M ec h a n i c a l D r a f t i ng

R E V I SE D I N 1 9 15

TH E D EP A RTM E NT O F G E N E R A L E N G N E E R N G D R I I A WI NG
H . W . I
M LL E R , M E . .

‘ R. K S TE W ARD C E
. , . . F M P OR TE , M S
. . R . .

H H
. .JORDA N B S, . . H O U GG, C E
. . R . .

R C
. RA N E S E
, . C . A . A TWE L L , B S . .

I n t h e U n i ver s i ty of I l l i no i s
Ur b a n a , I l l i n o i s

(O riginal edi t ion b y H . W . M LL E I R)

Th e M a nu al A t P r s r e s s

Peo ria Illi i

. no s
 L IB R A RY
I
STA E NORM AL SCH OOL

MANUAL ARTS N
A D H OM E ECONOMICS

ARA CAUF ORNH

SANTA BARQ ,

P RE ace is é ” M
i
“

In writing the ori ginal edition of this tex t it seemed

wise to the autho r to base its arrangement and content
upon two principles which considerable e xperience
proved s ound Thes e principles are fi rst that the stu
. : ,

dent can just as well and perhap s better be taught the ,

us e o f instrument s on work that will at the same time

haV e educational value ; second that for greatest effi
,

ci ency in teachi ng drawing the te x t should be made s o

complete and follow the clas s room work so clo sely that
lecturing is unneces sary .

The above principles were followed by fi rst desi gn

ing a very fle xible cours e in drafting substitutin g draw ,

ings of machine parts for the conventional geometrical

fi gures The work was arranged into de finite groups
.
,

according to subj ect each group being scheduled f or a

,

de finite amount of t i me Second the text was so ar

.
,

r a nged that s ection lesson or chapter one g ave all

, ,

information neces sary f or the work included in group

one etc
, .

Af ter three years very satisfactory trial of the tex t ,

’

3 revision with the desire that the work shall be not only
the department of drawi ng has undertaken a complete
“
a s a te x t more complete than the fi rst but also a book o f
‘

, ,

reference that will be of s ervice after the student has

completed the course .

H W MILLE R
October , 1 9 1 5 .
 CONTENTS

Ch a tep r 1 . L etteri n g ,
F r eeh a nd a nd M echa ni ca l
Cha te p r 2 . Use of I nst um ents r
p
Ch a ter 3 . Or thogr a phi c P r oj ect i on

Ch a tep r Worki ng D r awi n g s

Cha te p r 5 . F as tene s, r Thr ea ds, Bol t s a nd Nut s, etc

Ch a tep r 6 . Sh0 p Ter m s, Tool s, M a chi nes, et c

Ch a p t er 7 . I somet i c r a nd Ob li que P r oj t i on
ec

Ch a p t er 8 . M a chi ne Sk etchi n g
9 . Pe r p tiv
s ec e

App endi x
 M ECHANICAL DRAF Tl NG
C H AP TE R 1

LE TT E RI NG

REP HAND
P -

( 1 ) Freehand o r o ffhand letterin g is s o much a part

of every engineer s daily routine that to b e unable to
’

letter with speed and grace is considered an inex cusable

discredit The results of practice show that no one need
.

be embarrassed long becaus e of the lack of this skill for ,

anyone can learn to letter H owever the ac quisition o f

.
,

pro fi ciency demands what skill in any manual perform

ance re quires — more or les s experience and care ful stu dy
,

of principles .

It is fortuna te for the beginner in lettering that there

are very few elements that must be mastered M o st .

engineers us e extremely simpli fi ed styles of freehand

le tters The Re i nhar dt alphabet ( s la nt or ver ti ca l ) is
.

especially noted fo r i ts simplicity as it has been s tripped

-

of all superfluous a ppenda ges tha t made formed s tyles

both complica ted and time consuming in their us e In
-

th e practice of ei ther type the beginner will fi nd that all

of the letters are made up of but two o r three charac
ter i sti c elements or strokes each of which is easily
,

constructed .

The fi rst style o r typ e presented is the Reinhardt

s l a nt
. It should be mastered thor ol y because it is in use
in most drafting rooms and colleges It is probable that.

i ts use in over eighty per cen t of th e large drafting rooms

8 A I A
M E CH N C L DR A F TI NG .

of the country is due to its legibility and ease and

rapidity of construction .

( 2) Sel ecti on of Letteri n g P ens For a pure type o f .

either Reinhardt or vertical letter such a pen should be ,

used as will give a stro k e of unif or m wi dth w ei ght or , ,

hea vi ness when it is moved up down r i ght l ef t or di a g

, , , , ,

ona lly on the paper ; othe r wis e the letter will have a
shading which does not belon g to the types mentioned
, .

Fi g . 1

Some pens which have proven s atisfactory for letters

o f a unifo rm weight are the She pp ar d lettering pen
‘

Paysant pen M o ore s Non Leaki n g f ountai n pen and

’
-

, ,

any of the steel points known a s b all p ointed pens .

I nki n g of P
n Apparently a great part of the
e s .

trouble experienced in the use of the above pens is due

to improper inking No l etteri ng pen s houl d ever b e
.

dipped i n to the i nk b ottl e The proper method is to

.

tra nsf er by means o f the qui ll attached to the cork a

small amount of ink to the i nsi de of the ball pointed pen
or b etw een the nib s o f the Sheppard or P a ysant pens .
 LE TTER IN G . 9

It I s well to hold the pen point over the bottle so that any
superfluous ink may not be spilled on the drawin g o r
desk The word of warni ng that must be heeded is to
.

us e only enough ink and no more One may be sure of .

not having too much ink on the ball poin ted pen i f he
will al ways stroke ofi the pen upon the quill before
trying any letters .

Sl op e Guid e Immediately on beginning practice on

.

inclin ed freehand letters it will be well to provide oneself

wi th a sheet of heavy drawing paper about thr ee by ,

ei ght inches ,
acros s which have been ruled a s eries of
heavy pa r a ll el lines at from 70 to 75 to the l ong edge
° °

as shown in Fig 1 Thes e lines should be at e qual inter

. .

v al s and from one ei ghth to one qua r ter inch

- -

apart An angle of appro x imately 72 may

.
°

easily be construc ted by laying off a r i ght

tri a ngl e whose b a s e is 2 and a l ti tu de 6 Fig 2 ,
. .

If this sheet which may be termed a slope

,

guid e be laid just below the line on which

,

the freehand let ters are to b e made i t will ,

not be difli cult to make all fi rst element

strokes parallel to each o ther It is lik ewise .

well to make us e of such a guide continua lly Fig 2 .

until this slope ha s become perfec tly na tural fo r n othi ng ,

s o detr a cts f r om the good a ppea r a nce of i ncli n edl etter s

a s a differ ence i n s l ope of the s tems .

P a p er . A goo d quality of l edger paper will b e f ound

best for letterin g inasmuch as it has a smooth hard
, ,

surface that takes ink evenly It is lik ewise well to adopt

.

a standard letter si z e sheet 8 1/2x 1 1 which will be found

, ,

in stock in any printing oflice or stationery store and to ,

10 M E CH N C L A I A DRAF TI NG .

whi ch all modern o ffi ce fil es are adapted in cas e one

wishes to file the finished work .

P R ACTI CE ON ELEM EN TS
( 3 ) Gui d e Li n es Unless especially pr i nted pra c tice
.

sheets have been prepared the beginner should rule on

,

the blank sheet a series of six light p arallel pencil lines

( preferably parallel to the short edge of the sheet ) at
intervals of one inch and six at intervals of one — hal f
I nch .

E/em en r Num b er 1

£ /em en 7 Num b er 2
‘
.

F ig 8 .

F irst eleme nt Stem s E lement one is sim y a

, .
m
s trai g ht li ne o f varying length Fig 3 and makin g an
, .
,

a ngl e wi th the ver ti ca l e qual to th e s l ope adopted for

the incl i ned alphabet In prac tice thi s slop e can easily
.

be secured by placing the slope guide just b enea th the

guide li ne on which one is working Several lines of .

stems should be made on the practice sheet using the ,

half inch guide lines each with a singl e downw a r d s tr oke

-

of the pen and at equa l intervals When finished the .

stems should all have the s a me s l ope be evenly spa ced ,

and each have the s a me w eight or thi ckness thruout its

length and a ll s tems of the sa me w eight .
 LETTE RI N G . 11

Se c ond el em ent, Oval s The s econd el ement i s a per

.

f ect ell i p se, inscribed in a parallelogram tw o of who se ,

s i des are pa r a ll el to el em ent one and who s e b a se is for ,

normal let ters a li t tle l ess than the ver ti ca l height Fi g 3

, ,
. .

This element can be made wi th one stroke of the pen ,

af ter some little practice ; however it is advis able for ,

the b egi nner to form i t

with tw o s tr okes a s shown ,

in Fig 4 making slightly

.
,

more than hal f each time

and letting the ends of the F ig 4 .

strokes overlap This wil l i n general insure a better

.

j oint as the overlapping tends to smooth out the juncture

,
.

Fi g . 5

In order that one may learn the shape of element

numb er two in the least pos sible time it is suggested ,

that a beginning be made a s shown in Fig 5 with the .

,

height of the character one inch Us i ng the one inch .

-

spaced guide lin es already on the practice sheet rule a ,

series of pa r a ll el ogr a ms b as es one inch and si des ,

i ncli ned at the s l ope a ngl e Then sketch in long sweeping

.

a r cs ta ngent to the i ncli ned s i des at their mi ddl e poi nts ,

a Fig 5 ; nex t follow the arcs tangent to the hori z ontal

, .

sides b Fig 5 The completed shape now suggests its el f

, , . .
,

0 Fig 5 and a few smoothing up strokes will complete

, .
,

the ellipse d Fig 5 I t should be rememb ered that the

, ,
. .
12 A I A D RAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .

ellips e is to the si des of the pa r a ll elogra m at

ta ngent
their mi ddl e poi nts ; this gives the neces s ary tip that is
essential to a grace ful appearance of the alphabet .

Com pr es s ed E x f e n de d .

F ig 6 .

An ex cellent variat ion of this e x ercis e is that of

making ellipses of varying widths It is evident Fi g 6 .
, ,

that this proces s will yield alphabets of widely differing

general effect altho the elements entering into their
,

construction are identical The typ es of letters produced .

by the varying wid ths are a s indicated compress ed nor , ,

mal and extend ed

, .

The sketch ex ercise just outlined should be repeated

with di minishing heights of thr ee f our ths one ha lf one -

,
-

f our th and finally on e ei ghth of an inch the si z e ordi

,
-

na r i ly used in drafting .

Fi g . 7

O RMATI ON OF LETTER S
F

( 4 ) In Fig 7 it is seen that the lower case letters

.

0 a d q b p c e and y and capital s C G 0 Q Fig 1 0

, , , , , , , , , , , , , .
,

are simple el em ents or combinations of elements one and

 LETTER N G I .
13

tw o E l ement one
a portion o f and el e ment two make
‘

up lower case letters g y j f n h m r , , , , , , , , s, and u Fig

,
. 8, and
0

Fi g 8

capit als B D,J r R

, , s , and, U , Fig ,1 0 The remainin g . .

straight stroke letters ,

i , k , l , t, v, W, x, and 2, F i g 9 , and .

A, E , r , H, 1 , K , L, M , N, T, v, w, x, Y, and z , F i g 1 0,
’

A l/l/X Z

are perhap s easiest to construct It should b e noted that .

th e lower case let ters a c e etc are two third s the heigh t
, , , .
,
-

of the capi tals The letter t is five six ths height and
.
-

ab
g U
h /m ’
k c a ef
n op q r s tu
/23 4 5 vw x y y z 6 78 9 0
A B C D E F G H /J K L M N
O P O R S TU l/ W X YZ
Fi g 1 0 .

b d h etc are f ul l height The tail s of the le tters g

, , , .
,
.
,

j p q etc e xtend below the b a se lin e one third their

, , , .
,
-

height Numerals are the full stem height ex cept when

.

used in fractions when they should b e shortened slightly .

See Fig 1 0 fo r complete slant alphabet and numerals

. .
14 A I A
M E CH N C L DR AF TI NG .

VER TICAL LETTE RS

( 5 ) In Fi g 1 1 is given an alphabet o f vertical let
.

ters The principles o f construction are o f course iden

.

tical with tho se of incl ined letters P ractice should .

begin on the two elements stems and ovals as directed

, ,

in Ar t 3 No vertical guide wil l b e necessary in this

. .

b de f gh ij k l m n o pq r s ru
’
C c

I 2 3 4 5 vw x y z 6 7 8 9
A B C DE F G H ld K L M N
O D O RS TU V WXY Z &
Fi g . 11

case i nasmuch as everyone has a well developed s ense of

,

appreciation of the vertical It may be well to mention

.

that when using vertical letters an e xtended style similar , ,

to c or d Fig 6 is always easiest of ex ecution and ha s an

,
.
,

ex cellent appearance .

ME CHANI CAL LETTER S

The need fo r letters made entir el y wi th i nstru

( 6)
ments will be only o ccasional and space will be given ,

here for only the general methods fo r laying out such

work In the appendix will be found alphabets of vari
.

ous styles for u se in the construction of ti tles signs , ,

name plates etc These may be constructed ei ther

, .

mechanically o r freehand as desired ,

.
 LE TTE R ING. 15

U ni t Sp ac e If any given height which may b e

.

as signed to a letter be di vided into si x equal parts ( f or

methods see Fi g 1 2) each o f thes e parts is termed a
.

—1 is a ny chosen dis t a nce

A 1 2 3 4 5 °

Fig . 12

u ni t spa c e It will be noticed in Fig 1 3 which is o f the

. .
,

mechanical vertical Gothic alphabe t mo s t commonly used

by engineers that all stems are of e qual width that is
, , ,
16 A I A DRAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .
18 A I A DRAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .

i s below .The letters B E R S X and Z and the nu

, , , , , ,

mer a l s 2 3 5 6 8 and 9 Fig 1 5 will have a more pleas

, , , , , , .
,

ing appearance i f the width of the top section is les s

than that o f the bottom .

The di stance d may v ary from to

Fi g . 15

SP ACIN G

(8 ) H avin g learned the co rrect shapes of the

le tters it becomes necess ary to direct particular
,

attention to their combination into wo rds and sentences

 LETTER I NG .
19

in hea dings si gna tu res titles name plates etc While

, , , ,
.

i t may be aptly s aid that beautifully fo rmed letters can

result o nl y by a process of designi ng each stroke as it is
ex ecuted this is more especially true of the completed
,

title page o r other group of letters taken as a whole , ,

where as much judgment is employed in the determ i

nation of the areas to be left white a s tho se to be made
black.

M e thods of Ar eas As
a help in securing good spacing
.

b y eye alone a r ul e that has proven very good i s that o f

,

making the total areas between succe ssive letters a ppea r

e qual I t i s well to adopt a speci fi c area for thi s unit
. .

The best unit area i s about one third of the a r ea of the -

letter M ; thi s is e quivalent to a li nea r spacing of 2 units .

K E Y TO TABLE , F I G . 16
.

To obtain the space in uni ts to be allowed between any

, ,

letter e g A and any letter of the alphabet whi ch may

,
. .
, ,

follow it in a word it i s seen in the table Fig 1 6 tha t

, , .
,

b etween A and BDEF etc one unit space should be left

,
.
,

and between A and OGO etc one half unit In every ,

.
, .

case the spacing given i s th at to be allowed between the

letter given in the fi rst column and any letter of the
alphab et which may follow it in a word .
20 A I A DRAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .

F ig 1 6
.
 LE TTE R ING .
21

Sp ec i al Cas e s The me tho d of areas j ust suggested

.

can be eas i ly applied insp acing the complete rectangular

letters H M etc ; and after some practice will not be
, , ,
.

found diffi cult fo r the curved let ters There are how .
,

ever letters which re quire attention i n almo st every

,

Fi g . 17

arrangement in which they occur In Fig 1 7 is shown . .

a word involving A F L T and Y all of which , , , , , ,

together with J P and V are di fficult to combine with

, , ,

other letters and maintain goo d spacing because they

di fl er so greatly in width at the top and bottom When .

L come s before A it is wise to decrease its width one q uar -

ter unit So also when T follows F P T V W or Y its

.
, , , . , , , ,

width should be reduced one quarter unit A after F and -

.

before or after T V W or Y should be set much clo ser

, , , ,

than when u sed with other letters in so me cases th e ,

spacing being even negative i e the F overlapping the ,

. .
,

A Fig 1 7 Other changes will suggest themselve s

, . . .

Crowding Letter s . One of the common errors made

by b eginners is that of crowding the straight s troke

Approv d e pacing
S
I correct
n Spacmg
Fi g . 18

letters too close together and separating the oval letters

too far ; this always results in maki n g the ink ing look
heavier in some places than in others Fig 1 8 , . .
29 M E CH N C LA I A DRAF TI NG .

Sp a c in g of Com p res sed and Ext end ed Letters In the .

latter part of Art 3 it was shown that wide vari ation in

.

the re sul ting appearance of an alphabet may be secured

by modifying the proportions of the oval element I t .

should be k ept in mind when perf orming an e xercise i n ,

any altered style that good appearance i e uniformi ty

, , . .
,

of shape s e quality of spacing smoothnes s of e ffect can

:
, , ,

be produced in only one way All letters and spaces

must be reduced or enlarged in the same proportion .

That is if the letters are decrea sed one third their normal
,
-

width s then the value s given in Fig 1 6 mu st be decreased .

one third also in order to give the proper spacing to be

-

us ed Thus suppose the wo rd shown in Fig 1 9 ( a ) if con

.
,
.
,

structed of normal let ters is found to be either too long ,

or too short for the space available for it In ( b ) and .

( c ) o f thi s fi gure are shown the same word constructed

TERM INAL S TATION T
ERMIN
ALST
A N
llO
NA
a (b)

T E Q M l L S T A T IC) N
Fi g . 19

in compressed and e xtended style s re spectively In each .

form however i t will b e seen tha t the distance between

, ,

straight stroke le tters as tha t be tween M and I conf orms , ,

to that prescribed in Ar t 8 ; that i s it i s one third the .

,
-

width of the letter M The va lues gi ven in the ta b le .

,

Fig 1 6 may be used di r ectly by simply taking a s the uni t

.
,

for spa ci ng one si xth the Wi dth of the M in the p articular

-

style u sed The stems of compressed and e xtended let

.

ters have the same width a s the stems of normal letters ,

i e one si x th of the height The me thod here outlined

. .
,
-

i s applicable to both vertical and slant styles .

 LE TTER I NG
.
23

M ec hani c al Sp acing In the table Fig 1 6 is gi ven in

.
,
.
,

terms of a sub —division of the standard uni t space the ,

spacing that is appro x imately co rrect according to good ,

desi gn for any combination of letters If this table be

, .

given s ome careful study in connection with th e prin ciple

“ ”
e xplained in the para g raph M etho d of Areas it will
, ,

be possible af ter some lit tle practice to design rapidly

without constant reference to the table for the correct
spacing .

NAME PLATE S
( 9 ) De fi ni tion A na m e pla te is a small metal plate
.

fastened to machine or structure and should contain

:
th e following information Na m e of th e m a chi ne ( unl es s
it is s o common as to be perfec tly fami l iar to everyone ) ,

na m e of th e m a nufa ctu ri ng compa ny and a ddr es s o r ,

l oca ti on of the compa ny s w or ks or fa ctori es

’
.

DR AWI N G TI TLE S

( 1 0) De fini tion A w or ki ng dr a w i ng ti tle is a con

:
.

dens ed statement of the following inf ormation Na m e

of the pi ece of m a chi nery drawn na m e and a ddr ess of ,

the ma nuf acturi ng compa ny i ni ti a ls of the dr a f ts ma n

, ,

check er and tra cer s ca l e dr a w i ng num b er and other

, , , ,

necessary fi li ng da ta .

GENERAL ORD ER OF WORK IN CON STRUCTI ON OF

WO RKI NG DRAWI NG TI TLE
(11 ) Given d ata
In making up a w or king dr a wi ng
.

ti tl e the draftsman ordinarily has given him a certain

amount of data as follows “
:
De tails of H ori z ontal M ill
i ng M achine ma nuf a ctur ed b y the L andis T ool Compa ny
, ,

Waynesboro P enn a ; drawn by ( R C S ) checked by

,
. . .
24 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

i ng fini s hed April 2nd , The above material con ,

densed, must be placed within a given title space per ,

” ”
haps 3 x5 .

E limi nati on of unnec essar y

materi a l and arr ange
ment i nto grou p s In order that the gi ven material may
.

be placed within the given title space every unneces sary ,

word must be eliminated Running thru the given data .

it is seen that the words italici z ed can be omitted

without the least danger o f misunderstanding the
remainder With these words omitted the remaining
:
.

data seems to g roup itself naturally as follows

( l st pr om . Hori z o ntal Mi llin g Ma c hi n e .

Detail s

( 2nd pr om ) . La nd i s Tool Co .

( 3 r d pr om ) . Way nesboro , Pa .

Drawn b y Check ed b y Tr a c ed b y
( 4 th pr om ) . Da te Sc a le

Orde r of p romi nen c e In a dr aw i ng ti tl e a s well as

.

in a na me pl a te certain groups of words are more impor

,

tant than o thers In the dr a wi ng ti tl e the na me of the

.

pi ece of ma chi nery is of course , given most prominence ;

,

while , in the case o f the na me pla te the na me of the ma nu

fa cturi ng compa ny should be given fi rs t prominence In .

the dr a wi ng ti tl e the na m e o f the manuf a cturi ng com

pany will be given s econd prominence a ddr ess of the ,

company thi r d and the remaining information being

, ,

abou t e qually important should be given l eas t prom ,

“ ”
i nence and arranged as desired The word Detai l or .

