TheArtofSoapMaking 10301512

WORK S B Y TH E SA M E A UTH OR .
J u st P u bl i sh ed . Crown 8 m , 7s 6d . . cl ot h , wi th nu merous Ill u st rat i ons .
TH E A RT OF P A PE R M A K ING -
: A P rac ti cal H a n d
book t h e M an u fact u re of P a p er from Ra gs Esp art o S t raw, an d
of
ot h er Fi brou s M a t eri a l s, i n cl u di n g t h e M a n n s t ore of P u l p fro m
W ood Fi bre ; wi th a descri p t i on of t h e M a chi n ery an d Ap pl i an ces
u se d. T o whi ch are a dded De ta il s of P rocesses for Recoveri n g S oda
from W aste Li q u ors .
S econ d Edi t i on . C rown 8 vo, 99 . cl ot h .

‘
TH E ART OF L E ATH E R M ANUF A C TURE Be i n g

a P ract i ca l H an db ook , i n wh i ch th e Opera t i on s of Ta n n i n g, C ar ry i n g,
a n d L ea t h er Dressi n g are fu l l y D escri be d , a n d th e P ri n ci p l es O f
Tan n i n g Ex p l ai n ed , an d man y R ecen t P rocesses In trod u ced W i th .
n u mero u s Il l u stra ti on s .
A sou n d, comp reh en si ve tre a t i se on t an n i n an d i ts accessori es

g
.
Th e book i s an emi n en t l y val uabl e p rodu c ti on Ch m i ea l R evi ew

. .
J u st P u bl i s h ed . T hi rd E di ti on , re v i sed an d much en l a rged . 000 p p .

,
crown 8 v o, 9 s cl ot h . .
E L E C TRO D E P OS ITION
- : A P racti cal Tre atise on
t h e El ec trol si s of Gol d , S il ver , C op per , Ni ck el an d oth er M e t al s an d
A l l oy s W i
. desc ri p ti on s of V ol tai c B a t te ri es , Magn eto a n d D y n a m o
El ect ri c M a ch i n es , T h erm op il es a n d of t h e M a t eri al s an d Pr ocess es
u se d i n eve ry D e p a r tm en t of th e A rt , an d se veral C h a p t ers on
E L EC T RO - M E T A L L U R GY W i th n u mer ou s Il l u s tra t i ons
. .
Em i n en t l y a book for t h e p ra c t i cal work er i n el ec tr o -dep omt i on It .
con t ai n s mi n u te a n d p rac t i cal descr i p ti on s of m et h ods, p roc esses a n d ma

t eri al s , a s a c tu al l y u rs ued an d use d In t h e works h op M r W a t t s book
'
f ”—
. .
re com m en ds i t sel f 0 al l i n terested i n i ts su bj ects E n gi n eer. .
J u st P u b l i sh ed . N i n th E di ti on , en l arged a n d re vi sed , 1 2mo, 4s cl oth . .
E LE C TRO M E TA L L U RGY :
-
P ract i ca l l y Tre a t e d .
Ten th Edi ti on , En l arged a n d R e vi se d , wi th A ddi t i on al M a t t er a n d

Il l ustra ti on s , i n cl u di n g t h e m ost recen t P rocesses .
From th i s book both a ma te u r a n d ar ti san ma y l earn e very t h i n g n eces

”—
sary for th e su ccess fu l p rosecu t i on of el ect ro p l ati n g
- Iron . .
C R OS BY L OC K WOOD S ON , 7, S t ati on ers H al l Court, L on don , E C

’
.
T H E A RT OF
S OA P M A K IN G -
A P R A C TI CA L H A N D B OOK
THE M ANU FA C TURE OF H ARD A N D S OFT SOA P S,

TOILET SOA P S, ETC .
A t Tn O R or
'
BY AL EX AND ER
EL E C T R o- M RTA L L U R O Y P R A C TI C A L L Y R
W
T E TE
A
A TT
D,
”
T H E A RT or E T H ER
L A
”
M A N U F A CT UR E , ET C .
w i th gl i t mrrou s i l l u s t ra ti ons
F I F TH E D I T I ON R E VI S E D
TO WH I CH IS A DDED
AN A P P EN D IX ON M OD ERN C A ND L E M A K IN G -
mi en
L ON D ON
C R OS BY L O C K W O O D A N D S ON
7, STA T ION E R S H A L L C OU RT, L UD G A TE H IL L
'
1 8 96
P REFA CE .
IN c o mpi lin g thi s book t h e A u thor h as en deavou re d to

,
fi l l a void i n En glish t ec h n ical lit e ratu re Whil e al m ost

.
e v e ry art is r epr e sen t ed by tre atis e s or h an d books of a
m ore or le ss pra ctic a l chara c te r S oap m aki n g so far as

,
-
,
th e A u thor is awar e has n ot u n til t h e pre s en t ti m e b een

,
fu rn ish e d with a sp ecial book of re fer en c e for t h e con

v en i en ce of its n u m erou s follo wers I n t h e U n it e d St at e s
.
,
h o we ve r sev eral elaborat e tr eatise s of for eign origi n have

,
appeared an d to th e se th e au thor has b een i n debted

,
for m u ch val u able i n form ation e sp e cially as re gards t h e

,
C on tin en tal m ethods of m akin g ordi n ary so aps an d toil et

so aps giv en by D u ssau ce C ristia n i Ott an d K ii rt en
, , , , .
A n i mportan t featu re i n t h e pre s en t vol u m e i s t h e

ch apter on t h e R ecove ry of Glyc e rin e fro m Wa ste L ey s ,
i n which m an y proc e ss es for r e cov e ri n g this val u abl e

pro du ct are given .
A l t hou gh it wo u ld n ot h ave b een possibl e n or ev en

desi rable t o i n cl u d e e very kn o wn proc ess of soap makin g -
,
a great n u mb e r Of proc e sses i n an abridg e d fo rm are given ,
wh i ch c an n ot fail to be u s e fu l to t h e m an u fac tu re r .
To wri t e an origin al work u pon an art wh i c h h as been

vi P R E F A CE .
bu i lt u p SO to sp eak by th e i n gen u i ty of th e great h ost

, ,
i
of n en tv or s a n d pat en t e e s w ou l d b e a n
,
i m possibi l i ty
th e pr s
e en t w ork th e r e for e ,
m u st b e acc ,
ept e d a s an
e pi o
t m e of th e ir coll e ctiv e proc e sse s an d i m prov em e n ts
rath er than as an origi n al treatise an d th e A u thor tru st s ,
that i n his en deavo u r to produ ce a work which wou ld be

u s e fu l both as a practi cal han dbook a n d so rc
u e O f g r
e n e al
r c
refe en e h e m t h av e b een w ho ll y u n s u cc e ssful
a
y n o .
,
P UB LISH ERS N OTE TO TH E F I F TH ED ITI ON

’
.
presen t edition of this work i s su bstan tially a

TH E
reprin t of t h e last editi o n with a n e w A pp en dix (l eft by
,
M r Watt i n M S an d n ew fi rst prin ted ) on th e su bj ect of

. .
,
CA N DL E M A K I N G which with its ill u stration s it is

-
, , ,
believed wi ll be foun d a very u se fu l an d acceptable

addition Owin g to t h e death of M r Watt a few m on ths
. .
after th e preparation of t h e l ast edition t h e work h as n ot ,
u n d e rgo n e an
y fu rth e r r evisio n at his han ds tho u gh t h e ,
opportu n ity has been taken of m aki n g a few correctio n s

i n th e text for whic h t h e P u blish ers are i n debted to M r
,
.
H J osh u a P hil l ips F I C

. H o wev er fro m t h e co n ti n u ed
, . . .
,
an d large d em a n d for t h e work i t is ab u n dan tly e vid en t ,
that as revised an d en larged by th e A u th or t h e vol u m e

, ,
a mply fu lfils th e p u rpose with which it was design ed .
L OND ON , October, 1 8 95 .
CON TEN TS .
IN TR OD UCTI ON
CH A PTER I .
SA P ON I F I CA TI ON EK PL A I N ED .
Ch e vreu l s Th eory —Li ebi g s Re search es on Sapon i fi cati on

