a bruptly ( l e n t am e n t e brus c am e n t e ) , .

C o mm and
R i se fro m you r s e at s
s l o w ly .

R i s e a b r u p tly fro m your s e at s .

S ubj ec t
pol i t e l y c ord i ally ( g e n ti lm e n t e g arb at am e n t e )
, , .

C o mm and
O ff e r y o ur c h ai r p o li t e l y t o your n e ar e s t n e i ghbor .

S h ake h ands c o r di a lly wit h your n e ar e st n e i ghbor .

S ubj e c t
a l t e rn ate l y i n su c c e ss i on s i m ul t an e ousl y ( su cc e ss iv ame n t e
, , ,

alt e rn at i v am e n t e s i m ul t an e am e n t e )
,
.

C o mm and
R ai s e your tw o h ands al t er n a te ly abov e y our h e ads .

R ai s e your tw o h an ds s i mu l tan e o u s ly abov e y our h e ads .

O n e of y o u c h i ldre n w alk aroun d t h e roo m bo wi ng t o e ac h

pup i l i n s u c c ess i o n .

S ubj e c t
We ll b adl y fai rly b e s t w ors t ( b e n e m al e m e gl i o
, , , , , , , p e gg io ,

c osi c os i b e n i no m al u cci o b e n i ss i m o m a l i ss i m o )
, , , , .
 G RA MM AR 93

S ubj ec t
c ross w i s e , l e ng t h w i s e .

C o mm and
Lay t w o rods c r o s sw is e on the t abl e . T h e n l ay th em l e n g th
w is e On t he t abl e .

S ubj ec t
sh arply sul l e nly ge n tl y k i nd ly
, , , .

C o mm and
S har p l y ord e r your n e ar e s t n e i ghbor t o r i s e fro m
Ask h i m g e n t ly t o s i t do w n ag ai n .

S i t s u l le n l y i n your c h ai r wit h y our e y e s lo w e r e d .

S mi l e ki n dl y at your n e ar e s t n e i ghbor .

A BURS T OF A C T IV I TY
T HE FU T U R E OF T HE WRI T T E N L A N G U A G E I N
P O P U L AR E D U C A T I O N

In our o wn private experi m e nts w hen w e rea c hed the

adverb the r e o cc u rred a m ong th e c hildr e n a v e ritabl e ex ‘

plosion into a a n ew kind of a c tivity T hey insisted on .

m aking up c om m ands th e m s e lv e s T hey inv e nted th e m .

and then r e ad them aloud t o th e i r c o m panions or had

th e i r c om panions int e rpret the slips w hi c h they had w rit
te n . All w e re m ost e nthusi asti c in perform ing th e se
c o mm ands and they w er e rigorously s c rupulous in a c ting

them out do w n to th e m inutest d e tail T h e exe c utions .

c a m e to be a lit e ral int e nsely r e al d ram atization : if a

,

w ord w as inexa c t o r in c o r re c t t h e interpretation of the ,

c o mm and thre w the error into noisy reli e f and the c hild ,

w h o had w ritten it s aw befor e h im an a c tion quit e di ffer

e n t fro m w h at he h ad in m ind T h e n h e realiz e d that
.

he had e xpr e ssed h is thought w r ongly o r inad e quat e ly and

i mm edi at e ly set to w o r k to c o r r e c t his m istak e T h e rev e .

lation seem ed to redoubl e his energy He w ould hunt .

94 MO N T E S S O R I E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L

a m ong h i s nu m e rous w ords for t h e o n e ne c e ssary to tran s

lat e his i dc a into a living s c e ne b e for e his eyes S u p .

pose a c hild had w ritt e n th e follo w ing s e ntenc e involving

the use of the adverb s e mpre al w ays
Walk abou t the roo m ( s e mpre ) a l w ay s on ti p -t o e .

m eaning that the hild should al l th e w hi l e go on tip

c

toe ; if the c hild began to w alk on tip toe and c ontinu e d

-

to do so for a long ti m e trying to expre ss s empr e ( al

,

w ays —
for e ver ) he w ould find hi m s e lf fa c ing a serious
p r oblem H e n c e the spontaneous query : What must I
.

”
do to express m yself c orrec tly ?
A littl e girl on c e w rot e Walk a round the t ables
“
,

m eaning that t h e c hildren should form a l ine and w alk

i n and out around e a c h tabl e Instead Sh e saw her c o m
.

panions form a line and w alk round th e entire group of

tables Red in the fa c e and out of breath sh e kept c all
.

’ ”
ing : S top stop T hat i sn t the w ay j ust as if this
,
.
,

differen c e bet w een the thought sh e a c tually had in m ind

and the w ay it w as being e x e c uted w er e hurting her i n
tolerably .

T hi s i s only a passing suggestion of so m ething w hi c h ,

I think w ill m e rit m u c h further dev e lop m ent later on

, ,

after m ore thorough exp e ri m ent It w ill su ffic e h o w

.
,

ever to bring to t h e tea c her a notion of a m ost fert ile

,

fi e ld for th e develop m ent O f t h e w ritt e n lan guage in its

m ost rigorous purity It is evident that the e xperi m e nt
.

sho w s the possibility not only of having S pontaneous c o m

positions w ithout gra mm ati c al errors ( j ust as th e m e c han
i c al w riting w as spontaneous and w ithout errors ) but of ,

dev e loping a lov e for c l e arness and purity of spee c h w hi c h

w ill b e a potent fa c tor in i m proving t h e lit e rary appre
c i at i o n of t h e m asses and popular c ulture ge nerall y
,
.
 G RA MM AR 95

When th e hildren ar e seized w ith this p assion for ac

c

c urat e expr e ssion o f th e ir thoughts i n w r iting w h e n ,

spontaneously c l e arness b ec o m e s the goal of their e ffo r ts

, ,

th e y follo w th e hunt for w ords w ith the kee nest e n th u si

asm . T h e y fe e l t h a t th e re are n e v e r too m any w ords to
build w ith e xa c tn e ss the deli c at e e difi c e of thought .

Problem s of lan gu age c o m e to the m a s a r e v e lation .

Ho w m any w o r ds ar e th e r e ? th e y ask
”
Ho w m any
.

nouns h o w m any v e r bs h o w m any adj e c tives ? I s th e r e

, ,

any w ay fo r us to l e a rn the m all ? T h e y are no longe r

c ont e nt w ith their littl e c opy books of w ords
—
T hey ask
.

for a w ealth of w ord m at e rial w hi c h they n o w enj oy w ith

all the d elight of attra c tive and orderly interpr e tation .

T hey n e ver ge t tired of it .

T hes e dev e lop m ents i n ou r w o r k suggest e d to u s the

idea of giving the c h ildren a large vo c abul ary c om pri s
ing a su ffi c ient nu m b e r of nouns verbs and adj e c tive s and
, ,

c ontaining al l the w ords of the oth e r p a rts of spee c h .

T h e di ff e r e n c e in bulk bet w e e n t h e r e al c ontent of lan

guage ( substan c e and m odifi c ation that i s nouns w ith, ,

th e i r adj e c tives and verbs w ith th e i r adv e rbs ) and th e

,

oth e r w ords w hi c h serv e to e stablish r e lations and c onsoli

d ate this c ontent i s so m e thing v e ry i m pr e ssiv e to c hil
,

d r e n O f eight It i s for the m that w e t r i e d to p r epar e

.

our w ord c h arts and t h e di c tionari e s Of synonym s fo r

nouns verbs and adj e c tiv e s Her e m e an w hil e are som e
, ,
.
, ,

of t h e c o mm and s w hi c h t h e c hildr e n w r ot e them s elv e s

things w hi c h th ey i m provis e d all of a sudd e n by an e x ,

plosion of en e rgy as it w er e d e velop e d as th e r e sult of

, ,

inn e r m aturity C o m pa r e th e aridity and uniform ity of

.

the c omm ands w e inv e nt e d ou r s e lv e s w ith th e vari e ty and

ri c hn e ss of id e as app e aring in t h e c hild r en s c o mm ands !
’

We v e r y evid ently Show th e w e arin e ss the pr e p aration

 G RA MM AR 97

sp ac e ; th er e for m a c i r c l e ; n ext a rh o m bu s ; t h en a
s q u ar e ; fin a l ly a t r ap e z i u m
. G O i n t o t h e b i g h all c on
ve rs i ng s o f tly ; s u dden ly f al l t o t h e fl oor l i g h t ly an d go
t o sl e e p ; t h e n w ak e up an d look a round s ay i ng
, , Wh e r e
”
are w e ? T h e n go b ac k t o your s e ats.
 P R ONO U N S

A N A LY S E S
Materi al :
T h e box h as s e ven c o m part m ent s m arked
w ith the c olored t itle slips ; tan for the arti c le , bla c k for
the noun b r o w n f o r the adj ec tiv e re d for th e verb vio
, , ,

l e t for t h e p r e position , pink for the adverb and gr e e n for ,

the pr o n o u n In the rear spa c e are th e slips for t h e sen

.

t e n c es to b e analyz e d T here ar e a s usual f e w er c ards

.
, ,

tha n w ords T h e exer c is e is to substitute t h e p ronoun s

.

for noun s .

G RO U P A

( Personal Pronouns )
G e org e s s i s t e r w as w e e p i ng G e org e soo t h e d h i s s i s t e r w it h
’
.

a k i ss .

G e orge s s i st e r w as w e e p i ng
’
He sooth e d h er w it h a k i ss
. .

The book fe ll to t h e fl oor . E mm a r e pl a c e d th e book on

t h e t abl e .

T h e book fe ll t o t h e fl oor . S he r ep l a c e d it on the t abl e .

T he c h i ldr e n g av e t h e i r m o th e r a surpr i s e . T he c h il dr e n
w rot e a l e t te r to t h e i r m o t h e r .

Th e c h i ldr e n g ave t h e i r m o t h e r a surpr i s e . T h e y w ro t e

h er a l e tt e r .

The t e ac h e r s ai d : T h e dr aw i ng i s b e au ti ful ! Will you

g i v e t h e dr awi ng t o t h e t e ac h e r ?
T h e t e ac h e r s ai d : I t i s b e au ti fu l ! Wi ll y o u g i v e i t t o me ?
98
 G RA MM AR 99

C h arl e s h as gon e i n t o the o t h e r roo m . C an you find

C h arl e s ?
C h arl e s h as gon e i n t o the o t h e r roo m . C an y o u fi n d hi m ?

G RO U P B

“
( D e m onstratives ( questo c otesto quello ),
this that , , ,

these thos e this one that o n e )

, , ,

( As already noted for t h e adj ec tiv e E nglish la c ks the

dem onstrative O f t h e s e c ond p e r son : that n e ar y o u ) .

S ho w ac h i ld t h e pr i s m s of t h e bro w n st ai r ; this pr i s m i s
t h ic k e r t h an th at pr i s m ; th a t pr i s m i s t h i nn e r t h an th es e
pr i s m s .

S ho w a c h i l d t h e pr i s m s of t h e bro w n s t ai r ; th i s i s t h ic ke r
t h an th a t; that i s t h i nn e r t h an th es e .

Le t us l oo k at t h e c h i ldr e n : t h is c h i l d i s t all e r th an t h at
c h i ld ; th at c h i ld i s shor t e r t h an thi s c h i ld .

Le t us l ook at t h e c h i ldr e n : th is o n e i s t all e r t h an th a t o ne;

th a t o n e i s shor t e r t h an th i s o n e .

H e r e i s a c on e on t op of a c y l i nd e r : t ry t o p u t t h e c y l i nd e r
on t op of t h e c on e .

H e r e i s a c on e o n t op O f a c yl i n de r : t ry t o p ut this o n t op
of th at .

Le t u s sho w t h e c ub e s of t h e p i n k t o w e r t o a l itt l e g i rl
this c ub e i s t h e l arg e s t ; th o s e c ub e s ar e t h e s m all e s t of
th e s er ie s .

Le t us sho w t h e c ub e s of t h e p i nk t o w e r t o a litt l e g i rl
t h i s o n e i s t h e l arg e s t ; t h o s e ar e t h e s m al l e s t of t h e s e r i e s .

G RO U P 0

( Relativ e s and Interrogatives : ( c h e i 1 qu ale c u i c h i ? , , ,

ual w h w ho m w hos e w hi c h that w h o ? w h o se ?

q e o , , , , ,

w ho m ? w hat ? w hi c h ? w h e r e w h e n ? ) ,

Note Th e situ ti o n w ith t h e r e l ativ e s is diff e r nt in E nglish

: a e

who r efe rs to p e rsons ; w h i c h to things ; t h a t to e ith e r p ersons or

t hings ; wh e r ea s c h e an d i l qu a l e ar e int er ch angeabl e r efe rring to both
 G RA MM AR 1 01

S e l e ct an i ns e t fro m t h e i ns e t s us e d for dr aw i ng .

S elec t an i ns e t fro m th o s e w hi ch ar e us e d for dr awi ng .

S e lec t an i ns e t fro m th o s e th at are us e d for dr awi ng .

GR O UP D

Poss e ssives : m in e yours his h e rs ours yours th e irs )

( , , , , , ,

T hi s book is m y book — T hat hous e i s our house

T his book i s min e T h a t hous e i s o u r s

T his book i s your book - T his mon e y is your mon e y

T his book is y o u r s T his mon ey is y o u r s

T hos e p en c ils ar e h is p en c ils — T hos e s e ats ar e th e ir s e ats

T hos e p en c ils ar e his T hos e s eats ar e t h ei r s

T hos e p en c ils ar e h er pe n c ils — T his pl a c e i s its p l ac e

T hos e p e n c ils a re h er s T his p l a c e is its

P ERM U T A T I O NS

T he fun c tion of t h e pronoun a s a substitute for a noun

has b e en m ade c l e ar in the analysis of t h e above s e nt e n c e s .

Aft e r t h e c hild r en th e m s e lv e s hav e c o m posed the first se n

t e n c e w ith th e c olor e d c ards th e y for m th e se c ond se n
ten c e by t aking a w ay t h e no un c ard and substituting t h e
c or r e sponding pronoun In t h e w o r k don e by the tea c h e r
.

to giv e the c hild an idea of the no r m al position of t h e

pronoun , let h e r re m e m b e r that in Italian personal pro
nouns pre c ede t h e v e r b e x c e pt in int e rrogation ( w her e
t h e subj e c t m ay follo w ) and in c as e s w h e r e the subj e c t
i s spe c ially e m phasiz e d and w h e r e th e pronouns appear
as a suffi x ( infinitive parti c ipl e and i m perative )
,
.

He soo t h e d h e r wit h a k i ss .

He h e r soo t h e d wit h a k i ss , etc .

, etc .

[ It w ill be c om e appar e nt that in E ngl ish the personal

pronoun takes th e position of the nou n w h e r e as for Ital ,

i an the pronoun shifts to a p osition in front of t h e verb .

1 02 MONT E S S O R I E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L
C onsiderabl e variety dev e lops in English w h e n the noun
is repla c ed by a re l ativ e pronoun Ho w e v e r the di ff e rent .
,

probl em s arising in c onn ec tion w ith pronouns generally

ar e so c om pl e x th at w e r e turn to thi s subj e c t e sp ec ially ,

to the qu e stion of subj e c t an d Obj e c t form s in dealing ,

w ith s e nt e n c e -analysi s later ] .

L E S S O NS AND CO M M A NDS ON T HE P R O N OU N

S ubj e c t
S ubj e c tive Pe r s on al P ronoun s : I, you , h e, sh e , we, you t h e y
,

( io , t u, e gl i e ss a n o i v o i l or o
, , , , ,

E xplain thes e pronouns as brie fl y and pra c ti c ally a s

possible from t h e point of view of speaker and list e ner ,

et c . one c hild c om m anding t h e oth e rs w hil e they exec u te

,

the c omm and along w ith h im E xa m ple : T h e t e a c her, .

nam e d for instan c e An na F edel i e xplains in this w ay ,

“ ’
I don t say An na F ede l i ; I s ay I T o C arlino h e re
”
I don t say C arlino ; I say yo u O f G i gi no over there ,
’
.
, ,

I don t say G igino ; I sa y h e etc etc

’ ”
. .
, ,

C o mm and
T h e c o mm and i s g iv en b y a c hil d ; b u t h e h i m s el f e xe c u t e s t h e
fi r s t p e rso n al for m al ong w ith t h e o t h e r c h i ldr e n
1 w a l k aroun d t h e t abl e I r a is e m y ar m s
Y o u w a lk around t h e t abl e Yo u r a is y our ar ms e

S h e w a lks around t h e t abl e S h e r a is s h e r ar m s e

He wa lks around t h e t abl e He r a is s his ar m s e

W w al k around t h e t abl e
e W e r a is e our arm s
Y o u w alk around t h e t abl e Y o u r a is e y our r m s a

T h y w a l k around t h e t abl e
e Th y r a is th e ir ar m s e e

— I lift t h e ch a ir I t ak e t h e ink -st an d

Yo u l ift t h e c h a ir Y o u t ak e t h e ink -st and
He lifts t h e ch a ir , et c .
, et c .
— He t ak e s t h e i n k -st and , et c .
,

e tc .

—1 w av e my h andker chi ef
Y o u w av e your h andk e r chi e f ,

et c .
, et c .
 G RA MM AR 1 03

F ro m thes e e xerc is e s the notion gradually develo p s

that
the fir s t p e rs o n is the one who s p e a ks ;

the s ec o n d p er s o n i s t h e o n e w ho lis t en s ;
the th i r d p e rs o n i s t h e o n e spok e n of .

O ther c om m ands m ay be d r a m atized by sm all groups as

follo w s
T h e fi rs t p e rson m u s t pu t a q u e s ti on t h e s e c on d m us t an
s we r , an d t he t h i rd fro m a d i s t an c e m us t t ry to h e ar bo t h O f
t h em .

Le t t h e fi rs t w r it e t h e s e c on d
one , one wa tc h , an d th e t h i rd
”
T h at i s no t r i gh t
“
o n e s ay .

T he follo w ing c omm ands m ay b e read aloud by the

c hild
I you a q u e s ti on ve ry softl y Yo u ans w e r m e ; an d h e
ask .
,

ov e r t h e r e m us t t ry t o h e ar bo t h O f us
,
.

I sh al l w r it e ; y o u m ust ac t as i f y o u w e r e t ry i n g t o r e ad
w h at I am w r iti ng ; an d t h e n h e ove r t h e r e wi ll c all ou t : T h at
, ,

”
i s no t r i gh t .

S ubj e c t
D i r e ct O bj ec ti v e
Pe rson al P ronoun s : m e you h im h e r u s , , , , ,

you t h e m ( m i ti S i 1 0 l a ci v i S i 1 i 1 e )
, , , , , , , , , , .

R e fle xi v e s an d r e c i pro c al s : mys e lf yours e lf e t c e a c h o t h e r , , .

,
.

C omm and
( He re t oo o n e c h i ld c o m m an ds exe c ut i ng t h e fi rs t p e rson al
for m s w h i l e t h e oth e rs ac t ou t t h e s e c ond an d t h i rd )
,

— I t ou c h t h e o i l -c lo t h on t h e t abl e I t ou c h m s e l
; y f ; I t ou c h
y o u ; yo u t ou c h y o u rs e lf ; I t ou c h h i m ; you t ou c h h er ; l e t us
t ou c h ea c h o th e r ; y o u t ou c h m e .

C h ar l e s t ak e t h e w h i sk -broo m an d brush t h e t ab l e ; C h arl e s

, ,

brush m e ; C h arl e s brush hi m; C h arl e s b rush h er ; C h arl e s

, , ,

brush y o u rs e lf .

M ary an d I bow to th e t e ac h e r ; n ow we b o w to you ; no w

w e b o w t o hi m; now we b ow to h er ; now we bow to e ac h o th er .

 G RA MM AR 1 05

— Po i n t t o tw o c h i ldr e n o n e st and i ng n e ar you an d o n e f ar

,

aw ay ; t h e n c o m m a nd : t h a t o n e ( c o l u i ) go a n d f e t c h an ar m

c h ai r for th a t o n e ( f e m c o s tei ) an d a c h a i r for th i s o n e

.

(q u e s t o ) t h e n h av e h i m r e t urn t o h i s pl a c e T h e n h av e all t h e
.

c h i ldr e n exec u t e t h e c o mm ands w h i c h th o s e ( c o s to r o ) w i ll no w

g ive .

In c ase th e c lass is m ade up either entirely of gi r l s or

e nti r ely of boys the c hild r e n find c onsid e r able a m us e m e nt
,

in trying t o i m itat e t h e m ann e rs of w hi c hev e r opposit e

se x i s m issing .

S ubj e c t
D e m ons t r ati v e s of t h i ngs ( q u e s t o c o t e s t o q u e llo c i o n e ;
, , , ,

h e re also E ngl i sh h as no pronoun of t h e s e c ond p e rson ( th a t

nor do e s it poss e ss t h e g e n e r a l i nd e fi n it e c i o ( r e fe r
‘

n ear y o u ) ,

r i ng t o a g e n e r al i d e a : t h a t ( c io) is tr u e ) .

Wh e n t h e m e an i n g of t h e s e w ords i n t e rm s of s p ac e l o c ati on
, ,

h as b e e n t augh t t h e c h il dr e n e xe c u t e as fo ll o w s
,

C o m m ands :

— Yo u c h i ldre n d ivi d e i n t o t hr e e g roups ; t h e n go an d o cc up y

t hr e e d iff e r e n t pl a c e s ; c h an ge pl ac e s as follo w s : y o u l e av e t h a t
( c o tes to ) an d o cc up y t h a t ov e r t h e r e ; t h e o t h e rs l e ave th a t
( q u e l lo ) an d o c c u p y th is ( q u es to ) .

S ubj e c t
Poss e ss i v e s : m i n e yo u rs ( t h i n e ) hi s h e rs it s ours yours
, , , , , , ,

t h e i rs .

C o mm ands
— P o i n t ou t v ar i ou s obj e c t s s ay i ng : T h i s i s m
, y s l at e ; t h at
o n e i s y o u r s t h at i s h er s an d th i s o n e i s h is
, , .

-P o i n t at t h e d i ffe r e n t s e ats s a i ng : H e r e ar e our pl a c e s

y , ,

t h at i s mi n e an d th i s i s y o u rs T hos e ov e r t h e r e are th ei rs
. .

— P a s s ar ound l itt l e b aske t s s ay i ng : T h i s i s my b aske t .

,

Whos e i s t h at ? Is t h at y o u rs ? Is t h i s h ers ? Are t h e s e o u rs ?

Is t h is o n e hi s ?
We dealt w ith th e rel at ives only in c identally in the
analy s e s ( Gr ou p C above ) ; w e do not treat them he r e ,
1 06 MO N T E S S O RI E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I AL

postponing th e study of th em in detail to the c hapter on

sent e n c e-an alysis .

PA R AD Y M S

In t e a c hing th e de c lension of the pronouns w e use the

m ethod e m ploy e d by us in t e a c hing all in fl e c tions : bundles
of c ards of w hi c h o n e group i s tied separately and s e rves
,

as a guid e T h e c hild arranges the c ards on the t abl e,

.

w o r king first on t h e gu iding group and putting the pr o

nouns in order of persons : first se c ond third

, ,
.

G R OU P A

( Personal Pronouns )
Mas c u li n e
io n oi
tu vo i
e gl i l oro
e ss o e ss i

lo li
lui
g li

G RO U P B

( D e m onstratives of Person )
Mas c u li n e
th i s t h e se q ue s ti
t h at t hos e c os t u i
th i s o n e the se c olu i

t h at o n e thos e c os t oro

c ol o r o
 G RA MM AR 1 07

G RO U P C
( D em onstratives of T hings )
Mas c u li n e F e mi n i n e
th i s th e se q u e sto q ues ti q ue sta q u e s te
t h at t hos e c o t e s t o c o t e s ti c o t e s t a c o t e s te
th i s o n e the se q u e l ( lo ) q u e gli q u e i q u e ll a
, q u e ll e
t h at o n e t hos e c io c io

ne ne

GR OUP D

( R e latives )
P er s o n s P e rs o n s an d T h i n gs
M as c u li n e F e mi n i n e
wh o i l q u al e i q u ali l a q u al e l e q u al i
w hos e che ch e

w ho m chi ch i
t h at cui cui

T hi n g s

w h ic h c h i ( c o mpoun d 2
“
h e wh o
t h at
wha t ( co m po un d
G R OU P E
( Possessives )

G R OU P F
( Interro g atives )
P ers o n s
chi
 G RA MM AR 1 09

G RO UP C
i0 s ento I h e ar io s entivo ( I “
w as i0 s entir o I
h e a ring h e ar ) ”

tu s entivi tu s entir a i
e gli s e ntiv a e gli s e ntir a

n o i s e ntiv am o noi s entir em o

voi s entiv at e voi se ntir e t e
e ssi s e ntiv ano es si s e n t i r anno

FO R E N G LI S H
G RO UP A

( S i m pl e T e ns e s )

I lov e d I sh all love

you lov e d you w ill lov e
h e lov e d h e w ill lov e
w e love d w e sh all lov e
you lov e d you w ill lov e
th ey love d they w ill love
G RO UP B

( Progr e ssiv e F orm s )

I am loving I w as loving I sh all b e loving
you a r e loving y o u w e r e loving you w ill b e loving
h e is loving h e w a s loving h e w ill b e loving
w e ar e loving w e w e r e loving w e sh a l l b e loving
you ar e loving you w e r e loving y o u w ill b e lovi n g
t hey ar e lovi ng th ey w e r e loving th ey w ill b e loving

G RO U P C

( Int e rrogative F orm s )

do I love ? did I lov e ? w ill Ilov e ?
do you lov e ? d id y o u lov e ? sh all y o u love ?
do e s h e lov e ? did h e lov e ? w ill h e lov e ?
do w e love ? did w e lov e ? w ill w e lov e ?
do you lov e ? did you lov e ? sh all you lov e ?
do th ey lov e ? did th e y lov e ? w ill they lov e ?
G RO U P D

( Int e nsive and N e gativ e F or m s )

[ do ( not ) lov e , I did ( not ) love I sh all ( not ) love
e tc . etc . et c .
110 MO N T E S S O RI E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L

T he hild c an shuffle h is c ards in various w ays m i x ing

c ,

t h e verb fo rm s of the thre e diff erent Italian verbs or the ,

four tense form s of the English verb ; passing th e n to a

r e c onstru c tion of the di ffe rent tenses a c c ording to the pro
nouns the order o f w hi c h has b y this ti m e be c om e fam iliar
,

to h im .

T h e next step i s to c onj ugate properl y .

CO N J U G A T I ON S OF V ER B S

M A T ER IA L
In our m aterial w e offe r ( f o r Italian ) the c onjugation
“ ” “
of th e t w o auxiliary v e r bs ( ess er e to b e av er e to ,

h ave and the m od e l v e rbs of the first sec ond and third ,

c onj ugations T h e c olors u s e d for the five verbs are all

.

“ ”
di ffe rent yello w for ess e r e to be, bla c k for aver e to
,
” “ ”
have pink for am ar e to love green for tem e r e to
, ,
” “ ”
fe ar light blue for s en ti r e to hear
,
E a c h c ard has
both pronoun and v e rb form T his i s not only to si m plify
.

and e x p edite the exer c ise but also t o m ake sure of auto
e x er c ise sin c e the pronoun guides t h e order of the form s
,

in ea c h tense T hese verb form s of a given verb pre

.

c e d e d by the prono uns ar e, a c c ordingly m ad e into a little ,

pa c kage H e re how ever the group s are not S O si m pl e

.
, ,

as in other c ases F o r the verb t h e c ards are kept in a

.
,

sort of red env e lope tied w ith a ribbon T h e infinitive .

of the ve r b i s w ritt e n on the outside of the e nv e lop e ,

w hi c h though very si m ple i s m ost attra c tiv e

, ,
When t h e .

w hol e v e rb is w rapp e d in its p a c k age and ti e d w ith t h e

ribbon it form s a sm all red prism of th e follo w ing dim e n

,

sions : c mm 3 5 X 4 X . O n untying the ribbon and

op e ning th e envelope the c hild finds insid e ten littl e vol
”
u m es w ith red c overs T hese volu m es repr e s e nt th e
.
 G RA M M AR 1 11

m o o dsof the v e r b and th ey have th e follo w ing titles

sc ribed on the first page
Ind ic ativ e M ood
C ond i t i on al Mood ( for It ali an )
S ubj un c t i v e M ood
I m p e r ative Moo d
V e rb als
To fa c ilitate r e pla c ing thes e m aterials in an orderly w ay
and to be sur e that this ord e r is re c ogn ized t h e c hild finds ,

in t h e c orner of ea c h env elope a Rom an nu m e r al ( I II , ,

III I V V ) ; and besides th at an Arabi c nu m eral indi

, , ,

c ating the nu m b e r of t e nses in the giv e n m ood O n O pen .

ing t h e littl e volu m e and taking o ff t h e c over w e find

m any oth e r tiny volu m e s w ith red c ove r s T h e se are t h e .

tenses In t h e m iddl e of e a c h c ov e r i s w ritten th e na m e

.

and to one S id e t h e nu m b e r indi c ating t h e relative posi

, ,

tion of th e tens e s in t h e follo w ing m ann e r : the si mpl e tens e

i s m ark e d w ith th e l e tt e r S and th e c o mp o u n d tens e w ith
the l e tter 0 T h e titl e s th e n of the eight bookl ets c o n
.
, ,

t ain e d in the little volu m e fo r a given m ood ar e

P r e s e n t T e ns e 1 s
P as t T e ns e 2 3
F u t ur e T e ns e 3 s
Pe rfe ct T e ns e l c
P lup e rfe ct T e n s e 20
F u t ur e Pe rf e c t T e ns e 30

( F o r Itali an the tens e s are : Pres e nt 1 s I m pe r fe c t 2 8 , , ,

R e m ote P ast 3 5 F uture 4 s Perfec t l o Pluperf e c t 2 c

, , , ,

Past Ant e rior 3c F uture P e rfec t 4 c )

, .

F inally on op e ning ea c h of th e s e little booklets ( w hi c h

, ,

by the w ay are , X 4 c mm and only a ba r e m illi m e t e r

.

thi c k ) w e have the c a r ds w ith th e verb form s pre c e d e d b y

the c orresponding pronoun .
 C O NJUN C T IO N S

A N A LY S E S
M ateri al : box has e ight c om part m ents for the
T his
titl e c a r ds w hi c h ar e tan ( arti c l e ) bla c k ( noun ) brow n
, , ,

( adj e c tiv e ) red

( v
,
e rb ) Viol e t ( pr e position
, ) pink ( ad ,

v e rb gre e n ( pronoun ) and y e ll o w ( c o n j u n c ti o n )

, ,
It .

also ha s t h e usual pla c e for the s e nt e n c es that are to be

analyzed T h e se again ar e giv e n in groups
. .

G R OU P A

C oordinate C onj un c tions

( C opulativ e ,
D isj un c tive , Illative Adversative )
,

P u t aw ay t h e p e n an d t h e i n k-s t an d .

P u t aw ay t h e p e n o r t h e i nk -st and .

P u t aw ay n ei th er t h e p e n n o r t h e i nk -s t and , b u t t h e p ap e r .

T he t abl e t h e r e for e i s b ar e an d i n ord e r

, , .

Fo r al l you r t h i ngs ar e i n t h e i r pl a c e s .

Do no t l e av e t h e obj e ct s y o u u se h e r e an d t h e r e abo u t th e
roo m b u t pu t th e m al l b a c k i n t h e i r pl ac e s
,
.

- S p e ak to y our n e a r e s t s c hool -m at e not a loud bu t in a

wh i sp e r .

— M ov e your t abl e for w ard a l itt l e , bu t only a l itt l e an d

w it hou t m ak i ng an y no i s e .
1 14 MON T E S S O R I E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L
G R OU P B

S ubordinat e C onj un c tions

( T i m e, c ond i tion
ause purpose ) ,
c ,

Y o u c an pu sh do w n a k e y of t h e p i ano w it hou t m ak i ng an y

sound i f you push it do w n slo w l y .

You c ould w r it e wit h y our l e ft h an d i f you t ou c h e d ”

the
l e tte rs w it h t h at h and .

You wi ll g e t s il e n c e fro m t h e c h il dr e n as s oo n as you wr it e

“
s i l e n c e on t h e bl ac kbo ard .

T h at c h il d is h appy : he a l w ay s s i ng s w hi l e h e w orks .

Al w ay s s hu t the door w h e n yo u go from one room t o

a no t h e r .

E ve rybo dy m us t b e ord e rly i n C h il dr e n s

’
o r der t ha t t h e
”
Hous e m ay l oo k n ea t .

G R OU P 0

S ubordinat e c onj un c tions ,

c o n ti n u e d

( C ause c onc ession alternativ e )

, ,

Th e C h i ldr e n s Hous e i s att r acti v e b e c au s e it i s pr e tt y

’

an d b e c aus e it i s so e asy t o k e e p busy all t h e ti m e .

I sh all g i v e it t o you sin c e you h ave ask e d me for it v e ry

pol ite l y .

We sh all go t o w al k in th e p ark r at h e r th an in t h e c ro w de d
s treets .

I S h all g i v e y o u t h at t o y al th o u g h I shoul d h av e pr e fe rr e d
t o l e t you h av e a b e au ti ful book .

— Y o u m ay pro m i s e t o go an d vi s it h im t o -m orro w p r o v i ded

you ke e p your pro m i se .
 G RA MM AR 115

P ERM U T A T I ON S

T h e r em oval of th e c onj un c tio n d e stroys th e r e lationship

b e t w e e n the w o r ds and this b r ings o u t its fun c tion i n the
,

s e nt e n c e
P ut aw ay the pe n an d t he i nk st and
-
.

P ut aw ay t h e pe n t h e i nk -s t and .

P u t aw ay the pen or th e i nk -s t and .

P u t aw ay th e p en t he i nk s t an d
—
.

Yo u oul d w r it e wi th y our l e ft h an d i f y o u t ou c h e d
c

l e tt e rs wi th t h at h an d .

Y o u c ould w r it e wi th y our l e f t h an d y o u t ou c h e d t h e
t e rs w it h t h at h and .

The onj un c tion

c m ust b e pla c e d b e t w e e n t h e w o r ds i t
c onn e c ts : oth e r w i s e th e m e aning i s c hang e d o r d e st r oy e d

P u t aw ay t h e p e n an d t h e i nk st and -
.

P u t an d aw ay t h e p e n t h e i nk st and — .

C h i ldr e n s Hou s e i s at t r ac t i v e b e c aus e i t i s pr e tty

“ ’
The .

C h i ldr e n s Ho u s e i s at t r a c t i v e i t i s pr e t ty
“ ’
T he .

L E SS O N S .
AND C O MM A N D S ON T II E C ON J U N C T I ON S
S ubj e c t
C oord i n at e c onj un c t i ons : a n d, or n e i th e r nor ( e o
, , , , )
ne .

C o mm ands
C ome t o s i l e n c e w h e r e y o u ar e an d m ov e onl y at m y c all .

C o m e to s i l e n c e w h e r e y o u ar e o r e ls e m ov e s i l e ntl y
am ong t h e c h ai rs .

Walk on t i p -t o e abo u t t h e roo m b e i ng c ar e ful n ei th er t o ,

m e e t n o r t o follo w o n e ano t h e r .

S ubj e c t
D e c l ar ati v e : t h at ( c h e ) .

C o m m and
T e ll t w o of your s c hool m at e s t h at you kn o w a c onj un cti on .
1 16 MO N T E S S O RI E L E M E NT ARY M AT E R I A L

S u bj ec t
Adv e rs ati v e s : bu t ho w e ve r i ns te ad ( ma i n vec e )
, , , .

C o m m and
F or m t w o l i n e s ; no w o n e l i n e fac e ab ou t t u rn i n g fro m l e f t
t o r i gh t ; t h e o t h e r l i n e i n s t ead t urn i n t h e oppos ite d i r e cti on
, ,
.

-F o rm i n o n e long l i n e an d adv an c e w h e n you r e ach t h e

;
e n d of t h e roo m do no t s t op b u t t urn t o t h e l e f t
, , .

S ubj e c t
C ond iti on i f ( se )
C omm and
Yo u wi ll bl e t o h e ar t h i s drop of
be a wa te r f all i f you
, re

m ai n for a m o me n t i n absolu t e s i l e n c e .

S ubj ec t
T i me : wh i le , whe n, as soon as ( men tre , q u an do, a ppen a) .

C o mm and
A f e w of you w alk bou t
ong t h e t ab l e s ; t h e n st op i n t h e
a am

c e n t e r of t h e roo m w hi l e t h e o t h e rs g at h e r round y o u an d t ry t o
,

c ov e r your e y e s with t h e i r h ands .

— O n e of you s t ar t t o l e av e t h e roo m Wh en you ar e ab ou t .

t o c ross t h e t hr e sho l d th e o t h e rs w i ll blo c k t h e w ay c om p ell i n g

,

you t o s t op .

— All of you r e ady ! As s o o n as I s a “

G o ! ru n t o t h e
y
o t h e r e n d of t h e roo m .

S ubj e c t
P urpos e : so t h at i n or de r th at ( afli n c h e p e r ché)
, , .

C omm and
O n e of y o u st an d in t h e m i dd l e of t h e roo m ; t h e o th e r s t ry
t o p ass n e ar h im q u i c kl y so th at h e c anno t t ou c h y o u .

I am go i ng t o w h i sp e r a c o m m and : l i s t e n i n p e rfec t s i l e n c e
i n o rder that you m ay h e ar w h at I c o mm and .

S ubj e c t
Alte r n ative : r ath e r t h an ( p iu t t o st o c h e anz i c h e) , .
 G RA MMAR 117

C omm and
T hos e ch i ldr e n w ho w ould r a th e r w or k th an go ou t of door s
r i s e fro m t h e i r p l ac e s .

S ubj e c t
C aus e : bec a us e sinc e ( p e r c h e po i c h e)
, , .

C o mm and
B e for e b e g i nn i ng t o w ork l e t us b e c o m e e n ti r ely qu iet ,

b e c aus e t h en w e c an th i nk abou t w h at w e are go i ng t o do .

S ubj e c t
E x c e p ti on : e xc e p t s ave ( fuor c h e
, ,
s al v o c h e) .

C omm and
G e t th e c oun t e rs an d p l ac e o n e on e v e ry t abl e i n t h e roo m
e x c ep t on th i s o n e G at h e r up al l t h e c ount e rs s av e t h e re d
.

on e s . R e t u r n al l t h e c oun t e rs t o t h e i r bo x .

C O M P A R I S O N O E A D J E G T IV E S
S E R IE S A
Of the s e t w o l ong ro ds t h i s o n e i s t h e l o n g er
, .

Of t h e s e t hr ee rods w h ic h i s t h e l o n g es t ?
,

T his i s l o n g er t h an th at
ro d .

T h at rod i s t h e l o n g es t of t h e t hr e e .

Wh ic h i s t h e lo n g es t of t h e s e r i e s ?
T h is lo t h i s
c sm oo th er t h an t h at .

T h i s c l ot h i s s m o o th es t of all .

O f t he se tw o sh ad e s o f re d w h ic h i s t h e dark e r ?
Of al l t h e s e sh ad e s of re d w h ic h i s t h e dark e s t ?
Of t h e s e t w o pr i s m s w h ic h i s t h e th i c k er ?
T h i s pr i s m i s t h i c k e r t h an th at .

O f t h e s e t hr e e p r i s m s w h ic h i s thi c kes t ?
,

Wh ich O f t h e s e t w o c h i ldr e n i s t h e tal l e r ?

Wh i c h i s t h e tall es t c h i ld i n t h e roo m ?
 G RA MM AR 1 19

shor t d a rk rough
shor t er d ark rough er
shor t es t d a rk rough e s t
b e a ut i ful i n t e r e st i n g
m o r e b e a ut i ful m o r e i n t e r e st i ng
m o s t b e aut i ful m o s t i n t e r e s ti ng

A s e c ond e x e r c is e c ontains c ards for e a c h of th e form s

for th e s e sa m e w o r ds T h e r e ar e thr e e c olors : b r o w n
.
,

li ght b r o w n and da r k b r o w n ( sup e r lativ e ) T h e r e ar e in

.

addition S i m ila r c a r d s fo r t h e adj e c tiv e s of ir r e gul ar c o m

parisons and th r e e titl e c a r ds : P o s i ti ve C o mpar ati v e
, , ,

S u p e r l a t i ve T h e e x e r c is e r e sults as follo w s :
.

P o s i ti v e C o m p ar a ti v e S u p er la t i ve
long long e r l ong e s t
t all t all e r t all e s t
th ick th ic k e r th ic k e s t
s m oo th s m ooth e r s m ooth e s t
short S hort e r shor t e s t
d ark d ark e r d ark e s t
l i gh t l i ght e r l i ght e s t
ro u gh rou g h e r ro u gh e st
b e aut i fu l m or e b e au ti ful m os t b e aut i fu l
a m us i ng m or e am u s i n g m os t am us i ng
i nt e r e s ti ng m or e i n t e r e s ti ng m ost i n t e re s ti ng
ol d e l de r e ld e s t

m an y m or e m ost
good b e tt e r be s t
b ad w ors e w ors t
l i ttl e l e ss l e as t
 IN T E RJ E C T I ON S

S inc e thi s is the last part of spee c h t o be studied t he

c hild r e n ar e n o w abl e to r ec o gniz e a l l the diffe r e nt parts

of sp e ec h and it i s n o longe r nec essary to m ake sentenc es

c ontaini ng only part s of spee c h w hi c h t h e c hildren kno w .

T herefor e in our Ital i an lessons w e c hoos e h e n c eforth

senten c es from th e c lassi c authors ( m ostly from M anzoni ) .

S inc e th e interj e c tion i s really a thought expressed in an

abbreviat e d fo rm it lend s its e lf readily to d r am ati c inter
pr e t at i o n
. With th e sam e senten c e the c hildre n a cc ord
i n gly c an n o w perform the t w o -fold e x er c ise of general an
”
alysis and interpre tativ e r e ading T h e y n o w r ec it e
.

senten c es w hi c h th e y hav e pi c ked out and studied instead

of the c omm ands At this ti m e also they ar e giv e n a c hart
.

c ontaining the c om pl e t e c las sific ation Of interj ec tions .

T h e c hild r en read them int e r pr e ting e a c h as th e y go along

,

by voi c e and gestu r e T his is the first tabl e of c l assifi c a

.

tion to b e present e d L at e r on all the p arts of sp e e c h w ill

.

b e given on c harts w ith their d e finitions and c lassifi c ation .

AN A L Y S E S
Material : T h e gramm ar box i s c om plete It n o w has .

nine separate c om pa r tm e nts for the c olored c ards art i c l e ,

( tan ) noun ( bla c k ) adj ec tiv e ( brow n ) verb ( r e d) prep

, , , ,

o s it io n ( viol e t ) adv e rb ( pink ) pronoun ( gr e e n ) c o n

, , ,

j un c tion ( y ello w ) and i n te rj e c ti o n ( blu e )

, In th e c o m
.

1 20
 G RA MM AR 1 21

par t m en tfor the sent e n c e slips ar e groups of c ards w hi c h

c orr e spond e x a c tly to t h e num b e r of t h e w ords c onta in e d

in the senten c es .

G RO UP A

( Pe r am or del c e i lo !o ib O!add i o !eh m !m i s e r i c ord i a !ah !)

P l e as e ! D on t
’
m ak e so m u ch
no i s e !
S h am e o n y o u !e xc l ai m e d H e nr y m u c h sho c k e d at t hos e
,
w ords .

G o o d-b y ! We sh all s e e y o u t o -m orro w .

L oo k o u t ! If y o u drop th at v as e y o u wi ll br e ak i t,
.

M e r c y o n u s ! Wh at i s t h e m at t e r wi th t h e poor m an ?
Ah a !no w I und e rs t and !

G RO UP B

(Eh v ia !br avo !b e n e !e h i !poh !p e r c ar i t a!oh !)

C o me , co m e ! DO you th i nk I m
a go i ng t o b e l i e v e al l t h at non
s e ns e ?
G o o dn es s ! I hop e t h e c h i ld i s no t go i ng t o f all .

T h an ks ! It w as k i nd of y o u t o h e lp m e put m y obj e ct s aw ay .

C o c ka do o dl e do o ! s ang t h e roost e r i n t h e y ard !

D i n g -do n g di n g -do n g ! T h e e ng i n e s w e r e p ass i ng by
,
T h e re .

w as a fi re !
C h e er up ! T he re i s no h arm don e !

G RO U P C

( O h é !i h !t oh !pov e r e tt o !ah i !oh i !e h !an i m o !uh !t on !)

F ar e w e ll ! T h e sh i p gr adu all y dr e w aw ay fro m t h e shor e ! T h e
hous e s fa d e d fro m vi e w o n e b y o n e T h e h i lls form e d a .

l o w l i n e on t h e hor i zon F ar e w e l l ! It w ou l d b e m onths

.
,

y e ars p e rh aps b e for e G e org e w ould s e e t h e old f am i l i ar

,

t o w n ag ai n F ar e w e ll !
.

He lp ! He lp ! c am e a vo ic e t hrough t h e fog ! A m an w as
dro wn i ng .

Hus h ! D o yo u h e ar t h at b i rd s i ng i ng i n t h e d i s t an c e ?
A l as ! I t w as t oo l at e ! Wh e n t h e do ct or c am e th e poor m an ,

w as d ead !
 G RA MM AR 1 23

Hes i ta ti o n : h u m !
R e s o l u ti o n : b y J ov e !
S i len c e :h u sh !h i st !l i s t e n !S h h !
T o a n i ma l s : w ho a !g e e !h aw !g e ddap !k i tt y —k i t t y !puss -p uss !
O n o m a t ap o e ti c : d i ng -dong ! b ang ! w h i z ! b i ng ! c r a c k ! sn ap !

etc .
, etc .

( In gen e ral th e u se of int e rj e c tions e spe c ially o f c a

,

p r i c i o u s c ha r a c t e r i s m u
,
c h m o r e c hara c te r isti c of t h e b e st

Italian w r iting and sp ee c h than it i s of E n glish ) .

 S E N T E N C E A N A L YS I S

S I M P LE S E N T E N C E S
Th e m ateri alfor logi c al analysi s c onsists of little rolls
of fairly sti ff paper on w hi c h are printed si m ple c o m
, ,

pound an d c om plex senten c e s in c arefully prepared seri e s

,
.

T he re is also a c hart divided into t w o c olu m ns of r e c

,

t an gul ar spa c es w ith the nam e of one s e nten c e elem ent

,

print e d in ea c h spa c e T h e s enten c e read on the roll c an

.

be torn o ff part by part and ea c h of th e se parts i s pl a c ed

,

in one of the r e c tangles a c c ording to the nam e printed on

,

it T his i s anoth e r appli c ation of t h e c om part m ent bo x

.

m ethod used t o an alyz e first the al phabet th e n the sounds ,

w hi c h go t o m ake up the w ord finally the w ords as p art s,

of speec h H ere the c om pa rt m ents are redu c ed to a sim

.
,

pl e des ign .

T h e c harts for logi c al analysi s are on c olored paper and

are a rti sti c ally drawn and d ec orated We have c harts of .

four di ff er e nt kinds a s regards o rn am ent and c olor for ,

su c h d e tails exert a c onsid e rable in fl uen c e upon t h e w o r k

of the c hildren O n the follo w ing page i s a sam ple of the
.

c harts w ith its se c tions .

T h e t w o spa c es at the top subj e c t and predi c ate are

, ,

som ew hat l ar ger and are m ore c onspi c uously d ec orated than
the oth e r rec tangles b elow T h e w o r ds su b j e c t and
.

v er b are printed entirely in large c ap itals T h e other .

1 24
G RA MM AR 1 25

C HA R T A
 G RA MM AR 1 27

Anoth e r s e nt e n c e : on the r o ll the c hild finds w r i tt e n

T h e g l as s i s b r o k en .

The t e a c h e r c an b r i e fly e xpl ain that t h e v e r b tak e n by

its e lf h as no S pe c i al m e aning I s m e ans nothing ! I s ?
,
.

Is w h at ? S om e attribut e m us t b e add e d Is
br o ken !
”
H e r e w e ge t a n o m in al pr ed i c ate Wh e n th e .

v e r b c ont ains som e d e finit e m e aning in t erm s of a c tion ,

fo r instan c e r e ads w e ge t a v er b al pr e di c ate T h e s ec

,
.

tion of t h e roll c ontaining i s b r o k en is torn O ff a c c o r d ,

i n gl y and pla c e d in t h e spa c e of t h e v e r b

,
But w h at i s .

b r ok e n ? T h e glas s ! T h e s ec tion c ontaining th e w o r ds

th e gl as s i s pla c e d in t h e spa c e of t h e subj ec t All of thi s .

c an b e c opi ed o ff by t h e c hild by hand as follo w s ,

S i m pl e s e n t e n c e : T h e c h i l d r e ads .

T h e c h i ld : S ubj e ct .

R e ads : P r e d ic at e ( v e rb al ) .

S ER IE S I

( S i m pl e S e nt e n c e s )
T h e fi r st r oll c ontain s t h e follo w ing s e nt en c e s
w ithout m odi fi e r s of any kind

The c h i ld r e ads .

T h e gl ass i s brok e n .

C h arl e s i s t all .

T h e t r e e s ar e blosso m i ng .

T h e bl a c kbo ard i s c l e an .

Wh o h as c o m e ?
Th e p e n ci l i s brok e n .

T h e S k y i s bl u e .

I am r e a d i ng .

I am s t ud y i ng .

T h e c h i ldr e n ar e p l ay i ng .

T i m e fli e s .

T h e t e a c h e r s i ngs .
1 28 M ON TE S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY M AT E RI AL
S ERI E S II

( S i m ple S enten c es, c ontaining a f ew m o d ifiers )

The roll c ontains the follow ing s enten c e s ,

w ritt e n one
aft e r an oth e r :
T h e m o t h e r l o ve s h e r
h il d de ar ly
c .

J ohnn y brough t h i s t e ac h e r a ros e .

Yo u m ay k e e p t h e book for so m e days L ou i s , .

Mary g ive t h e poor m an a p enn y

,
.

Wh e re h av e you b e e n M ary ? ,

I w i l l do it m o t h e r
, .

L itt l e H arry only t hr e e y e ars O l d h as c l e an e d t h e

, , w ho le
bl a c kbo ard .

Wh o dre w t h e pr e tt y p ict ur e ?
L as t n i gh t I sho w e d t h e l e tt e r t o f at h e r .

In t h e y ar d a r e d w h it e an d blu e fl ag i s w av i n g .

D i d you go t o t h e t h e at e r l as t n i gh t ?
T h e r ai n w as b e at i ng ag ai nst t h e w i n do w p an e s .

T h e dog i s b ark i ng at t h e c at .

T h e poor d e af -m u t e s t alk w ith t h e i r h an ds .

E xam ple of appli c ation : The se c tion c ontaining th e

firs t senten c e ,

Th e m oth e r love s h er chil d d early

is first torn O ff from th e roll T hen the se c ti on c ontain .

ing the w ord l o ves i s pla c ed in th e S pa c e m arked v er b .

Wh o l o ve S ? — th e m o th er T h e s e c tion c ontaining the

.

w ords th e m o th e r i s pl a c ed in the S pa c e m arked s u bj e c t .

Th e m other loved w h o m ? Her c hi ld T h e sec tion c o n .

taining h er c hi ld is torn O E and pl a c ed in the spa c e m arked

di r e c t o bj ec t By thus reading th e nam es p r int e d in the
.

spa c es of the c h art the c hild learns to c lassify th e various

kinds of m odifiers Ho w does th e m oth e r love her c hild ?
.

In w h at m an n er ? D e ar ly T h e sec tion c ont aining the

.
 G RA MM AR 1 29

w ord d e ar l y is pla c e d in t h e spa c e m arked M ann er and the

s e nt e n c e is c om pl e t e d .

N o w th e c hild c an c o py off th e s e an alyses i mm e di ately

o r m ak e othe r s as he thinks best T h e c opy m ay b e as
,
.

follo w s
T h e m o th e rlov e s h e r c h i ld d e ar ly .

T h e m oth e r : S ubj e ct .

Lo v e s : P r e d ic at e ( v e rb al ) .

He r c h i ld : D i r e ct obj e ct .

D e arl y : A dv e rb m an n e r , .

In c lassifying t h e vo c atives an d attributiv e s a littl e ,

help from th e t e a c h e r m ay b e r e qui r ed E xa m pl e : .

Yo u m ay keep the book for so m e d ay s ,

L ou i s .

T h e w ord Lo u is d r a m atized som e w hat into a kind

c an be
of invoc ati o n as 0 L o u is y o u m ay k e ep th e b o o k an d
, ,

so on V o c ativ e s c an al m ost al w ays b e identifi e d by t ry

.

ing t h e e xc la m atory 0 b e fore the m .

In th e sent e n c e ,

L i ttl e H arr y o n l y t hr e e
, y e ars old ,
h as l
c ea ned t h e w hol e
bl a c kbo ard .

o n ly th r e e y e ars i s an att r ibutiv e of H arry It should

o ld .

be torn o ff and pla c e d in t h e spa c e m ark e d A ttr i b u ti ve .

S ER I E S III

( S i m ple senten c e s w ith t w o or m o r e m odifi e r s of the s am e

kind )
The ontains th e foll o w ing s e nten c es in se c tions
roll c

w hi c h m ay be r e ad and torn off o n e after t h e other as the

c hild un r olls t h e strip

The h i ld sl e e ps an d dr e am s
c .

E ve rybo dy l ike s fru it an d fl o w e r s .

 G RA MM AR 1 31

Wh at n as ty w e at h e r
Wh at an att r acti v e s c hool !
O for a c al m a t h ankful h e ar t !
,

A hors e a hors e m y k i ngdo m for

, , a hors e !
Aw ay with h im !
Fi re ! F i re !
H e r e h e re q u ick !
, ,

Honor t o t h e br av e !

S ER I E S V I

( Ellipti c al s e nt e n c e s w he re th e di r e c t O bj e c t i s und e r stood

i n c o mp l e te p r ed i c ati o n
)
T h ey drov e aw ay .

He sp e nds l i k e a m i l li on ai r e .

He dr i nks l i k e a fi sh .

T h e f ar m e r s boy h ad j us t m i lk e d
’
.

D O y o u und e rs t and ?
Th e c av alry S purr e d a c ross t h e fi e l d
D id y o u se e ?
The c h i l d d i d n o t h e ar .

S E R I E S V II

( S e nten c e s w ith nu m e r ous m odi fi e r s and of in c reas e d

diffi c ulty )
Th e poor boy c am e h o m e t h at n i gh t all ti r e d ou t c ov e r e d, ,

wi th m u d fro m h e ad t o foo t wit h h i s c o at t orn an d wi th

,

a bl a c k an d blu e lu m p on h i s for e h e ad .

E t h e l hurr i e d ho m e as f as t as poss i b l e .

We h e ard t h e c l att e r O f hors e s hoofs on t h e p av e m e n t

’
.

And so t hrough t h e n i gh t w e n t h i s c ry of al arm

T O e v e ry M i ddl e s e x vi ll age an d f ar m .

T h e b e au ti ful c h i l d w i th t h e bl ac k h ai r is h e r e on t h e
l awn .
 MON T E S S O RI E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L
And yet t hrough t h e gloo m an d t h e n i gh t
T he f at e of a n ati on w as r i d i ng t h at n i gh t .

Th e w o m an w alke d along i n fron t of me w it h th e ch i ld in

her rm s
a .

T h e g i rl s v o ic e soun d e d d i s ti n c tl y ab o v e al l t h e o the rs
’
.

T O- m orro w I sh all c o m e t o t o w n on foo t .

He sp e n t t h e su mm e r e ve ry y e ar w it h h i s p ar e n t s in t h e i r
old ho m e on t h e m oun t ai n s i d e .

T h at e ve n i ng t h e ol d hous e w as m or e l on e ly t h an e v e r .

T h e y are v e r y bu s y th i s m orn i ng .

I n e ve r d i d su c h a t h i ng i n m y l i fe !
E ve ry n o w an d t h e n a grou p of p e opl e h urr i e d l y c ross e d
t he street .

Th e do c t or w h is p e r e d so m e t h i ng i n t o t h e M ayor s e ar
’
.

J us t t h e n so m e o n e kno c k e d at t h e door .

H e r e I am b a c k ag ai n at m y w ork .

Mary h ad a l itt l e l amb

Wit h fle e c e as w h it e as sno w .

T HE O R D ER OF E L E ME N T S I N T H E S E N T E N C E
P ERM U T A T I ON S

Rul e s
Th e English ( the Itali an ) lan guage tends to follow the
direc t order in pros e inversion being very rare
,
.

In po e try inversion is very c omm on

, .

T h e di r e c t order c onsists in pla c ing : first , t h e subj e c t ,

th e n t h e predi c ate then t h e obj e c ts dire c t and indir e c t ;

, ,

then th e m odifie r s follo w a c c ording to the i m portan c e th e y

deriv e from the m eaning of t h e senten c e .

T hes e id e as ar e aft e r all S O si m pl e and c l e ar that the

c hild rarely has any diffic ulty in und e rstanding the m .

N everth el e ss it is m u c h e asier to give the c hild a vivid

,

i m p r e ssio n of them by th e p e r m utation of parts than by

 G RA MM AR 1 33

explanation T hi s p e rm utation i s m ade very c onvenient

.

by th e s e nt e n c e s b e ing p r inted in s e c tions w hi c h m ay be

m ov e d about and c o m bin e d at w ill J ust a s th e s e quen c e .

of th e va r i ous parts of sp e ec h w as m ad e c l e ar by trans

posing th e p arts h e r e t h e sa m e r e sult c an be a c c om plished
,

by transposing th e se c tions of the print e d S lip Exa m ple : .

We h e ard the c al tt e r of th e h ors e s hoofs

’

( subj e ct ) ( pr e d i c at e ) ( d i r ec t obj e c t ) ( att r i bu t e )

on t h e p avem e n t .

( pl ac e : adv e rb )

The follo w ing c o mbination s are possible results of p e r

mutati on :
We h e ard t h e c l at t e r of t h e hors e s hoofs o n the ’

p av e m e nt .

We t h e c l att e r h e ard on t h e p av e m e nt of t h e hors e s ’

hoofs .

We of t h e hors e s hoofs on t h e p av e m e n t t h e c l at t e r
’

h e ar d.

O f t h e hors e s hoofs on t h e p av e me nt h e ard t h e c l att e r

’

we, e tc .
, etc .

S E R I E S V III

( T h e invert e d ord e r )
T h e e ff ec t of di r e c t and inv e r t e d orde r c an b e sho w n
in e v e r y sent e n c e But it i s b e tt e r to t r y e xa m pl e s of i n
.

v e rsion from po eti c lang uage In this s e ri e s all the sen .

,

ten o es sho w inversion of o n e typ e o r another :

Me an w h il e i m p ati e n t t o m oun t an d r i d e
, ,

Bo o t e d an d spurr e d wi th a h e av y str i d e
,

O n t h e O ppos it e shor e w alk e d P aul R e v e r e .

U pon t he roof w e s at t h at n i gh t !
T h e no i s e of b el ls w e n t s w e e p i ng b y ;
Aw e so m e b e ll s t h e y w e r e t o m e .

S ti l l s it s t h e s c hool -hous e by t h e ro ad .
 G RA MM AR 1 35

AC T I V E V O ICE P A SS I VE V O ICE R E F LE X I VE
(A c tion p rfor m e d by
e ( A c tion p e rfor m e d by ( Mi dd l e V o i c e )
subj e c t ) age nt ) ( S ub j c t is dir c t
e e

obj c t )
e

The girl rock e d h e r littl e fri en d w a s

Th e He r littl e fri en d
littl e f ri en d to S l e ep ro c k e d to S l e ep in ro ck e d h ers e lf to
in t h e ro cking-ch a ir t h e ro cking ch a ir b y
.
- sl e ep in t h e ro ck
t h e littl e girl . ing-ch a ir .

T h e t e a ch e r s aw He n Henry w a s s e e n in t h e He nr y s aw hi m s e lf in
r y in t h e l a rg e m i r l arge m ir r or b y t h e t h e l arge m irror .

ro r. t e ac h e r .

T h e angry boy hurt L oui s w a s hurt by t h e L ouis hurt hi ms e lf .

L ouis . angry b o y .

S ER I E S X
of the p e r sonal p r onoun )
( U se

T h e s e nt e n c e s pr e viously giv e n fo r an al v s i s in t e a c hing

t h e p e rsonal p r onouns c an b e us e d ov e r again at thi s point

fo r analysi s on t h e s e nt e n c e—c h art .

T he c h i ldr e n w ro t e a l e tt e r t o t h e i r m o th e r
T h e c h i ldr e n w rot e h e r a l e tt e r
T h e y w ro t e it t o h e r
T h e y g av e th e i r m o t h e r a surpr i s e
T h ey g av e h e r a surpr i s e
I t old f at h e r al l abou t it
I t old h i m al l abou t it
C h arl e s sooth e d h i s s i s t e r wit h a k i ss
He soo t h e d h e r wi th a k i ss
Wi ll you g i v e your dr awi ng t o t h e t e ac h e r ?
Wi ll y o u g i v e h e r y our dr awi ng ?
Wi ll y o u g i v e it to h e r ?
D on t t h i nk b adl y of y our s c hool m at e s
’

D on t th i nk b adl y of t h e m
’

S ho w thos e d i r t y h ands t o t h e t e ac h e r
S ho w h e r t hos e d i r ty h ands
,

S ho w t h e m t o h e r
T e ll t h e s t or y t o t h e c h i ldr e n i n t h e o t h e r roo m
T e ll i t t o t h e c h i ldr e n i n t h e o t h e r roo m
T e ll i t to th e m th e r e
1 36 MO N T E S S O RI E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L

T he ex erc ise in permutatio n brings out the relative posi

tions of the dire c t and indir e c t obj ec ts ; as also th e c o n
di t i o n s under w hic h the pr e position to is r e quir e d befor e
the indire c t obj e c t .

CO M P OU ND AN D C O M P L EX S E N T E N C E S
H e re we ar e d e aling w ith a nu mber of propositions
lauses hi h c o m bine into o n e c o m plete m eaning T h
( c ) w c e .

c laus e s fit together in the s e nten c e s j ust as did t h e various

elem e nts in the si m ple sent e n c e T h e m at e rial for the an

.

alysis is therefor e analogous to that us e d in the analysis of

th e si m ple sent e n c e : st r ips of pap e r in rolls on w hi c h ar e
w r itten the senten c e s to b e analyzed and a c hart w ith ,

spa c es w h e r e the d e ta c h e d pi e c e s m ay be pla c ed a c c ording

,

to the design ation of th e s e spa c e s .

T h e prin c ipal spa c e on the c hart is rese r ved for the

m ain c lause around w h i c h t h e other c lauses are a rranged
, ,

as c oordinat e or subordinat e .

S in c e t h e w ork of logi c al an al ysis o f the c om pl e x sen

ten c e is suffic i e ntly int e r e sting to attra c t th e a t tention of
the c hild to various fo rm s of study the m ateri al c ontains ,

in addition to th e rolls and th e c hart a nu m b e r of t e st ,

c ards w her e t h e an alysi s i s c om pleted and logi c ally de m

o n st r at e d T he s e c ard s se r ve as tests of the a c c ura c y of

’

the w ork d o n e by t h e c hild r en , and as a c tual c harts for

analyt i c al study O f c ourse w hen the c hild i s doing his
.
,

exerc is e w ith th e strips of pape r and the c h art he do e s ,

not hav e thes e test-c ards b e fore h im He S hould how ever .

, ,

alw ay s have free a c c e ss to them His int e rest i n t h e .

ga m e is to su c c ee d by hi m s e lf in pl ac ing the di fferent p rop

o s i t i o n s w her e th e y b e long .
G RA MM AR 1 37

C IIA R T B
 G RA MM AR 1 39

L ou i s c l app e d h i s h ands for j o y .

b e g a n t o d an c e around t h e room .

He look e d i n t o t h e m i rror .

str ai gh t e n e d h i s t i e .

s m oo t h e d h i s h ai r .

an d w e n t ou t t o m e e t h i s t w o fr i e n ds .

T h e b e e s hu mm e d i n t h e w ar m sunsh i n e .

An d t h e c at s at p urr i ng at h e r s i d e .

T h e n h e b e g an t o w e e p .

An d h e t or e h i s h ai r i n angu i sh .

T h e g i rl c o ve r e d h e r f ac e wit h h e r h an ds .

an d w e p t .

T h e y look e d at t h e sp e ak e r .

c ro w d e d a round h i m .

an d w ait e d for h i s n e x t w ord t o att a c k h im .

S E R I E S II
( T h e C o m pl e x S e nten c e )

H e r e only th e m ain c l aus e has a c o m pl e t e m e aning .

T h e other c laus e s m ak e s e ns e only w h e n th e y ar e united

w ith t h e m ain c laus e O n this r oll the subo r dinat e c laus e s
.
,

ar e att r ibut e s of o n e of t h e e l e m e nts of t h e m ain c laus e

( r e lativ e c laus e s ) .

T he gold r i ng w h i c h y o u foun d y e s t e rd ay on t h e s t ai rs b e
longs t o m oth e r .

T h e m an w h o brough t m e t o s c hool t h i s m orn i ng w as m y

un c l e .

He w as e d u c at e d b y h i s s i s t e r w h o t augh t h i m m an y
b e aut i ful th i ngs .

T h e c olors w h ic h Aun t Ann a g av e m e C hr i s t m as ar e v e ry

good .

A l it tl e g i rl w h o w as at a p art y s at look i ng wi th long i ng

e y e s at a pl at e of s and wic h e s .

T h e kn i f e w it h w h ic h y o u sh arp e n e d m y p e n ci l w as ve ry
dull .
 MON T E S S O R I E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L
Bee s don t c ar e abou t t h e snow !
’

I c an t e ll you w h y i t s so ’

O n c e I c augh t a l ittl e b e e
Wh o w as m u c h t oo w ar m for m e — ( F D S HE R MAN ) . . .

We h ave at ho m e t h e pr e t ti e s t e at you e ve r s aw .

H e r e ar e t h e p e nn i e s m y m oth e r g av e m e .

T h e c h i ldr e n I pl ay w it h d i d n o t c o m e t o s c hool t o -day .

T h e hous e w e l i v e i n i s b e au ti ful an d ai ry .

S t ars ar e t h e l itt l e d ai s i e s w h it e
T h at do t t h e m e ado w of t h e n i gh t — ( S HERMAN )

C A R DS
PR INCIP AL CLA U S E A TT R I B U T I V E
S O R A T C LA U '
UB DI N E SE
( The wor d
s mo d ifi d b y t h
e e l iv
r e at e (R l i A dj i
e at v e Clor ) ect ve au s e s
l
c au s e ar e i n i t al i c s ) (Th e l h c au se m i g as t il no e an n un
d ih m
.

u n it e w t i h so e n o un n t e
m i l )a n c au se .

T he gold r ngi b e l ongs to wh ic h y o u found on t h e s t ai rs

m o th e r y e s t e rd ay
T h e m an w as my u n c le w h o brough t m e t o s c hool t h i s
m orn i ng
He w as e du c at e d by h i s s i s t er w h o t augh t h i m m any b e au ti
ful t h i ngs
T he c o l o rs are ve ry good w h ic h A un t Ann a g av e m e
C hr i s t m as
A l itt l e gir l s at look i ng wit h w h o w as at a p ar t y
long i ng e ye s at a pl at e of
s and w i c h e s
O n c e I c augh t a litt l e b e e wh o w as m uch t oo w ar m for
me
S t ars ar e t he l itt l e dais i es tha t do t th e m e ado w of the
wh ite n i gh t

RE L A T I V E OM TTEI D
Wh a t w o rd i s o mi t t e d?