“ ”
Ass embly which may be either included or omit ted
,

a s de sired will not fi gure in the order of prominence

,
.
26 M E CH ANI CAL DRAF TI NG
.
 LE TTE R I NG
. 27

tive height of the letters of the lower group lay o ff this ,

di stance from A along the 60 degree line ; then a relative

distance for the space between thi s line and the line ne xt
above ; ne xt a relative space for the letters of the ne xt
group and so on until all of the groups have been
accounted for along the 60 degree line From the la s t .

point B draw a line B C a s shown in fi gure and from

, , , ,

the various points along the line A B draw lines parallel

to B C until they intersec t the border line A C ; the re ,

q uired gui de lines will then be foun d the same relative

distances apart as the points plotted on the line A B .

Gu i de Li n e s

Fi g . 21

Sp a c in g of l ett ers Before attempting to place in any

.

of the le tters the va lue of the uni t spa ces of the various
groups of letters must be determi ned Tho the various .

lines of le tters may not re q uire all of the ho ri z ontal space

allo tted to them for bes t appearance they mus t be placed
,

ce ntrally ; i e wi th e qual margins a t their right and left

. .
, .

T o accomplish this rule in a vertical cen ter line of the

,

title space and use the following me thod

S cra tch pa per m ethod Select any point close to the
.

left end of the straight edge of a sheet of scratch paper ,

28 M E CH N C LA I A DRAF TI NG .

Fig 21 and from thi s point step o ff with the lar g e and
.
,

small dividers the proper number of unit spaces in suc

ces sion for the variou s letters and spaces between letters
, ,

markin g with the divider points the location of the

b egi nni ng and end of e ach letter P lacing the scratch .

paper centrally along the lower guide line of the space

into which this group of letter s is to go mark with the ,

needle point the position of the beginning and end of

each of the letters This method has the advanta g e of
.

centrally placing the entire group and of locating the

various letters at the same time .

If the letters are to be free hand the above method

will be found e qually useful Instead of laying off the .

spaces in units the letters themselves should be sketched

,

on the scratch paper and the group placed centrally a s

before The style of letters to be used i e normal com
.
,
. .
, ,

pres sed or e xtended will be readily suggested by this

,

procedure .

Bill of material On deta i l dr a w i ngs where numerous

.

pieces are shown a b i ll of ma teri a l should be placed

,

above and usually j oined to the ti tl e In general i t

,
.

should contain in tabular form such information as

the num b er of pi eces r equi r ed ma teri a l made of pa t , ,

tern num b er s pa r t num b ers na me of pi eces and o ther

, , ,

info rma tion E x amples of typical bill of material will

.

be found in the Appendi x .

GUMMED LE TTER S

( 1 2) F or tho s e who have an appreciable amoun t

of work on titles signs etc the gummed letters sold by
, ,
.
,

the Ticket and T ablet Compan y of Chi cago and which , ,

are shown in their e xact si z es and styles in the ap pendix ,

will be found a great convenience The many uses which .

such letters s erve need not be enumerated They are .

made in red white and black

, ,
.
 USE or I NSTRUM ENTS .
29

C H AP TE R 2

USE OF INSTRUME NT S
D RAWING BOARD -

( 3)
1 Con stru cti on . Drawing b oards
are made o f -

either poplar or white pine the ri ght and left edge s Fig
, ,
.

1 being reinforced by cleats of some harder wood These

,
.

ood cleat
hm ( 1 w

n er i de for
U d S

tri mming paper etc

, .

Fi g . 1

cleats serve both a s stiffeners and a s runners for the ea sy

sliding o f the T sq uare The better grade s o f small
-
.

M aple or c ll loi d stri p

e u
Batt c"3

Fi g . 2

boards are reinf orced on the b ack by two b a ttens Fig 2 , .

,

and ordinaril y have in serted in their right and left edge s

,

a wearing strip of either hard maple or celluloid instead ,

of the cleats of Fig 1 It will b e noticed in Fig 2 that

. . .
30 M E CH A NI CAL DRAF TI NG
.

the right and left edge s o f the second class o f board

are broken at interval s by saw cuts which prevent the
inserted strip of hard wood from e xpanding and split
ting the wood .

Use The two side s of the type o f board shown in

.

Fi g 1 have very de fi nite use s i f the b oard is to b e k ept

.

in shape for goo d drafting The one side for draf ti ng .

only,the other for any necess ary rough w orkf tri mmi ng
a
p per etc
,
Nev er tr i m.p a p er on the dr afti n g si d e .

PAPER

( )
1 4 Q uality A novice cannot obtain good work
.

from poor material hence it is imperative that the begin

,

ner in draw ing use the best q uality of paper obtainable .

A heavy hard surf ace paper of the q uality o f K euff el

,

E s ser s Normal or E Di etz gen s Na p ol eon is recom

’
,
.
’

mended .

P osi ti on of p ap er on b oard . In tacking the paper to

the board , F i g 3 , keep the sheet
. well toward the top and
 USE or IN STR UM EN TS .
31

to the l ef t; about two and one half inches from the upper -

and left edges T hi s should be done in o rder that the

.

draftsman may work to advantage on the bottom of the

sheet and that i t may not be neces sary to work to any
,

great e xtent on the end of the T—s quare blade which ,

ca nnot be prevented from sp ringing sligh tly .

Tacki n g sh eet corner o f sheet in

. P lace upper l ef t
appro ximately correct po sition and tack to the b oard ,

Fig 3 placing tack s clo se to the corners of the paper

.
,
.

Then after lining up the upper edge with the upper edge
of the T Square blade stretch sheet and tack upper ri ght
-

corner The lower edges may be tacked down in any

.

order ; or after some e xperience may b e left untac k ed

, , ,

as these tacks have a tendency to interfere with the

T s q uare and triangles
-
.

BORD ER LI NES

(15) The b or der li nes as well as all other construc

tion work done by the draftsman should be placed in by
measurements f rom cen ter
li nes and not from the
edges of the s heet In the .

cas e of the border lines ,

th e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e
made fro m the hori z ontal
and vertical center lines of
the sheet Fig 4 ,
. .
Fig 4 .

T SQ UARE
-

( 1 6) Construct ion Both the bl ade and the hea d of .

the T s quare Fig 5 are of hard wood hence the glue

-

, .
, ,
32 A I A DRAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .

cannot cement them very tightly together ; neither do the

short screws hold very fi rmly ; a fall even to the floor , ,

may break the j oint and damage the T s quare K eep the -

T s quare out of danger of any such fall

-

In cas e the j oint

b r e ak s t ake o ut
,
Waln t or E bony Head u

screws rough both

,

head and blade with

c o a r s e sandpaper ,

coat well with Denni Gl d d m d ue fin sc we

”mt
s o n s glu e p l a c e
’
,

blade at 90 with head °

wi th triangle tighten ,
Fi g 5 .

screws and let stand

a day Then take out screws and put in round headed
.
-

wood screws long enough to run through and proj ect an

'

ei ghth of an inch or more File off s crews carefully Be

. .

sure s crews are tight It may be advisable to bore small

.

holes entirely through head and blade fo r these large

screws to prevent splitting of the wood
,
.

P osi ti onon b oar d In drafting a right handed man

.
,
-

should keep the head of the T s quare to the l ef t Fig 6 -

,
.
,

in order that he may handle i t wi th his left hand leaving ,

the right free for drafting Never p l ac e the T squ ar e i n

.
-

an y oth er p osi ti on on the b oar d as the edge s of the b oard

,

seldom form a rectangle nor i s the head of the T s q uare -

likely to ma k e e xactly 9 0 degree s with the blade .

Use of bl ade The upper edge o f the blade should be

.

used for dr a f ti ng only ; and the draftsman will do well

to ta ke e xcellent care o f this edge for once nicked or ,
34 A I A DRAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .

SCALE

( 1 7) Ca re
The scale should neve r be used as a
.

r ul er because as a drafting instrument its e fficiency

,

depends upon the condi tion of its edges and these edges ,

can easily be defaced by misuse and the instrument badly

damaged Fur thermore the bo xwood of which the scale
.
,

is made warps quite easily ; hence the edges of a tr i ,

angular scale will seldom be found perfectly straigh t .

F ig . 7

Use . On inspection , Fig 7, it i s seen that the numer

.

als are all placed on the scale s o as to appear upright

only when one works over the top of the scale or on the
edge a w ay from the draftsman and not tow a r d him Al l .

dimensions should be taken directly from the scale as i t

lies on the drawing and not by means of the dividers .

The needl e poi nt is the best aid in ob taining dimensions

with perfect accuracy The pencil point is a poor sub
.

sti tute for the needle point .

NEED LE PO I NT
(18) rom Ri c hter typ e of i ns truments An e x cel
F .

lent needl e poi nt for obtaining dimensions may be made

 USE or I NSTR UM E NTS .
35

up by inserting in to the long knur l ed b a r r el furnished

with every set of Rich ter type of instruments the s ma ll ,

p oi n t which is provided for conver ting the large compass

in to a set of dividers Fig 8
,
. .

F ig 8 .

To ma k e i n sh op. A n eedl e poi nt may be easily made

” ” ”
from a strip of white pine 4 1
4
x1 x2 and a medi um si z e
sewing needle .

D rive cod do to i se
wn V

o f needle p m o t

l l" V I S8

Constru cti on 9 . Insert the needle in a vi se ,

point down, with about of the point i n the vise and ,

36 M E CH A NI CAL DRAF TI NG
.

carefully drive the strip of pine over the e xposed part

of the needle ; the wood may then be shaved round and
pointed slightly at the needle end .

TRI ANGLE S

(19) In drawing ver ti ca l lines wi th triangles the ver

ti ca l edge should always b e to the l eft or tow a rd the
hea d of the T s q uare Fig 1 0
-

, . .

To c le an The surface of the cell uloid tri

.

angles quickly becomes smud g ed f rom era

sings and pencil dirt that may be on the
drawing ; hence they must be cleaned
,

Fi g . 10 Fi g . 11

frequentl y wi th soap if the drawings are to be kept in

good shape .

Lettergui d e li nes For the ea sy ruling of letter guide

.

lines without the use of the scale and needle point it i s ,

suggested that alon g the edges of the 3 0x60 tri a ngle

light lines he scratched wi th the needle point as follows
Along the hypothenus e and from the edge scratch
carefully a fi ne line ; also a second line from the
 USE OF IN STRUM E NTS . 37

edge ; along the long leg scra tch two lines and
respectively from the edge Fig 1 1 After the lines
, , . .

have been scratched they should be smeared over with

India ink rubbing the ink into the scratches wi th the
,

fingers After the ink has dried for a few minute s the
.

surplus may be rubbed off wi th a cloth Turnin g the .

triangles over with the scratched lines against the p aper ,

it is seen that they now stand out very sharply and may ,

be used in ruling guide lines for any neces sary let tering .

P ar allel and perpendi cu

l arlines In . Figs 1 2 and 1 3
.

are shown a number of meth

ods of obtaining a s eries of
P arallel lme
parallel lines or lines per ,

p end i cul a r to given lines by ,

means of the tri a ngl es and T

s qua r e These fi gures should
.

be studied until their mean

ing is quite clear as the ,

methods here shown are the Fig . 12

mo s t accurate kn own and ,

are the only ones that will be reco gni z ed in the drafting
room .

PEN CILS

( 20 ) Numb erin g Before Sharpening either end of

.

the pencil cut with a pen knife a number of nicks toward

,

the cen ter to correspond to the degree of hardness ; e g . .

,

four nicks for 4 H six fo r 6H etc Fig 1 4

, ,
.
,
. .

Sharpenin g w o od
In sharpening trim the wood
.
,

carefully on bo th ends of the penc il back a dis tance of .

38 A I A DRAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .

abou t one inch from the ends leaving abou t 4 of the

,
1 ”

lead expo sed Fig 1 5 One end is to be sharpened to a

,
. .

r oun o ther to a w edge In shaping up bo th

d poi nt, the .

of these points use the pencil point fi l e provided in

,

the kit .

Fi g . 13

Fi g . 14

Round p oint In shaping up the round point

.
,

the pencil at an angle of about 4 5 degrees wi th the a xis

of the fil e As the lead travels over the fil e Fig 1 6
.
,
.
-

revolve the pencil slowly between the thumb and finger s »

,
 USE or I NSTRU M ENTS . 39

at tempting to give it a complete revolution wi th each

stroke The lead may thus be easily sharpened to a per
.

fect cone In this sharpening be careful tha t the point

.

e xtends the full l ength of the lead e xpos ed .

Fig . 15

Fi g . 16

Wed g e p oi ntIn sharpening the w edge poi nt ho l d

.

the pencil perpendicular to the axis of the fil e Fig 1 7 ,

.
,

Wedge

Fi g . 17

and so inclined to the plane of th e fil e tha t the lead may

be sharpened the full quarter i nch e xpo sed .
40 A I
M E CH N CAL DR AF TI NG .

Use of p oints The r ound point should be used fo r

.

drawing s hor t lines and letteri ng the w edge poi nt f or

,

l ong li nes ; the round point dulls rapidly in drawing a

lo ng line and will make a line of varying wei ght .

ERASERS

( 21 ) I f an eraser becomes apparently gr ea sy and

smudges instead of cleans a drawin g it may easily be ,

cleaned by rubbing it with another eraser or by rubbing

it on the rough surface of the dra wi n g bo ard itself -

b e" ha nd

hamo s oll
C n l

CLEAN I NG PAD S AND BLO TTERS

( 22) Ch am oi s roll or block Inasmuch as water

.

proof drawing i nk dries so rapidly the pen should be

cleaned thor oly with cloth or Chamois before each refi ll
ing In addition to this cleaning it will be found po ssi
.

ble to obtain more clear cut work if after each three or

four line s the point of the pen i s scraped over a piece
of Chamois A convenient cleaner may be made by roll
.
42 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

To pl ac e p o i nt . To pl a ce the one
of the divider
poi n t
at any poin t on the shee t rest the w ri s t a t a convenien t
,

dis tance from the point ; i t will then be found easily po s

sible to place the poi n t of the l eg b etw een the thi r d finger
and the thumb in any desired posi tion Raising the .

wris t and keeping the li ttle fi nger on the paper the o ther ,

leg can now be adjusted for any desired distance I t is .

perhaps as good practice and may be found easier for

some to s teady the hand thruout the operation by merely
res ting the little fi nger on the paper ins tead of the wrist
,
.

Steppin g ofi dis tanc es After the poin ts have been

'

placed as desired to s tep ,

a cer tain dis tance a num
ber of times raise the fi rs t fi nger to the top of the head
, ,

then releasing the other leg gra sp the hea d b etw een the
, ,

fi r s t finger and the thumb and step off the di stance by

swinging the dividers alternately over and under H and .

ling the instrument i n this way i t will not be necessary

to take a new grip on the head thruo ut the operation .

LARGE COMPASS

( )
24 Adj us tment
To .

adjust the needl e poi nt of

a compa s s to both the pen
ci l and pen r em ove the
,

penci l poi nt and i nser t

pen ; af ter a dj us ti ng the
needl e poi n t s o that i ts

s houl der not the point i s

, ,

flus h with the end of the

Wedge pq mt
pen r emove pen and i n
,

serting penci l adjust l ea d

,

until i t is even wi th the s houlder of the needl e

 USE or I NSTRU M ENTS . 43

Use For a dj us tment of l ea ds to any desired r a di us

.
,

and placing needl e point at any desi r ed center see Lar ge ,

Di vid ers Art 23 , For describing arcs with the large

. .

compass the legs should be adjusted a s shown in Fig 1 9 . .

I RREGULAR CURVE

( )
25 The irregular curves are tho se which cannot be
drawn readily and accurately wi th the compass The gen .

eral directions of the different portions of such curve s are

fi rst de termined roughly by a number of plot ted poin ts
at a s small intervals a s po ssible ( the posi tions of these
poin ts are ob tained ei ther by ma thematical co ordinates
or mechanicall y from other proj ec tions o r views of the
same curve ) Before drawing the curve mechanically it
.

is bes t to draw ligh tly a freehand curve thru the plotted

poin ts then carefully piece by piece the mechanical
,

curve may be drawn In drawing the mechanical curve

.

two things mus t be kept in mind ; fi rst that the fi nal ,

curve must coincide as absolutely a s possible with

the freehand curve ; s econd that the curve mus t be ,
“ ”
smoo th i e i t must have no sudden glaring changes
, . .
,

of curv “
ature or hump s ”
The failure of a novice to
.

obtain a good irregular curve is due to perhaps two

:
causes fi rst that he s tarts wi th the assump tion that i t
,

is too easy to re quire any attention and second that he , ,

is too easily sa tis fi ed with a very indifferent j ob Curves .

“ ”
having curious humps may be termed freaks and are
seldom if ever encountered in M echanics
, , .

I t is difficul t to recommend any curve or even several

curves as being even appro xima tely universal so no such ,

advice will be attempted A grea t number of such curves

.

are lis ted in all instrument ca talogs and special re quire

ments will have to be depended upon in any selection .
44 M E CH N C L A I A DRA F TI NG .

H owever , tw ocurve shave found much f avor amon g stu

dents and are recommended for g eneral use One of .

“ ”
these has obtained the name o f Banana curve Fig 20 ,
.
,

and the other is the G E D Special Fig 21 . . .

, . .

BOW D I VI D ERS
( 26) Adj ustm ent .
( See Adju stm ent
Di vi ders .

P l ac i n g at c enter .
( See same for Lar ge Di vi d er s .
)
Openi ng and c l osi n g p oi nts . With the center a d us t
j
ment instrument , which is always preferable to the si
d
e
 USE OF INSTR UM E NTS . 45

a d us tm ent,
j after placing the one point at a given poi nt
on the sheet r a is e the fi rs t finger to the hea d and turn
,

the a dj us tment scr ew b etw een the s econd finger and

thumb until the points are apart as desired .

Stepp i ng off di stanc es .

( See same f or Larg e
Di vi d er s ) .

BOW PEN CIL

( 27) Har d l ead

To obtain sati sfactory work from
.

the b ow penci l th e lead should be e xtremely hard at least ,

6H . Ordinarily the lead supplied wi th instruments is

,

not more than 2H or 3 H and wears down too rapidly , .

T ry the lead b efore usin g it on a drawin g and if found ,

s oft sub stitute f or it a p i ece of lead from a 6H pencil

,
.

Sh arpenin g
l ead Since the b ow pencil i s like the
.
,

bow dividers an instrument of preci sion for small arcs

, ,

the round point will b e found more

convenient than the wedge Inas .

much a s the total amoun t of use is

small compared with that of the
large compas se s the need of a ,

wedge po i n t to di minish the number

of times re quired to shape it up is ,

not great enough to overbalance the

inaccuracy and awkwardnes s of the
lat ter in drafting It is wel l to .

s hape th e point a s long a s the con

struc tion of the instrument and the streng th of the lead

will permi t Fig 22 . . .

Adj us tment to any radi us In a dj us ti ngthepoi nts to any

.

desi r ed r a di us , i n stea d of obtaining the dimension di r ectly

46 A I A DRAF TI N G
M E CH N C L .

from the it will be better to tr a nsf er this

s ca l e,

r a di us to the paper by means of the s ca l e and n eedl e

p o i n t,
and s et the bow pencil from
thi s as e xplained under La r ge Di
Vi ders .

Des c ribing c s In descri b i ng

ar .

an a r c with either the com pass bow ,

pencil o r pen the di rection of mo

,

tion of the lead should be cl ockwi s e

and thru the total length of the de
sired arc before taking the point
from the paper Fig 23 ,
. .

RULI N G PE N

( 28 ) Manne r
h oldin g The of .

r uli ng pen should be held b etw een

the fi r s t and s econd fi ngers and

thumb a s shown in Fig 24 In . .

ruling lines the a dj us ti ng s cr ew

,

should be turned f r om the user .

P o si ti on
of pen Unl es s care i s . Fi g 23 .

taken to k eep the pen in a ver ti ca l

pla ne thr u the edge of the T s qua r e -

b l a de or edge of the tri a ngl e Fig 25 trouble may be ex, .

,

per i enced in the ink running under the T s quare blade -

Fig 26 o r in a badly broken line Fig 27

.
, ,
. .

Ti lted i n the dir ecti on of m otion . For best results

the pen should be ti l ted s lightly in the di r ecti on of the '

mo tion Fi g 24 ; thi s permi ts one to inspect the work of

, .
 USE or INSTRUM ENTS . 47

the pen a s it travels A greater angle than 1 0 or 1 5

.

degrees may however permit the ink to run down and

cause a blo t .

Fi g . 24 Fi g . 25

Effect o f P osmon 2 fect of P osmon 3

Ef

I nk ran nder T sq re
u ua
P en r iding on one ni b

Fig 26 . Fi g . 27

To fill pen To fill the pen always use the qui ll sup
.
,

plied on the s topper of the i nk bottle Never di p the pen

. .

into the i nk If by chance any ink ha s gotten on the out

.

side of the pen wipe it off carefully b efore using ; it may

,

save a serious blot .

48 ) M E CH A NI CAL DRAF TI NG .

Dir ecti on
o f moti on i n ruling lines In ruli ng li nes .
,

ei ther with the pen o r pen

ci l
,
the direc tion of motion
should be f r om l ef t to r ight
or from b ottom to top of the
sheet Fig 28 Ruling li nes
,
. .

thus it is always possible to

,

s ee what the pen or pencil

is doing Never rule lines
.

F i g 28
do wn the sheet unle ss they
are obli que and are being put in the trian gle .

Bend up th s
u

e heets together
S

D i am o f b ottle
.