’ ’
M E SOA P F A T
C O R Y— I TS A P P A RA TUS A ND
A P PLI A N CE S .
Th e S o p p s
a - an —M orfi t s S team
’
Seri es — Th e L ey Tan ks—Th e F rames
— W ooden F rames— Iron F rames Cru t ch es— St eam C ru tch
Vari ous oth er I mpl emen ts— Barri n g Apparatu s
C H AP TER II I .
M A TER IA LS US ED I N S OA P -M A KI N G .
Th e F ats an d —
Oil s — OIi v e-Oi l Tal l ow— Lard— P al m-Oi l Cocoa-n u t
Ol l Ca st or-oil — Bon e grease -
H orse-grease Ki tc h en -st u ff
Ol ei n e, or Tall ow-Oi l — F i sh -Oil s— Resi n , or Col o h on — Re p y
cov ered GreaseYork shi re F at —
or Th e A l k a li es C au sti c S oda
—P ot ash — Si l i cate of S oda, or S ol u bl e G l ass— Chi n a C l ay , or
—
K aoli n S ul ph ate of S oda , or Gl a u ber s Sal t
’
C H A P TER I V .
CA US TI C L E YS .
T h e Loy Ta n k s— M e th od of P repari n g th e L ey s
b
C H AP TER V .
M A N UFA OT URR OF H A RD S OA P S .
P A GE
C as ti l e, or Oli v e-oil S oap —P ure Ol i v e-Oi l Soap, or W hi te Casti l e
S oap — M arsei ll es S oap — F ren ch M arbl ed Soap — N ot es on M ot
tl i n g— F ren ch F or mu l as for S oa ps —Th e C om posi ti on of P u re
Ol i ve-oil Soap— L on don M ott l ed S oap — W h i te C ur d S oap
C H A P TER VI .
a
M A N UFA C T UR E OF H A RD S OA P S— Oon ti n ued .
S oaps— C on ti n en tal M eth od— D unn

‘
l el l ow,
’
R esi n P rocess
’
or S
M ei n i ck e P rocess
’
S
C H AP TER VI I .
M A N UFA C T UR E OF H A R D S OA P S— Con t i nued .
Treatmen t of Ni gers — An derson ’s P rocess— Cocoa-n u t Oi l Soaps

S tmt e van t s P rocess — Fren ch C ocoa -n u t Oi l S oaps
’
C HAP TER VI II .
M A KI N G S OA P B Y TH E OOI D P R OORSS .
H awes s S y st em— M ak i n g small Qu an ti t i es of S oap—To preps re

’
W hi te Soap—L ard Soap by th e Col d P rocess
C H AP TER IX .
OL EI O A CI D — S OA P FR 0 11! R E OO VER ED GREA S E .
l
Oeci A ci d— S oa p from R e cov ere d Gr ease— M orfi t s Sy stem of Soap
’
m ki — O l i A i d S — K ott u l a s S oa s—I n stan tan eou s

’
a n g e c c oa p s p
Soap
CH A PTER X .
CH EA P ENED S OA P S .
Dr Norman dy P rocess— Sil i cated Soaps : Sh eri dan s Process

’ ’
. s
G ossage s P rocesses— Preparati on of Si l i cate of Soda—Prepara

’
t i on of Si l i cat e of P otassa— M i xi n g S i l i cate of S oda wi th S oaps 96

C ON TEN TS . IX
C H AP TER X I .
CH E A PE NED S OA PS Con t i n ued .
1
PAG E
D u nn s P rocess G u ppy s P rocess Th omas s Pr ccess
’ ’ ’
P otato
fl o u r i n S oa p
— C h i n a C l a y (K aol i n ) i n S oa p
— D ou gl as s I m prov e
’
m ts F ul l er s Eart h Soap—D a vi s s P rocess

— ’ ’
en
C H AP TER X II .
D I S I NF E C TI N G S OA P .
C o
h l ri di se d S an i t ar
y Soap
—Bl e ach i n g S oap i n t h e P an —P ee rl ess
ad ed to Co
d mbi n ed —
Soap L i m e S oap, by L u n ge
’
s M eth od
C H A P TER XIII .
S A P ON I FI OA TI ON UND ER P RE S S UR E .
Ben n ett an d Gi bbs s P rocess—M r G W R ogers P rocess— N e w

’ ’
. . . s
P rocess of Sapon i fi cati on — G l u ten i n Soap
C HA P TER X I V .
VA RI OUS P R OCE S S E S .
K ur ten s P rocess— L u mbert on s P rocess— Mr Sy mon s s D i si n fect i n g

’ ' ’
.
Soa p— Soap s m ade from A n i mal R efu se— Bern adet s P rocess
’
V i l l art s P rocess— C re rel s P roc e ss — V il l acrose s P roc ess — C u t

’ ' ’
t i n g Soap
C H AP TER X V .
M A N UFA OT URE OF S OF T S OA P S .
Preparati on of th e P otash Ley —Th e F atty M ater i al s empl oy ed

Scot ch Soft Soa p — L on don Crown S oap — R esi n i n Soft S oaps
—Con t i n en tal Meth ods
C H A PTER X VI .
M A N UF A CT URE OF S OF T S OAP S Conti n ued .
Be l gi an Soap- Russi an S oft S oap— G en t cl e s P rocess— J a cobson s

’ ’
P ro cess—S oa p for Si l k s an d P ri n t ed G oods - F u l l i n g S oa p —M

L och s Soft Soap
’
C ON TE N TS .
M A N UF A CT UR E OF TOI LE T OR F A N C Y S OA PS .
rs os
Apparat u s for Its -m el t i n g th e S oap—M ach i n e for Sl i ci n g t h e S oap
Re - m el t i
t h S o — M i xi g C o l o u ri n M att ers an d P f m
n g e ap n
g e r u es
C u tt i n g t h e S a
o p — S tamp i n g th e S oap
CH AP TER XVIII .
M A N UFA OT URE OF TOI L ET S OA P S Con ti n ued .
Rose S oap, Sav on A l a R ose— Oran ge -fl ower S oap—Ci n n amon

or
S oap—M u sk Soa p Bi tte r A l mon d Soap , or Sa von d A man des

— ’
A m ere s — W i n d sor S a
o p— Brown W i n dsor S oap—V i ol et W i n dsor
Soap — S a v on e u B q
ou u e t— Sav on al a Can n el l e (Ci n na mon Soa p)
— Al mon d o S p M arsh m all ow S oa p—Van i l l a S oap—Benzgi n
- il oa —
S oap s s e o e
o 0
CH AP TER X IX .
M A N UF A OTUR E OF TOI L E T S OA PS Con ti n ued

.
F ren ch S t m f m ki T il t S — F m l f F ch T oi l et
y s e o a n g o e oaps or u a) or r en
S oaps Sav on de G u i mau v e (M arsh m all ow Soap) — S a v on a u x

Fl eurs d I tal i e Sa von de C ri mes— Sa von de P al ms —V i ol et
’
w — V n il l a Soap — R ose-l eaf Soa — Sav on it l a

S oa p (
Y e l l o ) a p
M a ré ch a l e — L e tt u ce S o a p
— A mbe r gr i s S nap
— E l d er -flower Soa
p
— L em on Soap—Oran ge Soap— G l y ceri n e Soap Savonn ettes or
W b
a s h a l l s — Vi ol et W ash bal l s H on ey Sav on n ettes Sa von
n ett es of S weet H erbs— Sav on n ettes Of C amph or —Savon n et tes of
Ne or l i — S v
a on n e tt es a l a V a n i l l a— M arbl ed Sav on n ettes— Sav on
n ett es a u M i H
el ( o ey S av
n -
onn ette )
s — Fl oati n g S avonn ett es
S an d- Bal l s s o s o s e
s 0
C H A P TER XX .
S OF T TOI L E T S OA P S .
N apl es S oap, or A l m o n d C re a m — F ren ch M e th od— W h i te Soft T oi l et

—
S oap P 0 “ de r e d S o a ps — S h av i n
g P as t e — Essen ce of S oa p
E ssen ce de S av o n V i en n a— Essen ce de Sav on C ori n th e—Tran s
p a ren t So ap
C ON TE N TS . xi
CH AP TER X XI .
M ED I CA TE D S OA P S .
P AC ]
Si r H M arsh
.
’
Sso ap
— M
Su l ph ur e r c u r i a l S o ap
— M e di c i n a l S of t
— i
S oap A D t om n i a l S oa p
— C arb o li c A c i d S oa p
— M e di ca t e d T ar
—
S oap Tooth o p S a — L i u i d G l y c er i n qe S oa p
— B o r d h a r d t s H er b
’
—
S oap Arsen cal S oap
i — A S p
oa f o r W shi g
a n D og s— T u r p ti n e
en
S oap Ta r S oa
-
p
— Bl ac k S oap
— V ar i o us S u b sta n c e s i n t r odu ced
i n to M an u factured S oaps
C H AP TER XXII .
M I S CELLA NE O US S OA P S .
—
S oap t o be u sed i n Cl oth M an u factori es Vl h i te Cocoa-n ut Oi l S oap
’
l a —
D resden P a m So p Al teu b u rge s R esi n S oa p— Ox-gal l S oa p
’
Sc ou ri n g Ball s— Borax S oft S oa p— B orax S oap P owder— Lon don