He re are t h e p enn i e s my m o t h e r g ave me

T he d i d no t c om e t o
c h i l dr e n w it h — I p l ay
s c hool t o d ay
T h e h o u s e i s b e au ti fu l an d in we l ive
ai ry
 G RA MM AR 1 41

S ER I E S III
In the pr e c eding roll the subordinate c l auses c om plet e d
,

th e m eaning and c onstitut e d an att r ibut e of o n e w o rd of

the prin c ipal c laus e Here how eve r the subo r dinat e
.
, ,

c lauses refe r to t h e w hol e c ontent of the m ain c laus e and

c o m pl e te th e w h o l e th o u h t of t h e m ain c lau se T h ey
g .

have th e r efore a logi c al d e p e nden c e on the m ain c laus e

, ,
.

T h e c hild w ill b e guid e d in finding t h e pla c e of t h e dif

f e r e n t subordinate c laus e s and in c lassifying th e m a c c o r d
ing to th e d e signations of t h e spa c es by th e qu e stions w hi c h
appea r in the an alyti c al c h a r t It i s pr e supposed th at he
.

c an readily id e ntify the m ain c laus e its e lf .

T h e follo w ing s e nten c es c o m e one after th e other on the

roll e d strip of pap e r :
DO not forg e t th at y ou r O bj e ct s are n o t i n t h e i r pl ac e s .

Wi l l y o u pl ay wi th m e w h e n you h av e fi n i sh e d y our w ork ?

Wh e n t h e sun i s lo w our sh ado w s are long e r .

I hop e t h at you wi ll w r i te m e a long l e t t e r as soon as y o u

arr i v e i n E urop e .

T h e l it tl e g i rl s t ood on ti p t o e so t h at sh e c oul d s e e t h e
q u e e n as t h e pro c e ss i on w e n t b y .

B r e r R abb i t t hough t it w as t h e w ors t ti m e h e h ad h ad

i n al l h i s l i fe .

Al l i s w e ll t h at e nds w e ll s ays t h e prov e rb

, .

T h e p e opl e m ourn e d w h e n t h e good P r e s i d e nt di e d .

I t i s not r i ght th at t h e b i g bo y s should h av e al l t h e c and y .

As sh e s at t h e r e r e ad i n g a b e a u ti ful re d b i rd fl e w i n
,

t hrough t h e w i ndo w .

T h e y c ou l d n o t pl ay i n t h e y ard b e c aus e t h e groun d w as

t oo w e t.

R e m e mb e r th at you m us t t h ank t h e l ady w ho g av e you

t h e book .
 G RA MM AR 1 43

Wh e n th e w olf c am e ou t , B r e r R abb it thr e w the ston e on

h im l a ugh e d
an d .

Wh e n t h e l ad y kno c ke d on t h e door a s m i l i ng O l d m an ,

app e ar e d an d a sk e d w h a t h e m i ght do for h e r .

T h e c h i ldr e n w alk e d along i n t h e for e st an d b e c am e v e r y

hungr y b e c a us e t h ey h ad h ad no t h i n g t o e at s i n c e m orn
i ng .

T h e k i ng s f ac e gr e w v e r y r e d an d h e angr i ly ord e r e d t h at
’

t h e de c e i tful g e n e r a l b e p u t t o d e at h .

S i n c e t h e wi nd w as blo wi ng h ard t h e c ap t ai n t old t h e ,

c h i ldr e n to k e e p O ff t h e d e ck an d a s ai lor c arr i e d t h e m

t o t h e i r st at e -roo m s .

T h e dogs b e g an t o b ar k an d t h e p e op l e al l r an ou t i n t o
t h e s t r e e ts as t h e u pro ar of t h e c o m b at i n c r e as e d .

Wh e r e t h at tr e e n o w s t ands t h e r e w as on c e a b e aut i ful ,

h ous e an d a fi n e ro a d l e d up t o it .

He h ad l e f t t h e v i ll ag e an d m ou n t e d t h e s t e e p ,

An d u nd e r t h e ald e rs t h at sk i r t it s e dg e ,

N o w sof t on t h e s and n o w lou d on t h e l e dg e , ,

Is h e ar d t h e t r am p of h i s s t e e d as h e r i d e s .

T E S T CAR D
S U OR A T
B DIN E AN D
PR AL C LA U S
I NC IP E C O O RDIN A T E C LA U S E Q U E S A TT R U T IB IVE
TION C LA U S S E

He f m hi
r o se ro s an d l e ft th e roo m w h en ? as he sa id t hi s
c hi a r

T he tw fi d o r en s an d s ai d w h at ? t h
hy a t ld l
t e wou a
s h kh d
oo an s y b f i hf l
wa s e a t u to
h h e ac ot er

B re r R bb it t h
a r ew an d l au g hd e wh en ? wh th enw lf m e o ca e
th e s to n e on h im o ut

A smi li ng old m an up an d as kd e wh at ? h h m i g ht d f
w at e o or
p e ar e d h er
wh en ? wh h l dy k k
en t e a no c
d eh d on t e oor

The c h il d r en wa lk d e an d b e c am e v e r y hun why ?

b hyhdh d
e c au s e t e a a
l
a o ng in th e f o r e st gr y hi t not i ng o e at s n c e
m i orn ng

The ki ng s
’
f ac e gr e w an d he an gr i ly or w h at ? th h at d itf l t e ece u
ver y r ed d d ere l b
gen e r a t e pu to
d h e at

T he ca pt ai n to ld th e an d a s ail o r c arr i e d why ?

b th wi d w
e c au s e e n as
h ild
c t ren o k ee p t h em to t hi
e r
O

s t at e bl i h d ow ng ar
f
o f h d t e e ck ro o ms
Th e d b o gs e g an to an d th e eo p pl
e al l r an wh en ? as th e u p r o ar of th e
b k ar in t o t h e stre ets co m b at i n c r e as e d
Th ere w as o nce a an d a fine ro a dl ed u p wh ere ? w h ere t h at t r ee n ow
b ti f l h
e au u o u se to it s t an d s
1 44 MO N T E S S O R I E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L
S U OR AT
B DIN E AND
PR I N C IPAL C LA U S E C OO R DIN A T C LA U S
E E Q uE s A T T R LB U T I V E
T IO N C LA U S S E

He h ad l f t t h vil
e e an d mo u n t d th
e t p e s ee
l
o

age
un d ert h e al d er s n o w t h at s ki rt it s e dge
so tf on t h e s an , d ( att r ib u t i ve )
l d
.

no w ou on the
ld h d
e ge , i s e ar the
t r am p of h is s t e e d w h en ? as he r id es

S ER I E S V
( C orr elativ e S e nt e n c e s )
T he c laus e s a r e h e r e d e p e nd e nt upon e ac h other
T he fl o w e rs w e r e so b e au ti ful t h at w e p i c k e d th e m al l .

T h at day h e w as so l azy th at h e d i d no t g e t h i s w ork

don e .

S h e s i ngs m u c h b e tt e r t h an sh e pl ays .

T h e m or e o n e stud i e s t h e m or e o n e l e arns, .

E it h e r you r e t urn y our obj e c ts t o t h e i r pl a c e s or so m e o n e

e ls e m us t do it .

N o t only w as t h e m an ve ry c ross bu t h e a ct u all y pun i sh e d ,

t h e l it tl e boy .

T E S T C AR D
PR I N C I P
A L C L A US E QUE ST I ON S UB O N A T E C L A US E
RD I

Th e fl we rs w r s b e au
o e e o W it h h w at re s u lt ? that we pi cke d th em a l l .

tiful
T h at d ay h e w as so l azy w it h h w at re s u lt ? th at h e did not ge t his
w ork done .

S he sings m u ch b e tte r t h h t!
an w a th an s h e pl ays .

T h e m or e o n e studi e s w t i h h lt ?
w at re su t h e mor e o n e l e a rns .

E ithe r you r e turn y our w t i h ht lt ?

w a r e su o r so m e o n e e ls e m ust do

obj e c ts to th e ir pl ac e s it .

N o t onl y w a s t h e m an w it h h w at r e su lt ? b u t h e a c tu all y p unish e d

ve ry c ro s s th e littl e b o y .

S ER I E S V I
( T h e O r der of C l auses in S enten c es
S e nten c e F orm s in P ro se and V e r s e )

O u r m at e r i al m ak e s it very easy f o r the c hildren t o

un ders t and th e mutual d e p e nden c e of the subordinat e
 G RA MM AR 1 45

c lauses We take th e c omm on e st c ases w ithin easy rea c h

.

of th e c hild r e n T here are c laus e s of t h e fi r st d e gre e of

.

subordination dependent direc tly on t h e prin c ipal c l aus e

,
.

T h e r e are oth e rs of the s ec ond degr e e of subordination

w hi c h d e p e nd on a subordinate c lause ( c laus e subordinat e

to a subordinat e ) We h av e th e s am e situation in c oo r
.

din at e s We h av e th e first degr ee of c oo r dination w hen

.

t h e c lause i s parallel w ith the prin c ipal c l aus e and t h e ,

s ec ond degre e w hen the c lause i s parallel w ith a sub o r di

nat e c laus e .

S in c e t h e slips have a s m any se c tions as ther e ar e

c laus e s t h e c lauses m ay be arranged on t h e table in t h e
,

o r d e r of th e i r subo r dination k e e ping for exam ple t h e , , ,

p r in c ipal c laus e to t h e l e ft and a r r anging th e subordinat e ,

c laus e s do w n w a r d and do w n w ard to t h e right T ak e for .

,

instan c e th e s e nt e n c e :
,

T he O l i k e d t o t e ll s t or i e s ; an d h e w ould l augh
l d m an
h e art i ly w h e n t h e w o me n w e r e fr i gh t e n e d at t h e t e rr i bl e
t h i ngs t h at h e h ad t o r e l at e .

A S th e different c l auses a r e torn off they are pla c ed on a

c hart m arked into s e c tions by v e r ti c ally pla c ed arro w s : t h e

prin c ipal c laus e to the right of th e fi r st a r ro w ; the fi r st

subordinate c laus e to the right of t h e s ec ond ; the sub o r di
nat e to the subordinate to t h e right of the third and so on ,
.

T h e abov e s ent e n c e results as follo w s

Pr i nci p a l an d d
C o o r i n at e l st su b di
or n at e su b di t
or na e to s u b o rd i
n at e

The old m an lik e d to

t e ll stori e s
an d h e w ould l augh
h ea rtily
wh e n the w o me n w e r e

fright en ed at the
t e rribl e things
th at h e h ad to t e ll .
 G RA MM AR 1 47

h im th e classifi c ation of the c l auses T h e strips are th e n.

to b e pla c e d on the d e pend e n c e c h art ( C hart C ) a c c ording

to t h e indi c ation s of t h e ar ro w s T his brings out the .

m utu al relation of t h e c laus e s .

P E RM U T AT IO N S
T he pre c eding exe r c ises have c r e ated i n th e c hild a
notion of s e nt e n c e c onst r u c tion and of the position of t h e
c lauses w hi c h m ak e it u p O u r m at e ri al p e rm its of
.
,

c ours e, as an exerc is e suppl e m e ntary to the an alys e s dis ,

lo c ations and translo c ations of parts j ust as w as tru e w ith

the si m ple senten c e T o d e riv e t h e full b e n e fit of thi s
.

possibility t h e tea c her should hav e in m ind t h e general

,

rules f o r lo c ation of c lauses :

Adj e c tiv e c lauses ( r e l ativ e attributive ) al w ays follo w
,

and m ost oft e n dir ec tly t h e noun th ey m odify

, .

S ubj e c t subordinate c laus e s m ay stand e ither b e fore or

aft e r the prin c ipal c lau se If t h e subj ec t c l aus e follo w s
.

it i s usually anti c ipated b e fo r e the v e r b by t h e pronoun i t

( just as a follow ing noun subj ec t is anti c ipat e d by th er e ) .

( In Italian if the obj e c t c lau s e pr e c ed e s t h e m ain

,

c laus e
,
i t i s u sually rep e ated b e fo r e the noun by a c o n
jun c tiv e obj ec t p e r sonal pronoun ) .

T h e position of the oth e r c laus e s dep e nds on c onsidera

tion s of em phasis .

T h e dir ec t o r de r f o r c o m pl e x s e nten c es is in g e neral

si m ilar t o tha t for si m pl e s e nt en c e s
subj e ct c l a us e
pr i n ci p al c l au s e
obj e ct c l aus e
adv e rb i a l c l a us e s .

C oordination i s possibl e w ith subordinate as w ell as w ith

prin c ipal c lauses .
1 48 M O N T E S S O R I E L E M E NT ARY M AT E R I A L

The sp ec ial exer c i ses on the c om plex s e nt e n c e c on c lud e

w ith so m e pra c tis e in turning si m ple inversions as found

in po e try into dir e c t sent e n c e o r der .

S E R IE S V II

The deta c h able strips are used here also T h e e x er c ise .

should b e c ondu c t e d w ith referen c e to the senten c e c harts .

J ust wh e r e th e tide of battl e O l d J ohn Burn s stood e r e ct an d

,

turns ,
lon e ly j ust wh e r e t h e tide o f
E r ec t an d lon e ly stood old b a ttl e turns .

J ohn B urns A bright blue c o a t w ith a rolling

,

A n d button e d ov e r his m anly c ollar w as buttone d ov e r his

,

br e a st m anly br e as t .

Was a bright blu e c o at w ith a

rolling c oll ar .

t
It w as erribl e : on t h e righ t It w as t e rr i bl e : t h e de adly
R age d f o r hours t h e d e adly fight r age d f o r hours on t h e
fight ,
right ; t
t h e bat e ry s doubl e b a ss
’

T hund e r e d t h e b a t t e ry s dou ’
thunder e d di ffi cul t m usi c for
,

b l e b a ss ,
D i ffi c ult m usi c for m en t o fac e ;
Whil e o n t h e l eft wh e r e now
men t o fa c e ; w hil e round shot
plough e d t h e up l and gl ade s on
,
t h e l e ft w h e r e now t h e gr av e s
,

t h e gr av e s undul at e like t h e living wav e s

U ndul at e lik e t h e living w a v e s th at swept un c e asing al l th at day
T h a t a l l th at day un c e a sing u p t o t h e p it s t h e r eb e ls k ep t .

sw e pt
U p to t h e pi t s t h e r e b e ls k e p t ,

R ound shot plough e d t h e u p

l and gl ade s .

B R ET HA R T E — J o h n B u m s
.

o f G e t t ys b u r g .

M e rrily r ang t h e bridl e r e ins , Th e br i dl e r e ins r ang merrily

an d s c arf an d p lume an d s c arf an d plume streame d
str e am e d g ay , gay a s t h e rid e rs h e ld th e ir w ay
, ,

As fast b e side h e r fath er s f as t by h er f athe r s gat e

’ ’
.

gat e t h e ride rs h e ld the ir

w ay
 G RA MM AR 1 49

No w br eak your shi e ld a sun No w br e ak y our shi e ld a sunde r

de r an d sha tt e r your sign an d sh a tt e r ac ross y our knightly

a n d boss , kn e e y our sign an d bo s unme e ts

U nm e e t for p e a s ant w e dde d

- f o r p e a s ant -w e dd e d a r m s .

w arm s your knightly

,

kn ee ac ross .

W HI T T I E R K i n g V o l me r
. .

4
Th e br e aking w v s d sh d high
a e a e Th e br e aking w av e s dash e d
O n a st e rn a n d ro ck b oun d c o st ;
-
a high o n a st e rn a n d ro ck—bound
An d t h e w
oo ds a a g inst a stor m y c oa st ; an d t h e w oods toss e d the ir
sk y gi ant br an c h e s aga inst a stormy
Th e ir gi an t br an h e s toss e d c . sky .

A n d t h e h e avy night hung d ark The h e avy night hung dark

T h e hills an d w
a t e rs o e r , ( o e r ) t h e hi lls an d w at e rs
’ ’
o v er .

Wh en ab and o f P ilgri m s m oor e d wh e n a band o f P ilgri m s m o o r e d

th e ir ba rk th e ir b ar k on t h e w ild N ew Eng
On t h e w ild N e w E ngl and shor e . l and shor e .

No t as the c on qu ror c o m e s e T h ey , tru e h e art e d c am e

the ,

Th ey t h e tru h rt d c am
e ea e e, not a s t h e c on qu e ror c o m e s n o t ,

No t w ith the roll o f the stirring w ith t h e roll o f t h e stirring

drum s drum s an d t h e trump e t th at
An d t h e trum p e t th a t sings o f sings o f fam e .

fam e .

MR S HEM A N S
. .

5
My gold en spurs n o w bring to m e B ring to m e now my gold en
A n d bring to m e m y ri c h e st m a il ,
spurs an d bring to m e my ri c h e s t
F o r tom orro w I go ov e r l and an d m a il ; f o r I go in s e a r c h of t h e
sea Hol y G r a il to m orro w ov e r l and
In s e ar ch o f t h e Hol y G r a il . an d s ea ; a b e d sh a ll n e v e r b e

S h a ll n e v e r a b e d f o r m e b e spr e ad f o r m e n o r sh all a pillow

,

spr e ad ,
b e und e r m y h e ad till I b egin to
N o r sh a ll a pillo w b e und e r m y k e e p m y vow ; I w ill sl e e p h e r e
h e ad ,
on t h e ru s h e s an d p e r chan c e a
,

T ill I b e gin m y vo w to k e e p ; tru e v i sion w ill c o m e b ef o r e ( e r e )

He r e on t h e rush e s w ill I sl e e p ,
day c r e at es t h e w orld an e w .

A n d p e r ch an c e th e r e m ay c om e a
vision tru e
E re day c r e at e t h e w orld an e w .

LO W E LL .
 G RA MM AR 1 51

8
C hildhoo d is t h e bough wh e r e C hildhood is t h e bough wh e r e
slum b e r e d m an y nu m b e r e d birds an d blos
B irds an d blo s so m s m any n um o
som s slum be r e d A ge e n c u m:

be r e d ; be r e d th a t bough w it h snow .

Age th a t bough w ith snow s e n

c umber e d .

LO N GFE LL O W .

T E S T C ARD S
1
J ust wh r ee the tid e o f b attl e subordin at e of pl c a e ( lo c ative )
turns
E re c t an d lone l y stood O l d J ohn prin c ip al
Burns
A n d button e d ov e r his m anly
, ( v e rb a l a ttributive phr as e )
br e a st ,

Was a bright blue c oat w ith a c oordin at e of prin c ipal .

rolling c oll ar
2
It w a s t erribl e prin c ip al
on th e right
r age d for hours th e d e adl y figh t c oordinat e o f princ ip l
a

thund e r e d the b att e ry s doubl e c oordinat prin c ip al

’
e o f
b a ss
D i ffi c ult m usi c for m en to fac e ( v e rba l ttributiv e phr a se in ap
a

po s ition ) .

Whil e on t he l eft round shot subordin at e O f ti m e ( t e mpor a l )

plough e d , etc .
) b egun
wh e r e now ( W h i l e m ay b e c onsid er e d as ad
gr av e s
t he v e rsative c oordin at e )
U ndul a t e lik e t h e living w a v e s subordin at e to subordin at e ( lo
c ativ e ) 2 d d egr e e
T h at al l th a t d ay un c e asing
sw e pt attributiv e subordinat e ( r e l ativ e
up to t h e pits ad j e c tiv a l c l ause m odify ing
w av e s ) of 3 d d egr e e
the r ebe l s k ept attributiv e subordin at e ( r e l ativ e

pronoun om itt e d ) o f 4t h de
gr e e
R ound sho t plough e d th e upl and subordin at e o f ti m e ( con c lude d ) .

g l ad e s
1 52 MO N T E S S O RI E L E M E NT ARY M A T E R I A L
3

Merrily r ang th e bridl e r e ins prin c ip a l

an d s c arf an d plum e c oordin at e
str e ame d g ay

As fast b e side h e r fathe r s gat e ’

t h e rid e rs h e l d th e ir w ay subordin at e of t i me
NO W br eak your shi e ld a sunde r prin c ip a l
an d shatt e r
your sign an d bos s c oor dinat e
Unme e t f o r p e a s ant -w e dde d a r m s
you r kn ightly kn e e ac ross

The br eak ing w av e s d ash e d high

On a st e rn an d ro ck -
bound c o ast princ i p al

An d t h e wo o ds aga inst a s t o r mv

sky
Th e ir gi ant br an ch e s t oss e d . c oordinate
An d t h e h e av y ight hung dark
n

Th e hills an d wat e rs o e r ’
princ ip a l ( c oordin at e d i n p r
a a

gr aph )
Wh en a band o f pilgri m s moor e d
th e ir bark
On a w ild N e w E ngl and shor e subordin at e t e mpor a l
prin c ip a l be gun
as t he c on qu ror c om s
e e subordina t e of m ann e r ( m odal )
T h ey t he tru h e rt d c am
e a e e p rin c ipal conc luded
No t w ith the rol l o f the stirring
drum s
an d t h e trum p e t c oordin at e ( e lipsi of v rb t h y
s e e

c m c ontinu d from pr n c
a e e i i

pa l )
th at sings of fam e a ttributiv e ( r e l ative ) s u b o r di :

nat e to c oordina t e .

5
My gol de n spurs now bring to me princ ip al
An d bring to me m y ri ch e st ma il c oor d inat e
 G RA MM AR 1 53

Fo r tom orrow I go ov e r l and an d subordin at e of c aus e ( c a us a l ) ;

sea m ay b e c onsid e r e d c o o r di n a t e
In s e ar ch o f the Holy G r a il of r e as o n

S h all never a b ed for me b e

s pr ea d princ ip a l
No r sha ll a p illow be und e r my
h e ad c oordin t e a

T ill I b egin my vo w to k e e p subordin at e o f ti me ( t e mpor al )

He r e on th e rush e s w ill I sl ee p prin c ip al
An d p e r ch an c e th e r e m ay c om e a

vision tru e c oordin t e a

E re day c r e at e th e w orld an e w subordin at e t e mp or al .

6
Gr e at tidings o f gr e at j o y I
bring
To y o u an d a l l m ankind prin c i p al
To y o u in s town this
D avid
’
d ay
Is born o f D a vid s lin e ’

T h e S aviour princ ip a l
who i s C hris t the L ord a ttributiv e ( r e l ativ e ) s u b o r di

nat e
An d this sh all b e the S ign c oordin t e a

Th e h e av enly Bab e you th e r e

sh all find
To hum an vi e w displ aye d
Al l m ea nly w r apt in s w addling
b ands
An d in a m ange r l a id . si m pl e s ent en ce w ith thr e e co

ordin at e v e rba l p hr as e s .

Th e h ar p prin c i p a l b egun
t hat on c e through
T ar a s h all
’

Th e soul of m usi c she d a ttributiv e subordinat e ( r e la

tiv e )
 G RA MM AR 1 55

( N ote : th eb e st E nglish po e try m ak e s far l e ss u se of

inv e rsion than do e s Italian S u c h e x e r c is e s as th e abov e .

c ould b e p r ofitably appli e d t o t h e analysis of t h e diffe r e nt

kinds of ph r ases ( adj e c tiv e adv e r bial It should , ,

b e not e d that D r M ont e ssori in h e r o w n e x e r c i s e s tr e ats

.

v e r bal phras e s ( parti c ipl e s and i n fi n i t iv e s ) as subo r dinat e

c lauses TR )
. .

C O O RD I N A T I N G AND S U B O RD I NA T I N G C O N J U N C T I O N S

T hi s study of th e c om pl e x s e nt e n c e l e ads th e c hild to a

m or e prec is e c om prehension of t h e valu e s of c e rtain parts
of sp e e c h as notably th e c onj un c tion We hav e found in
, ,
.
,

fa c t that littl e diffi c ulty is e xp e ri e n c e d in r e alizing th e

,

distin c tion b e t w e e n the t e r m s c o o rdin a tin g and s u b o rdin at

i n g as appli e d to c onjun c tions w hi c h u n i te c l aus e s but in
diffe r e nt w ays T h e foll o w ing c h a r ts s e rv e to c over the
.

vast m aj ority of c as e s that th e c hild is lik ely to m e et We .

m ay add that at this point it m ay b e found us e ful to have

th e c hild analyz e the c o m pl e x s e nt e n c e s w h i c h app e ar e d in
t h e c omm ands and r e adings al r e ady fam iliar to h im ( s e e
be lo w und e r R ead in g ) .

COO RD I N A T I N G CON J UN C T IO N S
C o p u l a ti v es : an d, a lso too b e s i d e s
, , , mo r e o ve r furt h e r fur t h e r
, ,

m or e , n or .

D i s j u n c ti v e s :or e ls e o th e rwi s e r at h e r
, ,
.

A dv e r s a ti v es : bu t n e v e rth e l e ss ho w e ve r no twit hs t and i ng

, , , , y e t,
s ti ll w h i l e only i ns t e ad
, , ,
.

D e c l ar a ti v e s : n am e l y i n o t h e r w ords t h at i s
, , .

A ss e v e r ati v e : i n f a c t a ssur e dl y r e all y , ,

.

I l l ati v e : h e n c e t h e r e for e t h e n ac c ord i ngly so

, , , , .

P RI N C I PA L AN D COO RD I N A T E U S E S M AY
C LA I
BEG N W IT H
O NE OF T HE SE C O N J UN C T IO N S
1 56 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

C H AR T D
T HE C O N J U N C T I O N S I N T HE S U B O R D I N A T E
C LA U S E
 G RA M M AR 1 57

S E QUE N C E OF TE NSE S

A sp ec i al s e r i e s of e x e r c ises on t h e r e lations of t h e sub

ordinat e to t h e p r in c ipal c laus e b r ings out t h e c hange s in
t e ns e m ad e n e c e ssa r y in t h e subo r dinat e c laus e as the
tens e of t h e p r in c ip al c laus e vari e s .

S E RI E S V III

S equ e n c e of T e nses

G ROU P A
( C aus al C l aus e s )
I a m w r iti ng to yo u b e c aus e I h av e so m e i m port a n t
)7 77 ) 7
e te
77
h ad 77

I sh all no t go b e c aus e I m us t a tt e n d t o my w ork .

did 77 77 77
h ad to 7) ) 7 77 77

I am gl a d t h at you h av e don e so w e l l .

77 ) 7 77 7) 7) 77
w as h ad

I wi ll g i v e i t to yo u s in ce you i ns i s t on h av i ng it .

g av e ) 7 77 )7 77 7)
i n s i s te d
) 7 77 7’

He do e s not a ns w e r b e c aus e your l e t t e r i s i nsul ti n g .

di d 7) 77 77 77 77
w as
77

GROU P B

( M i s c e ll an e ou s C l au s e s )
I sh all be proud of yo u i f you b e c om e a fin e s c hol ar .

S hould b e c ame
7) 7) 77 ) 7 7) 77 7) 77 )7

I b e l i e v e t h at only th e r ic h c an be h appy .

be lieve d c ou ld
I am w aiti ng h e r e ti ll my f at h e r r e t urns from t o w n .

w ait e d r e turn e d
T he y e xp e ct th at so m e th i ng w i l l h app e n b e for e long .

e xp e ct e d w ould
 G RA MM AR 1 59

w ould i t t o you i f you should as k h im for it .

I sh al l go t h e re i f I h av e ti m e .

) 7
sh o u l d
77 77 77
h ad 77

sh al l should h av e
sho ul d h a v e gon e h ad h ad
 X III

P UN C T U A T I O N

T he perm utations of c lauses p e rm itt e d by our m at e rials

giv e e m pi r i c al e vid e n c e of t h e paus e s and a c c ordingly of
t h e fun c tions of t h e orthographi c al si gns of susp e nse in the
s e nt en c e T h e s e si gn s are in c luded also in ou r alphab e ts
. .

All t h e e xe r c is e s hith e rto given requi r e m ore or less spon

t an e o u s attention to pun c tuation We offe r ho w ever in
.
, ,

addition sev e r al s e r i e s of sent e nc es for analysis in illus

,

t r at i o n of t h e prin c ipal rules for t h e u se of pun c tuation

points Alm ost all of our Itali an s e nt e nc e s are taken
.

from M anzoni a w riter espec ially n o t ew o rthy for his c are

,

in pun c tuation .
( T h e m aj ority of th e s e nt e nc e s b e low are
tak e n from th e B o o k o f Kn o w ledge by spec i al p e rm ission
,

of th e publishers ) .

S E RI E S I
T h e c o mm a m ay separat e c oordinat e elem ents .

T he moth e r too k glo w i ng pr i d e i n t h e b e au t y of h e r c h il

a

dre n s fac e s t h e gr ac e an d s t r e ng t h of t h e i r bod i e s th e i r

’
, ,

r e c kl e ss d ar i ng an d un fli n c h i ng c our age .

T h e l i t t l e s t a r fe ll plu m p i n t o t h e m i ddl e of a b i g puddl e an d,

th e r e it l ay s ad an d sh ake n an d q u ak i ng wit h fr i gh t .

I t w as dum b an d h alf bl i nd it h ad a so il e d fac e an d c o u l d

, ,

g i v e no m or e l i gh t .

A m ous e w as j us t th e n p e e p i ng fro m it s ho le t o se e wh e th e r
it w as go i ng t o r ai n an d w h e t h e r it w oul d b e s afe t o c ro s s
,

t h e fi e lds .

T h e m ous e s t art e d r un n i ng ag ai n an d r an un ti l it w as ti r ed
,

ou t an d h ad t o s it do w n
 G RA MMAR 1 61

T he l ittl e s t ar pour e d a fl ood of br i gh t l i gh t ov e r t h e poor

w o m an an d m ad e h e r br i gh t an d c h e e rfu l an d strong a g ai n
, ,

an d t h e n t h e l itt l e g i r l b e c am e v e r y h app y .

S E RI E S II
A c omm a i solates v oc atives an d in c idental c lauses .

C ae s ar l e t ,
go for w ard s ai d t h e gu i d e
you r m en ,
”
.

Wh y do y o u w an t t o fi n d your fat h e r M or a ? ,

No ”
, s ai d h e I sh all b e v e ry w e ll pr e s e ntl y
“
,
.
’

B oy s
”
s a i d our hos t I kno w wh os e h an d it i s
,
“
, .

T h at e xc us e m e for s ay i ng so i s n o t t h e w ay t o sp e ak t o
, , a

fri e nd .

”
C o m e w it h us you h andso m e young hun t s m an h e c r i e d
, , .

S E RI E S III
A c omm a s e parat e s c l auses espe c ially for c l e arness , ,

w h e n t h e e l e m e nts of o n e c lause m ight s ee m to appl v

equally w e ll to another c l ause and w h e n o n e c laus e i s i n ,

t e r po l at e d b e t w een t h e e ssenti al el e m e nts of anoth e r .

M oh am m e d t augh t t h at m e n shoul d pr ay at s t at e d ti me s ,

w h e r e v e r t h e y are .

G e org e w ho w as on l y fi v e y e ars old c oul d no t go wit h h i s

, ,

f ath e r to fi gh t .

T h e t r ib e me n aft e r q u arr e l i ng a long ti m e d e ci d e d t o m ar c h

, ,

aw ay .

He w e n t t h at e v e n i ng as h e h ad pl ann e d t o t h e do ct or s
, ,
’

hous e .

T h e poor Ind i an h ad b e e n k e p t m ov i ng e v e r s i n c e h e w as ,

born t o r e g i ons f arth e r an d f arth e r nor t h

,
.

T h e c h i ld c r e p t t o t h e b e d an d t ak i ng h i s l i t tl e f an s t ood
, , ,

o v e r h i s f at h e r al l n i gh t f ann i ng h i m .

IV S E RI E S
A c omm a indi c ates a pau s e c aus e d by th e ellipsis of so m e
w ord or idea ( i n su c h c as e s longe r susp e nse c an be indi
m
c at e d by a c olon o r a se i olon )
—c .
 G RAMM AR 1 63

Wh e n go t ho m e h e s ai d t o h i s wi fe :
he ,
S ee , I h av e brough t
”
y o u a pr e s e nt .

He shou t e d gl e e ful l y I am a l i on
:

a t e rr ib l e li on .

S E RI E S V I

( O th e r Pun c tu ation Points )

T h e pe r iod qu e stion m ark e x c la m ation point and oth e r
, ,

sign s of pun c tuation

In thi s s e r i e s should b e giv e n di alogu e s int e resting ,

sto r i e s passage s w hi c h e xp r e ss e m otional stat e s of m ind

,

vividly p o r t r ay e d S u c h s el e c tions as is tru e also of our

.
,

short e r passage s ought to b e tak e n fro m th e b e st w rit e rs

, ,

distingu ish e d b y th e naturalness and viva c ity of th e ir style

and t h e u se of an a c c urat e ortho graphi c al te c hniqu e At
this p o int w e m ak e u s e of t h e s e l ec tions u s e d for our i n
”
t e r pr e t at i o n s
,
sin c e th e qu e stion of pun c tu ation c oin c i des
w ith t h e p r oble m s of text int e r p r e tation itself .
 WO RD C LA S S I F I C A T I O N

T H E KI N D S OF WO RD S
In doing the w o r k outlin e d thus far the c hildren have ,

a c quir e d c onsid e rabl e r e sour c e s in vo c abula ry T h ey .

h ave s e e n all the a r ti c l e s prepositions pronouns c o n jun c

, , ,

tions, interj ec tions m any of t h e adv e rbs ; and they know

,

m any nouns adj e c tives and verbs w hi c h w ill be in c reas e d

, , ,

in nu m b e r as their c ulture is w idened T hey know s om e .

thing also of the use of th e parts of spe ec h and their fun c

tions in th e expression of thought T his i s th e natural .

pla c e fo r a c lassifi c ation in retrospe c t of those w ord s w hi c h

t h e c hildr e n h av e in w riting before t h em on the c ards and
slips of di ffe r e nt c olors S eparat e t abl e s should b e used
.

for thes e exerc ises in w ord grouping .

T hi s n ew step i s preparatory to a th e o r e ti c al s tu dy of
language to be developed in lat e r c ourses in th e se c ond
period of thei r edu c ation .

WO RD S C LAS S F E I I D AC CO RDIN G TO FO RM AT IO N
Ii o o t
1
D erived w ord s
C om pound 2

1 U nde rthi s h e ading w e in c lude al l derivations by suffix som e suf :

fi x s c hang o n e p art o f spe ch int o anothe r l o e ( v e rb ) l o b l e

e e e : v , va

et c othe rs su ch a s d i mi n u t i s p ggi o a t i v s au g m n t a
.
,
ve , e r e , e

ti
ce s et c
, change t h e q uality f a word s me aning In adj e c tiv e s
.
, o .
’
.

w e h av e su ffixe s o f d egr ( c o m p a rison

ee- - t
) : er , es .

2 U nd r this h ading w e in c l u de al l w ords f or me d by t h e union o f

e e

t w o words or by pr e fix s e .
 GR AMMAR 1 65

I I
C L A S S F CA T O N O F I WO RD S AC CO RDI N G TO IN F L E C T I O N
T her e ar e tw o kinds of w ords , thus c onsider e d : vari abl e
and invariable :

f pre p o s i t i o n ( T he y
I NV A RI AB L E S I

i m ay b e si m p le or co m po un d ma d e p
: i c o n j u n ct o n

i n t er j e c t i o n
i' t h at is of o ne w or d or mo re .
11 .

L L
m ay b e of m as c u i n e l
f
,

e min in e n e u t er or
c o mm o n
,

d
}
ge n er
in g e n d e r an d n u m b er n o un s fh i p l l by
o rm t e r ura s
.

dd i a by ng -s or
h i c an g n g th e r oo t
l ( ml )
vowe u au t

{h p i l d f
av e s ec a w or s or
in d num b h f m
j p
ge n er , er ' e ac or : e g he
p 4 hm I
.
,
ro n o u n s
e rs o n an d c as e im h w ho, w o
L
, , ,

me , e tc .

d m p at ive
g
-e r f or co ar
in e gr e e -e s t for su pe l t i e r a v

h s ow t hi r d pe o rs n s in

gu l b y dd i
ar a ng 3,
d
.

V A RIAB L E S an
so n
d
i
ld
l
o
b
s n g u ar dd
s eco n

y a
per

i ng -s t

s h m d b y dd i
ow oo s a ng
-n
i g d by
-e l or vo we
in p er so n , num b er ,
v b c h an g e
,

f p i i or ar t c
tense an d mo o d er s
pl es b i l
or y s pe c a
f m (I b h b
,

or s e e e,
etc ) f b i or su j un ct ve
h b y ffi
. .

s ow t en s e su x
-c d ~
by
t ; or l vowe
c h ,

a n ge (I I go ,
w en t )
h i l f m
.

S ow r r e g u ar or s .

d th e h as t w o ro nunc i p
e fi n it e
l at i o n s ac c o r i n g to d
for pho n et c i r e as o n s F
ar t i c e
the ll o o w in gf w or d
J i d (1. b m
ec o es an b f
e o re
.

w l
n e fi n it e
a vo e .

I I
C LAS S F C A T O N I OF WO RDS AC CO RD I N G TO T H E IR U SE

( P arts Of S pe ec h )

Arti c l e Ve r b P ro n o u n
N oun Adv e r b C onj un c tion
Adj ec t iv e Pr e position Int e rj ee tion
NO T E In a c tual u sage th e parts of speec h p e r form not
:

only th e ir o w n fun c ti ons but also th e fun c tions of other ,

 G RA MMAR 1 67

N ot e : C e rta in
v e rbs may b e by n atur e both tr ansitive an d i n t r an
s i t i v e ( in c o m pl e t e pr e di c a tion )

Impe r s o n al s ( t h e subj e c t is i t
rr a in sno w h a il d aw n light en thun
w i thout r efer en c e to a spe -y d er e t c ‘
, , , , ,

c i fi c O b ec t
j ) L

AD VE R B S
slow ly r apidl y sil e ntly noisil y abruptl y loudl y
, , , , , ,

oi M anne r
strongly w e ak l y m od e r at e l y w e ll ill b e tt e r
, , , , , ,

w ors e oth e rw is e di ff e r e ntly thus so lightl y

, , , , , ,

h e a vily e t c e t c , .
, .

h e r e th e r e e ls ewh e r e up down for w ard b ack

0 f P l ac e
,

ward upst a irs downst a irs e t c e t c

, , , , ,

, , , .
, .

r
l w ay s e ver
a n e ve r aga in still y e st e rd ay
, to m or , , , , ,

Of T i me ro w t o d ay no w oc c a sion ally b e for e aft e r w ards

4 , , , , , ,

L soon e t c e t c , .
, .

mu ch littl e e n ough nothing m or e l e ss l e ast

0f Q uant i ty ,

m ost about only t o o v e ry e t c

, , , , , ,

, , , , ,
.

of C o m p aris o n m or e l e ss th an e t c , , ,
.

y e s c e rt a inly pr e c is e ly ind eed sur e ly a ssur e dly

A fli r mat i o n
, , , , , ,
of
truly e v en e t c , , .

of N e ga tion no n e ve r not at a l l e t c
, , , , .

of D o ubt :p erh aps p er chan c e al m ost p robably et c

, , , , .

PR E PO S IT ION
( to by fro
of, m in w ith on ,am ong abov e , , , , , , ,

S i mpl e 4 through und e r around b e sid e b ehind s av e e x

.
, , , , , ,

L c e pt n e ar n e xt lik e during O ff e t c
, , , , , , .

C om pound ( pr e p o in pl ac e o f out o f aw ay fro m a s to on bo ard , , , , ,

s i t i o n phr a s e s ) w ith r egard to e t c ,

.

PR O N OU N

s ub j e c t j l, thou ,
h e, sh e, it ,
w e, you th ey ,

Pe rson al
ma th ee h i m, h er, it us you
{
, , , ,

th em
d e fini t e this this , o ne, th at th at , o n e, th e s e ,

those
Dem ons tr at ive
r
on e on es so m e so m e body e v e ry
, , , ,

i n de fi n i t e e ach e ac h o n e no
'
o ne n o o ne
4 , , , ,

L bod y non e nothing et c , , ,

.
1 68 M O N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL

( sub j ect who th at : ,

o f pe rson : { p s e s s iv e
os w hos e z

Lo b j ec t whom t hat : ,

R e l ativ e
of thing : whi ch th at ,

inde finit e : who ve r whi ch ev e r

e ,

c ompoun d ( ant e c e den t unde rstood ) : wh at ( that

w hi ch ) whe r e of wh er ew i th et c
, , , .

of p e rson
Int errogati v e
of thing
P oss e ssiv e : min e, yours ( thin e ) his h ers ours yours t h eir s , , , , , .

C O NJU N C T I ON

D is j unctiv e : or or e ls e oth e rw ise r athe r , , .

an d a lso too b e sid e s m or e ov e r fur t h e r fur t he r

Co p u l at i v e
m or e nor e t c
,

,
,

,
,

.
, , ,

but n e ve rthe l e ss notw ithst anding y e t still whil e

A dve rs at i v e
, , , , , ,

how e v e r only o n t h e c ontr ary inst ead e t c , , , , .

De c l ar ative : n ame ly in o th er words th a t is e t c

, , , .

R e l at iv e t hat
: .

h en c e the r efor e wh er efor e then acc ordingly so w ith

Ill at iv e t h e r e sul t th at e t c
, ,

.
, , , ,

whil e wh en as soon as aft er b efor e un t il t ill

T emp or a l
, , , , , , ,

hardly e t c , .

C on c e ssive though although e v e n if

: , , .

P urpos e ( F ina l ) that in orde r th at t o t h e en d th at e t c

, , ,
.

C ondition a l : i f unl e ss p rovi de d provid e d th at e t c

, , , , .

C aus al : a s b e c aus e for sin c e s ee ing th a t e t c

, , , , , .

R e sult th at so th at e t c
: , , .

L o c ativ e wh e r e wh e n c e whith e r wh er et o wh e r efrom et c

, , , , , .

D egr e e an d C omp arison a s th an , .

IN T E RJ E CTION
S ee l i s t a lr e ady given on pp . 1 22— 1 2 3 .
 PA R T II

R E A D IN G
 E X PRE S S I O N AN D I N T ERPRE T A T I O N

ME C H A N I C A L P R O C E S S E S
“
Reading b egin s in the C hildr e n s House as soo n ’

as t h e c hildren r e r e ad th e w ord th ey have al r e ady c o m

posed w ith the m ovabl e alphabet T his e a r ly e ff ort i s
.

not ind e ed t h e true re ading of the w ord sin c e i n t e rpr e ,

t at i o n i s la c king . T h e c hildr e n it has been s ee n kno w

, ,

t h e w ord b ec ause they hav e a c tually put it tog e th e r T hey .

h av e n o t gain e d an und e r standing of it fro m the si m pl e

r e c ognition of t h e g r aphi c sym bols What th ey hav e done
.

is nev e r th e less an i m port ant c ontribution to r e al r e ad

, ,

ing As one c onsiders all of the d e tails of thi s period of

.

d e velop m e nt i t i s appare nt that its m e c hanism is c losely

,

alli e d w ith th at of th e spoken l anguage .

Wh e n t h e c hild s attenti o n has b ee n intensivel y appli e d

’

to t h e r ec ogniti on of the w ritten w ord it c an easily b e ,

fixed on the analysis of t h e s o unds w hi c h m ake up t h e

w ord At a c e r tain age t h e c hild s int e r e st w as a r ous e d
’

by tou c hing t h e lette r He c an n o w b e int e rest e d i n

”
.

hea r ing t h e sounds of t h e w o r d w h e n p r onoun c e d by oth e rs

and in pronoun c ing it hi m s e lf We hav e sho w n that t h e
.

w ork on the w ritten langu age in t h e e x e r c is e s w ith t h e

alphab e t w as n e c e ss ar y for dev e loping and p e r fe c ting the

spok e n language It is by s o doing that w e m ake it po s
.
~

sibl e to c o r r e c t d e fe c t s in sp ee c h and to p ass naturall y ov e r

t h e p e riod w h e n su c h d e fec ts ar e fo r m ed .

1 71
1 72 M O N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIA L

We n o w ai at finding an exerc i s e in the a c tual m e c han

m
i sm o f pronun c iation w hi c h c an b e started at th e m om en t
of its natural devel o p m ent i n su c h a w ay that its growt h
to perfe c tion w ill follo w as a m a t t e r of c ourse It is a .

q uestion of bring i ng the c hildren rapidly to p ronoun c e

w ithout h e sitation In so pronounc ing w ell in perfo rm

.
,

ing ext e nsiv e exerc ises i n h e aring w ords and in the i n

t erpr e t at i o n of th em f r om graphi c signs the c hild brings ,

togeth e r in a unit of effe c t the basi c p roc esse s of r e ading

and w ritin g .

A good pronun c i ation of the w ord read i s of great im

portan c e We m ay say that in the e lem entar y s c hools of
.

ou r day this i s the princ ipal purpose of r e ading N e v e r .

t h e l es s it i s ve r y diffi c ult to obtain a good pronun c i ation

,

w hen d e fec ts hav e be e n all o w ed t o develop an d b ec om e

habitual in the c hild s previous w ork In fa c t th e eli m

’
.
,

i n at i o n of th e se defe c ts w hi c h h av e be e n the r e sult of a

,

fundam e ntal error in e du c ation c om e s to absorb all of the

,

e nergi e s of the reading c las s in ordinary pri m a r y s c hools .

S o far along as the fifth grad e w e se e t e a c hers struggling

to m ak e th e c hildren read th at they m ay a c qui re a good
,

pronun c iation and in our reading books there are grad

,

u at e d e x e r c ises c onstru c t e d on t h e basis of D iffic ulties in

”
Pronun c iation . It i s apparent th at all of thi s stress on
t h e ph ys i o l o gi c a l m e c h an i cs of pronun c i ation i s for e i gn to
tru e r e ad i n g It is rather an i m p e di m ent to th e d e v el op
.
, ,

m ent of tru e r e ading S u c h reading e xerc ises c onstitut e

.
,

as it w e r e a fo r e i gn body w hi c h op e r at e s l ik e a disease
, ,

to prev e nt th e developm e nt of th e high int e ll e c tual ac

t iv i ty w hi c h int e rpr e ts t h e m yst e rious langu age of w ritten
sym bols and arouses th e c hild s e nthusiasm w ith the fas’

c in at in g rev e lations they c an

gi ve T h e eage r nes s of the
.
 REA D I N G 1 73

c hild to learn is c u r b e d and c h e at e d w h e n h e i s c o m p ell e d

to stop his m ind f r o m w o r king b e c aus e his tongue r e fus e s
to ac t prop e r ly and m ust b e laboriously trained to w ork
right T his training if b e gun at t h e p r op e r t i m e w h e n
.
, ,

the c hild s w hole psy c hi c and n e r v o u s o r gan is m yea r ns for

’

t h e p e r fec tion of t h e m e c hanis m of sp e e c h w ould hav e ,

b e e n a fas c inating task ; and on c e sta rt e d along th e r ight

path th e pupil w ould hav e c ontinu e d to follo w it w ith
,

ala c rity and c onfid e n c e Wh en t h e ti m e c om e s for t h e

.

int ellige n c e to try its w ings its w ings should b e r e ady

,
.

IV h at w ould happen to a paint e r if at t h e m o m e nt of i n

,

S pi r ation h e had t o sit do w n and m anufa c ture his

,

b r ushes !

A N AL Y S I S
O ur fi r st publ i c ation on the m e thods used in th e C hil
d r e n s House m ad e c l e a r t w o di stin c t O p e r ations i n
’

volv e d in r eading : the int e rpr e tation of t h e m e aning and

“
t h e p r onun c i ation al o ud of the w ord T h e str e ss w e
.

laid on that analysi s as a gui d e to t h e dev elop m e nt of

r e ading w as t h e r e sult of a c tual e xperien c e T hose w h o .

follo w e d thi s w o r k during its initi al stage s s aw h o w th e

c hild r e n ,
w hen they read for t h e first ti m e interpr e ting ,

t h e m e aning of the w o r ds befo r e them did so w ithout ,

speaking ,
r e ading th at is m e ntally Interpretation in
, ,
.
,

fa c t i s a question of m e ntal c on c e ntration Reading is an

,
.

a ffair of the i n te l l igen c e T h e pronun c i ation aloud is

.

qu it e a diffe rent thing not onl y distinguished from the

,

fi r st p r o c e ss but s ec ondary t o it
,
T alking aloud i s a ques
.

tion of spee ch involving fi r st hearing and th e n the m e

,

c h an i c al r e produ c tion of sounds in arti c ul ate lan uage

g .

Its fun c tion i s to bring into i mm edi at e c ommuni c ation

Int er pr e t e d r e ading : S m il e an d c l ap your h ands .
”
T h e c hild r e ads sil e ntly
an or d e r w ri t t e n on a slip o f p a p e r ; th e n prov e s th at s h e un de rst ands
b y ac ting t h e d i r e c t ion g ive n
.
( A Mo n t es s o r i S ch o o l i n I ta l y )
.
 REA D I N G 1 75

reading is o n e of the ro c ks on w hi c h the rudd e rl e ss ship

of elem entary e du c ation in e vitably r uns aground .

T h e experi m ents w e have su c c e e d e d in c ondu c ting on

the subj ec t of reading are perhaps am ong t h e m ost c o m
p l e t e w e have m ade . W e found the k e y to the p r obl e m

w h e n w e dis c ov e r e d that t h e c hild pass e d fro m t h e m e ntal

reading of the w ords w r itt e n on t h e c a r ds dir e c tly to i n

t e r pr e t at i o n in a c tion T his int e rpr e tation r e ady and
.
,

fa c ile as all the a c ts of c hildren ar e rev e als to us w hat t h e

, ,

c hild has und e rstood and a c c o r dingly w hat he i s c apabl e

of understanding We hav e thus b e en abl e t o obtain an

.

exp e ri m e ntal gr aduation of passages for r e ading w hi c h ,

on b e ing gather e d toge th e r show t h e natur e of t h e diffi

,

c u l t i e s w hi c h su c c essiv e ly pr e s e nt th e m s e lv e s to t h e c hild .

T h e c hildr e n have m ade for them selves sp e c i me n c laus e s

and sent e n c e s w hi c h an exp e rt gra mm arian c ould not hav e
devis e d better for fa c ilitating t h e study of lan guage As .

w e w e nt on w ith this w o r k w e b ec a m e m or e and m o r e c o n

,

v in c e d that the stud y of gr am m ar m a

y be m ade a help in

me ch ani c a l

w riting gr amm ati ca l ( c ontroll e d b y tr ans

l ation into a c tion )
n arr ati o n an d de s c ription

C omposition of words
( w ith m ov abl e a l
ph ab e t ) me ch ani c a l

gr amm ati c al
( tr ansl ations
r eading int e rpr e t ativ e into a c tion ) 1
d e c l a m atory
( e lo c ution )
r sse d
e xp e

( a loud )
1 Th e firs t r eadings c onsist o f a s p e c i a l gr amm ar an d a di c tion ary .
 REA D I N G 1 77

d r a m ati c art c an th e t r ans m ission of reading to a group

of p e opl e b e m ad e possibl e .

It is c l e a r that t h e oft e n e r th e exerc is e of identifying

on e s e lf w ith w hat is r e ad i s r e p e at e d and p e r fe c t e d the ,

gr e at e r th e possibility of e xp r e ssion b ec om es It follow s .

that in t h e p e r fe c tion of this a r t w e should b e l e ss c o n

c e rn e d w ith ti m b r e w ith ton e of voi c e and gestures all
, ,

e xt r insi c asp e c ts of thi s art than w ith intens e vivid i n

,

t er pr e tati o n w hi c h b r ings the c hild to an id e ntifi c ation

of hi m s e lf w ith w hat he r e ads And thi s int e r pr e tation .

w ill r e aliz e its obj ec ts if it is pra c tised as a habit and as

a fo rm o f r e ad i n
g .

The proof of c orr ec t int e rpr e tation w as th e c hild s ’

ability t o r e produ c e in a c tion w hat w as d e s c r ibed in the

w ords h e r e ad .S i m ilarly the proof of t h e interp r eta
,

tion in r e ading aloud i s t h e repetition of the things heard

by m eans of th e spoken lan gu age T hat i s t h e c hildren .
, ,

in ord e r to p r ov e to u s that th e y have understood som e

thing read aloud should be able t o r e peat in narrativ e
,

fo r m w hat th e y have h e ard .

T h e pra c ti c al r e sults of our e fforts in this di r ec ti on w e r e

v e r y inter e sting t o w at c h S om e c hildr e n c an say noth
.

thing O th e rs offer to tell the w hol e story T heir story

. .

i s not c lear o r p e r haps it is d e fe c tive in som e res p ec t Im .

m ediately oth e r c hildren are ready to c orrec t the ones

N o no that s not w hat happ e n e d ,
’
telling th e st o ry : , ,

that s not w hat happen e d or Wait you hav e fo r gotten

’
, , ,
”
so m e thing and so on In fa c t to understand and to b e
,
.
,

able to narrat e w hat has been underst o od i s not th e sam e

thing In t e lling a story th e re is a su c c e ssive unfo lding
.

of very c om plex m e ntal a c tivities w hi c h ar e bas e d on and

”
added to th e p r i m al a c tivity of having und e rst o o d It .
1 78 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY M AT ERIAL

i s a qu e stion again of the th r ee diffe rent stage s not e d by us

in th e fi r st l e ssons giv e n to c hildr e n
F i r s t s tage t h e c ausing of the p e rc eption :
, ( T h at i s

r ed th at is bl u e )
,

S ec o n d s tage the p e rfe c tion of r ec ognition :

, ( Wh at is
r ed o r

T h i rd s tage t h e provo c ation of e xp r e ssion :

, ( What
a b o u t th is o r th a t ? )

T hus the c hild w h o su c c e e ds in e xp r e ssing e v e n in an

, ,

i m p e r fec t w ay w h at h e ha s und e r stood of t h e passage h e

,

h as r e ad i s in a m o r e adva n c e d stat e of d e v e lopm ent than

,

oth e r c hild r en w h o are unabl e to t e l l th e story How ev e r .

,

th e se c hildre n w h o are not abl e to r e late w hat they hav e

heard said m ay very w ell b e in the pre c eding stage in
“ ”
w hi c h they are c apabl e of re c ognition . T h e se latter
are the relentl e ss c riti c s the c onstant h e ckl e rs of those
,
”
N o no
’
w h o are trying to r e l at e , ,
th at s n o t so ,
”
You hav e forgott e n thi s or th at ,
Le t o n e of u s
t e a c h e r s try to t e ll t h e sto r y in t h e m ost p e r fec t and c o m
p l e t e m anner
,
and thes e tiny i m p e tuous h ec kl e rs l isten to
us in e c stasy sho w ing their app r oval in ev e ry form of
,

approbation of w hi c h they are c apable By studying su c h

.

m anifestations in th e c hildren w e c an get su ffi c i e nt ps y c ho

,

logi c al data for d e term ining w h at r e ading is adapt e d t o

c hildr e n of di ffe rent ages the best w ays of r e ading aloud ,
,

and th e lin e of d e v e lop m e nt follow e d by e a c h c hild in that

hidd e n m e ntal w o r ld of his w hi c h is c u t O ff from our gaze .

But to d e rive th es e be n e fits f r om reading it i s perfe c tly ,

c l e ar that th e c h ild r e n m ust b e l e ft absolut e ly fr e e in the

e xpr e ssion of w h at g o e s on in their m inds .

A c c ording to t h e m ethod used in ordina r y s c h o ols a c hild

is c all e d upon to r ead aloud and the tea c her h e rs e lf c o n
,

t in u all y interru pts e ither to c orr e c t th e pronun c iation o r

, ,
 REA D I N G 1 79

to assist by e xplanations and suggesti o ns in the i n t e rpre

t at i o n of t h e m e aning T his is all u s e l e ss for e xpe r im e n
.
‘

tal purpos e s We hav e no c e rtain m e ans of d e t e r m ining

.

w h e ther the pupil ha s und e rstood e ith e r w hat h e has r e ad

o r t h e explanations of t h e t e a c h e r F u r th e rm or e t h e c o r .

’
r ec tions of p r onun c i ation hav e c e nt e r e d the c hild s att en
tio n on this d etail w hi c h is e nti r e ly w ithout r e lation to
the m eaning of th e text he is int e rpr e ting Another situa .

tion not infrequ e ntly aris e s A c hild i s sele c t e d at ran

.

do m to t e ll in hi s o w n w o r ds w hat has bee n read O ft e n .

t h e s e l ec ti on i s not m ad e at random but so m e pupil i s ,

c all e d on b e c au s e h e h as sho wn hi m self t h e m ost i n at t e n

tiv e th e l e ast int e r e st e d in w hat i s b e ing don e

, t h e r ec i
t at i o n thu s bec o m ing c o r r e c tional in c hara c ter ! Whil e
t h e c hild i s t e lling hi s sto r y there i s a c onstant su ppr e s
,
“ ”
sion of int e r ruptions : Hush I did not c all on you , ,
“
Wait till you ar e c all e d on ” “
It is not polite to int e r
,
”
rupt so m e o n e w h o i s talking e t c It is c l e a r that t h e,
.

t e a c h e r w ill n ev e r l e arn a n ything about h e r pupils in this

w ay .

T his xplains w hy fr o m t h e psy c hologi c al point of

e ,

vi e w ou r p r e s e nt day s c hools hav e not b e e n abl e to c o n

,
-

tribut e anything n e w to a r e form e d s c i e ntifi c pedagogy of

reading .

E X P E RI M E N T A L S E C T IO N : R E AD I N G A L O U D
Although w e lay all possibl e stress on int e rp r e tative
reading w e n e ve rth e l e s s put into the h ands of th e c hild
,

a littl e r e adi n g b ook w hi c h h e c an go over by hi m s elf first

in a l o w voi c e and then w hen h e has grasp e d t h e m e an
, ,

ing aloud provided he c an e xp r ess hi m self c l e a r ly and

, ,

e asily .

T h e si m pli c ity of th e se texts o c c asions sur p r i se w hen

 REA D I N G 1 81

fa s t e n i ng t h e hooks an d e y e s b u tt o n i ng an d nu
,

b u tt on i ng t y i ng an d un t y i ng kn o t s
,
.

P ag e 8 . T h e r e ar e t e n blo c ks for th i s t o w e r al l of d i ffe r e n t

,

s i z e s F i rs t I spr e ad th e m around on t h i s c arp e t

. .

I t i s gr e at fun to put th e m tog e th e r ag ai n t ak i ng ,

o n e aft e r t h e oth e r an d c hoos i n g t h e l arg e s t e ac h

ti m e .

Page 9 . I u se th e t o w e r t oo i n a b al an c i ng g am e J us t t ry .

to c arr y t h e to w e r around t h e roo m wi thout l e t ti ng

it fall t o p i e c e s ! S o m e ti m e s I su cc ee d an d th e n
ag ai n I so m e ti m e s f ai l .

Pag e 10 . I l i k e t h e long ro ds too ! I m us t pu t t h e rods n e ar

,

e a c h o t h e r a cc ord i ng t o t h e i r l e ngth I m us t b e .

c ar e ful t o pl ac e t h e blu e s e c t i ons n e ar t h e blu e on e s

an d t h e r e d on e s n e ar t h e r e d T hus I bu i ld
.
,

so m e pr e tt y s t ai rs wit h r e d an d bl u e st e ps .

P ag e 11 . B u t t o g e t a r e al s t ai r c as e I u se t h e bro w n pr i s m s .

T h e s e pr i s m s ar e of d i ffe r e n t s i z e s I p ut o n e b e
.

s i d e t h e oth e r acc ord i ng t o s i z e an d I g et so m e

,

fi n e s t ai rs wi th t e n s t e ps .

P age 12 . I h av e also so m e sol i d i ns e ts of w ood i n t o w h ic h I fi t

l itt l e c y l i nd e rs of d i ffe r e n t d i m e ns i ons T h e y d i f .

f e r i n l e n g th an d br e adth . T h e g ame i s to put

th e s e c y l i nd e rs i n th e i r pl ac e s aft e r look i ng at th e m
an d t ou c h i ng t h e m c ar e full y .

We oft e n m ak e m i s t ak e s i n w ork i ng wit h t h e i ns e t s .

Wh e n w e pu t a c y l i nd e r w h e r e i t do e sn t b e long ’
,

w e fi n d t h a t at t h e e n d of t h e g am e w e h av e o n e
c yl i nd e r l e ft ov e r an d i t w on t fi t i n an y w h e r e
’
.

T h e n t h e e xe r ci s e b e c o m e s v e r y e xciti ng We loo k .

at t h e i ns e t c ar e full y ; w e fi n d t h e m i st ak e an d b e

g i n al l O v e r ag ai n T h e m os t sk i lful pup i ls w ork

.

on t h e i ns e t s wi th t h e i r e y e s c los e d .

P age 14 . T h e s e c olors ar e c all e d : r e d bl ack gr e e n y e l lo w blu e

, , , , ,

bro w n p i nk an d v i ol e t
,
.

P ag e 15 . I am us e m y s e lf by p ic k i ng ou t an d pu tti ng t og e t h e r
p i e c e s of t h e s am e c olor from t h e c oll e c t i on spr e ad
out ov e r m y t abl e I g e t t hus a long s t r i p of d i f
.

f e re n t c olor s .
 M O N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T AR Y MAT E RIAL
16 . We l e arn to r ng e sixty -four d i ffe r e n t c olors by
ar a

gr a d ati ons We g et e i gh t b e a u ti ful bl e nds of

.

c olors e a c h for m e d b y e i ght ti n t s of d i ff e r e n t ton e s

,
.

Wh e n w e b e c o m e sk i lful w e c an m ak e a pr e tty rug

w it h bl e n d i ng s t r i ps .

17 . We also h ave tw o l i t t l e c h e s t s full of p i e c e s of c lo t h .

T h e c loths ar e of al l k i nds fro m t h e rough e st an d

h ard e s t t o t h e s m ooth e s t an d sof t e st : c an va s c o t ,

t on l i n e n w ool fl ann e l ve l ve t e t c If w e k e e p
, , , , , .

our h ands c l e an w e c an l e arn t o r e c ogn i z e all sor t s

,

of t h i ngs wit h t h e ti ps of our fi ng e rs !

18 . A c h i ld i s bl i n dfold e d He m ixe s t h e p i e c e s of c loth
.

wit h h i s l ittl e h ands He fe e ls abou t am ong t h e .

p i e c e s of c lo t h At l as t h e s m i l e s an d holds up h i s
.

h ands w it h t w o p i e c e s of c lo t h bo t h a l i ke T hough ,
.

h e c ould n o t s e e th e c h i ld h as found ou t j us t b y
, ,

us i ng h i s fi nge rs t h at t h e t w o p i e c e s w e r e of t h e
,

s am e c lo t h .

19 . T h e s e ar e m y pl an e i ns e t s H e re ar e t h e blu e t abl e t s . .

I m us t fi t t h e m i n t o t h e fr am e s w h i c h h av e j us t ,

e nough roo m for t h e m I run tw o fi ng e rs t h e for e

.
,

fi ng e r an d t h e m i ddl e -fi n g e r aroun d t h e e dg e of ,

t h e t abl e t an d t h e n around t h e e dge of t h e fr am e s

, .

N e xt I fi t t h e t abl e t i n t o it s prop e r pl ac e Af t e r .

a l itt l e pr ac ti s e I c an pu t t h e s i x t abl e t s i n t h e i r

pl ac e s e v e n wi th m y e y e s bl i ndfold e d .

20 . Wit h t h e pl an e i ns e t s I h av e l e arn e d t o r e c og n i z e
m an y fi gu r e s : t h e s q u ar e t h e ci r c l e t h e r e c t angl e , , ,

t h e e ll i ps e t h e t r i a ngl e t h e o v al t h e p e n t agon t h e
, , , ,

h e xagon t h e h e p t agon t h e o c t o g o n t h e e nn e agon

, , , ,

t h e d e c agon I l e arn e d al l t h e s e h ard n am e s ve ry

.

e as i ly b e c aus e t h e i ns e t s ar e so am us i ng !

IN T E R P R E T A T I O N S
Reading w ith t h e obj e c t of int e rpr e tation i s c ondu c ted
“
as in th e fi r st e xp e ri m e nts of th e C hild r e n s Hous e ’
,

w ith c ards . F rom t h e graduated seri e s w e have pr e par e d

t h e c hild sele c ts a c ard He reads it m entally and then
.
 RE A D I N G 1 83

e xe c ut e s a c tion indi c at e d on the c ard O u r lat e r e x

th e .

e r i m e n t s be c a m e v e r y interesting w hen they w e r e bas e d

p
upon a m ore rigorous m e thod Wh e n w e gave a c ard de .

s c ribing t w o a c tions to a c hild of fi v e y e a r s h e w ould ,

e x e c ut e only one of the a c tions T ak e th e follo w ing f o r

.

e xa m pl e

She l e an e d ov e r t h e b ac k of a c h ai r .

S he c ov e r e d h e r f a c e wi th h e r h ands an d w ep t .

The c hild w ould ac t out ith e r

first s ent en c e ( S h e
e th e
l e an ed o ve r th e b ac k o f th e c h ai r ) o r t h e s ec ond ( S h e
c o ve r ed h e r f ac e w i th h e r h an d s and w e t In spit
p ) e .

of t h e fa c t that this c hild s e em e d ext r ao r dinarily e age r

to ge t t h e c a r ds into his hands and to int e r p r e t th em those ,

c ontaining t w o s e nt e n c e s al w ays a r ous e d in h im l e ss e n

t h u s i asm than thos e c ontaining a sin gl e s e nt e n c e or indi

c ating a singl e a c tion ( fo r instan c e T h e b o y r an aw ay ,

as fas t as h e c o u ld ) In this latt e r c ase t h e enthusi asm

.

of t h e littl e on e s th e i r c ar e in int e r p r e ting t h e a c tion

,

vividly thei r e age r n e ss to r e p e at it th e ir flu sh e d fa c e s

, ,

and shining e y e s told us that at last w e had the r e ading

,

adapt e d to th e i r psyc h o l o g
O u r firs t s e r i es of r e adings a c c ordingly i s e nti r e ly
”
t e st e d o r expe ri m e n tal I t i s m ad e u p of si m pl e se n
.

t e n c e s som e thi n g lik e thos e analyzed in t h e l e ssons on

gra mm ar ( V e r b to Pronoun ) .

S E RI E S I
S he g az e d slo w l y aroun d t h e roo m .

He look e d at t h e m ou t of t h e c orn e rs of h i s e ye s .

y r an aw ay as f a s t as h e c ou ld
— T he b o .

S h e thr e w h e rs e lf on h e r kn e e s b e for e h i m .

T h e m an p ac e d slo w l y up an d do w n t h e roo m .

T h e l it tl e g i rl s t ood wit h lo w e r e d h e a d .
 RE AD I N G 1 85

S E R IE S II
He op e n e d t h e door an d c am e i n .

He l e f t t h e roo m an d lo c k e d t h e door b e h i n d h im .

He w e nt on t i pto e to t h e door an d c ar e full y op e n e d it .

S he c ov e r e d her f ac e w i th h er h ands an d b e g an t o sob vi o

l en tl y .

S he g av e a c ry of j oy an d r an t o t h e door .

S h e burs t i n t o a l augh an d c l app e d h e r h an ds .

He t ook off h i s c ap an d m ad e a lo w bo w .