C on hea vy l i nes
ut ,

bend on dotted l i ne s

F i g 29 .

I NK BO TTLES

( 29 ) Holder . A convenien t holder for the

bot
tl e may be made from two sheets of blotting paper and
a rubber band a s shown in Fi g 29 A holder o f so me . .
50 A I A
M E CH N C L D RAF TI NG
.

kind is advisable and one such as this answers a double

purpose A holder of the style shown in Fig 3 0 may be
. .

purchased from any of the instrument companies .

Cl osed wh en not in
use India i nk is very
.

heavy and dries qui te

rapidly ; hence if the ,

stopper is le f t out of the

bot tle even for s everal
hours the i nk may b e
come s o heavy as to
make it impo s sible to Fi g 3 0 .

obtain good work from

i t Be sure to c lose the bot tle carefully af ter each r efi ll
.

ing of the pen With proper treatment the ink will

.

remain in good condi tion for several years .

To op en bo ttl e and
fill pen To open the
.

bottle without dan ger

of upse ttin g gr a sp ,

the n eck b etw een the

thi r d and li ttle fin
gers Fig 3 1 and the
,
.
,

s topper b etw een the

fi r s t fi nger and thum b

of the sam e h and ; af
ter r e m o v i n g the
s t o p p e r p l a c e the
,
Fi g 3 1 .

qui ll b etw een the ni b s

of the pen and fill as desired
,
If too much ink is placed .

in t he pen ragged line s and perhaps serious blot s will be

the: r esul t .
 R A R Y
L I8
A
ST TE NORMAL SCNOOL

L, SE or I NSTRU
W u ns m o HOME ECON
t n
m
r mauronuu
erasasa
a
cs

PROTR
2
( 3 0 ) The protrac to r in mo s t general use is a semi
Q ci r cl e of ce l luloid horn o r me tal whose circumference is
’

fi di vi ded into degrees and perhaps half degrees O n the .

Fi g . 32

Line -

O—
Graph ,
Fig 3 2 is Shown a 9 0 protractor which
.
,
°

wi thou t any handicap can be subs ti tuted fo r the u sual

a
l 80
°
ins trument T o measure any desired angle the
.
,

cen ter of the circle is placed a t the ver te x and 0 on one ,

°

of the given angl e The value of the angl e m a v

.

then be rea d direc tly from the q uadran t .

52 M E CH ANI CAL DRA F TI N G .

C HAP TE R 3

ORT H OGRAP H I C P ROJE CTI ON

(31 ) De fi ni tion . An orthographic projection of any

obj ect is such a r epr es enta ti on on a gi ven pla ne ( usually
ver tical or hori z on tal ) a s will Show in true proportion
the contours of the obj ect a s seen in a direc tion perpen
di cula r to the plane ; i e as though viewed from an i n
. .
,

fi nite distance when all the lines of sight would be paral

,

lel to each other and perpendicu l ar to the plane of pro

j ecti on .

P RI N CI PLE S OF O R TH O GR AP HI C P R O JE CTI ON
It is seen from Fig 1 which is a representa tion
( 3 2) .
,

of a machine part that tho the obj ec t is represen ted as

,

we are accus tomed to see i t the picture gives u s_ ab so , _

lutely no concep tion__of the ratio

of the several parts of the obj ec t
to ea ch o ther ; i e the the sides
'"

.
,
.

of the s quare hole in the top may

appear to be e qual to the thick
nes s of the obj ec t one has no ,
Fig l
means of knowing e x ac tly what
the relation is ; hence unless actual dimensions were
,

for every detail of such a dr aw ing a ndt hese dimensions _

,

could be depended upon to be abs olutely accurate one ,

.

would have no means of making e xcept a ppro xi ma tely ” ,

the obj ect which the drawing represen ts H ence it will .

,

be appreciated tha t in ma king drawings fo r the use of

 R
O TH OG RAP H I C P R OJ E CTI ON 53

workmen in shops such an application of Descripti ve

,

Geom etry should be employed as will represent each line

of the obj ec t at leas t once in its true ma thema ti ca l r a ti o
,

to other line s ; i e such a representation that if no

. .
, ,

dimensions were given one could compare lines by means

,

of a scale or dividers and be certain of their e xact ra tio

to each other This branch o f Descri pti ve Geometry is
.

known a s Orth ogr ap hi c or Pr op orti ona l M easur em ent

P roj ec tion .

Orthogr aphi c p r oj ec ti on To obtain such a pr oj ec .

tion of the machine part represented in Fig 1 l et us i m .

,

agine tha t we have suspended it

in space with the face containing
the s quare hole hori z on tal ; then ,

see Fig 2 let us imagine tha t

.
,

four pla nes be drawn abou t this

machi ne part in the po sitions
shown one a hor i z onta l plane a
, , ,

s econd a ver ti ca l plane parallel

to the face A and two other,

planes perpendicular to bo th the

ver ti ca l and hori z on ta l planes
just drawn .

Coor dinate pl ane s and coordi

n ate an gles The thr ee pla n es jus t
. constructed about the
machine part in Fig 2 are kn own in orthographi c pro
.

j ecti on a s c oordin at e pl a nes and are named individu al ly ,

th e Horiz ontal or H p l ane V ert i c a l or V pl a ne P ro fil e or

, ,

End p l a n e; s ee Fig 3 The f our dihedral a ngl es fo rmed

. .

by the H and V pl ane s are known as l st 2nd 3 rd and 4th , , ,

and are numbered in the order shown .

54 M E CH ANI CAL DRA F TI N G .

P roj ecti ons or ortho gr ap hi c re p r es entati on s In ex .

plaining the metho d used in obtaining the or thogr aphi c

r epr es enta ti ons of the machine p art th e co rner A Fig , , .

4 will be taken a s typical of all signi fi cant points of

,

S econd Angle

Fo ul th A ngle

Fi g . 8

the obj ec t It is desired to represent this point on each

.

of the three co ordinate planes the second E nd plane b e ,

ing fo r the time eliminated From point A are dropped

.

three perpendiculars one to each o f the co ordinate

,

planes ; the points in which these perpendiculars pierce

“

,
 R RAP H I C P R OJ E CTI ON
O TH OG 55

these coord inate planes are known a s the pr oj e ctio ns o f

point A and are called V or V e rtic al p roj e ction or
, ,

F r ont Vi e w ( a lw a ys l etter ed a if let tered at all ) H or

’
,

Horiz onta l p roj ectio n or Top V i ew ( a lw a ys letter ed a

if le ttered at all ) and Pr ofile End P r oje cti on End or
, , ,
”
Side V i ew ( a lw a ys l etter ed a if lettered at all ) ; if then
from all of the points of the Obj ec t perpendi cul a r s were
dropped to the V er ti cal pla ne and li nes drawn connecting
the pi erci ng poin ts of these perpendi cul a rs in regu l ar

Fi g . 4

order Fig 4 we would have on the V er ti ca l pl a ne a

.
,

dr a w i ng or pr oj ecti on represen ting perfec tly the appea r

a nce of the f r ont of the machi ne part ; a similar proces s

would give us on the H ori z onta l pla ne a co rrect r epr e

s enta ti on of the top of the Obj ect and on the E nd pla ne a

representation of the side of the Obj ect .

If the obj ec t be placed

l st and 3 rd an g l e p roj e c ti ons .

in the l s t a ngl e as in Fig 4 the proj ections referred to

,
.
,

above are known a s fi rs t ang le p roj e cti ons If the Object .

56 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

is placed in the 3 r d a ngl e a s in Fig 6 the proj ections

,
.
,

are known a s third a n g le p roj e c tio ns ; i e the projections . .

,

of an obj ect are known a s F i rs t o r Thi r d Angle pr oj ec

ti ons according to the a ngl e in which the ob j ect is pla ced .

I t should be noted that Figs 4 and 6 show only tho se

.

Fi g . 5

parts of the coordinate planes that enclo se the angle of

proj ection un der consideration NO mention is made of
.

the Second or Fourth Angle projection s because i t would

be impracticable to u s e either as working dra w ings .

Revol utio n of c oor dina te p l anes . Already an appar

ent diffi culty has arisen in the ques tion Of how to r epr e
sent all of thes e proj ections e g of point A Fig 4 on a
,
. .
, ,
.
,

single sheet of paper when in fac t the three proj ections ,

”
a a and a are fou nd on three planes at right angles to
’
, ,
58 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

sents the e xact distances which the point Of whi ch these ,

are the pr oj ecti ons i s from the V and H planes I f then

,
.
,

G, L , be used as a n a xi s and the por tion of the P r ofi l e

'

”
pla ne in f r ont of V be revolved to the ri g ht a comes ,
”
into the new position a a distance to the right of G, L ,
,

e qual to Aa and a distance above G L equal to Ad or on

’ ~

the hori z ontal line thru a

’
.

of obj e cts Advancing from the poin t A

P roj e c tion s .

j ust discussed to all other elemental point s of the object

,

and projecting them in turn in the same manner as was A ,

Fi g . 7

we find the repre sentation of the machine part in the

fi rst angle when the several point s are properly j oined by
,

lines to be as shown in Fig 5 P roceeding in the same

,
. .

manner with the obj ect in the third angle we Obtain the
view s as shown in Figs 6 and 7 It should be noted that
. .
 R
O TH OG RAP H I C P R OJ E CTION 59

the views are iden tical i n charac ter but appear i n differ
ent po si tions in respec t to each other In prac tice i t is
.

the universal custom to omi t

bo th ground lines toge ther
w i th th e b o u n d a r y l i n e s
of the three planes The .

r e s u l t i n g proj ections Of
t h e o b j e c t appear as in
Fig 8 . .

Elimin atio n of the first

an gle From Fig 1 i t is
.
,

no ted that as we ordinarily Fig :3

see obj ects the top appears

a b ove f r ont a nd the r ight end to the r i ght of the
the
f r on t o r the l ef t end to the l ef t of the f r ont according to ,

the position from which the object i s seen When the .

Obj ec t is placed in the fi r s t a ngl e and the proj ections

revolved into the positions shown in Fig 5 it is seen .
,

tha t th e l ef t end pr oj ecti on comes in a position to the

r i ght Of the f r ont and that the tap is under the f r ont ,

an arrangement by no means natural While when the .

,

obj ect is placed in the thi r d a ngl e Fig 6 and proj ections
,
.
,

revolved as shown in Fig 7 the view s a ssume a group

.
,

ing iden tical wi th their order on the Obj ect i tself ; i e . .

,

the ri ght end to the r ight of the f r ont and the top a b ove
,

the f r on t M erely fo r the sake of this natural arrange

.

ment the thi r d a ngl e will be selected in preference to the

fi rs t in making w orki ng dr a wi ngs ; i e all working draw
. .
,

ings will be third an gle orthogr a phi c p roj ecti ons .

60 M E CH A NI CAL D RA F TI NG .

SUMM A Y OF R R N CIP LE S
P I

( 3 3 ) It may b e well to summari z e a number of prin

ci pl es brought out in this discussion likewi se to men tion ,

several violations Of pure ortho graphic proj ection The .

top vi ew Fig 8 represents the e x act appearance wi th

,
.
, ,

lines in true proportions of the top of the Obj ect ; the

,

f r ont vi ew represents the same of the f r ont of th e Obj ect ,

and the si de vi ew the same of the s i de of the Obj ect .

The top and f r ont vi ews mus t be di r ectly a b ove and

b elow each other and the f r ont and end vi ew s mus t be
on the s a me hori z onta l li nes as shown in Fig 7 if the .
,

group is to represent the true orthographic proj ection

of the Object ; a viol a tion of thi s renders the whole draw
ing incorrect .

PE R MI SSI BLE VI O LATI ON S

(34) In F i g 5 it i s shown that the portion of the
.
,

E nd or P r ofi l e pla ne in f r on t of V is revolved to the ri g ht ;

this of cours e means tha t the portion of the P r ofi l e pla ne
b ehi nd V revolves to the left ; while in Fig 7 the portion ,
.
,

Of the P r ofi l e pl a ne b ehi nd V is represented as bein g r e

volved to the ri ght Thi s revolution to the ri g ht of the

.

portion of the P r ofi le pla ne b ehi nd V is or thogr aphi ca lly

i ncor r ect; however in the case of the thi r d a ngl e pr oj ec
,

tions i t is tolerated for the natural order of projec tions

which it produces .

P R O JE CTI ON S OF HIDDEN LI NE S

In Fi g s 5 and 7 certain lines of the proj ections

(3 5) .

are shown dotted lines Thi s i s the custom always fol

.

lowed for showing hidden or invisible lines For ex .

ample in the projection on the V plan e th e tw o dot ted ,

 R
O TH OG RAP H I C P R OJ E CTI ON 61

line s show that the hole thru the objec t is invi sible when
viewed in a direction perpendicular to the V plane A .

simple rule for determining the vi si b ili ty of a line is to

always consider the H pr oj ecti on a vi ew from the top
and the V pr oj ecti on a view from the f r ont This a p .

plies e qually to fi rst and third angle proj ection The .

Fi g . 10

projec tion on the P plane i s considered a View from the

corresponding side of the Obj ec t that i s looking perpen
, ,

di cul a rl y thru the P plane a t the Obj ect .

AUXI LI AR Y PLAN ES OP P R O JE CTI ON

( 3 6)Fre quently an Obj ect is s o shaped that it can

not be placed i n an entirely simple posi tion with respect
to the planes of proj ec tion The face K on the corner
.

brace shown in Fig 9 will not be shown in its true si z e

.
62 M E CH A NI CAL DRA F TI NG .

on ei ther the H V o r P planes when the Obj ect is placed

, ,

in its s imples t posi tion wi th respec t to these planes

.

The u se of a fourth plane which is perpendi cular to H

,

b ut parallel to face K will give an additional view which

,

will show K in i ts true si z e Fig 1 0

. . .

Fig 1 1 shows the co rrect arrangement Of the four

.

views Of the Obj ec t after the V P and au xiliary planes

, ,

have been revolved into the H plane .

 R
O TH OG RAP H I C P R OJ E CTI ON 63

P OSI TI ONS OF THE THI RD AND F OU RTH V I EWS

OF AN OBJE CT

( 3 7) In Fig 1 2 is shown the correc t arrangemen t

.

or thographical l y of the three views Of an Obj ec t b ox

,
-

H o w ever occasions may arise in which i t wi ll be i n

,

Pi ont

convenient to place the side V iew direc tly oppos i te the

f r ont; in this case we may imagine tha t the line Of inter
sec tion Of the end plane and the hori z ontal plane becomes
an a xis abou t which the end pl a ne is revolved Fig 1 3 ,
.
,

unti l it coincides wi th th e hori z onta l pla ne This entire

.

hori z ontal plane is then revolved abou t i ts line of inter

sec tion wi th V as a n a xis until it coincides wi th V _The
,
.

Side view will now be found oppos i te the tap instead Of

the f r on t. If tw o side views are neces sary to show the

cons truc tion they may be placed on ei ther s i de of the
64 I A
M E CH AN C L D RA F TI NG
.

f r ont vi ew , Fig 1 4 or on ei ther s i de of the

.
, top vi ew,
Fig . 15 . N0 other arrangement is permis sible .

S i de

Fig . 18

Fig . 14

In cons truc ting a three view drawing i t is best always

to cons truc t the top and f r ont views from di m ens i ons
and by p r oj ec t i on ; —T
t h e n t o Obtain the a na i
"
, f t c

s i de views from these

tw o en tirely by con 1
n
,

s tructi on and not b y

the use of di mens i ons .

Fo r the s a ke of con
s truc tion t h e t w o
gr ou nd l i nes Fig 1 2 ,
Fi g 1 5
.
,
.

m ay b e d r awn in
ligh tly ; however they should be er a sed w hen no l onge r
,

needed .
66 M E CH N C LA I A D RA F TI NG .

ASSEMBLY DR AWI N G

( 40 ) Definiti on An ass embl y dr awi ng of a machine

.

is a one tw o or thr ee vi ew or thographi c pr oj ecti on of a

,

ma chi n e completely a s s emb l ed; i e all parts in their . .

,

proper workin g place Figs 2 . . .

Uses A ssembly drawings have three important uses

. .

( 1 ) As an inde x to a workin g drawing ; i e an assembly . .

,

of a machine is ordinarily given with the set of detail

working drawings to explain the use Of each of these de
tails i n the machine ; ( 2) For purposes Of adver ti s ement
or magaz ine i llus tr a ti on; ( 3 ) As a cons tructi on gui de in
as sembling machines whi ch may be sent out from shop s
in s ections .

Ch arac teri sti c s . Some

characteristics which may be
noted of assembly drawi ngs when used fo r any of the
above purposes are ( a ) All di mens i ons are ordinarily
.

omi tted; ( b ) The several views are ela b or a tely s ecti on ed

to e xplain clearly all inside constructions ; ( c ) When
given with a s et o f details the as sembly will or di narily
occupy a fi xed r ela ti ve pla ce on the s heet i e the low er ,
. .
,

l ef t corner o r w hol e l ef t s i de i f necessary .

D ETAIL WORK I NG D RAWI NG S

( )
41 Arr ang em ent of
d etails In ma king a set
set of .

of details a certain order of arrangement should be fol

lowed both for appearances and ease in reading the draw
,

ing As mentioned under as sembly drawings the assem

.
,

bly should occupy the left portion of the sheet In gen .

eral the arrangement o f the de tails on the sheet shoul d

,

be such a s to sugges t thei r di r ect r ela ti on i n the ma chine

i tself ; i e such an arrangement a s is suggested by the
. .
,

relation of these parts in the assembly It may not always .

WORK IN G DRA WI NGS .
67
68 M E CH ANI CAL DRA F TING
.
WORK IN G DRA WIN GS . 69
70 A I A
M E CH N C L DRAF TI NG
.
 WORK I NG DRA WI NGS .

be possible to carry out this scheme

completely ; however in general it
,

will be found po ssible s o to arrange

the main details For further ex
.

planation s ee Fig 3 The as sembly

. .

is here shown to the left follow ed ,

along the bottom of the sheet by the

main detail the remaini ng details
,

b eing arranged about the sheet

properly with relation to each other
if not to the main detail s Fi g 3 a. .

shows an arrangement with the as

s emb ly omitted.
72 M E CH N C L A I A D RA F TI NG .

Ord er of work i n d eta il s In mak ing a set of

a set of .

details e
,
.
g,
. o f the bell crank Fig 4 the following order
, .
,

o f work will be found to lend to the greatest speed

( a ) Mak e list of details to be drawn and number of views
re quired of each ( b ) Select scale ( 0 ) Draw on
. .

pieces of scrap paper rectangles or rectangular fi gures

Of the proper si z e to enclos e the desired number of

Views o f each detail ( d ) Cut out thes e rectan gles

.

and arrange them on the sheet of drawi ng paper on

which the details are to be drawn ( e ) Af ter the .

rectan gles are arranged mark their positions Fig 5 ,

. .

( f ) Divide the rectangles on the sheet of drawing p a per

into smaller rectangles to contain the s eparate vi ews of
each detail Fig 6 The rectangles mentioned in ( e )
,
. .
74 M ECH ANI CAL DRA F TI NG .

The le tter A in the pa ttern num b er refers to the s heet

A of the Details of the Corlis s engine of which thi s val ve
cra nk is a part ; the number A 3 indicates that the va lve
-

cr a nk is deta i l number 3 on s heet A .

ORD ER OF PEN CIL WORK

( )
4 The mo st rapid pro g res s can b e g ained in the
2
pencil wo rk of a working drawin g by following the order
given in Fig 8 . .

Cauti on It is by no
.

means wise to attempt to fin

ish one Of s everal views b e
fore doing any work On the
others F ewer mistak es wi ll
.

be made and more rapid

progres s g ained by workin g
on all views at the same
time ; i e when a l ine is
. .
, Fi g 8 .

placed on one View its pro ,

j ecti ons in the other views should b e Obtained before

proceeding with other lines Al l views . be fin
i shed at practically the s am e time When one proj ection .

Of a line is obtained from a given di mension the other ,

views Of this same line should be Obtained by the prin

ci pl e of proj ection rather than by mak in g us e of the

sc ale a s econd time This practise tho it may permi t a

.
,

mistak e to remain undetected has the advantage of pro

,

duci ng drawings which are true ortho graphic proj ections .

 WORK I NG DRAWI NGS . 75

O RDER OF PENCI L WORK

1 — Border Lines
2— Title Space
3 — Selection of Scale
4— V iew Spaces
5 — Center Line s
6— Outlines
7— Au xiliary and Dimension Lines , and Dimensions
8 — S ection Lines and Notes

D I MEN SI ONI NG
( 43 ) In di mensi oni ng the following rules or su gges
tions should be Observed

( a ) Dimens i ons should read from l eft to ri g ht or

up and in the direction of the dimension line Fig 9
,
. . .

( b ) The a u xili ary li nes used in dimensionin g shoul d

n ot qui te conn ect with the line s from which they lead .

Fi g 1 0
. .

( c ) Seri es A s eri es o f dimensions should b e given

.

on one conti nuous di mensi on li ne as in Fig 1 1 and not

,
.
,

a s in Fig 1 2 . .

d ) An over all d i m ens i on should always accompany

a s eri es bo th as a check and for the conveni ence of the
,

workman Fig 1 1 . . .

( e ) Diamete rs Di a meters should be placed on a

.

l i nea r di a meter Of the circle a s in Fig 1 3 whenever .

possible ; when necessary to indicate the di a meter on a

s tr a ight li n e pr oj ecti on of a Circle the dimension should
,

be accompanied by the letter D .

( f ) Radii of arcs should be marked R Fig 1 4 . . .