-
Soap Powder
C H AP TER XXIII .
M I S CEL L A N E O US P R OGE S S E S .
J en ni n gs s P rocesses— L ev at s P rocess— V i ol et s P al m-Oi l S oap

’ ’ ’
H ampel s S h av i n g Soap— M rs M arri ott s P rocess Sawdus t i n

’ ’
. —
—
S oap L ewi s s P r oc ess — Borax S oap C am ph or an d Am mon i a
’
Soap s— M ack a y an d Sell er s P rocess— P etrol e um Soap : Bas tet s

’ ’
P ocess B esson an d Remy s P rocess—T arda n i s P rocess— H al f

— ’ ’
r
resi n S oap- M r G P ay n e s P rocess— M r Ban k man n s P r ocess

’ ’
. . .
—M r W J ey es s Proce ss M V ari cas s Process— L orbur y s

’
— ’ ’
q
. . .
P rocess Cl eav er s Tereben e Soap— Sch arr s L i ui d Soap—M r

— ’ ’
Bi et I d e Process—M a rki n g S oaps

’
C H A P TER XXI V
A LE A L I M E TE Y—M E TH OD S OF D E TE R M I N IN G TH E P E R
CE N TA GE OF R E A L A L KA L I I N C OM M E R CI A L S OD A
A S H , P OTA S H , A ND CA US TI O A L K A L I .
M ohr ’
s Al k al i m eter — Preparati on of T est -A ci d, or
S tan dard Sol u ti on
—Samp1i n g A l k ali es Th e A ssay N orman dy s M eth od—Test
— — ’
i n g C o merc
m i a l P e a rl h
as es— T O determi n e th e P ercen tage of real
or an h y drous Al kali
C H AP TER XX V .
M E TH OD S OF A NA L YZIN G OR A S SA P I N G S OA P S .
a sa —
So p A s y Re mpel e M eth od ofA ssa i n g Soaps— D A rcet
’
y
’ ’
s M eth od
—R i ch ardson an d W a tt s S y st e m
’
xu C ON TE N TS .
C H AP TER XXVI .
P URI F YI N G A N D B L EA GE I N G OI L S A ND FA Ts .
PA“
Bl each i n g P al m-Oil : W a tt s C h rom e P rocess— R ecov ery of th e
’
Ch rome—Bl ea ch i n g P al m - Oi l wi th C h romate of L i me—P uri fy i n g

Oi l s D un n s M eth od J ust i ce M et h od
’
Of P urify i n g an d
’
s
Bl eachi n g Oi l s an d F at s
CH AP TER XXVI I .
RE GOVER Y OF TH E GI F ORP I N E F R OM WA S TE OR
You n g s P rocess—P ay n e s P rocess—V ersman n s P rocess— ’

O F arrel l s
’ ’ ’ ’
P rocess— Th omas an d F u l l er s P rocess— A l l an s Process—L awson

’ ’
an d S u l m an s P r oc ess— M V i ct or C l ol u s s M et h od— B en n o, J appé

’ ’
.
an d Co M eth od
’
. s
C HA PTER XXVIII .
USEF UL N OTE S A N D TA B L E S .
Pi ckli n g Sbap —Th e 0 1eometer — A l u mi n at e of S oda — To det ermi n e

'
th e Q
u an i
t yt o f R esi n i n S oa p
— D e tecti on of R esi n i n S oa p
Ch ea p Al m o n d S oa p
— A n al y se s of S oft S oap s—P o ta to -flou r i n
S oft Soap— S apon i fi cat i on o f N eu t ral F at ty B odi es by Soaps

J ell i fy i n g— T wa ddell s H y dr om e ter — Cau sti c i si n g S oda— Soda
’
Soft S oap — H a lf-

p a l m S o ap
— A du l t era t i on o f C omm erci al S i l i cate
of Soda S p o C c p
oa s f r a l i o- ri n te s F u ll i n g S oaps— T abl e sh ow
r —
i n g P roport i on of dry S oda i n L ey s of di fferen t densi ti es — Tabl e .
sh owi n g th e P roport i on of dr y P ot as h i n L ey s of di fferen t dens i ti es .
— Com parat i v e F ren ch an d E n gl i sh Th ermometer S cal es— Tabl e

sh owi n g th e S peci fi c G rav i t y correspon di n g wi th th e D egrees
o f Bau mé s
’
q
H y drom et er for Li u i ds den ser t h an W a ter
T abl e sh owi n g t h e S pecifi c G ravi t y corresp on di n g wi th th e D e
g r ees o f B a u m é s H y d
’
ro m q
et er for Li u i ds l i gh te r t h an W a t er
T a bl e of O i l —
E ssen ti al
s F u si n g an d C on geal i n g P oi n ts of F ate
an d Oi l s—K ii rt en s Tabl e, Sh owi n g t h e Com posi ti on an d P r odu ct
’
Of Soap by th e C ol d P rocess from C on cen t rated L ey an d M i xture
of Cocoa n tu O -i l wi th P al m -
o , L ar ,
i l d an d T al l ow— B oi li n g
i t f om e V ol a t i l e Oi l s — B oi li n i n t s of C au sti c Al k al i n e
p
-
po n s o s g o
L ey s — Tabl e Sh owi n g th e Q
u an t i t y of C au st i c S oda i n L e s of
y
di fferen t D ensi ti es Tabl e Of t h e M ech an i cal P ower of Steam
C ON TE N TS .
A P P EN D IX A .
Maki n g Son i n smal l Quan ti ti es — P earl

S oa p
-P
ow d er — E .xt r a ct o f .
S oa p _
a shi n g - Po w der —W ool -was hi n
g C om .un d U n i .
v ersal
.
W ashi n g P o
- wd er — Th e Recov ery o f G y ceri n e from
.
W ast e LO S — A ll en an d N i ck el s M eth od — V en abl es P rocess

I
.
’
.
’
.
M odern erman M eth od of M aki n g S oa p — Rem ov al of h as

A l k ali from S oaps — Trans paren t S oaps m ade by C ol d Process
. .
Mi al h e 8 N eu tral S oap — S am phi r e Soap — D r !Vri gh t s C l assi

’ ’
-
.
fi cati on of Soap P r ocesses — M ari n e S oa p or H y drat ed Soa p . .
Bl ak e an d M axwell s P r ocesses — T esti n g SoapS — D etermi n at i on

’
. .
of G l y ceri n e — D r M u ter S M eth od — D e termi n a t i on Of Resi n In

’
. . .
—
S oa p f Ei ch ba um s Soa p — S oaps for C al i c o P n n t ers an d D y ers
’
. .
— Soa for S il k D ers — S oa L eav es — Zal mon ’S Ar omati c M ou th

p y p . .
S oa p —
. A rom at i c A n ti septi c Toot h S oap — U n na
’
S O v e r - fa
t ty
Soa ps — D i mbl eby S W y ch -h azel Soap — C ast or Oi l Soa p
.
’
.
W ei se 8 F ormu l a for W i n dsor S oap — Ren deri n g Tal l ow

’
.
Si li ca tes of Soda an d P otash — W ay s P rocess — Barri n g Soap

’
. .
by M achi n er y — W ay S Sil i cat ed S oap — B l u e a n d G rey M ot t l ed

’
F u l li n g S oap — S oap t o Remov e Stai n s —C ott on -Seed

.
S oaps — . . .
OIL— Chl ori n ated Soap — Commer ci al Val u e of S oaps
AP P ENDIX B .
M OD ER N CA N D L E -M A K I N G .
Improv emen ts i n M odern C an dl e -M aki n g — Th ree M eth odS i n Vogu e . .
Em l oy ed — R en deri n g T all ow — S te ari n e — Li m 0

. . .
ocess A ci difi ca ti on P rocess

. .
IN D EX
T H E A RT
S OA P M A K I N G -
.
I NTRODUCTION .
A CCOR D I N G to t h e great R om an historian P lin y t h e Ga u ls , ,
were t h e origin a l in ven tors of t h e art of soap m akin g -
th eir b est prod u ct b ein g a com bin ation of goat S fat an d ’
t h e ash es of t h e beech t ree Th e Rom an s s u bs e qu en tly