S h e shook h e r h e ad s a dl y an d s m i l e d .

He t hr e w t h e wi ndo w wi d e op e n an d l ook e d i n t o t h e g ard e n .

He hurr i e d t o t h e t abl e an d r ang t h e b e ll .

Wit h a s i gh of r e l i e f h e s t r e t c h e d h i m s e lf out on t h e sof a an d ,

l ay t h e r e look i ng at t h e c e i l i ng wi th h i s m outh op e n .

He sh u t h i s e y e s an d f e ll asl e ep .

In t h e th ir d s e r ies ther e are sent e n c e s

, w ith one or m or e
c oo r dinate c laus e s .

S E RI E S III
S he op e n e d t h e door s m ooth e d h e r h ai r s l o w l y an d c am e i n
,
.

He w e n t t o t h e w i n do w op e n e d i t a l itt l e an d p e e r e d i n t o t h e
,

str e e t
.

He c los e d t h e wi ndo w w e n t b ac k t o h i s d e sk an d t h e n b e g an
,

t o w alk hurr i e dl y up an d do w n t h e roo m .

T h e do c tor b e nt ov e r t h e s ic k m an f e l t h i s puls e wit h o n e ,

h and an d pl ac e d t h e oth e r on h i s for e h e a d .

He t ook a k e y ou t of h i s po c ke t op e n e d t h e door an d c am e i n
,
.

S h e u tt e r e d a c ry of j o y r an t o h e r m oth e r an d s ank on h e r
,

kn e e s b e for e h e r .

He pu t h i s l e ft e lbo w on h i s kn e e r e s t e d h i s for e h e ad i n h i s
,

l e ft h an d an d b e g an to s t rok e h i s b e ard wi th h i s r i gh t .

S h e l e an e d ov e r t h e b a c k of t h e c h ai r c o v e r e d h e r f a c e wit h ,

h e r h ands an d w e p t .

He w e n t t o t h e t abl e found t h e p ict ur e an d j o y full y took it

,

i n h i s h an ds .

S h e t ook h e r h andk e r c h i e f ou t of h e r po c ke t unfold e d it an d ,

w i p e d t h e t e ars fro m h e r e y e s .
1 86 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MAT E RIAL
T he c h i ld sl e e py He r e s t e d h i s h e ad o n h i s ar m s on
w as .

t h e t abl e an d w e n t t o sl e e p .

He looke d t o w ard t h e door fix e dl y w it h an expr e ss i on of t e r ,

ror on h i s fac e an d w ait e d for t h e m a n t o c o m e i n .

S E RI E S IV
( C o m plex s e nten c e s w ith subordinate c laus e )
on e

Wh i l e h e w as m ak i ng t h e dr awi ng h e ke p t exam i n i ng
,
the
fl o w e r v e ry c ar e full y .

S h e c ov e r e d h e r e y e s wit h h e r h ands as i f sh e w e r e t ry i ng t o ,

c oll e ct h e r t houghts .

S h e c los e d h e r e y e s so t h at sh e c oul d fe e l m or e i n t e ns e l y t h e
soft n e ss of t h e p i e c e of v e lv e t .

S h e look e d t e nd e rl y a ft e r t h e l itt l e boy ti ll h e d i s app e ar e d ,

through t h e door .

Wh e n h e h ad su cc e e d e d i n t u r n i ng t h e k nob w it hou t m ak i ng
an y no i s e h e s t e a l t h i ly O p e n e d t h e door an d p e e r e d i n t o
,

t h e roo m .

G e org e h e l d t h e book b e for e h i s f ac e so t h at n o o n e c ould s ee

h im l augh i ng .

S h e w alk e d slo w l y ac ross t h e roo m an d w ith bo w e d h e ad as ,

t hough sh e w e r e i n gr e at sorro w .

T h e ol d m an s t rok e d t h e l itt l e boy s he ad as t hough h e w e r e ’

m u c h am us e d .

Aft e r sh e h ad m o ti on e d t o t h e c h i l d t o b e s i l e n t t h e l ad y ,

s m i l i ngl y appro a c h e d an d took h im by t h e h and .

T h e y s t opp e d sudd e nl y an d l i s t e n e d a s t hough w ond e r i ng ,

w h at it c oul d b e .

Wh e n Mar y op e n e d t h e door G e orge w e n t t o m e e t h e r w it h

,

a c h e e ry s m i l e of w e l c o m e .

S E RI E S V

( S e nt e n c es som e w h at m or e involv e d ; d e s c riptions m or e

c o m pl e x ; an exa c t interp r etation so m eti m es r e quir e s

the pronun c i ation of w ords aloud )

T he c h i ld ros e from h e r s e at an d wit h h e r fac e bur i e d i n h e r
,

h andke r c h i e f w alk e d slow ly s adl y t o w ard t h e w i ndo w

, , , .
 READ I N G 1 87

He l ay b ac k i n h i s c h ai r h i s h e ad sun k b e tw e e n h i s should e rs
, ,

i
wh le h i s ar m s w e r e pr e sse d ti gh t ly ac ross h i s br e as t a s ,

t hough h e w e r e c ol d .

He drop pe d w e ar i ly i nto a c h ai r an d s at t h e r e looki ng at t h e

fl oor h i s r i gh t e lbo w o n h i s kn e e an d h i s c h i n r e st i ng on
,

h i s h and .

He s t ood at t h e op e n w i ndo w w it h fi gur e e r e ct an d h i s h ands

, ,

r e s ti n g on t h e wi ndo w -s i ll w h i l e i n d e e p br e at hs h e t ook
,

i n t o h i s lungs t h e d e l ici ous fr e sh ai r th at w as c o m i ng i n t o

t h e roo m .

T h e boy lo w e r e d h i s h e ad an d rubb e d h i s for e h e ad wi th h i s

,

h an ds as t hough h e w e r e t ry i ng t o c oll e c t h i s t houghts .

T h e r e sh e kn e l t h e r f a c e t urn e d h e av e n w ard h e r h ands

, ,

c ross e d i n h e r l ap w h i l e h e r body droop e d ge n tl y as though

,

sh e w e r e v e ry v e ry t i r e d
, .

Wh e n h e r e a c h e d t h e door o f h is h ous e h e h as ti ly unlo c k e d ,

t h e door op e n e d it w e n t i n an d c ar e full y lo c k e d t h e door

, , ,

ag ai n b e h i n d h i m ; an d i n h i s e ag e rn e ss to c on fi d e h i s s e c r e t

t o so m e o n e h e c ould t rus t h e w e n t do w n t h e h all c all i ng

,

“
M o t h e r Moth e r !
,
”

H i s e y e s fi ll e d wit h t e ars as h e w e n t t o t h e w all w h e r e t h e

p i c t ur e of h i s f at h e r hung an d t h e re w i th h i s h e ad r e s ti ng
,

on h i s arm ag ai n st t h e w all h e sobb e d b i t t e rl y , .

R i zp ah spr e ad t h e c lo t h on t h e groun d at t h e foo t of t h e t r e e ,

s e at e d h e rs e lf upon it an d wi th h e r ar m s r e st i ng l i m p upon
,

h e r kn e e s h e r e y e s se t i n u nutt e r abl e w o e w at c h e d t h e
, ,

b i rds an d t hough t abou t h e r lost c h i ldr e n .

T h e m an w as l y i ng spr aw l i ng on t h e c ou c h bu t h e j u m p e d
, , ,

u p an d r an t o t h e door an d angr i l y m o ti on e d t o h i s s e r v an t

t o c o m e t o h im .

T h e o l d l ad y s at sh i v e r i n g n e ar t h e s t ov e hold i ng ou t h e r ,

h an ds t o g e t t h e w ar m t h an d n e rvousl y op e n i ng an d c los i ng
t h e m so th at t h e ti p s of h e r fi ng e rs k e pt rubb i ng h e r p al m s .

“
I se e t hough t t h e boy as h e s t ood wit h fol d e d ar m s look i ng
”
,

fi xe dl y at t h e fl oor .

He took t h e h an dk e r c h i e f e xam i n e d it a m o m e n t an d s ai d
,

I t do e sn t b e lon g to m e !
’

He stoop e d ov e r an d p ic k e d up a p e n ci l t h at w as l y i ng on t h e
fl oor : Psh aw s ai d h e i t i s brok e n !
”
,
“ ”
,
Inte rp r e t e d r eading : Whisp e r t o h im . c
( T h e L e n o re S h o o l , Mo n t es s o ri
E l e men t ar y C l as s , N e w Yo r k ) .
In a si m il ar mann e r t h e
,
childr n e ac t out or int e r p re t p os e s an d e x pr e ssion s
in p i ctur e s . c
( A M o n t es s o r i S h o o l i n I t al y ).
 REA D I N G 1 89

und e r th e p i l lo w for h i s p i s t ols : Wh o go e s t h e r e ? h e ”

shou t e d s t e rnly .

T h e c h i ld pl ayfull y dr e w h i s c ap do w n o ve r h i s e y e s as t hough
h e w e r e a v e r y fi e r c e b and i t an d rush e d i nto t h e roo m
,

hold i ng ou t h i s arm an d po i n ti ng h i s for e -fi n g e r l i ke a

p i stol.

As t h e l ad i e s ro de up t h e o l d ge n t l e m an r ai s e d h i s h at an d
,

stood wit h bo we d h e ad ti l l t h e y h ad p ass e d .

T h e y oung m an p ic k e d up t h e glov e fro m t h e floor pr e ss e d i t ,

fe rv e n t l y to h i s l i p s an d c l asp e d i t t e n d e rly agai ns t h i s

boso m as t hough it w e r e a pr ic e l e ss t r e asur e
, .

S E RI E S V I

( More diffic ult i n terpr e tations w ith o c c asional speaking )

D u n s e y t hr e w h i m s e lf i n t o a c h ai r b y t h e w i ndo w dr e w an ,

o t h e r c h ai r be for e h im t hr e w o n e l e g ov e r it an d b e g an t o
, ,

b e at on t h e w i n do w s i ll wi th t h e po i n t s of h i s fin ge rs .

G odfr e y s t ood wi th h i s b a c k t o t h e fi r e m ov i ng h i s fi nge rs

,

un e as i ly am ong t h e c on t e n t s of h i s s i d e -po c k e t s an d look i ng

at t h e fl oor .

Aaron r e p l i e d by rubb i ng h i s h e ad ag ai ns t h i s m oth e r s sk i r t ’

,

p ass i ng t h e b ac ks of h i s h an ds ov e r h i s e y e s an d p e e p i ng
t hrough h i s fi nge rs at M as t e r Marn e r .

M r M ac ey s c r e w e d up h i s m ou t h l e an e d h i s h e ad fur t h e r on
.
,

o n e s i d e an d twi rl e d h i s t h um b s r ap i dl y wit h h i s tw o
,

h ands r e s ti ng on h i s l ap an d tou c h i ng at t h e fi n g e r-ti ps .

S i l a s s at wi th h i s e lbo w s on h i s k n e e s h i s for e h e a d pr e ss e d
,

r i g i dl y i n t o h i s tw o p al m s h i s e y e s c los e d d e e p s i ghs t h at
, ,

w e r e al m os t g ro ans sh ak i ng h i s sl e n de r fr am e .

T h e l i t t l e t o t s q u att e d on t h e c o at an d spr e ad ou t h e r h an ds
t o t h e fi r e ; b u t t h e l i t t l e e y e s r e fus e d t o s t ay op e n an d ,

fi n all y t h e go l d e n h e a d s ank do w n upon t h e fl oor f as t asl ee p .

P r e s e n t ly t h e c h i l d sl i pp e d fro m h i s kn e e an d b e g an t o w al k
abou t ; bu t sudd e nl y sh e f e ll i n t o a S itti ng pos t ur e an d

b e g an t o p u l l at h e r l it tl e boo t s as t hough sh e w e r e t r y i n g
,

t o ge t at h e r t o e s .

At l as t h e s ai d s t r e tc h i ng b a c k i n t h e arm c h ai r c ross i ng
”
, , ,
 REA D I N G 1 91

as th el itt l e g i rl w as t urn i ng to po i n t ou t t h e ro ad o n e of ,

t h e m e n s e i z e d h e r b y t h e w a i st an d l i f t e d h e r fro m t h e
ground L u ci a look e d b a c k ov e r h e r should e r t e rr i fi e d an d
.

g ave a shr i e k ( M anzon i ) . .

( T he childr e n w r d light d w ith this lit t l e ac tion

e e e e an d r e

h ears e d it ov e r an d ov er aga in .
)
Wit h a s t ar t E v ang e l i n e look e d wi ldly abou t h e r :
, Wh e r e
i s G abr i e l ? sh e ask e d d az e dly Wh e r e i s G abr i e l ? .

Wh e r e i s G abr i e l ? ”
He i s on t h at sh i p t h at i s j us t
“

s ai l i n g ou t of t h e h arbor ! so m e o n e a ns w e r e d F o r a
”
.

f e w m o m e n t s E v ang e l i n e s t ood sh ad i ng h e r e y e s w i t h h e r
p al m g az i ng a ft e r t h e v e ss e l f as t d i s app e ar i ng i nto t h e
, ,

hor i zon At l a s t s h e spok e h al f aloud :

.
“
I wi ll follow
”
yo u an d fi n d y o u w h e r e v e r t h ey m ay t ak e you G abr i e l , ,

sh e s a i d a s though t ak i ng a v o w
,
T h e n sh e t urn e d t o t h e .

sold i e r an d s ai d : L e ad on t o t h e bo at I am c o m i ng I
“
, ,

”
am c o m i ng .

G i v e m e t h e bo w s ai d T e ll T e l l c hos e tw o arro w s ; o n e
, .

h e fi t t e d to t h e bo w -str i ng t h e oth e r h e t hrus t i n t o h i s

,

g i rdl e T h e n for a m o m e n t h e s t ood a l i t t l e bo w e d of

.
,

shoul d e r wi th h i s e y e s do w n w ard : h e w a s pr ay i ng Y o u
, .

m i ght h av e h e ard a l e af f all so st i ll w as t h e pl a c e T hen

, .

T e ll r ai s e d h i s h e ad ; h i s e y e s w e r e st e ad y h i s h ands h ad ,

b e c o m e st i ll ; h i s f ac e w as l i k e i ron ; h e brough t t h e c ross

bo w t o h i s should e r an d l ai d h i s e y e t o t h e fe ath e r of t h e
sh aft : T w ang t h e appl e fe ll A c h e e r aros e fro m t h e
“ ”
, .

c ro w d T e ll l ai d h i s h and u pon t h e arro w i n h i s g i r dl e

. .

If t h e fi rs t h ad hurt m y c h i l d h e s ai d th i s o n e by n o w
”
, ,

w ould h av e b e e n through your h e ar t 0 G e ssl e r ! ,

T he children by no m eans restri c t them s elves to a c ting

out thes e littl e s c e n e s and pos e s In a s e c ond stage th e y .

r e ad aloud all th e s e slips w hi c h they h av e int e r pr e t e d an d ,

in vi e w of the pr e paration th e y have had th e i r r e ad ing ,

sho w s c onsid e rable po w e r of exp r essi on T h ey t e nd to .

r e ad t h e slips ov e r and ov e r again m any ti m e s and not , ,

infrequ e ntly c o mm it th em t o m e m o r y T o tak e adv an .

1 92 MO N T E S S O RI E L E ME N T ARY MA T E RIA L

tage of this n e w a c tivity w e got toge ther a nu m b e r of

po e m s m aking up a littl e book of c hild r en s verse T h e
,
’
.

pupils r e ad th e m both m e ntally and aloud ulti m at e ly ,

c o m m itting th e m to m e m ory and r ec iting the m Her e .

a r e som e spe c i m e ns of our Italian c olle c tion

IL B A C O I T HE I
K SS

D or m iv a n e ll a c un a un b e l b am A pr
tty child w as sl e e p ing
e

bino ,
in its c r adl e ; its m oth e r w as
El a m amm a lo st av a a ri m ir ar e ; looking at it S h e w ant e d to .

V ol e v a d argli i1 ba c io de l m attino , give it t h e m orning kiss ; but t h e

Ma i l b ac io lo pot e v a risv egli ar e ; kiss m ight awake n it T o avoid .

S v e gl i ar l o n o n vol e v a e c on l a , this sh e thr e w it a thous an d

,

m ano kisse s w ith h er h and .

”

G l i butt o c ento b a c i da lont ano .

UN S OGN O A D RE A M
V idi fat a u m giorno
un a I saw a fairy one day , ith w
C h e av e a l e tr e cc e d oro golden h a ir an d a dr e ss o f p earls,
’

E n u abito di pe rl e ri ch e r th an a tr easure .

Pi n ri cc o d un t e soro
’
.

Vi ni c on me m i diss e
e , , C om e w ith me t h e fa iry ,

C h e ti fa r o r egin a s aid an d I l l m ak e you a

’
,
.

N o n v engo b e ll a fat a, , q u een I.c annot pr etty fa iry ”

, ,

Io sto c on l a m amm ina I r epli e d I m ust st ay w ith

“
.
,

moth e r .
”

LA NE VE T HE SNOW

Lent a la nev e fi o c c a, fi o c c a, T he fl ak e s of snow

fa lling ar e ,

fi o c c a, f alling fa lling ,L ist e n a c r adl e .

,

S enti , una c ull a dondol a pi an is gently gently ro cking ; a b aby

,

pi ano . c ri e s his finge r in his m outh ;

,

U n bi m bo pi ange , i1 p i c c o l dito t h e old nurs e sings h e r c hin in ,

in bo cc a h e r h and .

C ant a 1 a v e cchi a , i 1 m e nto in su

l a m ano .

L A GA L L N A I T HE HE N
Io vi dom ando s e si pu o trov a r e I l e av e it to you is th e r e a :

Un pi u br avo ani m al de ll a ga l ni c e r ani mal than t h e h en ? If

lin a . only sh e w ouldn t s c r at ch I ’
,

S e non av e ss e i1 vizio di r asp ar e would like to h ave o n e w ith me

 READ I N G 1 93

Ne vorr e i s empr e av e r un a vi all the t ime . Ev e ry d ay , at a

c in a . c e rt in hour
a : c
C u t - ut - ut - ut c c
T utti i giorni a q u e l l o r a : Co c c ad ak u t
’
. !
co de R un an d look in th e n e st , an d

C orri a gua rda r nel c ovo e l ovo

’
an egg is th e r e !
’
c e!

LA PO V E RA B A BI B I N A T HE POO R O RP HA N C H IL D
D iss e :
“
M i a m adr e e m ort a l She s a id M y m oth er is
:
“

digiun a
Io so n de ad ; I h av e nothing t o e at ; t h e
E l a s t ag io n e cruda ;
/ w e athe r is c old T h er e is no o n e .

In t e rr a a m e n o n p e ns a a ni m a l eft to think o f me I am a r ag .

al cu n a ge d orph an girl
”
: .

S ono or f an e ll a e ignuda .

IL PESCE T HE F S I H
U n di f u o r de ll a v a s c a del gi ar O n e d ay a littl e fish j u m p e d
dino i m prud e ntl y o u t o f t h e garden
G ui z z o i m prud ent e m e nt e n u p e s pool . G igi sa w it an d a l l exc it

c iolino . e dl y c ri d out
e M am m a m am ,

G igi l o vid e e tutto disp e r ato

,
m a, a fish h as drown e d hi m s e lf .
”

G rido a ll a m a mm a uh p e s c e s e
’
:

ann e gato !

Q UE L C HE POSS E I DE UN

BAM B N O I A C H IL D ’
S PO SSE SS ONS I
Due pi edi l e st i l e sti Tw o littl e live ly fee t to run an d
pe r c orr e r e e s alt ar e . j um p w ith .

D u e m ani s e m pr e in m ot o T w o busy h ands to t ak e an d do

pe r pr end e r e e pe r fa r e . thing
La bo cc a pi cc olin a O n e littl e m outh to ask q u e stions
pe r tutto do m and ar e . w ith .

D u e or e cc hi e s e m pr e a ll e rt a T w o e a rs a l w ay s aw ak e to h e a r
’

int e nt e ad a sc olt ar e . e v e r y thing w ith .

D u e o cc hioni sp a l an c ati T w o bright e y e s a l w ay s op en to

s e e e v e rything w ith
pe r tutto inv e stigar e . .

E u n cuori c ino buono O n e littl e h e art to lov e w ith .

pe r molto m olto amar e ,

.

IL B UO N OD O RE T HE FL OWE R s F RA G R A N C E
’

Ma ,bi m bo m i o , p e r ch e W h y spoil th at pr e tty flow

S c i u pa r qu e sto b e l fi o r e ? e r, my child ? ”

C e r c avo i l buon odor e looking for t h e s w e e t

“
, I w as
N o n so c a pir dov e sm e ll an d I h a v e n t b e en abl e t o
’ ” ’
.

LI N A S C H WA R Z . find it .
”
 RE AD I N G 1 95

T HE I
L T T LE COCK S PA RR O W T HE L AM B

A littl e c o ck-sp arrow s at on a L ittl e l amb who m ade th ee ?

,

gr e e n tr e e ,
D ost thou kno w w ho m a d e th e e ,

An d h e c hirrup e d h e c hirrup e d, ,
G av e th e e life an d b a d e th e e fee d
so m e rry w a s b e ; By t h e str e am an d o e r t h e m e ad
’

A n aughty b o y c am e w ith his G av e th ee c lothing o f d e light ,

w e e b o w a n d a rrow ,
S o f t e st c lothing w ooll y bright ;
De t e r m in e d t o shoot thi s littl e G a v e th e e su c h a t end e r voi c e ,

c o ck sp arrow
-
.
Making a l l t h e v al e s r e j oi c e ?
Li ttl e l am b w h o m ad e th e e ?
T hislittl e c o ck -sparro w sh all D ost thou know w ho m ad e th e e ?
m ak e m e a st e w ,
W B LA K E . .

An d his gibl e ts sh a ll m ak e m e a
littl e pi e too .
”
Le t dogs d e light to b ark an d bit e ,

O h no ! s a i d t h e sp arrow
,
I ,
F o r G o d h ath m ad e th e m so ;
w on t m ak e a st e w
’
L e t b e a rs a n d lions grow l an d
S o h e fl a ppe d his w ings a n d fight ,

a w ay h e fl e w Fo r tis th e ir n atur e t o o
’
.
.

B O O K OF K N O W L E D GE .
Bu t childr en you should n e v e r
, ,

l et
Su ch angry p assions ris e
T HE T RE E Y our littl e h nds w e r a e n ev er
Wh at do we do w h e n we pl a nt m ad e
tr e e ?
the TO t ear ea ch oth rs e
’
ey e s .

We pl ant t h e house s for you an d VVA T T S .

me ;
We pl ant r aft e rs t h e shin
th e ,
Th e sunshin e fl i ck e rs through
g l e t h e fl oors
, ,
t h e l ac e
We pl ant t h e studding t h e l aths , ,
O f l e a v e s abov e m y h e ad ,

t h e doors ,
A n d kiss e s m e upon t h e fa c e
Th e b e am s an d siding a l l p arts L ik e M oth e r b e for e b e d .

th a t b e !
We pl ant t h e hous e wh en w e Th e w in d c om s st e aling
e o er
’
th e
p l ant t h e tr e e .
gr a ss
HE N RY AB BE Y .
T o w hisp e r pr e t t y things ;
A n d though I c annot s ee h im
p a ss
I fee l his c ar e ful w ings .

STE VE N S O N .

After thi s pr e paration t h e c hild r e n ar e abl e to und e r

”
stand w hat th e y r e ad All th e i r di ffi c ulti e s in g r asp .

ing th e sent e n c e s and th e i r m ost c o m pli c at e d c onst r u c tions

have b e e n ov e r c o m e T h e y hav e an insight into t h e g r a m
.

m at i c al fo r m of langu age ; and t h e c onst ru c tion of a sen

1 96 M O N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

t e n c e as w e ll as t h e m e aning of th e w o r ds in it int e r e sts

, ,

th em T her e has b ee n c r eated w ithin them a fund of sup

.

pressed energy w hi c h w ill very soon b r eak forth into i n

t e nse a c tivity In fa c t in our s c hool aft e r th e s e exe r
.
, ,

c is e s t h e passion for r e ading began to S ho w its e lf T he .

c hild r e n w ant e d r e ading r e ading m o r e r e ading

, ,
”
We .

got toge th e r hastily a f e w books but n ev e r e nough to sat

i sf y t h e e age r n e ss of t h e c hild r e n We found a surp r is
.

ing la c k of r eading for littl e c hild r e n in Italian T h e .

Am e r i c an system of op e ning sp e c ial room s in publi c

librari e s for the use of little r e ad e rs seem s to m e an exc e l
lent thing .

But to tak e full advantage of this a w a ke n e d e nthusiasm

f o r r e ading and to c ultivate at th e sam e t i m e t h e a r t of
r e ading aloud w e m ust not negl e c t another elem ent i n
reading : audition .

AUDI T IO N
When th e child has advan c e d to som e ex tent in th e
exerc ises of interpretation the t e a c her m ay begin read
,

ing aloud T his should be don e as artisti c ally as possibl e

. .

We re c omm end for th e training of tea c hers not only a

c onsiderable arti sti c edu c ation in gen e r al but sp e c i al at

tention to the art of r e ading O n e of the differen c es b e

.

t w e en the traditional tea c h e r o f the past and the tea c h e rs

w e should like to c reat e is that t h e form e r used t o speak
”
of an art of t e a c hing w hi c h c onsisted of various de
,

vi c e s to m ake th e c hild learn in spite of itself w hat the

, ,

tea c h e r w anted to tea c h O ur tea c hers rather S hould be

.
, ,

c u l ti vato r s of the fi n e arts F o r in our m e thod art i s c o n

.

s i de r e d a m eans t o li f e
. It is beauty in all its form s w hi c h
h e lps th e inn e r m an t o grow We hav e r e peatedl y em
.

h i z e d that both in t h e e nviron m ent at s c hool and in

p a s
 READ I N G 1 97

t h e m aterials us e d e v e r ything should b e c ar e fully c o n

,

s i de r e d in its artisti c b e arings to provid e a m pl e roo m for

,

d e v e lop m ent fo r all th e ph e no m e na of att e ntion and pe r

h f
sist e n c e in w o r k w hi c h are t e s ec r e t keys O s lf e du c ation
e - .

T h e M ontessori tea c h e r should b e a c ultivator of m usi c ,

dra w ing and e lo c ution r e sponsiv e to the h arm ony of

,
”
things ; she must that i s h av e suffic i e nt good tast e to
, ,

b e abl e to lay out t h e s c hool plant and ke e p it in c ondition ;

and su ffic i e nt d e li c a c y of m ann e r t h e p r odu c t of a s e nsi

tive nature to be alive to all th e m anife stations of the

—

c hild S pi r it .

In the m atter of r e ading aloud th e t e a c h e r has an i m por

tant task to a c c om plish We found t h e d r a w ing hour b e st
.

adapt e d for this w ork It w as our e xp e r i e n c e th at it i s

.

easier to gain a hearing w h e n the c h ild r e n ar e busy w ith

som ething w hi c h do e s not requir e g r e at c on c e nt r ation and
w hi c h is not sustain e d by any pa r ti c ula r inspiration .

D uring th e d r a w ing l e sson i n the pla c id sil e n c e w hi c h

,

c o m e s fro m w o r k and w hil e the c hildr e n ar e int e nt on

,

th e i r d e signs t h e t e a c h e r m ay b egin h e r reading aloud

,
.

It so m e ti m es happens that t h e substan c e of w hat she r e ad s

w ill b e su ffi c ient to e ngage t h e int e r e st of t h e w hol e S c hool .

But this is not al w ays an e asy task It i s m o r e oft e n t h e .

musi c al qu ality of t h e t e a c h e r s ex e c ution w hi c h w ill at

’

tra c t th e littl e ones w ith a s e nse fo r a r t and b r ing th em t o

that m otionl e ss att e ntion w hi c h i s t h e e vid en c e of e ager
e nj oym e nt . Possibly a r e ally p e r fe c t r e ad e r m ight b e able
so to hold th e w hol e group of c hild r e n w ith som e absorb
ing selec tion .

T h e readings w e used w e re nu m e r ous and of g r e at v a

ri et : fairy tal e s sho r t stories ane c dot e s nov e ls histori c al
y , , , ,

ep isod e s S pe c i fi c ally th e r e w e r e th e tal e s of And e r s e n

.
,

som e of th e short stories of C apuana the C u o r e of D e ,

 RE AD I N G 1 99

out so m e of the s c en e s T h ey form ed littl e c om p ani e s of

.

thr e e or four and a c ted the episodes w ith a m ost i m p r es

sive dra m ati c sense O n e littl e girl w as m ov e d to bring to
.

s c hool a c olle c tion of all the Italian p atrioti c songs It .

fas c inated m any of the c hildren w h o learned sev e ral by

,

h e art and sang them i n c horus In a w ord t h e Italian

.
,

Riso r gi m ento c a m e to live in those little hearts w ith a fr e sh

n e ss it has long sin c e lost in the souls of th e i r e lders .

M any of t h e c hildr e n w rote do w n th e ir i m p r e ssions of their

o w n a c c ord O ften giving surprisingly o r iginal j udgm ents
,
.

“ ”
F inally th e y b e gan to t ake not e s T h ey ask e d the
.

t e a c he r t o giv e an outlin e of t h e prin c ipal ev e nts w hi c h ,

th ey took do w n in th e i r c opy-books T his w hol e e xper i.

e n c e c orre c t e d m any of m y o w n id e as on t h e t e a c hing of

history I had thought O f p r e pa r ing m oving—pi c tur e fil m s

.

and giving histori c al r e presentations But that n aturally .

, ,

b e ing b e yond m y resou r c es I h ad b e en c o m pell e d to giv e

,
’
up th e pl an T h e r e ading of D e Lu c a s book w as a r e v e
.

lation T o t e a c h h istory to c hildr e n it i s suffic i e nt to giv e

.

a l iving d o cu m e n ted tr u th We n e ed not m or e c in em at o

.
,

graphs but di ff e r e nt s c hool books C hild r e n are m u c h

,
.

m ore sensible to t h e tru e and b e autiful than w e T h ey .

m ust b e sho w n c o m pl e t e pi c tu r e s of r e ality w hi c h vividly,

suggest fa c t and situation D e Lu c a m oved by a ff ec tion

.
,

for his distant broth e r s tried to w r it e a book fl a m ing both

,

w ith truth and w ith lov e w hi c h w ould a w ak e n the m and

,

bring th em ba c k to liv e a m ong u s as Italians O u r t ask .

i s th e sa m e We m u st be fill e d w ith a si m ilarly intens e

.

hu m an z e al : w e m ust c all ba c k to us t h e distant souls of

t h e c hild r e n . T hey too are broth e rs living far a w ay in
a distant c ountry We m ust arouse th em bring th em
.
,

ba c k to u s as p a r tn e rs in our o w n life .

Aft e r ou r r e adings from It ar d s S avage th e parents

’
,
2 00 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

of the c hildren k e pt c o m ing to us w ith inquiri e s

What hav e you b e en reading to our c hildr e n ? We
”
should lik e to h e ar it ourselv e s T h e littl e on e s had told
.

of hearing an extraordinary stor y about a c hild wh o had

lived w ith the ani m als b eginning little by little t o under
,

stand to f eel to live lik e us All the psyc hologi c al detail s

, ,
.

of his stu dy his attem pts at edu c ation seem ed t o have

, ,

tou c hed th e c hildren d e eply It o c c urred t o us to take th e

.

”
older of su c h c hildr e n to a C hildr e n s House and S how ’

them our edu c ational m ethod T hey took the gr e atest i n

.

t e r e st in it and som e of them are n o w c ollaborators in the

,
”
foundation of oth e r C hildren s Hous e s S u c h c hildren
’
.

ar e able to follo w t h e develop m ent of th e c hild m ind w ith

e xtraordinary sy m pathy Ho w e ver if w e r e fl e c t that the

.
,

b e st tea c h e rs for c hildren are c hildr e n th em s e lv e s and that ,

littl e tots lik e the c om pany of another c hild m u c h bett e r

than that of an adult w e need not be surprised at the dow n
,

fall o f another pr ej udi c e .

We hav e c onc eiv e d of c hildren a cc ording t o a fantasti c

id e a of our o w n m aking of th e m a sort of hum an spe c i e s
,

distin c t from that to w hi c h adults b e long As a m att e r .

o f fa c t ,
they ar e o u r c hildren m or e pu r ely hu m an than
,

w e ours e lves . T h e beautiful and the tru e h ave for them

an int e nse fas c in ation into w hi c h th e y plunge a s into
,

som ething a c tually n ec essary for their e xisten c e .

T h e results here w itness e d led us to m any a re fl e c tion .

We su c c e e ded in tea c hing hi story and ev e n pedagogy by

“ ”
m e ans of reading . And in truth do e s not reading
, ,

e m bra c e everything ? T ravel stories tea c h ge ography ;

inse c t stories lead t h e c hild into natural s c ien c e ; and s o
on T h e t e a c her in short c an use reading to introdu c e
.
, ,

h e r pupils to the m ost varied subj e c ts ; and th e m om ent

th e y have b e e n thus started they c an go on to any li m it
,
Int e rpr e t e d r e a ding S h e w as sl e e py ; s h e l e a ne d h e r ar m s on t h e t abl e ,
h e r h e ad on h e r a r m s, an d w e n t to sl e e p .
”
c p
N oti e t h e sli o f a erp p
w c c j c
hi h t h e hild h as ust r ead ( T h e L en o a: S h o o l , Mo n t es s o ri E l e
.

m e n t a r a C l a s s N e w Yo r k
. .
 REA D I N G 201

guid e d by t h e si n gl e passion for r e ading O u r t ask i s t o

.

o ff e r t h e c hild t h e instru m e nts of e du c ation to ke e p pur e

,

w ithin h im t h e springs of hi s int e ll e c tu al gro w th of hi s ,

life of fe eling T h e rest follo w s as a m atter O f c ours e

. .

As th e an c i e nts sai d : N e c ess ar y edu c ation i s t h e three

‘ ”
’
r s reading w riting and arithm eti c
, ,
for th e se are
things w hi c h th e c hild c annot dis c over by hi m s e lf We .

“ ”
c an only add that m ethod m u st be s c ientifi c ally de
t e r m i n e d only at the points w h e re it b e c o m e s n ec e ssary to
”
assist th e form ation of m an th at h e m ay develop his
,

a c tiviti e s by str e ngt hening th em and n o t by rep r e ssing

th em that h e m ay r e c eiv e e ss e nti al h e lp w ithout losing any
,

of t h e pu r e f r e shn e ss of h is int e rior a c tiviti e s But this

.

do e s not m e an th at a rigo r ous m ethod m ust guid e t h e

c hild at all ti m e s and in every st e p that he t akes Wh e n
.

h e has b e c om e strong and i s in poss e ssion of his tool s for

dis c ov e ry h e w ill b e abl e to u n c ov e r m any of life s s e c r e ts
,
’

by hi m s e lf We ti e d th e c hild to the m at e ri als in hi s s en

.

so r y e x e r c is e s but w e l e ft h im f r e e to explo r e hi s e nviron

,

m e nt . T his m ust b e th e m e thod for all hi s l at e r st e ps in

advan c e : h e m ust b e giv e n t h e inst r u m e nt and th e st r e n gth
to u se it and th e n l e ft fr e e to find th ings out for hi m s elf
,
.

T h e fondn e ss of c hild r en for r e ading and th e ir pref e r

“ ”
en c e for th e tru e is som e thing al r eady dem onstrat e d
by e xp e ri m ents c ondu c t e d e ls e w h e re I m ay r e fe r h e r e to
.

t h e inv e stigations on readings for c hildr e n c ondu c t e d by

“ ”
th e E du c ation se c tion of the F e d e ration fo r S c hool
L ib r aries of th e pr o vin c e of E m ilia ( Italy ) . T h e qu e s
t i o n n ai r e w as a s follo w s :

Do you r em em b e r w h at books y o u h av e r e ad an d w h i c h you

l ike d b e st ?
Ho w d i d you g et t h e m ?
D o yo u kno w t h e tit l e of so m e book y o u w ould l i k e t o r e ad ?
2 02 M O N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL
Do you pr e fe r f ai ry -t al e s or r at h e r s t or ie s of t ru e or prob
,

abl e fa c ts ? Wh y ?
D o y o u pr e fe r s ad or hu m orous s t or i e s ?
D o yo u l i k e po e t ry ?
D o y o u l i k e stor i e s of t r av e l an d adv e n t ur e ?
D o you subs c r i b e t o an y w e e kly or m on t hly n e w sp ap e r ? If
so t o w h ic h ?
,

If your m o t h e r w e r e t o offe r you a c ho ic e b e tw e e n a sub

s c r i p ti on t o a w e e kly or a m onthl y an d an i llus tr at e d
book w h ic h w ould you t ake ? And w h y ?
,

The ans w ers v e ry c ar e fully sift e d sho w e d that the vast

, ,

m aj ority of c hild r e n p r e fe rred r e adings w hi c h d e alt w ith

fa c t H e re ar e som e of th e r e asons all eged by th e c hildren
.

“ ”
in support of th e ir pr e fe r e n c e for t r uth F a c ts
tea c h m e som e thing ; fairy-tal e s are too i m probable ; tru e
stories don t ups e t m y thinking ; true stori e s t e a c h m e his
’

tory ; t r u e sto r i e s al w ays c onvey som e good idea ; fairy

stori e s giv e m e m any d e si r e s i m possible to satisfy ; m any
good id e as c o m e f r om a c tual exp e rien c es ; fantasti c tal e s
m ake m e think too m u c h about supe r natural things etc .

“
et c
. In favor of the fairy tales w e fi n d
- T h e y a m use
°

m e in hours f r e e f r om w ork ; I like to be in the m idst of

fairi e s and en c hantm ents etc T hos e w h o pr e fe r r e d
.

“
sad o r s e rious sto r ies j ustified them s e lves as follow s I :

fe el th at I am a b e tter person and realize better the w rong

,

I do ; I f e e l that m y disposition bec om e s m ore kindly ; th e y

arous e in m e fe elings of kindness and pity ”
M any sup
.

ported th e i r pr e fe ren c e for hum orous tales on t h e ground

that w hen I read them I am abl e t o forget my o w n lit
,

tle troubles In general a great m aj ority d e nied any

.
,

e du c ational value to j oy and hu m or In this c onvi c tion

.

or rath e r this fe eling — s o w idely d iffus e d a m ong c hil

dren hav e w e not e viden c e that so m ething m ust be w rong

,

in t h e kind of e du c ation w e hav e been giving them ?

 PA R T III

A R I T HM E T I C
 ARI T H M E T I C A L O PE RA T I O N S

N U M B E RS : 1 10

T he children already had p e r form e d th e four arith

m eti c al operations in their si m pl e st fo r m s in the ,
C hil
dre n s Hous e s i th e dida c ti c m ate r i al fo r th e se having c o n
’
,
’’

sist e d of th e r ods of t h e long stair w hi c h gave e m pi r i c al

r e pr e s e ntation of th e nu m b e rs 1 2 3 ,
5 6 7 8 9 10
, , , , , , ,
.

By m e ans of its divisions into se c tions of alternating

c olo r s r ed and blu e ea c h rod r e pr e sent e d the quantity of
, ,

unity for w hi c h it stood ; and so th e e ntran c e into t h e

c om pl e x and arduous fi e ld o f nu m bers w as thus r e ndered

easy int e r e sting and attra c tiv e by th e c o n c e ption th at c o l

, ,

l ec t i v e nu m b e r c an b e repr e s e nt e d by a s in gl e obj e c t c o n
taining si gn s by w hi c h th e r e lative qu antity of unity c an
'

b e re c ogniz e d inst e ad of by a n u m b e r o f difie r en t units

, ,

r e presented by th e fi g ur e in qu e stion F o r instan c e t .

,

fa c t that five m ay be represent e d by a singl e obj e c t w ith

fi v e distin c t and e qual parts inst e ad of by five distin c t o b

j e c t s w hi c h t h e m ind m ust r e du c e to a c on c e pt of nu m ber,

saves m e ntal e ffo r t and c lari fi e s th e ide a
:
It w as through th e appli c ation of this prin c ipl e by
m e ans of the r ods that the c hild r e n su c c e e d e d so easily in
a c c o m plishing the first arithm eti c al operations : 7 3
10; 2 8 : 4 = 6 ; etc
—
.

T h e l o ng stai r m at e r ial is ex c e llent for thi s pu r pos e .

But it i s too li m it ed in qu antity and i s too l ar ge to be

205
206 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T AR Y M A T E RIAL

handl e d easily an d us e d to good advantage in m e e ting th e

d em ands of a room full of c hild r e n w h o already h av e b e e n
initi at e d into arithm e ti c V T h e r ef o r e k e eping to t h e sa m e
.
,

fund am e ntal c on c e pts w e have prepared sm all e r m o r e , ,

abundant m at e ri al and one m or e readily a c c e ssibl e to a

,

la rge nu m ber of c hildr e n w orking at the sam e ti me?! ’

LT h i s m at e rial c onsists of b e ads strung on w ir e s : i e . .

,

b e ad ba r s repr e s e nting r e sp ec tively 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 , , , , , , , , ,

10 . T he e b ads a e
r of di ff e r e nt c olors T h e l O -
bead bar .

is o r ange ; 9 dark blu e ; 8 lav e nder ; 7 w hit e ; 6 gray ;

, , , ,

5 light blu e ; 4 ye llo w ; 3 pink ; 2 green ; and ther e ar e

, , , ,

1
separate beads for unity T h e b e ads a r e opal e s c e nt ; and
.

t h e w hite m e tal w ir e on w hi c h th e y ar e strung i s b e nt

at e a c h end holding th e beads rigid and pr e v e nting th em
,

f r om slipping .

T h e r e a r e fi v e sets of these attra c tive obj ec ts in e a c h

box ; and so e a c h c hild h as at hi s disposal th e e quival e nt
of fi ve sets of the long stai r s us e d for his nu m eri c al c o m
b i n at i o n s in the e arliest e x e r c i s e T h e fa c t that the rods .

a r e sm all and so e asily handl e d p e rm its of their being us e d

at th e sm all t abl e s .

T his v e ry si m pl e and easily pr e pared m aterial has b e en

e xt r aordinarily su c c e ssful w ith c hildren of fi v e and a
half ye ars T h e y h av e w ork e d w ith m a r k e d c on c e nt r a
.

tion d o ing as m any as sixty su c c e ssive O pe r ations and fi l l

,

ing w hole c opybooks w ithin a f e w days ti m e S pe c ial ’

.

quad r ille pap e r i s us e d for t h e pu r pos e ; an d t h e sh e ets ar e

ruled in diff erent c olors : som e in bl ac k som e in r e d som e , ,

1A t t h e pr e s ent ti m e b e c aus e of t h diffi c ult y f g tting b ads o f

, e o e e

c e rt in c olors ow ing to w r c onditions t h follow in g c olors h av e been

a ,
a , e

approv d b y D r M ont e ssori to r e pl ac e thos

e . origin all y us d l O-be d e e : a

b ar gold ; 9 d ark blu ; 8 whit e ; 7 light gr ee n ; 6 light blu e ; 5 y e l

, ,
e , , , ,

low ; 4 pink ; 3 gr e n ; 2 y llow -gr n ; 1 gold T h se s am e c olors

, ,
e , e ee , . e

are r e t a in d f e t h e b d s qu ar s
or d t h e b e ad c ub e s
ea T h ey w ill b e
e an .

supp li e d b y Th e Hous e of C hildhood, l 6 Hor ati o S t r e et , N ew Y or k .

 A R IT HME T I C 20 7

in green som e in blu e som e in pi n k and som e in orange

, , ,
.

’
T h e variety of c olo r s h e lps to hold t h e c hild s att e ntion ’

aft e r filling a sh e et lined in red h e w ill e nj oy fi lling o n e ,

lin e d in blue e tc ,
.

E xp e r ien c e has taught u s to pr e pare a l arge nu m b e r of

t h e t e b e ad ba r s ; fo r t h e c hildr e n w ill c hoose th e s e from
n -

all the oth e r s in o r d e r to c ount t h e t e ns in su c c e ssion

,

1 0 2 0 30 4 0 e tc
, , ,
T o this fi r st b e ad m at e ri al th e r e
,
.
,

for e w e h ave add e d box e s fi ll e d w ith nothing but t e n -b e ad

,

bars T he r e ar e also s m all c ards on w hi c h ar e w ritt e n

.

1 0 2 0 e tc
, ,
T h e c hild r e n put toge th e r t w o o r m or e of
.

t e t e n b e ad ba r s to c o r r e spond w ith the nu m b e r on t h e

h -

c a r ds .T his is an initi al e x e r c is e w hi c h l e ads up to t h e

m ultipl e s of 1 0 By sup e r i m posing th e s e c ards on that for
.

the nu m b e r 1 00 and that for th e nu m ber 1 000 su c h n u m ,

bers a s 1 9 1 7 c an be O btain e d .

{ Th e b e ad w o r k b e c a m e at on c e an e stablish e d e l e
“ ”

m e nt In our m e thod s c i e nt i fi c ally d e te r m i n e d as a c o n

,

qu e st brought to m atu r ity by th e c hild in th e ve r y ac t of

m aking it O u r su c c ess in a m plifying and m aking m ore
.

c o m ple x the e a r ly e x e r c is e s w ith t h e rods has m ad e the

c hild s m e n tal c al c ulation m o r e rapid m or e c ertain and

’
, ,

m ore c o m preh e nsiv e M e ntal c al c ulation d e v e lops spon

.

t an eo u sl y as if by a l aw of c ons e rvation tending to realize

,
“ ”
the m ini mu m of e ffo r t Ind e e d littl e by littl e t h e
.
,

c hild c e as e s c ounting the b e ads and re c ognizes t h e n u m

bers by th e ir c olor : t h e da r k blu e he kno w s i s 9 the ,

yello w 4 e t c Al m ost w ithout realizing it he c o m e s n o w

,
.

to c ount by c o l o rs instead of b y qu an ti ti es of b e ads and ,

thus p e r form s a c tual op e rations in m ental arith m eti c As

soon as th e c hild be c om e s c o ns c ious of thi s po w e r he j oy ,
;
fully announ c e s his t r ansition to t h e higher plan e e x ,

c lai m in
E
c an co u nt in my h e ad an d I c an do it m ore
‘
‘
g ,
 A R I T HM E T I C 2 09

sa m e quantity w hi c h form erly i m pressed the c hild by it s

l en gth is n o w in its b r oad fold e d form p r e sent e d as a
, , ,

s u r fac e quantity .

N o w all m ay b e pla c e d on a s m all tabl e o n e belo w t h e ,

oth e r : fi r st t h e singl e he ad th e n t h e t e n b e ad ba r th e n
,
—
,
“ ”
the hund r e d c hain and finally th e broad strip of t h e
,
“ ”
thousand c hain .

Any t e a c h e r w h o ha s ask e d h e rs elf h o w in the w orld a

c hild m ay b e taught to e xpr e ss in nu m eri c al t e rm s quan

t i t at iv e p r oportions p e r c e iv e d through t h e eye has so m e ,

id e a of t h e p r obl e m that c onfronts us How ever our c hil .

,

dr e n set to w ork pati e ntly c ounting bead by b e ad from

1 to 1 0 0 T hen th e y gath e red in t w o s and thr e e s about
’ ’
.

“
the thousand c hain a s if to h elp o n e anoth e r in c ount
,

ing it undaunt e d by th e arduous und e r taking T h e y

, .

c ount e d one hund r e d ; and aft e r one hundr e d w h at ? O ne ,

hundr e d one And finally t w o hund r ed t w o hund r ed one

.
,
.

“ ”
O n e day th e y r e a c h e d sev e n hund r e d I am ti r e d .
,
“
said th e c hild I ll m ark this pla c e and c om e ba c k to
.
’

m o r ro w .
’

“
S ev e n hund r e d s e v e n hund r e d ,
L ook ! c ried an
oth e r c hild T h e r e ar e s e ven s e v e n hund r e ds ! Yes ,

yes ; c ount t h e c hains ! S e v e n hundre d e ight hun ,

dred nine hund r ed o n e thousand S ignora S ignora th e

, ,
.
, ,
‘
thousand c hain has t e n hund r e d c hains ! L ook at
’ ‘ ’

it ! And oth e r c hild r e n w h o h ad b e e n w o r king w ith

,
”
the hundr e d c hain i n tu r n c all e d t h e att e ntion of th e ir
,

“ ‘ ’
c o m rad e s : O h look look ! T h e hundr e d c hain has
, ,

t e n t e n b e ad bars !
-

T hus w e r e alized that the nu m eri c al c on c e p t of t ens ,

hundre ds and thousands w as giv e n by presenting these

,

c hains to t h e c hild s int e llig e nt c u r iosity and b y res p e c ting

’

t h e spontaneous end e avors of h i s fre e a c tiviti es .

21 0 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

And sin c e thi s w as our experi e n c e w ith m ost of th e

c hildr e n one e asily c an s ee h o w si m ple a sugge stion w ould
,

b e n e c e ssa ry if t h e d e du c tio n did not tak e pla c e in t h e c as e

of som e e xc e ptional c hild In fa c t to m ake th e id e a of
.
,

d ec i m al r e lations appar e nt t o a c hild it i s suffic i e nt to di

,

r ec t h is att e ntion t o t h e m at e ri al h e is h andling T h e .

t e a c h e r e xp e ri e n c e d in thi s m e thod know s h o w to w ait ; sh e

r e aliz e s that th e c hild n e eds t o ex e rc ise hi s m ind c o n
s t an t l y and slo w ly ; and if t h e inner m aturation t ake s
“
pla c e natu r ally ,
intuitiv e explosions ar e bound to fol
l o w as a m att e r of c ours e . T h e m or e w e allow the c hil
dr e n to follo w th e int e r e sts w hi c h h av e c lai m e d thei r fix e d
attention t h e great e r w ill be th e valu e of the results
,
.

C O U N T I N G -F R A M E S

The dire c t assistan c e of the tea c her her c lear and brief
,

explanation i s h o w e ve r e ss e nti al w hen she pres e nt s t o

, , ,

t h e c hild anoth e r n e w m at e rial w hi c h m ay b e c onsid e red

,
”
sym boli c of th e d ec i m al r e lations T hi s m at e rial c o n
.
«

sists of t w o v e ry si m pl e bead c ounting-fra m e s si m ilar in ,

size and shape t o th e d r essing-f r am es of the first m aterial .

T h e y ar e light and e asily h andl e d an d m ay b e in c luded in

t h e individu al poss e ssions of e a c h c hild T h e fra m es ar e
.

easily m ad e and ar e inexp e nsiv e .

O n e fram e i s arrange d w ith the longe st side as base ,

and has four parall e l m e tal w i r e s e ac h of w hi c h i s strung

,

w ith t e n b e ads .T h e th r e e top w ires ar e e quidistant but

t h e fourth i s separated f r o m t h e oth e rs by a greater dis
tan c e and this s e paration is furth e r em phasiz e d by a brass
,

nail h e ad fix e d on the left hand side of th e fram e T h e

- .

f r a m e i s painted o n e c olor above th e nail -h e ad and an

oth e r c olor b elow i t ; and on thi s S ide of th e fra me also , ,

num erals c orr e sponding to e ac h w ir e ar e m ark ed T h e .

 A R I T HME T I C 21 1

nu m eral opposit e the top w ire i s 1 the next 1 0 th e n 1 00 , , ,

and the lo w e st 1 000, .

We explain to t h e c hild that ea c h bead of th e fi r st w ir e

i s assu m e d to stand fo r o n e or unity as did t h e s e pa r at e
, ,

b e ads th ey hav e had b e for e ; but ea c h h e ad of the s e c ond

w i r e stands for ten ( o r for o n e of the ten -b e ad bars ) th e
value of e a c h he ad of t h e third w i r e i s o n e hundr e d and
“ ”
repres ents t h e hund r e d c hain ; and e a c h he ad on the
last w i r e ( w hi c h i s s e parat e d f r o m t h e oth e rs by th e b r ass
“ ” 1
nail head ) has the sa m e value a s a thousand c hain
- .

At fi r st it is not e a sy for the c hild to understand this

sym bolism but it w ill b e l e ss di ffi c ult if h e pr eviously has
,

w orked over the c ha ins c ounting and studying th e m w ith

,

out being hu r ried Wh e n th e c on c e pt of t h e r e lationship

.

b e t w een unity t e ns hundreds and thousands has m a

, , ,

t u r e d spontan e ously h e m or e readily w ill b e able to re c og

,

nize and u s e t h e sy mbol .

S p ec ially lin e d paper i s d e sign e d for u se w ith thes e

fra m es T hi s pap e r i s divid e d l e ngth w ise into t w o e qual
.

parts and on both S ides of the division are verti c al lines

,

of d i ff e rent c olo r s : to the right a gr ee n l ine then a blu e , ,

and next a red line T hes e a r e parall e l and equidistant

. .

A verti c al line of dots s e parates this group of three lin e s

fro m another line w hi c h follo w s O n the first thre e lin e s .

f r om right to l e ft ar e w r itt e n respec tiv e ly t h e units t e ns , ,

and hundreds ; on t h e inner line t h e thousands .

T h e right h alf of the p age i s used entirely and ex c lu

s iv e l y t o c larify thi s idea and t o S ho w the relationshi p of

w ritt e n nu m b e rs to the de c i m al sy m bolis m of t h e c ounting

f r ame .

1 It w ould p
, e rh ap s b
be e e
,
t t r in this firs t c oun ti ng fr ame to h av e
-

t h e b e ads not onl y of di ff e r nt c olors b u t o f diff r nt S iz s a cc ording

e ,
e e e ,

to t h e v alu e o f t h e w ir e s a w as sugg ste d to m e b y a P ortugue se

, s e

p rofe ssor who h ad been t aking my c ours e .

 A R I T HM E T I C 21 3

t e ns line w e m ust of ne c essity pass to the hundreds lin e ,

b ec aus e ten t e ns e qual one hund r e d F inally w h e n 9 i n

.
,

the hundreds li n e has be e n w ritten w e m ust pass to t h e

,

thousands line for the sa m e reason .

T h e units fro m 1 to 9 are w ritten on t h e line farth e s t

to t h e right ; o n th e next line to t h e left are w ritt e n th e
t e ns ( from 1 to and on the third line the hundr e ds ,

( fro m 1 to T hus al w ays w e have the nu m bers 1 to 9

and it c annot be oth e r w is e for any m ore w ould c ause t h e
,

figure its e lf to c hange position It i s thi s fa c t th at the

.

c hild m ust qui etly p onder over and allo w t o ripen in h i s

m ind .

It is the nine num bers that c hange position in order to

fo r m all th e nu mbers that are possibl e T herefore it i s .
,

not th e nu m be r in its e lf but its p o s i ti o n in respe c t to t h e

oth e r nu m b e r s w hi c h giv e s it the value n o w of one n o w of ,

t e n n o w of one hund r e d or one thousand

,
T hus w e hav e
.

the symbol i c translation of those real values w hi c h in c rease

in s o prodigious a w ay and w hi c h ar e al m ost i m possible
f o r us to c on c eive O n e lin e of t en thousand b e ads i s
.

sev e nty m et e rs long ! T en su c h lines w ould b e th e length

of a long street ! T her e fo r e w e ar e forc ed to have re
c ou r s e to sym bols . Ho w v e ry i m portant this po si ti o n o c
c u pi e d by t h e nu m b e r be c o m e s !

Ho w do w e indi c at e the position and hen c e the value

of a c e rt ain nu m ber w ith r e fe r e n c e to other num bers ?
As th e r e ar e not al w ays vert i c al lines t o indi c at e the rel a
tive position of the fi gu re, th e r e qu is i te nu mb er o f z er os
pl ac ed to th e re !
ar e
f fi
ri gh t o th e gu
“
T h e c hildr e n alr e ady kno w from the
’
,
C hildren s
Hous e that zero h as n o value and that it c an give no
,

valu e to th e figur e w ith w hi c h it i s used It s e rv e s m er e ly

.

to Sho w the position an d th e value of the fi gure w ritten at

21 4 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T AR Y MAT E RIAL

its left Z. ero does not give value to 1 and so m ake i t b e

c o m e 1 0 : the zer o of t h e nu m ber 1 0 indi c ates that th e

fi gu r e 1 is not a unit but i s in the n e xt pre c eding position

that of t h e t e n s and m eans th e r e for e one ten and n o t
o n e unit .If for instan c e 4 units follow e d the 1 in the
, ,

t e ns position then the figure 4 w ould be in the units pl a c e

,

and the 1 w ould be in the tens position .

“ ” ’
The C hildr e n s House c hild already kno w s h o w t o

w rit e t e n and even one hundred ; and it is n o w v e ry e asy

for him to w rit e w ith the ai d of zeros and i n c o lu mns
, , ,

from 1 to 1 0 00 : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ; 1 0 20 3 0 4 0 ,
, , , , , , , , , , ,

5 0, 6 0, 7 0 , so, 9 0 ; 1 0 0, 20 0 , 3 00, 4 0 0, 5 0 0, 6 00 , 70 0,
8 0 0, 90 0 ; Wh e n the c hild has learned to c ount
w ell in thi s m anne r he c an easily read an y nu mbe r of
,

four fi gures .

Le t us n o w m ake u p a nu m ber on the c ounting-fra m e ;

for exam ple 48 2 7 We m ove four b e ads to the l e ft on
,
.

-
the thousands w ire, eight o n th e hundreds w ire t w o on
-
,

h
t e tens w ire and sev e n on the units -w ire ; and w e read
-
, ,

four thousand eight hundred and t w enty-seven T his .

num ber is w ritten by pla c ing th e nu m b e rs o n th e s ame

li n e and in the m utually r e lative ord e r d e t e r m ined by the
sym bol i c positions fo r th e d ec i m al relations 4 8 2 7 ,
.

We c an do the sa m e w ith the date of our pr e sent year ,

w riting the figures on the left hand side of the pa p er as i n

-

dic at e d : 1 9 1 7 .

Le t u s c om pose 204 9 on the sym boli c nu mber fram e .

T w o of t h e thousand -beads a r e m ov e d to the l e ft four of ,

th e t e n -b e ads and nin e of t h e unit-beads O n the hun

,
.

dr ds w ire th e re i s nothing Here w e h ave a good dem

e - .

o n s t r at i o n of the fun c tion of zero w hi c h is to o cc upy t h e,

pla c e s that are em pty on this c hart .

S i m ilarl y to form the nu m ber 4 70 0 on the fra me, four

,
T he be a d mat e ri al use d f o r addition an d subtr ac tion . E cha of t he nine
num be rs i s o f di ff e r ent c olor e d be ads .

C oun t ing an d c al c ul ating b y m e ans of t h e be ad c ha ins .

( A Mo n t e s s o r i
c
S h o o l i n I t aly
.
)
 ARIT HM E T I C 21 5

thousand -b e ads are m oved to t h e l e ft and sev e n hundred

b e ads t h e tens -w ir e and the units-w ir e re m aining em pty
,
.

In trans c ribing this nu m b e r these em pty pla c e s are filled

,

by z e ros a figu r e of no value in its e lf .

Wh e n th e c hild fully understands this pro c e ss h e m ak e s

up m any e x e r c is e s of his o w n a c c ord and w ith the great e st
int e rest He m oves b e ads to the left at random on o n e
.
,

or on all of t h e w ires th e n interpr e ts and w rit e s the n um

,

ber on t h e sh e ets of pap e r purpos e ly pr e par e d for this .

Wh e n h e has c om p r e h e nd e d the position of t h e figu r es and

perform ed O pe r ations w ith nu m bers of several figures h e
has m astered the p r oc e ss T h e c hild n e e d only b e left to
.

his aut o-ex e r c is e s h e re in ord e r to attain p e rfec tion .

V ery soon h e w ill ask to go beyond t h e thousands Fo r .

thi s th e re i s anoth e r fra m e w ith s e v e n w ir e s r e pr e s e nting

,

respe c tiv e ly units tens and hund r eds ; units tens and
, , ,

hundr e ds of the thousands ; and a m illion .

T his fra m e i s t h e sa m e siz e as th e other one but in this

t h e shorter sid e i s u s e d as t h e base and there are s e v e n
w ires inst e ad of four . T h e right -hand sid e i s m a r k e d by
thr e e di ffe rent c olors a c c ording to t h e groups of w i r e s .

T h e units t e ns and hund r eds w i r e s are s e pa r at e d f r o m

,

the thr e e thousands w ir e s by a b r ass ta c k and these in ,

tu r n are s e parated i n the sam e m anner from t h e m illion

w i re.

T h e transition fro m one fra m e to the other furnishes

m u c h int e r est but no di ffi c ulty C hild r e n w ill ne e d very
.

f e w explanations and w ill try by th em s e lves to und e r

stand as m u c h as possibl e T h e la r ge nu m b e rs are t h e
.

m ost interesting t o them, therefore th e e asi e st S oon thei r

.

c opybooks ar e full of the m ost m a r v e lous nu m b e rs ; the y

have n o w be c om e d e alers in m illions .

F o r this fram e also there i s spe c i ally pr e pared pa p er .

21 6 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL
O n th e right-h and side the c hild w rites t h e numbers c o r
r e sponding to the f r a m e c ounting from one to a m illion
,

1 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 6 , 7, 8 , 9 ; 1 0 , 2 0 , 3 0, 4 0, 50, 60, 7 0, 8 0, 9 0 ;
,

1 00, 2 0 0, 30 0, 4 0 0, 50 0, 6 0 0, 70 0, 8 00 , 9 0 0 ;

5 00 ,
0 0 0,
After this t h e c hild m oving th e beads to the left on o n e
,

or m or e of th e w ires t r i e s t o r e ad and then to w rit e on t h e

,

l e ft half of the pape r the nu mbers r e sulting from thes e hap

e m
hazard e x p ri nts e . F o r e xa ple on the c ounting fram e
m ,
-

he m ay have the nu mb e r and on th e paper the

nu mb e rs 1 1 1 ;

Wh en we om e to add and subtra c t nu mbers of several

c

figures and to w rite the results in c olu mn th e fa c ility r s

,

su l t i n g fro m this preparatio n i s so m ething astonishing .

 T HE M U LT IP LI C A T I O N T AB LE

MA T E RI A L : Th e m at e r i al
for t h e m ultipli c ation tabl e
is in s e v e ral p arts T her e is a square c a r dboard w ith a
.

hund r ed soc k e ts or ind e ntu r e s ( ten ro w s t e n in a r o w )

, ,

and into e a c h of th e s e ind e ntures m ay b e pla c e d a b e ad .

At t h e top of t h e squa r e and c o r r e sp o nding to e a c h ver

ti c al lin e of ind e ntur e s ar e p r int e d th e nu m b e rs 1 2 3 4 , , , ,

5 6 7 8 9 10
, , , ,
At t h e l e ft i s an op e ning into w hi c h
,
.

m ay b e slipped a s m all pi e c e of c ardboa r d upon w hi c h ar e

print e d in red th e num b e r s fro m 1 t o 1 0 T his c ard .

boa r d s e rv e s as th e m ultipli c and ; and it c an b e c h anged ,

fo r th e r e ar e ten of th e s e sl ips bea r ing the ten diffe r e nt

,

num bers In t h e upp e r l e ft-h and c o r n e r i s a sm all i n

.

d entu r e for a littl e red m a r k e r but this detail is m e r e ly

,

se c onda r y T his arith m e ti c boa r d i s a w hit e square w ith

.

a r e d bo r d e r ; and w ith it c om e s an attra c tive box c o n

taining a hund r e d loos e beads .

T h e e x e rc is e w hi c h is don e w ith thi s m ateri al i s v e r y

si m pl e S uppose that 6 i s t o b e m ultipli e d by th e n u m
.

b e rs in t u r n f r o m l t 0 1 0 z 6 X 1 ; 6 X 2 ; 6 X 3 ; 6 X 4 ;
6 X 5; 6 X 6; 6 X 7; 6 X 8; 6 X 9; 6 X 10 O pp o .

sit e t h e sixth ho r izontal li n e of ind e ntur e s , in th e s m all

op e ning at th e l e ft i s slipped t h e c ard b e a r ing th e n u m
b er 6 .In m ultiplying t h e 6 by 1 th e c hild p e r form s t w o
,

op e r atio n s : fi r st h e puts t h e r e d m a r ker abov e t h e print e d

,

1 at t h e top of the boa r d and th e n h e puts si x b e ads ( c o r

,

217
 A R I T HME T I C 21 9

m aking a hundred sheets w ith ea c h set of m ultipli c ation

m at e r i al . T h e a c c om panying c u t sho w s a sh e et pr e pared
for t h e m ultipli c ation of num b e r 3 .

E v e rything i s r e ady on th e print e d sh e e t ; th e c h ild ha s

only to w rit e the results w hi c h h e obtains by adding th e
b e ads in c olum ns of three ea c h If h e m ak e s no e r ror .

h e w ill w rit e : 3 6 9 1 2 1 5 1 8 2 1 2 4 2 7 30
, , , , , , , , ,
.

In this w ay he w ill w ork out and w rit e dow n t h e w hol e

s e ri e s f r om 1 to 1 0 ; and as th e re ar e t e n c opi e s of e a c h
sh e e t h e c an r e p e at e a c h e x e r c is e t e n ti m e s
,
.

T hus the c hild lea r ns by m e m ory ea c h of th e s e m ulti

pli c ations And w e find that h e help s hi m self to m em o
.

rize e v e n in oth e r w ays H e w alks up and dow n hold .

ing th e m ultipli c a t ion sh ee t w hi c h h e looks at from ti m e ,

to ti m e It i s a sh e et w hi c h h e h i m s e lf h as fi ll e d and
.
,

h e m ay b e m e m o r izing s e ven ti m e s six fo r ty-t w o ; sev e n ,

t i m es seven fort y nin e ; s e v e n ti e s eight fi ty six e t c

-
,
m f -
, ,
.

T his m ateri al f o r t h e m ultipli c ation t able is one of

the m ost interesting to t h e c hild r e n T h e y fill six or .

seven sets o n e after the oth e r and w ork for days and
, ,

w eeks on thi s o n e exer c is e Al m ost all of them ask to .

take it hom e w ith them With us th e first ti m e th e m a.

,

t e r i al w as pr e s e nt e d a s m all uprising t o ok pla c e f o r they ,

all w ished to c a r ry it a w ay w ith them A s thi s w as not .

perm itted the c hild r en i m plo r e d th e ir m oth e r s to buy it

for th em and it w as w ith diffic ulty that w e m ad e th em
,

und e rstand that it w as not on th e m a r k e t and th e r e for e

c ould not be pu r c has e d But th e c hild r e n c ould not.

giv e up the id e a O n e older gi r l head e d th e r e bellion

.
.

”
T h e D ottor e ssa w ant s t o t r y an e xperi m e nt w ith us ,

she said “
. We ll l e t s t e ll her that unl e ss sh e gives us
,
’

t h e m ateri al fo r t h e m ultipli c ation table w e w on t c om e

’

”
to s c hool any m o r e .
220 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL
T his threat in itself w as i m polit e and yet it w as int e r
,

e sting ; for th e m ultipli c ation tabl e t h e bug-bear of all

,

c hildr e n had b e c o m e so att r a c tive and tem pting a thing

,

that it had m ad e w olves out of m y lam bs !