76 A I A
M E CH N C L DR A F TING
.

Pkg 1 1

I NCOl l ecl Phg 1 2

I ncor l ect

t 13

"
r
?
ta b 6 R

t l4

'

I nco rect
r
t 16
'

t . l5
 WORKI NG DRAWI NGS . 77

g
( ) Inasmuch as the meaning of h i d de n li n e s is not
always clear it is bad practice to place dimensions on
,

such lines .

( h ) P lace dimensions between views unles s clear

nes s will be gained by placing them o therwise .

( i ) DO not repeat dimensions on adj acent views .

( j ) Di mensions should not b e crowded .

( )
k D imensions always indica te the si z e of the fi n

i shed obj ect .

( 1 ) DO not place dimensions on or a l ong Center

Li nes . Fig 1 5 . .

( In) In general dimension from the center lines and

“

not from the outlines of the Obj ect .

( 11 ) F ractions Should be made with a dividi ng line

in the s ame line with but not a part o f the dimension
,

line Fig 1 1
. . .

( O ) The arrows of dimension lines contain two

barbs while tho s e Of leaders Figs 1 3 and 1 6 but one
, , .
,
.

( p ) Arrows should be so placed that there may be no

confusion a s to which line they point to .

( q ) Leaders Al l l ea der s Fig 1 6 should be made

.
,
.
,

mechani ca l ly and not f reeha nd .

( r ) N ot es For exp l a na.tor y no tes the l ea d e r should

end so that the notes may read ei ther hori z onta lly or
ver ti ca lly as the di mensi ons but not di a gona lly ,
Fig 1 6 . . .

( s ) Dimensions up to two feet should be stated in

inches ; e g . .
, etc .

”
Two feet may be writ ten ei ther as 24 o r 2 ’

E x ce pt f or sheet metal dimensions above two feet

should be e xpres sed a s follows 2 6
,

7 : etc
’ ’ ’
.

The dimensions for sheet me tal should be given in

inches and in the order of thi ckness w i dth l ength; , ,

e.
78 A I A DRA FTI NG
M E CH N C L .

F ig 1 9

F lg 18

F ig 20
 WOR KI NG DRA W IN GS . 79

SECTI ONI NG

( 44 ) The primary function Of ortho g raphic pr oj ec

tion is Of course to repres ent the p or tions of an obj ect
, ,

vis i b l e to the eye Any constructions hidden by the sur

.

f a ces i n vi ew ma y be represented by conventional lines

kn own as hi dden lin es Fig 1 7 The dotted lines in this
, . .

fi gure represent the three recesses in the top front and , ,

side of the cube It may be satisfactory to represent in

.

thi s way the interio r construc tion of so simple an a ffair

as the Obj ect shown ; however if the interior construction
,

is in the least elaborate thi s me thod is by no means satis

factor y I f an interior construction be represented by a
.

num ber Of hi dden li nes which cr oss each other the draw ,

ing becomes so vague a s to be almo st unintelli gi ble For .

this reason a subs ti tu te me thod has been devised for

showing any interior or hidden construction According .

to thi s me thod i t may a t any time be imagined that a

cutti ng pl a ne pa r a ll el to one of the coor di na te pl a n es
, ,

can be drawn in any position cutti ng a w a y such porti ons

,

Of the Obj ect as w i ll expos e a ny other pa r ts on e m a y w i s h

to s ee Ordinarily these p l anes will be found to pas s thru
.

s ome axial line of the obj ect Fig 1 8 ; however if desired

, .
, ,

they may be imagi ned drawn els ewhere Fig 1 9 This , . .

process of sec tioning is purely imaginary and may be

represented on o nl y one view of a two or three view
working drawing the other views representing the Oh
,

j ect unsectioned by any such plane The proces s of sec .

ti oning is s trictly utilitarian ; i e one Should section only

. .
,

Obj ects who se construc tion can be m or e cl ea r ly expl a i ned

by thi s proces s than otherwise .

Certain terms applying to sections are s ometimes

confused from the fact tha t they may apply ei ther to the
80 M E CH N C L DR A I A A F TI NG
.

drawing or the Obj ect Thes e terms are quarter section .

,

half sec tion and full section The confusion o rdinarily

,
.

come s between the terms quarter and half section From .

Fig 20 it is s een that when one quarter of the obj ect is

.
,
-

removed one half of the drawing will be found sectioned

-

Lik ewise if the entire f ront or

half of the Obj ect were removed
the drawing would be full s ec
ti oned H ence the term quarter
.

s ection will then Of cours e be , ,

entirely di scarded as it can refer ,

only to the Obj ect .

Soli dcyli nd ers The drafts .

man should k eep i n mind the fac t

that there is but one thin g to be
gained in s ectioning i e to Show , . .
,

mor eclearly the i nteri or cons truc

ti on of any piece o f machinery ;
.

if the section does not accomplish

thi s purpos e it is just s o much
wasted labor This point refers .

particularly to s oli d cyli nders ,

e g sha f ts F i g 21 b ol ts s cr ews
Fi g
. .
,
.
, , , ,
21
etc which should never be see
.

,
.

ti oned .

I nterp ol ated or Revolved Secti ons In such case s .

a s are shown in Fig 22, with respec t to r i ms and spokes .

of w heel s , s ta nda r d cons tructi on i r on, etc , sec tions known .

as i nterpola ted or r evolved s ecti ons are given to show

the cro s s s ection o f the material at certain places Thes e
-

sections are obtained by pas sing planes perpendicular

82 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

lines cons tantly o r has a chart o f them with hi m always ,

he may find it quite

d iffi cult to remem
her some of them .

A third Obj ection

is that it re quires
an exces sive
amount of time to
draw some of these Fi g 23
.

s ection lines .

Indi ca ti on of m ateri al s b y abb revi ati ons an d uni ver

sal s e cti on li nes For greatest convenience and ease
.
,

b o th in making and rea ding a drawing the wri ters ,

approve the univers al section lining with ma ter i a l a b b r e

vi a ti ons a s a sub
s t i tu t e f O r t h e

above system i e ,
. .
,

t h e u s e Of t h e
s t a n d a r d section
line now us ed fo r
cast iron as the
s t a n d a r d for all
materials and the
particular material
Of which the piece

is to be made indi
ca ted by its cha r
‘

Where necessary a variati on I n s pace

a eter IStIC abbrevia b e t een secti on l ines m y be s b s tit ted
'
w a u u

t n as Shown i n f a changeor d i re
in ticon of l i nes
Fig 24 These ah
. .
F i g 24»

b r evi a t i on s a r e
'

easy to remember and the s ection lines can be drawn

rapidly .
 WORKI NG DRA WI N GS . 83

TRACI NG

( )
45 Tra c in g c lo th i s a fi ne q uali ty of cotton coated
wi th a prepara tion which gives i t a smoo th hard surface
and renders it transparent Of th e various grades of
.

“ ”
clo th on the market the imported brand Im p eri al
,

gives by far the greatest satisfaction and is r ecom

mended fo r general us e Always before making us e of
.

any piece of clo th be sure to rip Off abou t Of the

s elva ge edge ; i t may prevent a bad buckling of the

tracing .

T a c ki ng to the board It is .

best always to have the shee t

of tracing cloth sli ghtly la rger
than the sheet Of paper S O that
the tacks used in pinning down
the clo th may be placed outs i de
th e sheet . In tacking down the
c l oth preferably wi th the dull
,

s i de up be sure to stretch very

,
.
Fig . 25
tigh t and tack fi rmly See Fig
. .

25 for bes t order Of tacking .

P rep a ra tion
of the surfa c e of the c lo th Unless pre .

pared i n some way the s urf a ce Of the tracing cloth will

,

likely take the ink very poorly giving ragged and faded ,

out lines The c l oth may be dusted or rubb ed with c hal k

.

or preferably ma gnesium c a rbonate which may be pur ,

chased a t any drug s tore in 5 —cen t block s and then rubbed ,

wi th a piece Of linen .

Order of w ork . Unless one is sure of being able to

finish the tracing of several views Of a drawing before i t
84 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

is necess ary to stop work it will be found best always to ,

tr a ce one vi ew a t a ti me fi ni s hi ng that view b ef or e l ea v

,

i ng w or k T racing cl oth ha s a decided tendency to

.

stretch and warp and it may be f ound most di ffi cult to

,

ma ke Ol d lines check with new if the tracin g has been left

s tandi n g f or a day o r more .

Erasi ng In era sing use the penci l era s er always in

.
,

preference to the i nk era ser or kni f e It may re quire .

more time to eras e a mistak e ;

Sc a pe r out

h 0 w e v e r the cloth will be m u kn i f . e

found in goo d condition a fter

such erasin g ; whi le the i nk er a
s er o r knif e q uite easily rough
F ig 26

ens the surf a ce and causes blots on application of new

ink A knif e m ay be used to advantage in s cr aping out
.

slight a cci denta l extensi ons o f lines Fi g 26 ,

. .

Cauti on I f necessary to rule acros s ink lines he

.
,

sure to move the pen ra p i dl y I f the pen is movin g .

slowly the i nk will likely follow down the old i nk line to

the T s quare or triangle and cause a b ad blot
-
.

Wei ghts of lines The visible and hidden outline s are

.

the heaviest lines on the drawin g and should be slightly

les s than in width This wei ght may be Obtained .

by u sin g a number 3 line on the adjustable graduated

detail pen Al l other lines on the drawing i e dimen
.
, . .
,

sion auxiliary center and s ection lines should have a

, , , ,

weight Of number one Fi g 27 . . .

Order of inking in tra c in g In tra ci ng the f ollowin g .

,

or der should be ob served for mo st rapid and accurate

work .
 WORK I NG DRAWI NGS .
85

V l S l b le Outl m e

H idden O tl inesu

D1 mens 1 on, Auxxh a i y a nd SQ Ct ll L ines

C enter Lm e

Fi g 27.

Fi g . 28

Center lines .

Large circles and arcs .

Small circles and arcs with the bow pen .

Irregular curves with special curve .

H ori z ontal lines with the T s quare -

V ertical lines with T s q uare and triangles

-

Inclined lines in groups e g and ,

. .
,

Other obli que lines .

Di mension and au xiliary lines .

Section lining dimensions and notes

,
.

BEVELLED AND RAI SED TRACI NG RULES

For tracing the two rulers shown in Figs 28

( 46) ,
.

and 29 are indispens able With the b evell ed r ul er Fig

.
,
.

28 it is pos sible to rule acro s s i nk ed lines without any

,

danger of blotting The r a i s ed rul er of Fig 29 saves an

. .
86 M E CH ANI CA L DRA F TI NG .

6 inch sectio r m 1 8 Inch beveled ll lmd

n ce u

r ler soldby F rederi ck Post Company Scre w

u .

h p m thr one e i ght I nch C ff on

'

t e o t u -

p . ut o to
and file mooth
s

Fi g . 29

immens e amount of time as it makes it po s sible to con ,

ti nu e tracing no matter how many ink lines are still wet .

CONV ENTI ONAL LI NE S

( 47) The conventional lines shown in Fig 27 are .

standard and should be followed strictly C oncerning .

the hi dden li nes it may b e said that no one thin g exc ept
,

dimensi ons Wi ll a dd to or de tra ct from the appe ara nc e o f

a dra wi n g mo r e t han c are or l a c k of i t i n the c orre c t dr a w

ing of hidden lin es both as to th e uniform len gth of the

‘

d ashes and uniform s p ac e be tween d as hes In tr a ci ng . ,

follow strictly the w ei ghts given in the fi gure for thes e

variou s conventional lines .

SCALES

Ar c hi tect s s c al e
The s p a c e s represen ting
’
( 8)
4 .

fee t on the a r chi tect s s ca l e are divided into twelve e qua l

’

parts making it pos sible to draw without a ny i nterpo

, ,
 WORKI NG DRAWI NGS . 87

la tion plans etc of obj ects who se dimensions are given

, ,
.
,

in f eet and i nches .

En gi n eer c e On the engineer s s ca le the i nches

’
s s al .
’

are divided into various numbers of subdivisions these ,

numbers being mul tiples of ten ; i e the i nches are . .

,

divided into 1 0 20 3 0 4 0 5 0 or 60 di visions By use o f

, , , , ,
.

this scale withou t any i nterpolation m aps may be made

and drawings plotted directly from fi eld notes in whi ch
the dis tance s are all given in f eet and ten ths of f eet .

M e c hani c al engi n eer c Recently a scale has

’
s s al e
.

been placed on the market on which the spaces r epr e

s enting inches have been divided into halves q uarters , ,

eighths s ix teenths etc Lik ewis e a scale that combines

, ,
.

all of the three scales just described M echanical engi .

neer s will fi nd it to their advantage to own one or bo th

of these .

Sc ale versu s s i ze A drawing made to such a si z e

.

that one h alf i n c h on the dr a wing e quals one foot on the

-

ob j ect drawn i s said to be made to one h a lf s c a l e

,
How -
.

ever if the drawing be made so that one h alf i nch on the

,
-

dr a w ing represents one i nc h on the ob j ect the drawing is

said to be made one h alf siz e or to a s c ale of
-
to
88 A I A D RAF TI NG
M E CH N C L .

C HAP TE R 5

F AST E NE RS
( 4 9 ) In every fi eld o f construction the builder fi nds
it necessary to hold the component part s of the whole
together by means of fa steners Among the numerous .

kind s and varied shapes of fasteners several are of such ,

universal import ance that the draftsman a s well as the

mechanic must b e entirely familiar with the metho d of
manufacture and mann er of representing them on draw
I ngs .

Among others , rivet s , keys , bolt s and screws are to be

specially noted The several kind s of rivets with their
.

customary conventional repres entations will be found in

the appendi x Brief men tion is made o f the common
.

standard keys in Art 59 The greater portion of this

. .

chapter will b e devoted in main to the mo st widely used

fasteners Bol ts and Screw s
,
.

THR EADS

( 50 ) The He li x
The helix i s a mathematical curve
.

often wrongly termed the Spiral It i s g enerated by mov.

ing a point on any surface of revolution aroun d and ,

along the axis of revolu tion The motion of the.

point in b oth directions i s generally uni form but may b e

variable i n either or both of i ts motions Thus we may .

have cylindrical conical sphe rical and many other f orms

, ,

o f helice s On Bolt s and Screws the thread i s almost

.

always a cylindrical heli x For special purpo se s the

.
90 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

amples of the foregoing mentioned threads are shown

in Fig 2 . .

S ingle Do bl
u e D o b le
u

Fi g 2
.

V Thr eads The V thread i s the usual thread found

.

on b olts and screw s It derive s it s name from the re

.

s emblance of its pro file to the letter V There have been

.

devi sed numerous modifi cations o f this thr ead intended

to make i t stronger and more durable and in some i n
stances to fi t special clas ses of work Fi g 3 Shows the
. .

pro fi le s of some of the se modi fi ed V threads Of these .

 F ASTE NERS . 91

several types the U S Standard ( Seller s ) thread i s the

. .
’

mos t used in thi s country Si z es and dimensions for this

.

class of threads will be found in the Appendix .

S ha p V
i U S S
. tand rd
a

B utti css VV hI tw orth D

Squ are thread s In ca ses where a thread i s con

.

sta ntl y being drawn or loo sed or where heavy load s are

Acme

B S Worm hread
T

tob e lifted the s quare thread fi nd s an important place

,

due to the reduced fric tion over the V thread This .

92 M E CH NI C L DRA A A F TI NG .

thread fin d s a f urther fi eld of usefulness in transmitting

motion A S with the V thread many modi fi ed forms
.
,

have been devis ed Fig 4 illustrates a few o f these

. .

forms .

DE F I NI TI ON OF TH R EAD TE R M S

( 5 2) Cr est Root The s ha rp edge

, .

of the thread is known a s the c rest ;

the depr essi on li ne as the root Fi g 5 , . .

The term cr est o r outsi de diameter

is used to denote the diameter o f the
crest o f the thread and is as sumed
e qual to the di ameter o f the bar The .

diameter of the bottom of the gro oves

is known as the r oot di ameter and is
appro ximately e qual to the crest di
a meter o f the nut or the diameter of

tap drill .

P i tc hFor b olt s and screw s of

Fi g 5
.

various di ameters the Si z e of the

.

threads must vary hence the number

,

o f threads per lin ear inch must vary F or each si z e bolt .

or screw there is a s ta nda r dnumb er of thr ea ds per li nea r

inch whi ch is of ten improperly termed the pitch of the
thread The distance B shown in Fig 5 denotes the
.
, .
,

pi tch of the thread on the bolt It should always be .

understood that when the term pi tch is us ed the distance

between two adj acent threads is meant whether the ,

thread is single double o r triple In th e cas e of th e latter

, ,
.

tw o threads the term le a d is u sed to denote the dis tance

between cr es ts on the same helix .
 F ASTE NERS
. 93

C ONVENTI ONAL REP R E SENTATI ON OP TH R EADS

( 53 ) AS noted above , the projections of thread s on

planes parallel to the a x is of the threads are curved lines .

AS each thread re quires two

helices for its complete pr oj ec
tion— root and crest Fig 2 ,
.

standard conventions have been

evolved to represent the di ff er
ent threads On lar g e threads
.

the curved lines are replaced

Do ble u

by straight lines ; the pr oj ec

tion of the thread remainin g
otherwis e the same E x amples .

Do ble
u

Do ble
u

of these conventions are shown in Fig 6 . .

On threads one inch or les s in di ameter the pro files are

omitted alto gether and the form s shown in Fig 7 A B .
, ,

and O are u sed In drawing these conventions care must

.

b e used not to make the slope of the lines too great one ,
»

half the pitch being right The spacing may b e done by

.

eye but Should conform in a relative way to the number o f

threads on the several b olt s or screws on a drawing .
94 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

Light pencil guide lines should b e ruled limiting the

length of the short heavy lines which should be e qual to
the root diameter of the thread When thread s are t o .

be shown as invisible lines the convention as shown in

,

T apped H o l es Top Vie w s

Tapped H oles Fron t Vie w s

Ta pped H ole I n Secti on

Fi g . 8

A Fig 8 is recommended Al tho po s ses sing no appear

. .

ance of a thread i t is eas y to construc t and is universally

understood by mechanics Fig 8 represents the conven
. .

ti ona l way of showing threads in ta pped hol es the largest ,

diameter being known as the diame ter of the thread .

In some ins tances threads may be made lef t handed .

 F ASTE NERS .
95

Ca r e should be taken to Show such threads by the proper

s l ope of the lines Al so a ttention is direc ted to the
.

change in direction of slope fo r threads in sec tioned par ts .

These varia tions may be unders tood more fully by ref

erence to Fig 9 . .

Com ontl ona l R epre entati on o f Scre

s w Tb I ea ds

ef and
L t H ef a d
L t Hn Rg i ht Hand

Ri ght Hand
Fi g . 9

O B LTS AND NUTS

( 5 4 ) Bolts There are three di stinct cla sses of bolt s

.

in use at the pre sent time called c arri a g e mac hi ne and , ,

stud b ol t s E ach i s made from a rod of iron threaded

.
,

on one end to receive a nut and with the e x ception of the, ,

stud b ol t having the o ther end shaped into some form of

,

head .

Ca n age Bol t
r -

Fig . 10

Carri ag e b olts A carriage bo l t may be defi ned as

.

a bol t wi th an oval head ; i ts Shank i s sq uared from

to under the head the side of this s quare being a
,
96 M E CH ANI CAL D RA F TI NG .

little larger than the diameter of the bolt This bolt i s .

used in woodwork and when drawn into a hole the s quare

under t he head takes a grip in the wood an d prevents
turning while the nut i s drawn The nut b eing thinner .

than the ordinary nut the whole e ffect i s to give a more

fi nished appearance to thi s class of work e specially after ,

painting Fig 1 0 i s given to further e xplain thi s clas s

. .

of b olts.

Fi g . 11

Mac hin e b olts . M achine bol ts are divided into a

number o f clas ses each clas s being named either from
,

its peculiar s hape o r its distinctive us e The dimensions .

98 A I A
ME CH N C L D RAF TI NG .

Hex Hd Bo lt Sq H d Bo . lt

Hex H d Ca p Sc r e w Sq H d Ca p Sc
. r
ew

Ovl a F l lhstel Hd Ma ch Scr ew F lt

a F l lhs ter H d M . a ch w
S cre

L — J L
5A

Round Hd M a ch Scr e w F l tH
a d Ma c h Scr w e

Set Scre w (Cup P omt)

Set Sc rew s
H e le
a d ss Low H e ad

F lt a Comm " 0 \ al Dos

 F AS TE NE R S . 99

Stud b olt On account of the particular use and f orm

.

of the stud bolt it deserves special mention It has no .

head and is threaded on b oth ends nearly up to it s center .

In places Where a headed bolt is impracticable the stud

bolt is screwed in to the tappe dhole in the piece of metal ;
the par t to b e clamped in
p lace is then.S lip ped on
the proj ecting end and an
o rdi nary nut used to draw
the piec e tight The bolt .

thus serves the s econd

purpo se of being a guide
in assemb ling W hich makes
it almost indispensable in
p l a 0 e s wher e machine
parts are remo ved and r e
placed very often F i g .
. .

1 3 illustrates this i mpor Fi g 13 .

tant b o lt .

Nuts . A
or ma chi ne b ol t nut may be de fined
carr i a ge

as a s qua r e or hexa gon o f s teel or w r ought i r on of any

desired thicknes s wi th a thr ea ded hol e thru the center .

They need no clas s ifi cation since they differ only in

,

Shape ,thick nes s and finish They may be s quare or

.

hex agonal very thick or quite thin and if rough they

, ,

quite likely have been punched from sheets of wrough t

iron or steel while the fi nished nuts have been cut from
,

s quare o r hex agonal bars of steel Fig 1 1 ,

. .