-
.
acq u ired a kn o wl edge of t h e art an d e ven t u a lly i n tro

,
du ced it i n to I taly a fter th e ir s u ccessfu l i n vasio n s of G a u l .
In proo f of t h e an tiqu ity Of soap as an artic le of c om

m erce a soap m aker s Shop has been discov er ed i n t h e
’
-
,
r u in s of P ompeI I an d is still exhibited to tra vellers

, .
P rior to t h e i n v e n tio n of soa t h e an ci en ts em ploy e d

t h e u i ce s of c ertai n plan ts as def ergen t s an d also fu ll e rs
°
’
eartli
,
, which was first spread u pon t h e s u rfac e of t h em

cloth es an d th en stam p ed i n by t h e fee t B y this m ean s
, .
greasy m at ter was rem oved on su bsequ en t sco u ri n g t h e ,
fu llers earth h a vin g t h e p rop e rty of absorbin g gre ase to

’
-
a con siderabl e exten t So m e tim es this earth was em

.
ployed as a clean sin g m edi u m i n baths an d e v en u p to ,
t h e b e gin n in g of t h e e ighteen th c en t u ry this syst em was

adop ted i n R om e by person s of t h e high est distin ction .
I n t h e eighth c en tu ry th ere we re m an y soap m an u fac

torie s i n Italy an d Spain bu t it is a r em arkable an d
,
i n te re stin g fact that n ea rly fi ve hu n dred y ears elapse d

e re soap m a n u fact u r e was in trodu c e d i n to F ran c e a n d
practised as an art by th e P h ocean s an in te lligen t an d ,
in du striou s ra ce Of G recian an d Egyp t ian origin Th e

, .
first so ap m an u factories i n F ran ce we re e stablish e d a t

M ars eilles a city su rro u n ded with n atu ral a dvan ta ges of
,
soil an d cli m ate for t h e produ ctio n of all t h e cru de m at e
B
TH E A R T OF S OA P -JI A X IN G .
r ia ls c s y for soap m ak i n g Th e Olive tree th e fru it

n e e sar -
.
-
,
of which y i elds a fi x ed Oil i n gr eat ab u n da n ce flo u ri sh e d ,
i n t h e so u th of F ran c e whil e t h e shores of t h e M edi t erra

,
n ean yielde d an am pl e s u pply of m aritim e plan ts fr om ,
which cr u de soda was obtai n ed by calcin ation M a rseille s .

,
ho wev er with all th ese advan tages was un able to produ ce

, ,
suffi ci en t m at erial to m ee t t h e de ma n ds of h e r m an u fa c
t u rers th erefore as time progress ed I taly fu rn ish ed
, ,
su p li e s of olive oil whil e Spain co n tribu t ed cr u de soda

-
, ,
or G ri lle .
Th e m an u fact u re of soap i n F ran c e was en tirely con

fi n ed to t h e combin ation of olive Oi l an d so da u n til t h e -
begi n n in g of t h e presen t cen tu ry wh en pal m oil an d ,

-
cocoa n u t oil were also em ploye d i n t h e art an d su bse

-
,
qu en tly toilet or fan cy soaps we re i n trodu c ed an d u lti

, , ,
m at ely form ed an e xten sive an d im portan t addi tion to t h e

soap trade .
Th e exact p eriod at which soap was fi rst m an u factu r e d

i n E n glan d appears som ewhat u n c ertain bu t it was pro ,
bably i n th e fo u rteen th c en tu ry wh en it was chi efly m ade ,
u pon t h e F ren ch system that is to say with bari IIa

, ,
cr u de carbo n ate of soda ) ; an d som e oth er m an u factu re rs

(
adopt ed a m ethod practis e d i n G erma n y i n which potash , ,
follo wed u p by salt su pe rsede d t h e u se of soda ob ta in ed by

,
th e calci n atio n of m aritim e plan ts .
W e fi n d that t h e first pate n t for improvem en ts i n t h e

man u fact u re of so ap was Obtain ed i n 1 622 by M essrsJ ,
J on e s an d P almer an abridgm en t of which is given,
b elo w
Th e m i steri e arte way an d mean s of m akin gs of
, , ,
hard soaps comon l y call ed by th e n am e of Ven ice or

,
castil e scape witho u t t h e v se of an i e fi re i n t h e boy l i n g

,
or m akin gs thereo f an d with a materi al l comon l y called

,
or k n o wn by t h e n am e of be ri l l i a an d Th e art m i st eri e , , ,
way an d m ean s of m akin g s of so fte scape witho u t t h e v ss

”
o f fi re i n t h e boy l i n ge an d m aki n e th e reo f
g .
F rom th e above p eriod u p to th e presen t tim e m an y ,
paten ts for i mportan t i m prov emen ts I n soap m aki n g have -
been taken ou t i n En glan d .

TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G .
were sp u rn ed , an d th eir att em pts t o i m prov e t h e cr u de

art were foiled i n every possible way The re were, h ow .
e ve r , a fe w e xc e pti on s to t h e g en eral rul e ( of thu m b ,

)
an d s ev eral large fi rm s — n otably t h e fi rm Of B enja m i n ,
H
William , an d Thom as awes, of Lam be th wh o dared to —
adm it t h e teachi n gs of scien ce within th eir portals N ot .
on ly did th e se m an u factu rers en cou rage im provemen ts

based u po n chemical prin ciples, bu t th ey also em ploye d
chem ists i n the ir works, wh o, fu rn ishe d with a laboratory
an d applian c e s, soo n con ve rte d t h e operatio n of so a p
m aki n g i n to an art, i n th e prope r sen se of t h e te rm Th e .
e stim a t io n of t h e actu al a m o u n t of alkali i n a giv en
sam ple of soda ash was dete rm i n ed by th eir own ch emist,

-
i n m an y i n s tan c e s i n di catin g a wide diffe ren c e wh en com

pared wi th th e an alysis of t h e alkali broke r s ch emist ’
-
‘
.
Al l goods were s u bj ecte d to exam in ation by t h e soap

m aker s a n alyst be fore pu rch a se, an d th u s t h e in t ellige n t
’
m an u factu rer wa s prote ct ed fro m frau d an d i mposi t io n ,

which gave h i m an i n calcul able advan ta ge ove r his n u
aided competitors .
A ltho u gh t h e great F ren ch ch emist C h evreu l had , ,
cle arly explain ed th e n atu re of th e reaction s wh ich take

place wh en fatty su bstan ce s are treate d with boili n g
sol u tio n s of ca u stic alk ali fe w soap m ake rs wou ld v e n t u r e
,
-
to m odify their an tiqu ate d system of m an u fact u re by

callin g to th e ir aid t h e m an of sci en ce Th e soap .
m ake r s argu m en t seem ed to be

’
M y soap h as a large
sale it y i elds a good profit ; wh at m or e can I req u ire
,
I f t h e ch e m ist told h i m that h e wa s liberatin g a larg e

portio n of glycerin e which flowed away with his was t e
,
l eys in to t h e riv er or sewe r i n stead of b ein g r ecove red

, ,
an d h e wa s th e reby losi n g a larg e su m an n u ally th e ,
soap m aker cared n ot for h e still had a good profi t on his

-
,
soapS .
I n 1 8 36 t h e au thor s fath e r t h e lat e M r C harles

’
.
, ,
Wa tt pat en ted his n e w well kn o wn process for bl eachin g

,
-
palm Oi l by mean s of chro m ic a cid ; bu t it was n ot u n t i l

-
se veral y ears a fte r t h at soap m akers took u p -

th e
p roc e ss a n d adopt e d i t S o gr e.a t wa s t h e pr e
j u dic e a ain s t
g
IN TR OD UC TI ON .
an
y an d
all i m prov em en t ,
that e v e n a trial o f t h e proc e ss
was for a t im e r ej e cted an d whe n at last t h e t ra de wer e
i n du ced afte r some of th e m ore in telligen t firm s h ad
,
beco me lic en s ees u n der th e pa t en t to gi ve th e proc ess a ,
trial n ot u n freq u en tly wo u ld t h e workm en pu t ra w (that

,
is u n bleach ed ) pal m oil in to th e batch which had bee n

,
-
’
Op e ra ted u pon d u rin g t h e pat en t e e S abs e n c e so th a t th eir
, ,
e m ploy ers m ig h t den o u n c e t h e d e m on stration as a fail u re .
I n at least on e in stan ce a trick of this kin d wa s p ractised

u po n t h e au thor wh o for m an y y ears co n d u ct ed t h e op era
,
tio n of bleachi n g pal m Oi l on his father s beha lf i n -