Wh e n t h e c hildren have repeatedly fill e d a w hol e s e ries
of th e se blanks w ith the aid of the m aterial th e y ar e
, ,

given a t e st c ard by m e ans Of w hi c h they m ay c om pare

-

th e ir w ork for ve r ifi c ation and se e w heth e r th e y hav e

,

m ad e any errors in th e ir m ultipli c ation T able by tabl e

.
,

num b e r by num b e r they do the w ork of c om pa r ing e a c h

,

r e sult w ith t h e num ber w hi c h c orr e sponds t o it in e a c h

o n e of the t e n c olu m ns Wh e n thi s h as b e e n done c a r e
.

fully the c hildr e n poss e ss their o w n s e ri e s the a c c ura c y

, ,

of w hi c h th ey are abl e to guarant e e th em selves .

MU L T I P L I C A T I O N T AB L E
P R E S E NT I NG T HE C O M B I NAT I O N S 0 F N U MB E R S I N T HE
P R O G R E S S I V E S E RI E S F R O M 1 T O 1 0
 ARI T IIM E T I C 22 1

The c hildr e n should w r it e do w n on th e follo w ing form ,

in t h e s e parat e c olum ns th e ir verifi e d r e sults : und e r t h e

,

2 the c olu m n of th e 2 s ; und e r the 3 the c olu m n of t h e

’
,

3 3 ; unde r t h e 4 the c olu m n of the 4 s e t c

’
.
, ,

T hen th e y get th e follo w ing t abl e w hi c h i s id e nti c al

,

w ith t h e test c a r ds in c lud e d in t h e m at e r i al.It i s a su m

m ary of t h e m ultipli c ation t abl e — the fam ous P yth ag
orean t able .

T HE M U LT IPLIC AT IO N T ABLE
 D I VI S I O N

MA T E RI A L : Thesam e m at e r i al m ay be us e d fo r di
vision e x c e pt t h e blanks w hi c h ar e som ew hat di ff e r e nt
, ,
.

T ake any nu m b e r of b e ads fro m t h e box and c ount

th em Let us suppos e th at w e hav e t w e nty-s even T his
. .

nu m b e r i s w ritten in t h e va c ant S pa c e at t h e l e ft -hand

side of t h e division blank .

T hen taking th e box of b e ads and t h e a r ithm eti c board

w ith t h e hundred ind e ntu r e s w e p r o c e e d to t h e op e ration
.

Le t u s first divid e 2 7 by 1 0 . We pla c e t e n beads in

a verti c al lin e und e r th e 1 ; th e n in th e n ext r o w t en
m o r e beads und e r t h e 2 . T h e b e ads ho w ev e r are not
, ,

su ffi c i e nt to fill th e r o w un de r t h e 3 N o w on th e pap e r
.

prepa r e d f o r division w e w r it e 2 on a lin e w ith th e 1 0

2 23
2 24 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T ERIAL

to the left of the ve r ti c al lin e and to the right of th e

,

sa m e v e r ti c al line w e w r it e th e r em aind e r 7
.

T o divid e 2 7 by 9 nin e b e ads ar e c ount e d out in t h e

,

fi r st r o w then nin e in th e s ec ond r o w und e r t h e 2 and

, ,

still anoth e r nin e und e r th e 3 T h e r e ar e no b e ads l e ft

.

ov e r S o th e figur e 3 is w ritten after t h e e qual -sign

.

on a lin e w ith 9 .

T o divid e 2 7 by 8 w e c ount out e ight beads pla c e th em

,

in a r o w unde r th e 1 and then fill lik e row s und e r th e 2

,

and th e 3 ; in t h e fourth r o w there are only thr e e beads .

T h e y are the rem ain der . And so on .

A pa c kage of o n e hundr e d division blanks c om es in

an attra c tiv e dark gr e e n c ov e r ti e d w ith a silk ribbon .

T h e m ultipli c ation blanks w ith their tabl e s for c o m pari

,

son and su mm ary t ables c om e in a parc hm ent e n v el Ope

,

tied w ith leather strings .

 O PERA T I O N S I N S E V E RA L F I G U RE S

By this ti m e th e c hild c an e asily perform op e rations

w ith nu m b e r s of t w o or m o r e fi gu r e s for h e poss e ss e s all
,

t h e m at e rials n e c e ssa r y and i s alr e ady p r e pa r e d to m ak e

u se of th e m .

F o r this w ork w e hav e for the fi r st thr e e op e rations ,

addition subt r a c tion and m ultipli c ation a c ounting

, , ,

fra m e ; and fo r division a m or e c o m pli c ated m ateri al w hi c h

w ill be d e s c rib e d lat e r on .

AD DIT IO N
Addition on th e c ounting fra m e is a m ost si m pl e op e ra
tion and th e r e fo r e i s very attra c tiv e
,
. Le t us take for
,

e xa m pl e the follo w ing

,

F irst w e slid e ov e r th e b e ads to r e pr e sent th e first n u m

b e r : 1 on t h e thousands —w ir e 3 on t h e hund r eds-w i r e
, ,

and 2 on th e t e ns -w ir e T hen w e pla c e next t o th em

.

t h e b e ads r e pr e senting the se c ond nu m ber : 4 on t h e hun

d r e ds-w ir e 3 on the tens -w ire and 5 on the units-w ire

, ,
.

N o w there rem ains nothing to be don e exc ep t to w rite the

num ber show n by th e b e ads in their present p osition
1 75 5 .
T his S how s t h e se c ond c ounting fr am e use d in arith m e ti c T h e child i s
- .

w riting t h e nu m be r s h e h as j ust for m e d on h er fr ame

. ( Th e R i vi n g to n
c
S t r e e t Mo n t es s o r i S h o o l , N e w Y o r k .
)
 AR I T HME T I C 227

S U B T RA C T I O N
The c ounting -
f r a m e l e nds its elf equally w ell to prob
l em s in subtra c tion Le t u s t ak e for e xa m ple t h e fol
.
, ,

lo w ing :

We pla c e the beads rep r e senting first nu mber ; th e n

th e
f r om them w e t ak e th e b e ads r e p r e s e nting t h e s ec ond n u m
b er. T h e b e ads re m aining indi c at e t h e diffe r e n c e b e
t w e en th e t w o nu m b e rs ; and this i s w ritten : 2 2 1 2 .

T hen c o m e s t h e m o r e c om pl i c at e d p r obl em w her e i t

is nec essary to bo r r o w f r om a high e r d e nom ination .

Wh e n the b e ads of one w ir e ar e e xhaust e d w e m ov e ov e r ,

t h e e ntir e t e n and t ake to r e pr e sent th e m o n e b e ad from

t h e lo w er w ire ; then w e c ontinu e the subtra c tion Fo r .

e xa m pl e :

We m ove th e beads r e presenting the first nu mb e r ; then

w e take 3 beads f r om t h e units N o w w e b e gin to su b
.

t ra c t the tens We w ish to tak e a w ay 9 b e ads ; but w h e n

.

w e h av e m ov e d fi v e t h e w i r e i s e m pty an d the r e are still

,

four m o r e to b e m ov e d We take a w ay o n e b e ad from

.

t h e hundreds w i r e and r e pla c e th e entir e t e n on th e t e ns

-

w i r e ; and th e n w e c ontinu e to m ove b e ads on t h e tens

w i r e until w e h av e t ak e n a total of nin e that is w e —
,

n o w m ov e t h e oth e r fou r O n the hund r e ds -w ir e th e r e

.

r em ain but 8 b e ads and f r om them w e t ake th e 5 et c

, ,
.

O u r fi nal r em ainde r is 1 3 6 1 .
 A R I T HM E T I C 229

2 units
74 2 4 t e ns 356
7 hundr e ds

E a c h of t h e fi r st nu m b e rs i s c om bin e d w ith t h e th r e e fig
u r e s of t h e oth e r num b e r in th e follo w ing m ann e r :
11 . 6 ) ( 1 2 u n i ts u . 6 ) ( 24 t en s
t . 5 kx u . 2 :
41 0t ens t . 5 rx t . 4 :
{ 20 hundr e ds
h 3 J L 6 hundr e ds h 3 } LI 2 thous ands
‘

. .

u . 6 42 h u n dr e d s
t
. 5 X h . 7 35 thousands
h . 3 21 t ens o f thous ands

Wh e n thi s analysis i s w r itt e n do w n t h e w o r k on th e ,

c ounting f r a m e s b e gins H e r e th e op e r ations ar e pe r

-
.

fo r m e d i n th e follo w ing m ann e r : 2 X 6 units n e c e ssitat e

t h e bringing fo r w a r d of t h e t e n b e ads on t h e fi r st w i r e .

Ho w e v e r e v e n those do not su ffic e S O th e y ar e slid ba c k

,
.

and o n e b e ad on t h e s ec ond w ir e i s b r ought fo r w a r d ,

to r e p r e s e nt th e t en r e pla c e d and on th e fi r st w i r e t w o,

b e ads ar e brought fo r w a r d
N e xt w e tak e 2 X 5 t e ns T h e r e i s al r e ady one b e ad
.

on t h e t e ns w i r e and to this should b e add e d t en m o r e

-
,

but instead w e bring for w a r d o n e b e ad on th e hund r eds

w ire At this point in t h e op e r ation t h e b e ads ar e dis
.

t r ibut e d on t h e w i r es i n this m ann e r :

Now
om es 2 X 3 hundr e ds and six beads on t h e c o r
c ,

r e sponding w ir e ar e b r ought fo r w a r d Wh e n t h e m ulti .

pli c ation by t h e units of t h e m ultipli e r is finish e d th e ,

beads on th e fram e ar e in th e follo w ing ord e r

2 30 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIA L
2
1
7

We p as s n ow to the t ens : 4 X 6 24 tens We must.

therefor e bring forw ard fou r b e ads on the tens w ire and
—

t w o on t h e hund r eds w ir e
-

X 5 20 hundr e ds the r e fore

,
tw o thousands

4 X 3 thousands 1 2 thousands ; so w e bring fo r w ard

-
t w o bead s on t h e thousands w ir e and one
- o n the ten thou
s ands-w ire

Now we t ak e t h e hund r e ds : 7 X 6 hundr e ds ar e 4 2

hundr e ds ; th e r e for e w e slid e fou r b e ads o n t h e thousands
w ire and t w o o n t h e hund r e ds w i r e
- . But th e r e alr e ady
w e r e nin e b e ads on this w ir e so only o n e r e m ains and
,

t h e other t en give us inst e ad anoth e r bead on t h e thou

sands -w ire
 ARI T H ME T I C 2 31

5 X 7 thousands 3 5 thousand s w hi c h i s t h e sa m e as
: 2

fi v e thousands and th r e e t e n thousands -

T h r e e b e ads on
.

th e fi fth w i r e an d fi v e on t h e fou r th a r e b r ought fo r w a r d ;

but on th e fou rt h w i r e th e r e al r e ady w e r e n in e b e ad s so ,

w e l e av e only fou r e x c hanging t h e other t e n for o n e h e ad

,

on t h e fifth w ir e
2
5
1
4
5

F inally 7 X 3 t en thousands— 2: O ne
2 1 t e n -thousands .

b e ad i s brought for w a r d on t h e fifth w i r e and t w o on t h e

hund r e d thousands-w i r e
-
.

At t h e e n d of t h e op e r ation t h e b e ads w ill b e distributed

as follow s
2 b e ads on th e fi r st w i re ( units )
5 s e c ond ( t e ns )
1 thi r d ( hund r e ds )
4 fou r th ( thousands )
6 fifth ( t e ns of thousands )
2 sixth ( hund r e ds of t hou sands )
T his dist r ibution t r anslat e d into fi g ur e s giv e s t h e follo w
ing nu m b e r : T his m ay b e w r itt e n as a r e sult
right aft e r t h e fa c to r s w ithout th e pa r ti al produ c ts : that
is 74 2 X 3 5 6
,
2

Although this di sc r ipt i o n m ay sound v e r y c om pli c at e d ,

the e x e r c is e on t e c ounting f r a m e is an e asy and m ost in

h -
 AR I T HME T I C 2 33

higher value for those of low er value w hen th e ten be ad s

of one w ir e a s a m ec h ani c al r e sult of the st r uc tu r e of
,

t h e fra m e are all us e d

,
. As m ultipli c ation i s ordinarily
w ritt e n su c h substituti o ns c annot b e m ade ; but the parti al
,

produ c ts m ust b e w ritt e n dow n in ord e r pla c e d in ,

c olu m n a c c o r ding to th e i r valu e and finally add e d

,
T hi s
.

i s a m u c h longe r pi ec e of w o rk bec aus e t h e ac t o f w r it

,

ing a figur e i s m or e c om pli c at e d th an that of m oving a

b e ad w hi c h S lid e s e asily on th e m e tal w i r e Again it i s
.
,

not so c l e a r as t h e w o r k w ith th e b e ad s onc e th e c hild

,

i s a c c u stom e d to handling t h e f r am e and n o longer ha s

any doubt as to th e po s ition of the diffe rent values and ,

w hen it has b e c o m e a so r t of r outin e to substitut e o n e

bead of t h e lo w e r w i r e fo r th e t en bead s of th e upper
w ire w hi c h h av e b e e n e xh aust e d
. F urth e r m o r e it i s m u c h
,

easier to add n e w p r odu c ts w ithout th e possibility of m ak

ing a m i stak e Let us go ba c k to t h e point i n the op e ra
.

tion w her e t h e be ads on the f r a m e r e ad thus

and it w as n e c e ssa r y to add 35 thousands fi v e beads

—

to the thousands-w i r e and thr e e b e ads t o th e ten-thousands

w ire . T h e thr e e b e ads on the fifth w ire c an be brought
fo r w ard w ithout any thought as to w hat w ill happen on
t h e w ire above w hen the fi v e a r e add e d to the nine In .

deed w h at takes pla c e th e r e do e s not m ak e any di ff er

,

en c e for it i s not ne c e ssa r y that th e operation on the high e r

,

w ire p re c ed e that o n t h e lo w e r w i r e .
2 34 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

Fig 2
. . Th e di spo sition o f t h e b ea ds f o r t h e numbe r ft e r
a

addi ng 5 thous ands to t h e num b e r

In adding the five b e ads to th e nine b e ads onl y four

rem ain on the fourth w ir e sin c e t h e oth e r t en are su b st i
,

t u t e d by a bead on t h e low e r w i r e ; this bead m ay b e

-
brought forw a r d e ven after the three for the ten th o usand s
hav e b e e n pl a c e d .

By t h e u se of t h e f r am e t h e c hild a c quires rem a r k

abl e d e xt e rity and fa c ility in c al c ulating and this m ak e s
,

hi s w o r k in m ultipli c ation m u c h m o r e rapid O ften o n e .

c hild w orking out an e xa m pl e on pap e r h as finish e d only

, ,

t h e first part i al m ultipli c ation w h e n anothe r c hild , w ork

ing at th e f r a m e has c om plet e d th e problem and kno w s
,

the final produ c t It i s int e resting ev e n a m ong adults t o

.

w at c h t w o c om pet e in t h e sa m e probl e m o n e at t h e fra m e

,

and t h e other using t h e ordinary m ethod on paper .

It is v e ry inte r e sting als o not to w o r k out on th e fra m e

, ,

t h e individual pr o du c ts in the sequen c e indi c ated in an al y z

ing th e fa c tors, b u t t o w o rk them o u t by c han c e In .
 AR I T HME T I C 2 35

d ee d it doe s not m atter w heth e r th e b e ads are m ov e d in

,

t h e o r de r of th e ir ali gnm e nt o r at ran d o m T h e b e ads .

on t h e t en -thousands-w ir e m ay b e m ov e d first then th e ,

hundreds th e units and finally t h e th o usands

, ,
.

T h e s e exe r c is e s w hi c h gi ve su c h a d e e p understand
,

ing of the op e rati o ns of arithm e ti c w ould b e i m possibl e ,

w ith t h e abstra c t o p e ration w hi c h i s p e rform ed only by

m e ans of figur e s .And it i s e vid e nt that the exerc ises
c an be a m plifi e d t o any e xtent as a pleasing ga m e .

M UL T IPL Y IN G ON RU L E D P AP E R
T ake , f o r exa m ple 8 6 4 0 X 2 53 1,
We w rite th e fi g .

ur e s of th e m ulti pli c and o n e und e r the oth e r but in th e i r

re lativ e positions ; this also c an b e w ritten by filling in t h e

va c an t spa c e s w ith z e r os .

In thi s w ay w e r e p e at th e m ultipli c and a s m any ti m e s

as th e re a re fi gu r e s in t h e m ultipli e r ; but inst e ad of w r it
ing besid e th e s e figu r e s th e w o r ds units t e ns e t c w e indi , ,
.
,

c ate thi s w ith z e r os whi c h f o r t h e sak e of c l e a r ness w e fill

, , ,

in till th e y r e s e m bl e la r ge dots .

T h e c hild alr e ady kno w s f r om hi s pr e viou s e xe r c is e s

, ,

th at zero indi c at e s the position of a fi gu r e and that m ulti

plying by ten c hange s thi s position T h e r e fo r e z e r os in .

t h e m ultipli e r w ould c aus e a c o r r e sponding c hange of posi

tion in t h e fi gur e s of t h e m ultipli c and .

T h e a c c om p anying fi gu r e sho w s c l e arly w hat it i s not

so e asy to e xplain in w ords .

We ar e n o w r e ady fo r t h e usu al pro c edu r e of m ultipl i

c ation . A c hild of s ev e n y e a r s r e a c h e s thi s stage v e ry
e asily af ter h aving don e our p r e li m ina r y e x e r c is e s and ,

then it does not m att e r to h im h o w m any fi gur e s h e has

t o u se Indeed h e i s v e ry fond of w orking w ith n u m
.
,

bers of unh e ard of fi gur e s as i s sho w n in the foll o w ing

,
 A R I T HM E T I C 2 37

w ithout analysis of fa c tors and w ithout h e lp fro m the

fra m es but by the m e thod c omm only used T his m ay be .

s e en by th e w ay in w hi c h th e exa m pl e i s w ritten out and

then don e by the c hild .

LONG D I VI S IO N
Not only i s it possibl e to perfo r m long division w ith our
b e ad m at e r ial but the w ork i s so d e lightful th at it b e
,

c o m es an a r ith m e ti c al p asti m e e sp e c ially adapt e d to t h e

c hild s ho m e a c tiviti e s U sing t h e beads c la r ifies th e dif

’
.

f e r e n t st e ps of th e op e r ation c r e ating al m ost a r ati o n al

,

ar i th m e ti c w hi c h sup e r s e d e s t h e c o m m on e m pi r i c al m eth

ods that redu c e t h e m e c hanism of abstra c t op e r ations to

,

a si m pl e r o u tin e F o r thi s r e ason thes e p asti m es pr e

.
,

pare th e w ay for the rational p r o c ess e s of m athem ati c s

w hi c h t h e c hild m e e ts in the high e r grad e s .

T h e b e ad fra m e w ill no longe r suffic e h e r e We n e e d .

t h e squar e arith m e ti c board us e d for t h e first partial m u l

t i pl ic at i o n s and fo r sho r t division Ho w e v e r w e r e qui r e
.
,

s e v e ral su c h boa r ds and an ad e quate p r ovision of b e ads .

T h e w ork i s too c o m pli c at e d to b e d e s c r ib e d c learly but ,

in pra c t is e it i s e asy and m ost int e r e sting .

It i s suffic i e nt h e r e t o suggest t h e m e thod of proc edur e

w ith t h e m ate r i al T h e units t e ns hund r eds e t c
.
, , ar e ,
.
,

e xp r ss d by diff r nt c olo r ed b e ads : u n i ts w hit e ; t e ns

e e e e -
, ,

green ; hu n dr eds red T h e n th e r e a r e ra c ks of di ff er e nt

, .

c olors : w hi te fo r t h e si m pl e units t e ns and hundreds ;

, ,

g yra for t h e thousands ; b l a c k for t h e m illions T h e r e .

also are boxes w hi c h on the outsid e ar e w hite gray or

, , ,

bla ck and on th e insid e w hit e gr e e n or r e d And for

, , ,
.

e a c h box th e r e i s a c o r r e sponding ra c k c ontaining ten tub e s

w ith t e n beads in e a c h .

S uppos e w e m us t d ivid e by 6 4 F ive of the .

238 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

boxes ar e pu t in a r o w arrange d from l e ft to ri ght a c c ord

,

ing t o the valu e of th e i r c olor as follow s : t w o gray boxes

,

one g r ee n inside and the other w hit e and thr e e w hit e

boxes w ith t h e insid e r e spe c tively red gr e en and w hit e
, ,
.

In th e first box to th e l e ft w e put 8 gr een beads ; in th e

s ec ond box 7 w hit e bead s ; i n the third 6 r e d b e ads ; in ,

the fou r th 3 gr een beads ; and in th e fifth bo x 2 w hit e

b e ads Ba c k of e a c h box i s o n e of t h e ra cks w ith t en
.

tub e s fill e d w ith b e ad s of c o r r e sponding c olors T h e se .

bead s — t e n in ea c h tub e —
ar e used in e xc h anging t h e

units of a higher d e nom ination for those of a low er .

T h e re are t w o arithm e ti c boards one next to t h e oth e r

, ,

pla c ed b e low th e r o w of boxes In t h e o n e t o t h e l e ft the

.
,

littl e c a r dboard w ith t h e fi gu r e 6 i s ins e r t e d in th e slot

w e hav e d e s c ribed and in the other to t h e right t h e fi g
,

u re 4 .

Now to divide 8 7 6 3 2 by 6 4, pla c e the first t w o boxes

,

at t h e l e ft ( c ontaining 8 and 7 b e ad s r e sp ec tively ) abov e

t h e t w o arith m e ti c b o a r ds O n the first board the e ight
.

bead s are arrange d in r o w s o f si x as in t h e m or e si m pl e

,

d ivision O n t h e se c ond board th e s e v en b e ads ar e ar

.

ran ged i n row s of four c orresponding t o the nu mb e r in

,

dic at e d by t h e red figu r e T h e t w o quoti e nts m ust be r e

.

du c e d w ith referen c e to t h e quotient in th e first a r ith m eti c

b o ard All th e oth e r i s c onsid e r e d as a r em aind e r T h e
. .

quoti e nt in this c as e i s 1 and th e rem ainders ar e 2 on the

first board and 3 on t h e s ec ond .

When thi s is finish e d th e boxes are m ov e d up o n e plac e

,

and then t h e first bo x i s out of th e gam e its pl ac e hav ,

i n g been taken by th e s e c ond box ; so the gra y green bo x

-

h -
is no longer abov e th e first board but t e gray w hite o n e
inst e ad and abov e th e s ec ond board w e m ust p la c e the b o x
,

w ith t h e re d b e ads .
The child h er e is solving a probl e m in long division .
( Mo n t es s o r i S c h o o l ,

B ar cel o n a
, S pa i n )
.
 AR I T HM E T I C 2 39

N o w the b e ads m ust be adj ust e d . T he two

beads that
are left ov e r on the c ard m a r k e d w ith t h e nu m b e r 6 ar e

green but th e box abov e this c a r d is the gray-w hite one .

We m ust the r e fo r e c hange th e g r e e n b e ads into w hite

beads taking for e a c h one of th e m a tub e of t e n w hite
,

b e ads . T h e w hit e b e ads w hi c h w e r e left ov e r on t h e oth e r

c ard m ust b e b r ought to the c a r d abov e w hi c h t h e w hit e

b o x i s n o w pla c e d We h ave only t o ar r ange t h e w hite

.

beads n o w in row s of six w hile t h e other box of re d b e ads

is em ptied on to the sec ond board in ro w s of four as in ,

S i m pl e division .

With t h e m aterial arranged in this w ay a c c o r ding to

c olor,
w e pro c e ed to th e r e du c tion w hi c h i s don e by
,

ex c hanging one bead of a high e r d e no m ination for

t e n of a lo w er T hus for exa m ple in t h e pr e sent c as e w e
.
, ,

hav e t w enty-thr e e w hit e b e ads distribut e d on t h e first

board in ro w s of six w hi c h gives a quotient of thr e e and
,

a re m ainder of five O n t h e s ec ond boa r d ther e are six

.

red beads d istribut e d in ro w s of four giving a quotient ,

of one w ith a r em ainder of t w o N o w t h e w ork of r e du e

.

ti o n begi ns T hi s c onsists i n t aking one by one t h e

.

beads from t h e board to th e l e ft in this c as e the w hit e

and ex c h anging them for ten r e d b e ads w hi c h in turn ,

are pla c e d in ro w s of four on the other boa r d until t h e

quotients on th e t w o c ards are alike Wh at i s l e ft .

ov e r i s t h e re m aind e r In this c as e it i s ne c e ssa r y to

.

c hange only t h e o n e w hit e b e ad s o as to h ave t h e oth e r

quotient rea c h th r e e w ith a r e m aind e r of fou r .

T h e sa m e pro c ess i s c ontinued until all t h e boxes ar e

us e d.

T h e final re m ainder i s th e o n e to be w ritten do w n w it h

t h e quoti e nt .

T h e exer c ise r e quires great patien c e and e xa c tn e ss but ,

2 40 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIAL

it i s m ost int e resting and m ight b e c all e d an e xc ellent

gam e of solitair e for c hildr e n for hom e use T h e r e i s
.

no int e llec tu al fati gu e but m u c h m ov em e nt and m u c h i n

t e nse attention T h e qu o ti e nts and r e m aind e rs m ay be
.

w ritten on a prepar e d sh ee t of p ap e r, so as to be verified

by the t eac h e r .

Wh e n th e c hild has perform ed m any of these ex e rc ises

h e c om e s spontan e ously t o try to fores e e the r e sult of an
op e ration w ithout having to m ak e th e m ateri al exc hange
and a r r angem e nt of th e beads ; h e n c e to shorten t h e m e
c h an i c al pro c e ss
. Wh e n at l engt h he c an see the sit
“ ”

n ation at a glan c e h e w ill be abl e to do the m ost diffi

,

c ult divisi on by t h e ordina r y p r o c e ss e s w ithout e xpe r i

e n c in g any fatigue o r w ithout h aving b e e n oblig e d to

,

e ndur e tiring pro gr e ssive l e ssons and hu m iliating c o rr ec

tions N o t only w ill h e h ave l e arn e d h o w to perform

.

long division s but he w ill h ave bec om e a m aster of their

m ec hanis m . He w ill realiz e ea c h st e p in w ays that the
,

c hild r e n of ordina ry s ec ond ary s c hools possibly never

w ill be abl e to und e rstand w hen through t h e usual m eth
,

ods of rational m athem ati c s they approa c h the in c o m pr e

h en sib l e operations w hi c h th e y h av e p e rform e d for several
years w ithout c onsidering th e reasons for them .
 E X ER C I S E S WI T H N U MBE R S

M U L T I P L E S P RI M E N U M B E R S , FA C T O RI N G
,

When th e hild by th e aid of all thi s m at e ri al has

c , ,

h ad a c han c e to grasp t h e funda m ental ideas r el ating to

the four O p e r ations and has pass e d on to the e xe c ution
of th em in the abstra c t he i s r e ady to c ontinu e on th e
,

nu m e r i c al pro c e ss e s w hi c h w ill l e ad to a m ore p r ofound

study preparato r y to t h e m o r e c om pl e x proble m s th at a w ait
h im in t h e s ec ondary s c hools .

T h e s e studies are ho w e v e r a m e ans of helping hi m to

, ,

r em e m b e r th e things h e already kno w s and t o e nlarge

upon them T h e y c o m e to h im as a pasti m e as an a gr ee
.
,

abl e m ann e r of thinking over e ith e r in s c hool or at hom e

the id e as w hi c h he al r e ady has gain e d .

O n e of t h e fi r st ex e r c is e s i s that of c ontinuing the

m ultipli c ation of e a c h nu m b e r by th e s e ries of 1 to 1 0
w hi c h w as begun by the e xe r c is e s on t h e m ulti pl i c ation

tables T his should b e don e in t h e abstra c t : that i s

.
,

w ithout r e c ours e to t h e m at e r ial . Le t u s ho w e ver se t

, ,

so m e li m it w e w ill stop w h e n e a c h produ c t h as r ea c h e d

1 00 . In order th at th e s e s e r i e s of e x e r c is e s m ay e a c h b e
in o n e c ol um n t h e first e x e r c is e s w ill stop w ith 5 0 and
anoth e r c an be u s e d fo r t h e nu m bers from 5 1 to 1 00 .

T h e t w o follo w ing tabl e s ( A and B ) are the r e sult .

T hese are pr e pared in thi s m anner in ou r m ateri al so that

the c hild m ay c om pa r e his w ork w ith them .

241
 ARI T H ME T I C 2 43

o o o o
w n w m

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m w u
. w m m

tw m
H

oo X
w

o m o m o
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.

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X X X X X X
m to m a to

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X X X X x X
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m m o m m m m m m « m m
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m m m w m m m m
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o a

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m m m
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m m

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2 44 M O N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY M AT E RIA L
T ABLE C
 A R I T HM E T I C 245

T ABLE D

i 53
z 54 2 x m 3 x m x 9
s o X s
i 2 X2 55 5 x u
s 56 2 x m 4 x M x 8
e 2 X3 W
M 2 s X 7
v 57 : 3 x w
s 2 X 4 M 2 58 2 2 x m
g 3 X 3 59
m ” 2 x 2 3 x 2
_
_ m
2 X 5 M 2 60 x
n w 1 2 w 1 o m x 4
m 2 X6 X4 e X 2
5
0 H
m
m 2 X 7 ” 2 63 : 3 X 21 : 7 X 9 : 9 X 7
w 3 X 5 W
M 3 64 : 2 X 32 : 4 X 1 6 : 8 X 8
m 2 X 8 ” g 2 65 : 5 X 1 3
u 66 : 2 X 3 Z 3 x 2 x n
m 2 X9 X 6 2 9 X2 67
m 68 : 2 X 34 Z 4 X 1 7
m 2 X 1 0 4 x 5 4 69 : 3 X 23
M X 70 : 2 X 35 : 5 X 1 4 : 7 X 1 0
m z 7 X 3 V
A 7 1 O X 7
a : 2 X 1 71
m 72 2 x 4 3 x 2 = x m
a XX
2 X 1 2 3 x 8 6 6 X 1 2 8 X 9 2 x8
6 X 4 8 x 3 73
2 : 5 5 74 : 2 X 37
2 2 2 X 1 75 : 3 X 25 : 5 X 1 5
2 2 3 9 X 3 76 : 2 X 38 2 4 X 1 9
2 : 2 X 1 4 x 7 4 77 : 7 X 1 1
2 78 : 2 X 39 Z 3 X 26 2 6 X 1 3
2 2 X 1 5 m
3 x x 6 79
6 X 5 mm 80 : 2 X 40 : 4 X 20 : 5 X 1 6
m 8 X 1 0 : 1 0 X 8
a 2 X 16 4 x2 4 81 : 3 X 27 2 9 X 9
n 3 1 1 82 : 2 X 41
a 2 1 7 83
g 5 7 W 5 84 : 2 X 42 2 3 X 28 2 4 X 21
e 2 1 8 3 x n x 9 6 X 1 4 Z 7 X 12
6 X 6 9 x 4
m 86 : 2 X 43
a : 2 X 1 9 87 : 3 X 29
m 2 3 I3 88 : 2 X 44 : 4 X 22 : 8 X 1 1
a : 2 20 4m x x 8 89
8 X 5 mm
a 6 X 1 5 : 9 X 1 0 : 1 0 X 9
n 2 X 21 3 xM x 7 91 : 7 X 1 3
7 X 6 92 : 2 X 46 2 4 X 23
2 93 : 3 X 31
2 : 2 X 22 4 x u
2 2 3 X 1 5 5 x s 5 95 : 5 X 1 9
2 : 2 X 23 96 : 2 X 48 : 3 X 32 : 4 X 24
2 6 X 1 6 : 8 X 1 2
2 2 X 24 3 x w x m 97
6 X 8 8 x e 98 : 2 x 2 7 x m
s 7 7 99 2 3 x 2 9 x u
a 2 25 5 x m oX5 1 00 : w 50 ” g5 5 m0
m 3 1 7 1 0 X 0
e 2 X 26 4 xm
 AR I T HME T I C

o o o o o
o o o o o o c o c o 0 0

—
3 X 6

Th e hild w ill try i n ev e ry w ay to m ak e oth e r c om bina

c

tions and he w ill try also to divid e the pri m e nu mbers into
fa c tors .

T hi s int e llige nt and pl e asing ga m e m akes c l e ar to the

c hild t h e divisibility of nu m b e rs Th e w ork that h e .

do e s in ge tting thes e fa c to r s by m ultipli c ation i s r e ally a

w ay of dividing th e nu m b e r s F o r e xa m pl e h e h as di
.
,

v i de d 1 8 into 2 e qu al g r oups 9 e qu al groups 6 e qual

, ,

gr oups and 3 e qu al g r oups Pr e viously h e h as divid e d 6

,
.

into 2 e qu al groups an d th e n into 3 e qu al groups T h e r e .

fo r e w h e n i t i s a qu e stion of m ultiplying th e t w o fa c to r s
th e re i s no di ffe r e n c e in th e r e sult w h e th e r h e m ultipl i e s
2 by 3 or 3 by 2 ; for th e inv e rt e d o r d e r of t h e fa c tors do e s
not c h ange t h e produ c t But in divi sion t h e Obj ec t i s to
.

arrange th e nu m b e r in e qu al pa r ts and any m odifi c ation

in this e qu al dist r ibution of obj e c ts c h ange s t h e c h a r a c t e r
of th e g r ouping E a c h s e parat e c om bination i s a diffe r e nt
.

w ay of dividing t h e nu m b e r .

T h e id e a of divi sion is m ad e very c l e ar to t h e c hild s

’

m ind : 6 3 2 m e ans that t h e 6 c an b e divid e d into

z :
,

thr ee g r oups ea c h of w h i c h h as t w o units or obj e c ts ; and

,

6 2 3 m e ans th at t h e 6 also c an b e divid e d into but

,

t w o e qual g r oups e a c h gr oup m ad e up of thr e e units o r

,

obj ec ts .

T h e r e lations b e t w e en m ultipli c ation and division are

v e ry e vid e nt sin c e w e start e d w ith 6 3 X 2; 6 : 2 X 3
2 2 : .

T his brings out t h e fa c t that m ultipli c ation m ay b e used

to prov e division ; and it p r e par e s th e c hild to und e rstand
t h e p r a c ti c al steps tak e n in divi sion T h e n so m e d ay
.

w h e n h e h as t o do an exa m ple in long divi sion h e w ill ,

248 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY M AT E RIAL

find no diffic ulty w ith the m e ntal c al c ulati o n r e quir e d to

determ ine w h e ther t h e divid e nd o r a p ar t of it i s divisibl e
, ,

by the divi sor T his is not t h e usual p r e paration fo r

.

d ivision though m em orizing t h e m ultipli c ati o n tabl e i s

,

indeed us e d as a pre paration for m ultipli c ation .

F ro m th e above e xer c ises ( T abl e D ) oth e r s m ight b e de

riv e d involving f u rt h e rl analysis of t h e sa m e num be r s .

F o r exam pl e o n e of t h e possibl e fa c tor groups for th e

,

nu m ber 40 i s 2 X 2 0 But 2 0 . 2 X 1 0 ; and 1 0 2

2 X 5 . Bringing together t h e sm all e r fi gur e s into w hi c h

t h e large r nu m b e r s h av e b e e n b r ok e n w e ge t 4 0 ,
3
2 X 2 X 2 X 5 ; in oth e r w ords 4 0 2 X 5 : .

T hi s i s t h e r e sult for 6 0

60 = 2 X 30 = 2 X 2 X 15 = 2 X 2 X 3 X 5
2
2 X 3 X 5

For th es e tw o nu m b e rs w e ge t ac c ordingly th e pri m e

3
f a c tors : 2 X 5 ; and 2 X 3 X 5 2
Wh at then have t h e
.

t w o larger nu m bers 4,
0 and 6 0 in c omm on ? 2
T h e 2 is
3
in c luded in th e 2 ; the s e ri e s th e r e fo r e m ay be w ritten
2 2
2 X 2 X 5 ; and 2 X 3 X 5 T h e c o mm on e lem ent
.

( t h e gr e at e st c o mm on divisor ) i s 2 2
X 5 20 T h e : 2 .

proof c on s i sts in dividing 6 0 and 4 0 by 20 som ething ,

w hi c h w ill not b e possibl e for any nu m ber high e r than 2 0 .

We h av e t e st sh e e ts w her e th e nu m bers from 1 to 1 00

are arrange d in r o w s of 1 0 f o rm ing a squar e H e r e th e
,
.

c hild s e x e r c is e c onsists in und e r lining in diffe r e nt

’
,

squares the m ultipl e s of 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 T h e

, , , , , , , , ,
.

nu m b e r s so und e r lin e d st and out lik e a d e sign in su c h a

w ay that th e c hild e asily c an study and c o m pare the tabl e s .

F o r instan c e in the squa r e w h e r e h e und e r lin e s t h e m u l

,

tipl e s of 2 all th e e ven nu m b e r s i n t h e v e rti c al c olu mns

are m ark e d ; in th e m ultipl e of 4 w e hav e the sa m e linear
 S Q UARE A N D C U BE O F N U MBER S

L et u s tak e t w o of t h e t w o -b e ad ba r s ( g r e e n ) w hi c h
w e r e used in c ounting in t h e fi r st b e ad e x e r c ises Here
.
,

ho w e ver th e s e fo r m part of anoth e r s e ri e s of b e ads

, .

A long w ith thes e t w o bars the r e i s a s m all c hain

By j oining t w o lik e ba r s th e c hains r e p r e s e nt 2 X 2
,
.

T h e r e i s anoth e r c o m bination of th e s e sa m e obj e c ts — t h e

t w o bars a r e j oined toge ther not in a c hain but in t h e
fo r m of a squ a r e O 0
0

T hey r e present the sam e thi n g : that i s to say a s n u m ,

b e rs they ar e 2 X 2 ; but they diffe r in position o n e has

t h e for m of a lin e the other of a squa r e

,
.It c an b e s ee n
from thi s that if as m any ba r s a s ther e ar e b e ads on a
bar are pla c e d sid e by sid e th ey form a squa r e .

In the s e ries in fa c t w e o ffer squar e s of 3 X 3 pink

beads ; 4 X 4 y e llo w beads ; 5 X 5 p al e blu e b e ads ;
6 X 6 gray b e ads ; 7 X 7 w hit e beads ; 8 X 8 l av e nd e r
b e ads ; 9 X 9 d ark blue b e ads ; and 1 0 X 1 0 o r ange b e ads ;
thus reprodu c ing the sa m e c olors as w er e used at the b e
ginning in c ounting .

F o r e very nu m ber there are as m any bars as there ar e

b e ads for the nu mber 3 bars fo r the 3 4 for t h e 4 e tc ;
, , ,
.

in addition there i s a c h ain c onsisting of an e qual nu m b e r

of bars 3 X 3 ; 4 X 4 ; and a s w e hav e se e n , there is a
, ,

square c ontaining another equal quantity .

T h e c hild not only c an c ount t h e beads of t h e c hains

25 1
2 52 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

and squares but h e c an reprodu c e them by pl ac ing th e

,

c orr e sponding singl e ba r s e ith e r in a horizontal lin e or

laying them side by side in th e shap e of a squa re T h e .

nu m be r repeated as m any ti m e s as the unit it c ontains i s

r e ally t h e multipli c ation of the nu m ber by its elf .

F o r exa m ple , taking t h e s m all squa r e of four the c hild

c an c ount four b e ads on ea c h sid e ; m ultiplying 4 by 4

w e have the nu m ber of beads in the square 1 6 Multi ,

.

plying one sid e by itself ( s quaring o n e s ide ) w e h ave the

a r ea of the littl e square .

T his c an b e c ontinued for 5 8 9 e t c T h e squ ar e of , , ,

.

1 0 has ten b e ads on ea c h side Multiplying 1 0 by 1 0 .

,
“ ”
in other w ords squaring one side w e get the enti re
,

n u m ber of b e ads for m ing t h e area of the square : 1 00 .

Ho w ev e r it i s not the form alone w hi c h gives these

,

r e sults ; for if th e ten bars w hi c h form ed the square are

pla c ed e n d to end in a horizontal line w e get the hun ,
”
dr e d c hain . T his c an b e don e w ith e a c h s qu are ; the
c hain 5 X 5 like the square 5 X 5 c ontains the sa m e
, ,

nu m b e r of b e ads 2 5 We tea c h the c hild t o w rite the

,
.

nu mbers w it h sym bol for the s quare : 5 2

25 ; 7 2
49 ;
2
10 1 00, etc .

O u r m aterial her e i s m anufa c tured

referen c e to w ith
”
the nu m b e rs 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 It i s offered to
, , , , , , , ,
.

th e c hild beginning w ith the sm aller numbers G iven

,
.

t h e m aterial and fre e dom t h e idea w ill c om e of itself and

,
”
the c hild w ill w ork it into his c ons c iousn e ss on them .

In this sa m e p e riod w e take u p al so the c ubes of the

nu mbers and there i s a si m ilar m ateri al for this : that i s
, ,

t h e c hain of the c ube of the nu m ber i s m ade up of c hains

of t h e squar e of that nu m ber j oin e d by s e veral links w hi c h

p e r m it of its b e ing fold e d T h e re are as m any squar e s
.

for a num ber as th e r e are units in that nu m b e r — fou r

 ARI T H M E T I C 2 53

squares for nu m ber 4 six squar e s fo r 6 t e n squar e s for 1 0

, ,

and a c ube of t h e b e ads is fo r m e d by pla c ing the n ec e s

sary num b e r of squares o n e on top of t h e oth e r .

L e t us c onsid e r the c ub e of four T here is a c hain .

form ed by fou r c hains e a c h r e p r e s e nting t h e squa r e of

fou r T h ey ar e j oin e d by sm al l links s o that th e c hain
.

— O O ! O — O O O O - O O O O
O O O O - O O O O — O O O O
CO - O O O O - O O O O — O O O O
O O O
“
C O C O - . O O O - O O O O

c an be rolled up len gt h w ise T h e c h ain of the c ube w hen

.
,

thus roll e d gives four squ ares si m ilar t o the separate

,

squares w hi c h w he n d r a w n out again fo rm a straight

, , ,

lin e .

F ig 5. .
— T his sho w s onl y p art o f th e e ntir e ch a in for 43 .

T he quantity i s al w ays the sa m e : four ti m e s the squar e

of four 4 X 4 X 4 .
== 2
4 X 4 4 3 z

T h e c ub e of four c o m e s w ith t h e m ateri al ; but it c an

b e r e p r odu c e d by pla c ing fou r loose squar e s o n e on top of
th e oth e r Looking at this c ub e w e s e e that it has all its
.

e dge s of fou r Multiplying the ar e a of a squa r e by t h e

.

nu m be r of units c ontained in t h e sid e gives th e volu m e

2
of t h e c ub e : 4 X 4 .

In this w ay th e c hild r ec e ives his first intuitions of the

p r o c e ss e s ne c e ssary for finding a surfa c e and volu m e .

With thi s m aterial w e should not try to tea c h a great

 ARI T H ME T I C 2 55

of the relations of quantity By this ti m e th e se c ubes are

.

no longer r e c ogn ized superfi c i ally th r ough s enso r i al i m

pressions but th e ir m inut e st d e tails a r e kno w n to the
,

c hild through t h e pro gr essively intelligent w ork th ey

h av e oc c asioned
.
 PAR T IV

G E O ME T R Y
 P LAN E G E O ME T R Y

The ge om etri c insets us e d for s e nso r i al e xe r c is e s in th e

”
C hild r e n s Hous e
’
m ad e it possibl e fo r t h e c hild t o b e
c o m e fam ili a r w it h m any fi gu r e s of plan e g e om etry : t h e

squ a r e r e c tangl e t r iangl e polygon c i r c l e ellips e e t c

, , , , , ,
.

By m eans of t h e thi r d s e r i e s of c o r r e sponding c a r ds w h e r e,

t h e fi gu r es ar e m e r e ly outlin e d h e fo r m e d t h e h abi t of
,

r e c ognizing a ge o m e t r i c fi gu r e r e pres e nt e d m e r e ly by a
lin e F u rth e r m o r e h e has u s e d a s e r i e s of i r on ins e ts
.
,

r e p r odu c ing so m e o f t h e ge o m e t r i c fi gu r e s w hi c h h e
p r eviously h ad l e a r n e d th r ough t h e u se of w o od e n ge o
m e t r i c ins e ts
. He us e d th e s e ir o n ins e ts to dra w the out
lin e O f a figure w hi c h h e th e n fill e d i n w ith p a r all e l
,

lin e s b y m e ans of c olo r e d p e n c il s ( an e xer c is e in handling

t h e instru m e nts of w r iting ) .

T h e g e om e t r i c m at e r i al h e r e pres e nt e d t o t h e e l em enta ry
”
c lass e s suppl e m e nt s that us e d in t h e C hildr e n s House
’
.

It is si m ila r to th e iron ins et s ; but in this m aterial e a c h

f r a m e is fast e n e d t o an i ron foundation of e xa c tly th e s am e
S iz e as t h e f r a m e . S in c e e a c h pi ec e i s c o m plet e in its e lf ,

n o r a c k i s n e e d e d t o hold th e m .

T h e f r am e of the ins e t is gr e e n t h e founda t i o n i s w hit e

, ,

and t h e ins e t itself — t h e m ovabl e p o r tion — i s r e d .

Wh e n th e inset i s in th e fr am e t h e r e d surfa c e an d th e
,

gr e e n fram e ar e i n th e sam e plan e .

T his m at e ri al furt h e r di ffe rs f r om t h e oth e r in that e a c h

2 59
260 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY M AT E RIAL
ins e t om posed not of a S ingl e piec e as in the first ma
is c ,

t e r i al but of m any pi e c e s w hi c h w h e n put toge ther on t h e

, ,

w hit e foundation exa c tly r e pr o du c e t h e ge o m etri c fi gu r e

,

th e re designat e d .

T h e use to w hi c h these m o difi e d inset s m ay b e put i s

m ost varied T h e m ain purpos e i s to fa c ilitate the c hild s
’
.

auto~e du c ation through e x e r c is e s i n geom etry and oft e n

through th e solution of real probl em s T h e fa c t of b e ing .

“ ”
abl e a c tually t o h andl e ge om e tri c fi gures to arrange ,

th em in differe nt w ays and to j udge of the relations b e

,

tw e e n th em c omm ands th e c hild s absorbed attenti o n

,
.
’
.

T h e putting toge th e r of t h e in sets w hi c h deal w ith e quiv ,

al e n t figur e s rem inds o n e of th e gam e s of p atien c e

,

pi c ture puz zles — w hi c h h av e b e en invent e d for c hildr e n

but w hi c h w hil e a m using them h ave n o d e finit e e du c a
, ,

t i o n al aim Here how ever t h e c hild l e aves the e xer

.
, ,

c ises w ith c lea r c o n c ept s and not m e rely w ith general

noti o ns O f t h e princ ipl e s of ge om etry a thing w hi c h ,

i s v e ry hard to a c c om plish by t h e m ethod s c omm on to t h e

old e r sc hools T h e di fferenc e bet w e e n lik e fi gur e s sim
.
,

i l ar figur e s and e quival e nt figures the possibility of r e

, ,

du c in g e very regular pl an e fi g ur e to an e quivalent r ec t

angle and finally the solution of the theorem of Pyth a
,

goras all these ar e a c qui r e d e age rly and spontane o u sl y

by t h e c hild T h e sam e m ay b e said about w ork in fra c
.

tions w hi c h i s m ad e m ost int e r e sting by t h e ex e r c ises w ith

,

t h e c i rc ular inset s T h e r e al m eaning of t h e w ord fr ac

.

ti o n operations in fra c tions the r e du c tion of c o m m on

, ,

fra c ti o ns to d ec i m al f r a c tions all of this i s m astered and

b ec o m es perfec tly c lear in t h e c hild s m ind ’
.

T hes e ar e forma tiv e c onquests and at th e sa m e ti m e a

dyna m i c p ar t of th e c hild s intelle c tu al a c tivity A c hild
’
.

wh o w ork s spontan eo u sly and for a long p e riod of ti me

 GE O M E T R Y 261

w ith this m at e ri al n o t only st r e ngt hen s h i s reasoning

pow e rs and his c h a r a c t e r but a c quire s high e r and c l e a r er
c o gn itions ,
w hi c h in c reas e his m ental c apa c ity In .

his su cc e e ding sp o ntan e ous fl ights into t h e abstra c t h e

w ill S how ability fo r su r pri sing pr o gr e ss . Whil e a high
s c hool c hild is still w asting his m ent al e ffort in trying to
und e rstand th e r el ati on b e tw ee n ge o m e t r i c al fig ur e s w hi c h
,

it s e em s i m possibl e f o r h im to c om p r e h e nd our c hild in ,

t h e p r i m a r y grad e s i s fi nding it out for hi m s e lf and is

so e lated by his dis c ov e r y that h e i m m e diat e ly begi ns
the s e arc h fo r oth e r ge om e t r i c al r e lations O u r c hild r e n
.

gallop f r e ely along ov e r a sm ooth r oad u r ge d on by t h e

,

inner e n e r gy of th e ir g r o w ing psyc hi c o r ganism w hil e ,

m any oth e r c hild r e n pl o d on bar e foot e d and in sha c kl e s

ov e r stony paths .

E v e ry positiv e c onquest gain e d th r ough Obj e c ts w ith

m
our e thod of f r e e do m — allo w ing t h e c hild to e xe r c i s e
hi m s e lf at t h e ti m e w h e n h e i s m ost r e ady for t h e e xer
c is e and p e r m itti n g h im t o c o m pl e t e thi s ex e r c is e — re

s u l t s in spontan e ou s abstra c tions . Ho w i s it possibl e to

l e ad a c hild t o p e rform abst r a c tions if h i s m ind i s not
su ffi c ien tly m atu r e and h e is w ithout ad e quate inform a
t ion ? T h e s e t w o points of support ar e as i t w e r e t h e
, ,

f e e t of t h e psy c h i c m an w h o is t r av e ling tow ard his high e st

m e ntal a c tiviti e s . We shall al w ays se e t h e r e petition of
thi s ph e nom e non .E v e r y ult e r io r e x e r c is e of inner de
v e l o pm e n t
,
e v e r y ult e r ior c o gnition ,
w ill l e a d t h e c hild

t o n e w and e v e r high e r fl ight s into t h e real m of t h e ab

stra c t I t i s w e ll ho w ev e r to em ph asiz e thi s prin c ipl e
.
, ,

that the m ind in ord e r to fl y m ust l e av e from som e point

, ,

of c onta c t j ust as t h e a e r oplan e st art s f r om its hanga r

, ,

and that it m ust hav e r e a c h e d a c e r t ain d eg r e e of m aturity ,

as is th e c as e w ith th e sm all bi r d w hen it tri e s its w ings

 G E O M E T RY 263

syst em ati c aut o—ex e r c is e s of preparation Aft e r this it .

su ffic es m e r e ly t o grant fre e dom t o t h e c hild s ge nius in ’

ord e r that it m ay t ak e i t s o wn fl ight .

I n ee d not r e p eat that e v e n in t h e p e riod of replenishing

fr e e dom i s t h e guide i n finding t h e pa r ti c ular m om ent
“ ”
and t h e n ec es sa r y ti m e 3 for I al r e ady have spoken
insist e ntly and at l e ngth c on c e r ning this It is w ell h o w.
,

e v e r t o r e affir m h e r e e v e n m o r e c l e a r ly that a m aterial for

,

d e v e l o pm e nt p r e determ in e d by e xp e r i m e nt al r es ear c h and

put into re lation w ith th e c hild ( through l e ssons ) ao
c o m plish e s so c o m plete a w o r k by t h e psy c h i c rea c tions

w hi c h it i s c apable of sti m ul ating that m arv e lous ph e

n o men a of int e ll e c tu al d e v e lop m ent m ay b e obtain e d .

T h e s e ge o m e tri c ins e ts fu r ni sh r i c h m at e ri als fo r t h e ap

pli c ation of this p r in c iple and r e spond w onde r fully to th e
”
instin c t f o r w ork in the c hild m ind .

T h e exe r c is e s w ith thi s m at e r i al not only are ex e r c i s e s

of c om po s ition w ith t h e pi e c e s of an ins e t or of t h e sub
s t i t u t i o n of the m into th e i r r e lativ e m e tal plates ; they ar e

al s o e x e rc is e s in d r a w ing w hi c h b e c aus e of t h e labor th e y

,

r e qu ir e allo w th e c hild to t ak e c ognizan c e of e very d e tail

,

and to m e ditat e upon it .

T h e d e si gn ing don e w ith th e s e g e o m e t r i c ins e ts as w ill

,

b e e xplain e d is of t w o kinds : ge om e t r i c and a r tisti c ( m e

,

c h an i c al and d ec o r ativ e )
. And t h e union of t h e t w o kinds
of d r a w ings gi ves n e w w ays of applying t h e m at e r i al .

T h e ge o m e tri c d e si gn c onsists in r e p r odu c ing t h e figure

outlined by t h e c o r responding insets In this w ay the .

c hild learns to u s e t h e di ff e r e nt inst r u m ents of dra w ing

t h e squ are t h e rul e r t h e c o m pass and t h e protra c tor

, , ,
In .

th e se ex e rc is e s h e a c quir e s w ith th e aid of t h e sp ec i al po rt

,

folio w hi c h c o m e s w ith t h e m at e r ial a c tual and real c o g

,

n i t i o n s in ge o m e t r y
.
2 64 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIA L

Art isti c d e si gn s are m ad e by c ombining t h e sm all pie c es

of the various ge om e tri c ins e ts T h e resulting figu res are
.

th e n outlin e d and fill ed in w ith c ol o r ed pen c ils or w at e r

c ol o r s
. S u c h c om binations o n t h e p art of th e c hild ar e
re al estheti c c reati o ns T h e ins e ts are of su c h re c ipro c al
.

p roport ions that their c ombination r e sults in an art isti c

h arm o ny w hi c h fa c ilitates the devel o p m e n t of th e c hild s
’

estheti c sense With our insets w e w e r e able to r e pro

.

du c e som e of the c lassi c dec orations found in o u r m aster

pi ec es o f art su c h as d e c orati on s by G iott o
, .

A c o mbinati o n of geom et r i c design and arti sti c d e sign

is form ed by dec o rating the di ff erent parts of th e geom e tri c
figure - as the c e nter the sid e s th e angl e s the c ir c u m
m

, , ,

feren c e e t c ; or by elaborating w ith fre e -hand d e tails th e

,
.

dec orations w hi c h have re sult e d f r o m the c om bination of

the insets But a far b e tt e r c on c ept of all this w ill be
.

gained a s w e p ass o n to ex plain our dida c ti c m ateri al .

 T HE D I D A C T I C M A T E RIA L U S E D F O R
G E O M E T RY

E Q U I VA L E N T , ID E N T I C A L AND S I M I L A R F I G U RE S

F IR S T S E RI E S OFI N S E T S : S qu ar es and D i vid ed F i g

u r es
. T hi s is a seri e s of nine square insets t en by ten ,

c e nti m ete r s,
e a c h of w hi c h has a w hite foundation of the

sam e size a s the ins e t .

O n e ins e t c o nsists of an e nti r e square ; the others are

m ad e up in the follo w ing m ann e r :

A squar e d ivid e d into two qual r ec tangles

e

four e qual squa r e s .

e ight equal r e c tangl e s

sixteen e qu al squar e s
9)
t w o e qu al triangles
four e qual triangl e s
e ight e qu al tri angl e s

sixteen e qu al triangl es

Th e hild c an t ake the squ a r e divid e d into t w o r e c t an

c

gles and the one divided int o t w o t r i angles and int e r

c hange them : that is he c an build t h e first squ are w ith t r i
,

angl e s and the s e c ond w ith re c tangl e s T h e t w o triangles

.

c an be superi m pos e d by pla c ing th em in c ont a c t at the

und e r sid e w here th e re i s no knob and the s am e c an be

,

don e w ith the r ec tangl e s thus show ing th e ir equival e n c e

,

by pla c ing one on t h e other But th ere also is a c e rtain

.

2 65
 GE O ME T R Y 267

square by a m e di al li n e and ar e id e nti c al ; t h e t w o tri an

gl e s ar e form e d by dividing t h e o r iginal squar e by a diag
onal lin e e t c S i m i lar fi gu r e s o n t h e oth e r hand ar e
,
.
, ,

thos e w hi c h h av e the sam e fo r m but di ffe r in d i m e nsion .

F o r e xa m pl e the r e c tangl e w hi c h is half of t h e o r iginal

,

square and the o n e w hi c h is h alf of th e s m all e r squa r e

that is an eighth of th e original squa r e — ar e n e ith e r
,

id e nti c al nor equival e nt but th e y ar e s imi lar figur e s T h e .

sa m e m ay b e said of the large squ a r e and of the sm all e r

on e s w hi c h repres e nt a fourth a sixte e nth e tc
, , .

T hrough thes e divisions of the square an idea of f r a c

tions is gain e d intuitively Ho w e ve r this is not t h e m a
.
,

t e r i al us e d for th e study of fra c tions F o r this purpos e

.

th e r e i s anoth e r s e r ies of insets .

S E C O N D S E RI E S O F I N S E T s : F r ac ti o n s T h e re a r e ten
.

m e tal plates ea c h of w hi c h has a c ir c ular op e ning ten c e n

,

t im e t e r s in di a m e ter O n e ins e t is a c o m pl e t e c i r c l e ; the

.

oth e r c ir c ular ins e ts ar e divid e d r esp e c tiv e ly into 2 3 4 , , ,

5 6 7 8 9 and 1 0 e qual parts

, , , , ,
.

T he hild r e n l e a r n to m e asur e th e angl e s of ea c h pie c e

c ,

and so to c ount t h e d eg r e es F o r this w o r k th e re is a c i r

.

c u l ar pie c e of w hit e c ard boa r d on w hi c h is d r a w n in bla c k

-
,

a sem i c ir c l e w ith a radius of th e sa m e l en gt h as th at of t h e

c ir c ular insets T his s e m i c ir c l e i s divid e d into 1 8 se c tors
.

by radii w hi c h e xtend beyond th e c ir c u m fe r en c e on to

the ba c kg r ound ; and th e s e radi i ar e nu m b e r e d by t e ns
26 8 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL
°
from 0 t o E a c h se c tor is then subdivided into
ten parts or d egrees .

°
90 I0 0°

T he dia m eter from 0 to 1 8 0 i s outlined heavil y and

° °

e xtends beyond th e c ir c u m fer e n c e in order to fa c ilitat e

,

t h e adj ust m ent of the angle to b e m e asured and to give

a stri c t exa c tness of positi on T his is done also w ith the
.

radius w hi c h m arks T h e c hild pl a c e s a pi e c e of an

inset in su c h a w ay th at the vert e x of th e angle tou c h e s
t h e m iddle of the dia m eter and one of its sid e s rests on t h e
radius m arked At the other end of the arc of the
ins e t he c an read the degrees of the angle After thes e .

e xer c ises the c hildren are able to m easure any angle w ith
,

a c omm on protra c tor F u rt herm or e th e y learn that a

.
,

c ir c le m easures h alf a c ir c l e and a right angle

O n c e having learn e d that a c irc u m fer e n c e m easur e s
°
36 0 th e y c an fi nd the nu m b e r of degrees in any angl e ;
f o r e x am pl e in the angl e of an inset re presenting the
,
° —
seventh of th e c irc le they know th at 3 60
, 7z
( ap
proxi m ately ) 5 1 °
T hi s they c an easily ve r ify w ith th eir
inst r um e nts by pla c ing the sec t o r on the graduat e d c irc le .

T hes e c al c ulati ons and m e asurem ents are repeated w ith

al l t h e di ff erent se c tors of this series of insets w h e r e t h e
 G E O ME T R Y 269

circ l e is divided into fro m t w o to ten part s . T h e pro

tra c tor sho w s approxi m at ely th at

°
and 360 3 1 20
°

°
4 90

°
5 72

°
7 51

°
9 40

In thi s w ay t h e c hild learns to w rit e fra c tions

1 1 1 1 1
4 5 6 7 8

He has c on c r e te i m press ions of them as w ell as an intuition

of th e ir arithm e ti c al r e lationships .

T h e m ateri al lends itse lf to an infinite nu m ber of c o m

b in at i o n s all of w h i c h are real arith m eti c al exerc is e s in
,

fr ac tions F o r exa m ple the c hild c an t ak e from the

.
,

c i r c le the t w o h alf c ir c l e s and r e pla c e the m by four s ec tors

of filling the sam e c ir c ula r opening w ith entirely dif

 G E O ME T R Y 2 71

Z
1 1 2 .
1 1 1 4
“
“

’
2 2 2

Th e t w o halves m ake an entire c irc l e as

,
do t h e four
fourths .

N o w l et us fill a c i r c l e w ith di ff e r e nt pi ec e s : for ex

a m pl e ,
w ith a half c ir c l e an d t w o qua r t e r c i r c l e s The .

2
r e sul t 13 1 And In th e I ns e t I tself It Is
4

sho w n that
5 If we should w ish to fill the c ir c l e

w ith th e la r ge st pi e c e c om bin e d w ith the fe w e st

nu m b e r of pi ec e s possibl e it w ould b e n ec e ssa r y t o w ith
,

d r a w t h e t w o qua r t e r s e c to r s and r e pla c e th em by anoth e r

half c irc l e r esult

Le t u s fill a c i rc le w ith thr e e —7 sec tors and four

0

s e c to r s
3 4
’

5 1 0

If the la r ge r pi e c e s ar e l e ft in and the c ir c l e is th e n

fi ll e d w ith t h e f e w e st nu m b e r of pi e c e s possibl e it w ould ,

n ec e ssitat e r e pla c ing th e four t enths by t w o fifths .

R e sult
5
5

L et us fill th e c i r c l e thu s 31 + l ~2
10 4 8

No w try to put in th e l arge st pi e c e s possibl e by su b

st i t u t i n g f or s e veral sm all pi ec e s a l a r ge pi ec e w hi c h i s
2 72 M O N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

equ al t o th e m In th e sp ac e oc c upi e d by th e fi v e t e nth s

.

m ay be pla c ed o n e half and in that o c c upi e d by t h e t w o

,

eighths one fourth ; th e n the c irc l e is filled thus :

,

1 1 1 1 2

We c an c ontinu e to do t h e sam e thing that is t o r e ,

pla c e th e sm all e r pi ec e s by as l arge a s e c tor as possible ,

and th e t w o fo urth s c an b e r e pla c e d by anoth e r half c ir c l e .

R e sult

All the s e substituti o ns m ay be e xpress e d in fi gur e s thus

2 1 1 1

T his is one m e ans of initi ating a c hild intuitively int o

th e operations used f o r th e r e du c tion of fra c tions to th e i r
low e st te rm s .

I m proper fra c tions al s o interest th em very mu c h .

T h e y c o m e t o these by adding a nu m b e r of s e c tors w hi c h

fill t w o thre e o r fou r c i r c les T o find th e w hole nu m
, ,
.

bers w hi c h exis t unde r th e gui se of fra c tions i s a littl e

like putting a w ay in th e ir prope r pla c e s th e c i rc ul ar in
sets w hi c h h av e be e n all m ixed up T h e c h ildren m ani
.

fe st a desir e t o l e arn th e re al operation s of fra c tions .

With i m prop e r fra c tions they o r i gi nate m ost unu sual

sum s lik e th e fo llow ing
,
 G E O ME T R Y 2 73

24
8 8

We have a s e r i e s of c omm ands w hi c h m ay be us e d as a

guid e for th e c hild s w o r k H e r e ar e so m e e xa m ples :
’
.

of 25 b e ads

36 c ounters

24 b e ans

27 beans

40 b e ans

60 c ounters

In this last th e r e ar e tw o O pe r ations

60 —2
1 20 ;
e tc .

RE DU C T I O N OF C O M M O N F RA C T I O N S TO D E C I M A L F RA C
T ION s : T h e m at e r i al f o r
thi s pu r pos e i s si m il ar t o that
of th e c ir c ular insets ex c ept th at th e fram e is w hite and
,

i s m a r k e d into t e n e qu al parts and e a c h p a r t i s then su b

,

divid e d int o t en In these subdivisions the little line

.
G E O M E T RY 2 75
2 76 M O N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

fi
1
— and of a c ir c l e ar e pla c e d w ithin t h e c irc le di
3
v i de d into hundredths . R e sult :
1
A
3 8

1
The low er figure show s h o w th e —— e c s tor is pla c ed
3

If inst e ad we u se th e s ec tor we hav e e tc .

N um e rous s e c tors m ay be pla c ed w ithin t h e c irc l e ; for

exa m pl e
1 1 1 1

In order t o find th e sum of t h e fra c tion r e du c ed to d e c i

m als it i s ne c e ssa r y to r e ad only t h e num b e r at the out e r
,

edge of th e last se c to r .

U sing thi s as a basi s , it i s v e ry easy to develop an

arithm eti c al id e a Inst e ad of 1 w hi c h r e pr e s e nts the
.
,

w hol e c i r c l e l e t u s w rit e 1 0 0 w hi c h r e presents its sub

, ,

divisions w hen us e d fo r d e c i m als and l e t us divid e the ,

1 0 0 int o as m any parts of a c ir c le as th e r e are s ec tors in

 G E O ME T R Y 2 77

the c ir c le and th e r e du c tion i s m ad e All the p arts

,
. w hi c h
r e sult are so m an y hund r e dths H e n c e : .

1 25
1 0 0 ——
2 42 25 hundr e dths : that I s, or
z 1 00
The division is p erform ed by dividin g th e nu m erator
by t h e dem o n at o r :

T H IR D S E RI E S OF IN S E T s : E qu i val en t F igu r es . Two

c on c e pts w e r e giv e n by t h e squar e s divid e d into r e c tangles
and tri angles : that of fra c tions and that of e quivalent
figu r es .

T h e re i s a spe c i al m at e ri al for the c on c e pt of fra c

tions w hi ch b e sid e s d e v eloping the intuitiv e notion of
,

f r a c tions h as p e rm itted the solution of e xa m pl e s in fra c

,

t ions and of r e du c ing f r a c tion s to d e c i m als ; and i t ha s

fu r therm or e brought c o gnizan c e of other things su c h a s ,

the m easu r ing of angl e s in t e r m s of d e gr e e s .

F o r the c on c ept of equival e nt fi gu res th e r e i s still an

othe r m at e ri al T hi s w ill lead to finding the ar e a of dif
.

f e r en t g e o m e tri c form s and also to an intuition of som e

th e or em s w hi c h h e r e tofo r e h ave b e e n fo r e i gn to e l e m e n
tary s c hools being c onsid e r ed beyond the understanding
,

of a c hild .

MA T E RIA L S how ing

that a tri angle is equ al to a
:

re c tangl e w hi c h has one side e q u al to the base of the tri

angl e the other side equal t o h alf of the altitud e of the
,

triangle .

In a large re c tangular m etal fra m e there are t w o w hite

openings : t h e t r iangl e and t h e e quivalent r e c tangle T h e .

pi e c e s w hi c h c om pos e t h e r e c tangl e are su c h that th ey

m ay fit into the openings of e ither the re c tangle or the
 G E O ME T R Y 2 79

there ar e also an e ntir e rhom bus and an e nti r e r ec tangle .

If th e y are pla c ed one o n t o p of t h e oth e r th ey w ill b e

found to hav e the sa m e h e ight As t h e equivalen c e of th e

.

t w o figures i s dem onstrat e d by th e s e p i e c e s of t h e r e c t

angle w h i c h m ay be u sed t o fi l l in the t w o fig ures i t ,

i s easily se e n that th e area of a rho mbus is found by multi

plying the side o r base by the h e ight .