DI M EN SI ONI N G BO LTS
.

( 55 ) Length ,
di ameter The length of a b olt i s
.

always un ders tood to be the dista nce from the end to

1 00 M E CH N C L A I A DRA F TI NG .

the under surface of the head In placing a no te on a .

drawing de signating the Si z e of bolt used the diameter , ,

len gth and pitch o f thread should be given in the order

,

named foll owed by the kind of bolt wan ted ; e g

,
. .
,
” ”
l x 4 x 8 thr ds per in Fin H ex Bol t If the bolt is to
. . . . .

be a U S Std bol t only the length and diame ter are

. . .
,

needed On large or long bol ts the threaded length

.

should be given .

SC EWS
R
( 5 6) De fi ni tion . A screw may b e de fined as a ro d
of i r on or s teel and conta i ning a
thr ea ded on on e end
s qua r e hex a gona l o r s l otted hea d on the other by which
, ,

the screw i s turned Screw s are divided into four gen .

”
e
71 /1 1 1 ,

ma y ” :
La g S cre w Allen Headle ss Set S cre w

S ho l der Screw
u

D rive rew
Sc
Fi g . 14

eral classe s— wood set c a p and ma c hin e screw s Fi gs , , , . .

1 2 and 1 4 illustrate s ome of the typ es mo st comm only

used Tables of dimensions may be found in the Appen
.

dix .

In listing screw s on a drawi ng the method outlined

in Art 5 5 for bolts should be followed
. .
1 02 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

O
SH P O PER ATI ON S
( 5 8 ) Ta ps and Dies The usual method of cutting V
.

thread s is by mean s of tools known as ta p s and di es .

F igs 1 6 and 1 7 furnish general information concerning

.

the se Shop tool s The ta p i s used for cu tting the threads

.

Fi g . 17

in nuts and also for threading holes drill ed in par t s of

machine s Die s are used for threading bol ts and screw s
.

”
and o ther rod s of iron not grea ter than 1 in diame ter.
 FAS TENE RS .
1 03

Flat K y
e

F ig 18
.

F i g 19

F i g 20

\d 1 uff Key
1 04 A I A
M E CH N C L DR A F TI NG .

Square
threads threads not h aving a standard pit c h
, ,

and all large threads are turned on the lathe .

K EY S AND K EY WAYS
( 5 9 ) In fa stening wheels pulleys etc to shafts two , ,
.
,

clas se s o f f asteners may be used s et s cr ews o r kegs ,

-
.

Set screws may be used to advantage in all cases in which

-

the twi s ti ng f or ce on the shaft is

very sma ll It is not wise to us e
.

such a fastener on large pulleys

o r in ca ses in w hi ch the lo ad is
likely to be very great In this .

latter case one o f three varieties

of key may b e used accordin g to
the nature o f the machine These .

keys and keyways are ( a ) K eys

on fl ats Fig 1 8 ; ( b ) Stra i g ht
, . F i g 21 .

seated k eys Fig 1 9 ; ( 0 ) Wood

, .

rufl k ey s Fig 20 ; ( d ) Round k ey s Fi g 21

'

, . It is clearly , . .

s een that the fi rst typ e of key has a very limited use and ,

owi ng to the f a ct t ha t the Wo odru ff key is patented the ,

s tr a i ght keys and s eats have the mo st general use In .

this type of key it is seen Fig 1 9 that one half o f the

, ,
.
,
-

reces s is milled or cut into the shaft ( this gro ove being
known as a k eysea t ) while the other hal f o f the reces s is
cut into the hub of the pulley and is kn own as the k eyway .

When fitted over each other they should form nearly a

square the height being slightly les s than the width The
,
.

keys u sed in this connection are cut from s qua r e b a rs of

col d r oll ed s teel and fi led to a slight taper on one side

only so that when driven in far enou gh they wedge

,
1 06 M E CH N C L A I A DRAF TI NG .

C H A P TE R 6

SH OP T E RM S T OOL S MACHI NE S
, ,

Dra ftsm a n ’
s Use of Sho p Terms .

( 0)
6 Certain
terms that are in common use in the
workshop are used by the designer and draftsman in the
form of a direction to th e workman Such words as .

“ ” “ ” “ ” “ ”
drill tap
,
ream,
fi ni sh etc are Shop terms
, ,
.
, ,

directing the workman to perform the operation indi

ca ted When these words are used on a drawing the
.
,

lettering should b e so placed that there will be no con

fusion in determining to e x actly what part o f the Oh
j ect the term applies Leaders Should point to the p art
.

referred to if the meaning is not clear without them If .

additional wording other than the Simple term is needed ,

the E nglish language Should be used in such a way that

th e meaning of the note canno t be misunderstood .

Ordinarily working drawings sent to the shop are

,

made so complete that the same drawing will an swer for

the pattern —maker blacksmi th and machinist In this
, , .

case each workman uses onl y that part of the inf orm ation
,

on the drawing tha t applie s to his work Some large .

shops follow th e method of making a separate drawing

for each of these workmen so that he will be supplied ,

only wi th the dimensions and note s that apply to hi s par

ti cul a r work .

F I NI SH

( 61 ) A casting or forging i s in a rough state when it

come s from the foundry or forge shop and if certain parts
“ ”
are to be machined they are marked fi nis h or Simply
,
 R
SH OP TE M S, TOOLS , M A CH I NES . 1 07

“ ”
f on the drawing The mos t convenient way of indi
.

ca ting that a surface is to b e fi nished i s to place the le tter

“ ”
f acro ss the straight line projection of the sur face .

In 1 the upper and lower faces of the block are t o

,

be machined Since the dimensions given on the draw

.

ing indicate the Si z e of the finished object surfaces ,

“ ”
marked with an f wi ll indicate to the pat tern maker -

or blacksmith tha t allowance for the tool cut must be

made on the casting or forging .

“ ”
The note f all over placed under a detail drawing
means that the entire surface of this par t is to be ma
chined .

“ ”
The operations coming under the h ead of fi ni sh will
in general be performed on lathes planers or shapers
, ,

such a s are Shown in accompanying cuts .

1 08 A I A
M E CH N C L D RAF TI NG.

In the shop operation re quired in cutting s l ots

( 62) ,

gr ooves k no w n as k ey seats al so other similar Opera ,

tions Fig 2 a machine k nown as a mi llin g m a chi ne

, .
,

Milled K y Seat
e

Cut on Milling Machine

i s used The cutting tools resemble the common type

.

of circular saw and operate on the same principle AS .

s een on pages 1 09 and 1 1 0 w hi ch are h oriz ontal mi llin g

,

mac hi nes the cutter i s fastened rigidly to the revolving

,

shaft or arb or while the piece of material to be machined

is clamped to the table and the table moved either by ,

hand o r automatically slowly under the cutter a s a log

, ,

i s fed into the saw of a sawmill For special work mill .

ing cutters of many odd de signs are made as seen on

'

pages 1 1 1 and 1 1 2 The machine shown on pa g e 1 1 3 is

.

known as a verti c al milling m a c hin e the shaft o r arbo r in ,

this case being ver ti ca l T o prevent vibration in the

.

arbo r of the hori z ontal machine ( this vibration b eing

1 10 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

A M I L LI NG M A CHI NE
H ORI ZONT L
 R
SH OP TE M S, TOOLS, M A CH I NES .
112 A I A DRA FTING
M E CH N C L .

MILLI NG CUTTE RS
114 A I A DRA F TING
M E CH N C L .

known as c ha tter ) and conse quent rough work of the cut

ter c h atter br a c es shown below are being put on mo st
, , ,

machines of late design The note used to indicate any

:
.

“ ” ”
desired milling operation may be as follows 2 mi ll ;
the two inches indicating the di a m eter of the mi lling
“ ” “
cu tter ; o r M i ll ”
keg s ea t 4 l ong ,
M i ll s l ot
, ,
” ”
4
1
deep, etc.

H ORI ZONT L A M I LLI NG M A CH I NE WI TH A

CH A TTE R BR CE S

Since economy of time is a large item in shop work

the designer will do well to study carefully the many pos
si b i l i ti es of the millin g machine Ne x t to the lathe and
.

drill i t i s perhap s the mo st e ffi cient machine in use .

SH OP TERM S, TOOLS, M A CHI NES .

TWI S T DRI L L S
1 16 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

DRI LL P RESS
1 18 A I A RA FTI NG
M E CH N C L D .
S H OP R
TE M S , TOOLS , M A CH I NE S
1 20 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

RE A M E RS
1 22 M ECHAN C L I A DRA F TI NG .

On pages 1 0 1 and 1 02 are shown a series of s tandard

tap s and likewise both bolt and pipe dies used in cutting
V threads on bolts pipes etc , ,
.

TAP DRILL

( 68 ) A ta p dri ll is a twi s t dr i ll of the comm on type ,

named a ta p drill in this case because it has been u sed

in drillin g a hole which is to be threaded to receive a
screw .

HAR DEN TEM PE R ANN EAL , ,

( 69 ) Thes e are terms which have to do with the heat

treatment of the machi ne parts in question and there
fore will be interpreted by the workmen in the for g e
shop .

F I LLET

( 70 ) It is a well recogni z ed principle of mechanics

that a b r ea k is much more likely to occur in s ha rp

l <
rllt tcd Cor ne r Fi llet
orLeathe r

Fi g . 8 Fi g . 4

corn er sof a machine than els ewhere the corner ,

ing to furnish a starting point for the break F or thi s .

reas on and others whi ch need not be mentioned all

, ,

co rners found on ca stings are seen to be Slightly rounded ,

 SH OP TE M S, TOOLS, M R A CH I NES . 1 23

Fig 3 This rounded corner is known as a fi ll et ; like

. .

wis e the ma ter i a l which is used to make this fi ll et in pa t

terns takes the same name In Fig 4 is shown the . .

me thod of making such filleted corners in pa tterns The .

triangular piece shown is m a de of w ood shaped by dri v ,

te l D
S e re
1 0
"

Ro n d u

H ole the
Sha pe of t he Fi llet
Fig . 5

ing thru a Di e Fig 5 a s dow el pi ns or of h ar d wax

, .
, ,

rounded by a heated rod Fig 6 or it may be of l ea th er , .

,

which can be purchased in coils of any leng th The .

leather fillets of course are mo st convenient for very

, ,

irregularly shaped pieces The radius o f the arc o f such .

fi lle ts is qui te generally however it is necessarily a ,

ma tter of machine design and for very large piece s the

radius must be grea ter than

BEAR IN GS

( 71 ) In certain types of machin e

Br a s ses . s it is
desirable to use bra ss for bearings rather than th e com
bina tion of lead and z inc and copper Such bearings are .

ordinarily made in halve s cons tructed so as to permit ,

of a slight adjustment Fig 7 Thes e half bearings are ,

. .

commonly known as bra sses .

Babbi t The alloy of lead z inc and copper mentioned

.
,

above is commonly known a s b abbit The greater the .

amount of z inc and copper the harder thi s compound is ,

.

Two of the material advantages of b abbit for bearings

1 24 A I A D RA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

are that the metal is cheap and such b earings can b e

, ,

easily replaced by a work man o f but ordinary e xperience

.

Babbit lining i s poured while molten into the ca st iron

casings with the sha f t in place .

Fi g . 7
1 26 M E CH N C L A I A DRA F TI N G .

known a s th e isom etri c p l an e and the projection on thi s ,

plane of a ny object viewed in the direction of the iso

me tric a xis is known as an isometri c p r oj ecti on The .

Sheet of paper or blackb oard may of course be conceived , ,

a s the i sometric plane on which the proj ections of the

,

three a xes X Y and Z will be right line s m a k ing 1 20

, ,

degrees wi th each other and the projec tion of th e i so

metric a xis will be their point of intersec tion Fig 1 , . .

This poin t of intersec tion may also be termed the ori gi n .

Fi g . 1 F ig 2
. Fi g . 3

DI R E CTR I CE S

( )
73 The orthographic projections on the isometric
plane of the three coordina te a x es X Y and Z are known , ,

in the drawing as the di re ctri c es and occasionally as the ,

is om etri c axes Since the coordinate a x es make wi th each

.

other e q ual angle s their projections ( the directrice s )

,

also make e qual angles ( 1 20 degrees ) with each other .

This being true when it is desired to make any isometric

,

proj ection the directrices may be drawn imm ediately

,

through any cho sen point and at 1 20 degrees to each

other One of the directrices is u sually taken vertical
.
,

Fi g 1 ; however the arrangements shown in Figs 2 and

.
, .

3 are frequently used .

 ISOM E TRI C AN D O LB I Q UE P R OJ E CTI ON . 1 27

O R
I S M ET I C SCALE

( 74 ) Since
the coordinate a x e s are obli que to the
isometric plane their projections are Shorter than the
,

axe s themselves However Since each a xis makes the

.
,

same angle with the isometric plane one inch measured ,

on each of the three a x es will proj ect in e qual len gths

on the isometric plane For all ordinary pu r po ses in
.
,

making an i sometric projection it is more convenient to

,

lay off the projections of lines which are parallel to

X Y and Z e q ual in length to the actual line s It is
, ,
.

seen of course tha t the proj ection made with such

, ,

measurements represen ts the objec t a s being about fi fty

per cent l arger than it actually is Since the di rect u se
.

of the scale in measuring these line s full length make s

so much for convenience and only enlarges the view thi s ,

procedure i s usually followed “ If on the o ther hand , ,

it i s de sired that the projection b e mathematically cor

rect the projection of all lines parallel to X Y and Z
, , ,

must be mea sured according to the isometric scale Since .

each coordinate a xis makes with the isome tric pl ane an

1 28 M E CH ANI CA L DRA F TI NG .

an gle of 3 5 if we as sume the hypotenuse AB o f the

°

right trian gle Fig 4 to be one of the coordinate a x es

,
.
, ,

BC the isometric a xis and CA the i sometric plane viewed

, ,

edgewi se the isometric projec tion

, given length
BE on the ax i s BA would projec t on the plane with a

cale
l somet r1 L S
Fi g 5 .

length e qual to Ce Figs 5 and 6 illustrate Simple

. .

methods for obtaining the isometric scale .

75 ) P roblem 1 To c onstruct the isome tri c proj ec

.

ti on of any p ar al l elopi p ed .

”
Cons tru c ti on Cube 2 on edge Fig 7
.
,
. .

Thru point 0 are drawn the a xes OB OA and 0 0 , , ,

making with each other angles of 1 20

degrees F rom 0 alon g OA measure
.
, ,

w ith the is ometric scale the same

along OC and OB to points D E and , ,

F OD and OE then represent the

.

two adj acent Sides o f the bas e and ,

lines from D and E parallel to OE and

OD complete the b ase In Similar .

manner the vertical faces DOE and

130 ANI CAL DRA F TI NG
’

M E CH .
 I SOM E TRI C B I Q UE P R OJ E CTION
AN D O L . 131

points may be ob tained as Shown and the ellipse drawn

thru them by means of the irregular curve .

Appr oxim ate m ec h ani c al m ethod The isometric

.

projec tion of a circle which lies in a plane parallel to

th e plane of any two isometric a x es will always be an
ellipse inscribed in a rhombu s AB CD whose acute angle s
,

A and C are 60 degrees and which i tself is the isometric

,

projection of the s quare circumscribing the circle repr o

sented The ellipse may be appro xima ted with sa ti sf a c
.

tory e x ac tnes s if made of arcs of circles as illus tra ted in

Fig 1 2 From the obtuse angles
. .

B and D perpendiculars are

dropped to the Oppo site Sides .

Then with radius R e qual to DE

and centers B and D the arcs HF .

and GE are described ; with cen

ters K and L and radius r e qual
,

to LE the sma l l circles are de

,

scribed comple ting the a ppr ox i

ma te ellipse .
F ig 1 2
132 A I A
M E CH N C L DRAF TI NG .

D I M EN SI ON I NG
In placing dimensions on an i sometric drawing
( 78 ) ,

the s ame rule must be followed a s in ortho g raphic work

in g drawings ; the dimensions must read f rom l ef t to right
o r f rom the b ottom up In f ollowin g thi s rule it will be
.

found always that the dimension lines are parallel to the

coordinate a xe s never otherwi se In gi ving the di a m
,
.

Fi g . 13

eters of ci r cl es the metho d shown

in Fi g 1 3 is preferable to plac
.

ing the diameter directly on the

isometric of the circle On i n .

specti on of Fig 1 4 it is s een that

.

there are actually three faces o f

the obj ect to be dim ensioned and
in giv in g the dimensions fo r face
No 1 whi ch i s parallel to the
.
,

isometri c plane N o 1 it must fi rst .

,
F i z 15

be decided what directions consti

tute f rom l ef t to ri ght and f rom b ottom up The same .

thing must be decided fo r f aces 2 and 3 In Fi g 1 5 is . .

given a key w hich will be use ful i n dimensioning In con .

134 M E CH ANI CAL DRA F TI NG .

60 wi th the hori z on tal preferably

°
Thes e three lines
,

represen t lines at r ight a ngl es to each o ther and may be ,

compared to th e thr ee a dj a cent edges of a cub e .

Taken two and tw o these directrices include coor di

:
~

na te planes as follows OA and OB plane 1 or the plane , ,

of tru e ci r cl es ; OB and Q C plane 2 a second ver tical , ,

plane and CA and Q C plane 3 a hori z ontal plane

, , , .

D I MENSI ONI NG
( 8 1 ) In Obli que as well as I n I sometric proj ection ,

the problems of dimensioning are threefold ; i e any . .

,

obj ec t drawn may have faces parallel to each of the three

coo rdina te planes in Fig .

1 7 In placing d i mensions .

for c onstructions on these

faces it is neces sary of ,

course to decide wha t di ,

Fi g . 17 Fi g . 18

rections constitute from l ef t to r ight and from b ottom up .

The key in Fig 1 8 may be u sed in a manner Similar to

.

that of the key given for isometric proj ection I nspec .

tion of Figs 1 9 23 may serve to clear up any doubtful

.
-

po i nts bo th in dimensioning and in cons truction

,
.

OBLI Q UE SCALE

( )
8 2 If di s ta nces
equa l b e measured from 0 along
the a x es OA, OB and 0 0 , Fig 24 t he distance along
.
,
I SOM E TR I C B I Q UE P R OJ E CTI ON
AN D O L . 1 5

bl iq e P
O u roj ectron o f St ffi g Box
u n .
136 A I A
M E CH N C L D RA F TI NG .

O bl q e P roj ecti on o f Sha ft Co pler

i u u .

F i g 20
.
 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .
ISOME TR I C B I Q UE P R OJ E CTI ON
AN D O L .
139

O bl i q e P roj ect i on of Flanged Pi pe T

u ee .

Fi g 28
1 40 A I A D RA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

0 0 will appear to be l onger than tho se along OA and

OB ; hence , for symmetry, it is necessary to make use of

O bl iq e Scale for 45
u
°

O bl iq e Scale for 30
u
°

Fi g . 24 Fi g . 25

the obli que scale in measurin g any distance along OC .

The obli qu e scale i s obtained by measuring Off inches ,

etc on the hypotenuse of a

.
, or 60 triangle and °

pr oj ecti ng these inche s upon ei ther o f the l egs for

l ong leg fo r 3 0 and s hor t leg for Fi g 25
°
. .

( 8 3 ) P roblem 3 . TO dr aw the Ob li qu e p roj ec ti on of a

p aral lelop i p ed .

”
Constructi on . Cube 1 on e dge .

Thru a chosen point , 0 , Fig 26, . draw the three a xe s

OA OB and OC Along ax es OA
, ,
.

”
and OB measure 1 to D and S ,

and with the obli que scale meas

”
ure 1 along OC to R Com .

pl ete the parallelo g rams ODMR ,

OSLR and DNSO; then the r e

,

maining faces may easily be

added .
Fig , 26

CI RCLES

( 84 ) P oint E , in f ace TLRM Fig 27 is the center ,

.
,
”
o f a circle 4 3 di ameter .Since this is the face of true
1 42 M E CH A NI CAL DRA F TI NG .

With some care it will u sually be pos sible in making ,

the obli que proj ection of any obj ect containi ng circles ,

so to place the obj ect that the obli que proj ections of
some of the circles are true ci r cl es while the pr oj ec ,

tions of the remainder become i s ometri c when the ob

li qu e a xi s is drawn either at 3 0 o r 60 degr ees to the
hor i z onta l .

Fi g . 28

Fi g . 29

I RREG ULAR O BJECTS

( 8 5 ) All that has been said on this subj ect under
isometric projection applie s a s well in obli q ue proj ec tion .

I t is perhaps unnecessary to suggest tha t when making

any ob li que proj ection care Should be taken SO to place
the obj ect that mo st of the circles will appear as true
circles .

SHADE S AND SHAD O WS IN I SO ME TR I C AND O BLI QUE

PRO JE CTI ON

( 8 6) Shades
and shadows in isometric proj ection ,

a s in orthographic proj ection are used merely fo r the

,
"
 ISOME TRI C AND O LB I Q UE P R OJ E CTION .
1
1 43

na tural appearance which they give to a drawing H ence .

,

a s in o r thographi c proj ec tion the draftsman has con ,

si der a b l e freedom in de ter mi ning both the di r ecti on and

the l ength of the shadows Before proceeding with a .

problem in shade s and Shadows it will perhaps be well

to de fi ne a few of the terms and sta te the fundamen tal
principles which govern cons truc tio n .

Dire ct li ght All light which comes to any body di

.

r ectly from th e source ( th e sun arc lights etc ) is known , , .

a s dir ect light .

I nd i r ect li g ht . Al l light which reaches object s in an

indirect way e g by reflec tion from o ther object s which
, . .
,

are in direc t light i s known a s i n di r ec t light

,
.