,
’
Lon don an d t h e provin c es .
R efe rri n g to t h e i m port an c e of ch emical k n owl edge i n

soap m an u fac t u re M r William H a wes i n a paper which
, .
,
h e read b e for e th e Soci ety of A rts on t h e 28 t h of M arch ,
1 8 5 6 stti te d that
, ton s of ta llo w were co n verte d in to
glycerin e an n u ally cau sin g a loss of abo u t
, an d
there i s n o do u bt whatever th a t t h e whole of this was te
co uld be avoided by m an u factu ri n g soap by t h e cold pro
ce S S, or at all e ven ts this val u able prod u ct sho u ld be
re covered as h ereafter descri bed A t t h e presen t day i n .
,
m ost of th e large r soap work s th e teachin gs of scien c e

-
,
are n ot o n ly r e cogn ised bu t an e xperien c ed ch em ist is

,
e n gaged u n de r whos e skilfu l g u a rdia n ship t h e vario u s

,
Op e ra tio n s are co n d u cte d I n so m e i n stan c es t h e so n s

.
of mem be rs of t h e fi rm have b e en prop erly in s tr u cte d

i n ch emical kn owledge an d to th em are i n st ru st ed th e
,
scien tifi c de tail s of this strict ly ch em ical art I n so me .
e sta blish m en t s , t h e prin cipals or at l ea st on e of th em , ,
have acqu ired su ffi cien t kn owledge of chem istry to en able

th em to con du ct their op eration s mi tt a knowledge of wfzat
May a re doi ng ; so that we m ay n ow say that at las t
sci en ce an d soap m aki n g go han d i n han d except i n a
-
,
few in stan c e s wh er e th e B ritish workman is still looked

u pon as an idol .
A n oth er i m portan t feat u re i n th e m an u factu re of soap

wa s t h e applicat i on of steam an d s u erh eated steam i n
p , ,
place of t h e e r n ary fi re A ai n I mprovem en ts were

l I t
made i n th e mach i n ery an d appI

.
,
i a u ces of th e so ap works -
,
am n o gst which m ay be n otic ed t h e su bsti tu tion of cast

iron fram es for t h e old fash ion ed wooden on es fro m which
-
,
m an y a t on of soap leak ed ou t b efor e solidification took

pla c e t h e steam pu m p su perseded t h e ordin ary ladle for
-
fitte d s oaps t h e ste am cr u tch i n som e works s u pplan te d

-
, ,
t h e wooden or iron han d worked im pl em e n t an d (i n

-
,
A m erica m or e especial ly ) m a n y m echan ic a l co n triva n c e s

have been in trod u ce d for di m i n ish in g labo u r an d hasten
i n g t h e Ope ratio n s of m a n u factu re. To th ese m ay be
added th e lo n g series of pate n ted processes havi n g for
th eir obj ect t h e ch eap en i n g of th e m an u factu re by t h e i n
t rodu c ti on of c erta in s u bs t an c es which witho u t inj u ri n g
,
t h e soap e n abl e it to be sold at a lo wer price to t h e c on

,
s u m e r Th e vario u s proc e sses will be fu lly d escri bed wh en

.
t reat i n g of t h e m a n u fac t u re of hard soaps

.
C HA P T ER 1 .
S A P ON IFI CA TI ON E K P L A IN E D .
Th eory — L i ebi g
’
Ch evr eu l R esearch es S ap on i fi cati on
’
s . s on .
TH E com bin ation of fatty m at ters wi th an a s soda alkali —

a n d potash for e xa mpl e — by t h e aid of wat er an d h ea t ,
is t h e r es u lt of ckemzca l acti on I t i s n ot a m ere com

'
bin in g of t h e s u bstan ce s i n t h e ordin ary sen se for we ,
fi n d a fter th eir p erfect u n io n has bee n e ffe c t ed t hat t h e

, ,
co n stitu en ts of t allo w for in stan ce (stea r i ne p a lmztzne an d

' ’
, , ,
have u n dergo n e a re markable chan ge each of —

th e se s u bstan c es has acqu ired th e prop erties of an acid This .
i mpo rtan t discovery was made by C he vre u l an d wh e n ,
p rop erly u n derstood th e practic e of soap m akin g becom es -
n ot on ly m or e c ertain i n its r esu lts b u t i n fi n itely m or e ,
eco n o m ica l .
C h evr e u l s T h e or y j Ch e vr eu l discover ed that wh en

’
.
- -
soap was decom posed by an acid t h e fa tty m atter which th u s ,
b ecam e sep ara ted or se t free possessed properti es en ti rely ,
diffe ren t fro m t h e origin al s u bstan ce W hen m elted it

‘
.
,
re dden ed litm u s paper ; it was freely solu ble i n warm

alcohol an d was c apable of formin g sal ts like ordin ary
, ,
acids Wh en a solu tion of carbon ate of soda was added

.
to t h e separated an d sapon i fi ed m atter soap was agai n ,
form ed while a third su bstan c e possessin g a v ery s wee t

, ,
”
t aste rem ain ed i n t h e m oth er liqu or which was fo u n d
, ,
to be gly ceri n e Th e gi ft ed ch e mist th u s proved that soap

.
m ade fro m tallo w was i n r eality a com pou n d of stea rate

a l mi ta te o
f
'
an d soa a an d th a t glyc e ri n e was set fre e d u ri n g
p ,
t h e proc e ss of sap on i fi cat i on which su bstan c e b ein g , ,
sol u ble rem ain ed i n th e waste or sp en t leys an d e ven tu

, ,
Th e l i q t all ow was gen eral l y t er med

u i d con st i t u en t of ok i n e u n ti l
m or e r e cen t research prov ed i t t o be a compoun d of p al mi ti n e an d ol ei n e.
ally fou n d its way i n to t h e se wer or river as th e case , ,
m ight be .
Th e a cids l i b erate d d u rin g t h e proc ess of co n v erti n g

”
fats an d oils i n to soap are call ed fatty acids thos e “
,
obta in ed fro m tallow b ein g chi efly stea ric an d palm itic
acids Olive oil an d oth er so ft fats yi eld on sapon i fi cat i on
.
-
oleic acid P alm oil yields a m ixtu re of p al m itic an d

.
oleic acids ; an d cocoa n u t oil fu rn ishes palm itic ol eic -

, ,
an d la u ro ste aric acids

-
.
Soap th en is a co mpo u n d of fatty acids com bi n ed with

, ,
alkali an d water Oth er su bstan c e s ho we ver beside s oils

.
, ,
a n d fats are em ploy e d i n so ap m aki n g ; for exa m pl e r e si n -

, ,
a com pou n d of sev eral v egetable acids is u sed wi th , ,
t allo w to form yello w soap M eta ll i c soap s as th ey are

, .
,
ca lled are prod u c ed by boili n g oxides of m e tals wi th oils

,
or oth er fa tty m atters D iachylon plaster which is .

-
,
for me d by boili n g litharge (oxide of l ead ) with olive oi l -
a n d wa te r i s an i n solu ble so ap com posed of oleate an d

,
m argarat e of lead Th e glycerin e for m ed d u ri n g t h e

.
proces s rem ain s with th e water .
So aps a re divided i n to t wo prin cipal cl a sse s n am ely ,
H A R D an d SOFT SOA P S Th e form er a re prod u c e d by .
com bin in g soda an d wate r with fa tty m atters an d t h e ,
latte r are m ad e with potash com bin ed with horse oil fi sh -

, ,
an d oth er i n fer ior oils a n d h en c e th e s e are so m eti m e s dis

,
t i n gu i sh ed as soda soap s an d p etasi a soap s .
H ard soaps are of v a rio u s kin ds t h e m ost importa n t ,
b ein g C astile Soap White C u rd M ottl ed Y ello w a n d

, , , ,
Tran sparen t Soap These soaps are combi n ation s of tallo w

.
,
p al m oil cocoa n u t oil oliv e oil or oth er fatty s u bstan c e s

-
,
-
,
—
wi th cau stic soda th at is soda dep riv ed of i ts carbo n ic ,
acid by boili n g with fresh lim e an d water .
Wh en tallo w is boiled for a co n siderabl e ti m e i n a

solu tion of ca u stic soda (or l ey as t h e solu tion is called ) t h e ,
fatty m atte rs st e arin e an d p al m iti n e as su m e a gran u l a r or