MA T E RI A L : Tosho w th e e quivalen c e of a trapezoi d

and a r e c tangl e having o n e sid e e qu al to t h e su m of t h e
t w o bas e s and t h e other equ al to half t h e h e ight .

T h e c hild hi m s e lf c an m ak e th e oth e r c o m pa r i son : that

is a trap e zoid e quals a r ec tangl e h aving one sid e e qual
,

t o t h e height and the other equal to o n e-half the su m of

280 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

the bases F o r th e latt e r it is only nec essary to c u t the

.

long r e c tangle in half and superi m pos e the t w o halv e s .

T h e larg e r ec tangular fra m e c ontains thr e e op e nings

t w o equal trapezoids and th e eq uival e nt r ec tangle having
o n e side equal to the su m of the t w o bas e s an d t h e oth e r

side equal to half t h e height O n e trapezoid is m ad e of

.

t w o pie c e s b e ing c u t in half horizontally at t h e height of

,

half its altitude ; the identity in h e ight m ay be prov e d

by pla c ing one pi e c e o n top of the o ther T h e sec ond
.

tr ap e zoid i s c om posed of pie c es w hi c h c an be pla c e d in

the r e c tangle filling it c om pletely T hus t h e equ ival e n c e
,
.

i s proved an d also the fa c t that the are a of a trap e z oid

i s fo und by m ultiplying the su m of t h e bas e s by h alf t h e
height or half the sum of the bases by t h e h e ight
,
.

With a r ule r th e c hild r en them selves a c tually c al c ulat e

th e are a of the geo m e tri c al figures and later c al c ulat e
,

t h e ar e a of th e i r littl e t ables e t c
,
.

MA T E RI A L : T o sh o w th e equivalen c e betw e e n a regu

lar polygon and a rec tangl e having o n e side equ al to
the peri m eter and the other equ al t o half of the h ypo t e
nuse .

In th e m aterial th e re ar e t w o de c agon insets o n e c o n

,
G E O ME T R Y 281
Th e be ad num be r c ube s buil t int o a towe r .
T he de cagon an d the r e c t angl e c an be c ompos e d o f t he same tri angul ar
ins e ts .

Th e tri angul ar inse ts fitt e d into the ir me tal pl t

a e s .
 G E O ME T RY 283

al e n t r ec tangl e are ea c h divid e d into t w o tri angles T h e.

tri an gles of the rhom bus are diffe r ent for they ar e di
,

v i de d by opposite diagonal lines T h e thr e e di ff e r e nt t r i

.

an gl e s resulting from th e s e divisions h ave t h e sa m e bas e

( thi s c an be a c tually verified by m e asuring the b ases of

t h e differ e nt pi e c e s ) and fit into t h e sa m e long r e c tangle

w hi c h is found belo w th e first three figur e s T h e r e fo r e it
.
,

i s d em onstrated that the thr e e triangles h ave the s am e alti

tude T h ey are equival e nt bec aus e ea c h one is the half
.

of an equivalent fi gu re .

B . T HE T H E O RE M
P Y T H A G O R A S : In a right
OF

angl e d t r i angl e the squ are of th e hyp o t e nus e is e qual t o

t h e su m of the squares of t h e t w o sid e s .

MA T E RI A L : T h e m ateri al illust r at e s th r e e d i ffe r ent

c a s es :

F i rst ase : In w hi c h t h e t w o sid e s of t h e t r iangl e

c

ar e e qual .

S ec ond c as e : In w hi c h t h e t w o sid e s ar e in t h e pr o
portion of 3 : 4
T hi r d c ase : G eneral .

F irs t c as e : d em onstration of thi s fi r st c ase a ff ord s

T he
an i m press ive indu c tion .
G E O ME T RY 2 85

S e c on d C as e
286 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

so that th e y ar e both of the s am e c olor ; w hile the squar e

form ed on th e hypot e nus e c an be filled w ith varied d e si gn s
by various c om binations of the sm all squares of the side s
w hi c h are in t w o di ffe rent c olors .

T hi rd c as e : T his is the ge neral c ase .

T h e large fra m e i s som e w hat c o m pl i c ated and di ffi c ult

to d e s c rib e It develops a c onsid e r abl e int e ll e c tu al e xe r
.

c is e. T h e e ntir e fra m e m easu r e s 44 X 2 4 c m and m ay .

b e liken e d to a c h e ss board w he r e t h e m ovabl e pie c es are

-
,

sus c e ptibl e of va r ious c om binations T h e prin c iples al

.

r e ady proved o r indu c tiv e ly suggested w hi c h lead to the

dem onstration of th e th e o r em w e
1 ) T hat t w o quad r ilat e ral s having an equ al base and
e qual altitude ar e e quival e nt .

( 2 ) T hat t w o figur e s e quivalent to a third fi gure are

e quivalent to ea c h oth e r .

In thi s figure the square form ed on th e hypotenus e is

divided into t w o rec tangles T h e additional side i s de
.

t e rm in e d by t h e divi sion m ade in t h e hyp o t e nu s e by

dropping a p e r p e ndi c ul ar line f r om th e ap e x of th e tri
angl e to th e hyp o t e nus e T h e r e are also t w o rhomboids
.

in thi s fra m e e a c h of w hi c h has o n e side e qual r e spec

,

t iv e l y to t h e l arge and t o the sm all squar e of the sides

of t h e triangl e and the other side equal to the hypotenuse .

T h e short e r altitud e of th e t w o rhom boids as m ay b e ,

s e e n in the figu r e itself c orr e s ponds to the r e spec tiv e alti

,

tud e s o r shorter sid e s of the rec tangl e s But the l o nger

, ,
.

sid e c o r r esponds respe c tively to th e sid e of the large r and

of t h e sm aller squar e s of the sides of the t r i angl e .

It i s not ne c essary that th e se c orr esponding di m ensions

b e known by the c hild . He s e es red and ye ll o w pi e c e s of
an inset and si m ply m ov e s th em about pl a c ing th em in ,

the ind e ntur e s of th e fram e It i s th e fa c t that th e s e

.
 G E O ME T R Y 287

m ovable pie c es a c tu ally fit into thi s w hite ba ckground

w hi c h gives t h e c hild t h e opportunity for r easoning out

t h e theorem and not t h e abst r a c t id e a of t h e c orr e spond

,

ing relations b e t w e e n t h e di m e nsions of t h e sid e s and th e

differ e nt h e ight s of the fi gu r e s R e du c e d to th e s e t e r m s
.

t h e exer c ise i s e asily p e rform e d and prov e s v e ry inter

e sting .

T his m at e rial m ay be us e d for other d e m onstrations

D E M O N S T RA T I O N A : T h e s u b s ti tu ti o n o f th e pi ec es.

L e t u s start w ith t h e f r a m e as it should b e fi ll e d origin ally .

F i r st t ake out t h e t w o r e c tangl e s fo r m ed on t h e h y

po t e nu se ; pla c e th e m in t h e t w o lat e r al g r oov e s and lo w e r

,

t h e tri angl e . F ill t h e r em aining e m pty spa c e w ith t h e

t w o rho m boids .

T h e s a m e spa c e is filled in both c as e s w ith

A t r iangl e plus t w o r ec tangl e s and th e n

,

A tri angle plu s t w o rhom boids .

Hen c e th e su m of the t w o r e c tangl e s ( w hi c h form the

squar e of th e hypotenuse ) is e qual to t h e su m of the t w o
rhom boids .

In a l at e r substitution w e c onsid e r t h e rho mboids i n

stead o f the rec tangl e s in ord e r to d em onstrate th e ir r e
spe c t iv e equival e n c e t o t h e t w o squares form e d on the
sides of th e tri angle B e ginning for exam pl e w ith t h e
.
,

l arger square w e start w ith th e ins e ts in the original po

,

s i t i o n and c onsid e r the spa c e o c c upied by the triangl e

and the l arger square T o analyze this sp a c e t h e piec es

.

are all t aken out and th e n it i s fill e d su c c e ssiv e ly by :

The triangl e and t h e large square in their original

positions .

T h e t r i angl e an d the large rho m boid .

S ho w ing th at the t w o rhomboids ar e eq ua l to the two r e c t angl e s .
S ho w ing that the tw o rhomboids a re eq u a l to the tw o squar e s .
 GE O ME T R Y 2 89

T his series of ge om e tri c m ate r i al is us e d for oth e r pur

pos e s but they ar e of m inor i m portan c e
,
.

F O U R T H S E RI E S O F I N S E T s : D i vi s i o n o f a T ri an gl e .

T hi s m ate r i al i s m ad e up of fou r f r a m e s of e qual size,

ea c h c ontaining an e quilat e ral tri angl e m e asuring t en c en
t im e t e r s t o a sid e
. T h e diffe r e nt pi e c e s should fill the tri
an gu la r spa c e s e xa c tly
.

O n e is fill e d b y an e ntire e quilat e ral tri angle .

O n e is fill e d by t w o re c tangu lar s c al e ne triangles e a c h ,

e qu al to h alf of the origin al equilat e r al tri angl e w hi c h ,

i s bis ec t e d by d r opping a lin e p e r p e ndi c ularly to t h e bas e .

T h e thi r d i s fi ll e d by thr e e obtus e isos c e l e s tri angles ,

form e d by lin e s bis ec ting t h e thr e e angl e s of th e original

.

triangl e .

T h e fourth i s divid e d int o four e quilateral t r i angles

w hi c h ar e si m ilar in shap e to t h e original tri angl e .

With th e s e tri angl e s a c hild c an m ake a m ore e x a c t

analyti c al study th an he m ad e w hen h e w as obse rving the
 GE O ME T R Y 2 91

mete r s squa r e in t h e 5 c e nti m e t e r s squ a r e ; and finally th e

tiny squa r e w hi c h is
,
pa r t of th e la r ge squa r e i n t h e
,

c e nti m e t e rs squar e .

T h e r e i s a lso a c i r c l e w hi c h i s tange nt t o t h e e dge s

of th e la r ge e quilat e r al t r i angl e T his c i r c l e m av b e
.

pla c e d on th e ba c kg r ound of t h e 1 0 c e nti m e t e r s c i r c l e and ,

in that c as e a w hit e c i r c ula r st r ip r em a i ns all t h e w ay

round ( c on c e nt r i c c i r c l e s ) .\Vi thi n this c ir c l e t h e s m all e r
e quilat e r al t r i angl e of t h e la r ge t r ian gl e ) is p e rfe c tly
ins c r ib e d T h e n th e r e i s a s m all c irc l e w hi c h i s t an ge nt
.

to th e s m all e st e quilat e r al t r iangl e .

B e sid e s th e s e c i r c l e s w hi c h ar e u s e d w ith the tri angles

th e r e ar e t w o others tange nt to t h e squar es : o n e to th e
7 c e nti m e t e rs squar e and th e oth e r to t h e c e nti m et e rs

squar e T h e large c irc le 1 0 c e nti m e t e rs in di am e t e r

.
, ,

fits exa c tly into th e 1 0 c enti m et e rs squ ar e ; and th e oth e r

c ir c l e s ar e c on c e nt r i c to it .

T h e se c o r r e sponding r e l ations m ak e t h e fi gur e s e asily

adaptabl e to o u r a r tisti c c o m po s ition of de c o r ativ e desi gn
n g c hapt e r )
( s e e follo w i .

F inally t o ge th e r w ith t h e other m ate r i al there are

, ,

t w o stars w hi c h ar e also us e d fo r d e c o r ativ e design The

.

c enti m eters
“ ”
t w o stars or ,
fl o w e r s ar e bas e d on t h e
,

square In one t h e c i r c l e r e sts on t h e side as a se i c i r

.
m -

c l e ( si m pl e fl o w e r ) and in t h e oth e r th e s am e c i rc le go es
around th e v e rt e x and b e yond th e s e m i -c i r c l e until it m e e ts
the rec ipro c al of fou r c ir c l es ( fl ow e r and foliage ) .
 S O LI D G E O ME TRY

S in c e the c hildren al read y kn o w h o w to find the are a

of ordinary geom etri c fo rm s i t i s very easy w ith the ,

kno w l e dge of the arithm eti c they h ave a c quired through

w ork w ith the beads ( t h e squ are and c ube of nu m bers ) ,

to initiate th em into the m an ner of finding the volum e

of s olids Af ter having studied the c ube of nu mb e rs by
.

the aid of the c ube of b e ads it i s e asy to re c ognize the

fa c t that the volu m e of a prism i s found by m ultiplying
the area by t h e altitud e .

In our dida c ti c m at e ri al w e h ave thre e obj ec ts for solid

geom etry : a pris m a pyram id having t h e s am e base and
,

altitude, and a prism w it h the sam e bas e but w ith only

one third t h e altitude T hey ar e all em pty Th e t w o
- . .

prism s hav e a c ov e r and ar e really boxes ; the un c overed

pyram i d c an be filled w ith different substan c es and then
em pti e d serving as a sort of s c oo p
,
.

T h e s e so lids m ay b e fill e d w ith w heat or sand T hu s .

w e put into pra c tise t h e sa m e t e c hni qu e as is used to c al

c ulat e c apa c ity as i n anthropology for instan c e w hen w e
, , ,

w ish to m e asure th e c apa c ity of a c raniu m .

I t i s diffic ult t o fill a rec epta c le c o m pletely in su c h a

w ay that the m easured result d oe s not vary ; so w e usuall y
put in a s c arc e m easur e w hi c h therefore doe s n o t c orr e
,

S po n d to th e e x a c t volu m e but t o a s m all e r volu m e .

O n e m ust kno w h o w t o fill a r ec epta c le j ust as o n e

,

292
 G E O M E T RY 2 93

must know h o w to do up a bundl e so that the various o b

,

j ec t s m ay take up the l e ast possibl e spa c e T h e c hildren

.

like this e x er c ise of shaking th e rec e pta c le and ge tting

in as grea t a quantity a s possible ; and they like to l e vel
it o ff w hen it i s entirely fi lled .

T h e re c e pta c les m ay b e fill e d also w ith liquids In this

.

c as e the c hild m ust b e c areful to pou r out t h e c ontent s

w ithout losing a singl e drop . T hi s te c hni c al drill serves

as a preparation for using m etri c m easures .

By these exp e r i m ents the c hild finds that the pyram id

has t h e sam e volu m e as the sm all prism ( w hi c h i s one
thi r d of the large p r ism ) hen c e t h e volum e of the pyra m id
i s found by m ultiplying th e area of th e base by o n e-third
t h e altitud e . Th e s m all pris m m ay b e fill e d w ith c l a y
and th e sam e pie c e of c lay w ill b e found to fill th e pyr a
m id . T h e t w o solids of equal volu m e m ay be m ade of
c lay. All three solids c an be m ad e by t aking fi v e ti me s
as m u c h c la y as is needed to fill t h e sam e prism .

Having m astered thes e funda m e ntal ideas it i s easy ,

to study t h e r e st and f e w e xplanations w ill b e n ee d e d

,
.

In m any c as e s t h e in c e ntiv e to do original problem s

m ay b e d e v e lop e d by giving th e c hildr e n d e finit e e xa m
pl e s : a s h o w c an t h e are a of a c ir c l e be found ? the vol
,

u m e of a c ylinder ? of a c one ? P roblem s on th e total

ar e a of som e solids also m ay be suggest e d M any ti m e s
.

th e c hildr e n w ill risk spontaneous indu c tions and often

of thei r o w n a c c ord proc e e d to m easure th e total surfa c e
area of all th e solids at their disposal even going ba c k to
,
’ ”
t h e m at e ri als u s e d in th e C hild r e n s Hous e .

T h e m ateri al in c lud e s a series of w ood e n so lids w ith a

base m easurem ent of 1 0 c m
 G E O ME T R Y 2 95

In front ar e pla c ed two m or e of th e s ev e n c ub e s

On top ar e put th e rem aining four e qual c ub e s 2 2 6

.

In this w ay w e h av e m ade a c ube m e asuring 8 cm . on

a side F rom this w e s ee that :
.

2 3
,
2 6
hav e th e form of a c ube .

2 2
,
2 5
hav e th e fo r m of a s quare .

2 2 4
h ave a lin e ar form .

T he C u b e o f a B in o mi al : ( a b) 3
a
3
b 3
3a h2

2
3b a .

MA T E RI A LA c ub e w ith a 6 c m e dge a c ub e w ith

: .
,

a 4 c m e dge ; thr e e p r ism s w ith a squ a r e bas e of 4 c m

. .

on a sid e and 6 c m high ; thr e e p r ism s w ith a squar e bas e

.

of 6 c m to a sid e and 4 c m high T h e 1 0 c m c ub e c an

. . . .

b e m ad e w ith th e s e .

T hese t w o c o m bin ations ar e in spe c i al c ub e-shap e d

boxes int o w hi c h the 1 0 c m c ub e fits e xa c tly . .

Weights M e as u r es :
All that r e fe rs to w e ights
and

and m easur e s i s m erely an appli c ation of si m ilar op e ra

tions and r e asonings .

T h e c hildren have at th e i r disposal and l e arn to handle

m any of th e obj e c ts w hi c h ar e used fo r m e asuring both
’
in c omm e r c e and in e v e r y day life In th e C hildr en s
-
.

”
Hous e days th e y had th e long stai r rods w hi c h c o n
t ain th e m e ter and its d ec i m e t e r subdivisions H e r e .

they h av e a tap e -m e asu r e w ith w hi c h th e y m e asu r e fl oors ,

etc.
,
and fi n d t h e a r e a T h e y hav e th e m et e r in m any
.

fo rm s : in t h e anthropom e ter in th e r uler T h e n t o o , ,

.
,
29 6 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIAL

they u se th e m e tal tap e th e d r e ssm ake s tap e m easur e

,
r
’
,

and the m e t e rsti c k us e d by m e rc hants .

Th e t w e nty c e nti m e t e r ruler divid e d into m illi m et e r s

they u se c onst antly in d e sign ; and they love to c al c ulat e
t h e ar e a of t h e ge om etri c figur e s they have design e d or
of the m etal insets O ften they c al c ul ate the surfa c e of
.

th e w hit e ba c kground of an inset and that of the differ

ent pie ce s w hi c h exa c tly fi t thi s opening so as to verify,

th e fo r m er. A s th e y already have som e preparation in

d ec i m als it is no t ask for them to re c ogn ize and to rem em
b e r that the m easur e s in c r e as e by tens and t ak e on n e w
na m e s e a c h ti m e T h e ex e r c is e s in gramm ar have greatly
.

fa c ilitated the in c r e as e in their vo c abulary .

T h e y c al c ulate the re c ip r o c al r e l ations bet w e e n length ,

surfa c e and volu m e by going ba c k to the thr e e s e ts w hi c h

,
“ ” “ ” “ ”
fir s t rep r esented long ,
thi c k and large
,
.

’
T h e obj ec ts w hi c h diff er in l e ngt h v ary by l 0 s ;
’
thos e diffe ring in ar e a s var y by l 00 s ; and those w hi c h
diffe r in volum e vary by 1 000 s ’
.

T h e c o m pari son b e t w ee n the b e ad m ateri al and t h e

c ub e s of the pink to w e r
( o n e of th e fi r st things th e y built )
en c ourage s a m ore p r ofound study of the sensory obj ec ts
w hi c h w er e on c e t h e subj e c t of assiduous appli c ation .

By t h e aid of the doubl e d ec i m eter the c hildr e n m ak e

t h e c a l c ulations for finding t h e volu m e of all th e di ffe r e nt
obj ec ts grad e d by t e ns su c h as the rods the pris m s of
, ,

the broad stair th e c ub e s of th e pink tow e r

, .

By taking the extr em es in ea c h c ase th e y learn the re

l at i o n s bet w e e n obj ec ts w hi c h differ in o n e di m ension in ,

t w o di m e nsions and in th r e e di m e nsions

,
B e sid e s th ey
.
,

already kno w that the squ are of 1 0 i s 1 0 0 and the c ub e ,

of 1 0 i s 1 0 00 .
Hollow ge ome tri c solids us e d
,
de t e rm ining
for eq uival en c e b y m e a s u ring
sand sugar e t c
, , .
 GE O ME T R Y 2 97

T he c hild r e n m ak e use of various s c i e ntific instrum ents

the r m ome t e r s distillers s c al e s and as previousl y stated,
, , , ,

the prin c ipal m e as ures c o mm only used .

By filling an em pty m etal c ubi c al de c i m eter w hi c h lik e

,

th e ge o m etri c solids i s u sed for the c al c ul ation of volum e ,

th ey have a lit e r m easure of w ater w hi c h m ay be poured

,

into a glas s liter bottl e All the d e c i m al m ultiples and

.

subdivisions of the liter are easily und e rstood O u r c hil .

d r e n sp e nt m u c h ti m e pouring liquids int o all the sm all

m e asures u s e d in c o m m er c e for m easuring w in e and oil .

T h e y distil w ater w ith the distiller T h e y u s e the ther

.

m o m e t e r to m easure the tem p e rature of w ate r in eb u ll i

ti on and t h e t em peratu r e of the fre e zing m ix t ur e T h e y .

tak e t h e w ater w hi c h i s us e d to d et e rm in e the w eight of

°
th e kilogr a m keeping it at th e t e m p e rature of 4 C
,
.

T h e obj e c ts w hi c h serv e to m e asur e c apa c ity also are

at th e disposal of the c hildren .

T her e is no need to go into m or e details upon the mu l

t i t u di n o u s c ons e quen c e s r e sulting from both a m e thodi c al
preparati on of th e int ellec t and the possibility of a c tuall y
b e ing in c onta c t w ith r e al obj ec ts.

A great nu m b e r of probl em s given by us as w e ll as ,

probl e m s originated by th e c hildren th em selv e s bear w i t ,

n e ss to th e eas e w ith w hi c h e xternal e ffec ts m ay b e spon

t an e o u sl y produ c e d w hen on c e the inner c auses h ave been
adequat e ly stimul ated .
 PA R T V

D R AW I N G
 L I N E A R G E O ME T RI C D E S I GN D E C O RA T I O N

I already h av e m entioned th e fa c t that t h e m ateri al of

the ge om e tri c ins e ts m ay b e appli e d also to d e si gn .

It i s th r ough d e si gn that t h e c hild m ay b e l e d to pon e

der on th e ge o m etri c fi gu res w hi c h h e has handl e d tak e n ,

out c ombin e d in nu m e r o u s w ays and r e pla c e d In do

, , .

ing this h e c o m pl e t e s an e x e r c ise ne c e ssitating m u c h u s e

of th e r e asoning fa c ulti es Ind e ed h e r e produ c es all of
.
,

t h e fi gu r e s by lin e ar d e si gn l e a r ning to h andle m any i n

,

st r u m e n t s — t h e c e nti m e t e r rul e r t h e double de c i m e t e r

, ,

the square the protra c tor t h e c om pass and the st e el pe n

, , ,

u s e d f o r line r uling F o r this w o r k w e have in c lud e d in

.

t h e geo m e t r i c m at e rial a large portfolio w h e r e toge th e r ,

w ith t h e page s r eprodu c ing t h e fi gu res th e re ar e also so m e

,

illustrativ e sh e ets w ith bri e f e xplanations of the fi gur e s

an d c ontaining t h e r e lativ e nom en c latur e Asid e from .

c opying d e si ns the c hild m ay c opy als o the e xplanatory

g
not es and thu s r e produ c e t h e w hol e geom e try po r tfoli o .

T h e se explanatory notes are v e ry si m pl e Here for e x

.
,

a m pl e i s t h e o n e w hi c h r e fe rs to th e square
,

S Q U A R E : T h e sid e or base i s divid e d into 1 0 c m All .

the other sides are e qu al h e n c e e a c h m e asur e s 1 0 c m

,
.

T h e square has fou r e qu al sid e s and four e qual angl e s

w hi c h ar e al w ays right angl e s . T h e nu m b e r 4 and t h e
id e ntity of t h e sid e s and angl e s ar e t h e distingu ishing
”
c hara c t e risti c s of the squ a r e .

T h e c hild r e n m easur e pap e r and c onstru c t the fi gu re

301
3 02 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL

w ith att e ntion and appli c ation that ar e truly r em a r k

able T h e y lov e to handl e t h e c om passes and are v e ry
.

proud of poss e ssing a p air .

O n e c hild aske d h e r m oth e r for a C hrist m as gift of

”
o n e l as t doll and a box of c o m pass e s as if she w ere
,

ending one e po c h of h e r life and b e ginning another O n e .

littl e boy b e gge d his m oth e r to l e t h im a c c o m p any h e r

w h e n she w ent to buy t h e c o m p ass for h im Wh e n th e y .

w e re in t h e stor e t h e sal e s m an w as surpris e d to find

that so young a c h ild w as to u s e t h e c om pass and gav e
”
th em a box of th e si m pl e st kind N o t thos e
. prot e st e d ,
“
the littl e fe llow ; I w ant an e ngin e e r s c om pass ; and ’

h e pi c k e d out o n e of t h e m ost c om pl i c at e d on e s T hi s .

w as t h e v e ry r e ason w hy h e w as so anxious to go w ith

his m other .

As the c hildr e n d r a w th e y l e arn m any parti c ulars c o n

,

c e rni n g t h e g e o m etri c figur e s : the sid e s angl e s bases c e n

, , ,

ters m edi an lines radi i dia m et e rs s ec to r s s e gm ents di ag

, , , , , ,

o n al s hypot e nus e s c i r c u m fe ren c e s p e r i m e t e r s e t c

, , ,
T h ey ,
.

do not ho w e v e r l e arn all thi s as so m u c h d r y inform a

, ,

tion nor do th e y lim it th em s e lv e s to r e p r odu c ing t h e de

signs i n t h e geom e try po r tfolio E a c h c hild adds to his
.

o w n portfolio other d e si gns w hi c h he c hoos e s and so m e

ti m es originat e s T h e designs r e produ c e d i n the port

.

folio a r e dra w n on plain w hite dra w ing pap e r w ith C hin a

’
inks but the c hildr e n s spe c i al d e signs ar e dra w n on
,

c olored pape r w ith diff erent c olor e d inks and w ith gild

ings ( silv e r gold ) ,

T h e c hildren reprodu c e th e ge o
.

m etri c figur e s and then th e y fill th em in w ith de c ora

m
tions ad e e ither w ith pen or w at e r c olors T hese d e c o
- .

rations s e rv e e sp e c i ally to em phasize in a geom e tri c ,

analysis t h e various pa r ts of th e fi gu r e su c h as c enter,

, ,

angl e s c irc u m feren c e, m edi ans di agonals, et c

, ,
.
 D RAW I N G 303

The de c o r at e d m otif i s s e l ec t e d or e ls e invent e d by the

c hild hi m s e lf . He is allo w ed t h e sa m e f r e e dom of c hoi c e
in hi s ba c kg r ounds a s h e e nj oys for h is inks o r w at e r
c olo r s . T h e obs e rvation o f natu r e ( fl o w e rs and th e ir
diffe r e nt par ts — poll e n l e av e s a s e c tion of som e part
, ,

obs e rv e d und e r th e m i c r os c op e plant s e e ds sh e lls e tc )

, , ,
.

s e rv e s to nou r i sh t h e c hild s aesth e ti c i m agination T h e

’
.

c hild r e n also h av e a c c e ss to a r tisti c d e signs c oll e c tions

,

of photog r aphs r e p r odu c ing the gr e at m ast e rpi ec e s an d ,

Ha ec k e l s fa m ous w ork N atu r e s A r ti s ti c F o r ms all of

’
,
’

w hi c h e quip m e nt i s s o interesting and d e lightful to a

c hild .

T h e c hildr e n w ork m any m any hours on dra w ing

,
.

T his is the ti m e w e seiz e for r e ading to th em ( see abov e

p 1 9 7 ) and al m ost all th e i r history i s l e arn e d du r ing this
.

qui e t p e riod of c opy and si m pl e de c oration w hi c h i s so

c ondu c iv e to c on c e ntration of thought .

C opying som e desi gn or dra w ing a de c oration w hi c h

,

has b e e n di r e c tly inspir e d by so m e thing se e n ; t h e c hoi c e

of c olors to fill i n a geom e t r i c figu re or to b r ing out b v ,

sm all and si m pl e desi gn s the c e nt e r or sid e of t h e fi gu re ;

,

t h e m ec hani c al ac t of m ixing a c olo r of d issolving t h e ,

gildings or of c hoosing o n e kind of ink f r om a s e ri e s of

,
’
diffe r e nt c olors ; sharpening a p e n c il o r getting on e s ,

pap e r in the prop e r position ; d e t e rm ining through tenta

tiv e m eans the requir e d e xtension of the c o pass m — all
thi s i s a c om p l e x op e r ati on r e quiring patien c e and e x
ac t i tu de . But i t do e s not requir e great int ell ec tual c o n
c e ntration . It i s th e r e fo r e a w ork of appli c ation rather
, ,

than of inspi r ation ; an d th e obs e rvation of ea c h detail ,

in order to r e p r odu c e it exa c tly c larifies and r e sts the
,

m ind inst e ad of rou sing i t to t h e int e ns e a c tivity de

m an de d by the labo r of assoc iation and c r e ation Th e .
 D RAWI N G 3 05

dren abandon their dra wi ng so as to ac t out som e hu

m o r o u s s el ec tion or to r e present an histori c al fa c t w hi c h
h as tou c h e d the m deeply ; or indeed as happ e n e d dur
, ,

ing the r e ading of the S avage of A v eyr o n their hands ,

r em ain e d al m ost un c ons c iously raised in the intensity of

th e i r e m otion w hile on their fa c es w as an e xpression of
,

e c stasy as if they w ere w itnessing w ond e rful unh e ard

,

o f things . T h e ir a c tions see m ed to int e rp r et t h e w e ll

kno w n senti m ent N ever have I seen w o m an like unto
”
this .

A R T I S T I C C O M P O S I T I O N W I T H T H E IN S E T s : O u r geo
m etri c insets w hi c h a r e all d e finit e ly r e lat e d to o n e an
,

oth e r in di m ensions and in c lud e a s e ries of figures w hi c h

c an b e c ontain e d one w ithin the other lend th e m s e lv e s to
,

very beautiful c om binations With th e se the c hildren

.

m ake real c r e ations and oft e n follo w out th e ir artisti c

i d e as for days and even w eeks By m oving th e s m all .

pi ec e s or by c om bining th em in diff erent w ays on t h e

w hit e ba c k ground th e s e v e r y insets p r odu c e various d e c o
,

r ations . T h e e as e w ith w hi c h t h e c hild m ay form de

signs by ar r anging t h e littl e pi ec e s of i r on on a sh e e t of
pap e r and th e n outlining th em and t h e harm ony w hi c h
,

i s thus so easily obtain e d a ffords e ndl e ss delight R e ally

,
.

w onderful pi ec es of w ork are oft e n produ c e d in this w ay .

D uring th e s e p e riods of c r eativ e d e sign as i nde e d dur ,

ing th e p e riods of d r aw ing f r o m life the c hild is d e e ply

,

and w holly c on c e ntrat e d Hi s entire int e lle c t is at w o r k

.

and no kind of inst r u c tive r e ading w ould b e at all fitting

w hile h e i s engage d i n dra w ing or desi gning of thi s na

tu r e .

With t h e insets as w e hav e said w e have reprodu c e d

, ,

so m e of t h e c lassi c d e c o r ations so gre atly adm ired in th e

3 06 MO N T E S S O R I E LE M E N T ARY M AT E RIAL
Italian m ast e rpie c es ; for instan c e those of G i o tto i n
,

F lorentine Art . When the c hildren try w ith t h e ins e ts to

r e produ c e these c lassi c dec orations from photogr aphs they
ar e l e d to m ak e m os t m inute observations ,
w hi c h m ay b e

c onsid e red a r e al study of art . T hey judge the relativ e

p r opo rtions of the various figures in su c h a w ay that th e ir
ey e lea rns to appr e c i ate the harm ony o f the w ork . And
thu s even in c hildh o od a fi n e aestheti c enj oym e nt begins
, ,

t o engage thei r m inds on t h e highe r an d m o r e noble

planes .
 F RE E -HA N D D RA WI N G— S T U D IE S FRO M
LI F E

All the pre c edin g exer c i ses are fo rm ative for th e

“ ”

art of dr a w ing T hey develop i n t h e c hild the m anual

.

ability to e x ec ute a geom etri c desi gn and pr e pare his

eye t o appre c i ate the harm ony of proportions bet w een
geom etri c figures T h e c ountless obs e rvations of draw
.

ings the habit of m inut e e xa m ination of natural obj ec ts,

,

c onstitut e so m any p r eparatory drills We c an ho w ever

.
, ,

say th at t h e w hole m e thod edu c ating the eye and the hand
,

at t h e sa m e ti m e and t r aining t h e c hild t o observ e and

ex ec ut e dra w ings w ith intense appli c ation prepares the ,

m e c hani c al m e ans for d e sign w h il e the m ind l e ft fre e t o

, ,

t ake its fl ight and to c r eate i s r e ady to p r odu c e

,
.

It i s by dev eloping the individual that h e i s pr e pared

for that w onderful m anifestation of th e hu m an i n tel l i
gen c e w hi c h dra w ing c onstitutes T h e ability t o s e e
,
.

r eal i ty in form ,
in c olor, in proportion , to be m aster of
t h e m ov e m ents of o n e s o wn h and — that is w hat is n ec e s
sary Inspiration i s an individual thing and w hen a
.
,

c hild possesses thes e for m ativ e e l em ents h e c an give e x

p r es sion to all he happens to have .

T her e c an be no graduated e x erc i ses in draw ing

leading up to an artisti c c r e ation T hat goal c an be at
.

t ai n e d only through t h e d e velop m ent of m e c hani c al

te c hnique and through t h e free dom of the spirit T ha t .

30 7
 D RAWI N G 3 09

reprodu c tion ; and w h o w h e n l e ft fr e e to c r e at e and e x

pr e ss hi m s e lf a c tually do e s c r e at e and e xpr e ss hi m s e lf .

T h e s e nsory and m anual p r eparati on for d r a w i n g is

nothing m or e than an alph ab e t ; but w ithout it t h e c hild
i s an illit e rat e and c annot exp r e ss hi m s elf And j ust as
.

it i s i m possibl e to study t h e w riting of p e opl e w h o c annot

w rit e so th e r e c an b e no p sy c hologi c al study of the dra w
,

ings of c hild r e n w h o hav e b e e n abandon e d to spi r itual

and m us c ular c h aos All psyc hi c expr e ssion s a c qui r e
.

valu e w hen t h e inn e r p e rsonality h as a c quir e d valu e by

the d ev e lop m e nt of its fo r m ativ e pro c e ss e s U ntil this
.

funda m ental p r in c ipl e has b ec om e an absolut e a c qui si

t ion w e c an hav e n o id e a of the p syc hology of a c hild as
r e ga r ds h i s c r e ative po w e rs .

T hus unl e ss w e kno w h o w a c hild should d e velop in

,

order to unfold his natural en e r gi e s w e shall not know

,

h o w dra w ing as a n atural expression i s d e v elop e d The.

univ e rsal d ev e lop m ent of t h e w ond r ou s lan gu age of t h e

h and w ill c o m e not fro m a s c hool of d e sign but fro m
“ ”
a s c hool of the n ew m an w hi c h w il l c aus e this lan
guage to S pring forth spontaneously like w at e r fro m an
in e xhaustible spring T o c onfe r t h e gift of dra w ing w e
.

m ust c r e at e an e y e that sees a hand th at ob eys a soul

, ,

that feels ; and in thi s task t h e w hol e life mu st c ooperate .

In thi s s ens e life its e lf i s t h e only pr e paration for draw

ing O n c e w e h av e lived t h e inn e r spark of vision does
.
,

t h e r e st.

L e av e t o m an then t his subli m e ge stur e w hi c h transf e rs

to the c anvas th e m arks of c r e ative divinity Le av e it .

fre e to dev e lop f r om t h e v e r y ti m e w h e n th e tiny c hild

t akes a pi ec e of c h alk and rep r odu c e s a si m pl e outlin e on
t h e bla c kboa r d w h e n h e s e e s a l e af and m ak e s his first
,

r e produ c tion of it on t h e w hit e p age S u c h a c hild is in

.
De s igns form e d by t h e u s e of t h e ge o me t ry s qu ar e s c ir c l e s an d e quil at er al
, ,

tri angl e m odifi e d by fr e e h an d dr aw ing In t h e d e si gn o n t h e right t h e

,
-
.

“
fl owe r w ithin t h e c ross is ma de w ith c omp asse s ; t h e de c or ativ e de t ail
i n t h e arm s of t h e c ross an d t h e c ir c l e in t h e c e nt e r a r e f r e e -h and
. Th e
d e si gn on t h e l eft i s si m il ar to a de c or ation in t h e C athedr al at F lor en c e ,

i n t h e w indo w s roun d t h e aps e .

De corati ons form e d by t h e u s e of t h e ge ome t ry ins et s T hat on t h e right i s
.

a c o py
. o f t h d sign b y G iotto shown b lo w t h e pi c tur e o f t h e M adonna
e e e .

i n t h e U pp r C hur c h o f S t F r an c is d A s s i s i ( U m bri a )
’
e . .
Wat e r -c olor
~ p a in t ings from n atur e show ing s pont ane ous
, pr
ex e ssion re

s u l t i n g from w ork in n atur a l s c i e n c e

.
 D RAWI N G 31 3

of c olor an d in r e produ c ing them w ith st r iking ac

c ura c y .

T h e study o f n atural s c i e n c e prov e d to be a great help

in dra w ing O n c e I tri e d to sh o w som e c hildren h o w
.

a fl o w e r should be diss e c ted and for this purpos e I pro

,

v i de d all the ne c essary inst r um ents : t h e botanist s n e edl e

’
,

pin c e rs thin glass plates e tc ju st as is don e at the uni

, ,
.
,

v e rsity for t h e e xperi m e nts in natu r al s c i e n c e My only .

ai m w as to se e w heth e r t h e p r e paration s w hi c h univ e rsity

stud e nts m ak e for botani c al anatom y w e r e in an y w ay

adaptabl e t o the n e e ds of littl e c hildren E ven at the .

ti m e w hen I studied in the botani c al laboratory at t h e uni

versity I fe lt that th e s e e xe r c ises in t h e pr e paration of
m at e ri al m ight b e put to su c h use S tudents kno w h o w .

diffic ult it is to prepar e a stem a sta m en an epith e liu m , , ,

for disse c tion and h o w only w ith diffic ulty the hand ao
, ,

c usto m e d for years e x c lusiv e ly to w r iting adapts itself to ,

this d e li c at e w ork S e e ing h o w skilful our c hildren w er e

.

w ith th e ir littl e h ands I d ec id e d to giv e th e m a c o m pl e te

s c ientifi c outfit and to t e st by exp e ri m e nt w h e th e r t h e
c hild mi nd and t h e c hara c t e rist i c m anu al d e xt e rity sho w n

by c hild r en w ere not m ore adapted to su c h labors than

h
t e m ind and hand of a nin et ee n y e a r old stud ent
- -
.

My S uspi c ion prov e d c orr e c t T h e c hildr e n w ith t h e

.

ke e n e st int e rest diss ec t e d a s e c tion of t h e violet w ith r e

m arkable a c c ura c y and they qui c kly learned to use all t h e
,

inst ru m e nts But m y gr e at e st surprise w as to find that

.

th e y did not d e spise or throw a w ay the disse c ted p arts ,

as w e old e r stud e nts u s e d to do With gr e at c are th ey .

pla c ed th em all in attra c tiv e ord e r on a pi e c e of w hit e

paper as if they had in m ind som e s e c r e t pu r pos e T hen
,
.

w ith gr e at j oy they b e gan to d r a w th e m ; and they w e r e

a c c urate skilled tireless and pati e nt as they ar e in
, , , ,
 D RAWI N G 31 5

th e n ew w ork , desc ribing e ven the l e ss noti c eable details

of th e littl e violet .

T h e se t w o e xpressions — dra w ing and c o m position

w e r e t h e spontaneous m anife station s of their ha pp y e n
tran c e int o the realm s of s c i e n c e.

E n c ouraged by this great su c c ess, I took som e si m ple

m i c r o s c ope s to s c hool . T h e c hildren began t o observ e t h e
pollen and even som e of the m embrane c ove r ings of t h e
fl ow er . By them s e lv e s th ey m ad e som e splendid c r oss
se c tions of the st e m s w hi c h th e y studied m ost attentiv e ly
,
.

”
T hey “
drew ev e rything they s aw . D ra w ing s e em e d
to be the natural c o m ple m e nt of their observ atio n w ork .

In this w ay the c hildr e n l e arned to draw and paint

w i th o u t a d r aw i n g te ac h e r. T hey pr o du c e d w orks w hi c h,

in ge om e t r i c d e sign s as w e ll as in studi e s from l ife w e re

,

c onsid e r e d far abov e t h e av e rage d r a w ings of c hildre n .

PA RT

MU S I C
 T HE S C ALE

S in c e the publi c ation of m y first volu m e on the edu

c ati on o f s m all c hildren c onsiderable pro ress has be e n
, g
m ade in the m atter of m usi c al edu c ation .M iss M ac
c h e ro n i w h o c a m e to Ro m e t o w ork w ith m e on e x e r i
, p
m e nts looking to the c ontinuation of the m eth o ds us e d
w ith p r i m ary c lass e s ,
w as su c c e ssful i n e stablishing a
nu m ber of tests w hi c h c onstitut e d our first st e ps into this
i m po r tant fi eld of edu c ation We are und e r gr e at obli
.

gat i o n s to the T r o n c i fi rm of Pi s t o j a, w hi c h took c harge

of the m anufa c tur e of m aterials and gave us t h e m ost
sym path e ti c c o ope r ation .

We h ad al r eady pr e pared at the ti m e of th at first pub

l ic at i o n an equip m e nt of bells t o b e us e d in t r aining the
e ar to p e r c e ive di ff e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m usi c al sounds. T he
m ethods of using this m at e r i al w er e c onsid e rably m odi
fi e d and p e rf ec t e d again after the publi c ation of m y O w n
Hand b o o k ( N e w York S tok e s , ,
in w hi c h for
t h e first t i m e appear e d a t r e atise on m usi c al m e thod . T he
foundation of t h e syst em c onsi sts of a seri e s of b ells
e m
r e presenting the w hole tones and s i ton e s of one o c tave
- .

T h e m at e ri al follo w s t h e g e n e ral c hara c t e risti c s of that

used in th e s e nsori al m e thod that i s the obj e c ts di ff er
, ,

f r o m e a c h other in one and only o n e quality the o n e w hi c h

,

c on c e r ns the sti mulation of t h e s e nse under e du c ation .

T h e bells for instan c e m ust be appar en t ly i den ti c a l in

, ,

31 9
32 0 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL

di m ensions shape e tc but they m ust pr o du c e di ff er en t

, ,
.
,

s o u nd s . T h e basi c e xer c is e i s t o hav e t h e c hild r e c og

”
“
nize identities He m ust p ai r off th e bells w hi c h give
.

t h e sam e sound .

T h e bell syst em is c onstru c ted as follow s : We have

a very si m ple support m ade of w o o d ( of c ours e any other
,

m at e ri al m ight be used ) 1 1 5 c m long and 2 5 c m w id e . . .

O n t his th e bells rest T h e board is w ide e nough to hold

.

tw o bells pla c e d length w ise and end to end a c ross i t T h e .

board is m arked o ff int o bla c k and w hit e spa c es ea c h ,

w id e enough t o hold o n e bell T h e w hit e spa c es r e pr e

.

s e nt w hole tones the bla c k spa c e s se m i -tones T hough

, .

the apparent purpose of this boa r d is to serve as a

support it is in reality a m eas u r e sin c e it indi c at e s
, ,
.

the r e gular position of the not e s in th e si m pl e di atoni c

s c al e T h e c om bination of w h it e and bla c k re c tangl e s
.

indi c ates th e int e r val b e t w e en th e various notes in th e

s c al e : in oth e r w o r ds a sem i -tone bet w e e n the third and
,

fou r th and b e t w e e n th e s e v e nth and e ighth and a w hole ,

ton e b e t w e en t h e oth e rs B e lls sho w ing the value of ea c h

.

rec tangle ar e fix e d in proper ord e r in th e upper portion

of the support T h e s e b e lls are n o t all of the sam e siz e
.
,

but vary in di m ension r e gularly f r om th e bottom to the

top of the s c al e T hi s perm its c onsiderabl e saving in
.

m anufa c ture ; for to ge t a di ff e r e nt sound from bells of

,

the s am e size diffe rent thi c knesses are r e quired and thi s
, ,

entails m or e labor f o r c o nst ru c tion an d c onse quentl y

 MU S I C 32 1

gr e ater c ost But in addition the c hild here sees a ma

.

t e r i al vari ation c o rresponding to t h e diffe ren c e s in qu al

ity of sound O n th e oth e r hand th e oth e r bells on w hi c h
.
,

the c h ild i s t o perform his c riti c al exer c ises are of id en

ti c al di m en s i o n s .

In the e x e r c is e t h e c hild st r ikes wi th a sm all m allet

one of t h e b e lls fixed on t h e suppo r t T hen fro m a m ong .
,

t h e oth e r s s c att e r e d at rando m on th e table h e finds one ,

w hi c h giv e s t h e sa m e sound and pla c e s it on the board in

f r ont of th e fix e d bell c orr e sponding to it In the m ost .

e l e m e ntary e x e r c is e s only th e w hole tone bells c orre

,

s po n di n g to t h e w hit e spa c es ar e used L ater the se m i .

,

tones are brought in T his first e x erc is e in sense per c ep

.

tion c orr esponds to the pai r ing pra c tis e d in oth e r s e nsory
e x e r c ises ( c olor tou c h e t c ) T h e nex t step i s for the
, ,
.

c hild t o distin gu ish diff e r e n c es and at the sam e ti m e , ,

gradations of sti m uli ( like the e xerc ises w ith the c olor
c harts ,
hearing e tc ) In this c as e th e c hild m ix e s at
,
.

random t h e eight bells all of th e sam e size w hi c h give

, ,

the w hol e tones of the s c ale He is to find do then re .

, ,

and so on through th e oc tav e o n e not e after th e other ,

pl ac ing the bells in ord e r in their proper pla c es N o .

m e n c l atu r e i s taught step by st e p as in t h e oth e r s e nsor

i al exerc ises T o fa m ili arize t h e c hild w ith th e nam es
.

d o r e m i f a s o l l a s i w e u se sm all round disks t h e

, , , , , , , ,

c ir c ular fo r m serving to sugge st t h e head of the w ritten

not e O n e a c h d isk th e n am e of th e note is w ritt e n T h e

. .

disks are to be pla c ed on th e bases of the b e lls that c o r

r e spond to th em T h e e x e r c i s e s in nam ing the not e s
.

m ay be begun w i th t h e fixed bells in order ( w ith c hil ,

dren w h o already k n ow h o w to r e ad ) to asso c i at e th e

s o unds w ith th e ir na m e s in th e first exer c is e of pai r ing .

Later w hen t h e c hild c om e s to t h e e x er c is e of putting

,
 M US I C 32 3

tual p e rfo rm an c e is t h e only g uid e to th e r e v elation o f

pa r ti c ular aptitud e of p e r sona l c alling
, .

Wh en o n e of t h e large r c hildr e n spr e ads on t h e tabl e

t h e e ight b e lls of si m ilar siz e t o m ak e up t h e s c ale by e ar ,

t h e littl e on e s pi c k u p a singl e b e ll s o m e ti m e s rea c hing

,

out for it w ith t h e greatest e age r n e ss T h e y b e at it w ith .

t h e m all e t for a long ti m e th e y fe e l of it e xam ining it

, ,

c arefully ,
m aking it r ing m or e and m or e sl o w ly The .

old e r c hild r e n tak e sp ec ial int e r e st in t h e pai r ing oft e n ,

r e p e ating t h e s am e e x e r c ise m any ti m e s ; but an unusual

c har m i s found in the su c c essive sounds of t h e eight b e lls

w h e n pla c e d i n o r d e r ; in oth er w o r ds in h e aring th e ,

s c al e N enn e lla one of th e c hild r e n of th e C hildre n s

.
,
’

”
House of V i a G iusti playe d t h e s c al e ov e r t w o hun
,

d r e d ti m es in su c c es si o n o n e hund r e d fo r th e as c e nding
,

s c al e and one hund r e d bac k again T h e w h o l e c las s i s .

so m eti m e s int e r ested in listening th e c hildr e n follow ing

,

w ith absolut e sil e n c e t h e c lassi c b e auty of this su c c e ssion

of sounds A noth e r c hild M ari o us e d to go to th e v e ry

.
, ,

e n d of the t abl e as far a w ay as possibl e an d resting ,

hi s elbow s on t h e t abl e w ith his head in his hands h e ,

w ould r e m ain w ithout stir r ing in t h e sil e n c e of the dark

e n e d roo m show ing h i s e xtrao r dinary interest in th e ex
,

c r o ise in e v e ry d e tail of d e m e an o r and fa c ial expr e ssion .

At a c ert ain m om ent int e r e st in r e produ c ing th e not e

,

vo c ally appears T h e c hild re n a c c o m pany t h e s c ale w ith

.

th e i r voi c e s T hey striv e for th e e xa c t rep r odu c tion of

.

t h e sound w hi c h the bell gives T h e ir voi c es b ec om e sof t

.

and m usi c al in this e x e r c is e show ing nothing of that

,

shrillness so c h a r a c te r i sti c of c hild r e n s voi c e s in t h e

,
’

u sual popular songs In the c lass e s of V i a T r ionfal e

.

it happ e n e d that som e c hild r e n ask e d p e r m i ssion to a ec om

p any vo c all y t h e sc al e that a c hild w as playing softly on
3 24 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY M A T ERIAL

the bells T h e inter e st take n in this e xerc ise w as of a

.

higher order than that show n by c hildren in the singing

of songs I t w as easy to se e that so ngs w ith their c a
.

r i c i o u s intervals bet w e e n w id e ly separat e d notes and c all

p
ing for pronun c i ation of w ords m usi c al e x pres sion dif , ,

f e r e n c es in ti m e e t c are unada p ted to the m ost elem ent

,
.
,

ary e x er c ises in singing .

It w as possibl e to test the absolute m em or y of the c hild

for the diffe ren t not e s w ithout any set exerc ise After a .

long seri e s of e xperi m ents in pairing the c hildren b e gin ,

to m ak e s c al e s using only one series of bells and th e y

, ,

r e peat thi s ex e rc ise m any t i m es and in different w ays .

S om e ti m e s for instan c e a c hil d al w ays looks for the

, ,

low es t note d o then for the next above it r e e tc Again

, , , , .
,

a c hild w ill t ak e any b e ll at random looking nex t for the ,

note i mm ediately above or i mm ediately b e lo w and so on ,

.

It also happ e ns th at on pi c king u p som e bell o r other ,

the c hild w ill ex c lai m on hearing its sound this i s m i , ,

thi s i s d o and so on O n e c hild h ad m ade a splendid

, .

de m onstration of the use of the bells befor e her M aj esty ,

the Qu e en M other T his w as in th e m ont h of M ay Al

. .

though he had h ad n o further a c c es s to t h e m at e rial s in

”
hi s C hildren s Hous e of V i a G iusti in the N ove mb e r
’
,

follow ing h e w as ask e d to use som e m usi c al pipes w hi c h 1

,

he had hardly seen before and w hi c h happened to be in ,

great disorder sin c e th e y h ad j ust arrived from the f ac

tory T here w e re sixteen pipes m ixed at random c o m
.
,

prising a doubl e di atoni c s c al e He took one of the pip e s .

,

”
stru c k it and said “
T his i s si ,
and i mm ed iately hung ,

it on th e appropri ate hook of th e support O n ringing .

th e n e x t one, he said this is mi an d ag ain p ut the pipe

, ,

1 The p ip
s e ar e an e q uipmen t p ar all e l t o the b e lls Th ey ar e to b e
.

r ec ommende d for s chools w hi ch c an aff ord

,
a mor e sump tuous outl ay .
 MU S I C 32 5

in the right pla c e S o he w ent on and arranged the six

.

t ee n pip e s i n a c c urat e or d e r on the t w o parall e l fram e s .

He had h ad a good d e al of e xer c ise during t h e pre c eding

year and had pres e rved an absolut ely a cc urate m em o r y
of th e notes .

As i s the c as e w ith c olors geom etri c al shap e s et c , the

, ,
.

c hildren b e gi n at this point to explor e t h e environ m ent .

O n e w ill c om e t o the tea c h e r at the pi ano an d say strik ,

“ ”
ing a key, T his is s te a m eaning that the not e c orre
,

s po n ds to the first syllabl e of the first w ord in som e song

he know s ( S tella S tellina )

,
It happens that th e k ey
.
\

stru c k by the c h ild is a do th e very note c orresponding

,

to th e syll abl e s te in th e song We had m any tou c hing

.

exa m pl e s of this musi c al e xploration of the e nvironm ent .

 MU S I C 32 7

In t h e s em i -tone spa c e s bla c k c ount e r s are to be pla c e d .

At a lat e r stage of this e x e r c is e t h e sta ff is r e pres e nt e d by

a w ood e n board si m ilar to t h e o n e d e s c r ibed abov e b u t ,

w ithout t h e ind e ntu r e s. Th e c hild h as at hi s disposal a

great m any disks w ith the not e s wr itten out in full o n
one fa c e He c an arrange thirty or forty of th e se disks
.

at random on the boa r d k e eping th em ho w ever in their

, , ,

pl ac e s a c c o r ding to the n am e s of th e not e s ; but e a c h ti m e

t h e surfa c e sho w i n g th e na m e of t h e not e should b e pla c e d
dow n w ard on the board so that on th e line only disks
,

w ithout na m e s are visible When a c hild has finish e d

.

thi s e xer c is e h e i s t o turn th e disks over w ithout d isar

,

ranging th em an d so d e term ine from their na m es w h e th e r

h e has pla c ed them prop e rly All t h e disks on a given
.

lin e or in a given sp a c e should have t h e sa m e nam e s .

32 8 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MAT E RIAL
S hould any doubt arise as to the proper pla c e of a note ,

the other board w ith the nu mbered indentures c an be used

as a c hec k .

Wh e n a c hild has r e ac hed this stage of developm ent ,

he c an pra c ti c e reading the m usi c al s c ript ringing the ,

bells a c c ording t o t h e notes he is inte r preting T h e mu .

si c al staffs ar e prepar e d on oblong c ards about seventeen

c enti m e t e rs broad T h e notes are about t w o c e ntim et e rs

.

in d iam eter T h e c ards are var iously c olored

. bl ue, vio
let yell o w , red
,
.

Th e ne x t ste p i s f o r the c hildr en t o w rite notes them

s e lves F o r this purpose w e h av e prepared little sheets
.

w hi c h c an be bound toge ther int o a book or album .

We offer als o a f ew songs em ploying t w o or three notes

so si m ple i n c hara c ter that t h e c hild c an m ake them out

by e ar on his bells Wh en aft e r so m e pra c tise, he is

.
,

c ertain h e c an c opy the song h e w rites t h e notes o n hi s

,

s ta ff and s o be c o m es the editor of his o wn musi c .

T RE B L E AN D BAS S C LE FS

Ar rangem en t f o th e n o tes i n the fo r m o f a r h o mb u s

Al l the ex e r c is e s thus far h av e b e en in r e fe r e n c e to the

higher c l ef Ho w eve r n o representation of this key has
.
,

a s yet b e e n giv e n the c hild His first t ask i s to learn th e

.

r e lative position of the notes on th e t w o sta ffs T o su p .

ply this w ant follow ing the syst em of the Musi c al C o n

,

s e rv at o ry of M ilan w e h ave adopted the double s taff

,
.
A sh ee t on whi ch th e chil d writ s his own
e musi c .
do ,the point of d e partur e for t h e s c ale In fa c t as th e .
,

notes pass from line to s pa c e and spa c e t o line th e y form ,

t h e natural s e r i e S °

do , r e, mi , fa , s o l, l a, s i, do .

The sa m e s ituation dev e lops as th ey go do w n th e s c ale

do s i, mi
, la
, s o l, f a, ,
r e, do .

When th e
position of d o has be e n det e rm ined t h e other ,

not e s abov e and b e lo w it ar e e asily found F rom the .

d o on t h e l e ft the c hild c an find hi s w ay to the do on the

n ext o c tave higher and c om e do w n again Likew ise from .

the sa m e point on the right ( d o ) h e c an go dow n to th e

d o of the lo w er oc tave and then go up the s c al e again .

When these notes are repr e sented o n the c o m bin e d

sta ff s w ith the c ounters, the resultin g desi gn i s a rh o m
bus .

S e parating the t w o staffs the arrangem e nt of the notes

,

in the higher and lo wer k ey ( t h e C s c al e and bass ) b e

c o m es apparent and the d iffe r ent sign ifi c an c e of t h e t w o

series c an be em phasiz e d by pla c ing t o the l e ft of the

staff th e t w o c lef si gns w hi c h hav e been pr e pared as S pe
,

c i al portions of our m aterial .

3 32 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

In this w ay the c hildren have learned the s c ale in d o

maj o r in the t w o keys T h e arrang em e nt of the bla c k
.

and w hite spa c es puts them in a position to re c ogniz e

these notes e v e n on the pi an o O u r m a t eri al , in fa c t
.
,

in c ludes a di m inutive keyboard w h e re the keys are sm all

e nough t o fit the siz e of a c hild s hand ’
It c an be used
.

as an ex er c ise for the finger m us c les As ea c h key i s

.

tou c hed it rai ses a h amm er m arked w ith the n a m e of the

note stru c k, w hi c h the c hild c an s ee through a glass .

T hu s w hile t h e c hild i s pra c tising h is finger m o ve m ents

,

he fix e s hi s a c quaintan c e w ith the arrangem ent of the

notes on the keyboard T his sm all piano m akes no noise
.
.

Ho ev r a sort of organ pipe m ec hani sm c an b e fitted

w e,
-

on above the ha mm e rs in su c h a w ay that e a c h stroke, as

the ha mm er rises c onnec ts w ith a r eed w hi c h gives a
,

c orresponding sound .

All th e e x er c i ses t hus far have been based u p o n s en

sory e x perien c e as th e point of departure T h e c hild s
.
’

e ar ha s re c o n ized the funda m ental sounds and i n iti ated

g
h im int o real musi c al edu c ation . All th e r e st, such as th e
musi c w ritin g, etc , i s n o t mus ic
. .
 T HE MA J O R S C ALE S

We h av e developed additional m aterial

for the tea c h
ing of the s c al e s Her e w e sho w a c hart som ew hat sug
.

g e s t i n
g the arrange m ent of the bell m ateri al used in
th e first e x e r c ises T hat is t h e relative int e rvals bet w een
.
,

t h e various notes of th e s c ale are c l e arly indi c ated T he .

s c ale i s
,
in fa c t a seri es of e ight sounds the interval s
, ,

bet w een e a c h b e ing as indi c at e d by the bla c k m arks in

t h e d e si gn : w hole tone w hole ton e sem i -tone, w hole tone ,
, ,

w hole tone w hole tone se m i -tone

, ,
.

In t h e d o m aj o r s c al e the intervals are indi c ated as

.

follo w s : a w hol e tone bet w een d o and r e ; r e an d m i ; fa

and s o l ; s o l and l a ; la and si ; and a se m i tone bet w een
m i and f a and s i and d o If ho w ev e r instead of begin
.
, ,

ning w ith d o the s c al e starts from som e other note , the

,

m utu al intervals c hara c t e rizing the s c ale rem ain u n

c hanged . It i s as though t h e w hol e s c ale w ith its c hara c
t e r i s t ic co nstru c tion a s r e gards tone d iff eren c e s w ere
m ov e d along A c c ordingly as our pl at e show s under
.
, ,

t h e figure of the t w o o c tav e s th e re is another fi gure T his .

latt e r is a m ovabl e pi e c e of c ardboard w hi c h show s the

c onst r u c tion of t h e o c tave in bla c k and w hit e T hi s m o v .

abl e c ard is fast e ned to the large c hart by a ribbon S up .

posing n o w w e slide this m ovabl e piec e as indi c ated in ,

t h e fi gu re to the l e vel of m i
,
T h e intervals b e t w een the
.

tones of the m i s cale are the sam e as in all the other

333
T h e mo n o c o r d . In t h e first instru m e nt t h e not e s a r e indi c at e d b y fr e ts .

c
O n t h e m o n o c o r d in t h e for e ground t h e hi ld pl a c e s t h e fr e ts as h e
c w
dis ov e r s t h e n ot e s b v d ra ing t h e bo w c
a ross t h e string .

M at e ri a l f o r indi cating t h e int e rv als of t h e m aj or s c al e an d its t r an s po

sitiou from o n e k e y to anoth e r .
 MUS I C 335

m atter h o w far the group of pri sm s is m oved the s c al e ,

c an be obtained by striking all t h e prism s c orresponding

to the w hit e spa c es on th e w ooden form .

F o r instan ce let us take a w ay the t w o first prisms do

, ,

and d o d i esis on the left and push the w hole group of ,

p r ism s from right t o l e ft until r e rea c h e s the point for

m erly o c c upied by d o If n o w w e strike t h e plat e s
.
, ,

w hi c h c orrespond t o t h e notes of the m aj or s c al e w e o b ,

tain th e m aj or s c ale in r e O n e x am ining the not e s .

w hi c h m ake up this s c al e w e find : r e mi f a di es is s o l

, , , , ,

la, s i, d o d i es is ,
re .

T his bri e f d e s c ription w ill indi c ate h o w int e resting

thi s instru m ent is It c ontains in v e ry si m ple form and
.

expresses in a c lear an d delightful w ay the funda m e ntal

princ iples of h arm on y Its u se c an be m ade apparent
.

to t e a c h e rs by the thre e follo w ing tabl e s .

A s t he c hildre n deriv e in this w ay all the possible

s c al e s they should transfer them to th e i r c opy books
, ,

m aking use of all t h e sym bols of m usi c al notation T he .

c opying of the s c ales should b e develop e d progr e ssively

first the s c ale w ith one d i esis n e xt t h e s c ale w ith t w o , ,

then the one w ith three di es es e t c F ine opportunities , .

for observation are here offe r e d A c hild m ay s e e fo r .

instan c e th at a s c ale w ith t w o di es es h as the sa m e di es is

w hi c h appeared in the pr e c e ding s c ale ; a s c ale w ith thr e e

d i es es ha s the t w o di eses of the pre c eding s c ales and so ,

on T h e di es es rec ur at int e rvals of five not e s

. .

S in c e in using the first m ateri al by c h anging t h e third ,

and sixth bell th e c hild w as taught to re c ogniz e the h ar

,

m oni c m inor s c ale to c onstru c t it and list e n to it it is

, ,

n o w an obviously si m pl e m att e r for h im to m ake up all

the m inor s c al e s .

We have thus d e veloped exerc i s e s w hi c h prepare f o r

 MU S I C 33 7

With o ne p late re mov e d . S cal e of Dl Z .

S cl
a e o f o
ff .

With thre e plate s re mov e d S c ale of E ll .

With s ix plate s re mo ve d . Sc al e o f G3 .

S c al e o fF
it .

With e i ght pl at e s re move d . S cal e of At .

With ten pl ate s re m ove d . S cl

a e o f B2 .

H e re is a sp e c i m en of k ev transposition

At this point c hildr e n u su ally d e velop gr e at keenn e ss

for produ c ing sounds and s c al e s on all kinds of i n st ru
m ents ( stringed instru m e nts w ind inst r um e nts e t c )
, ,
.

O n e of the instru m ents w hi c h brings th e c hild to

produ c ing and r ec o gnizing not e s is the mo n o cho rd It .

i s a si m ple reson ant box w ith o n e string T h e first

,
.
33 8 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY MA T E RIAL

S c ale o f C .

S cal e with S harps . S cale w ith flats .

ex e rc is e is in tuning T h e string i s m ade to c orre

.

spo n d w ith one of the resonant pri s m s ( d o ) T his is .

m ade possible by a k e y w ith w hi c h the string c an be loos

e ned or tightened T h e c hild m ay n o w be t aught to h an
.

dle the vi o lin b o w or m andolin ple c trum or he m ay b e ,

inst r uc t e d in the finger th r um m ing used for th e harp

or banj o O n o n e o f our m ono c hords the not e s are indi
.
,

c at e d by fixed transversal fr e ts the nam e of ea c h note

,

being printed in the proper spa c e T hese notes are h o w

.
,

eve r not w ritt e n on th e oth e r m onoc hord w h e re th e c hild

, ,

m u st learn to dis c over by ear the prop e r distan c es at

 MU S I C 3 39

w hi c h t h e notes ar e p r odu c ed In this c ase t h e c hild has

.

at his disposal m ovabl e fr e ts w ith w hi c h h e c an indi c ate

t h e points h e has dis c ov e r e d as produ c ing a giv e n note .

T hes e f r e ts S hould b e l e ft in position by t h e c hild t o

s e r v e as a c h e c k on his w o r k T h e c hildr e n h av e shown
.

c onsid e r abl e int e r e st als o in littl e pit c hpip e s

,
w hi c h gi ve
v e ry pl e asing ton e s .

T hus in c om posing the s c al e s and in list e ning t o th em

the c hild p e r fo r m s real e x e r c ises in m usi c al edu c ation .

A given m e lody in the m aj or s c al e i s repeated in various

keys In list e ning to it c ar e fully in repeating i t in
.
, ,

obs e rvi n g th e not e s w hi c h m ak e it up the c hild has

,

C Pit ch .

D Pit ch .

F Pi t ch .
 E XE RC IS E S IN RH Y T H M

O ne of o u r m ost su cc essful e x er c ises has proved to be

that origi n ally c on c eived as a help i n tea c hing c hildren
t o w alk viz ,
,
. w a l king the line It w ill be rem embered
.

that a m ong the exer c i ses in m otor edu c ation used at the
outset of our m ethod appeared that of w alking w it h one
,

foot in front of t h e oth e r on a lin e dra w n on the fl oor ,

mu c h as do tight -rope -w alking a c robats T h e purpos e of
.

thi s exerc ise w as to stabilize equilibrium, to tea c h e re c t

c arriage and to m ak e m ovem ent f r eer and m or e c ertain .

M iss M a c c h e roni began her exer c ises in rhyth m by

ac c o m pany ing thi s w alking of the c hildren w ith piano

musi c . In fa c t th e sound of th e pian o c a m e to be the

,

c all signal for the c hildren to take up this exer c ise The .

tea c her starts to play and i mm ediat e ly th e c hildr e n c om e

of their o wn a c c o rd and al most w ithout e xc eption t o
, ,

take u p thei r position s on the line At the very begin

.

ning the m usi c seem s t o be pur e l y a signal at best a ,

pl e asant a c c om pani m en t t o th e m otor exerc ise T here .

is no a ppar e nt adaptation of the c hild s m oveme nts to t h e

’

musi c al rhyth m . Ho w ever, as the sam e m easure i s r e

p e at e d for a c onsiderabl e period t h e
,
r u di m ents of thi s

adaptation b e gin t o appear O n e of th e c hildren b egin s

.

to kee p step w ith the rhyth m of th e m usi c Individua l .

di ffe renc e s in adaptation persist for som e t im e ; but if .

t h e sam e m usi c al rhyth m i s k e pt up al m os t al l t h e c hil

,

34 1
3 42 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M AT E RIAL

dren finally bec o me sensibl e t o i t In fa c t , the se littl e

.

p eople begi n t o develop general attitudes of bod y, in rela

ti o n t o the musi c w hi c h ar e of th e greatest i nterest
,
.