Sh ad e Any por tion of the surface of an object from

.

which the di r ect light is e xcluded by some par t of the

s a m e objec t is said to be in shad e Thi s Shaded surface .

may also be k nown a s a shade .

Sh a do w . An y portion
of the surface Of an obj ec t from
which the di r ect li ght is e xcluded by some par t of a nother
object is said to be i n sh ad ow and for convenience may ,

be called a shado w .

PRI N CIPLES

1 . Al l rays of light in thes e problems are regarded a s

p a r a ll el ; hence when the direc
,
tion of th e fi rs t ray h as

been assumed all o thers mus t be considered para l lel to i t

,
.

2 The shade or shadow of a given poin t on a given

.

surfa ce is the point in which a ray thru the given point

pi erces the given surface .

3 . Any ra y used to de termine the s ha de or s ha dow of

a given point may in reality be a rav of light ; however ,
1 46 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

C GDK , hence the shade line from e is parallel to BE ;

to find the Shadow of F draw the Shadow of ME parallel
to Oa ; the intersection of this Shadow line wi th the ray
thru F locates f . The Shadow of E F is pa r a ll ed to cd ;
fn is parallel and e qual in length to E N It is readily
.

s een from the direction of Oa that the face AOM must be

in Shade lik ewis e BCD and GEF K and space K Geh
,
.

The isometric proj ections o f the shadows of the r e

maining point s are located successively a s tho s e already
f ound .
 M A CHI NE SKE TCH I NG . 1 47

C HAP TE R 8

M ACH I NE SK E T CH I NG

( 88 ) Defi nition . A mac hine sk e tc h may be roughly

de fi ned as a fr eehand w orking dr a w i ng .

T o the engineer no one accomplishment is of more

value than the abi lity to make rapidly accura te legible ,

machi ne ske tches .

A draftsman o r sh Op foreman may be called upon at

any time to make a has ty sketch of s ome broken machine
part which perhaps cannot be removed wi thout shutting
down the machine for a day or two .

A construc tion engineer put ting in s ome new machin

ery may fi nd that s ome pla tes fixtures etc desi gned , ,
.
,

especially for the j ob are all wrong and he must imme

, ,

di a tely send in sketches of wha t i s wanted .

A bridge engineer may fi nd his work held up by the

breaki ng o r absence of some pec uliarly shaped piece or ,

may need some special fix tures to handle diffi cul ties pecu
liar to the j ob .

Likewi se it is understood that all machine forms are

,

devi sed in the mechanic s brain and must be placed on

’

paper in s ome appro ximate form before it is pos sible to

make a mechanical working draw ing .

In all of these and hundreds of other cases whi ch are

inevitable the ability to Sketch r api dly and w ell is indis
,

pensable and the man who fi nds himself ca lled upon to

,

make a sketch and is not well grounded in i ts principles ,

will find himself seriously handicapped .

P APER

( 89 ) It will be seen that the nature of th e S ituati ons

1 48 M E CH N C L A I A DRA F TI NG .

which re quire Sketching will demand the use of scratch

paper o r a no tebo ok Cr oss s ecti on paper is invaluable
.
-

f o r this purpo se as it aids material l y in the rapid and

,

accura te sketching of the s everal views .

NATUR E OF DR AWI N G

( 90 ) AS in a mecha ni ca l w orki ng dr a wi ng a ma chi ne ,

sketch consists of a number of views ( top and fr ont; top ,

fr ont and l ef t end etc ) of a machine o r mach i ne par t

, ,
. .

Thes e views are true orthographic proj ections hence ,

p roj ec tions of each other as in working drawings ,

N ever .

Show more views than are neces sary to e x plain clearly

th e construction ; of cours e tw o are a mi ni mum ; varia ,

tions in this respect will b e mentioned later .

PE NCIL— SK E TCH ST R OK E
(91 ) F or sketching it will be be tter to us e a com
p a r a ti vel y s of t pencil H o r 2H
,
as it is desirable to Show ,

marked dis tinc tion between the ou tlines of the ob j ect and
di mensi on and s ecti on lines .

In drawing line s whe ther short or long the s ketch

, ,

s tr ok e should be used The s k etc h strok e i s merely a

.

s uccess i on o f s hor t s tr okes in th e desired direction and , ,

as a result the line will of course be somewhat ragged

, , , ,

consisting of a number of shor t overlapping lines H ow .

ever by this me thod it will be found po ssible to a ppr oxi

,

ma te a straight line much more clo sely than by a con

ti nu ous s troke .

SI ZE OF DR AWI N G

( )
9 The work being freeh an d and done u sually
2
under adverse conditions sk etches are not made to ,

scale ; numeri ca l di mensi ons are depended upon en

1 50 A I A
M E CH N C L D RA F TI NG .

4 . in dimensi ons a uxili a ry and s ecti on lines

Ske tch , , .

The reason for placing on di mension lines whi le ma kin g

up the views is that each detail of the piece as it is ,

drawn may suggest a necessary dimension that perhap s

would be overlooked if lef t until la ter A break should .

be left in each dimension line No attemp t need be made .

here to distinguish between outlines and other l ines .

5 Go over the sketch carefully and increase the

.

w eight of ou tli nes s o that the construction shows easily .

6 Obtain from the machi ne with calipers and rule

.

all dimensions already indicate d on sketch Al wa ys .

place on over a ll dimensions as a check .

7 Be li b er a l with no tes
. .

SH O RT CUTS
( )
9 4 T o s ave time the following short cuts are ,

permis sible
1 In drawing obj ec ts of familiar Shape wheels etc
.
, ,
.
,

the hub two spokes and a short portion of the rim is

, ,

suffi cie nt .

2 Where obj ects are symmetrical with respect to a

;

center line e g gate valve s etc it is s uffi cient to Show

, . .
, ,
.
,

only one half of obj ect limiting the portion drawn by

-

the center line The o ther half may be drawn in when

.

time perm i ts if desired , .

3 Where obj ects are symmetrical about two center

.

lines at right angles to each other it will be suffi cient to ,

show only one fourth o f the obj ect -

4 Wh ere any part cannot be Shown well in de tail

.
,

e g bolts holes fas teners etc e xplanatory notes may be

. .
, , , , .
,

—
substituted e g 3 ”
dri ll ; A x 1 0 pi tap;
. H ex.
, . .

H d M a ch S c ;
. . etc .
 R
PE SP E CT IVE . 1 51

C H AP TE R 9

P E RSP E CTIV E

( 95 )Tho it is impo ssible to give here any complete

explana tion of the principles of perspective it has been ,

deemed advisable to attempt su fficient explanation to

e nable one to understand a few of the basic principles .

It is readily seen tha t no one view of a working draw

ing of any obj ect can present to the eye the na tural
appearance pos sessed by a crayon or charcoal drawing .

The reason is tha t in making a working drawin g the

,

eye was imagined at an i nfini te distance from the obj ect ,

an as sumption so unnatural as to give rise immediately to

resul ts o f an unnatural appearance .

PE R SPECTI VE DR AWI N G

( 9 6) Defi ni ti on . A per sp ective dr awi ng of an object

is such a r epr es enta ti on o f tha t ob j ect on a gi ven pla ne
or s heet of pa per a s wi ll pr es ent the s a m e a ppea r a nce a s
the ob j ect i ts elf w hen the eye is in a cer ta i n pos i ti on w i th
r espect to the ob j ect .

The plane on which the perspective drawing is made

i s called the p i ctur e p la ne and for rea sons which need
, ,

not be given here i s usually taken ver ti ca lly

, .

P RI N CI PLE S OF CON STRUCTI ON

( 9 7) The principle on which perspective construc

:
tion is b ased is as follows The ver ti ca l pi ctur e pla ne
is placed b etw een the eye and the ob j ect ( that the draw
ing may be s ma ll er than the obj ect ) and line s of si ght ,

or vi sual ra ys drawn from the eye to the various point s

1 52 A
M E CH NI C L A DRA F TI NG .

of the obj ect The poi nts in which these lines pi er ce the
.

pi ctu r e pla ne are respectively the per specti ves of the

corresponding points of the obj ec t If lin es be drawn .

connec ting thes e pi er ci ng poi nts in their proper order a ,

perspective drawing of the whole obj ect is obtained .

Fig 1 . .

R N
P I CTU E P LA E AND P O SI TI ON OP O BJECT
( 98 ) Since perspective drawings are made mo stly
from workin g drawings the ver ti ca l pla ne of or tho
,

i c re Plane
P tu

Fi g . 1

gr a phi c pr oj ecti on i s used a s the pi ctur e pl a ne and the

obj ect placed in the thi r d a ngl e .

P O SI TI ON OF P O IN T OF SI GH T

( )
9 9 The poi nt of si ght is of cours e in f r ont of the , ,

vertical plane and may b e in either the fi rs t or f our th

,

angles a ccording to the nature of the view desired ; i e

,
. .
,

i f it is desired to make a drawing showing the appear

ance of the obj ect when directly in f r ont of i t the point ,

of sight would be in the f our th angle .

P R IN CI PAL P IO N T IN PE R SPE CTI VE

The proj ec tion of the point of si ght on the
( 1 00 )
vertical plane is called the p ri n c i p al p oint in perspective ,

and is o f prime importance in cons truction Inasmuch .

1 54 M E CH N C LA I A DRA F TI NG .

plane on the other side o f the picture plane The four .

parallel edges AB CE etc of the cube are produced as

, , ,
.
,

indicated by dotted lines to the right ; if they are pro

duced an infi nite dis tance they will appear to meet and ,

the line of sight from S to the apparent meeting or

vanishing point is the line thru S and V Then a s ex .
,

plained above if SV meets AB CE etc at i nfi nity it

, , ,
.
, ,

is pa ra ll el to them But AB CE etc are perpendi cul a r .

, ,
.
,

to the pi ctur e pl a ne; therefore the line thru S and V out

to this vani shing point is als o perpendi cula r to the pi c
tur e pla ne and must pas s thru s the proj ection of S on
’
,

the picture plane As vi ewed from point S the f our

.
,

edges AB CE etc which we have produced to infi nity

, , ,
.
, ,

do not in reali ty appear to be parallel lines forming the

edges of a long prism but seem to represent the four ,

edges of a long pyramid T o return to the perspective .

,

suppos e we wish to represent this long pyrami d on the

picture plane as seen from S Acco rding to Art 9 7 . .
,

lines are drawn from S to the several points o f the

pyramid ; the line from S to the imaginary ape x at i n
fi ni ty pierces the picture plane at s ; and the lines from ’

S to A C D and F pierce the picture plane at a 0 d f ;

, , , , 1 1 l

then a 0 d f s is the perspective of the pyramid From

1 1 1 1
-
’
.

this expl a na ti on i t is seen that the pers pecti ve of all li nes

'

e
p pr en di cul a r to the pi c tur e pl a n e mee t at s the vertical ’
,

proj ection of the point o f sight Fo r this reason 3 is .

’

called the vani shi ng p oi nt of perpendiculars The f act .

that perpendiculars do converge at s a ff ords an easy ’

method of constructing the perspective o f any obj ect

when placed in a certain position Lines f rom S to the .

other points o f the cube are seen to pierce the pi c ture

plane in points on the perspec tives of these perpendi cu
lars givin g the fi gure b a 0 d f g This fi gure repr e
, 1 1 1 1 1 l .
 PE RSPE CTIVE . 1 55

sents the cube as seen from S Face ABE C is not visible

.

from S .

THE H O R I ZON I N P ER SPECTI VE

( 1 0 2Any line which is perpendicular to a vertical

)
plane is hori z ontal In Fig 2 the lines AB , CE , etc , are
. . .

hori z ontal lines and when produced an infinite dis tance

, ,

appear to meet in a point on what we commonly call the

hori z on Then the li ne of s ight from S to thi s meeting
.

point becomes a hor i z onta l li ne and the per specti ve of

,

the hori z on will be the hor i z on ta l li ne drawn thru the

point s The hori z ontal line lying in the picture plane
’
.
1 56 M E CH ANI CAL DRA F TI NG .

and pas sing thru the vertical proj ections of the point of
Sight s is also called the h ori z on
’
, , .

SPE CI AL P O SI TI ON OF THE O BJECT

( 1 03 ) If the cube in Fig 2 be moved until face ACDF.

coincides with the picture plane then this face becomes ,

its own perspec tive and each line on this face is shown
in its true value ; i e a circle Shows as a true circle etc
. .
, , .

From this it f ollows that the perspecti ve of any ci rcl e

who se pla ne is pa r a ll el to the pi ctur e pl ane will be a true
ci r cl e; its diameter will be less o r greater than the true

diameter however , .

M ECHANI CAL CON STR UCTI ON OF A PE R SP ECTI VE

( 1 04 ) Inasmuch as all lines in perspective are shorter

than the lines which they represent except in the cas e of ,

lines which lie in the picture plane it will be best to put ,

one face of the obj ect or one face of a circumscribed

p arallelopiped into coincidence wi th the picture plane in ,

order tha t we may have a foundation of actual measure

ments on which to base our construction .

C OO R DI NATES
( 1 05 ) The po sition of the point of Sight with respec t
to s ome cho sen point A of the obj ect will hereafter be
:
, ,

given as follows
x distance of point of sight to right or l ef t of A
2

as x is or
y distance o f point of sight a b ove or b elow A as y
is or
z distance of point of Sight b ef or e the point A
” ”
e g x
. .
, y z z 6
z l oca tes S 3 t o
z th e r i ght
” ”
and 4 b el ow A and 6 b ef or e the picture plane .
1 58 M E CH NI C L A A DRA F TI NG .

seen from the top Construc t in a convenien t position the .

top View b fc da gj of the cube th e line da fc which r epr e

- - -

,
-

sen ts the front face of the cube coinciding with G L At ,

. .

any desired distance di rectly below the top View draw the ,

s quare a f c d which is the front view of the cube

l l 1 l .

The point of sight S is to be located by the three co

ordinates given wi th reference to the point A on the cube .

Firs t loca te S as viewed from above The top view of S

,
.

” ”
( lettered ) is 2 to the left of ( 2) and 4 in fron t
’

s a x

of a The s quare b fc da gj G L and 3 now - - -

,
. .
,

represent respec tively the cub e the pi ctu r e pla ne and the , ,

poi nt of s i ght as they appear looking down from above .

Second locate S as viewed from the front

,
The fron t .

View of S ( lettered s ) is 2 to the left of a ( x __ — 2) and

” ’
1

”
1 above a 1The s quare a f c d and 3 now r ep l l l 1
’

res ent respectively the cub e and the poi nt of s ight as

viewed from the front .

The s quare a f c d is the perspective of the front face

l l l 1

of the cube Since this face lies in the picture plane Draw .

lines from a f c and d to s This fi gure s

l , l , a f c d
1 , 1
’
.
’
-

1 l l 1

then is the perspec tive of the long pyramid Spoken of in

Ar t 1 01 The perspectives of the edges of the cube tha t
. .

are perpendicular to the picture plane will lie along these

lines jus t drawn to s F or e x ample the perspec tive of ’
.
,

th e edge A G is a g lying along a 3 and it is only neces

’
l l , 1

sary to locate g on this line T o locate g draw sg and

1 .
l ,

where it cro s ses G L at v drop a perpendicular to G L . . . .

un til it intersects a s Since sj coincides wi th sg j will 1

’
.
, 1

lie directly below g on d s and the perspec tive of the lef t 1 l

’

side of the cube is completed as a g j d A hori z ontal line 1 1 1 1 .

from g produced until it i nter esects f s completes the

1 l
’

perspective of the cube It is easily seen that sg is the .

 PE RSPE CTIVE .
1 59

top V iew of a line of sight from S to G and was drawn to

ascertain the distance vd to the lef t of the edge F D of the
'

cube at which the line of sigh t pierces the picture plane .

It is desired to place a small pyramid on top of the

cube the edges of its bas e parallel to the edges of the cub e
,

and its apex P directly above the center of the top face .

Cons truct the top and front views of th e pyramid in place

and proceed wi th the construction of the pe rspective of
the bas e as shown The perspec tive p of th e apex is the
.
1

point in which the line of sigh t sp pierces the pic ture

plane and is found by dropping a perpendicular from the
point where s p cros ses G L until i t meets s p The per
. .
’ ’
.

specti ve of the pyramid is then readily completed .

In certain instances a lef t Side View will be an addi

,

ti on a l aid in cons tructing the perspective In Fig 3 the . .

,
” ” ” ”— ” ” ” ”
s quare b g f a dc j G L and s represent, 1 I

respectively the cube the pic ture plane and the point of
,
” ”
sigh t a s Viewed from the lef t The line s p represents
.

the line of sight from s to the ape x p of the small pyramid

a s viewed from the lef t and a hori z on tal line drawn fro m
”
v mee ts s p at p It will be readily s een that the per
’ ’
, .

specti ve could have been determined from the left side

and front views without the us e of the top view at all .

The use of b oth top a nd lef t side views is usually unneces

sary .

CI R CLE S IN PE R SPECTI V E

( 1 07) The 8 p oint m eth od may be used in construct

ing circle s in perspective Thi s is illustra ted on the cub e
.

in Fig 3 The diagonals can easily be drawn and the

. .

point s of tangency of the perspec tive wi th the upper and

lower lines f1 g1 and d, j 1 determined by drawing a ver
tical line thru the intersec tion of the diagonals .
1 60 ME CH N C L A I A DRA F TI NG .

I RR EGULAR LY SHAP ED O BJE CTS

( 1 08 ) Any
irregularly Shaped obj ect may be easily
drawn in perspective by fi rst enclosing the obj ect in a
parallelopiped and referring the several cons tructions
of the obj ect to lines of the parallelopiped .

P O SI TI ON OF P O IN T OF SI GH T

( 1 09 ) Considerable
care and judgment must be used
in placing the point of sight for i t is easily understood
,

tha t a hous e viewed from a point only two feet in front

of i t would loo k absurd ; however i ts perspective can be,

construc ted a s easily under such circumstances as any

o ther It is well to es tim ate appro x ima tely from what
.

par ticular po si tion we would likely V iew tha t obj ec t to

ob tain the best view taking into account the Siz e of the
,

obj ec t in this estimate The point of sight may then be

.

placed accordingly F or large obj ec ts a safe rule is to

.
e

place the point of sight in front of the obj ec t a di s tance

e qual to twice the greatest dimension For smaller .

obj ects we may increas e this to 4 or 5 times the greates t

dimensio n .
1 62 M E CH N C L A I A D RA F TI NG .

P H OT OGR AP H I C R EP RO DU C T I ON S
Blu ep rinti ng . Blueprinting
is in short a process of
simple photo g raphic repro duction on sensiti z ed paper ,

of drawings which have been made on s ome translucent

material ; this material may be tra ci ng cl oth tra ci ng ,

paper or ordinary paper oil ed after the drawi ng has

,

been fin ished In common practice the proces s is s ome

.

what rough as one would infer from a glance at the

average print ; however with care it can be carried ,

nearly to the same limits of re fi nement as other photo

graphic printin g .

BLUEPRI N T PAPERS

Occasions may aris e when it is neces sary to s ensitiz e

paper for blueprinting ; however unles s absolu tely nec ,

es sary no draftsman should ever bo ther to coat his own

paper for it is a tedious and mos t unsatisfac tory proc
,

es s The machi ne co ated papers sold by any of the i n

.
-

strument companies in 1 0 or 50 yard rolls of any width -

and of any desired thicknes s or quali ty of paper is

cheap keeps well for mon ths in a tin tub e and always
, ,

gives better results tha n paper coated by th e amateur .

F or prints which must stand extra hard use either ,

mounted paper ( cloth backed paper ) or blueprint clo th

-

( a smooth hard
,
surfaced sensiti
-

z ed cloth ) should be ,

used ; the latter however s eldom gives the sharp detail

, ,

obtainable on paper Below is tabulated informatio n

.

that will be of value in ordering papers or cloth .

 AP PENDI X . 1 63

B lu e P r i nt P a pe r a nd Cl oth

P A P ER C L OTH
W E I GH T USE WE I GH T U SE
F or s en di n hru m a i gt l .
La r g e p ri n t s w hi ch
E xt ra t hi n t rt
Not s a i s f a c o y f or E xt ra t hin a re to r e c ei ve e xt ra
sho p t
u s e , t oo h i n . ha r d w ea r .

F o lr g p ri n t t h t
ar e s a ll p
S m a m a s , m ode r a e t
Th i n w ou l d b too b u l k y on
e M e di u m s i z ed r n s p i t
ha t e t t
h e a vi er p a p er . c e i ve e xt
ra w ea r .

B es t fo r a ll r r
o di n a y u s e , s h o p , c on s t r u t i on w or k
c , et c .

F or du r a ble s ma ll p ri n s t ; ma p s l a n d p l ot s
, , et c .

P r i nt i n g S pee d i n Br i ght S u nl i ght

Ra p i d

2 m in . 40 s ec .

I n o deri n r a g p p er be r to t t
su e s a e th e p r i n t i n g s p e ed des i r ed;
e . . r ll
g , 1 o ; 5 0 yds . x 36 in .
, E xt r Th i n a , E l ec t r i c R a p i d B l u e P r i n t ,

Pa p er .

TO SEN SI TI ZE PAPER
“ ”
P a per Only
unsi z ed and well wa shed papers are
.
-

suitable for blueprinting The si z e used on many papers .

to give it a glo s sy and easy writing surface discolors the

blueprint s olution i mmediately Likewise paper from .

which the sulphur used in its manufacture has not been , ,

well washed will discolor P ractically any unsi z ed .

“ ” ”
bond or parchm ent paper will be found s ati sf a c
tory fo r printing .