, ,
c u rd like app eara n c e e n tir ely losin g their greasy an d oily

-
,
chara cter ; a n d i f a sm all por tion be pre ssed be t ween t h e

folds of a p i ec e of p ap er i t will n ot p ro d u c e a g rea sy
S A P ON IF I CA T1 ON E XP L A [ N E D .
s tai n This is proof tha t t h e con versio n of th e fa t ty su b

.
stan ce s in to stearate an d palm itate of soda is co m plete

that t h e m ass is sap ontfi ed i n fact If t h e boilin g h as b een , .
su ffi ci en t an d an excess of cau stic alkali rem ain s i n t h e

,
l ey this will s u bsid e an d t h e soap a ft e r b e in g allo we d t o

, , ,
repose for a shor t ti m e will appear on t h e s u r face I f ,

.
n ow a sm all portio n be treate d with wa rm alcohol it will ,
r eadily an d en tirely dissolve form i n g a tran sparen t sol u ,
tio n of soap A fter expelli n g t h e alcohol by evaporation

.
,
t h e tran spar en t soap will r em ain which on coolin g will ,
assu m e con sid erable hardn ess .
I n sapon i fyin g t h e variou s fatty m att ers em ployed at

,
t h e presen t ti m e i n soap m an u fa ctu re a n d wh ich di ffe r ,
greatly i n th eir composition m u ch care is ex ercis ed as to ,
t h e stren gth of alkalin e l ey u s ed i n t h e firs t an d su bs eq u en t

ope ratio n s of boili n g I f th e l ey be too stro n g its .
,
s u pe rior de n sity will retard its free diffu sion thro u gh t h e

m a ss of fa tty m atter It is co m m o n ly t h e p ractic e th ere
.
,
fore with t allo w soaps to apply ca u stic l ey of a m oderate

, ,
stren gth at first an d wh en this has b eco m e exhau sted or

,
sp en t a s i t is termed it i s p u mpe d ou t of th e coppe r or

, ,
a n a n d a fre sh charge of l e f s u p erior str en gth giv e n

p , y o ,
an d t h e boili n g con tin u e d u n til t h e grease or fat is

killed or n eu tralised by t h e alkali D u rin g th e boilin g .
glyc erin e is lib erate d a n d this su bstan ce bei n g sol u ble i n

, ,
water su bside s with t h e l ey Un til rec en tly t h e e xha u ste d

, .
,
leys were allo we d to flow a way as a waste prod u ct ; at t h e

presen t time howe ver t h e glyce rin e is u s u ally r ecovered
, ,
by on e or othe r of t h e vario u s process es fu lly describ ed i n

C hapter XXVI .
I t is well k n o wn that cau stic l ey acts differ en tly u pon

th e vario u s fatty bodi es with which it co me s i n co n tact .
F or e xa m ple a weak l ey will act u pon t allo w u n til i t s

,
alkali b e co m es exha u sted or n early so ; wh e r e a s a l e of

y ,
e q u al stre n gth will scarc ely i f a t all sapon ify cocoa n u t , ,

-
oi l. Wh en ho wever cocoa n u t oil is ble n ded with oth er

, ,
-
fatty su bsta n ce s it will readily b eco m e act e d u po n by

,
we a k l ey s A g ai n re si n altho u gh i t is readily co n ver t ed

.
, ,
to TH E A R T OF S P -M A K IN G.
i n to soap by treatmen t with alkali will n ot form a h ard

,
so ap u n less co mbin ed with a c e rt ain proportion of t a llo w ,
which ; du rin g t h e proce ss of sapon i fi cati on ex e rts a ,
po we rfu l in fl u en ce u po n its con stit u en ts probably by ,
ch em ical action n ot y et fu lly u n derstood .
L i eb i g s R e s e a r c h e s on S a p on i fi c a t i on — J u stu s L i ebi g
’
.
— to whos e origi n al m in d we are i n d ebte d for so m an y

valu able discoveries i n organ ic ch emistry m ade so m e —
i m po rtan t r esearch es on t h e sapon i fi cat i on of fatt bodies
a n d his vi ews sho u l d be well u n d erstood by th
,
e so ap
m ak e r wh o recogn is e s t h e val u e of scien tific k n o wl e dg e i n

t h e p u rsu it of his in te re sti n g art .
”
P ota ssa an d sod a soap s ,
says Liebig are readily ,
solu ble i n hot wate r an d alcohol The addition of a .
qu an tity of water to th e aqu eou s solu tion prod u ce s prec i pi

t atie n, t h e n eu tral salts of s te aric an d m argaric acid
d eco mposin g in to free alkali , which rem ain s i n solu tio n ,
an d ste arate an d m argarate of t h e alk ali potash or sod a )

( ,
which pre cipitates i n t h e form of p early crystallin e sc ale s .
P otassa soaps are m ore sol u ble i n water than those c on

tain in g soda Stearate of soda m ay be con sider ed as th e
.
typ e of h ard soaps an d wh en i n con tact with ten tim es as

,
m u ch wat e r it u n dergo e s n o strikin g chan ge Ste arate of .
potassa for ms a thick paste with t h e sam e q u an tity of

wa te r . Oleate of soda is sol u ble i n t en part s of wate r ,
while ole ate of potassa dissolve s i n fo u r parts of wat er ,
fo rm in g a gelatin ou s m ass with t wo parts an d posse ss e s ,
s u ch a stro n g affi n ity for water th at 1 00 parts abso rb 1 62

parts i n a moist atmosph ere M a rgaric acid acts like
.
stearic acid F rom this it follo ws that soaps are so ft i n

.
proportio n to t h e oleates an d ha rd i n proportion to t h e

,
stearate s an d margare tes th ey co n tain Soda soap exhibits

, .
a p ecu liar b ehavio u r with c o m mo n salt ; it loses t h e po we r

of be i n g p en etrated by l ey or dissolvin g i n a sol u tion of
s alt of a certain stren g t h an d this remarkable action is an

,
im por tan t con dition i n its m an u factu re on which depen ds ,
t h e s eparation of all fr ee alk ali an d oxide of glyc e ryl

( glyc e r i n e,) i ts
p e rc e n tag e o f w at e r a n d, its m ark e t ab l e
co n di t io n
.
12 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G .
Th e addition of sal t or a sol u tio n th er eo f, to a con

,
cen t ra ted alkali n e sol u tion of soap i n wate r, precipitates
th e soa i n gelatin ou s flocc u l aa, an d t h e m ix t u re be have s

ly
precise lik e solid soap boiled with a dilu te solu tion of
r
salt C arbon ated an d cau stic potassa act exactly like salt,
.
by separati n soap fro m t h e alkalin e fl u id (l ey ) i n which

i t is absol u te y in solu ble .
These observation s, so carefu lly made an d clearly ex

pl ai n ed, can n ot fail to be of t h e greate st valu e to t h e
m an u fact u rer of a comm ercial article so im portan t as soap ,
a n d which , at t h e pre s en t day , is m ad e fro m s u ch a gre a t
v ariety of fatty m aterials, each requ i rin g a differen t treat

m en t for its skil fu l a n d e con omical con version in to soap .
C on tin u in g h i s observation s, Li ebig says, Th e applicatio n

of t h e abov e to t h e m an u fact u r e of soap is e vide n t Th e .
fat is kept boili n g i n an alkali n e l ey u n til all pasty m att ers

disappear, bu t th e l ey shou ld have on ly a cer tain stren gth ,
so that th e soap m ay be p erfectly dissolv ed i n it Thu s .
tallo w may be boiled for days i n a cau stic potassa l ey of

t h e sp ecific gravity of withou t sapon ifyin g If th e
.
l ey be stron ger , a partial sapon i fi cat i on take s place , bu t ,

b e in g solu ble i n th e fl u id, it floats u pon th e s u rfa ce as a
solid m a ss . By t h e gradu al additio n of wa te r an d con
c ertain poin t th e m as s become s thick
a n d cla mm y , a n d with m or e wat e r a kin d of emu lsio n is
form ed, which con tin u ed h eatin g r en ders p erfectly clea r

a n d t ran sparen t i f a s u f fi cien t q u an tity of alkali be pre s en t .
I n this stat e it m ay be dra wn i n to lo n g threads, which o n

coolin g e it h er r emai n tran sp aren t, or are m ore m ilky an d
gelati n ou s A s lon g as th e hot m ass, when it drOps from
.
a sp at u la, exhibits clo u di n ess or opalescen c e, th e boilin g

is con ti n u ed or fresh alkali added Wh e n excess of
.
a lka li is pres en t t h e clo u din ess aris es fro m i m pe rfec t
sa on i fi cat i on or in s u ffi ci en cy of wate r : t h e for m e r i s