F irs t of all , th e c hildren c hange thei r gait a c c ording to

m
the usi c : the light w alk the w ar like m arc h , the run ,
,
-

develop on th e i m pulse of the rhythm i c m ovem ent It .

is not that the t e a c her teac he s the c hild to c han ge his

“ ”

w alk a cc ording to the m usi c : the ph e nom e non arises o f

its o wn a c c ord T h e c hild b egi ns to interpret the rhythm
.

by m oving in h arm ony wi th it But t o obtai n this r e

.

sult the t e a c h e r m u st play perfec tly c arefully noting all

,

the details of m usi c al pun c tuati on T h e c r eation of m u

.

’
s i c al feeling in the c hildren depends upon the t ea c her s

o w n feeling and the rigorou s a cc ura c y of her o wn e xec u

tion .

It w ill b e useful t o give here a f ew detail s on the e x

ec u t i o n of thes e first r hyth m i c e x er c ises Th e c hildr e n
.

begin as w e h av e said by l e arning t o w alk on the line

, ,
.

T h e y d e v e lop a p assion for w alking on th at lin e yielding ,

to a fas c inati on w hi c h grown -u p peopl e c annot c on c eive .

T hey s e e m to pu t th e i r w hol e soul s int o it T his i s the

.

m om e nt f o r t h e t e a c her t o sit do w n at the pi an o and

w ithout saying anything to play th e fi r st m e lody in

s e r i e s T h e c hildren sm il e th e y look at the pi an o and

.
,

c ontinu e to w alk b e c om ing m o r e and m ore c on c ent r at e d

,

on w hat they are doing T h e m elody a c t s as a pe r su ad

.

ing voi c e ; the c hildren b e gin to c on si der th e ti m e of the

m usi c and littl e by little thei r tiny fe e t begin to strike
h
t e lin e i n step w ith it m
S o e of ou r three y e ar old e rs
.
- —

begin t o keep step as e arl y as the first or se c ond tri al .

Afte r a very f ew att e m pts a w hol e c lass of forty c hildren

w ill be w alking in ti m e We m ust w arn against the
.

e rr or of pl aying w ith sp ec ial e m phasis on the m easure ;

 MU S I C 3 43

in other w ords of striking m o r e loudly than i s r e quired

,

th e not e ( th e sis ) w hi c h m arks t h e in c e ption of t h e r h y th

m i c p e riod . T h e t e a c h e r should b e c ar e ful si m ply to
bring out all the exp r e ssion that th e m e lody r e quir e s .

S h e m ay b e sure that t h e rhyth m i c c ad e n c e w ill b ec o m e

appar e nt from t h e tun e it s elf T h e pl aying of one not e
.

m or e loudly than t h e others thus to em phasiz e t h e rh y th

,

m ic a c c ent ( th e sis ) i s t o d e p r iv e th e s el ec tion of all its

,

value as m e lody and th e r e for e of its po w er to c aus e t h e

m otory a c tion c or r esponding t o r hyth m It i s n e c e ssary
.

to pl ay a c c u r at e ly an d w ith fe e ling giving an i n t e r pr e

,

t a f ion as r e al as possibl e We ge t thus a m usi c al ti m e

.
“

“
w hi c h as e very o n e kno w s i s not t h e
, ,
m e c h ani c al ti m e
of the m e t r onom e If it is c e r tainly absurd to pl ay a
.

N o c tu rn e of C hopin on th e m e tronom e it i s hardly l e ss

,

absurd and c e rtainly quit e as disagr e e able t o play a p i e c e

of dan c e m u s i c on th at inst r um ent E ven those peopl e
.

“ ”
w h o h av e a gr e at aptitude for f ee ling ti m e and w h o
play w ith sp e c ial attention t o e xa c tn e ss of m easure kno w ,

th at th e y c annot follo w the m etronom e w ithout positiv e

dis c om fo r t C hild r en fe e l th e rhythm of a pi e c e of
.

m usi c if it i s play e d w ith m u s i c al f e e l in g ; and not only

do th e y follo w t h e ti m e w ith th e ir footst e ps but as t h e , ,

rhyth m i c p e ri o ds vary th e y adapt th e w hol e attitud e of

,

th e i r bodi e s to th e m e lodi c period w hi c h i s d e v e lop e d

,

around t h e b e ats c onstituting the r hyth m as around points

of support T h e r e i s a vast d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n this
.

e x e r c is e and that of h aving c hildren m a r c h to t h e c lapping

of hands or to th e ti m e o f o n e tw o thr ee et c c ount e d in

, , ,
.
,

a ton e of c omm and .

A c hild of t en ye ars w as dan c ing to the musi c of a

C hopi n w altz pl aye d w ith m ost ge n e rous c on c e ssions to
th e d iffe r e nt c o l o ra tions indi c at e d in the te xt S h e put .
 MU S I C 34 5

B eppino a littl e boy o f th r e e us e d to k ee p ti m e w ith

, ,

t h e ext e nded fo r e finger of his right hand T h e m usi c

.

w as a song in t w o parts rep e ated alternat e ly t h e o n e in ,

l egato and th e other in s tac c ato ; w ith the l e gato he us e d

a uniform r egular m ove m e nt ; h e follo w ed the s tac cato
w ith sudde n spas m odi c b e ats .

T o day forty c hildren m ay be se e n w alking as softly as

-

possible du r ing a tun e play e d pi an is s im o T h e s e sa m e.

c hild r e n on t h e day w hen th e y firs t h e a r d t h e i an o k e pt

p
” ’
c alling to t h e t e ac h e r play loud e r ; w e c an t h e a r and
y e t at that ti m e the tea c her w as pl aying not pi an issi m o ,

b u t m ez z o fo r te !
At firs t t h e c hildren interested i n the first tun e are
deaf to any other T h e c hildr e n in t h e S t B arn ab a
. .

S c hool in M ilan got in st e p w ith the first tun e T h ey .

did not noti c e th at th e tea c h e r had c hanged to the se c ond

and kept thei r st e p so w e ll that w hen th e fi r st tun e w as
r e su m e d the t e a c her found th em in p e rfe c t ti m e w h ile
, ,

on the fa c es of th e c hild r e n appeared a sm ile of r ec o gn i

tion a s it w ere of an old fri e nd
, ,
.

If the tea c her is suffic i e ntly c autious she c an dis c over

,

w ithout disturbing t h e c h ild r e n t h e m o m e nt w h e n th e y

hav e c aught a n ew tune ; an d ev e n if only a f e w s u c
o e cd in follo w ing both of t h e fir st t w o m e lodies the ,

t e a c h e r c an satisfy these f e w by alt e rnating the tun e s .

T hi s does not disturb the others w h o c o m e littl e by littl e

, ,

t o noti c e the c hange in the m usi c and t o fall in w ith the

n e w m ove m ent In a publi c kindergart e n at P e r u gi a
.

an attem pt of thi s n atur e w as m ade w ithout w a rning b y

a lady w h o b e ing a visitor f e lt free to tak e this liberty
, , ,
.

T h e c hildren w ere invit e d into the large hall and left t o

them se lv e s w hil e th e l ady w as playing on th e pian o our
thi r d m elody a m ar c h T h e older c hildren c augh t t h e
,
.
34 6 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL
m ovem ent After they h ad been m ar c hin g f o r
at once .

som e ti m e a gal op w as played S om e hesitation ap .

pe ar e d in a f ew pupils w hile others apparently w ere not

a w ar e o f the c h ange in th e m usi c S uddenly t w o o r thr e e
.

b ega n to ru n a s though s w e pt aw ay by th e rhyth m i c

,

w ave as though b o rn e along by t h e m u s i c

, T h e y h ar dly .

se e m e d to tou c h that fl oo r t o w hi c h b u t a f ew m o m en t s
,

pr e viou sly the m ar c h s eem e d to have glu e d th em at e very

,

st e p ! A po rt i on of the c hildren in thi s c lass h ad t ak e n

seats in t h e sloping auditor ium around th e room T h e y .

w e r e t h e youngest c hildren ; and w h e n t h e vi c torious

c harg e brok e out to th e tun e of th e gal o p th e y began to ,

c lap thei r h an ds enthusi as ti c ally S om e of the t ea c her s

.

fe lt alarm ed , but c ert ai nl y th e s p ec ta c le w as an inspi r in g

one .

It fo llow s th at if w e ar e t o te l l the c hildren to h o p,

” ”
run or m arc h there i s n o u se in our giving them
,
“
,

m usi c .We m us t tak e o u r c hoi c e : either musi c or c o m /

m and s E ven in our reading less o ns w ith the slip s, w e

.

do n o t tell the c hild t h e w ord th at he m ust rea d We .

m u st d o w i thout c omm ands w ithout false a c c e ntu ation of

,

not e s w ithout enforc e d positions Musi c if it b e in

,
.
,

r e al ity an exp re ssive lan guage sugge st s ev e rything to

,

c hildren if th e y are l e ft t o them s e lves Rhyth m i c inter .

pr e t at i o n of the m usi c al thought i s expressed by the atti

tud e and m ovem ent of body and spirit .

N annina a gi r l four years old w ould gr a c e fully spr e ad

, ,

he r skirt and r e lax her arm s along h e r body S h e w ould

,
.

b e nd h e r kn ee s slight l y thro w her h ead ba c k and turn

,

ing h e r pre tty littl e f ac e t o o n e sid e sm ile at thos e b e ,

hind h e r a s though extending her am i ability in all dir ec ~

tions .

B eppino four and a h alf ye ar s old st o od w ith hi s fee t

, ,
 MU S I C 347

toge ther m otionl e ss at th e c e nter of the e llips e draw n on

the fl oo r on w hi c h t h e c hildren w e r e w alking He b e at
, .

t h e ti m e of t h e fi r st tune w ith an outstr e t c h e d ar m , b o w

ing from t h e w aist in p e r fe c tly c orre c t form at e v e r y
m e asu r e T h e ti m e c onsu m e d in thi s b o w of B e ppino
.

e xa c tly fill e d t h e int e rval b e t w e e n o n e th es i s and the

n e xt and w as in perfec t a c c ord w ith t h e m ov em e nt of the
tun e .

N annina t h e sam e pretty girl w e m e ntion e d ab o v e

, ,

al w ays g r e w stiff w hen a m ilitary m arc h w as play e d ;

sh e w ould fro wn and w alk h e avily .

O n t h e other h and t h e int e rv e ntion of th e t e a c h e r to

,

give som e apposit e l e sson t e nding t o p e rf e c t c e rt ain m ov e

,

m ents i s so m e thing w hi c h gi v e s t h e c hildr e n e xt r ao r di

,

nary d e light F iv e o f our littl e gi r ls e m bra c e d e a c h oth e r

.

rapturou sly and sm oth e r e d the t e a c her w ith kis s es w h e n

th e y h ad learned a f ew n ew m ovem ents of a rhythm i c
dan c e .

O tello V in c enzin o and T er e s a had b e en taught to get

,

a bett e r e ffec t f r om th e i r t am bourin e s thei r st e ps and

,

ge stur e s E a c h of th em thank e d t h e t e a c her for t h e

.

pro fi tabl e l e sson in a sp ec ial w ay V in c e nzino gav e h e r

.

a b e a m ing s m il e w henev e r h e m ar ched past her ; T e r e sa

w ould fu r tiv e ly tou c h h e r w ith her hand ; O t e llo w as e v e n
m o r e dem onstrativ e as h e w e nt by h e r he w ould l e av e
t h e lin e r un to h e r an d e m b r a c e h e r f o r a s e c ond o r t w o
,
.

If th e spontan e ity of e v e ry c hild h as b e e n r esp ec t e d ; if ,

in oth e r w o r ds e v e ry c hild h as b e e n abl e to grow in his

,

or h e r o w n w ay list e ning to th e tun e s follo w ing th e m

, ,

w ith h
t e footst e ps and wi th fr ee m ov e m e nts — int e rpret
ing them ; if e a c h c hild h as b e en abl e t o p e n e trate w ith ,

out b e ing distu r b e d by any o n e int o t h e h e art of th e

,

beautiful fa c t w hi c h t h e understanding of m usi c c onsti

 MU S I C 3 49

p ossibilities o f an orderly m oto r y a c ti on ; and w hen th ey

h ad b ec om e qui et again th e y b egan t o list e n t o t h e musi c
,

w ith gre at int e r e st w aiting f o r t h e revel ation of i t s de e p

s ec r e t T h e n sudd e nly th e y b e gan to w alk ag ain this
.
,

ti m e regula r ly and a c c o rding to t h e real m e asu r e .

O n e of the c hildren w hos e graph w as som e w h at as fol

,

low s :

( pauses th at is o n the line of qui e s c e n c e w ith fr equent

, , ,

ex c u rsion s into t h e negativ e fi e ld ) took no part in these

,

rhyth m i c e x e r c is e s O n t h e c ontrary h e w as al w ays

.
,

b r eaking th em up by pushing the oth e r c hildr e n out o f

lin e or m aking a nois e F inally how ev e r he did learn
.
, ,

not to disturb others ; i n other w ords to stay qui e t s om e , ,

thing w hi c h h e had never know n h o w to do before It i s .

a great c onquest f o r a disord e rly c hild to gain the ability

to b ec om e quit e m otionl e ss in a gently pla c id stat e of
,

m ind . Hi s next step w as t o l e arn t o m ove deli c at e l y ,

w ith r e sp e c t for other p e opl e ; and h e c a m e to h ave a

c e rtain s e nsitiv e ness about hi s relations w ith hi s s c hool

m at e s . F o r exa m pl e h e us e d to blush w hen th ey smiled

,

at h im and even w hen h e took n o part in w hat they w er e

.

doing h e shared thei r a c tiviti e s w ith an affec tionat e at

,

tention F r om thi s point on Rizi e r o ( that w as the c hild s

.
’

n am e ) ent e r e d on a higher plan e of e x isten c e — o n e of

ord e r labor and politeness
, .

T h e fa c t also that c hildren at ti m es listen to the musi c ,

w hil e rem aining seated c o m fortably around the room ,

w at c hing the other c hildren dan c e and m ar c h i s in its e lf ,

a p retty thing .T h e c hildren w h o ar e s e ated be c om e

ve r y self—c ontrolled T hey w at c h thei r school m ates o r e x
.
3 50 M O N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIAL

c hange a f ew w ords c autiously w ith ea c h othe r At ti m es .

,

e ven ,
they let th em s elves go in inte resting expr e ssions of
m ov em e nt w ith th e i r a rm s T h e m anife stations of pl a
.

c i di t y and int e r e st her e seen c annot be disj oin e d fro m a

healthful spiritual upbuilding — a beautiful orderlin e ss

, , ,

w hi c h is being e st ablished w ithin th e m O bviously a

.
,

w onderful har m ony springs up bet w e en the tea c h e r w h o ,

plays w ith e nthu s iasti c fe eling and w ith all possible skill
of hand and abundan c e of spi rit si m ply bec aus e sh e fe els
t h e m u s i c al ph e nom en a a round h e r in the c hildren and ,

the pupils w h o little by littl e ar e t r ansform e d under

, ,

this in fl uen c e and S how an und e r st anding of the m usi c

, ,

w hi c h be c om e s for them som ething m ore and m ore inti

m at e m ore and m ore c om pl e te
,
I t is no longer a ques
.

tion of the s tep but of th e position of the w hole b o dy

,

arms heads c h e sts ar e m o ved by the m usi c

, ,
.

F inally m any of t h e c hildren beat ti m e w ith th e ir

,

hands and interpret c orr ec tly w ithout e ver h aving be e n

,

t aught distin c ti o ns b e t w e e n 3 and 4 ti m e et c When a ,

.

”
k e e n int e r e st in guess ing th e ti m e i s a w akened in them ,
the c hild r e n look about fo r various obj ec ts w and s t am ,

b o u r i n e s c astagnett e s e t c
,
and t h e c lass exerc is e i s de
,
.
,

v e l o pe d to p e rfec tion T h e c hild c om es to b e

. poss e ssed
by the m usi c He obeys the musi c al c omm and w ith his
.

w hol e body and b ec o m e s m or e and m or e per fec t in this

ob e di e n c e sho wn by hi s m us c l e s .

H e r e i s a pretty story w hi c h w ill show t o w ha t ext e nt

c hild r e n c an fe e l th em selv e s d e p e nd e nt on t h e m usi c
”
w hi c h
“
m ak e s th em m ove O n c e m y father w e nt int o
.

a roo m w h e r e a littl e P a r isian gi r l w hom h e w as v e r y

fond of w as passi onat e ly m ar c hing t o t h e rhythm of a
tun e played on th e pi ano T h e c hild usually ran to me e t
.

the old gentlem an ; but that d ay th e m o m e nt she s aw h im

 MU S I C 3 51

she b e gan t o shou t to M iss M a c c heroni wh o w as play ,

“
ing ,
A r r ete ar r ete l S h e w ant e d t o go and shake
,

h and s w ith m y fath e r s om e thing sh e c ould not do as long

,

a s th e m usi c w as c ontinuing to c o mmand h e r to m ov e w ith

t h e r hyth m And in fa c t i t w as not until M iss Mac
.
,

c h e r o n i stopp e d pl aying that t h e littl e gi r l w as abl e to

run and deliver h er gr e e ting .

We h av e pr e p ared a s e ri es of tun e s for this w ork and

I think i t w ill b e us e ful to giv e h e r e thos e w hi c h w e
finally s e le c ted be c au se th e y hav e su c c e e d e d w h e n e ver ,

th e y w e r e t r i e d in arousing in th e c hild r e n the ph e nom e na

,

above d e s c ribed T h e r e ar e e ight m ov em ents c h o s e n f r om

.

si x w e ll kno w n pie c e s of m usi c T h e s e f e w m ovem e nts

-
.

repeat e d ov e r and over again and play e d w ith all possible

a c c ura c y w ill sur e ly sooner or lat e r be felt in every
, , ,

rhythm by t h e c hildr e n .

T h e transition fro m follow ing t h e ti m e by ones ( th at

i s o n e b e at f o r e very rhythm i c e l em e nt ) to th e indi c a
,

tion of si m ply t h e b e ginning of th e m e asu r e ( that is ,

one b e at on t h e th esi s ) app e a r e d fo r t h e fi r st ti m e in a

C hild r en s Hous e
’ ”
di r ec t e d by M iss M a c c h e roni .

T her e o n e m orning w hen t h e c hild r e n w e r e follo w ing t h e

,
.

m usi c w ith gr e at pl e asu r e m ar c hing about and b e ating on

,

ta m bourines i t w as a girl w h o fi r st c aught t h e strong b e at

,

i A littl boy b hind r m ad e t h e c onquest a

( th e s s )
. e e h e

s ec ond later ; but w h il e th e littl e girl lost w h at sh e had

gained al m ost i mm ediat e ly t h e littl e boy d e velop e d it t o
,

p e r fe c tion S ho r tly aft e r oth e r c hildren m ade th e sam e

.

progres s appa r ently as a saving of effo r t : th e y b eg an t h at

, ,

is by b e ating on c e o n e v e ry st e p T his r e quired a rapid

,
.

m ov e m e nt and an e ndl e ss su c c e ssion of beats All o f a .

sudden th ey began t o beat on the fi r st note of a m ea sur e .

A n a lyzing t h e b e at o f a me asur e wh i l e walkin g on a lin e . Mo n t e s s o r i
S ch o l i n I t a l y )
o .
 MU S I C 353

ally te mp o f o r te ha s n o r e lation to the m eaning of th e

“ ” “ ”
w ords strong and w e ak in th e ir o r dinary sens e .

It is a qu e stion of e mph as is and expr ess i o n w hi c h d e rive ,

their n atu r e f r o m th e la w s of m usi c al ti m e and m e lodi c

c om position and c e rt ainly not from the w rist m us c les of

t h e person playing If this w e r e not s o a p e rson c ould

.
,

play t h e fi r st s ec ond o r third not e of a m e asur e as f o r te

, ,

”
w he r e as in r e ality it i s the first that is al w ays
, , s trong .

In pra c tis e c hild r e n to w ho m t h e six tun e s w e pro

, ,

pos e d for t h e b e ginning of thi s study w e re playe d and

playe d al w ays w ith rigo r ous m usi c al int e rp r etation and
w ith e xpressiv e n e ss su c c e e d e d in re c o gn izing t h e first
—

“ ”
b e at of t h e m e asur e as strong and w ent on thus to ,

divid e into m e asures s o m e thirty pie c e s of musi c of

va r i e d r hythm E ven th e follow ing ye ar after the sum
.
,

m e r va c ati o n th e y k e pt asking for n ew pi e c es of musi c

,
“ ”
ju st for th e fun of w o r king out the m e asu r e in th em .

T hey w ould stand at t h e sid e of t h e t e a c h er at t h e pi an o

and e ith e r w ith th e i r hands or w ith soft pl aying on the
c astagn e tt e s or ta m b o urines a c c om pany thei r n ew piec e
,

of m usi c In ge n e ral they w o uld list e n in sil e n c e to the

.

first m e asur e and th e n fall in w ith th e i r littl e be ats like

any w ell-train e d o r c h e stra T h e y took t h e t r oubl e n o
.

longe r to m a rc h to t h e m usi c : th e y w e r e int e r e ste d in thi s

n e w form of study ; w hil e the s m all e r tots d e light e d w ith
,

t h e n e w m usi c w e r e still w alking undistu r bed along the

,

ellipti c al lin e on the flo or w hi c h w as to guid e th em t o su c h

g r e at c onquests !
T h e strong be at ( th esis ) i s the key that opens to the
higher la w s of m usi c S om e ti m e s it i s playe d for re a
.
,

sons o f ex pression very softly and al w ays possesses the

,

sol emn ity of t h e not e w hi c h dom inat e s t h e rhyth m It .

m ay even b e syn c o p ated or la c king e ntirel y j ust as when ,

 MU S I C 3 55

for ordinary m ethods na m ely, ,

c ounting o n e !tw o !thr e e !
fo u r !to kee p step in ti m e .

As a pra c ti c al appli c ation of the inform ati o n already

a c quir e d in the divisio n of ti m e into m easur e s w e next ,

p ass to t h e e x e r c is e of playing t h e s c ales in 2 / 4 3/ 4 and

,

ti m e and w ith the t r ipl e ts T h e s c ale t h e c lassi c

.
,

t ype of the m e l o dy l e nds its e lf beautifully to th e s e int e r

,

r e t at i o n s of various m easu r es Ev e r y o n e m ust h av e

p .

pass e d hours at th e pi an o pl aying si m pl e s c ales and fi n d

ing a d e li c ious vari e ty in the exerc ise T h e d o s c al e its elf
.

m ay be pl ayed for instan c e thu s :

, ,

or thus

or thus

O ur little pian o m ay b e of use in this e x e rc is e ; but it

i s b e tter first to u se an e xer c is e m or e e a sy for finge r m ov e
m e nt and for th e position of the hand :

C hildren w h o hav e su c c eed e d in identifying and divid

in g th e m e lod y int o m easure s and the m easure itself into
3 56 MO NT E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M AT E RIAL
2 , 3 , 4, und e rstand very e asily t h e ti m e valu e s of the
notes . It is suffic i e nt to l e t the c hild h ear e ac h e x e rc ise

firs t and h e w ill rep e at i t w ith prec ision T hu s all kinds

.

of dry e xplanation of m usi c al v alu es disapp e a r .

T h e follo w ing notation

 MU S I C 357

p r e sents n o sp e c i al diffi c ulty if t h e c hild has on c e heard it

.

O u r n e xt st e p i s to use so m e e xer c ises for the analysis

of t h e m easur e fo r instan c e :
,

The childre n follo w thes e ex er c is e s m arc hing so as to

,

put o n e st e p on ev e ry note Ev e n c hildre n of four ye ars

.

w h e n pr e par e d w ith the pr e c e ding ex e r c ises su cc e e d in

follow ing these w ith th e very greatest interest T hey are
.
 MU S I C 3 59

Of cours e soon e r o r l at e r c hildr e n fix th e i r att e ntion

,

on t h e v arying fo r m o f t h e not e s and dis c ov e r that this

di fferen c e i n form b e ars a r e lation to diffe r e n c e s in ti m e
valu e of th e n o tes :

T his i s the ti m e t o giv e in ve r y b r i e f e xplanation th e

l e sson on th e valu e of th e not e s T h e r e aft e r t h e c hild m ay
.

w rit e fro m m em ory a si m pl e m e lody w hi c h t h e t e a c h e r

has first play e d on the piano Al m ost al w ays the c hild
.

w rites thi s dow n w ith a c c ura c y sho w ing th at h e has c o n

,

t r ol ov e r th e m usi c al valu e s app e a r ing in t h e m elody in

question T h e c hild us e s for thi s purpos e a l a r ge g r e e n
.

c hart c ontaining va r ious m usi c al staffs on w hi c h m ovabl e

not e s m ay be fix e d at pleasure T hese not e s ar e e quipp e d

.

w it h a pin w hi c h m ay b e push e d into t h e w ood . T he

si m pl e exerc ises given for the analysis of the m e asur e s ,

transfe rr e d into va r ious k eys c an aft e r som e pra c tis e

,

in playing th em on t h e syst em of plat e s b e put int o th e ir

c opy books by t h e c hildr e n . T h e s e e x e r c ises for m easur e
analysi s ar e s o si m pl e th at the c hild r e n th e m s e lv e s h ave
som e ti m e s learn e d t o pl ay th em on th e pi ano It th e n.

ha s happ e n e d th at the c lass w e nt of its o w n a c c o r d into

t h e pi ano room ; one c hild b e gan t o play and t h e oth e r s
follo w e d th e m usi c on t h e fl o o r line T h e c hildr e n as th e y
-
.

w alk ulti m ately c o m e t o sing the s c ales and t h e e asy tu ne s

of hi c h th e y h av e re c ognized t h e not e s ) pronoun c in g
( w

t h e na m e s of the not e s ; but in so pronoun c ing them they

soften their voi c es to the poin t of attaining an e xpression
360 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

w hi ch m ay b e alled even a r tisti c When the tea c her

c .

plays , the m usi c gains t h e add e d c harm of ha rm ony sin c e ,

t h e te ac he r c an give not only t h e si m pl e s c ale but t h e rela

,

tive c hords an d thi s gives the sc ale a vigorous an d very

,

s w ee t fulln e ss
T hes e e xerc ise s in m easure analysis have also been par
t ic ul ar ly us e ful in th e i r appli c ation t o gym nasti c e xe r
c ise s
. T h e c hildr en follow th em w ith gym nasti c m ov e
m ents using e spe c i ally the m ovem ents of D al c r o ze w hi c h
, ,

ar e a dm irably adapted to t h e m easures of A 34 e t c ,

3
, ,
.

and w hi c h hav e a real beauty We dis c ov e red th at thes e

.

exerc is e s proved to b e c om pl e xly diffi c ult fo r t h e c hildr e n

w h o had not pra c tis e d suffic i e ntly in t h e interpr e tation
of the diff e rent not e valu e s O n the other hand th ey w e r e
.
,

very easy for those w h o h ad c om e t o have a c l e ar fe eling

for thes e d ifferent valu e s T hi s w as proof to u s that sen
.

so r i al preparatio n m us t pr ec ed e th e s e e x e r c is e s and fur

,

t h e rm o r e th at the only di ffic ulty D al c roz e m ov e m e nts e n

,

c ounter in c hildr e n arises f r o m insuffic i e nt senso r y p r e pa

ration i n th e c hildr e n th em selves .

In th e sam e w ay w e illust r ate the di ff e r e nt d e tails of

musi c al w riting : t h e dotted not e

the triplet

the l egato the s tac c ato e t c

, ,
.

Her e i s an exam ple of a l egato eff ec t

 MU S I C 36 1

( S onnam bula .
Quint e t )

T his xam pl e
e d e r iv e s all its e xp r e ss iv e v alu e
fr o m the ti e s als o b r ings o u t t h e valu e of th e not e
,

We n e e d a c c ordingly a c oll e c tion of m usi c al s e l ec tions

, ,

in w hi c h t h e val u e of t h e not e s i s obvious an d c l e ar to su c h

an e xt e nt th at t h e c hildren c om e to r e c o gn iz e th e diffe r e nt
valu e s T his r ec ognition m ust b e obtain e d by ear through
.

li st e ning t o t h e m usi c not by e ye looking at the sym bol s

,

w hil e the t e a c her explain s .

T h e 4 not e al w ays has a diff e r e nt m usi c al c ont e nt

1

f r om th e n o t e A m usi c al pi ec e m ad e up of th e i 6 th
.

or 3 2 d notes ha s a c hara c t e r of its o w n ( j oy or agitation )

and a pi ec e m ad e up of h alf or w hol e not e s has lik ew ise
its p e c uli ar c hara c t e r ( r e ligiou s sad i m p r essiv e )
, ,
.

T h e sa m e m ay b e said of e v e r y m usi c al sym bol t h e ,

valu e of w hi c h is brough t out by t h e not e being playe d

 MU S I C 36 3

t i o n l e ss x ec uting plasti c pos e s w ith thei r a rm s T his

e .

r e v e aled t o us th e ir s e nsitiv e ness t o m e lody ; th e y f elt

m ov e d not to m ar c h but t o p r ay and assu m e various pos e s .

We have not y e t b e e n abl e t o push our e xp e r i m e nts far

enough p r e c is e ly t o d e fi n e t h e musi c al m at e rial adapt e d
to c hildren of va r i ous age s We hav e how e v e r m ad e a
.
, ,

v e ry great nu m b e r of su c c e ssful attem pts t o bring c hil

d r e n to enj oy m e lody and s e nti m e ntal e xpression in mu
s ic . T h e p r a c ti c abl e n e s s and utility of m usi c al audi
t ions o r if you w ish of c o n c e rt s f o r c hildre n g r aduat e d
, , , ,

i n diffi c ulty e x e c ut e d o n various in st r um e nts b u t on o n e

, ,

inst ru m e nt at a ti m e ar e b eyond all qu e stion ; this appli e s

,

abov e all to songs r e p r odu c e d by th e hu m an voi c e w h e n ,

a w e ll t r a in e d voi c e i s availabl e
-
.

If a r e al a r tist sh o uld t ak e up t h e task of analyzing

for c hildr e n t h e lan gu age of m usi c bringing th e m to e nj oy
,

it ph r as e by ph r as e and und e r diffe r e nt ti m b r es ( voi c e ,

st r ings ,
hi s n ew and s c i e nti fi c appli c atio n of t h e a r t
w ould prove to be a r e al ben e fa c tion to hu m anity Ho w
.

m any p e opl e c apabl e of prof o und e nj oym e nt of m usi c

w ould b e produ c e d in t h e futur e f r o m th e s e groups of littl e
on e s so int e lligent in m usi c w h o follo w th e m ost expres
, ,
3 64 M O N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

s ive tunes w ith s o mu c h p assion and in a sil en c e m or e

absolut e than any c e l e brated art ist c an dre am of attain
ing in a m eeting of adul ts ! N o one am ong thes e littl e
hearers i s c old far aw ay in thought But o n th e fa c e s of
, .

t h e c hildren a pp e ars the int e rior w orking of a s p i r it , tas t

i n g a nec tar e ss e ntial t o i t s v e r y life .

Ho w m any ti m es a plasti c pos e a kneeling po stu r e an

, ,

e c st ati c fac e w ill m ove the heart of the art i s t t o a sens e

,

of j oy greater than that w hi c h any applaus e of a throng

of p e ople often indi ff e r e nt o r inattentive c an possibly ,

give h im ! U sually only thos e w ounded at heart by th e

di ffic ulty of b e ing und e rstood by o thers or dis c ourage d
,

by th e c oldnes s or r ud e nes s of oth e r p e opl e o r O pp r e ss e d,

by disillusion or filled w ith a s e ns e o f p ainful lon e lin e ss

,

o r ne e d of exp ansion i n so m e oth e r w a

y f e el in m usi c
,

the voi c e w hi c h op e n s the doo r s of t h e heart and c aus e s

a health gi ving flood of t e ar s or rais e s th e S pirit to a l o fty
-

s e nse o f pea c e O nly th e y c an understand h o w n e ce ssa r y

.

a c om pani o n for hum anity m usi c is We kno w of c ours e

.
, ,

t o —day th at m usi c i s an indispens able sti m ulan t fo r sol

d iers rushing fo rth t o di e Ho w m u c h m ore t r ul y w ould
.

it then b e c om e a sti mul ant f o r all w h o a re t o liv e !

T hi s c onvi c tion i s al r e ady in t h e h e art s of m any pe o
l e In fa ct atte m pts h ave al r e ady bee n m ade to r e a c h
p .
,

t h e popula c e by c on c e rt s i n t h e publi c squa r e s and by

m aking c on c ert h alls a c c e ssibl e t o p e opl e of e ve r y c lass ;
but af ter all do su c h attem pts a m ount t o m ore th an put
,
~

ting the c heap e ditions of t h e c lassi c s into c irc ulation

a m ong illiterate s ? E du c ation i s t h e pri m e r e quisite ;
w ithout su c h edu c ation w e h av e a p e opl e of d e af m ut e s
forever barred from any m usi c T h e e ar of t h e u n e du
.

c at e d m an c annot p e rc eiv e th e subli m e sounds w hi c h

musi c w ould bring w ithin hi s rea c h T hat is wh y though
.
 MU S I C 365

the m usi c of Bellini and Wag ner i s being played in publi c

squares th e saloons are j ust as full as before
, .

If ho w ev e r from th e se pupils of ours a w hole people

, ,

c ould gro w up it w ould b e suffic ient to go through the

,

stre e ts w ith a good pie c e of m usi c and everybody w ould

c o m e out to hear All those pla c e s w here the rough and
.

abandoned wr e c ks of hu m anity s e ek enj oyment like hom e ,

l e ss dogs looking for food i n our ash c ans w ould be em p

-
,

tied a s i f by m agi c We w ould have an a c tual realization

.

of t h e All egory of O rpheus ; for h e arts w hi c h are to-day of

ston e w ould then b e stirred and brought to l ife b y a sub
li m e melody .

S INGING

S inging began w ith the s c ale Th e singin g o f a s c ale,

.

first in a c c om pani m ent w ith t h e bells and later w ith the

piano i s a first and great d e light to the c hildren T hey .

sing it in various w ays n o w in a l o w voi c e n o w very

, ,

loud n o w all together in u nison , n o w one by one T hey

,
.

sing d ivided into t w o groups sh aring the notes alter ,

n at e l y bet w een the m A m ong the songs w h i c h w e offe r to

.

th e c hildren the gr eatest favorite proved t o be the syll a

,

b ic G regori a n C han t It i s som ething like a very per

.

fee t form of spee c h It has a c onversation al intonation ,

.

the softness of a senten c e w e ll p ronoun c ed the full round ,

ness of the musi c al phras e T h e e x a mples given here

.

h av e al m ost th e m ov e ment of th e s c ale .

Many other verses of the G regorian C hant h ave like ,

these proved t o be the delight of the Mont e ssori E lem en

,

tary S c hool of B arc elona T here the c hildren are esp e

.

c i all y keen about thi s very si m ple m usi c w hi c h th e y like t o

play on the pi ano on th e ir plates ( Xylophones ) or o n

,

th e ir m ono c hords .
 MU S I C 367

M U S I C A L P H RA S E S FO R T HE I N I T I AL R H Y T H M I C
E XE RC IS E S
We give h e r e in c o m plet e form th e
phrases u sed musi c al
by us for t h e fi rst rhyth m i c ex e r c is e s T h ey ar e ad e quate .

for giving t h e s e nsation of rhythm and for sugge sting the

m oto r y a c tions asso c i at e d w ith t h e r hyth m T his m usi c al .

m at e ri al n o w form s in our s c hools part of t h e m ate r ial

w hi c h i s experi m e ntally establish e d .

Wo r ks f r o m w hi c h S e l e c ti o n s ar e T a ke n Mo to r R e a c ti o n s
P ro v o k e d
1 An c or a u n b aci o m azurk a B as ti an e l l i S lo w w al k
, , . .

S i j et ai s ro i Ado l ph e Adam Acc el e r at e d w alk

’ ”
. .
,

3 .
“
E agl e M ar c h ”
, Wagn e r M ar c h s t e p .

”
4 .
“
G alop , S t r au ss R un .

5 .
“
I t al i an fol k -song Hop .

6 .
“
Pas de s p ati n e urs S e dat e w alk .
368 M O N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIA L

AN C O RA U N B AC I O
( Maz u rka)
B as t i an e l l i .
 MU S I C 3 69

SI J ET AI S
’
R OI

A dol ph e A dam .

A n d a n te s o s te n u t o .
3 72 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T E RIAL

GALO P

S t r auss .
 MU S I C 3 73

IT ALIAN F O LK S O NG
 MU S I C 3 75

O S AN C T I S S IMA

A n da n t e .
 MU S I C A L A U D I T I O N S
”
T h e m ove m ent entitled O S an c t is sim a played by ,

M iss M a cc heron i one day by c h an c e a m ong the rhyth m i c

e x e r c ises i s regarded by us a s an introdu c tion to m us i c al
,

aud i ti o n It w ill be re c alled that the c hildren had been

.

a cc ust o m ed to alter their style of m ar c hing on th e fl o o r

line a c c ording t o c h anges in the musi c I t had nev e r .
,

ho w ev e r o c c urred t o them to leave the line Wh e n this

, .

p ie c e w as played they all c ro w ded around the piano mo ,

t i o n l e ss thoughtful absorbed ; w hil e t w o or thre e littl e

, ,

on e s fell to their knees and assum ed various poses T hi s .

“
e xperi e n c e suggested t o u s the idea of musi c al audi
”
tions if you w ish c on c e rts for c hildren
,
.

C hildren little by little to b e sure, but no less ad m ira

,

bly ente r i nto the s p irit of m usi c After the nu m e rous

,
.

rhyth m i c exerc i se s, as soon that is as they h av e m aster e d

, ,

t h e p r oble m of m easure al m ost any s o n ata is w ithin th e ir

,

rea c h T hey c an handle not isol ated m ovem ents m er e ly

.
,

but w hole pie c es of m usi c T h e sam e i s t r u e of the audi

.

tions At first of c ours e it i s b e tter to sele c t si m ple

.
, ,
“
ph r ases ; but gradually th e c hildren c om e to enj oy the
”
best m usi c j oyfully re c ognizing th e f e e ling w hi c h it
,

e x presses and w hi c h inspir e d it O u r pupils used to e x .

”
c lai m ,
for instan c e T his pie c e i s for w eeping ,
” ”
T hi s i s for prayer N o w w e m ust l augh
,
No w we ,

”
must shout e tc ,
.

We c annot ho w ever insist too strongly on the need

, ,

3 76
 MU S I C 3 77

for t h e greatest possible c a r e in th e exe c ution of the sel e c

tions us e d A c hild audi e n c e i s a v e ry sp e c i al one It
.
.

d em ands som e thing m o r e than is exp e c ted by the av e r

“ ”
age intelligent audien c e It i s one in w hi c h musi c al
.

int e lligen c e must be d e v el o ped O u r obj ec t m ust b e t h e

.

c reation not m e rely of high e r and high e r grad e s of under

standing but als o of higher and higher g r ades of fe e lin g .

I n this sens e w e c an n ever d o to o mu ch for the c hildre n

, .

It i s a task not beneath the dignity of th e gr e at e st c o m

posers the m ost a c c om plish e d te c hni c i ans Indeed any
, .
,

o n e of su c h m ight w e ll est eem it a p r ivil e ge so m e day to

hear it said of hi s w o r k that it a r oused the first lov e for

musi c in th e hearts of o n e of th e s e littl e ones F o r thus .

m usi c w ould h ave been m ade a c o m panion a c onsol e r a , ,

guardi an angel of m an ! It i s of c ou r se not the lot of all

of us t o attain the e xalted position of greatn e ss w hether as
artists or te c hni c ians We m ust c ontent ourselves w ith
.

assu m ing an obligation : w ith givi n g all t h e soul and all

t h e skill w e posses s We m ust c on c eiv e of ours elves as
.

transm itters of the largess of musi c t o our c hildren We .

m ust d e e ply fe e l our c alling as besto w e rs of a divine gift .

T h e follo w ing titles w e r e all us e d su c c e ssfully by us in

“
ou r e xp e r i m e nts T h e y ar e suppl eme nt s to the
. O
”
S an c t i ss im a and a P ater N oste r .

A . N ARRAT IVE S .

T r o vato r e : T ac c a l a no tt e p l aci d a .

L u c r e z ia B o r gi a : “
N e ll a f at a l d i R imi n i e me mo rab il
”
gu e rr a .

L u c ia di Lam ermo o r : R e gn av a n el s i l e nz i o .

”
T r o va t o r e : R ac c on t o
d i Az u c e n a .

S o n n am b u l a : A fos c o c i e l o a no t t e brun a,
.

”
R i g o l e t to : T u t t e l e fe st e al t e m p i o .

Q u e ll u o m dal fi e ro asp e tt o
’
F r a D i av o l o : .
 MU S I C 3 79

In vi ta ti o n
F au s t : “
Pe rm et te r e s ti a me .

B o h em e : song of R udolph , “
C he ge l i d a m an i n a
.

A ng er
S o n n amb u l a : Ah p e r ch e non posso od i ar ti .

S o rr o w o f s ac r i fic e
B o h em e : V e cc h i a z i m arr a s e n ti .
”

M e di tat io n
Me nd e lsohn R o m an c e s .

M oz ar t .

C hop i n .

D . FO LK S ONG S AN D D AN C E S .
 PAR T

ME T R I C S
 T HE S T U D Y O F M E T RI C S IN E LE M E N T ARY
S C H O O LS

O ne of t h e novelties in c luded in our e x peri ments w as

the tea c hing of m e tri c s hitherto r e s e rved f o r high s c hools
, .

T h e love sho w n b y c hildren for poetry their exquisit e ,

sensitivene ss t o rhyth m led m e to susp ec t that t h e native

,

roots of po e try m ight be pr e s e nt in littl e c hild r en I sug .

ges ted to M iss M ari a F an c e llo a t e a c h e r of lit e rature i n

,

the high s chools and m y c oll e a gu e to att em pt su c h an ex ,

e r im e n t S h b gan w ith c hild r e n of diffe r ent age s and

p .e e
, ,

together w e su c c e e d e d in disc ov e ring a h ighly int e r e sting

,

depart m e nt of e d u c ation t h e obj ec t of w hi c h m ight b e to

,

give t h e m ass of t h e peopl e pr e pa r e d fo r life in the p r i

,

m ary s c hools the basi c el e m e nts of lit e rary app r e c iation

, ,

thus opening a n ew sour c e of pleasure c al c ulated also t o

in c rease general e nlightenm ent A popula c e c apabl e of .

enj oying po e t r y of j udging t h e b e auty of verse and hen c e

, ,

of c om ing in c onta c t w ith the spirits of o u r gr e at e st p o e ts ,

w ould be so m e thing quite d i ffe r e nt to t h e m ass e s w e n o w

kno w T o find th e like w e hav e to i m agine the p e opl e of

.

an c ient story w h o talk e d in po e t r y and m ov e d th e i r bodi e s

,

to th e rhythm thus laying t h e foundations of refin e d c iv

,

il iz at i o n .

It i s not our intention to desc r ib e in detail all w e did

in these ex peri m ents It w ill b e suffi c ient to su mm arize
.

38 3
38 4 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY MA T ERIA L

the results w hi c h m ay sugges t useful m ateri al and m eth

,

ods to oth e rs .

As soon as the c hildr e n are som ew hat advan c e d in

reading po e t ry w hi c h th e y lov e d so m u c h in t h e C hil
, ,

d r e n s Hous e m ay b e in c lud e d in t h e m at e ri als o ff e r e d

’
,

in parti al satisfa c tion of th e i r insati able desir e to r e ad .

It i s b e st to b e gin w ith poem s c om pos e d of stanzas of dif

fe ro nt l e ngt hs th e stanzas b e ing print e d at e asily noti c e
,

abl e int e rv als from ea c h other T h e lines m ay b e .

”
c ounted ,
in t e a c hing t h e t w o n ew w ords stanza an d
“ ” “
line . T h e p r o c e ss involv e d is a r ec ognition of oh
”
j e c ts sugge sting the first exe rc i se in reading w h e r e the
, ,

c hild r en put n am e s on things ; though here the situation

i s m u c h si m pl e r At t h e sam e ti m e w e have t h e e xer c ise

.

of c ounting the lines In short it i s a review e xer c ise

.
,

of th e greatest si m pli c it y .

T h e c ounting of the lines leads at on c e t o the i de n t ifi

c ation o f su c h g r oups as t h e c ouplet quat r ain oc tav e e t c, , ,
.

But littl e ti m e i s sp e nt on su c h a c rud e d e t ail T h e littl e .

ones al m ost i mm e di at ely bec om e int e r e st e d in t h e rh ym e .

Th e first st e p is th e r ec ogn ition of rhym ing syllables

w hi c h ar e unde r lin e d w ith c olor e d pen c ils using a di ffe r ,

e t
n c olor for a
e c h rh ym e S ev e n -year
.
-old e rs tak e t he

g r e at e st delight in this w ork w hi c h i s too si m pl e to arouse

,

int e re st in c hildr e n of e ight or nine T hose of seven do .

su c h w ork about as qui c kly as those of ten the spe e d of ,

t h e younge r c hildr e n b e ing due appar e ntly to th e ir e n

t h u s i asm t h e slo w n e ss of t h e older to th e ir l a c k of inter

,

e st
. We m ay not e in passing that these ex e r c ises fur
nish tests of absolute e xa c tness as t o rapidity of w ork .

C hildr e n of eight ar e abl e to go one step beyond m arking

t h e rh ym e s w it h c olored pen c ils T hey c an use the m ore
.

c o m pli c at e d devi c e of m arkin g line s w i th the letters of t h e

 ME T RI C S 385

alphabet : aa b b c c etc M arking w ith num bers

, , , .

l eft the lin e s in th e ir order and th e r hym e s w ith ,

t o the right w e get a spe c i m e n r e sult as follow s :

,

R ond i n e ll a p e l l e gr i na
°
1 a

C h e ti pos i su l v e r o n e b
°
2
R ic an t ando ogn i m at t i n a
°
3 a

Q u e ll a fl e b il e c anz o n e
°
4 b
C h e v uo i d i r m i i n t u a f av e l la 0
°
5
6
°
Pe ll e gr i n a rond i n e lla ? 4

T
( ranslation Wandering s w allow as you sit th e re
:
“
,

on m y bal c ony e a c h m orning singing to m e your tea r ful ,

song w hat i s it y o u ar e trying to tell m e in your lan

,
”
u age w and e r ing s w allo w f )
g ,

brings out th e diff er e n c e b e t w e en the altern ating

T hi s
rhym e ( a b a b ) and t h e c oupl e t ( c c ) as w e ll as th e
, , , , ,

m orphology of t h e stanza .

In reading t h e lin e s over and over agai n to w o r k out

the rhym e s c hem e the c hildren spontaneously b egin to
,

c at c h the toni c a c c ents T hei r readin e ss in this r e spec t

.

i s a m att e r of c omm on obse rvation In fa c t in ordinary .

,

S c hools ,
t h e tea c h e rs ar e c ontinually struggling against
the sing-song developed by c hildren in r e ading poetry .

T his sing-song is nothin g m ore nor l e ss that stress on

the rhyth m i c m ovem ent .

O n o n e o c c asion one of our c hildr e n a littl e boy had

, , ,

b e e n spending som e ti me ov e r a num ber of d ec asyllabi c

lines Whil e w aiting in th e c o r ridor for the doors to op e n
.

at dism issal ti m e h e suddenly b e gan t o w alk up and dow n

’

,
”
“
right about fa c ing
- - at every thr e e steps and s aying
” - - c
aloud : t at at a t at at a t at at att a right about fa e th en
“
, , , ,

“
t at at a t at at a t at at att a
,
”
,
E a c h st e p w as a cc om pani e d
.
 ME T RI C S 3 87

-
ard i s broke out to the br e ez e ; ther e anoth e r advan c e s
n

w aving ; h e re a lin e of troops app e a r s th e r e anoth e r rush ,

”
ing against it .

2 D odec asyllables : e xa m pl e
.

R u ello , R u ello , div o r a l a v i a ,

P o r t at e c i a v é lo b u f é r e d e l c i é l
, .

E pr esso alla m é r t e l a v ergin e m i a ,

G a l o pp a g a l o p p a g a l o pp a R u é l
, , .

( PRA T I , G a l o pp o n o t t urn o .
)

( T ranslation Ru e llo Ru e llo as fast as you c an !

, ,

0 stor m -w inds of heav e n lend u s your w ings ; my lov e d

,

one i s lying n e ar death ; on w ard onw ard on w ard , , ,

Ru e llo !
3 E ight syllabl e lin e s ( o t to n ar i o ) : exa m pl e
.

S oli t ariobos c o o mb r é so ,

A t e vi en e afflitto c é r ,

P e r trov ar q u a l ch e r i p é s o
Fr a i sil enzi in q u e s t o rr é r
’
.

( R O L L I L a l o n t an an z a )
, .

( T ranslation : O
d e s e rt e d w ood ! T o your shad e
t h e sorro w ing hear t c o m es to find so m e r e st in your c ool
”
silen c e
.

4 S ix syllabl e lin e s ( s en ari o )

. e xa m pl e

P ur baldo di sp eme
L uo m ulti m o gi unto
’

L e c é n e r i pr em e
D u n m o ndo d e funto ;
’

In c alza di s ecoli
N o n an c o m a t t i r i
’

I fulgidi auguri
Z
.

( A N EL L A , La c o n c hi gli a f o ss i l e )
.

( T ranslation : Radi ant w ith hop e t h e lat e st c om

“
er ,

t r e ads on th e ashes of a dead w o r ld pu r suing the glow ing ,

”
aspi r ations of age s not y e t r ip e .

- c
N O T E : In the above sele c tions t h e vo els in broad fa ed
w
38 8 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M AT E RIAL

t yp e hav e been m arked w ith an a c c en t by the c hild , to in

dic at e t h e rhythm i c beat .

We found , o n t he other hand, th at gre ate r d ifficu lty i s

e x perien c e d by the c hildren i n lines w h e re th e syllable s
are in odd nu mbers ( im par i syl l ab ic s ) t h e hardes t o f th e
-
,

Itali an lines being the hende c asyllable w hi c h i s a c o m ,

bination of th e seven syllable and th e fi v e syllable line ,

fused togeth e r w ith all th e i r gre at vari eties of m ovem ent .

We es t ablished the follo wi ng gradation of diffic ultie s

1 S ev e n syllabl e lin e ( s e ttenari o ) : e x amp l e
.

G i a r i e d e P r i ma v er a
C o l s uo fi o r i t o a sp e o, tt
G ia i1 gré t o z é ffi r é tt o
c
S h erz a f ra l erb e e i fi é r
’
.

( MET A S T A S I O P r i mav er a )
,
.

( T ranslation Now
already fl ow ery S pring returns ;
again the lovely z e phyrs dan c e am idst the grass and blo s
”
som s )
2 F ive syllabl e line ( qu in ari o ) : e x amp le
.

V ivace si mbolo
Dé la . fami gli a ,

L e d i e l a tr é mul a
M adr e a l a fi gli a ,

L e di e l a s u é cer a

Bu é na a la n u é ra

N e l fi l t im 6 r a
’ ’
.

( MAZ
ZON I , P er un mazz o di c h i avi .
)

( T ranslation As a vivid sym bol of the hom e th ey

: “
,

w e r e pass e d on by th e dying m other to her daughter or to

’ ”
her son s w ife .

3 N ine syllabl e line ( n o venari o ) : exa mpl e

.

T e t r i s te ! C h a V al l e t as pé t t an o
’
e

I gi o rni di c anti c i pr i vi ;
Ah né , non d ai m é rt i c h e t a m ano ,

Ti gu ard s fr a t ello d ai Vi vi
, ,
.

( C AVALL O T T I S u i n
, al t o .
)
 ME T R I C S 389

“
T
( ranslation Alas for th e e O broth e r ! Yond e r
:
, , ,

songl e ss d ays a w ait th e e Ah no hav e no fe ar of the .

,

d e ad : they lov e thee ! T h e living only shouldst thou

4 . H e nd ec asyllabl e : exam pl e
Per me si v é. n e ll a c itt a dol en t e ,

Pe r m e si v é. n e ll e t er n o do l o re
’
,

Per me si vé t r a l a p e rdut a g ent e .

( D A N T E D i v i n a C o mme di a In f er n o )
, , .

T
( ransl ation T hrough m e
ye e nt e r t h e c ity of so r
r o w ; through m e y e e nt e r t h e r e al m of e t e rn al gri e f ;

through m e ye enter the regions of t h e

The typi c al e nding of th e s e various lin e s i s the tro c h e e

u ve r s o pi an o )
,
T h e i a m bi c ( U
. v e r s o tr o n c o )

and the dac ty l l ic U U v e rs o s dru c c i o l o ) endings ( r e

,

quiring r e sp e c tiv e ly one syllabl e l e ss and one syllabl e m or e

than th e v e rs o pi an o ) c onstitute o c c asional vari ations We .

have found that these ra r e r lines ar e r ec ogniz e d rath e r a s

c uriositie s than as diffi c ulti e s by t h e c hildren w h o easily

refer th em to th e ir r e spec tiv e no r m al typ e s T h e y ar e ao .

c o r di n gl y pr e sent e d in our m at e r i al along w ith the c o m

m o n v e rses of tro c hai c endings O u r illustration of t h e.

five syllabl e lin e giv e n above show e d sp ec i m ens of the dac

ty ll i c e nding ( s dru c c i o l o U u ) H e r e i s anoth e r e x
,
.

m
am e of alt e rn ating tro chai c ( pian o ) and dac tyl l ic e n d
ings
In ci m a a u n alb e ro
C é u n u cc ll i n o
’
e

Di nu 6 vo gé n e r e .

Che si a un b ambi no ?
( L S C H W A R Z U c ce l l i n o )
’

. .
,

“
( T ranslation : T her e s a very strange littl e bird u p
’

in that tree ! Wh y ,
’ ”
it s a littl e c hild !
 M E T RI C S 391

steam e r fl ying the w hite r e d an d green It stopped at

, .

Ponza r em ained a w hil e and th e n c am e ba c k

, c a m e ba c k

and approa c hed t h e sho r e T hey c am e ashor e in arm s,

.

but to us they did no

Whil e rhyt h m i c a c c ent s w er e being studi e d w e

th e
,

found that the di sc ov e ry of t h e c ae sura ( int e rio r p aus e )

form ed an int e r e sting re c r e ativ e div e rsion In fa c t this .

w ork arous e d so m u c h e nthusias m that t h e c hild r e n w ent

f r o m e x e r c is e to e x e r c is e c ontinuing at study for e x

,

t e nd e d p e riods and far f r om sho w ing signs of w e arin e ss

, ,

a ct ually in c reased th e i r j oyous appli c ation O n e littl e .

girl in t h e first six m inut e s of her w ork m ark e d th e

, ,

c aesura of s e v e nty-six t e n -syllabl e lin e s w ithout m aking a

m istake An abundant m ateri al is nec essary for this e x

.

e r c i se
. E xam pl e :
D agli tri m usc osi d a i fori c ad ent i
a , ,

D a i bos c hi d a ll ars e f u c in e strid enti

l
’
, ,

D a i sol chi b agn ati di s e rvo sudor ,

U m volgo disp e rso r e p ent e si d e st a ,

Intende l o re c c h i o soll e va l a t e st a
’
, ,

P e r c osso d a n o vo c r e s c ent e ru m or .

( MA N Z O N I I t al i an i e L o n g o b ar di
, ) .

( T ranslation the da m p atria from the ruin e d

F rom ,

squares from t h e for e sts from t h e hissing forge s f r om

, ,

t h e fi e lds bath e d w ith the s w eat of slaves a s c att e r e d ,

hord e of m e n suddenly is roused T hey listen lift their .

,

h e ads startl e d at thi s strange in c reasing roar

,

T he st e p forw ard to t h e p e r c e ption of the syllabi c unit s

of th e lin e i s a purely s e nsory ph e nom e non : it i s anal o
gous t o m a r king t h e ti m e of m usi c w ithout t aking a c c ount
of th e m easure divisions S yl l ab i at i n g a c c ordin g t o
.
3 92 M O N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIA L

rhythm and beating on the tabl e w ith the fingers solve even
the subtler difficulties su c h as dieresis an d synalepha in ,

re c ognizing t h e rhythm i c syllables Exam ples .

We print this verse in the above form b e c ause it ,

thus
w as
d ivided by a c hild in hi s very first S pontaneous effort at
sy l l ab i at i o n
. As a m atter of fa c t w e pr esen t the m aterial
,

norm ally a c c ording t o graded diffic ulti e s using ove r again ,

for thi s purpose the m ateri als us e d in the study of ao

c ent s. At thi s point also the a c c ents them selve s sud
de n l y a c quir e a n e w int e rest for the c hild is abl e to o b
,
“ ”
serve on w hat syllabl e they fall T hus his m e tri c al
.

study approa ches c om pl e tion f o r n o w h e c an readil y ao

,

quir e the nom e n c lature o f m etri c s and v ersi fi c at i o n : do de

c as y l l abl e
, h en de c as y ll ab l e
, .etc T hen c om binin g hi s
,

kno w ledge of t h e nu mbers of syllables and the lo c ation

of t h e rhythm i c a c c ents the c hild i s at th e point of di s
,

c overing the rhyth m i c l a w s of vers e c onstru c tion . We

w ere ex pe c ting the c hildren t o begin produ c ing d e finitions
like the follow ing : T h e d o de c asyllabl e l ine has t w e lve
syllables and fou r a c c ent s w hi c h fall on th e s ec ond fifth , ,

”
eighth and e lev e nth syllables e t c T h e spont aneous i m
,
.

pulse o f the pupils l e d inst e ad t o th e c onstru c tion of mi r

”
rors or c he c kerboard s lik e t h e follo w ing
M E T RI C S 393
 ME T RI C S 3 95

The next dev elop m ent i s a c o m pl e te study of the stanz a

or st r oph e in the for m of a su mm ary ; t h e nu m ber of
lin e s the rh ym e s t h e a c c ents nu m b e r and lo c ation of th e
, , ,

syllable s T o dis tin gu i s h b e tw een t h e stanzas i s als o to

.

c lassify the m w hi c h be c o m es a pleasing task for t h e c hil

,

dren .

O n e littl e girl w h o w as m aking a su m m ary study of

,

four t er z et s of D ant e sudd e nly c all e d t h e t e a c h e r to i n

,

form her w ith an e xp r e ssion of c o m pl e t e su rpris e : S ee ,

the rhym e al w ay s b egi n s at th e last a c c e nt ! S h e had

”

Per me si va n e ll a citt a dol en t e ;

Pe r m e si v a n e l l e t e r n o dol o r e ;
’

P e r m e S i v a t r a l a p e rdu t a g en t e .

G i us ti z i a m oss e il m i o al t o f att o r e ;
F e c e m i l a d i v i n a po t e s t a t e ,

L a so m m a s ap i e nz a e i l pr i m o am o r e .

D i n anz i a m e non fur c os e c r e a t e .

( D an t e : Ins c r i p ti on o ve r G ate o f H e l l ) .

So i n m etri cs al so th e c hildren follo w ing t h e natu r al

,

in c lin ation s of th e ir grow th pass f r om s e nso r y disc i

,

plin e to int e llige nt c ognition and g r aphi c r e pr e s e ntati on

, , .

”
T hen they be c om e th e e x lo r e r s of th e i r environm ent
p ,

the dis c overers of gener al la w s .

96 96 96

T ranslator
’
s N ote : T h e basi s of It ali an v e r se is in th e
syllabl e c ount and th e rhyt hm i c a c c e nt In E nglish
, .

v e rs e ho w ev e r th e qu e stion of th e syllable c ount i s de

, ,

pen dent on a m u c h m or e c o m pl e x c onsid e ration : syll abl e

l e ngt h ; and syllable len gt h in its turn is c ondition e d not
, ,

only by the phoneti c situ ation in and around th e syllabl e ,

but by rh e tori c al str e ss as w e ll It i s c l e ar that S i gnor a

.
396 MO N T E S S O RI E LE M E N T ARY M A T E RIAL

M ontesso r i s exp eri m ents on the sim pl e r Italian line have

’

little dir e c t bearing s ave as an illustrati o n of m ethod on

, ,

the p e dagogy of E nglish M etri c s F o r w hereas the prin .

,

c i pal c lassifi c ations of Italian lines involve m erely the

problem of sy ll ab i at i o n ( c o m pli c ated by dieres is and syn

al e ph a ) w ith a nu m e ri c al term inolo gy ( qu i nari o o tto
, ,

na r i o d e c as i ll ab o
, the study of Engl ish v er s ifi c at i o n
,

d em ands an analysis of m easur e ( fe et ) and of nu mber of

f e e t w ith a t e rm inology r e l ative t o ea c h : tro c hee i ambus
, , ,

da c tyl spondee anap est e tc hexam et e r pent am e ter e tc

, , ,
.
, , ,
.
,

to m ention only the m os t obvious e l em ents of a s c ienc e

w hi c h applied even to si m ple E nglish v e rs e so o n be c om e s
, ,

e xtre m e ly c om pl i c at e d Ho w m u c h then of the study of

.
, ,

English m e tri c s beyond the elem entary c on c epts of stanza

,

an d rhym e should b e in c lud ed in the M ontessori Ad

,

v an c e d M e thod an d w h at orde r of presentation of fac ts

,

should be follo w ed still rem ains to b e exp e ri m entally

,

dete r m ined .

Ho w ever the m ost illum inating f ac t as regards m ethod ,

, ,

w hi c h deta c h e s fro m S ignor a M ont e ssori s exp e ri m e nts

’

w it h m e tri c al form s i s tha t l o n g pari s y l l abl e s are m ore

,

r eadily analyz e d by c hildre n than im par i syl l ab l e s ; and

s ec ondly that s h o r t i m par i syl l ab l es p r ov e easier than long
i m par i syl l ab l e s We m ight w ish m or e e xpli c it evid e nc e
.

that the hardest par i syl l ab l e i s e asier th e refore m ore n at ,

u r a l than the e asiest i m ar i s l l ab l e

, p y as i m plied in S i g
no r a M ontessori s pr e s e ntation of this subj ec t E ven so
’
.
,

her c on c lusions ar e inter e sting an d fro m m ore than one ,

point of vi ew It w ill be re c all e d that th e m ost an c ient

.

and the m ost fortunate of the m et e r s u s e d in F ren c h S pan ,

ish and P r ov e n cal p o e try is pre c isely th e dec asyllabl e

,

( S o n
g o f R o l an d the Prov e n cal B o ec is
, w hereas the ,

favorit e l in e of old Itali an popula r poetry w as the o c t o

 ME T RI C S 3 97

syllabi c verse T hese ar e both par i syll ab l e s though the

.
,

su c c ession of th es es or rhyth m i c beats , i s not quit e anal

,

o go u s to that of t h e m od e rn Italian verses us e d in this

e xp e ri m ent . I t w ould s e em in fa c t as though the c hil

, ,

dr e n initiated by S ignor a Mont e ssori into m e t r i c al studi e s ,

w e r e a c tually traversing t h e ea r lier experien c e s of their

L atin ra c e.

D oubtl e s s the reaso n w h y t h e p ar i syll ab l e sub m its

m ore r e adily to rhyth m i c analysis than i m par i syl l ab l e s i s ,

that w hen the syllabl e s ar e in e v e n nu m b e r s t h e line tends,

to redu c e to t w o si m ple rhyth m i c grou ps — the dec asyl

lable t o groups of 4 and 6 w ith t w o rhyth m i c beats in
,

ea c h group ; the dode c asyllable to groups of 6 and 6 ( th e re

fore of 3 and 3 and 3 and 3 ) the o c tosyllabl e s to groups
of 4 and 4 ; the si x syllabl e to groups of 3 and 3 T h e .

i m pari syll ab l e s on the c ontrary a r e rar e ly c apable o f su c h

division — o f su c h m o n o to n y if you w ish T hey l e nd
, .

them s e lves t o m or e c o m pl e x r hyth m e sp e c i ally to par

,
”
agraphi c treat m ent T h ey ar e d istin c tly the rhyth m s
.

of erudit e ,
c ultivated
” “
litera r y poetry
,
”
.

We should suspe c t a c c ordingly that w hat app e ars in

, ,

t h e above experi m e nts as l ength is in reality r edu c i b i l i ty

to si m pl e r form s ; and that line s c apable of su c h r e du e
t ion should b e giv e n first in an adaptation of S i gn ora
M ontessori s m ethod
’
It i s ho w e ver highl y i m p r obable
.
, ,

that in E nglish w her e the only c onstant elem e nt in

,

rhyth m i s the stress and not th e syllabl e c ount th e line ,

c o m pound e d of t w o si m pl e r r hyth m i c groups should prove

e asi e r fo r t h e c hild than e ither of th e s e si m pl e r groups

them s elves We se e no r e ason to assu m e for instan c e

.
, ,

than an eight str e ss line r e du c ible to t w o four str e ss lines

-
,
-
,

should be m or e r e adily analyz e d than a four stress line ;

-

-
or that a seven str e ss lin e r e du c ibl e to a four stress and
-
,
 M E T RI C S 399

T r o c haic
Ha i l t o th e e blithe S pi rit !
B i rd thou n ev e r w é r t ,

T h at fro m h e av en or n e ar it
F a ur e st t h y full h e art .

S H E LLEY .

Anapes ti c
I am m é n ar c h o surv ey ;
f an I
M y r i ght th e r e is n é n e to disp ut e ;
Fro m t h e c entr e a l l r o ri n d to t h e s e a
’

I am l o r d o f t h e f 6 w l a n d t h e br ut e .

CO WP ER .

D ac ty l l i c
T hi s is a spr ay t h e bird c l ung to ,

M aking it b l é s s o m w ith pl e asur e ,

E r e t h e high tr e e-tops s h e spr ung to ,

F i t f o r h er n est an d h er tr e asur e }
BRO WN IN G .

FO U R -S T R E S S LI N E S ( T E T RA M E T E R )
I am b ie
E xam ples : Byron ,
T h e P ri so n e r o f C hi l lo n ;
T h e L ad y o f th e L ak e ; M ilton I l , p en s i e ro s o .

We c o uld not si ngl e p ac e

mé ve a ,

We c o fi ld not s e é e a c h 6 t h e r s fac e
’

B u t w i th th at p al e an d l i vid l i ght
T h ey m ad e us str ange rs i n our s i ght .

BY RO N .

T r o c hai c
Exam ples : Lon gfe llo w , Hia wath a ; G e orge E liot T h e ,

W estw ard ,
w estward Hi awath a
S a i l e d i n t é t h e fi ery s uns e t ,
S a i l e d i n t é t h e p fi r pl e v apors ,
S a i l e d i n t é t h e dfi s k o f ev ening .

l M o st of our e xamp l e s of various typ e s a n d c ombin at ions o f

v er s e ar e tak en from A lden E ngl i s h V er s e N ew York Henry Holt
, , ,
.
400 MO N T E S S O RI E LE ME N T ARY M A T E RIAL

T his lin e i s m u c h m or e omm on in its c atalec ti c form

c

Hast e th ee nymp h an d bri ng w ith th ee

J es t a n d y o uthful j o llity ,

Qui ps an d cr anks an d wanton w i l e s ,

N«i d s an d b é c k s an d w r e at he d smi l e s .

M I LT O N , L A l l egr o
’
.

An apes ti c :
E xa m pl e s : G olds m ith , R e taliati o n ; Byron , T h e D e
s tru c ti o n o f S en n ac h e r i b .