Soluti on
The formula in mo st common use for the
:
.

sensiti zing solution is ( 1 ) Red prussia te of potash 1 ,

oz ; water ( distilled ) 4 oz ; ( 2) double citrate o f iro n

.
, .

and ammonia 1 oz ; water ( distilled ) 4 oz As lon g a s

,
.
,
.
1 64 A I A D RA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

thes e s olutions are kept s eparate sunli ght ha s no e ffect

upon them H owever the second s olution should be
.
,

kept in a well stoppered bottle of dark colored glas s .

T o sensiti z e the paper mi x equa l volumes o f the

,

above solutions and apply either with a camel s hair ’

brush brushing fi rst hori z ontally then vertically to

, , ,

insure even coating or flo at the paper for a few seconds

,

in a shallow granite pan pa rtially fi lled with the solu

tion and hang by one corner to dry This sensi ti z ing
,
.

must o f cours e be done in a dark room If the solution .

o f citrate o f iron i s k ept too long it may mold and spoil ;

hence as the crystals dis solve q uite readily it may be
,

best to make this solution only when it is to be used and

then only what is needed The bottle in whi ch the citrate
.

is kept should be glas s stoppered to prevent moisture

from melting down the crys tals The prussiate does not .

dissolve s o readily and as it doe s not spoil it can be kept

in solution in any quantity .

VAND YK E SOLAR PAPER

“
V andyk e Solar P aper ,
sometimes called Brown
”
P rint paper is a brown paper u sed in makin g ne g
,

atives fo r posi ti ve pri nti ng A print is made on V a n

.

dyk e paper from a tracing the i nked si de o f the tracin g

,

b eing in thi s case turned to the paper s o that a reversed ,

print is obtained The lines o f the drawi ng show up

.

w hi te on a deep b r own background Thi s paper is then .

rubbed with oil to make it more transparent and positive

blueprints are made f rom it the b rown side o f the nega
,

tive bein g turned toward the blueprint paper In thi s .

final p rint the li nes o f the drawing show up b lue on a

whi te background instead of the reverse in direct print
ing f rom the traci n g .
1 66 M E CH N C LA I A DRA F TI NG .

PO SI TI VES ON OLD VAN D YK E PAPER

In making po sitive prints on old V andyke paper

some little care must be e x ercis ed When printed and .

washed the une xpo sed or white parts turn decidedly

yellow ; this can be prevented if the print is merely ‘

dipped in the water to wet the surface and star t the

printing out and immedia tely floated on the fixer ; the
fix er will print out the lines and prevent the background
from turning yell ow f These precautions are not neces
sary in making negatives on old paper for tho une xposed ,

parts may turn yellow the nega tive will prin t well when
oiled .

BLUEPRI N TI NG F ROM TYPEWRI TTEN SHEETS

T o obtain clear sharp prints from typ ewritten sheets

a moderately thin hard surfaced paper and new black
typewriter ribbon should b e used If there is much .

work to be done it wi ll be well to obtain an e x tra

heavily inked ribbon In typewriting place under the
.

the paper a sheet of black carbon paper with carbon f ace

to w ard the paper ; thus an impre ssion i s obtained on both
sides of the paper Use each sheet of carbon paper only
.

once for this purpo se .

In oiling one may not rub the se sheets a s the carbon

, ,

will smear Instead lay over the typewrit ten shee t a

.
,

s quare of oily co tton flannel then a sheet of heavy paper

,

and £0 11 with a small picture mounting roll Or better .

,

if time permits lay pieces of oily cotton cloth between

,

the shee ts and weigh t down wi th a heavy b oo k for sev

eral hours Arrange shee ts and cloth as follows P aper
. : ,

cloth two sheets of paper cloth two sheets of paper

, , , ,

cloth etc In printing from these sheets over e xpose

, .
,

the paper slightly and wash in wa ter to which hydrogen

 AP PE ND IX . 1 67

pero xide has been added in the propor tion of tea

spoonful to 2 gallons water ; the hydrogen pero xide will
bring out the over e xposed par ts and deepen the blue .

The above solu tion can be used to advantage in washing

any blueprints ; a sharper con tras t between the white
lines and blue background can be obtained .

PRI N TI NG PROM OLD BLUEPRI NTS

Occasionally reproductions of drawings are wanted

when the tracings are not available By use of the
.

“ ”
Direct Copier of the F rederick P o st Co Chicago .
, ,

an old blueprint may be rendered suffi ciently dense to a ct

“ ”
as a go od nega tive This Direc t Copier consis ts of
.

tw o concentra ting solutions to be applied to the old blue

print to deepen the blue ; the transparenti zing oil must
“
then be used to clear up the whi te lines If the Direct
.

”
Copier is not avai l able and there is not sufficient time
fo r a tracing a fairly good po sitive may be made from a
blueprint by merely transparen ti z ing it .

PRI N TI NG F ROM HEAVY CARDBOARD

If i t is desired to make a blueprint of a drawing
mounted o r printed on heavy cardboard or of a draw
ing on mounted paper the face of the drawing should
,

be so aked wi th alcohol and i mmedi ately clamped in

the printing frame
-

. The alcohol will not evaporate

while closed in the frame nor will it dissolve the blue
print solution if i t should soak thru the cardboard The .

length of time re quired for printing will have to be

l earn ed from e xperiment .

PRI N TI NG F ROM COORD I NATE PAPER

Coordinate paper printed in red give s better blue

prints than the paper printed in blue o r green Always .
1 68 A I A RA F TI NG
M E CH N C L D

transparenti z e the coordinate paper b efore printin g ; it

will save time in printing and give better results .

P ositive
blu ep ri ntin g of typ ewr itten sh eets E xcel
.

lent negatives for po sitive printin g o f typewritten

sheets may be made from n ew b la ck ca r b on paper a s fol
:
lows Remove the ribbon from the typewriter and place
the carbon paper in the machi ne face u p with a sheet of
, ,

thi n hard surfaced paper over it A reversed impres

.

sion will o f course be obtained on the back o f thi s sheet

o f paper and the better the quality o f paper the more
clear out will be the le tters on the carbon sheet The .

reason for placin g the carb on with face to the cover sheet
is to obtain such an impres sion a s to m ake it pos sible to
pla c e the carbon side o f the paper toward the glass o f
the printin g frame instead of toward the b luepri nt pa per .

H andle the carbon paper very carefully ; a fi n g er

mark o r smudge may easily ruin the ne g ative .

The time fo r printin g will have to be determi ned by

e xperiment ; it should be s omewhat longer than f or print
ing from tracin g s.
1 70 M E CH A NI CA L DRA F TI NG .

Redu ction In maki ng a drawing for etching it is

.
,

b est to make it of such a si z e that when reduced to one

half o r one third of its dimensions it will be of the desired
-

si z e fo r use ; that is if a diagram is fi nally to be 4 x 6

,

i nches the drawing had be tter be made about 8 x 1 2 inch e s

,
.

I t should be remembered however that very fi ne lines

, ,

do not reduce in the same propor tion as heavy lines T o .

prevent very fine lines from disappearing entirely the ,

engraver will have to use methods which perhaps will

increas e them and qui te likely this increas e wi ll not be
.

unifo rm so that in making up a drawing care should be

,

taken to make the lines about twice the desired fi nal

weight Fo r purpo ses of illustra tion hidden lin es should
.

be omit ted and dimension lines should be made of sec

on da r y impor tance Lik ewi se shading will be found use
.
,

ful in adding to the appearance of a drawing Fo r best .

appearance i t is be tter to us e printed letters than free

hand This may be done by having all material which is
.

to go on the drawing s et up in typ e in a si z e about twice

that fi nally desired prin ting it on gummed paper and
, ,

pasting this ma terial on the o riginal drawing Any lines .

which may be placed on the original drawing and which ,

are later found unneces sary or incorrect may b e simply ,

mark ed over by the draf tsman with the understanding ,

that the engraver is to paint them out ; the o nly rigid

re quirements are that all lines be sharp a dens e black , ,

and that the paper used be whi te .

 AP P E N DIX . 1 71

WAX E N GRAV I N G P ROCE SS

Wherever it is impo s sible to submit a high grade line

’

drawing from which to make the z inc line engraving an ,

accurate pencil or ink drawing or blue print may b e sub

mi tted to any of the companies handling w a x engraving
work This drawing o r print is photographed on the sen
.

s i ti z ed w a x surface of a copper plate The photographed .

outlines are then scratched through the w ax to the copper

plate with appropriate tools All neces sary let tering is
.

s et in type and pressed into the softened w a x This w a x .

engraving is then electrotyped backed wi th type metal ,

and mounted on a wooden block V ery clean cut legible .

lines result from this proces s and i t seems to be used ,

very largely in making cuts of diagrams curves te xt , ,

book illustrations etc ,

.

A slight modifi cation of this proces s is to make the

dr a w m g directly on the wa x ed covering of a copper plate ,
omitting the photographing process The lines of the .

drawing are then scra tched through to the copper pla te

and the procedure is as before This scheme of engr a v .

ing is very expensive and perhap s will not be foun d

,

pro fitable e xcept as noted before in making cuts of charts ,

diagrams curves etc on which a high degree of accurac y

, , .
,

is desired .

HALF TON E S
The half tone is the cut usually used in repro ductions
of photo graphs wash o r charcoal drawings etc It i s
, ,
.

perhaps unneces sary to explain in detail the proce ss I t .

will be better to give some suggestions on the diffi culties

that may be encountered .
1 72 A I A
M ECH N C L DR A F TING
.

Dr awi ngs It shoul d be remembered always that

.

when a half tone is to be made from a photograph wash ,

drawing or drawing of any other descripti on tha t a b s o

, ,

lutely everythin g that can be s een by the eye on the ori g

inal drawing o r photo graph will l ikewi se be seen and ,

reproduced by the eye of the camera I t re quires ex .

tr em ely careful work to p aint out by the use of an air

brush any lines which have been put in by mistake and ,

such work should be left to the engraver It is pos sible .

to s ecure cop i es of hi gh grade half tones which one may

find in maga z ines etc by very carefully cutting out such
,
.
,

half tones trimmi ng them very neatly and p asting them

, ,

on a background of white paper E xtreme care must like .

wis e be e x ercised i n pasting down such cuts that the back

ground is not smudged by glue which may run from under
the drawing or by s oiled fi ngers
,
The camera will surely .

see everythi ng that can be s een by the eye .

P h otograph s
The type of photograph which seem s
.

to work best in the half tone proces s is that which is made

on a gla z ed paper If any great amount of work is to be
.

made from photographs it will perhaps be better to con

sult with some go od engraver for his advice on the kind
of prints that he desires .
1 71 A I A
M E CH N C L DRAF TI NG .

l t
F a h e a d w ood s c e w r l t
F a H d Wd S c . . .

l t
F a h e a d s ove b o t lt l t
F a H d S ove B . t .

l
H ea d es s s e t s c r e w H dl s s S e t S c .

x g
.

H e a on n u t H ex Nu t . .

L a g s c ew r
M a ch in e bo lt
M hin ac e sc r w e nut
M i ll d b ody e ta p b ol t
S t
e w s c re

S qu r nut a e
S t u d b ol t
T h d b ol t
-
ea

W EIGHTS A
AND M E S URES , ETC .

t r
C en e Cr .

t rl
C en e ine C L
. .

r r
C i c u m f e en c e i
C r c um .

t r
Di a m e e di a or D . .

t t
F oo , f e e F t . or e .
g4 .
’

H or p ow rse e
In h in h
c , c es I n or.

I A
M SC ELL NEOUS

B u i di n l g
C a s e h a r de n
C om a n y p
C ou n e o e t rb r
C ou n e r s i n k t
l
C y i n der
r
D awin g
G en e r l a
He ax g on
M hin ac e

M nu f t u ri n g
a ac

M xi m u m
a

M i ni m u m
Sp ifi
ec t i on ca
Squ a re

S t nd rd
a a
Th r d ea s

W i gh t
e
F i ni s h
 AP P ENDI X . 1 75

REF ERENCE TABLES

KEY F OR THE F O LLOWI NG TABLES OF BOLTS, N UTS ,

ETC .

A= Outsi de Diameter of Threads and T hi ckn es s of Nut .

B Thr ea ds per Inch

z .
—
I Across Fla ts .

O=T3 P Drill .
—
J Thicknes s H ead and
D Acr oss Flats
z .
NU t
E =Acr oss Corners H ex , K Di ameter Collar. z .

F =Acr oss Corners Sq , S=Wi dth of Slo t — Deci

.

G=Thi ckn ess of Collar mals .

.

H Thi cknes s of H ead

z X=Angl e of H ead
. .

He xag onal He a d Cap Sc rew

- -

E l 5 5 /64 I 1 1 1

Squa r e Head Cap Sc r ew

- -

F | 3 9 /64 l
‘

31 32 1

Iron Set Screw -

1 76 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

U S Standard Bolts
. . a nd Nuts
Rou g h
E l F l

s 1 /o4 |
9 /l 0 | l
1 1
1 | 1

|1 0 1 1 7/1 6I 1 1

1 8 1 1 2 1
1 7 1 2 2 1 1
1 7 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
1 6 1 1 1 /64 g
-
2 2 3 1 2 1
1 6 1 2 2 3 1 2 1

1 5 1 I2 3 3 1 2—1 1 /1 6l 1
1 5 1 —
2 1 5 /1 6l 3 4 1 2 1
2 4 1 3 3 1 3 1
4 1 3 4 4 1 3 7/I 6| 2

5 2 4 8 9 4 8 5
5 2 5—l s/64 l 8 | 10 4 —
8 1 1 /1 6I 5
1 78 M E CH N C L A I A D RA F TI NG .

U . S . S TANDARD S C REW TH READS .

F OR MULA
' 1
P pl tLh t hreads nch
‘

No . per l

d de pth p X 6495
fl at
?
3
D i me t e
a r of re
Sc w e
Th r a ds c
pe r I n h Wdi th of F lt a
 AP PE N D IX . 1 79

F OR TAP S W ITH U . S . S TANDARD TH READS .

DI I “
'
.

Col l ar Screw -

Al
B | 4O 124 | 20 |18 |1 6 |14 |13 |12 |11
D" 7/1 6l I /2 |
F|
Kl 1 5 /l 6| 1

Pi p e Threa d s
D iam M This
. Per In . D iam Drill H
. D iam . Thds Per . In . iam Drill
D .

H 27 H 1 0
H 18

H 14 I 2 8

H 14
1 H 11 1 3 8

S t a n da rd t p r
a e of pi p t h r
e ea ds i s , 1 i n c h i n 1 6. or i n c h to 1 f oo t .
1 80 A I A
M ECH N C L DR AF TI NG .

DEC IM AL EQ UIVALENTS

Of 8 ths , ths
16 .
'

3a s and 64 ths o f an in ch

1 6ths .

64 ths .
1 82 A I A
M E CH N C L DRAF TI NG
.

D IF F E RENT S TANDARD S F OR W IRE G AG E .

 AP PENDIX . 1 83

G E O ME TRI C AL C ON S TRU C T I ON S
THE ELLIP SE
Defi ni tion : An ellips e is a gener a ted b y the
cur ve

moti on of a poi nt w hi ch moves s o tha t the s um of i ts di s

ta nces f r om tw o fix ed poi nts i s F or e xample cons ta nt .

,

in Fig 1 the sum x

.
,
y of the distances from any point
, ,

0 on the elli pse to the two fix ed points F 1 and F 2 is con

'

stant and e qual to 2a .

Besides bei ng considered a mathematical curve gen

crated accordin g to a certain law the ellipse may be ,

considered the curve whi ch is cut from the surface o f a

right circular cone by a plane whi ch intersec ts all of the
elements and i s obli que to the a xis Also as the ortho .

graphi c proj ection of a circle whi ch is obli que to the

plane of proj ection .

The l ong di am eter o f the ellipse is known a s the

m aj or axi s and the s hor t di a meter as the mi nor axi s ; in
analytic geometry the se a x es are given value s o f 2a and
2b Fig 1
,
. .

Cons tru c t i on
The ellipse fi gure s so prominently in
.

drafting tha t it will be well to give s everal me thods of

construction both ex act and appro x imate
, .

Exact M eth od From the law according to .

( )
1
whi ch the curve is generated it has been found po ssible
to construct the ellipse accurately as follows Wi th .

point 0 Fig 2 as a center and the a x es as di ameters

,
.
, ,

describe two circles Then from O draw any number o f .

ra dii of the large circle e g OA CB 0 0 OD etc , . .

, , , , , .

The vertices a b c ( 1 etc of the right angles of the

, , , ,
.
,

right triangles Aa a Bb b et c are points o f the required

, 1, 1, .
,

ell ipse and the c urve may b e tra c ed thru these po i nt s

either freehand or by means of a uni versal curve .
1 84 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .
1 86 A
M E CH NI C L A DRA F TI NG .

me th od ( 2) Tramm el meth od If from any

Exa c t .

point P Fi g 3 on the edge of a strip of p aper o r

, .
,

ruler the s emi mi nor and s emi maj or a xes be measured

.

to points b and a and this strip or ruler placed over the

,

a x es and moved so that point b is always on the maj or

axis and a on the mI nor a xis the successive po sitions of ,

point P are points of the re qui red ellipse Thes e posi .

tions of point P may be marked with a pencil or needle

point and the ellipse traced thru them .

Ap p roxi m ate m eth od ( 1 ) —4 c enter m eth od Con .

neet point B Fig 4 wi th point A Then with O as a

, .
,
.

center and CB as a radius describe the arc cutting OA

at C ; lay off from B on BA the distance CA to C, , , ,
.

The perpendicular bis ector of C A locate s two of the I

desired centers and the curve may be drawn with the

compas s as shown .

Appr oxi mate meth od ( 2) —8 c enter me th od Con .

stru c ti on Connect points A and B and draw the l in es

.

AE and BE , Fi g 5 Then describe the quadrant E C

. .

and erect the perpen di cular CD From point 0 in whi ch .

CD intersec ts AB draw OR The arc RF locates center .

No . 1 produced loca tes center No 3 at K Con

. EF . .

nect D and K and produce RF to J; with G and H as

centers and GJ a s a radius describe arcs intersecting at
center No 2 Centers 4 6 and 8 may then be located
. .
, , ,

from 2 It will be noted that center No 2 does not lie

. .

on the radius GK ; however i t is so small a di stance ,

from GK that no irre gularity can be detected in the

curves at G .
 APPENDI X . 1 87

THE PARABOLA AND H Y PERBOLA

Fi g . 6
1 88 A I A D RAFTING
M E CH N C L .

TANGENI CURVES wrm GIVEN RADIUS r “

a all el
’ ‘
"

P r

T angent to Tw St aight Lin s

o r e Tangent to Straight Line rve
and Cu

P arall el

Th ro gh a Point
u and an t to St aight Lin
T gen 11 r e

INTERSECTIONS
190 A I A
M ECH N C L DR A F TI NG
.

CONVE NTO
I N L RE A
P R SE NTATI ONS ( Cont d)
E ’

I -
eam
B

Z Bar
-

H -
Bar
 APP END IX . 19 1

S T ANDARD SYM B O L S ADO P T E D B Y TH E

NAT I ONAL C ONTRAC TOR S ASS O C IA ’

T I ON AND TH E AM E RI C AN I N S T I
TUT E OF AR C H I T EC T S .

e i l ing o tlet electri ci ncandescen

C u only N tmeral
lamps cen t er
; I nd i c tes u in a

n mber of standard 6 p
u 1 c -
.

e i l i ng o tlet combinati on
C u i nd i cates 4—6 p st ndard 1 c a
ncandescent lamps and 2 g b rners I f gas nly ;
-
.

i ‘
as u . o

racket o tlet
B u electi i c only N meral center i nd catesu i ii i

n mber o f standard ;
p i ncandescent lamps
-

u 16 c -

Bracket o tlet combinati on u indi cates 4 6 p standard 1 c

incandescent lamps and 2 g b rners I f gas only ;
- -
.

as u

Wall
or baseboard receptacle o tlet N meral i n center u u
i ndi cates n mber o f standard 1 6 p ncandescent lamps
.

u c -
I

Floor o tlet N meral center i ndi cates n mber

u u in u of
Standard 6 p ncandescent lamps
.

1 c-

i .

tlet for o tdoorstandard or pedestal electric o ly N meral

Ou u n u
i di ca tes n mb r o f standard 6 p ncandescent lamps
.

n u e 1 c -
i .

tlet f Ou or outdoor
'
standard or pedest l mb i t é a co na i n
o

ind tes 6 1 6
i ca c p s t ndard i ncande cent lamps 3 gas b r er
a s ; u n s
-

. .

Drop cordo tlet u .

One -
lamp o tlet for lamp receptacle
u , .

Arc l mp o tlet
a
'

u .

l i ghting heating and po er c rrent

,
w -
u , as
192 A I A D RA F TING
M E CH N C L .

A
E LE CTRI C L S Y M BOL S ( Cont ’
d)

C l e i ing fan o tlet

u .

Ju nction or p ll box
u .

M otor control o tlet

u .

M a in or feeder r un concealed nder fl oor

u .

0 —
0

Bell o tlet
u .
1 94 A I A
M E CH N C L DR AF TING .