'
p
seen by dissolvi n g a littl e i n p u re wa te r , which be co m e s
e r fe c t ly clear when th e whol e is sa on i fi ed I f t h e le
p p .
y
con tain s li m e t h e m ixtu re is also clo u ded, bu t th e addition
of c arbon a t ed alkali in stan tly c l ari fi e s it .
I n order to s eparate th e soap fro m water, free alkali,

S A P ON IF I CA T]ON E X P L A IN E D . r3
an d oxide of glyc ery l a large qu an t i t of salt is gradu ally

,
added to th e boilin g m ass on each dition waiti n g u n til

,
it is dissolved Th e fi rst addition in creas es t h e con sist en cy

.
of t h e m ass whil e each s u cc e ssiv e po rtio n ren de rs it m or e

,
fl u id till it loses its threadin g characte r an d drops from

, ,
t h e spat u la i n short thick l u m ps

, A s soon as t h e con ge .
—
lation is com plete that is when th e gelatin o u s floccu l ae
,
—
separate from a clear watery liqu id t h e fi re is extin gu ish ed ,
t h e soap allo wed to collec t on t h e s u rfac e an d co ol e d eith e r ,
on t h e liqu id or ladle d ou t an d allo wed to soli di fy In .
t h e form e r cas e it is im p u re fro m wate r free alkali es , ,
or oth er i mpu rities of t h e l ey an d is th erefore u n fit for ,
t h e m ark et altho u gh su ffi ci en tly good for do mestic u se

, .
A s i n oth er ch em ical op eration s a precipitate is p u rifi e d

by boilin g it i n a fl u id i n which it is n ot solu ble so is ,
soap pu rified by a solu ti o n of salt ren dered alkalin e .
W h en th e sapon i fi ed flu id is m ade with potassa t h e ,
salt (chloride of sodi u m ) ope rates i n a t wo fold man n e r : it -
dissolve s i n th e pasty liqu id an d decomposes formi n g on ,
t h e on e han d chloride of potassiu m an d on th e oth er soda ,
soap Wh en potash l ey is em ployed i n soap m akin g t h e

.
-
,
fi rst saltin g r equ ires m ore than t wic e t h e qu an tity of

salt. I n t h e preparation of potash soaps a con cen trate d ,
potassa l ey is employe d for s eparatin g t h e soap Th e .
sapon i fi cat i on of fats is n ot co m pl eted by t h e first treat

m e n t with leys an d t h e su bse qu en t addition of fresh
,
leys b esides p u rifyin g also ren ders sapon i fi cati on m ore

, ,
”
perfect .
I t m u st be obviou s on p eru sin g t h e above rem arks of

,
t h e great G erm an ch em ist that t h e fi rst du ty of t h e soap

,
m ake r is to m ake him se lf thoro u ghly co n ve rsan t with t h e

-
ri n ci l es of sa on i fi cat i on an d n ot t o r ely sol ely u on

p p
hi s own observation Th e soap boiler be h e ever so s i l
,
-
—
.
,
—
.
ful an d ob serva n t an d th er e e m an y s u ch sho u ld avail

ar
him sel f of su ch i mportan t in form ati on as is con veyed i n

t h e above l u cid an d practical obs e rvation s .
I t will be s een that t h e com bin ation of alkali with fatty

matte r is n ot by an y m ean s a rapid proc ess bu t is t h e ,
res u lt of slo w an d grad u al ch e m ica l action du ri n w hich

g ,
14 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K I N G .
con siderable h eat is gen erated over an d above th e actu a l

t em peratu re of t h e m ate rials wh en placed i n con tact .
A lthou gh sapon i fi cat i on is hasten ed by th e proc e ss o f

boilin g it is n ot advisable to apply vigoro u s boilin g i n
,
t h e earli e r stage s of t h e op eration On t h e co n trary it i s.

,
fou n d b etter i n practic e to allo w th e boilin g to be gen tle

at fi rst an d to in crease its rapidity to ward t h e close of t h e
,
operatio n or wh en t h e materi als have a bsorb ed th eir fu ll

,
p erc en t age of alkali .
A lthou gh it is practic all y i m po ssibl e to m ak e soap wi tho u t

lib eratin glyce rin e gen erally to t h e exten t of 5 per c en t
this solu g
.
,
l e su bstan ce m ay be recov e red as a v alu abl e by ,
produ ct by eith er of th e processes h ereafte r described Th

, .
prope r stren gth of leys th eir gradu al co mbi n ati on wi t h

,
t h e variou s fatty bodie s wi t h which th ey co m e i n co n tact ,
an d t h e slo w a n d gen tl e a u gm en ta tion of t h e boil i n g
op eration while sapon i fi cati on is progressin g are i m ,
portan t con sideration s u pon which too m u ch care can n ot

,
be besto wed In deed it is grati fyi n g to kn o w that of

.
,
late years so m e of ou r leadin g soap m akers hav e devot ed -
m u ch att en tion to alkali metry an d t h e treatm en t of ,
v ario u s fats a n d oils with alkalin e l eys of appropriat e
stren gth accordi n g to t h e n atu re of t h e fatty m atte r to

,
be u s ed Th e exam in atio n by an alysis of sam ples fro m

.
, ,
vari ou s boils of soap en abl es t h e m an u factu re r n ot on ly

to re gu late his m ode of workin g bu t also to dete rm i n e ,
t h e in trin si c val u e so to speak of his produ ction s

, ,
.
”
I n m akin g wh a t are call ed fitted soaps th e in gre ,
di en t s are boiled in to a thi n liqu id m ass or em u lsio n , ,
d u rin g t h e fi rst Op eratio n a fter which a s eco n d dos e of

,
l ey as also a con siderabl e qu an tity of co mm on salt , are

,
in trodu ced in to t h e pan for t h e pu rpose of c u ttin g t h e

”
a s it is t e r m ed by which t h e soap s eparat es from
p a n , ,
t h e l ey an d sal t an d rises to t h e su rfac e while m ost of t h e

, ,
i m p u riti e s an d foreign m atters su bside with t h e l ey If .
t h e m at eri als are n ot su ffici en tly sapon i fi ed an d p u rifi ed ,
t h e l ey is p u m p e d ou t an d fresh l ey i n trod u c ed with ,

”
fu rth er boilin g , an d t h e m ass is again cu t or separated , ,
by th e addi tion of weaker l ey an d salt, th e operation

SA P ON IFI CA TI ON E X P LA IN ED . (5
bei n g repeated i f n ec essary Th e application of co m m o n

.
salt n ot on ly prom otes t h e s eparatio n of t h e sapon i fi ed or

sem i sapon i fi ed m atters fro m existi n g i mp u riti e s an d t h e
-
e xha u ste d alkali n e l ey bu t it also by its den sity fa cili

, , ,
tate s th e ir su bsiden ce M oreover t h e presen ce of salt i n

.
t h e l ey do u btl ess en ables it to acqu ire a high e r te m pe ra

tu re du ri n g th e su bs eq u en t boilin gs an d th u s h aste n s t h e
,
e va oration of wat er from th e sapon i fi ed mat eri als

p .
C H AP TER I I .
—
TH E S OA P F A OT OR Y I TS A P P A RA T US A ND
Th e S oap-P an s M orfi t s S t eam S eri es Ley T ank s F ram es

’
. . . .
W ooden F ram es .
— I r on F ram es — .Cru t ch es — S team C ru t ch
. .
V ari ou s oth er I mpl emen t s — Barri n g A pparat u s