The small birds r e j o i ce in t h e gr e en l e av e s r e turning ,

The m urmuring str e am l e t w inds c l e ar through t h e v al e .

BU R N S .

D ac ty lli c
’

E x am pl e s : Byron ,
S o ng o f S au l ; D ryden , An E ve
’
n i ng s L o ve .

Aft e r t h e p angs o f a d esp e r at e l é v e r ,

Wh en d ay an d ni ght I h ave si gh e d al l in v a i n ,

Ah wh at a pl e a sur e i t i s to di s c é v e r
I n h er e y e s p i ty w ho c a ns e s my p a i n
, . DBYDE N .

T w o -S T R E S S L I N E S
I amb ic

E xam ples : H erri c k T o th e Lark ; S hakespeare Mid

, ,

su mme rnigh t s D re am ( Bottom s song )

’ ’
.

T h e r aging r é c k s
An d S hi v e ring s h é c k s
S h a ll br e ak t h e l é c k s
0f p
r i son gate s . S H A K E S P EA R E .

T r o c h ai c
Exam ples : G eorg e E liot , Gipsy ; C am
pion , Ar t o f P o esie .

C o uld I c at c h t h at
N i mbl e t r a i tor ,

S c é r n f u l L a ur a,
w
S i ft - foot La ti r a,
S o é n th en w
o uld I
S e ek av engemen t . CA M P IO N .
 ME T RI C S 401

An ap es ti o

Exa m pl e s : S helley ,
A r e thus a ;
th e L ak e ( C orona c h ) .

He i s gon e on t h e mo fi ntain ,

He i s l é s t to t h e f é re st ,

L ik e a S um m e r -dri e d fo unt a in ,

Wh e n o u r n e é d w a s t h e s o r e s t .

S COT T .

D ac ty l li c

E xam ples : T e nnyson C harge , B rigad e ;

L ongfe llo w S aga o f Ki n g O laf
,
.

Gann o n t o r i gh t of t h em ,

C annon to l é f t o f th em ,
C annon i n f r é n t of th e m,
V o ll ey e d an d th u nde r e d .

O N E -ST RE S S LI N E
I amb i c

E xam ple
T hus 31
P as s b y
An d di e
A s On e
U nkn o wn
An d gé n e .

HER R I C K .

S E V E N -S T R E S S LI N E S ( H E P T AM E T E R )

I amb i c

Exa m ples : H ow e B attl e Hymn o f th e

,
R epu b li c ;
Byron S tan z as f o r M u s i c ; Kipling Wo l c o t t
, ,
B al es ti e r ;
C oleridge T h e An c i en t M arin er
,
.

M in e ey és h av e se én t h e gl é ry o i t h e cé min g 6 i t h e L o rd .
 ME T RI C S 40 3

D ac tyl lic

E xa m ples : S w inbu r n e , Hesp er ia ; Longfe llo w , E van

ge lin e .

T hi s is t h efo r e st pri mev al ; t h e m ur muring pi n e s an d t h e h é ml o c k s

Be é r de d w ith m é s s an d w ith garm ents gr e é n indisti nc t in t h e ,

t wi light .

LO N GF ELLO W .

E I G H T -S T R E S S LI N E S

I am b i c

Exampl e : Willia m Wehb e ,

D is c o u rs e o f E n gl is h
P o e tr i e .

Wh er e vi rtu e w é nt s an d v i ce b o unds the r e w e alth is

a , b ut a
ba i t e d ho é k .

T r o c hai c

E x am ples : T ennyson , L o c ks l e y Hall ; P o e, The

R aven .

h p e n th en I fi ri ng t h e shutte r wh en w ith mé ny a fl i r t a n d fl utte r

, ,

I n th e r e st ep p e d a st at e ly r av e n 6 f t h e s ai ntly dé y s o f y o r e

Ana pes ti c

Exam ple : S w inburne , M ar c h .

w
E r e f r é s t -fl o w e r an d sn o -blosso m fad e d f éll, an d t he spl endor
w p
of i nt e r h a d ass e d out of si ght ,
Th e w a ys o f t h e w
o o dl ands w
e r e fa i r e r s t r anger than dr e é m s
t h at fulfi l us in s l e é p w
ith d e l i ght .

D ac ty l lic :

E xam pl e : Longfello w , Go ld en L egend 4 , .

6 nw ar d an d 6 n w ar d t h e h i ghw ay rfi ns to the di s t an t ci ty , im
pati ently b e aring
Ti dings o f h uma n j é y an d dis as t e r , of l é ve an d bi t e , o f d é i ng
daring .
404 MO N T E S S O R I E LE ME N T ARY M A T ERIAL

F I V E -S T R E S S L I N E S ( P E N T A M E T E R )
I am b i c ( Heroi c pent am e t e r )
Exa m pl e s : Milton P aradis e ,
L os t; Bryant, T hanato p
s is , etc .
,
e tc .

S w e e t A uburn , l é v e l i e s t vi ll age 6 f t h e pl a i n
Wh er e h e alth an d b e a uty c h e é r t h e l aboring S wa i n
GO LD S MI T H .

T r o c ha
ic

E xam ples : Brow nin g , O ne w o rd m o re ; T enny s o n ,

T h e Vi s i o n o f S in .

T h é n me th o ugh t I h e ard a mello w s o und ,

G ath e ring ti p fr o m al l t h e l é w e r gr o und .

An ap es ti c

Ex am ples : Br o w nin g S au l ; T enny son , Maud , .

We h av e pr é v e d w e h av e h e ar t s in a c aus e w e are n é b l e s ti ll : .

TE N N Y S O N .

D ac ty l li c

V er y rare in E nglish .

Whil e the rem ainder of the ex erc ise s in syllabi c ati o n

and gr aphi c trans c ription , as desc ribed by D r Montes .

sori w ould s ee m to follo w naturally o n t h e ab o ve e xer

,

c ises in the analysi s of line stress i t is c lea r t hat addi ,

t i o n al attention m ust be given t o questions o f t erm in o l

ogy Fo r t h e m etri c al syntheses perfo rmed in the tables
.

at th e end of the pr ec eding sec tion w ill not be possibl e

for E nglish p o etry unless the c hild i s able t o identify
t h e kind s of fe et and the kind s of lines We sugges t ao .

c o r din gl y t w o suppl ement ary drill s w i th t he c ar d syst em

fam iliar to the c hild from hi s e xe rc ise s in gramm a r T h e .

fir st c onsists of a list of w ords, e ach o n a s epar ate c ard,

 ME T RI C S 4 05

w ith t h e t o ni c a c c e nt m ark e d E a c h w ord w ith its ac

.

c ent r e pres e nts a foot ( i am bus t r o c h ee anap e st da c tyl )

, , , ,

indi c at e d on t h e c a r d i n graphi c trans c ription beneath

t h e w ord
w ond e ring

C orresponding to ea c h w ord is another c ard b e aring

si m ply t h e graphi c trans c ription and t h e n a m e of t h e
foot T h e ex e r c is e of t h e gr e atest si m pli c ity i s to pair
.
, ,

o ff t h e c a r ds
,
arranging t h e w ords in a c olum n on th e
t abl e putting aft e r e ac h th e c a r d that d e s c ribes it T h e
,
.

c ards ,
w hen p r op e rly arrange d r e ad as follo w s
,

b e tw e en i ambu s

m oth e r v t ro c h e e

d i sr e p ut e a n ap e s t

w ond e rful

A sec ond stage of thi s e x e rc is e c onsists in o ffe ring a

si m ilar s e ri e s of c a r ds w he r e ho w e v e r t h e w ord -c ards a r e
, ,

w ithout t h e indi c ation of th e toni c a c c e nt and w ithout

t h e graphi c trans c ription of t h e m e asure :

An id enti c al e xe rc is e is possible fo r w hole lin e s T h e .

first stage c onsists of nam ing t h e lines a c c om pani e d by

 APPE ND I X I

C HAR T

F O R T HE S T U D Y O F

I N D I V I D U AL C HI LD
 D AT A O N T HE C HI L D

Fami ly N am e N ames

D at e o f B ir th

D ate o f E n t r an c e

A ge o f P ar en t s : F a t h er M o t h er

O ccupatio ns o f P ar en t s

F a t h er

Mo t h er

Ho me A dd res s

P er s o n a l Hi s t or y o f t h e Ch i l d

P e r s o n a l A pp e ar an c e o f th e Child

N o t es F a mi l y
’
on C h i ld s
 S C HO OL YE A R 1 9 1 .

N a me D at e o f Bir t h

Date o f c
E n te r i n g S h o o l

NOT ES O N C HI L D S
’
P HY S IC AL
D EVE LOPM E NT
 S C HOO L Y E AR 1 91

D at e o f Bir t h

N OT ES

S e p t em b e r

c
O t o b er

N o v em b er

De c e mb e r

Fe b r u ar y

Mar c h

J un e

A u gu s t
 ( F a mi ly N am e ) ( N a me s )

E
S C HO O L Y AR —1
91

P S YC H O LO GI C A L D IAR Y
 G U I D E F O R P S Y C H O LO G I C A L O B S E R V A T I O N

WOR K .

NO T E
Wh en a child begins t o show const ant app li c at ion t o a pi e c e of
w ork .

Wh a t this work is an d h o w long h r m ains at it ( spee d or slow e e

n e ss h show s in c ompl e ting it t h e numbe r o f t ime s h e r ep e at s t h e

e ,

s am e xe r c is e )
e .

Individu a l p culi ariti e s in appli c ation t o p arti cul ar t asks

e .

T o wh a t t a sks t h e child su cc ssiv ly appli s hi m s lf on t h e s me day

e e e e a

an d w ith ho w m u c h p rsist n c y to a ch
e e e .

Wh e th r h h as p e riods f spont an e ous a c tivity at w ork an d on how

e e o

many d ay s .

Ho w t h e child s n e e d o f p rogr e ss i s m anife st e d b y h i m

’
.

Wh a t t asks h e choos e s an d t h e orde r in whi c h h e choos e s th e m ; t h e

p e rsist en cy h e show s in e ach .

Hi s pow e r o f appli c a tion in spit e of distr ac tions abou t h i m th at

m ight t end to div e rt h i m from his w ork .

Wh e th e r aft e r a c ompulsory distr ac tion h e t ake s up aga in t h e t ask

th at h as been int errupt ed .

C ON D U C T .

O rd e rlin e ss disord e rline ss in t h e act ions o f t h e child

or .

T h e n a tur e of his disorde rlin e ss .

Wh e th e r th e r e ar e an y ch ange s in c ondu ct as his w orking abili ty

d e v e lops .

Wh e th e r a s his act iviti e s b e c ome mor e orde rly t h e child give s ev i

, ,

d en c e o f a cc e ss e s o f j oy ; p e riods o f p l ac idity ; e xpr e ssions o f afl ec

:
‘

tion .

T h e p art t h e childr en t ake an d t h e int er e s t th ey show in t h e p rog

r e ss o f th e ir school mat e s .

O B DI N C E E E .

NO T E
Wh e th e r th echild answ ers r e adily wh en h e i s c all d e .

Whe th e r an d a t w h a t ti m e s t h e c hild b gins to sho w int e r e st in e

wh at others ar e doing an d to m ake int e lligent e ff ort to j oin in the ir

w ork .

T he progr ss of his ob di nc
e to c a l ls
e e e .

Th e p rogr ss f his ob di n c
e o e e e to c o m m an ds .

Wh at eage rn e ss an d enthusi asm t h e child show s in his obe di en ce .

T h e r e l ation b e t w e e n t h e v arious ph enom en a of ob e di en c e an d ( a )

t h e de v e lopm e nt o f his wo rking c ap ac ity ; ( b ) c h ange s in c ondu ct .

41 7
 1 91 .
-l 9 1

PE R S O N AL HI S T O RY OF C HI LD
 S C HO O L Y EAR 1 91— 1 91 .

B IO L OGI C AL HIS T OR Y
PA RE N T S

A r e t h e p are n t s r e l a t ed to ea ch o t h er ? .

c
Si k n e s s an d di s e as e s o f t h e p ar e n t s

C H IL D

We r e p r egn an y c an d p ar t u r i ti o n n o r ma l ?

Was the n ur sing d o n e b y t h e m o t h er , o r ar t i fi ci a l ly ?

Th e ch i l d s h e a l t h
’
d ur i ng t h e firs t y ear :

S u b s e qu e n t si c kn es s es o f the ch i l d :

D at e o f t ee t hi n g, l earn in g t o w a l k , an d l ear ni n g t o s p ea k :
 S C HOO L Y A R 1 9 1 E .

S O C IA L HI ST OR Y

FA T H E R

Ag e , c
e du at i o n a nd o ccu p a t io n :

MO T H E R
A g e, c
e d u a ti o n an d o ccu p a ti o n :

A re a cc o u n t'
s k ep t i n t h e f ami l y ?

F am i l y h a b i t s ( a mu s e m e n t s ,
h o me l if e )

Nu m b er o f p er s o n s in the f am i l y ( h o w m an y a du l t s , h o w m an y

c hi l dr e n )

D o es t h e f ami l y e mp l o y s er v an t s ?

Ho w many w ag e ear n e r s a r e in th e f a mi l y ?

D o es t h e f ami l y h av e i nc o me fr o m p r o p er t y ?

D o es t h e f am i l y k e ep r o o mer s or b o ar d ers ?

Is t h e h o us ek eepi ng s a t is a
f c t or y ?
 APPE N D I X II

S U MMAR Y O F T HE LE C T UR E S O N P E D AG O G Y DE
LI V ER E D IN R O ME AT T HE S C U O LA MA GIS
T E ALE O R T O FRE N I C A IN 1 900

T hi s app e ndix c ontains a su mm ary of a f e w of my

le c tur e s deliv e r e d in 1 9 00 in t h e S c uola M agi st r ale O r to
fr e ni c a in Rom e and published in pam phlet form for the
b e nefit of the t e a c her students w h o w e re att e nding that
-

c ours e . A nu m ber of distinguished physi c i ans w ere at

the sa m e ti m e le c tu r ing in the s c hool on v arious subj e c ts
su c h as Psyc hology E sth e s i ology An ato m y of t h e
, ,

N e rv e C e ntres e tc ,
I had res e r v e d for m ys e lf t h e t e a c h
.

ing o r rath e r the developm ent of a S p e c i al pedagogy for

, ,

d e fe c tive c hildren along the lines previously laid dow n b y

,

It ar d and S égu in .

In the su mm a r y of these old le c tures of m in e a r e i n

c lud e d so m e of m y e xp e r i m e nt s w ith c e rt ain subj e c ts
taught in the e l em entary g r ades T h e y sho w that t h e .

origin of my pr e sent w o r k w ith older and norm al c hildren

i s to b e sought in m y t e a c hing of d e fe c tives .

I still poss e ss as doc u m e nta r y r e li c s of this c ou r s e a

, ,

hundr e d c opi e s of a pam phl e t e ntitled : R i as su n te d e l l e

l e zi o n i di di datti c a d e ll a P r o f ss a
L
M o n tess o ri , an n o 1 9 0 0,
S tab Li t R o m an o
. .
, vi a F r a tt i n a 6 2 , R om a . M or e th an
thr e e hundred t e a c h e rs follo w e d m y c ourse and are able ,

to b e ar w itn e ss to th e w o r k done th e re .

I republish the follo w ing ex c e r pts not be c aus e I c o n

sider m y w ork so im port ant as to m e rit the pres e rvation of
42 3
424 APP E N D I C E S
all the doc um ents tou c hing its origin but t o prevent the ,

giving of undue prom inenc e to thos e rem nants of my

e arli e r attem pts and studi es w hi c h are still t o be found i n

the S c uola M agistrale O rtofreni c a in Rom e .

The c h i ld shou l d b e l e d fro m t h e e du c ati o n of th e m us c ul ar

s y s t em t o th at o f t h e ne rv ou s an d s e nsory sys t em s ; fro m t h e
e du c ati on of t h e s e ns e s t o c on c e p t s ; fro m c on c e p ts t o g e n e r al

i de as ; fro m ge n e r al i de as t o m or al it y T h i s i s t h e e du c ati on al
.

”
m e t hod of S egu i n .

Ho w e v e r b e for e w e b e g i n e duc ati o n w e mu st p rep are t h e

, ,

c h il d t o r e c e ive it by an o t h e r e du c ati o n w h i c h i s t o -day r e

g ard e d as of t h e v e ry fi rs t i m por t an c e T h i s pr e p ar at o ry e du
.

c ati o n i s t h e fou n dati on o u w h ic h al l subs e q u e n t e du c ati on m u s t

b e b as e d an d t h e s u c c e ss w e ob t ai n i n it w i l l de t e r m i n e t h e s u c
,

c e ss of o ur s ubs e q u e n t e ff or t s . By pr e p ar at ory e du c at i on I h e r e
m e an h y g i e n i c e d uc a ti o n w h ic h i n de fe ctive c h i ldr e n so m e ti me s
,

i n c l ud e s m e d ic al t r e at m e n t . T h at i s w h y t h e e du c ati on al
m e t hod for d e fe c tive s i s so me ti m e s de s c ri b e d as m e di c o -p e da go g
i c al
.

T hos e wh o r e ali z e t h e i m por t an c e of fe eli n g an d i n t e rn al s e n

s ati on i n e du c ati o n w i l l und e rs t an d t h a t t h e bod i ly org an i s m

m us t fun cti o n pro p e rly i n orde r t o r e spon d t o our e du c ati on al

e ffor t s
. We m us t p r e s e rve goo d h e alth w h er e goo d h e al t h ex
i st s ; w e m us t r e s t or e it w h e r e it i s l ac k i n g .

We are t h e r e for e u nd e r s t r i c t obl i g ati on to p ay c l o se atte n

ti o n t o n u t r iti o n an d t o t h e c ond iti o n of t h e vit al o rg ans .

E ve ry o n e i s aw ar e of t h e c los e r e l ati o n e xi s ti ng b e tw e e n g e n
e r al s e n s i b i l it y an d m or al it y . C r i m i n al s an d pros tit u t e s s h ow
ve ry s c an t s e ns iti v e n e s s t o p ai n an d t o t ac ti l e s tim ul i T h e .

s am e s it u ati o n i s fr e q u e n tl y a pp ar e nt i n de fe c ti v e s ; h e n c e t h e

n ec e ss it y of r e st or ing t h e ta c til e s e ns e w ith a de q u at e att e n ti on

t o h yg i e n e .

We c ann o t e du c at e t h e m us cl es t o p e rfo rm a g iven c o or di n at e

m o ve m e n t i f t h e y h ave l os t t h e i r p o w e r o f fun cti on i n g ( as i n
p ar e s i s, E du c ati on p rop e rl y s o -c al l e d m us t b e p r e c e d e d
, ,

by a m e d i c al t r e at me n t t o r e st or e t h e m us c l e s i f p o ss i b l e t o
, ,

g ood h e alt h .
 APPE N D I C E S 42 5

It w i ll b e i mposs i bl e t o e du c at e for e xam pl e t h e s e ns e of , ,

h e ar i ng i f so m e p atholog ic al s it u ati on h as produ c e d p art i al

,

d e af n e ss We c an no t e du c at e t h e s e n s e of s m e l l i f t h e exe c s
.

s i v e e xc r e t i on of m u c us p re v e n t s e xt e rn a l st i m ul i from ac t
i ng o n t h e e nds of t h e s e nsor y n e rv e s O bv i ously w e n e e d a .
,

m e d i c al t r e atme n t t o r e m ov e t h e s e d i s e as e d c ond iti ons .

E
M D I C AL E D U C ATION
Gen e r a l b a t h s : Wh en no t t oo prolonge d th y de ve lop t h s en si
e e

b i l i t y o f t h e n e rvous apill a
e p .T h e y giv e ton e to t h e c llul ar an d e

m us c ul a r tissu e s e sp e c i a lly to t h e skin

, .

Ho t an d c o l d b a t h s giv e n a lt ern at e ly ar e a po we rful e du c at ion al

instr u m ent in attr ac ting t h e att e ntion o f t h e c hild to his ext ern al
e nviron me nt .

L o c a l h o t b a t h s m ay b e giv en t o ar ea s d e fi c i en t in s e nsibility Fo r .

inst an ce try bathing t h e h ands i f t ac til e e du c ation prove s i mpossibl e

, ,

or bath e t h e fe e t if t h e defe c t in st an ding u p right or in wal king

c ome s f rom t h e insensitiven e ss o f t h e sol e s .

L o c al c o l d b a t h s : G iv e n to t h e h ea d w hil e t h e p at i en t i s en t ir e ly
c ove r e d in w arm wat er ar e a t o n i c to t h e s c alp ; th ey fac ilit ate t h e
k nitting o f t h e bon e s o f t h e skull an d t h e for ma tion o f w or m i an
bone s pr e v e nting a lso c e r ebr a l c onges tion T h ey sti m ul at e an d reg
, .

u l ar i z e t h e c er ebr a l c ir c ul ation S u c h b aths a r e p arti c ul arly useful

.

f o r h y dro -c e ph ali c s an d m i cro -c e ph a li c s b u t a l l p a ti e nts ar e b en e fit e d

,

b y su c h ba ths w hi c h ar e t h e m ost ge n e r a ll y us e f ul o f al l
, .

S t e am b a t h s d e v e lo p p e r s pir a tion w hi c h a t ti m e s i s c omp l e t e ly

abs e nt or only p arti a l in d efe c tiv e s c ausing s e rious p h y si c a l distur b ,

an c e s . T h e s e b aths furth e r m or e p r e dispos e t h e n e rv e e nds to t h e

, ,

most int ens e s ensitiv e n e ss .

S u c h b aths a r e how e v e r n o t to b e us e d on e pil e pti c s or on c hildr en

, ,

suff e ring from ri cke ts w e ak c ir c ul ation or gen e r a l d ebility

,
.

In ge n e r a l l o ca l s t e am b a t h s ar e us e d e sp e c i ally f o r h ands an d
,

fee t an d also f o r t h e ton gue

, .

G en e r al c o l d b a t h s a r e us e d in c as e s o f sup e r -e xc it ation m otor ,

hyp er ac tivit y e xc e ssiv e s ensitiven e ss to p ain an d touch T h e s e ba ths

,
.

m ust b e acc omp ani e d by c onst ant c old lotions on t h e h e ad .

B aths m ay b e a cc omp ani e d w ith goods r e sults b y m as s age an d , ,

r u b b in g .

giv e n e ith e r dry or w ith w at er a l c ohol aromati c

R u b b i n gs m ay b e , ,

cr eams or ointm ents .

L o c a l rubbings ma y b e ap p li e d : ( a ) T o t h e s p i n e c ar efully avoi d ,

ing t h e lumbar r egion so a s n o t to e xc it e t h e s e xu a l s ensibiliti e s D ry .

rubbings should b e mad e w ith a pi e c e of fl ann e l an d c ontinu e d until

t h e skin r e ddens T h ey ar e e sp e c i a lly us eful aft e r hot b aths follow ed
.

b y c old douch e s ( b ) T o t h e ch es t t o s t i mul at e r e spir at ion

.
(c) .
 APP E N D I C E S 427

T h e s e m e als shoul d b e at r e gul ar hours an d follo w e d w it hou t ,

exc e p ti on b y a p e r i od of m e n t a l r e s t w h ic h m us t b e pro vi d e d
,

for i n m ak i ng up t h e d ai ly progr am of l e ssons .

We n e e d S p e c i al r e s e ar c h e s as t o w h at typ e of ac ti v it y m ay
b e all o w e d c h i ldr e n dur i ng d i ge s ti o n an d w h at org ans m ay b e
ac ti v e wit hou t d am ag e t o t h e c h i ld w h i l e t h e s t o m a c h i s t axe d

w it h t h e l abor of d i g e s ti on A f e w th i ngs are c l e ar T h e c h i l

. .

dr e n should b e s e n t ou t of c los e d roo m s w h e r e th e i r pl ay r ai s e s

m or e or l e ss dus t an d k e p t i n w e l l -v e nt i l at e d pl ac e s i f poss i bl e
, , ,

i n a g ard e n or i n a w oods w e ll suppl i e d w it h aro m atic tr e e s .

T h e b e s t t h i ng a c h i l d c an do i m m e d i at e l y aft e r a m e al i s t o
t ake a shor t w alk i n t h e op e n air wi th ou t m u c h e xe rt i on .

Qu an ti ty : In t h e c as e of c h i ldr e n b e tw e e n 2 an d 7 y e ars
of ag e t h e r e should b e t w o ful l m e als an d t w o l un c h e on s
,
.

Af t e r t h e ag e of 7 t h e r e should b e o n e lun c h an d t w o full m e als .

We c annot b e m or e sp e ci fi c .

Qu a li ty : In t h e c as e of d e fe c ti v e s it w oul d b e u s e ful for

t h e do ct or t o ord e r a d i e t day by d ay af t e r h av i n g e xam i n e d
t h e d i ar i e s of t h e n urs e s as i s don e i n hosp i t a ls F o r it m ay .

b e poss i bl e t o i n t rodu c e i nto t h e food e l e m e n t s w h ic h c onst i

t u te an act u a l c ur e for c e r t ai n d i s e as e d c ond i t i on s an d p r e
v e n t iv e s of c e r t ai n k i nds of at t a ck s In food w e shoul d r e al i z e
.

t h e d i st i n cti on s b e tw e e n t h e e l e m e n t s w h ic h bu i ld ti ssu e s
t ru e food subs t an c e s an d o t h e rs w hos e fun cti on i s pur e l y st i m
,

u l at o ry — al c ohol c o ff e e t e a e t c w h ic h shoul d b e u s e d only

, , , .
,

o c c as i on all y .

Am ong t h e foo d subs t an c e s prop e rl y s o -c all e d ar e t h e al

b u m i n o i ds ( prot e i ns ) fats an d c arb o -h y dr at e s ( sug ars s t ar c h e s
, , , ,

w h e at an d pot at o fl ours , T h e f at s ar e t h e l e a s t d i g e st i bl e
fo o ds bu t t h e y produ c e t h e gr e at e s t nu m b e r of c alor i e s
, .

T h e propor ti o n of t h e d i ffe r e n t e l e m e nts i n t h e food should

b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e am oun t of albu m i n w h ic h c ons tit u t e s t h e ,

r e al food e l e m e n t Albu m i n i s of both v e g e t abl e an d an i m a l

.

or i g i n I t s an i m al form s ar e m or e nu t r i t i ous m or e e as i l y d i
.
,

g e s t i b l e an d produ c e m or e c alor i e s t h a n t h e v e ge t abl e for m s

, .

T h e foods w h ic h produ c e a n i m al -albu m i n are m i lk e ggs an d , ,

m e at s . V e ge t abl e s t h e m s e lv e s furn i sh w h at i s k now n as v e g

e t abl e -albu m i n .C h i ldr e n up t o 6 y e ars of ag e ar e suppl i e d
u s u al ly w it h t h e follo w i ng albu m i nou s foods : e ggs m i l k a n d ,
42 8 APP E N D I C E S
ve ge t ab l e s Fo r ch il dr e n b e t w e e n 6 an d 8 : e ggs m i lk fi sh an d
.
, ,

ve ge t abl e s m ay b e pro vi d e d O ld e r c h i ldr en m ay b e g ive n .

c h ic k e n ve al an d fi n ally b e e f
, ,
.

T ho u gh for n or m al c h i ldr e n a r e s t r i c t e d m e at d i e t i s de
s i r abl e i n t h e c as e of d e fe cti v e s a r ic h supply of m e at as w e l l
,

a s of albu m i n o i ds i n g e n e r al i s t o b e so u gh t T h e i r t r e at me n t .

r e s e mbl e s t h at of w e ak c onv al e s c e n t p ati e n t s w hos e s t r e ng t h i s

t o b e r e s t or e d T h e m e at s b e s t ad ap t e d t o su c h c h i ldr e n ar e
.

t hos e c on t ai n i ng l arg e am oun t s of m u ci l ag i n ous subs t an c e s an d

su g ar ( v e al l am b an d youn g an i m al s i n ge n e r al ) V e ge t abl e
,
.

'

p u r ées f at gr avi e s bu tt e r e t c
,
are t o b e r e c o mm e n de d i n t h e se
, , .
,

ca es s .

Fo r n erv o u s ch i ldr e n , fat s o il s , , a ci ds , an d fl our s s hou l d be

avo i d e d .

Fo r ap a th e ti c c h i l dr e n , xp e r i e n c e diffi c u lty i n d i g e s ti o n
wh o e ,

t on i c s an d r ic h s e ason i ngs sh ould b e u s e d su c h as sp ic e s w h i c h , ,

h ave c o m e t o b e al m os t exc lu de d fro m ord i n ary c ooki n g e sp e ,

c i al l y for c h i ldr e n S p i c e s m ay w e l l b e r e s t or e d t o t h e d i e t
.

of i ns tit u ti ons for de fe cti v e s s i n c e t h e y h ave t h e ad diti on al ,

ad van t ag e of p e r m itti n g m ixt ur e w it h i rons of w h i ch t h e y ,

n e u t r al i z e t h e t as t e .

Q u e s ti on s of food d e p e n d l arg e l y u pon t h e i n di v i du al c on di

ti on of t h e c h i ldr e n T h e i mpor t an t t h i ng i s t o avo i d t h e
.
“

”
s c hoo l r ati on T h i s i s all t h e m or e t ru e of b e ve r ag e s
. .

B e v erag e s : Wh i l e s ti m ul an t s are u su ally t o b e e xcl u de d fro m

t h e d i e t of nor m al c h i l dr e n of 7 or un de r it i s of t e n d e s i r abl e ,

t o i n t rodu c e t e a c offee e t c i n t o t h e m e als of de fe ctive s T h i s

, ,
.
, .

shoul d b e don e h o w e ve r on l y i n t h e d ai ly d i e t s ord e r e d b y t h e

, ,

ph y s ici an for i nd ivi du als .

N e r vo us c h i l dr e n should b e r e s t r i c t e d t o m i lk an d w at e r f o r
t h e i r m e als w it h s o me m od e r ate ly s w ee t dr i n k ( or ang e j u i c e ,

w e ak l e m on ade e t c ) af t e r e at i n g
, . .

Ap a th e ti c s sho w i ng at on i c d i g e s ti on m ay h ave c offe e e it h e r

, ,

b e fore e ati n g or dur i n g t h e i r m e al s .

S p e ci al e du c ati on i s n e c e s s ary t o ac c u s t o m t h e c h il dre n t o

c o m pl e te m as ti c ati on S u c h pr ac tic e i n t h e u s e of t h e org an s
.

o f m as ti c ati on as s ist s al s o i n t h e l ate r d e ve lo p m ent of s p e e c h .

 APP E N D I C E S 429

EX C R E T ION
Among t h e p hys i o l og i c al i rr e gul ar iti e s t h at app e ar am ong
c h i l dr e n s p e c i al i m por t a n c e att ac h e s t o e xc r e ti on s .

D ef e c a ti o n : Am ong de fe ctiv es e sp e c i a lly s o -c al l e d , di r ty “

”
c h i ldr e n ar e of t e n so nu me rous t h at sp e c i al s e cti ons h av e t o

b e m ad e for t h e m i n i ns tit u ti ons . S u c h c h i l dr e n sho w i n vo l

u n t ary l oss e s of faec e s an d u r i n e as i n t h e c as e of i nf ants
, .

Mo st fre q u e n t ly t h e de fe c ati ons ar e of li q u i d c onsi s t e n c y t hough

s o m e tim e s t h e r e v e r se i s t ru e O u r r e m e d i al e ffor t should b e i n
‘
.

t w o d i r e c ti on s : w e shou l d t ry t o r e g ul ar i z e t h e op e r ati on of t h e
i n t e s ti n e s by g ivi ng sol i d it y t o t h e exc r e ti ons ; s e c on dly w e ,

shou l d e nd e avor t o s t r e ng t h e n t h e S ph i n ct e r m us cl e s .

A s t r i c t ob s e rv an c e of t h e d i e t h y g i e n e ou t l i n e d abov e e sp e ,

c i all y as c on c e rns r e gu l ar it y of m e als an d m as tic ati on of foo d ,

w i l l a ss i s t in t h e att ai n m e n t of t h e fi rs t obj e c t We shoul d t ry

.

i n add iti o n t o r e gu l ar i z e de fe c ati on by s ti m ul ati ng it at r e gul ar

i n t e r val s ( t o b e gr adu ally i n c r e as e d i n l e ng t h ) t hrough l i gh t
m ass ag e s an d h o t rubb i ngs on t h e abdo m e n .

T o s t r e ng t h e n t h e sph i n c t e rs g e n e r al t on ic s ( i ron s t ry c h ,

n ine) an d l o c al t on ic s ( su c h a s c ol d s it z -b at hs c ol d sho we rs ”
, ,

a n d e l e c t r i c b at hs ) m ay b e u s e d . S u pp os i tor i e s m ay also b e
u s e d t o a d v an t ag e i n s ti m ul at i ng sph i n c t e r c on t r a c t i on s a n d

ac c us t o m i ng t h e m us c l e s t o c ons t r i c tiv e ac t i on .

Uri n e : S o m e de fe c tive s S h o w i n v olun t ary loss of ur i n e e sp e ,

c i al l y at ni gh t u p t o v e ry a dv an c e d ag e s
,
. E p i l e p ti c s ar e p ar
t i c u l arl y p r e d i spos e d t o t h is . T h e t r e at m e n t i s an alogous t o
t h at j us t de s c r i b e d. B eve r ag e s shoul d b e c ar e ful l y sup e rvi s e d .

D i ur e tic s an d e xc e ss iv e dr i nk i ng i n g e n e r al shoul d b e av o i de d .

G en e r a l r e c o mm e n da ti o n s : L o c al b at hs an d r i gorou s c l e an
,

l in e ss t o av o i d a ny s ti m ulus t o on an i s m .

E du c ati o n c an do m u c h i n t h e t r e at m e n t of t h i s s it u ati on .

U r i n ati o n sh ou l d b e r e gul ar ly sugg e st e d t o t h e c h i ld b e for e h e

go e s t o b e d an d w h e n h e w ak e s up i n t h e m orn i ng In sp ec i al .

c as e s it m i gh t b e w e l l t o w ak e n t h e c h i l d on c e or t w ic e dur i ng

t h e n i gh t for t h e s am e purpos e . T h i s d e fe c t i s of te n asso ci at e d

i n a c h i ld w it h so m e abn orm al ity i n t h e p h e nome n a of p erspi r a
ti on .

P e rs pi ra ti o n : T h e s w e at h as almo st t h e s ame c o mp os iti on as

 APP E N D I C E S 43 1

u l at e s u c ki ng ac ti v ity an d t h e e xe r c i s e of t h e c on t r ac tive
t he
m us c l e s T h i s w i ll ul ti m at e l y g i v e t h e n e c e ss ar y m u s c ul ar t on e
.
.

T h e l i p s of t h e c h il d shoul d b e c l os e d m e c h an i c ally fro m tim e

t o ti m e t o for c e h im t o s w allo w t h e s al iv a an d t o c r e a t e t h e
h ab it of de gl u titi on .

C L O T HI N G A N D E NV IRONM E NT
T he pr i n ci pl e s of hyg i e n e m us t b e e xt e nd e d t o th e dr e ss of
t h e c h i l d an d t o t h e e nv i ron m e n t i n w h i c h it l ive s .

C l o th i n g : T h e c h i ld s c lo t h e s shoul d b e so m ad e as t o b e
’

e as i ly p u t on an d o ff T h e y should no t h i nd e r t h e nor m al fun c

.

t i o n i n g of t h e body ( br e at h i ng ) T h e y sho u l d aff ord no o pp o r

.

t u n i t y for d ange rou s v ic e s ( on an i s m ) If t h e c h i ld c an dr e ss

.

an d undr e ss w it hou t d iffic ul t y it w i ll l e ar n t h e m or e r e ad il y t o

,

look aft e r it s e lf e v e n i n t hos e l itt l e n e c e ss iti e s of d ai ly l i fe

w h e r e p ar ti a l u ndr e ss i ng i s n e c e ss ary S p e ci al att e n ti on should
.

b e g i v e n t o sto c k i ngs w h ic h aff e ct t h e d e v e lop m e n t of s e ns iti v e

,

n e ss i n t h e sol e s of t h e fe e t an d al so c on c e rn t h e pro c e ss of

l e arn i ng t o w alk .

E n vi r o n m e n t : J us t a f e w r e m i n de rs : for de fe c tive s p e rfe ct

v e n ti l ati on of c ours e ; bu t t h e w alls an d furn it ur e shoul d b e
u phols t e r e d i n t h e c as e of i m puls i v e d e f e cti v e s or of d e f e ctive s

w h o do n o t kno w h o w t o w alk T h e r e i s d ang e r i n furn it ur e

.

wit h sh arp proj e cti ons an d i n t oys w h ic h m ay b e thro w n abou t .

A
“
c h i ld s roo m t h e l ux ury of w h ic h c ons i s t s i n i ts hyg i e n i c
’ ”
,

lo c ati on it s e l as tic w all s an d it s v e ry e m p ti n e ss i s t h e b e s t

, , ,

g i f t a r i c h f am i ly c an m ak e t o t h e e du c ati on of a de fe c tive
c h i ld .

M U S C U L A R E D U C AT ION

M us c u l ar du c ati on h as for it s obj e ct t h e br i ng i ng of t h e

e

i nd i v i du al t o so m e l abor us e fu l for so ci e t y T h i s l abor m us t .

a l w ay s b e ex e c u t e d by m e an s of t h e m u s c l e s w h e t h e r it b e m an
,

u al l abor sp e ak i ng or w r iti ng
, In a w ord t h e i n t e ll i ge n c e m us t
.
,

subj e ct t h e m u s c l e s t o it s o w n purpos e s an d th at t h e m us c l e s ,

m ay b e e q u i pp e d for su c h ob e d i e n c e it i s n e c e ss ary t o pr e p ar e
,

t h e m by so m e e du c ati on w h ic h wi l l r e du c e t h e m t o c oord i n ati on .

M us c ul ar e du c ati on i n de fe cti v e s a cc ord i ngly h as for it s obj e c t

t h e sti m ul ati on an d c oord i n ati o n of us e fu l m o ve me n t s .
43 2 APP E N D I C E S
It pr e p ar e s : for e xe r c i s e ; for t h e a ctiviti e s of dom e s ti c se rv
i c e ( w ash i ng dr e ss i n g pr e p ar i n g food s e tti ng an d c l e ar i ng t h e
, , ,

t ab l e e t c )
, . for m anu al l abor ( t r ad e s ) ; for l an gu age ( u se o f
t h e v o c al org an s ) T h e pr e p ar ati o n c ons i s t s i n b r i ng i n g t h e
.

c h i l d t o t o n i c q u i es c e n c e i n s t and i ng p os t ur e T h e c h i l d m us t .

l e arn fi rs t t o s t and s ti ll w it h h e ad e re ct an d w it h h is e ye s fi xe d
o n t h e e y e s of t h e t e ac h e r F ro m t h i s pos iti o n of to n i c q u i es
.

c en c e w e m us t p ass t o e xe r c i s e s i n i mi ta ti o n We ob t ai n t o n i c .

q u i es c en c e by a v ar i e ty of pro c e dur e s t h e v ar i ati o n de p e nd i ng

,

u p o n i nd ivi du al c as e s We m us t sti m ul at e t h e ap at h e ti c an d
.

t h e s l ugg i sh ; w e m us t m od e r at e t h e h y p e r ac ti v e ; w e m u s t c o r
r e c t p ar e s i s ti c s e t c In o th e r w ords m e d ic al e du c ati on mu s t
, , .
,

pr e c e de p e d ago gy it s e l f It m ay b e a q u e s ti on of app l y i ng me d
.

i c al gy m n as tic s bo th for ac tive an d p ass i v e m ove me n t s al te r ,

n ati ng t h i s t r e at m e n t w it h m ass ag e e l e ct r ic b at hs e t c , , .

Le t u s n o te o n e or t w o m o t or abnor m al iti e s w h i c h ar e e asy t o

de t e c t i n de fe c tive s A to n y : t h e c h i l d do e s n o t m o ve ; h e c an
.

n o t s t an d ; h e c anno t s it upr i gh t n or e xe c u t e an y m o v e me n t

wh at e ve r Hyp erac ti vi ty : t h is i s c h ar ac t e r i z e d by al mos t c o n

.

s t an t i n c o o r di n ate d or d i sorg an i z e d m o ve m e n t s w h i c h h ave n o

us e fu l p urpos e e g j u m p i ng b e ati ng t e ar i ng up of obj e ct s
,
. .
, , ,

wit h i n r e ac h an d so on S u c h p ati e n t s are d ange rous t o t h e m

.

s e lve s an d t o o t h e rs .

M E C HAN IC AL MOVE ME NT S

( A) . Mo ve me n ts exec u te d u p o n t h e p e rson o f t h e c hil d

su c k i ng of t he fi ng e rs ; b iti ng of t he n ai ls ; c ons t an t s t rok i ng of
so m e p ar t of t h e body T h e s e m o ve m e n t s are c au s e d b y i m
.

p e rfe ctl y d e ve lop e d s e ns i b i l it y ; t h e c h i ldr e n s t rok e or c ar e ss f o r ,

e x am pl e th at ar e a of t h e sk i n w h i c h p oss e ss e s gr e at e s t t ac ti l e
,

s e ns itive n e ss e t c , .

(B) . Mo v em en ts exe c u t e d u p o n s urro u n di n g o bj e c ts : r ap

p i ng o n t ab l e s ; c ons t an t an d c ar e ful t e ar i ng of p i ec e s of p ap e r
i n t o s m al l b it s e t c T h i s t oo i s as s o c i ate d w it h so me s e n s ory
, .

pl e asure on t h e p ar t of t h e p ati e n t .

R o c ki n g : ( a ) w i th p ati en t r e c li n i n g : t h e h e ad i s n od de d fro m
l e ft t o r i gh t fro m r i gh t t o l e ft ; ( b ) w i th p a ti e n t s i tti n g : t h e
,

t runk i s ro c ked b ac kw ard an d for ward ; ( c ) w i th pati en t s tan d

 APPE N D I C E S 433

i n g : t h e w ho l e b ody ro c ks from l e f t t o r i gh t t h e w hol e w e i gh t

,

re stin g n o w on o n e foo t an d n o w o n t h e o t h e r D iffi c ul ty an d .

h e sit ati on are exp e r i e n c e d i n w a lk i ng T h e s e m o t ory de fe ct s

.

pro c e e d fro m t h e d i ffi c ul t y e xp e r i e n c e d by t h e c h i l d i n fi nd i ng h i s
c e n t e r of gr av ity h i s e q u i l i br i u m
,
.

In abi li ty t o p er f o r m lo c a l m o v e m e n ts : ( a) In ab i l it y t o m ov e
c e r t ai n of t h e fi ng e rs t h e t ongu e t h e l i ps e t c
, , F ro m su c h de
,
.

f e e t s ar i s e s t h e i m poss i b i l it y of p e rform i ng c e r t ai n s i m pl e m an
u al e xe r c i s e s ( br i ng i ng t h e fi ng e r ti ps of t h e tw o h an ds t o

g e t h e r ; t ak i ng hold of obj e c t s e g i n ab i l ity t o but t on e t c ) an d

, . .
, , .

t h e i n ab i l it y t o pronoun c e c e r t ai n w ords ; ( b ) In ab i l it y t o c on
t r act t h e li p an d sph i n cte r m us c l e s ( loss of s al iva i nvolun t ary ,

de fe c ati on ) .

A to n y an d h y p e ra c ti vi ty m ay b e o ve r c o m e b y appropr i at e
e du c ati on al r e m e d i e s w h i c h w e wi ll no w d i s c uss L o c al ag it a .

ti on s d i s app e ar w i t h t h e g e n e r al e du c ati on of t h e s e ns e s ; w h i le
ro c ki ng i s c ure d by e xe r ci s e s i n b al an ci ng .

( A) . S ti mu la t e ac ti v e m o v e m en ts i n th e a to n i c c h i ld u n ti l
h e i s a b l e t o s tan d e r e c t i n t o n i c q u i e s c e n c e .

B e g i n by s ti m u l ati ng t h e s i mp l e m ov e m e n t s gr adu al l y w ork ,

i ng up t o t h e m os t c o mpl ic ate d We h av e a sur e gu i d e for t h i s

.

e du c ati on i n t h e spon t an e ous d e v e lop m e n t s of m ov e m e nts i n t h e

n or m al c h i ld : h e b e g i ns w it h t h e e as i e s t spon t an e ou s m o v e me n t s

an d g r a du all y a rr i v e s at t h e h ard e r on e s .

T h e fi rs t m ov e m e n t w h ic h d e v e lops i n t h e c h i ld i s t h e p r e
h e n s i l e a c t ( gr asp i ng ) . N e xt c o m e s t h e m ov e m e n t s of t h e lo w e r
j o i n t s us e d i n c r e ep in g an d w alk i ng ; n ext t h e ab i l it y t o s t and ;
an d fi n ally t h e ab i l it y t o w alk alon e Gr as p i n g : i f n o e xt e rn a l
.

s ti m ul ati on i s c ap ab l e of i n t e r e s ti ng t h e d e fe cti v e of l o w t yp e ,

gr asp i ng c anno t b e s ti m ul at e d m e r e l y by pre s e n ti ng t o t h e c h i ld

so me obj e c t or o t h e r w h ic h m i gh t s e e m t o b e i n t e re st i ng for
c o l or t as t e or so m e o t h e r q u al it y
, .In su c h a c as e w e m us t h ave
r e c ours e t o t h e i ns ti n ct of s e lf - pr e s e rv at i on t o t h at i nn at e fe ar
,

o f v o i d w h i c h d e fe ctive s al m os t al w ays h ave T h e c h i ld fe el .

i ng h i m s e l f fal l w i l l i ns ti n cti v e ly gr asp at so m e suppor t w it h i n

h i s r e ac h . T h i s i s t h e s i m pl e s t po i n t of d e p ar t ur e for our pos
s i bl e de v e l op m e n t of t h e gr asp i ng f a c ul t y i n t h e d e fe cti v e c h i ld .

Me th o d : T h e h an ds of t h e c h i ld ar e m e c h an ic ally fi xe d
aroun d th e run g of a l a dd e r s u s p e n de d t o t h e cei l i n g T h en .
 APPE N D I C E S 43 5

our kn e e s F i n ally t h e c h i ld m ay b e k e p t e n ti r el y q u i e s c e n t
.

w it h h i s l e gs h e ld b e tw e e n t h e t e ac h e r s kn e e s h i s a r m s i n t h e
’
,

t e ac h e r s h ands w it h t h e t runk push e d b ack an d h e l d fi rm ly

’
,

a g a i ns t t h e w all B y a s i m i l ar pro c e ss h e c an b e k e p t q u i e t
.

w h i l e s t and i ng ; t h e n l at e r i n a pos iti on of t o n i c q u i es c e n c e .

G e n e r a l R u l e : E xe r ci s e s of t h e l i m b s b e g i nn i ng wit h t h e
ar m s should pr e c e d e t hos e sp e ci fi c al l y d i r e ct e d t o w ard t h e sp i n a l

c olu m n S egu i n s ay s t o n i c q ui es c e n c e i s n e c e ss ar i ly t h e fi rs t
.

s t e p from a to n i c q u i es c e n c e ; or i f you wi sh fro m a d i sorde r e d

,

a c t i v it y t o an ac ti v i t y w h ic h r e pr e s e n t s h ar m ony b e tw e e n t h e
”
m us c ul ar s y s t e m an d t h e m i nd .

We no t e d above t h at t h e p os t ur e of t o n i c q ui es c e n c e i nvol ve s
a fi xi t y of g az e on t h e p ar t of t h e c h i ld T h i s i s t h e po i n t of
.

de p ar t ur e for t h e d e v e lop m e n t of c oord i n ati v e m ov e m e n t s an d

i mi ta ti o n of w h at t h e c h i ld s e e s t h e t e a c h e r do .

E D U C AT I O N O F T HE FI XE D GA Z
E
If t h e c h il d i s k e p t i n t h e d ark for so m e ti m e an d i s su dd e nly
sho w n a br i gh t l i gh t h e wi ll e xp e r i e n c e t h e s e ns ati on of r e d .

Ke e p i ng t h e c h i l d i n a d ar k roo m for a short e r ti m e a sudd e n

li gh t wi ll att r act h i s g az e .

M ov e t h e l i gh t alo n g t h e w all un ti l t h e c h il d s g az e follo w s i t

’
.

N ext i n a l i gh t roo m t h e c h i ld i s sh o w n a re d c lo t h ke p t i n
, ,

m o ti on ; a r e d b alloon hung fro m t h e c e i l i ng k e e p s s t r i k i ng h i m

i n t h e fa c e .

Aft e r th e s e p r e p ar at ory e xe r ci s e s t h e t e ac h e r c an t ry t o g e t
t h e c h i ld t o fi x it s e y e s o n h i s o w n an d t o m ai n t ai n t h e fi xe d
g az e H e r e u se m ay b e m ad e also of t h e s e ns e of h e ar i n g
.

( w or ds of c o m m and e n c our ag e m e n t
, ,

F i n all y t o ob t ai n c o m pl e t e fi xi t y of g az e o n e m ay u s e t h e
,

l arg e m i rror b e for e w h ic h l i gh t s m ay b e p ass e d T h e r e t h e

, .

c h i ld c an g az e at h i s o w n f a c e an d at t h e f ac e of t h e t e a c h e r ,

w h ic h wi ll b e k e p t m o ti on l e ss an d w h i c h t h e c h il d m ay c o m e t o
i m it at e .

E xe r c i s e s o f i mi tati o n : h i l d i s tau gh t t o b e c o m e
(1 ) T he c

a c q u ai n t e d wit h h i m s e lf T h e v ar i ou s p ar t s o f h i s body ar e
.

po i n t e d ou t t o h i m an d h e i s m ad e t o t ou c h t h e m T h i s c on .

t in u es up t o t h e po i n t of d i s ti ngu i sh i ng r i gh t fro m l e f t Be .
436 APP E N D I C E S
g i n w it h th e l arge r m e m b e rs of t h e b ody ( ar m s l e g s t run k , , ,

h e ad ) t o b e n am e d i n c onn e c t i on wit h m o ve m e nts of t h e w hol e

b ody . T h e n p ass t o t h e s m a ll e r m e m b e rs ( t h e fi nge rs k nu c kl e s , ,

t h e org ans of t h e m ou t h ) t o b e r e fe rr e d t o r e sp e ctive l y i n t h e

,

e du c ati on of t h e h an d an d i n t h e t e ac h i ng of sp e e c h .

( 2 ) T h e c h i l d i s t augh t c oord i n at i v e m ov e m e n t s r el ati n g t o

gy m n as ti c s ( w alk i ng runn i n g j u m p i n g push i ng
, , , ,

( 3 ) M o ve m e n t s r e l ati ng : ( a ) t o t h e s i mpl e r form s of m anu al

l abor ( exe r c i s e s of pr acti c al l i fe : w ash i ng dr e ss i ng p icki ng u p , ,

an d l ay i ng do w n v ar i ous obj e ct s op e n i ng an d c los i n g dr aw e rs )

,

( b ) t o m ore c om pl e x k i nds of m anu a l l abor ( e l em e n ts of v ar i ou s

t r ad e s ; w e avi ng F ro c he l e xe r ci s e s
, ,

( 4) Mov e m e n t s r e l ati ng t o ar tic u l at e l angu age Fo r t h i s .

e du c ati on al pro c e ss t h e follo w i ng g e n e r a l rul e s ar e t o b e fol

lo w e d : fi rs t m ov e m e n t s of t h e w hol e body m us t p re c e d e m ov e
,

m e n t s of sp e c i fi c p ar t s ; s e c ond onl y b y an al y z i ng c o m pl e x m ov e
,

m e n t s i n t h e i r su cc e ss i v e s t ag e s an d b y w ork i ng o u t t h e i r d e t ai l s
p o i n t by po i n t c an w e arr ive at t h e e xe c u ti o n of a p e rfe c t c o m
p le x mo ve m e n t .

T h i s l att e r rul e ap p li e s e sp e ci al l y t o m anu al e du c ati o n an d

t h e t e ac h i ng of l an g u age Wh e n m ov e m e n t s of t h e w hol e b ody
.

h av e b e e n ob t ai n e d it wi l l oft e n b e n e c e ss ary b e for e go i n g on t o ,

m o ve m e n t s of p ar tic ul ar m e mb e rs t o al t e rn at e t h e e du c ati on al ,

c ur e w it h t h e m e d ic a l : ( 1 ) t o o v e r c o m e t h e w e akn e ss of so m e

of t h e m us c l e s ( p e rh aps of so m e fi ng e r ) u s e lo c al e l e ct r ic b at hs , ,

p ass ive gym n as tic s e t c ; ( 2 ) for r e t r ac ti ons r e t ard e d d e v e lop

, .
,

m e n t of apon e uros i s of t h e p al m s e t c u se or t hop e d i c t r e at m e n t

,
.
, .

G y m n as ti c s m anu al l abor t r ad e s an d sp e ak i ng ar e sp e ci al
, ,

br an c h e s of t e ac h i ng t h at u su ally r e q u i r e sp e c i ally t r ai n e d
,

t e ac h e rs
.

E D U C AT ION O F T HE S ENSE S
O ut l i ne for e xam i n ati on .

S i gh t : S e ns e of c olor I t i s n e c e ss ary t o c al l t h e att e n ti o n

.

of t h e c h i ld s e ve r al tim e s t o t h e s ame c olor by pr e s e n ti ng it

t o h im und e r d i ffe r e n t asp e ct s an d i n d i ff e r e n t e n vi ron m e n t s .

Th e s tim ulus shou ld b e s t rong O t h e r s e ns e s t e n d t o asso c i at e

.

t h e m s el ve s w i th t h e c hro m at i c s e ns e for e xam pl e t h e s te r e o , ,

g no s ti c an d gus t at ory s e ns e s W h e n e v e r t h
. e t e ac h e r g iv e s an
 APP E N D I C E S 4 37

i de a should un it e wit h it t h e w o r d t h e only w ord w h ic h i s

sh e ,

r e l at e d t o t h e i d e a T h e w o rds should b e e m ph ati c ally an d d i s

.

t i n c t l y pronoun c e d .

( 1 ) P e dag o g i c al ap r o n s : T h e c o l ors ar e pr e s e n t e d on a l arg e

m ov i ng surf ac e as for i ns t an c e an apron w orn by t h e t e a c h e r ;
, ,

e g . . a r e d apron
,
T h e t e a c h e r po i n t s t o it t ou c h e s it l i f ti ng
.
, ,

it wit h no ti c e abl e m o ve m e n t s of t h e ar m s c on ti nu ally c al l s t h e ,

”
att e n ti on of t h e c h i l d t o it L o o k ! S e e h er e ! A t te n ti o n !
.

an d so on ; t h e n s ay i ng i n a lo w v o ic e an d slo w ly T h is is ( an d ,

t h e n i n a loud e r v o ic e ) r e d r e d r e d ! , N o w t ak e t w o aprons
, , ,

o n e r e d t h e oth e r blu e ; r e p e at t h e s am e pro c e ss for t h e blu e

, .

T h e r e ar e t hr e e s t ag e s i n t h e pro c e sss of d i st i ngu i sh i ng b e t w e e n

‘

c olors : ( a ) T h is is (b) Y our apron i s r e d !

“ “ ” ”
r ed !

(c)
“
Wh at c olor i s th i s ? ”
T h e n t ry t hr e e aprons r e d bl u e , , ,

an d y e llo w bord e r e d w it h w h i t e an d b l ac k
, .

( 2 ) I n s e ts c olor an d for m T h e re d ci r c l e t h e b l u e s q u ar e .
, .

T h e r e are thr e e st ag e s : T h i s i s r e d r ed re d ! T ou c h
”
( a) , ,

it ! D o you fe e l ? Y our fi nge r go e s al l th e w ay ar o u n d al l t h e ,

w ay ar o u n d I t i s r o u n d it i s r o u n d a ll r o u n d P u t it i n i t s
.
, , .

p l ac e ! ( b ) G i v e m e t h e r ed o n e ! ( c ) Wh at c o l or i s t h i s
”
c i r c le ?

( 3 ) T h e dark roo m A Be ng al r e d c olor i s sho w n : It i s

“
.

r ed ! T h e c olor app e ars b e h i n d a c i r c ul ar d i s c : It i s r e d !

T h e blu e i s sho w n b e h i n d a s q u ar e w i ndo w : I t i s b lu e b lu e , ,

”
b lu e , et c .

( 4) T h e hi l d i s g ive n a c i r c u l ar t abl e t of re d sug ar t o e at

c

an d a s q u ar e l u m p of bl u e sug ar He i s m ad e t o s me l l a r e d .

p i e c e of c lo t h s t rongl y s c e n t e d wit h m usk ; or a blue p i ece of

c lo t h s c e n t e d w it h a s afe ti d a e t c ,
.

( 5 ) T h e c olor c h ar t .

( 6 ) T h e fi rs t g am e of F ro eb el .

T h e fi rs t p e d agog ic al m at e r i al g ive n should c on t ai n t h e c olor

a lr e ady t augh t T h e no ti o n of c o l or shoul d b e a sso ci at e d w it h
.

it s or i g i n al e n vi ron me n t .

S h ap es : S o li ds I n s e ts : Th e p ro c e dur e i s al w ay s i n t h e
,

t hr e e s t age s m e n ti on e d ( 1 ) S how t h e obj e c t t o t h e c h i ld ( 2 )

. .

Ha v e h im r e c ogn i z e it ( 3 ) H ave h i m g i v e it it s n am e
. .

D i m en s i o n s : R o ds of t h e s am e t h ic kn e ss bu t of gr adu at e d ,

l e ngt h F i rs t t h e l ong e s t an d t h e shor te s t are s h o wn

. T he .
 APP E N D I C E S 4 39

O lf ac to ry s e ns e : As afe ti d a ,
ros e , m i n t, et c .
,

T ob acc o s m ok e
B urn e d sug ar
O dors of I n c en s e
B urn e d m apl e

O dors of burn i n g
subs t an c e s iggi ‘

V r i ous
[P ap e r a ppl ic at i on s
a

Wool to p r ac t ic al l i fe .

G u e ss i ng G am e s C o tt on
E d i bl e s

O dors of foods ( pr a ctic al l i fe ) : fr e sh m i lk sour m il k fr e sh , ,

m e at st al e m e at r an ci d b ut t e r fr e sh bu tt e r e t c
, , , , .

T as t e : T h e four fund am e n t al t as t e s ( gu e ss i ng g am e s ) In .

stru cti v e appl ic at i on s t o pr a cti s e i n t h e k itc h e n an d at m e a ls .

T as t e s of v ar i ou s foo d subs t an c e s :

m i lk gru e l ( m i lk an d fl our )
d i lu t e d wi n e ;
E xe r ci s e s of pr acti c al li fe
s w e e t wi n e ;
t urn e d w i n e ( vi n e g ar ) e t c , .

The pr acti s e of t h e s e ns e s b e g i ns i n t h e lo w e r c l ass e s i n t h e

form of g u e ss i ng g am e s ; i n t h e h i gh e r c l a ss e s t h e e du c at i on of
t h e s e n s e s i s appl i e d t o e xe r ci s e s of pr actic a l l i fe .

He ari n g : E m p i r ic al m e asur e m e nt of t h e a c u t e n e ss of t h e
s e ns e of h e ar in g S p e ci m e n g am e : t h e t e ac h e r abou t 35 f e e t
.

aw ay fro m t h e bl i n dfold e d c h i ldr e n an d s t an d i n g w h e r e an

obj e ct h as b e e n h i dd e n w h i sp e rs t h e w ords F i n d i t ! T h os e
,

w ho h ave h e ard h e r wi ll b e abl e t o fi n d t h e obj e ct H av i n g .

r e m o ve d fro m t h e l i n e t h e c h i ldr e n w ho h av e h e ard t h e t e ac h e r ,

s t e ps to ano t h e r pl a c e abo u t a y ard n e ar e r an d r e p e at s t h e e xp e r i

m e n t t o t h e c h i ldr e n w h o ar e l e f t o ve r e t c ,
.

I n te n s i ty o f sou n d
T hro w to the fl oor m e t al blo c ks of v ar i ou s s i z e s c o i n s of ,

gradu at e d w e i gh t .

S t r i k e gl a ss e s o n e a ft e r th e o th e r a cc ord i ng t o s i z e .

B e lls of gr adu at e d s i z e .
 4 40 APP E N D I C E S
Qu a li ty o f s o un d : P ro duc e diff e r e n t s o u n ds an d no i s e s .

of m e t al
of t e rr ac o tt a
O p e n Be l l s .

C l os e d B e l l s .

S tr ike wit h a s ti c k on t in p l at e s gl ass e s e t c

w ood e n , , .

I d e n ti fy v ar i ou s m u s ic al i ns t ru m e n t s .

Ide n ti fy d i ff e r e n t hu m an vo i c e s ( of d i ff e r e n t p e op l e ) .

I de n ti fy t h e vo i c e of a m an a w o m an a c h i ld, , .

R e c ogn i z e d i ffe r e n t p e opl e by t h e i r s t e p e t c e t c , .

, .

Pi t c h : In t e r v al s
of an o ct av e of a m aj or t r i a d an d so on ;
, ,

m ajor an d m i nor c hords Ho w eve r m us i c al e du c ati on r e q u i re s

.
,

a se p ar at e c h ap t e r .

S o u n d p r o j e c ti o n l o c a li z a ti o n o f s o u n d i n s p a c e : Th e c h i l d
,

i s bl i ndfol de d T h e soun d i s produ c e d : ( 1 ) i n fron t of h im ;

.

b eh i n d h im ; t o t h e r i gh t ; t o t h e l e ft ; ab o ve h i s h e ad ; ( 2 ) t h e
b l i ndfold e d c h i l d r e c ogn i z e s t h e r e l a ti v e d i s t an c e at w h ic h t h e
s ou n ds ar e p rodu c e d ; ( 3 ) t h e c h i ld d e ci d e s fro m w h ic h s i d e of

t h e roo m t h e soun ds c o m e ; h e i s m ad e t o fol l o w so m e o n e w h o

i s s p e ak i ng .

T h e h o r i z o n t al p l an e : T h i s i s t h e fi rs t n o ti on i m p ar t e d t o
t h e c h i ld c on c e rn i ng h i s r e l ati on sh i p t o t h e obj e ct s abou t h im .

Al m os t al l t h e obj e ct s t h e c h i ld ma y p e r c e ive aroun d h im w ith

h i s s e ns e s r e s t on t h e hor i zon t al pl an e : h i s t abl e h i s c h ai r an d , ,

so on T h e ve ry obj e ct s on w h ic h t h e c h i ld s i ts or pu t s h i s t oys
.

ar e hor i zon t al pl an e s If t h e pl an e w e r e no t hor i zon t al t h e

.
,

obj e ct s w ou l d f all bu t t h e y w oul d s t r i k e on t h e floor w h i c h

, ,

ag ai n i s a hor i zont al pl an e Pl ac e an obj e ct on t h e c h i ld s ’

.
,

t abl e an d ti p o n e e n d of t h e t abl e t o sho w h i m t h at t h e obj e c t

falls .

Gu es s i n g g am e f o r t h e p lan e s u r f a c e : T h i s g am e s e r ve s t o
fi x t h e no ti on of t h e pl an e surfac e an d at t h e s am e ti m e t r ai n s
t h e e y e an d t h e att e n ti on of t h e c h i ld .

1 U n de r o n e of t hr ee al u m i n u m c ups i s p l ac e d a sm al l re d
.

b all a c h e rry or a p i e c e of c an dy
, T h e c h i ld m us t r eme m b e r
.

u n d e r w h ic h c u p t h e obj e c t i s h i d de n T h e t e ac h e r t r i e s h e r s el f
.

an d f ai ls al w ays r ai s i ng t h e e m p t y c u p s an d r e t urn i ng t h em t o
,
 APPE N D I C E S 441

th e i r pl ac e s T h e c h i ld ho w e v e r fi nds t h e obj e ct im m e d i at e ly
.
, ,
.

2 T h e t e ac h e r n o w b e g i ns t o m ov e t h e t hr ee c ups abou t on t h e
.

p l an e surfac e T h e c h i ld h as t o ke ep h i s ey e on hi s c up an d
.

n e v e r los e s s i gh t of it .

3 R e p e at this exe r c i s e w it h s ix c ups

. .

C h e c k e r b o ar d g am e : T h i s s e rve s t o t e ac h t h e c h i ld t h e l i m
it s an d t h e v ar i ous d ivi s i ons of a pl an e T h e s q u ar e s ar e l arge .

an d i n bl ac k an d w h it e T h e w hol e bo ard sh ou ld b e surround e d

.

by a bord e r i n r e l i e f V ar i ous po i n t s are i n d ic at e d on th e pl an e :

.

for w ard b ac kw ard r i gh t l e ft c e n t e r by pl aci ng a t i n sold i e r

, , , , ,

at e a c h po i n t i nd ic at e d T h e sold i e rs m ay b e m o ve d about b y
.

t h e c h i ld i n ob e d i e n c e t o d i r e cti ons of t h e t e ac h e r : T h e offi c e r

o n hors e b a ck t o t h e c e n t e r S t an d ard -b e ar e r to th e r i g h t
” “
,

etc !. F i n all y m ak e al l t h e so l d i e rs adv an c e t o w ard t h e c e n

,

t e r of t h e bo ard ov e r t h e bl a ck s q u ar e s on l y ; t h e n o ve r t h e
w h it e s q u a r e s onl y e t c ,
.

T h e s e n o ti ons m ay b e appl i e d t o e xe r ci s e s of pr actic a l l i fe .

T h e c h i ldr e n alr e ady kno w ho w t o s e t t h e t abl e wit hou t t h i nk i ng

of w h at t h e y ar e do i ng F ro m no w on t h e t e ac h e r m ay s ay :
.
,
“
P u t t e p l at e s on t h e p la n e s u rf ac e of t h e t abl e s !
h ”
P ut “

t h e bo t tl e t o th e l e f t ! I n t h e c e n te r ! e t c H av e a sm all t abl e ”
.

s e t w i th l itt l e d i sh e s h a v i ng t h e obj e ct s arr ang e d i n ob e d i e n c e

,

t o c o mm ands of t h e t e a c h e r Aft e r t h i s w e m ay pro c e e d t o t h e

.
,

F ro e b e l g am e s on t h e pl an e surf a c e w it h t h e c ub e s blo c ks an d , ,

so on .

I n s e t g am e as a p r ep ara ti o n fo r r e adi n g, dr awi n g , an d wr i t

i n g : Aft e r t h e c h i l d kno w s
d i ff e r e n t c olors an d sh ap e s i n
the
t h e i n s e t t h e c olor t abl e ts of t h e b i g i ns e t c an b e p ut i n pl ac e
,

( 1 ) on a p i e c e of c ardbo ard w h e r e t h e fi gur e s h av e b e e n dr aw n

i n sh ad i ng i n t h e r e sp e cti v e c olors ; ( 2 ) on a c ardbo ar d w h e re
t h e s am e fi g ur e s h a v e b e e n dr aw n m e r e ly i n c olor e d outl i n e

( l i n e ar abstr a c t i on of a r e gul ar fi gur e ) .