SYM B O LS U SE D I N R EP RE SE NTI NG ELE C

TRI CAL AND AUTOMO BI LE
C ON S TRU C T I ON .

i
fle aase
tor ge Batte i y
S a H ead Li ght Sl dc Li ght

0 0 3 0
T a i l D h In tr ment Li ght
, as OI s u

Electi ic l Iom
D C G enerator A m
i a tui c a nd Bi i i sli es

ro d
G un

Motor Armat re and B

u i i i shcs

Ai mncter

oi l—Si ze and We ight A

C ccoxdmg to U se
ondenser
C
 AP P END IX .
1 95

E LE CTRI CAL S YM BOL S ( Cont u)

AC G
. enerator Wattmetei C i rc i t
u

otor Star ing Ci rc it ( P o er)

M t u w

Iron Cored Ind ctance

u
1 96 M E CH A NI CAL DRAF TING

C O NV E NT I ON S U S E D I N H Y DROGRAP H
I C AL AND T O P OGRAP H I C AL
DR AW I NG .

Sti ca ms

akes
L and P onds

Fall and R pids

s a

F i t sh
-
and Salt Mai sh

T idal F l ta s

Water Lines
1 98 A I A AFTI NG
M E CH N C L DR .

TOP OGRAP HI CA L CONV E NTI ONS ( Cont d)’

Ever green Trees

Clea n ng
 AP P END IX . 1 99

TOP O GRAP HI CAL CO NV E NTI ONS ( Cont d) ’

Bmdges

Dams

B oa rdF ence

Raxl‘
Fence

S tone W ll
a

Bul l dm gs ( La r ge SC
al e)

Bufl dmgs ( S mall Scale )

B ench M a rks B . M . x 1 1 43

T raverse Stations
200 M E CH ANI CAL DRA FTI NG

TOP OGRA P H I CAL CONV E NTI ONS ( Cont ’d)

Aq ed ts and Water P p
u uc l es

Single T rack

D o ble T
u rack

Ra l l roads Two L mes

In Road or Street

Tu nnels

P aths or T ls
l ax
'
202 A I A DRA FTI NG
M E CH N C L .

RE P RE SE NTATI ON OF ( Cont ’
d)

f o b /3 M ' } pb
I
xl 64 oc
‘
-

/
f er d/a gf a m fl ar b ea t/an

Pem a m der of Bo b ‘om F /a ny e Ja m e a :

750

J/ro wn fa Ac Jb op fi re/e d
 AP PENDIX . 203

S INGLE L I NE C ON VE NT I ONAL SYM B O LS

C O M MO NL Y U SE D I N MAKI NG P RELI M
I NARY LAY OUT S S M ALL SCALE -

DRAWI NG S AND S K E T C HE S
OF P IPE SYS T E M S WI TH
F I TT I NG S AND AO
CE SSORI E S .

S team M m a Hot W ater Main ( Flo w)

Flanges ( Bol ted )

AI I Lme
'

Tee a nd Ell C lo e ( Same P lane )

s

O
Tee a nd Ell , L on g Sw eep ( Same P lane ) D rop R se
u

—
Branches taken from Bottom o f M m a
B mm:
l ta k 19 5 on fI om T0 ”0 f Ma m

H ID Check Val ve
G lobe and Gate Valve
Base El bow
0 0

RadI ator —Two P p —

P lan I e

Ret rn M m Steam and Water

u a ,

H eat and Vent Fl es u , t h Regxsters

h
lf mons ( Sexeu ed)
 204 A I A
M E CH N C L DR A FTING .

Y
L A OUTS OF PI P E S YSTE M S ( Cont
’
d)

:
A1 V alv€

Dr op and A uV al
20 6 A I A DRA F TING
M E CH N C L .

PI PE L AY OUT S H O WN I N
 AP PEND IX .
207

SYM B O L S R EP R E S E NT I NG AI R P I PE S I N
H EAT I NG AND V E NT I LAT I NG .

Dampers—Elevation andP lan

R e ta g lar D c s
c n u u t

Defiectm g and M unngD

'

ampers

E lbows Ro nd D cts
111 u u
20 8 A I A
M E CH N C L D RA F TI NG .

INF ORMAT I ON F OR I NV E NTOR S

Note To tho se interested in securing patent s per
.

haps the best advice is that they write the Commissioner

of P atents at Washington D C for a copy of the Rules
,
“
. .
,
”
of P ractice in the United States P atent Offi ce It may .

be well however to give here a f ew suggestions concern

, ,

ing the proper procedure in makin g application for a

patent .

Rec ord s and Pr eli min ary Sear c h Since patents are .

occa s mna lly contested on the point Of date o f conception

of the idea it is well to secure the seal of a notary public

,

on a drawin g sketch o r written description of any ori g

,

inal device or improvement without delay Then fo r a .

fee Of ten dollars a search of the patent Office fil es will be

made by any patent attorney and prints and descriptions
furnished of all similar devices on which patents have
been granted In arranging for such a prelimi nary
.

search the patent attorney Should be supplied with the

,

best possible sketch o r drawin g and description .

P atent Appli C
ati on If in the opinion of the a ttor
.

ney consulted it seems po ssible to secure a p atent he will ,

on instruction mak e up the application in the f o rm r e

,

q uired by the patent o ffice and containin g the followin g

( )
1 P reamble statin g the name and residence o f the
applicant and the title of the invention .

( 2) General statement of the Obj ect and nature o f

the invention .

( 3 ) Brie f description o f the s everal views o f the

dra win g s ( if the invention admits o f such
illustration )
21 0 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

T YP I C AL P AT E NT O F F I C E DR AW I NG
 APP ENDIX . 21 1

P AT E NT O F F I CE C ONV E NT I ON S
JI C f /ON a f
W0 0 0 0 17 Af f f l l

( f A/ r
f i l0 A/
a
[l d 7/0 V
'
l I
z «0
°

” M U”"4 m n ew n o”:
mw fiéz
f f " 0 0 ’ t r /o
we
W” I" w ” as o fe
W /f
" l "
a r/i ff
W
.

a
a i m n o” a ; m um A r my
f /d fi 0 ”I ” Wi
f l / t

( 0 4 Oi l

f V WX Y Z
[M N OF OR S T[
a b c d6 "
b g
l a
/ 1 5 m m a
pe : Zu v w xy z
1 2 3 4 5 6 70 9 0
21 2 A I A D RA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

P AT E NT O F F I C E EL E C TR I C AL SYM B O L S
21 4 A I A I
M E CH N C L DRAF T NG.

M E T H ODS OF RE P R ESE NT I NG
F AC T S GRAPH I C ALLY
 APPENDIX .
21 5

ALPHAB E T S .
21 6 A A DRA F TI NG
M E CH NI C L .

ALP H ABE TS ( Cont ’

d)
21 8 A I A
M E CH N C L DR A F TING .

AL P H AB E TS ( Cont n)
 APPENDIX . 21 9

GUMM E D LE TT E R S .
220 A I A DRA F TI NG
M E CH N C L .

GUMM E D LE TTE RS ( Cont d)

’
 INDEX
[
Num b er s Ref er to Ar ti cl es "

A . Compressed sty l e o f l etters 3 , .

All en set scre w 5 6 Conven t ional l ines 47 , .

Conventiona l representa t ion o f threads 5 3

.
,

Al phabet R einhardt 1 , .

C ordina t e angles
. , .

A ng l es C ordinate 3 2 o
o -
32 , .

C ordinate a x es in o b liq e proj ection 8 0

-
.
, ,

Annea l 69 c -

, u , .

Co ordina t e planes 3 2
, .

Appro x ima t e mechanica l ~

, .

m tho d in iso m etri pro j e tion 77

e c c .
C ordinate p l anes in ob l iq
c -
pro j e tion , ue c ,
, ,

A rchitect s sca l e 4 8 ' 80 .

C ordinate p l anes revo l tion o f 3 2

, .

A m ethod o f 8 c u
-

, .
r ea s , ,

C ordina t es in perspec t ive 1 0 5

, .

A rrangement o f detai l s in w orking dra w o -

, , .

Core
ing 4 1 , .

Cres t
66 ,

o f threads de fi ned 5 2
.

Assemb l y dra w ing de fi ned ses char u , , , .

Cro w ding o f let t ers 8

, , ,

t i ti 40 , , .
a c er s
C rves irreg l ar 25
c s, .

A iliary p l anes o f proj ection 3 6

ux , .
u

Cylinders sectiona l 4 4
, u , .

.
, ,

B abbitt 71 , . D .

Ba ll poin t ed pen 2 , .
D etai l ed draw ing arrangement o f de
Banana c rve 25 u , .
tai l s 4 1
,

B earings 71 , .
D etai l ed dra w ing de fi ned 3 9
, .

B eve ll ed tracing r l e 4 6 , , .

u , .
D e t ail ed signa t re 4 1 u
Bil l o f M a t eria l 28 , .

, .
D iameter o f bol t s 5 5
B l otters 22 , .

, .
D ies 5 8
B o l t terms 5 5 , .

. .
D imensioning in isometric pro j ec t ion 78
B ol t s cons t r c t ion o f 5 4
.
, ,

, u , .
D imensioning in ob l iq e pro j e tion 8 1 u c
B o lt s dimensioning 5 5 , .
,

, , .
D imensioning r l es o f 4 3 u
Bo l ts and n t s 5 4 , , .

u , .
D irect light de fi ned 8 6
B order l ines 1 5 , , .

, .
D irectrices in isome t ri pro j e tion 73 c c
B ore 64
.
,

, .
D ividers b w adj s t men t e t c 26 o u
B oring ma hine 64
.
, , , , .

c , .
D ividers l arge 23
B ottles ink , .
,

, t 29 , u s e, e c .
, .

D o bl e threads de fi ned 5 1
u
B w dividers adj stmen t etc
.
, ,

o ,
u
D ra w ing boa d ons t r tion o f 1 3 r c uc
B w penci l are e t c 27 , , .

o , u s e, c , .
D ra w ing board 13 u s e,
Brasses 71 , .

, .
D raw ing paper posi t ion o f on board 1 4 , , .

O .
D ra w ing paper proper m ethod o f tack ,

Ca riage bo l ts 5 4
r , . ing 1 4 ,

Cha mois ro ll 22
.

, . Dra w ing paper q a l ity 1 4 , u , .

Char c t eris t ic sec t ion l ines 4 4

a , . D ra w ing ti t les de fi ned 1 0 , .

Cha t ter braces 62

,

, D ri ll 63 , .

Circ l es in isometri pro j e tion 77

, c c , . D ril l press 63 , .

Circles in ob l iq e pro j e tion 8 4

, u c , D rive scre w 5 6 , .

Circ l es i n perspe tive 1 0 7

, c , .

Cleaning pads 22 ,
.
E .

Cl oth tracing 4 5
, , . E ight point method in isome t ri pr i e , c c c

Compass l arge ad j s t m ent , 24 , u , use, . tion 77 , .

 I N DEX 223

E lements o f f reehand l etters , 3 .

E d p l ane
n 32 , .
La g s re w s 5 6 c
E d vie w
, .

n 32 , .
L ead o f t hreads de fi ned 5 2
E ngineer s sca l e 4 8
, , , .

L ng t h o f bo l ts
’
, .
e 55
E rasers care o f 21 , .

, , .
L e tt ering pens 2
E x tended s t y l e o f l etters
, .

3 , .
L etters f reehan d f orm tion o f
, , a , 4 .

L e tt ers g mm ed 1 2 , u , .

Lin ez o G ph 3 0 z ra
Fas t eners 4 9 , .
L ines con v en t ional 4 7
, .

Fillet 70 , .
,

L ines o f sight in perspe t ive

, .

c
F i nish 61 , .
, .

First angle e l im ination o f , , 32 . M .

Formation o f l etters 4 , .
M achin bo lt s 5 4 e
Front vie w 3 2 , .
M achine sketch de fi ned 8 8
,

,
.

, .

G
M argins and margin l ines 1 1 , .

M echani a l e gineer s sca l e 4 8

c n
’

spe ia l c ve 25 , .

G E D
. . . c ur , .
M echanica l l e tt ers 6
o t hi alphabe t constr c t ions 7 , .

G c , u , .
M echanica l spacing 8
ide for l et t ering 2 , .

Gu , .
M il l 62
id l ines f or l etteri ng 3
.
,

Gu e , , .
i l ing machine 62
M l
ide l ines in dra w ing ti tl es 1 1 , .

Gu , , .
M oore s pen 2 ’

G mmed l e tt ers Wi ll
, .

’
u 12 , s on s , .

N .

H .
a e p l ates
N m , de fi ned 9 , .

H arden shop term 69 eedl e poin t

N , cons t r ction o f 1 8 u , .

Needl e poin t f ro m R ichter instr m ents

, , .

e l x th 5 0
H i , e, .
, u ,

H idden l i nes projec t ions o f , , 35 .

18
Norma l sty l e
.

o f l etters 3
H ori z on in perspec t ive 1 02
, , .

N ts 5 4
, .

H ori z on t al plane 3 2 , .
u , .

0 .

I .
O b l iq e onstr tion 8 3
u c uc ,

Indirec t ligh t de fi ned 8 6

.

, . O b l iq e proj e tion de fi ned 79

u c , , .

I k b o tt le
n e t c 29 , us e. . O bliq e s a l e 8 2
u c ,
.

l ki g of p
n n proper m e t hod 2 ea s . , O rder o f inking in t racing 4 5 , .

rder o f pencil w ork on dra wing 4 2

.

l n e rpola t ed se t ions 4 4
t c . . O , .

Irreg lar rves 25

u cu , . O rder o f pro minen e in dra w ing ti tl e c , ,

Irreg l r o bj e t s in iso metri pro j ec t ion

u a c c , 11 .

76 .
Order o f w ork on details 4 1
Irre g l ar o b jec t s in obl iq e pro j e t ion
.
,

u , u c , Orthographic proj ec t ion de fi ned 3 1 , , .

85 .
Orthographic proje tion perm issibl e vio c ,

Irreg l ar o b je ts i perspec t iv 1 08
u c ,
n e. . l t i ns o f 8 4
a a
Isome t ric a x es 73
.
,

, .
Or t hographic pro j ec t ion princip l es o f , ,

Isometric cons t r c t ion 75 u , . 32

Iso metri plane 72
.

c , .
Orthographi projec t ions s mm ary o f c , u
Iso metri p p ti pri n ip l e o f 72
c ro ec on, c s , . princip l es 3 3
Isome t ric l e 74
.
,

S ca . .
Origin in isome t ri proj ections 72
, c , .

Oval s e l ement o f f reehand l etters 3

, , .

Key on fl t 5 9 a , .
P .

Keyseat 5 9 , . P aper draw ing posi t ion on board 14 .

Keys and k eyw ays

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, 59 . P aper dra w ing q al ity 1 4

, , u , .
224 IND “ .

P aper f or l ettering 2
, , . S ca l es de fi ned 4 8 , , .

P aysan pen 2 , . S cratch paper m e t hod o f spa ing 1 1 , c , .

P en, r l ing care t 28

u , u s e, , e c .
, . S cre w s de fi ned 5 6 , , .

P ens l ettering 2
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P enci l b w 27 , o , . S e t ion l ines 4 4

c , .

P enci l f or sketching 9 1 , . S ectioning prin ip l es o f 4 4 , c , .

P en i l w ork
c order o f 4 2 , , . Sq are threads
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P encils n mbering 20 , u , . Shade and shado w onstr tion 8 7 c uc ,

S hade de fi ned 8 6
.

P enci l s sharpening 20 , , . , , .

P en i l s
c o f points 20
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P erspe tive ons t r c t ion 1 0 6

c c u , . obliq e pro j e tion 8 6 u c , .

P erspe tive dra w ing c de fi ned 9 6 , , . Shado w de fi ned 8 6 , , .

P erspe tive prin ip l es o f onstr ction 9 7

c , c c u , . S heppard l et t ering pen 2 , .

P ict re p l ane in perspective 9 6

u , , . S hop terms 60 , u se, .

P ipe threads 5 7 , . Short t s in sket hing 9 4

cu , c , .

P itch o f threads de fi ned 5 2

, , , . Sho lder scre w 5 6
u , .

P l anes ordinate 3 2
, co -

, . Side vie w 3 2 , .

P l anes h ori z onta l verti a l

, nd 8 2 , c , e , . Signat re detai l 4 1 u , .

P l anes o f proj ec t ion 3 2 , . S ing l e threads de fi ned 5 1 , , .

P l anes o f pro j ec t ion a iliary 3 6 , ux , . Sketch si z e o f 9 2 , , .

P oint o f sight in perspective 9 9 , . Sketch stroke 91 , .

P oint o f sigh t position o f 1 0 9 , , . S ketching pro ed re 9 3 , c u ,

P osition o f ob j ect in perspe t ive

.

1 03 , c , . Sket hing short c t s 9 4

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P ositions o f vie w s in w orking dra w ings
, .

, Slope g ide 2 u , .

37 . Spa ing 8 c
P rincip l e point in perspe tive 1 0 0
, .

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Spa ing o f l etters in t i t les 1 1
c
P rincip l es o f iso m etri proj e tion 72
.
,

c c , .
Spacing m echanical 8
P rincip l es o f orthographic pro j ec t ion 3 2
, , .

, .
S tems o f f reehand l etters 3
P rincip l es o f shades and shado w s 8 6
, , .

, . S t raight seated key 5 9

P ro fi l e p l ane 3 2
, .

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P roj ections
, .

32 , .
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P roj e tions o f hidden l ines 3 5
.

c , .
TS u q are onstr ction o f 1 6 c u
P roj e tion orthographi de fi ned 3 1
-

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c , c, , .
TS u q are proper 16 u s e,
P ro j e tions o f ob j ects 3 2
-

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TS u q are to l ean 1 6 c
P ro j e tions p l anes o f 3 2
-

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c , , .
Ta p drill 68
P rominen e methods o f se ring 1 1 , .

c , cu , .
Ta p shop operation 67
P rominen e order o f 1 1
, , .

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Taps 5 8
P rotractor
.
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t 51 , u s e, e c .
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e per 69
Tm , .

R . Threads cl assi fi ed 5 1 , , .

R aised tracing r le 4 6 u , . Threads conven t iona l representation

,

R eam 65 , . 53 .

R eamer 65 ,
Threads principles o f 5 0 , , .

R einhardt a l phabet 1 , . Threads terms 5 2 , , .

R evo l tion o f ordinate p l anes

u cc -

,
Ti t le dra w ing
, onstr tion o f 1 1 c uc , .

R oot o f threads de fi ned 5 2

, , , . Ti t le dra w ing de fi ned 1 0
, , , .

R o nd key 5 9
u , . T p vie w 3 2
o , .

R l ing pen
u ar o f t 28 , u se, c e , e c . Tra ing 4 5 c , .

8 Tracing r l es 4 6 u , .

a l e ar o f 1 7 Triangles to c l ean 1 9
.

Sc , c e , .
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S al
c iso metri 74
e, c, . Triangles 19 , u s e, .

S le
ca of 1 7
. us e , . Tripple threads de fi ned 5 1 , , .

S ca l e vs si z e de fi ned . , , 48 . Tw t dril l s 63
Is , .
BOO KS ON THE MANUAL ARTS
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D E SI GN AND CONS TR U CTI ON IN WOOD B y Noy A book f ll o f harm es. u c

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B y Gri ffi th A ollection o f 5 0 w orking dra w ings and w orking d rec t ions o f pro
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"

A co ll e tion o f prob l ems in f rni t e making se l ec t ed and designed w i t h

.

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c use n
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-
. .

c ur u n ra s,
there is a perspective ske t ch o f each ar t i le omple t ed There are 3 6 pages o f t x t
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c c e
givi g no t es on the constr c t ion o f each proj ect hapters on the D esign
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“ ”
n u d c an
Constr c t ion o f f rni t re and on Finishes Th l ast hapter des ribes , ,
” “ ”
u u u on e e c c
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,

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P R OB LE M S I N WOOD TU R NING By C a w sha w Conta i ns 25 f ll page pla t es r u

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- -

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ma t hema ti cal bas i s f or c t sed i n t g A v al a b le t e x tb ook f or s t dent s
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" By Gr n A note book ee e
w hich f rnishes a f w genera l and e x t remely i mpor t an t direc t i ons a b o t t ools and
- -
. .

u e u
processes ; and provides space f or add i t i ona l notes and w orking draw i ng I t is s. es

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, , , ,

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coll ecti on o f pro b lems f or fi rs t year high school s t den t s in boo k f orm N w ed it ion
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“ ” “ ” “
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P RA CTIC AL TYP OGR AP HY A te x tbook f or st dents o f print

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c u c e u
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con t ains 63 e x er ises trea t ing o f composi t ion f rom Cor e t Spacing to the
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“ "
c r c
M aking p o f a B ook and t he Composition o f Tab l es ,
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ART ME TALWOR K B y P yn A te x tbook w ritten by an e x per t cra f t s man a e

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o es al l oys co mmercia l f orms e t c ; o f t oo l and eq i pments s ita bl e f or the w ork
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r s u u
and o f the correla ti o n o f ar t me tal ork w i th d s i gn and o ther school s bj e ts I t is
, , , .
,

w e u c
a b ndan t ly and b ea tif lly ill s t ra t ed Th st andard book on the s bj ect
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u u u u . e u .

SH OP P R OB LE M S
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( On Tra i n g P ap r ) B y Si p t A collect i on o f w ork c e e er
i ng d m g o f a large v ar i ety o f project s print d on m g paper and ready f or
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raw s e tr a c
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u s an o o u u se, u
e t ch They are of con v en i en t i z e 6 9 i nches and are enclosed i n a port f ol i o P b S x
, ,

u
,

d i n i z es N 3 and N E ach 3 5 cen t s

c
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lis e 1 N S 2 N o
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“
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”
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 UNI VE RSI TY OF CALI F ORNI A
t l b
San a Bar b ar a Col ege Li r ary
t
San a Barb ar a, Ca li forni a

Return to desk from w hi ch b orrow ed.

Th is b ook is D UE on th e l a st da te st a mped b el ow .

2om ( 64 728 4 ) 4 76