I n s e t o f s h ap es w h e r e th e p i e c es a r e a l l o f t h e s am e c o l o r
( b l u e ) : T h e c h i l d r e c ogn i z e s t h e sh ap e an d pu t s t h e p i e c e s i n
pl a c e : ( 1 ) on a c ardbo ard w h e r e t h e fi gur e i s sh ad e d ; ( 2 ) o n a
c ardbo ard w h e r e t h e fi gur e i s m e r e ly ou t l i n e d ( l i n e ar abs t r ae
t i on of r e g ul ar g e o m e t r ic a l fi gur e s ) M e an w h i l e t h e c h i ld h as
.
,

b e e n t ou c h i ng t h e pi e c e s : “
T h e t abl e t i s s m oo t h It turns .

roun d an d roun d an d roun d I t i s a ci r c l e H e r e w e h ave a . .

 APP E N D I C E S 44 3

le tte r t h e r e are p ai n t e d o n e or m or e fi g ur e s of obj e ct s t h e n am e s ,

of w h ic h b e g i n with t h e l e tt e r i n q u e st i on B e s i d e t h e long .

h and l e tt e r t h e r e i s also p ai n t e d i n t h e s am e c olor a s m all e r

,

l e tt e r i n pr i n t typ e T h e t e a c h e r n am i ng t h e c onson an t s i n
.
,

t h e phon i c m e t hod p o i n t s t o t h e l e t t e r t h e n t o t h e c h ar t pro

, , ,

n o u n c i n g t h e n am e of t h e obj e c ts w h ic h ar e p a i nt e d t h e r e an d ,

s t r e ss i ng t h e fi rs t l e tte r : e g In m an
. .
, m : G ive m e
“

M! P u t it W h e r e i t be longs ! F ollo w around it wit h

” “ ” “

your fi ng e r ! H e r e t h e l i n g ui st i c de fe ct s of t h e c h i ldr e n m ay
b e s t u d ie d .

T h e t r ac i ng of t h e l e tt e rs i n t h e w ay t h e y are w r i tt e n b e g i ns
t h e m us c ul ar e du c a ti on pr e p ar at or y t o w r iti ng O n e of our .

l itt l e g i rl s of t h e m o t ory t yp e w h e n t au gh t by t h i s m e t hod r e

produ c e d al l t h e l e t t e rs i n p e n an d i nk long b e for e sh e c ould
i de n ti fy t h e m He r l e tt e rs w e r e abou t e i gh t m i ll i m e t r e s h i gh
.

an d w e r e w r itt e n w i th surpr i s i ng r e g ul ar it y T h i s s am e c h il d .

w as g e n e r a ll y su c c e ssfu l i n h e r m anu al w ork .

Th e c h i ld i n l ook i ng at t h e l e t t e rs i d e nt i fy i n g t h e m an d
, , ,

t r ac i n g t h e m i n t h e w ay t h e y are w r itt e n i s pr e p ar i ng h im s e lf ,

bo t h for r e ad i ng an d w r i t i ng at t h e s am e ti m e T h e t w o pro c .

e ss e s ar e e x a ct ly c on t e m por an e ous T ou c h i ng t h e m an d loo k

.

i ng at t h em br i ngs s eve r al s e ns e s t o b e ar o n t h e fi xi ng of t h e
i m age L ate r t h e t w o a cts ar e s e p ar ate d : fi rs t look i ng ( r e ad
.

i ng ) t h e n t ou c h i ng ( wr iti ng ) Acc ord i ng t o t h e i r r e sp e c tive

, .

t yp e so m e c h i ldre n l e ar n t o r e ad fi rs t o th e rs t o w r it e fi rs t
, ,
.

R e adi n g : A s soon as t h e c h i l d h as l e arn e d t o i d e n ti fy t h e

l e tt e rs an d also t o w r i t e t h e m h e i s m ad e t o pronoun c e t h e m
,
.

Th e n t h e alph ab e t i s ar r ang e d i n phon e ti c ord e r T h i s ord e r i s .

t o b e var i e d a cc ord i ng t o i nd i v i du al d e fe ct s m ad e app ar e n t

Wh i l e t h e c h i ld i s pronoun ci ng spont an e ousl y t h e so un ds of t h e
c onson a n t s or vo w e ls or t h e w ords i llus t r ati ng t h e c onson an t s
,

on t h e c h ar t s We b e g i n b y sho wi ng t h e c h i ld an d h av i ng h im
.

pronou n c e fi rst sy ll abl e s an d t h e n w ords w h ic h c on t ai n t h e

, , , ,

l e t t e rs h e i s abl e to p ronoun c e w e ll T h e n w e go on t o t h e .

sounds h e h as t roubl e wi th fi n all y t o t hos e h e c an no t pronoun c e

,

at all ( l i ngu i s ti c c orr e cti on ) T h e phono m i m ic c orr e cti o n of

.

sp e e c h r e q u i r e s sp e ci al d i s c uss i on In pr i m ary s c h ools sp e e c h

.

c orr e cti o n should b e i n t h e h an ds of a sp e ci ally t r ai n e d t e a c h e r ,

l i k e gymn as ti c s m anu a l t r ai n i ng an d s i ng i ng S houl d no de

, .
444 APP E N D I C E S
fe e t s i n s p ee c h app e ar i n t h e c h i ld t h e l e tt e rs of t h e alph ab e t
,

should b e t augh t i n t h e ord e r of phys i olog ic al phon e tic s .

B e s i d e t h e b i g lo n g -h an d l e t t e rs shoul d b e pl a c e d t h e s m all
l e tt e rs i n pr i n t t y p e T h e l e tt e r i s t augh t ; t h e n r e c o g n iti on i s
.

prom p t e d by ask i n g as e ac h l arge l e tt e r i s r e ac h e d : “

I w ant
”
t h e l itt l e o n e l i ke i t T h e tw o typ e s of l e tt e r app e ar also on
.

t h e i llus t r at e d c h art s N e xt t h e pr i n t e d l e tt e r i s s ho w n w it h
.
,

t h e re q u e s t : G i v e m e t h e b i g l e tt e r t h at go e s w it h it
“ ”
.

F i n ally ° “
Wh at l e tte r i s it ? ”
T h e l itt l e l e tt e r s are no t
”
t ou c h e d b e c aus e t h e y ar e n e ve r t o b e w r itt e n
, .

D R A WI N G A N D WRIT IN G
The ch il d i s g i v e n a sh e e t on w h ich app e ar a c i r c l e an d a
s q u ar e i n ou t l i n e .T h e c i r c l e i s fi l l e d i n w it h a r e d p e n ci l t h e ,

s q u are w ith b l u e ( i n s e ts ) S m all e r an d s m all e r c i r c l e s ar e n ext

.

g ive n al s o c i r c l e s an d t r i angl e s T h e y are v ar i ously d i s p os e d

,
.

o n t h e p ag e T h e y are t o b e fi l l e d i n with c olor e d p e n c i ls

. .

T h e n c o me s t h e t r aci ng T h e bl ac k l i n e s ar e follo w e d aroun d

.

w it h c o l or e d p e n ci ls : t h e c i r c l e t h e t r i angl e t h e s q u ar e
, , This .

c o m e s e as i ly t o t h e c h i l d w ho h as b e e n t augh t t o t r ac e w it h
h
t e w ood e n sk w
e e r t h e fi gur e s ou t l i n e d on t h e i ns e c h a rt s
t - .

Wr iti n g fo ll ow s i m m e d i ate l y on t h e exe r c i s e s i n t r ac i n g w ith

t h e ske w e r o n t h e c h ar t s of t h e w r itt e n alph ab e t S o m e h e lp
.

c an b e g ive n t h e c h i l d b y h avi ng h i m d ark e n w it h a b l ac k p en

o i l t h e l e t t e r w r itt e n on t h e c opy boo k b y t h e t e ac h e r As t h e .

c h i ld w r ite s h is atte n ti on should b e di re c t e d t o t h e fac t th at

,

h e i s w r iti ng on a l i mi t e d p lan e s urf a c e ; t h at h e b e g i ns at t h e

t op m ov i n g fro m l e f t t o r i gh t an d l itt l e by l itt l e c o m i ng do wn
,

t h e p ag e .

S egu i n s m e t hod b e g an w it h sh af t s an d c ur ve s H i s c opy

’
.

books for t h e sh aft s w e r e pr e p ar e d as follo w s : t h e sh af t t o b e

e xe c u t e d b y t h e c h i l d w as d e l i m it e d by tw o po i n t s c onn e c t e d ,

b y a ve ry l i gh t l i n e In t h e m arg i n of t h e p ag e s ap p e ar t w o
.

sh af t s t o b e e xe c u t e d b y t h e t e ac h e r S i m i l arl y for t h e c u rve s :

.

He h as t h e pr i n t e d c ap it al s dr awn as c o mbi n a
ti ons of sh aft s an d c ur ve s : B D e t c , , .
 APPE N D I C E S

S IM U L T AN E OUS R E AD IN G AN D WR I T I N G OF W O RD S
The c h i ld t hrough s e nsor y e du c ati on h as ac q u i r e d so m e n o
, ,

ti ons of c olor sh ap e surfa c e ( s m oo th an d rough ) s m e ll t ast e

, , , , ,

etc . At t h e s am e ti m e h e h as l e arn e d t o c ount ( o n e t w o t hr e e

, , , ,

four po i n t s ) U n iti ng al l poss i bl e not i ons c on c e rn i ng a s i ngl e

.

obj e ct w e arr i v e at h i s fi rst c on c r e te i de a of t h e obj e ct it s e lf

,

t h e obj e ct l e sson T o t h e i d e a t hus a c q u i r e d w e g i v e t h e w o r d

.
,

w h ic h r e pr e s e nts t h e obj e c t J us t as t h e c on c r e t e i d e a r e sults

.

fro m t h e a ss e m bl i ng of ac q u i r e d not i ons so t h e w ord r e sults ,

fro m t h e un i on of kn o w n sounds an d p e r c e i v e d s y m bols ,

.

R eadi n g l es s o n : O n t h e t e ac h e r s t abl e i s t h e l arg e s t and for

’

t h e m ov abl e a lph ab e t i n bl ac k pr i nt e d l e tt e rs T h e t e a c he r .

a rr ang e s on it t h e vo w e l s an d a f e w c onson an t s E ac h c h i ld i n .
,

h i s o w n pl a c e h as t h e s m all m ov abl e alph ab e t i n th e p as t e bo ard

,

boxe s T h e c h i ldr e n t ak e fro m t h e b o x t h e s am e l e tt e rs t h e y

.

se e o n t h e l arg e s t and an d arr a ng e t h e m i n t h e s am e ord e r

, .

T h e t e a c h e r t ak e s up so m e obj e ct w h i c h h as a s i m pl e w ord for

a n am e e g
, .
p an e
.
, S h e c alls t h e att e n ti on of t h e
c h i ld t o t h e obj e ct r e v i e wi ng an obj e cti v e l e sson alr e ady l e a rn e d
, ,

t hus arous i ng t h e c h i ld s i n te r e s t i n t h e obj e ct

’
S h all w e .

w r it e t h e w ord p an e ? He ar h o w I s ay i t ! ”
S ee h o w I
” “

”
s ay it ! T h e t e a c h e r pronoun c e s s e p a r at e l y an d d i s ti n ctl y t h e
soun ds of t h e l e tte rs w h ic h m ak e up t h e w ord e xagge r ati ng t h e ,

m ov e m e n t s of t h e vo c a l org ans so th at t h e y ar e pl ai nly v i s i bl e t o

t h e c h i ldr e n As t h e pup i ls r e p e at t h e w ord t h e y c on ti nu e
.

th e i r e d u c at i on i n sp e ak i ng .

A c h i ld no w c o m e s to t h e t e a c h e r s d e sk t o c hoos e t h e l e tte rs
’

c orr e spond i ng t o t h e sounds an d t r i e s t o arr ange t h e m i n t h e

ord e r i n w h ic h t h e y app e ar i n t h e w ord T h e c h i l dr e n do t h e .

s am e w it h t h e s m all l e t t e rs at t h e i r s e at s E v e ry m i s t ake g i v e s
.

r i s e t o a c orr e cti on u s e ful to t h e w hol e c l ass T h e t e a c h e r re .

p e at s t h e w ord i n front of e ac h o n e w ho h as m ad e a m i s t ak e ,

t ry i ng t o g e t t h e c h i l d t o c orr e ct h i m s e lf Wh e n al l t h e c h i l .

d r e n h av e arr ang e d th e i r l e tt e rs prop e rl y t h e t e ac h e r sho w s a ,

c ard ( v i s iti ng -c ard s i z e ) o n w h ic h i s pr i n t e d ( i n pr i n t -t yp e

l e tt e rs abou t a c e n ti m e t e r h i gh ) t h e w ord p an e All t h e “
.

c h i ldr e n are m ad e t o r e ad it T h e n so m e c h i ld i s ask e d t o pu t

.

t h e c ard w h e r e h e fi nds t h e w or d w r itt e n b e for e h i m ; n ext o n ,

 APP E N D I C E S 4 47

ing , an i ma ls , p e o p l e, e t c bo x for adj e c ti v es

. T h e re should be a

w it h c o m p a rt m e n t s for c o l o rs s h ap es q u al i ti e s e t c T h e re , , , .

should b e anoth e r for p ar ti c l es wit h c o m p ar t m e n t s for ar ti c l es ,

c o n j u n c ti o n s p r ep o s i ti o n s e t c
, A b o x should b e r e s e rv e d for
,
.

ac ti o n s w it h t h e l ab e l v er b s abov e ; an d t h e n i n it a c o m p ar t

m e n t should b e r e s e rv e d for t h e i n fin i ti v e p r e s e n t p as t an d , ,

f u tu r e r e sp e cti v e ly T h e c h i ldr e n gr a du all y l e arn by pr a ctic e

.

t o t ak e t h e i r c ards fro m t h e boxe s an d p u t t h e m b a c k i n th e i r .

p rop e r pl ac e s T h e y soon l e arn t o kno w t h e i r w ord boxe s

.
“ ”

an d th e y r e ad i ly fi n d t h e c ard s t h e y w a n t am ong t h e c o l o r s ,

s h ap es q u a l i ti e s e t c
, or am ong an i mals f o o ds e t c U l ti m ate l y
,
.
, , , .

t h e t e ac h e r wi ll fi n d o c c as i on t o e xpl ai n t h e m e an i ng of t h e b i g
w ords at t h e t op of t h e dr aw e rs n o u n adj e c ti v e v e r b e t c an d , , , , .
,

t h i s w i ll b e t h e fi rs t s t e p i n t o t h e subj e ct of g r ammar .

G R AMM AR

NO UN LES S ON

We c all p e rsons an d obj e c ts by t h e i r n ame ( t h e i r n o u n )

m ay .

Pe opl e ans w e r i f w e c a ll th e m so do an i m als In an im at e o h , .

j e c t s ho w e v e r n e v e r a ns w e r b e c a us e t h e y c anno t ; bu t i f t h e y
, , ,

c oul d ans w e r t h e y w ou ld ; for e xam pl e i f I s ay Mary M ary , ,

a ns w e rs ; i f I s ay p e as t h e p e a s do no t a n s w e r b e c aus e t h e y
, ,

c ann o t Y o u c h i ldr e n do und e rs t and w h e n I c al l an obj e c t an d

.

you br i ng it t o m e I s ay for e x am pl e b o o k b eans p eas If

.
, , , .

I don t t e ll y o u t h e n am e of t h e obj e ct y o u don t und e rs t an d

’ ’

w h at I am t alk i ng abou t ; b e c aus e e v e ry obj e ct h as a d i ffe r e n t

n am e T h i s n am e i s t h e w ord t h at s t ands for t h e obj e c t T h i s
. .

n am e i s a n o u n Wh e n I m e nt i on a n oun y o u un d e rs t and i m
.

m e d i at e ly t h e obj e ct w h ic h t h e n ou n r e pr e s e n t s : tr e e c h ai r , ,

p e n b o o k la m b e t c
, , If I do no t g i v e t h i s noun y o u d on t
, .
,
’

kn o w w h at I am t alk i ng abou t ; for i f I s ay s i m ply B ri n g m e , ,

a t o n c e I w an t i t yo u do n o t kn o w w h at I w an t unl e ss I
, ,
.
,

t e ll you t h e n am e of t h e obj e ct U nl e ss I g ive you t h e n o u n .

,

y o u do no t und e rs t and T hu s e v e ry obj e c t i s r e pr e s e n t e d b y a

.

w ord w h i c h i s it s n am e an d t h i s n am e i s a n o u n T o und e rs t an d .

w h e t h e r a w ord i s a noun or no t y o u s im pl y ask Is it a th i ng ? ,

Would it a ns w e r i f I spok e t o i t ? ”
C ould I c arry it to t h e
”
t e ac h e r ? F o r i ns t an c e b r e a d Y e s b r e ad i s an obj e ct ; ta b l e
, .
, ,
448 APP E ND I C E S
y e s, it i s obj ec t ; c o n du c to r y e s t h e c on du c t or w ou l d an sw e r
an , , ,

i f I w e re t o sp e ak t o h i m .

Le t u s look t hrough our c ards n o w I t ake s eve r al c ard s .

fro m d i ffe r e n t boxe s an d shuffle t h e m He r e i s t h e w ord s w e e t . .

B r i ng m e s w e e t Is t h e r e any t h i ng t o ans w e r w h e n I c all

.

B u t you ar e br i ng i ng m e a p i e c e of c andy ! I d i dn t
’
sweet ?

s ay c an dy : I s ai d s w e e t ! An d no w y o u h ave g i v e n m e s ug ar !
I s ai d s w e e t If I s ay c an dy s u g ar t h e n you und e rs t an d w h at
.
, ,

I w an t w h at obj e ct I am t h i nk i ng abou t b e c aus e t h e w ord s

, ,

c an dy s u g ar s t and for obj e ct s

, ,
T hos e w ords ar e n o u n s No w . .

l e t u s look t hrough t h e noun c ards Le t us r e ad a c oupl e of .

l i n e s i n our r e ad i ng books an d se e w h e t h e r t h e r e ar e an y noun s

th e r e T e l l m e are t h e r e an y nouns ? Ho w are w e t o fi n d
.
,

so m e n ouns ? Loo k around y o u ! L ook at yours e lf your c l o t h e s , ,

e t c ! N am e e v e r y obj e ct th at you s e e ! E v e ry w ord you t hus

.

p ronoun c e wi ll b e a n oun : T e ac h e r c l o t h i ng n e c kti e c h ai r , , , ,

c l ass c h i ldr e n books e t c

, J ust look at t h i s p i c t ur e w h ich re p
, ,
.

r e s e n t s so m any t h i ngs ! T h e fi gur e s r e pr e s e n t p e rsons an d o h

j e c ts N am e e ac h of t h e s e fi gure s ! E ve ry w ord yo u pronoun c e
.

w il l b e a noun !

VERB 2 AC T IO N
M ary r i s e fro m ,
your s e at ! Walk ! Mary
p e rforme d a h as
n u m b e r of a c ti o n s S h e h as r i s e n S h e h as p e rfor me d t h e
. .

a c ti o n of r i s i n g S h e h as w alk e d . Walk s t ands for an ac ti on . .

N o w w r it e your n am e on t h e bl ac kb o ard ! Wri ti n g i s an ac ti on .

E r as e w h at y o u h av e w r it t e n E r as i n g i s an a cti on Wh e n I
. .

spok e t o Mar y I p e rfor m e d t h e ac ti on of sp e ak i ng ( J us t as

, .

t h e no un w as t augh t wi th obj e c t s h e r e w e m us t h ave ac ti ons , .

O bj e ct s r e pr e s e n t e d i n p i c t ur e s w i ll b e of no u s e s i n c e ac ti ons ,

c ann o t b e por t r ay e d b y p ict ur e s ) .

T h e n e xt s t e p wi l l b e t o sugge s t a litt l e e xe r c i s e of i m ag i n a
ti on Look at all t h e se obj e c t s ! T ry t o i mag i n e so m e acti on
.

w h i c h e ac h m i gh t p e rfor m ! A c l as s for i ns t an c e ; w h at ac ti on s ,

m i gh t a c l ass p e rfor m ? S to r e : w h at ac ti ons m i gh t t ake p l ac e

i n a s t ore ? Le t u s n o w l ook t hrough our c ards aft e r w e h ave
shuffle d t h e m N ext t ry our r e ad i ng book S h o w m e w h ic h of
. .

t h e w ord s are v e rbs G ive m e s o m e w or ds w h i c h are ve rb s

.

( i n fi n itive )
 APPE N D I C E S 44 9

NO UN '

Pe r s on s t h i ngs ( prop e r an d c o mm on n ouns ) S i ngul ar

,
. ,

plur al m as c ul i n e an d fe m i n i n e T h e ar ti c l e s :
,
“
C hoos e t h e
.

ar tic l e t h a t go e s w it h t h i s noun ! e t c .

VE R B
Pr e s e n t p as t fu t ur e I am p e rfor m i ng an acti on n o w H av e
, ,
. .

I p e rfor m e d i t b e for e ? D i d I do it y e s te rd ay ? H av e I always

don e it i n t h e p as t ? Wh e n I w alk n o w I s ay I am w al ki n g , ,

I w alk Wh e n I m e an t h e acti on t h at I p e rfor me d y e s t e rd ay

. ,

I s ay : I w as w al ki n g I w al k e d T h e s am e acti on p e rfor me d
, .

at d i ffe r e n t ti m e s i s d e s c r i b e d d i ffe r e n t ly Ho w s t r ange t h at i s !

.

T h e w ord r e fe rr i ng t o an obj e ct n e v e r c h ange s T h e b e ads ar e .

b e ads t o -day T h e y w e r e b e ads y e s t e rd ay A c ti o n s ho w e v e r

. .
, ,

are r e pr e s e nt e d by w ords w h ic h c h ang e a c c ord i ng t o t h e ti me

i n w h i c h t h e y are p e rfor m e d T o -day I w alk Y e s t e r day I

. .

w alk e d . T o -m orro w I s h a ll w alk I t i s alw ay s I wh o do t h e

.

w al k i ng I w h o p e rfor m t h e ac ti o n of w alki n g ; an d I w alk al

,

w ays in t h e s ame w ay pu tti ng o n e foo t i n fron t of t h e o t h e r

,
.

T h e obj e c t s y o u s e e p e rfor m an ac ti on alw ay s p e rform it Do .

you see t h at l itt l e b i rd w h ic h i s fl y i n g — w h ic h i s p e rfor m i ng

t h e ac ti o n of fl y i ng ? I t w as fly i ng ye s t e rd ay I t fl e w at so me .

tim e i n t h e p as t T o -m orro w also t h at i s at so me f u t ur e ti me

.
, , ,

i f t h e litt l e b i rd li v e s it w i ll fly an d it wi ll fl y alw ays i n t h e

,

s am e w ay b e ati ng it s wi ngs t o an d fro Y o u se e w h at a s t r ange

, .

t h i ng a v e rb i s ! It c h ang e s it s w ords ac c ord i ng t o t h e ti m e

i n w h i c h t h e ac ti on i s p e rform e d It i s d iffe r e n t acc ord i ng as
.

it re pr e s e n t s a cti on i n p r es en t ti m e or ac ti on i n p as t tim e o r
, ,

ac ti on i n f u tu r e ti m e N o w s e e ! I am go i ng t o t ake ou t so m e
.
,

of my c ards an d m ak e up a l itt l e s e n t e n c e

No w I go i ng t o c h ange t h e w or d w h i c h s t ands for t h e ti me

am

w h e n t h e a c t i on t ak e s pl ac e In pl ac e of t h e c ard n o w I am
.

go i ng t o u s e t h i s o n e
 APPE N D I C E S 45 1

b ut a lw ays w it h o bj e c t All t h e no ti ons poss e ss e d b y t h e

th e .

c h i ld should b e as f a r as pr a ctic abl e i n a g iv e n c as e app li e d t o

h i s s t ud y of t h e obj e ct F i rs t it shoul d b e d e s c r i b e d as t o it s
.

q u al iti e s ; n e xt as t o it s u s e s t h e n as t o i t s or i g i n ; for e xam p l e

, ,

H e r e i s an o b j ec t ! Wh at c olor i s it ? Wh at i s it s sh ap e ?
F e e l of it ! T as t e of it !e t c If poss i bl e h av e t h e c h i ld s e e
.
,

t h e u s e of t h e obj e ct an d it s or i g i n i n e v e r y poss i bl e w ay J us t .

as t h e c on c r e t e i d e a of t h e obj e c t i s i mp art e d b y v e rb a l de s c r i p

ti on an d b y v ar i ous app e al s t o t h e s e ns e s of t h e c h i ld so t h e ,

diff e r e n t us e s of t h e obj e ct should b e bro u gh t ou t i n de s c ri b i n g

a c ti o n s w h ic h t h e c h i l d s e e s p e rfor m e d wit h it b e for e h im .

T h i s of c ours e i s an i d e al w h ic h t h e t e ac h e r should t ry t o
, ,

r e al i z e as f ar as poss i bl e T h e obj e ct shoul d b e sho w n t h e c h i ld

.

i n d iff e r e n t ci r c u m s t an c e s an d u nd e r d iffe r e n t asp e c t s so as t o

g i v e it al w ays t h e app e ar an c e of so m e th i ng n e w an d so m e t h i n g
t o e xcite an d hol d t h e att e n ti on of t h e c h i ld T ak e for i n .
,
o

s t an c e a l e sson on t h e w ord h en S ho w a p ap e r m od e l of t h e
, .

h e n t h e l i v e h e n i n t h e c our t y ard t h e st e r e opt ic on sl i d e of t h e

, ,

h e n : t h e pr i n t of t h e h e n i n t h e r e ad i ng book : t h e h e n al i v e
am ong o t h e r do m e s tic fo w ls ; p ict ur e s of t h e h e n am ong p ic

tur e s of o t h e r b i rds e t c E ac h n e w s t e p shoul d b e t ak e n on a

,
.

d i ffe r e n t day an d e a c h ti m e t h e w ord sh ould b e c onn e c t e d w it h

t h e obj e ct Wr i t e t h e w ord on t h e b l ac kbo ard ; m ake u p t h e
.

pr i n t e d c ard for t h e c ard fil e an d p u t it i n its prop e r b o x

‘
.

“
Wh o w an t s t o t ak e t h e bl ac kbo ard ou t -doors ? We are go i ng
t o w r it e so m e w ords i n t h e y ard N o w i n your r e ad i ng b ook s .

th e r e i s t h e fi gur e of t h e h e n N ext t o it i s t h e w ord h e n

. .

Wr it e t h i s w ord i n y our c op y books Wh o c an re p e at w h at w e .

h av e s ai d abou t t h e h e n ? Wr i t e do w n w h at y o u kno w abou t

”
t h e h en T h e am ount of i nfor m at i on g i v e n abou t a p ar ti c ul ar
.

obj e ct w il l d ep e nd of c ours e u pon t h e c l as s T h e si m pl e s t de

, , .

s c r i p ti on should b e follo w e d by o n e m or e m i nu t e p as s i ng t hu s ,

t o sp e ak of us e s h ab it s or i g i n e t c T h e w r iti ng o f a s i m pl e
, , , .

w ord m ay b e d e ve lop e d i n t o a w r itt e n d e s c r i p ti on B ut t h e .

l e sson s on t h e g ive n obj e c t shoul d al w ays b e sh or t a n d t h e y ,

shoul d b e r e p e at e d on d i ffe r e n t d ay s F o r t h e l e ssons o n t r e e s .

,

pl an t s an d v e ge t abl e s a g ard e n i s n e c e ss ary : t h e c h i ldr e n

, ,

shoul d se e t h e s e e ds pl an t e d a gro wi n g v e g e t abl e a p ict ur e

, ,

of t h e fr u i t e t c If poss i bl e t h e do m e s ti c u se of t h e g ard e n
,
.
452 APP E N D I C E S
pro du c t s sh oul d b e d e m ons t r at e d T h i s app li e s al so t o fl owe r s . .

T h e bl ac kbo ard w ith c r ay on should n e v e r b e l ac k i ng i n t h e

g ard e n F o r obj e c t l e ssons w e n e e d t oy s t o r e pre s e n t f u r n i
.

t ur e d i sh e s var i ous obj e ct s us e d i n t h e home t ool s of d iff e r e n t

, , ,

t r ad e s room s an d t h e furn it ur e t h at go e s i n e ac h hous e s t r e e s

, , , ,

a c hur c h ( t o bu il d vi ll ag e s ) e t c ; doll s e q u i p p e d w ith al l t h e

, .

n e c e ss ar i e s for dr e ss i n g T h e r e should b e a s h e lf for bo ttl e s

.

c on t ai n i ng sp e c i me n s of d i ffe r e n t dr i n ks ; v ar i ous ki nds of

c l o t hs ( for t acti l e e xe r c i s e s ) ; t h e r aw m at e r i als ou t of w h i c h

t h e y are m ade d e m ons t r ati ons of t h e w ay t h e y are m an u f ac

,

t a r e d e t c S ho w al so s p e c i me n s of t h e va r i o u s m in e r al s e t c
, .
, .

HIS T O RY

H i s t ory i s t augh t fi rs t on a l it tl e s t age w it h livi ng t ab l e au x ,

gr adu all y adv an c i ng t o acti on ; s e c ond b y d e s c r i p ti ons of l arg e ,

i llus t r ati on s an d c olor e d p ict ure s ; th i rd by s t ory -t e ll i ng b as e d ,

on s t e r e o p ti c on vi e w s T h e t e ac h e r should s t r i v e for b r evit y

.
,

c on ci s e n e ss an d v iv acit y i n d e s c r i p ti ons
, H i s t or ic al s t ory t e l l .

i ng should as i n t h e c as e of al l o t h e r l e ssons br i n g abou t add i

, ,

ti on s of pr i n t e d c ar ds t o t h e w ord b oxe s V ar i ou s i nform ati on .

o n t h e s e asons m on t hs of t h e y e ar e t c
, shou l d b e i m p ar t e d b y ,
.
,

i llu st rati on s an d p i c t ur e s E ve ry m orn i ng t h e c h il d should b e

.

aske d :
“
Wh at day i s it ? Wh at day w as ye s te rday ? Wh at
-
day w i ll t o mor ro w b e ? ”
an d Wh at day of t h e m o nth is it ? ”

E
G O GR APHY

1 . E xe r c i s e sp l an e for t h e c ar di n al p o int s w ith var i ou s

on th e ,

gym n as ti c an d gu e ss i ng g am e s 2 B u il di n g game s o ut o f . .

d oors M ake a l ake an i sl an d a p e n i n sul a a r i v e r 3 C arry

.
, , , . .

t h e hous e s an d c hur c h i n t o t h e y ard an d c ons t ru c t a s m al l v il

l ag e P u t t h e c hur c h on t h e nor th ; th e s c hool hou s e o n th e
.

e ast ; t h e mo un t ai n on t h e w e s t ; i n fron t of t h e s c hoo l p l ac e

t h e n ati on al fl ag 4 In t h e c l assroo m fi t ou t a roo m w ith i t s

. .

p rop e r furn it ur e t o b e pl ac e d on a m ap of t h e roo m outli n e d

on a l arge c h ar t As t h e furn it ur e i s r em o ve d m ake a m ark
.
,

on t h e m ap t o i nd i c at e w h e r e e ac h ar ticl e w as Make a l ittle .

vi ll ag e i n t h e s ame w ay h ou se s c hur ch e t c T ake aw ay t h e , , , .

c h u r c h e t c ; m a r k t h e p l a c e of e ac h o b j e c t o n t h e map as it i s
, .
 APP E N D I C E S 453

r e m o ve d T h e n i d e n ti fy e a c h s p o t
. Wh e r e w as t h e c h ur c h ?
.
”

Wh at w as o v e r h e r e ? e t c T hus w e g e t a c on c e pt i on of t h e
”
.

g e ogr aph i c al m ap R e ad t h e m ap m ak i ng u se of t h e c ard i n al

.
,

po i n t s 5 P hy s ic al c h ar ac t e r i st ic s of r e g i ons m ay b e sho w n
. .

b y c l ay m od e l i ng t o r e pr e s e n t h i lls e t c D r aw outl i n e s around,

.

e a c h m od e l r e m o ve t h e c l ay a n d r e ad t h e g e o g r ap h i c al map
,

r e sult i ng .

AR I T HM ETIC
The c h i ldr en t o c oun t : 1 n os e ; 1 m ou t h ; 1 2 h ands ;
ar e ,

1 ,
fe e t ; 1 2
2 , , 3 4 po i n t s i n t h e i ns e ts ; 1 2 3 4 5 6 sold i e rs
, , , , , ,

on t h e pl an e . Ho w m an y blo c ks d i d th ey u s e i n t h e bu i ld i ng ?
1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7 8 9
,
T hu s for t h e e l e m e n t ary s t e p s i n c ount
, .

i ng .

C O M P U T AT I O N

C o m pu t ati on should b e t aught pr a c t ic ally i n t h e s t or e fro m

t h e v e r y b e g i nn i ng T h e shopk e e p e r s e lls 1 c h e rr y for 1 c
. T he .

c h i ldr e n h av e 20 an d g e t tw o c h e rr i e s N ext th e y g e t t w o nu t s .

for l c P l a c e 1 0 on t h e c ount e r an d pl ac e 2 nu t s b e s i d e it
. .

T h e n c oun t al l t h e n uts an d th e r e ar e 2 for 1 0 e t c T h e c h i ld , .

w an t s o n e c h e rry a n d h as a t w o -c e n t p i e c e T h e shopk e e p e r .

m us t g i v e h i m 1 c i n c h ang e 2 In
m on e y c h ang i ng i t wi ll b e obs e rv e d th at at fi rs t so m e c h i ldr e n
r e c ogn i z e t h e c o i n s m or e e as i l y by t ou c h t h an by s i gh t ( m o tor
typ e s ) .

W RIT T E N N U MB ERS
C h ar t s w it h t h e
n i n e nu m b e rs : o n e for e ac h nu mb e r E ac h .

c h ar t h as p ict ur e s r e pr e s e n ti ng q u an titi e s of t h e m ost v ar i e d

obj e c ts arr ange d a roun d t h e n u m b e r w h ic h i s i nd i c at e d by a ,

l arg e d e s i g n on t h e c h a r t F o r i n s t an c e : on t h e 1 c ard th e r e i s
.

o n e c h e rry o n e dog o n e b all

, etc Y e s t e rd ay t h e shopk e e p e r
, ,
.

sold o n e c h e rry for 1 c Is t h e ch e rry h e r e ? Y e s th e r e i s t h e

.
,

c h e rry ! And w h at i s t h i s ? O n e c hur c h ! An d t h i s ? O n e

c e n t ! etc Wh at i s t h i s fi gur e h e r e ? It i s t h e nu m b e r o n e
. .

N o w br i ng o u t t h e w ood e n fi g ur e : Wh at i s th i s ? N u m b e r
o n e ! P u t it on t h e fi gur e on t h e c h art ! I t i s o n e .

N o w t ak e t h e c h ar ts t o t h e s t or e Wh o h as 1 c ? Wh o h as .
 APPE N D I C E S 455

The c h i l d pl ac e s t h e m ov abl e nu m b e rs an d t h e c ub e s on t h e
fi gur e s on t h e c h art s T h e t e ac h e r t h e n m ak e s t w o e q u al ro w s
.

o f c ub e s t o c orr e spon d to t h e e v e n n u m b e rs ( r e d ) T h e d iv i .

s i on i s e a sy ! B u t t ry t o s e p ar at e t h e odd nu m b e rs ( blu e ) I t .

i s not poss i bl e ! A blo c k i s a l w ay s l e f t i n t h e m i ddl e ! T h e

c h i ld t ak e s t h e fi gur e s an d t h e blo c ks an d arr ang e s t h e m on h i s
t abl e i m i t ati ng t h e d e s i gn on t h e c h ar t He t r i e s t o m ak e tw o
,
.

e q u a l ro w s of c ub e s for t h e e v e n n u m b e rs He su c c e e ds He . .

do e s no t su c c e e d i n do i ng so w i th t h e odd n u m b e rs T h e n u m .

b e rs w h ic h c an b e d i v i d e d t hus are e v en ; t hos e w h i c h c anno t

b e so d i v i d e d ar e o dd .

N u m b er b o xes : O n th e s e bo xe s ar e d e s i gn e d r e d an d bl ue
fi g ur e s i d e n tic al wit h t hos e on t h e c h ar t s T h e c h i ld p uts i n t o
.

e ac h bo x t h e n u m b e r of c ub e s c all e d for b y t h e fi gur e on t h e

bo x T h i s exe r ci s e follo w s i mm e d i at e l y t h e w ork on odd an d

.

e ven n u m b e rs d e s c r i b e d abov e As t h e c h i ld t r ansf e rs e a c h

.

s e r i e s of c ub e s fro m h i s t abl e t o t h e boxe s h e pronoun c e s t h e ,

num be r an d a dds o dd or even .

E xe r c i s e s i n a tt e n t i o n an d c h ar t of odd an d
m em o r y : A
e ve n n u m b e rs i n c olors i s pl a c e d on t h e t e a c h e r s d e sk i n v i e w
’

of all t h e c h i ldr e n Th e r e d an d blu e c ub e s are p i l e d on t h e

.

t e ac h e r s d e sk T h e t e ac h e r p ass e s t h e w ood e n fi g ur e s t o t h e
’
.

c h i ldr e n an d t e lls t h e m t o e xam i n e t h e m I m m e d i at e ly afte r .

w ards t h e c h i ldr e n l e av e t h e i r s e a t s go to t h e t e a c h e r s d e sk
’
, ,

an d g e t t h e nu m b e rs w h ic h c orr e spond t o t h e i r o w n fi gur e s .

O n go i ng b a c k to t h e i r pl ac e s th e y fi t t h e c ub e s un d e r t h e c o r
r e spond i ng fi gur e i n t h e arr ang e me n t j us t l e arn e d T h e t e ac h e r .

i s t o obs e rve
1 . Wh e t h e r t h e c h i ld h as r e m em b e r e d t h e c olor of h i s fi gur e
( fr e q u e n t l y a c h i ld wi th a r e d nu mb e r t ak e s t h e blu e
c ub e s ) .

2 . Wh e t h e r h e h as r e m e mb e r e d h i s n u m b er .

3 . Wh e t h e r h e r e m e m b e rs t h e prop e r arr ange m e n t .

4 . Wh e t h e r t h e c h i ld r e m e m b e rs th at t h e c h ar t fro m w h i c h
h e c an c o p y i s b e for e h i m o n t h e s t and an d w h e t h e r h e
t h i n ks of look i ng at it .

Wh e n m i s t ake s ar e m ad e , t h e t e ac h e r h as t h e c h i ld c orr e c t h im
se l f by ll i ng h i s att e nt i on t o
ca t he c h art .
456 APP E N D I C E S

C O U N T IN G B Y T EN S
(For more a dv a n c e d c l ass es )
In t h e s t or e t e n obj e ct s ar e sol d for o ne c e nt , e .
g
(1 0 b e ans ) o n e c e n t for e ac h t en
,
.

O n e t en 2 t en , 1 0 .

Two t e ns = tw e n ty
2
, 20 .

T hr ee t e n s = t h i r t y , 30, et c .

F ro m for t y on ( i n E ngl i sh from s ixt y on ) t h e nu mb e r s ar e

m or e e as i l y l e arn e d b e c aus e t h e i r n am e s ar e l i k e s im pl e n u m
b e rs w it h t h e e n d i n g -ty ( I t al i an -an ta) .

C h arts shoul d b e pr e p ar e d ( r e ct angul ar i n sh ap e ) on wh ic h

n i n e t e ns app e ar arr ange d o n e und e r t h e o th e r ; t h e n n i n e c ards
w h e r e e a c h t e n i s r e p e ate d n i n e ti m e s i n a c olu mn ; fi n al ly ,

n u me rous c ards w it h t h e un it fi gu r e s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t o b e , , , , , , , , ,

fi tt e d on t h e z e ros o n t h e c ards w h e r e t h e t en s are r e p e at e d ni n e

time s .

10— 10— 20
20 — 10— 20
30 — 10— 20
40 — 10— 20
50 — 10— 20
60 — 10— 20
70 — 1 0 — 20
80 — 10 — 20
90 — 10— 20

S ome d iffi c ul t y w ill b e e xp e r i e n c e d w it h t h e t e ns wh e r e t h e

n am e s do no t c orr e spon d t o t h e s i m pl e nu m b e rs : 1 1 1 2 1 3 etc , , ,
.

T h e o t h e r t e ns ho w e v e r w i ll b e v e ry e as y
, , Wh e n a l ittl e c h i ld .

i s able t o c oun t t o 20 h e c an go o n t o 1 00 wit hou t d iffi c ul ty

,
.

T h e n e xt s t e p i s t o s up e r i mpos e t h e l itt l e c ards on t h e fi rs t

c h ar t of t h e t e n s se r i e s h avi n g th e r e sul t an t n u mb e r s r e ad
,

al o ud .

P r o b l e ms : P rob l e m s are at fi rs t s im p l e m e m ory e xe r ci s e s

, ,

for t h e c h i ldr e n In f ac t t h e probl e m s ar e sol ve d pr ac ti c ally i n

.

t h e s t or e i n t h e for m of a g am e ; buy i ng l e n d i ng sh ar i ng w it h , ,

th e i r sc hoo lmat e s taki ng a p ar t of w h at i s b ough t an d g ivi ng

,
 APP E N D I C E S 45 7

it t o so me o t h e r c h il d e t c T h e s t or e e xe r c i s e s shou l d b e re
, .

p e at e d i n t h e for m of a probl e m on t h e follo wi ng m orn i ng .

T h e c h i ldr e n h av e s im ply t o r e m e mb e r w h at h app e n e d an d r e

produ c e i t i n w r iti ng P r o b l em s ar e n ext dev e l op ed c o n tem
.

p o r an e o us l y wi th t h e v ar i ous ar i th m e ti c al op e r ati ons an d c o m

p u t at i o n s ( a dd i t i on m u l ti pl ic at i on
, T h e t e ac h e r e xp l ai ns
,

t h e op e r at i ons s t ar ti ng w it h t h e probl e m w h ic h b e c o m e s for t h e

,

c h i ldre n a v e ry am us i ng g am e T h e probl e m fi n ally b e c om e s

.
, ,

an i m ag i n ati v e e xe r c i s e : S uppos e y o u ar e go i ng t o t h e s t or e
“

t o buy e t c e t c We c an u l tim at e ly arr ive at r e al prob l em s

”
, .
, .

th at r e q u i r e r e ason i ng In t h e stor e t h e t e ac h e r i llus t r at e s t h e

.

v ar i ous op e r ati ons o n t h e bl ackbo ard u s i ng s i mpl e m ark s at ,

fi rs t : Y o u h av e bough t 20 w or t h of b e ans at t hr e e for a c e n t ,

.

Le t u s w r it e t h at do wn : I I I — I I I T h e n l e t u s c oun t
. .

III III
1 , 2, 3 , 4, 5, 6 . s ix We ll t h e n 3 3
T he re are . 6 , We c an , .

also s ay : 2 group s of I I I e q u al s 6 ; twic e thr e e s ix ; tw o ti m e s , ,

t hr e e s ix ; 2 X 3 = 6 Ho w m u c h i s
,
. Ho w m u c h i s
”
2 X 3 ? Ho w m u c h i s 3 X 2 ?
T h e follo wi ng m orn i ng w h e n t h e wr itt e n probl e m i s g i v e n
, ,

t h e c h il d should h av e b e for e h i m for r e fe r e n c e t h e c o m p u t ati on

c h ar t s wit h al l t h e c o m b i n ati on s poss i bl e .

T h e t r ans iti o n t o m e n t al c o mpu t ati on w il l c o m e af t e r t h i s

an d no t b e for e .

S AM PLE C A RD S
( Add iti on )
2 1 3
2 2
2 3 5
2 4 6

( M ul ti pl ic ati on )
2 X1 2
2 x2 = 4
2 x3 = 6
 APP E N D I C E S 4 59

fix i d e as l e sson s shoul d b e r e p e at e d m an y ti m e s E ac h t i m e
,
.
,

ho w e v e r t h e s am e obj e c ts sho uld b e pr e s e n t e d und e r d iffe r e n t

,

for m s an d i n a d i ffe r e nt e nv i ron m e nt so t h at i t wi ll al w ays b e ,

i n t e r e s ti ng b y app e ar i ng as so m e th i ng n e w : s t or y -t e ll i ng l i v ,

i ng t abl e au x l arg e i llustr at i ons ; c olor e d p ic tur e s ; st e r e op tic on

,

v i e w s e t c In c as e i nd i v i du al t e ac h i ng i s n e c e ss ary as h app e ns
,
.
,

i n t h e m os t e l e m e n t ary c l ass e s c ar e should b e exe r ci s e d to ke e p ,

all t h e oth e r c h i ldr e n busy wi th d i ff e r e n t to y s : i ns e ts l a ci ng -an d ,

bu t ton i ng -fr am e s hooks an d e y e s e t c Wh e n c h i ldre n r e fus e t o

, , .

t ak e p ar t i n th e i r l e sson s i t i s b e tt e r no t t o u s e c o e r ci on but t o ,

a i m at ob t ai n i ng ob e d i e n c e i nd i r e ct ly t hrough t h e c h i ld s i m it a
’

ti on of h i s s c hool m at e s G lo wi ng pr ai s e of t h e pup i l s w ho ar e
.
‘

sho wi ng good wi ll i n th e i r w ork a l m os t al w ays br i ngs t h e r e

c al c i t r an t s to ti m e Wh e n a c h i ld sho w s h e h as und e rstood
.

t h e po i nt und e r d i s c uss i on i t i s b e t t e r no t t o ask for a r e p e ti

,

t i on. H i s at t e nt i on i s e as i l y fati gu e d an d t h e s e c on d ti m e h e ,

m ay s ay b adl y w h at at fi rs t h e g av e su cc e ssfull y ; an d t h e f a i l
u re m ay d i s c our ag e h i m I t i s w e l l t o b e s at i s fi e d wi th t h e fi rs t
.

good ans we r b e sto w su c h pr ai s e a s wi ll aff ord t h e c h i ld a pl e a s

,

an t m e m ory of w h at h e h as b e e n do i ng ; an d go b ac k t o t h e sub

j e c t on t h e fol lo wi ng day or at t h e e arl i e s t s e v e r al hours , , ,

l at e r .

In m a nu al t r ai n i ng ho w e v e r t h e s it u ati on i s d i ff e re n t T h e
, ,
.

l e sson i n t h i s subj e ct c an b e a w hol e hour long an d should t ak e

t h e for m of s e r i ous w ork an d n ot of pl ay T h e c h i ld shoul d .

b e s e t e arl y at so m e us e fu l t ask e v e n i f a l i t t l e h ard w ork n o t , ,

u n att e nd e d w it h r i sk b e i nvolv e d ( w ood -c ut ti ng bor i ng

, , ,

F ro m t h e ou t s e t t hus t h e c h i ld wi ll b e c o m e f am i l i ar w i th t h e
, ,

d iffi c ul ti e s of br e ad -w i nn i ng e ffor t an d wi ll l e arn t o ov e r c o m e

th e m .

Int e r e s t i n w ork m ay b e s ti m ul at e d b y appropr i at e r e w ards .

T h e c h i ld m ay e arn dur i ng w ork -hours t h e m on e y for h i s pu r

c h as e s at t h e s t or e for h i s tic ke t s t o t h e th e at e r an d t h e
,

s t e r e op tic on l e ct ur e T h e c h i ld w ho do e s no t w ork m ay b e
.

ke p t aw ay fro m t h e m or e at tr ac ti v e l e ssons su c h as d an ci ng ,

an d m us ic w h i c h c o m e i mm e d i at e l y af t e r t h e w ork hour
, As .

a m att e r of f a ct t h e se c h i ldre n t ake t o m anu al t r ai n i ng v e ry

,

r e ad i l y prov i d e d t h e t asks ass i gn e d ar e ad apt e d t o t h e n atur a l

,

i n c l in ati on s of t h e i nd ivi du al c h i l d i n su c h a w ay t h at h e m ay
460 APP E N D I C E S
t ak e in his k t h e gr e ate s t poss ibl e s ati sfac ti on an d th us by
w or
n at ur al b e n t att ai n a sk i ll u s e ful t o h i m s e lf an d so c i e t y .

M O R AL E D U C A T I ON
By t h e ex p r e ss i on m or al du c ati on w e me an an e du c ati o n
e

w h ic h t e nds t o m ak e a so c i al b e i ng of an i nd i v i du al wh o i s b y
n at ur e ext r a or an ti -so ci al I t pr e s e n t s t w o asp e c ts w h ic h m ay
.

b e p ar all e l e d w it h t h e e du c ati on t hus f ar t r e at e d an d w h i c h w e

”
c a ll
“
i n t e ll e ct u al e d u c ati on .

In t h i s l atte r t r ai n i ng of t h e m i nd w e b e gan b y an appro ,

p r i at e hyg i e n i c c ur e of al l t hos e phys ic al d e f e ct s w h ic h c ould

s t an d i n t h e w ay of su cc e ssful m e n t al e du c ati on In m or a l .

e du c ati on , l i ke wi s e w e t ry t o e l i m i n at e su c h d e fe c t s as ar i s e
,

fro m so m e p ass i ng phys ic al ai l m e n t We shou l d c ar e full y c on .

s i d e r t h e app ar e n t ly c aus e l e ss n augh ti n e ss of c h i ldre n t o s e e ,

w h e t h e r it m ay no t b e du e t o so m e i n t e st i n al d i s t urb an c e or to ,

t h e e arl y s t age s o f so m e i nfe c ti ou s d i s e as e T h e sym pto m s of

.

su c h d i s e as e s should b e kno w n t o t h e t e ac h e r I h av e b e e n t old .

t h at E ngl i sh m o t h e rs u s e t h e e m p i r ic al m e thod of ad mi n i s te r i ng
pu rg ati v e s or c o l d sho w e r b ath s t o n augh ty c h i ldre n oft e n
“ ”
,

wit h goo d c orr e cti on al e fl e c t I sugge s t t h at su c h e m p i r i c i sm i s

.

h ar dl y prud e n t w h e r e s ci e n c e i s abl e t o pre s c r i b e m u c h s afe r

an d m or e effi c ac i ou s m e t hods C h i ld h y g i e n e m us t b e w e l l
.

kno w n t o t h e e du c at or an d shou l d b e t h e p ivo t al po i n t of e v e ry

e du c ati on a l s y s t e m .

In m e n t al e du c ati on w e b e g an by r e du ci ng t h e c h i l d t o t o n i c
,

q u i e s c e n c e ; h e r e w e m us t b e g i n b y r e du c i ng t h e c h i l d to o b e di
en c e .

In m e n t al e du c ati on t o g ive t h e c h i ld h i s fi rs t n o ti ons of

,

h i s ph y s ic al p e rson ( p e rson al i m it ati on : t ou c h i ng of t h e p arts

of t h e bod y ) an d of h i s r e l ati on s to e nv i ron m e n t ( p e rson al i mi
t at i o n : m ov i ng of obj e ct s e t c ) w e h ad r e c ours e t o i mi ta ti o n ;
, .

h e re t o i ns ti l i n t h e c h i ld e l e me n t ary no ti ons of h i s du ti e s w e
, ,

m us t t hro w arou nd t h e c h i ld an at m osph e r e m or ally c orr e ct an ,

e n vi ron m e n t i n w h ic h af t e r att ai n i ng ob e d i e n c e h e c an i mi ta t e
, ,

p e rson s w h o ac t prop e rly .

In m e n t al e du c ati on w e w e n t on t o t h e t r ai n i ng of t h e s e ns e s ;
h e r e w e p ass t o t h e e du c ati on of f e e li n g s O u r n e xt s te p i n.
,
 AP P E N D I C E S 461

th e s w as t o t h e e du c ati on pro p e r of
o n e c a e, the m i nd ; h e r e it
i s t o t h e t r ai n i ng of t h e wi ll .

T h e p ar al l e l i s p e rfe c t

hygi e n i c t r ai n i ng : hyg i e n e ;
t o n i c q u i es c e n c e : ob e d i e n c e ;
im it ati on : i m it at i on ( e nv i ron m e n t )
s e nsory e du c at i on : e du c at i on of t h e fe e li ngs ( s e ns ib i l iti e s ) ;
m e n t al e du c ati on p rop e r : e du c at i on of t h e w i ll .

E E
O B DI N C E
In a c o mm an d t h e w i ll of t h e t e ac h e r i s i m pos e d upon t h e
d e fe c ti v e c h i l d w h o i s l ac k i ng i n w i ll T h e w i l l of t h e t e ac h e r
.

i s subs tit u t e d for t h e c h i ld s w i l l i n i m p e ll i ng t o a cti on or i n

’

h i b i t i n g t h e c h i l d s i m puls e s F ro m t h e v e ry fi rs t t h e c h i ld m us t
’
.

fe e l t h i s w i ll w h ic h i s i mpos e d upon h i m an d i s i rre vo c abl y

,

d e s ti n e d t o ov e r c o m e h i m . T h e c h i l d m us t und e rs t and t h at
a g a i ns t t h i s w i ll h e c anno t o ff e r an y r e s i s t an c e T h e t e ac h e r s
’
.

c o m m an d m us t b e ob ey e d at w h at e v e r c os t e v e n i f c o e r c i v e
,

m e asure s m us t b e r e sor t e d t o N o c ons i d e r ati on should e ve r

.

l e ad t h e t e ac h e r t o d e s i s t fro m e nfor c i ng h e r c o m m and T he .

c h i l d m us t sub m it an d ob e y T h e t e ac h e r ac c ord i ngly shoul d

.
,

b e c ar e fu l at fi rs t t o c o m m an d only w h at sh e i s sur e t o obt ai n .

F o r e xam p l e sh e m ay c o m m an d t h e c h i l d t o m o ve ; s i n c e i f
, ,

n e c e ss ary sh e c an f o r c e h im t o m ov e S h e m ay c o m m an d t h e
.

c h i ld t o s t an d m o ti on l e ss b e c aus e i f n e c e ss ary sh e c an t i e h im
, ,

or p u t h im i n a st r ai gh t -j acke t S h e shoul d n eve r on t h e o t h e r

.
,

h and c o mm and t h e c h i l d t o
, b e g p ardon ”
b e c aus e th e c h i ld
,

m ay r e fus e an d i n t h e f ac e of t h i s r e fus al t h e t e ac h e r m ay
,

fin d h e rs e lf h e lpl e ss an d l os e h e r au t hor it y T o ac q u i r e au t hor

.

ity i n c o mm an d t h e t e ac h e r m us t poss e ss a c ons i d e r ab le po we r

,

of sugg e s ti on ; an d t h i s sh e c an p arti al l y ac q u i r e T h e t e ac h e r .

”
shoul d b e phys i c al l y att r ac tive of an i m pos i ng p e r s on al it y
,
“
.

S h e shou l d h ave a c l e ar m us ic al v o ic e an d so m e po w e r of f ac i al
,

e xpr e ss i on an d g e s t ur e . T h e s e t h i ngs m ay b e i n l arg e p ar t

a c q u i r e d by a ct u a l s t udy of d e c l am ati on an d i m it ati on subj e c t s ,

i n w h ic h t h e p e rfe ct t e ac h e r shoul d b e pro fi c i e n t T h e art i s tic .

s t ud y of c om m a n d w h ic h t h e t e ac h e r m ay und e rt ak e pr e s e nts
, ,

it s e lf und e r t hr e e asp e c ts : v o ic e s t udy g e stur e f aci al e xpr e ss i on

, ,
.
 APP E N D I C E S 463

l i ng, fol l ow e d by slo w i ns i s t e n t w ords

, J am e s p u t tha t b o o k ,

on t h e t abl e J am e s p u t t h at book on t h e tab l e

, J am e s ,

”
pu t th at book o n t h e t abl e T hu s t h e vo ic e bo t h i n c o m m an d
.

i ng an d i n d e s c r i b i ng w h at w as c o mm and e d w h i l e urg i ng t h e ,

c h i ld to p e rform t h e r e q u i r e d a cti on an d gu i d i ng h im t o do it ,

w as a lso afl o r di n g u s h e lp i n it s sugg e s ti v e po w e r an d by e x
'

pl an ati on .

G es tu r e . T h e t e ac h e r m us t s t udy p ar tic ul arly e xpr e ss i v e

ge s t ur e S h e m us t al w ay s a cc o m p any w h at sh e s ay s wi th g e s
.

ture s s e rv i ng bo t h t o i m p e l t h e c h i ld t o a cti ons an d w h ic h sug

g e s t i m it ati o n an d e xpl ai n t h e c o m m and G e s t ur e should b e .

e xpr e ss i v e e nough t o b e r e a d i l y i n t e ll i g i bl e e v e n wi thou t w ords ;

for e xam pl e i f it i s d e s i r abl e t o br i ng t h e c h i ld to p e rfe ct

,

q u i e s c e n c e as t h e c o m m an d i s g i v e n t h e t e ac h e r should s t op
, , ,

b e c o m e al m os t r i g i d look i ng sh arpl y at t h e c h i l d i n su c h a w ay
,

t h at h e m ay b e i m pr e ss e d b y t h a t r i g i d fix i t y w h ic h h e s e e s
b e for e h im an d b e brough t b y sugge s ti on t o i m i t at e it T h e n .

t o k e e p t h e c h i l d m o ti onl e ss t h e t e ac h e r m ay at tr a ct h i s att e n
,

ti on b y a sl i gh t al m ost c ont i nuou s hypno ti z i ng sor t of w h i s t l e .

T o e xc it e an ap at h e t i c c h i ld t o m ov e m e nt t h e t e a c h e r shoul d
h e rs e lf m ov e a cc o m p any i ng t h e s t r e ss of h e r vo ic e wi th m o ti on
,

i n h e r w hol e body .

In t h e s i mp l e c o mman d ar m g e s t ur e only should b e us e d an d

,

as follo w s

r ap i d m ov e m e n t i n s t r ai gh t l i n e
F o r I n c i t em e n t : .

F o r E xp l an ati o n : slo w m ov e m e n t i n c urv e .

C o mm an d of q u i es c e n c e : g e s t ur e up an d do w n fro m w it hou t ,

t o w ard t h e body .

C o mm an d of m o v e m en t : g e st ur e fro m do w n up fro m wit h i n , , ,

ou t fro m t h e body .

F ac i al exp r ess i o n a nd g az e h as a po w e rful e ffe ct

g az e : The
o n t h e c h i ld I t i s t h e s am e g az e w h ic h i m pr e ss e d t h e c h i ld
.

an d brough t h im t o t h e fi rs t s t e ps i n h i s e du c at i on
( s e e ou r
c h ap t e r on t h e E du c a ti o n o f t h e Gaz e ) All t h e e xpr e ss i ons of
.

t h e e y e ar e us e ful provi d e d t h e t e a c h e r e m plo y s th e m prop e rl y .

It i s no t a q u e s ti o n of s c o w l i ng at t h e c h i ld t o fr i gh te n h im ,

a s m i gh t b e suppos e d ; bu t r ath e r of br i ng i ng t h e e e as w e ll
y
as t h e w hol e f ac e t o e xpr e s s all t ho s e e m o ti ons w h i c h t h e t e ac h e r
4 64 APP E N D I C E S
m us t h e rs e lf act u al l y fee l i n t h e pr e s e n c e of an o b e d i e n t o r r e
he l l i o n s a p ati e n t or angry c h i ld ; an d of g i v i ng t o t h i s e xp r e s
,

si on s u c h c l e arn e ss t h at t h e c h i ld c anno t poss ibly b e m i s t ake n

as t o it s m e an i ng ( S eg u i n p ag e T h e t e ac h e r s f ac e m us t
’
,

b e e xpr e ss i v e m ob i l e h e n c e i n h arm on i ou s r e l ati on sh i p w it h

, ,

w h at i s t o b e e xpr e ss e d ( c al m n e ss g ai e t y e ff or t )
, , . T h e e xpr e s
s i on m us t n e v e r v ar y m om e n t ar i ly on acc oun t of an y ext r an e ous
d i v e rs i on w h ic h m ay o c c ur ; o t h e r wi s e t h e c h i l dr e n w i l l soon
l e arn t o prov oke su c h di s t r acti on s of t h e t e ach e r s att e n ti on
’
.

S u c h c o mm ands w h i c h d e m and on t h e t e ac h e r s p ar t so m u c h
’
,

ar ti s ti c s t udy w i ll of c ours e no t b e n e c e s s ary d ur i ng t h e w h o l e

, , ,

p e r i od of t h e c h i ld s e duc ati o n
’
.

T HE E ND
co n ti n u e d f r o m f r o n t flap

p roj cts e o f R o me , in
slum s of L ondon an d ( t o
th e
w ard t h e e n d o f h e r long l i fe ) in Indi a Non e of t h e .

f ash i on abl e r e c e n t d e s c r i p ti ons of th e A m e r ic an p oor

i s so d i r e ctly di s t urb in g as Monte ssor i s c o mm en t on ’

w hat s he found w aiting for h er at th e o p e n i ng of

s chool i n S an Lor e nzo : S ixt y t e arful fr i gh t e n e d ‘
,

c hi ldr e n so shy th at it w as im p oss ibl e t o ge t th em t o

,

s p e ak with b e wi ld e r e d e y e s a s though th e y h ad n e v e r
, ,

s e e n any th i ng i n th ei r l i v e s Y e t tw o y e a rs l at e r .
’

th e s e ch i ldr e n age s ix w e r e p e rfor ming as w ell as

, ,

t h e e i gh t -y e a r -olds i n t h e m i ddl e c l as s e l e m e n t a ry -

s c hools of R o m e I t gi v e s o n e t o t hi nk
. .

F und am e n t ally ho w e v e r M on t e ssor i i s honor e d

“
, ,

t od ay for h e r or igin al insight i n t o t h e n atur e of th e

l e arni ng p ro c e ss an d th e p o t e n ti al of t h e s chool .

‘
W e do no t s t ar t sh e w r it e s i n th e s e p ag e s fro m
,
’
,
‘

t h e c on c lus i ons of e xp e r i m e n t al p sy c hology We .

s t ar t e ss en ti ally fro m a m et hod an d it i s p rob abl e ,

th at p sy chology wi ll b e abl e t o dr aw it s c on c lus i ons

fro m p e d agogy so und ers t ood an d no t v ic e v e rs a ,
.
’

J e ro me B run e r w r it e s b ett e r th an t h at bu t M on te s ,

sor i s s t at e m e n t i s an acc ur at e d e s c r i p ti on of w h at
’

h e h as b e e n do i ng at Harv ard s C e n t e r for C o gn iti v e ’

S t ud i e s an d i n h i s m e e ti ngs wit h t h e m ath an d s ci

e n c e r e for m e rs Ins t e ad of p r e s c r i b i n g i ns t ru cti on al
.

p ro c e dur e s fro m l e a rn ing th e ory wh ich i s w h at A me r ,

ic an e du c ati on al ac ad e mici ans h av e b e e n t rying u n

su cc e ssfully f o r h alf a c e n t ury B run e r h as b e e n ,

w ork ing t o de v e lo p a th e ory of ins t ru cti on fro m w h at

h e obs e rv e s i n s e l e ct e d c l assroo m s ho p i ng al l t h e ,

w hil e that so me w he r e with i n thi s th e ory of i n s tr u c

ti on a v al i d l e arn ing th e ory wi ll h av e l e f t a t r ac k abl e
SpO OI
‘
M on te ssor i w ould a pp rov e
.
”
.

Are m arkab le book b y

a re m arkabl e hum an b e ing .

S C I E N T I F IC A M ER I C A N
 c h i ld r e n , d e v e lo p e d mate r i al
s he

an d me t hods w h i c h allo w e d t h em t
p e rfor m r e ason ab ly w e ll on s c hoo
p robl ems p r e v i ously c ons i de r ed f ar
b ey ond t hei r c ap acity Her gr e a .

t r i u mp h i n r e al ity an d i n t h e n e w s
,

p ap e rs c am e w h e n sh e p res e n t s
,

c h i ldr e n f ro m men tal i ns tit u ti ons a

th e p ubl i c exami n ati ons for p r i
mary c e r ti fi c at e s w h ic h w as as f a ,

as t h e av e r ag e I t al i an e v e r w en t i r
f o rm al e du c ati on an d h e r c h i l
dr e n p ass e d t h e exam .

T y p i c ally sh e dr e w fro m h er ex
,

p e r ie n c e th e vi g orous c on c lus i on
th at i f t h es e c h ildr en c ould b
brough t t o t h e ac ad emic l e v e l
r e ach e d b y nor mal c hi ldr en t h e , ‘

the r e h ad t o b e some thin g ho rr ib l

w r ong w it h t h e e du c ati on o f norma
’

c h ildr en A n d so sh e m ov e d on t
.

th e n o r mal c h i ldr e n o f t h e slu ms

T h er e af t e r h er o w n d e s i r e an d
,

Mar i a Mo n t e s spr i w as bor n i n b y p ubli e ma

‘
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_ n d s h e w as an e du
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1 8 70, an d sh e yes th e fi rs t w o man c at or n o t a me d i c al do c t or

,
.

v r gr an te d a me d ic al degr e e b y an
e e Mon t e ssor i s i ns ight s an d met hod
’

I t al i an univ e rsit A s a c h i ld s h e ar e c on t ai n e d i n four b as ic t ext s

sho we d gr e at abfi
,

I i t y i n ma t hema no w r e p ubl i she d : T HE MO N T E S S OR

.

ti c s an d or igin al ly i n t e nd e d t o b e MET H O D S P ON T AN E O US A CT IVIT Y I

,

c ome an engin ee r S h e di d p os t . E D U C A T IO N ( T h e A d v an c e d M o n t e s
gr adu at e w ork I p sy c h i at ry . s o ri M e t h o d v olu me , T HE MON
A t th e age 0 2 8 Mon te ssor i b e ,
T E S S O RI MA T E R I A
c ame d i r ec t r e ss Of a t ax s u p p o rf ed ( Th e A dvan c e d M o n t e ss o ri M e t h o d’
s chool for d e f ec tive c hi ldr en Work . volume an d D R MON T E S S ORI .

in g t hi r te e n hours a day w i t h t h e OWN H AN DBOO K .

BAS H
C MO NTES S O RI
] BOO KS
T HE MO N T E S S O R I M ET H OD , b y M ari a DR . I
M O N T E S S O R ’S O W N HAN D BOO K
M ont e ssori In t rb d uc t i o n
. b y M artin by M ari a M ont e ssori 43 photos .

M ay e r T h e e duc ation o f
. children fi gur e s plus 1 f our - c olor photo . 17
f ro m 3 to 6 . W ith al l the ori g in al p age s .

photo graphs . 5 0 p h o t o s /fi g u r e s . 4 48
p ag e s .
MO N T E S S O R I F OR P A R E N T S , b y D orothy
C an fi e l d F ish e r 2 0 photos plus 1 f our
S PO N T A N E O U S A C T I I T Y IN V D U C ATIO N , E color photo 2 8 8
.

p ag e s
.

b y M ari a M ont e ssori T h e A d vanc e d

. .

M o n t es s o ri M e t h o d , volume 1 T he 0

e du c ation o f children f rom 7

.

to 11
T HE MO N T E S S O R MAN UAL FOE I
T EA C H ER S A N D P AR E N T S , b y D o ro t h
.

384 p ag e s 233
.
.

C an fi e l d F ish er P r a ti al e xe r is e s
. c c c
T HE MO N T E S S OR IE
L E M EN T A R Y MA TE an d l e ssons o n t h e u s e o f t h e ap
R I AL b y M ari a M onte ssori T h e A d
,
.
p aratus in home s and s hools, nature c
ve n c e d M o n t es s o r i M e t h o d volum e 2 ,
. study , an d an e xt end e d dis ussion o n c
T he e duc ation of c hildren f rom 7 to c
M ont e ssori dis iplin e an d ob e di en e c .