. .
WH E N we co n sider t h e m agn it u de of t h e op eration s con

n ect ed with t h e art of soap m a kin g , an d t h e large q u an ti
-
ti es of soap an n u ally produ c ed by ou r n u m erou s m an u fac

t u rere, we can n ot h elp reflectin g u pon t h e com parative
si mplicity of t h e apparatu s an d u ten sils em ployed at an
ordin ary soap works A series of n on pan s or coppe rs,
-
.
se t i n brick work , with fi re grat e b elo w, or steam pip e s -
passin g in to t h e i n te rior of each pan , a se ri es of wooden

or cast iro n fram es to rec eive t h e fin ish ed soap s u n dry
-
pails or b u ckets, shov els an d trowels iro n p u mps an d

sh oots for removin g waste or sp en t leys a fe w
hydro m eters an d th erm om ete rs tan ks for preparin g
cau stic alkali ; wh eelbarrows an d trolli es for co n veyin g
m ate rials s wi mmers an d ladles of variou s ki n ds
’’
cru tch es an d stirrers ; a wooden m achin e for c u tti n g

soap i n to bars , with t h e u s u al firi n g tools, form t h e chi ef
r equ irem en ts of an ordin ary soapery .
I n so m e of t h e m ore exten si v e works , ho wev er , m an y

m ech an ical i m prov e m en ts hav e b een i n trodu c ed , whic h
will be r eferre d to i n th e follo win g pages F or t h e presen t.
we will en deavou r to d em o n strat e th e r equ irem en ts of a

soap fa ctory of m oderate di m en sion s , m which advan ta ge
h as b een t ak en of som e u se fu l l ab u r savin g applian c es,
o
-
a s a lso of th e application of st ea m , i n plac e o f fi re, i n t h e
operatio n s of soap boilin g

-
.
A P P A RA T US A N D A PP L IA N CE S . 17
T h e S oa p-P a n s were gen erally m ade o f cast iron , with -

a
flan ge rou n d th e u p ) er s u rface Th ese pan s are con cave
at t h e botto m an dare fi tted with steam pip es which
.
-
,
ter min ate i n a p erforated co i l which rests on t h e botto m

of each p an Th e pan s a re set i n brickwork an d an iro n
.
,
p u mp for re movin g t h e fin ish ed soap an d leys is fixed

b etween each pair of pan s This p u mp is worked by .
steam an d is con n ecte d to t wo m ovable arm s of broad

,
iron t u bin g on e of which rests i n each pan These tu be s

, .
a re rais ed or lo wer e d b m ean s of a chain an d p u lle y so

y ,
that th ey m a be allowed to dip in to t h e soap to a n y

requ ired dept or i n to th e l ey ben eath it Th e p u mp .
can empty t h e co n t en ts of on e or both pans at t h e sa m e

tim e .
Th e pan s proj ect abo u t three feet above t h e floor which ,
en abl e s t h e soap boiler an d his assistan ts to m an ip u late

-
them with p erfe ct case Each pan is fi tted with an iro n .
lid, or wi th a wooden lid co vered with sh eet iron Th e -

.
lids are lowered or raised by a chain an d p u lley .
n or copp er (or as t h e F r en ch an d A m eri

can s t er m i t kettle) is som eti m es m ade of cast iro n i n
, ,
-
,
s everal division s u n ited togethe r by iron c em en t th e lo we r

, ,
p ortion or pan proper b ein g of a con cave for m t h e whole

, , ,
b ein g set i n brickwork which is so con str u cted that t h e ,
fi re plays o n ly u pon t h e lowe r par t of t h e pan a n d n ot ,
u po n its sid e s Soap pan s of large di men sion s are gen e rally
.
-
m ade of wro u ght iron plat e s ri ve t ed tog e th e r

- .
Th e so ap pan is som etime s exte n ded by placi n g what is

-
t erm ed a curb above its u pper ri m which is m ade of sto u t ,
sh eet i ro n or of wood bo u n d with iro n Th e obj ec t of t h e

-
, .
c u rb is to preven t t h e o verflow of t h e soap d u rin g t h e

m ore v igoro u s op eration of boilin g So m eti m es (wh en .
s team h e at is employ ed) sto u t blocks of wood are plac e d

ro u n d t h e flan ge of t h e pan in stead of employin g t h e
c u rb.
M or fi t s S t e a m S er i e s
’
Th e accompan yi n g en gravi n g
.
-
F i
( g ) . 1 r e pr e s en t s a s t e a m s e ri e s d e sig n ed by M r M orfi t . .
A l tho u gh n ot so si mpl e as t h e a rra n ge m en t pr e vio u sly de

scri be d i t i s a n i n gen io u s syste m an d might be adopte d wit h
, ,
C
18 TH E A R T OF S OA P-M A K IN G .
advan tage Th e three pan s represen ted may be employed

.
,
if preferr ed , for boili n g thr ee differen t ki n ds of soa

n am e ly on e for whi t e or c u rd soaps a n oth e r for y e]o w
, ,
or resin soaps an d a third for su p erior soaps W is t h e

, .
boile r t o which t h e m ain pip e or feeder G is con n ected

,
.
Th e boilin g pan s which are of iro n a re each fi tted with a

-
, ,
wooden curb A A h oop ed ro u n d by iron ban ds Th e

,
.
lo wer part of each pan B is of cast iron C on n ected to th e

- .
bottom of t h e pan s is a pipe an d stop cock 1 for drawin g -

,
off t h e sp en t l eys H H is a do wn ward pip e for co n v ey i n g

.
t h e steam to t h e coil which t erm i n at es i n a v ertical len g t h

,
of pipi n g x for t h e e scap e of wast e st e am Th e taps H 1 1 .
are u s ed for t u rn in g t h e steam on or of f A blo wpip e .
L is conn ected t o t h e m ain pipe G This blowp ip e .
t ermin ate s i n a sin gle coil p er forat ed with a n u m ber of

holes Th e obj ect of th e bl o i pe is to give a ddition al
.
h eat wh en n ecessary an d to assi st i n stirrin g u p t h e con

, ,
ten ts of t h e pan Th e t ap P i s u sed for r egu latin g t h e

.
pressu re of steam from t h e boile r w .
Steam jack et pan s e sp eci ally for small op eration s are

-
, ,
very u seful i n a soap factory an d are admi rably su ited for

,
20 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A KIN G .
a great h eight for min g a recep tacle for an en tire boil of

,
m an y ton s of soap . Some ti mes t h e fram es are bou n d

togeth er by lon g
iron screwed rods
which pass do wn
throu gh th em
F i g 3 is a sin gl e
.
wood en fram e , an d
i n F i g 4 s e vera l.
w o o d e n fr a m es
are sho wn con
n e ct ed by th eir
p e gs to each oth e r .
Th e i n te rior width of soapfram es corr espo n ds to t h e

l en gth of a bar of soap an d t h e l en gth of a fra m e is
,
e qu al to t h e thick n e ss of abo u t
twen ty bars of soap .
C ru t c h e s — W h en it is de
.
sirable to add to tru e soap othe r

s u bstan ces for th e p u rpose of
,
ch eap en in g or m odifyin g it for

vario u s special pu rposes t h e ,
addition al m atter is frequ en tl y

i n trod u c ed by bei n g c ru tc h e d
as it is ter med F or this .
p u rpose c e rtain tools calle d

”
cr u t ch e s a re em ployed These .
a re m ad e of wood or iro n or o f ,
iro n with a wooden han dle Two .
for m s of th e se are giv en i n

F igs 5 an d 6
. .
S t e a m C r u t c h — A far m o re
.
e ffe cti v e wa y of m ixin g oth e r

su b stan c es (as silica te of soda
for e xam pl e ) with soap is by
m e an s of t h e st e am cru tch an d
cru tchin g pot by a i d of which a p erfect i n co rporation of
-
,
t h e mat e ri a l s is efle c ted withou t m an u al l abo u r i n a fe w

'
, ,
m in u te s an d t h e so ap th u s treate d is mu ch m ore u n iform

,
A P P A R A T US A N D A P P L IA N CE S . 21
than it is possibl to b com e i f han d cr u tch ed i n th e

e e -
fram e . Th e arran g e men t for stea m cr u tchi n g m ay be

thu s bri efly described
A wood en platform is e recte d abo u t t en feet above t h e
floor of t h e boilin g room n ear t h e soap pan s ; i n t his a -
s mall pan is set for con tai n in g t h e liqu id materials to be

add ed to t h e soap an d which rec eiv e s t h e r equ ired charge
,
o f liq u id for a frame of soap B y t h e side of t his pl atfor m

.
,
a n d co n n e ct e d to a shaft above is a ,
v e rtical revolvin g spin dle fu rn ish e d ,
with s ev eral fla t steel blade s (F i g 7) .
fixe d altern ately an d i n an an gu lar

direc tion This revolvi n g spi n dle or
.
steam cr u tch is raised or lo were d

by m ean s of a rop e an d p u lley W h en .
r equ ire d for u se t h e cru tchin g pot is

,
wh eel e d u p to a n d i m m ediately ben eath

t h e cr u tc h i n g spin dle t h e wh eels of ,
the pot b ein g plac ed i n groov es or

hollo ws i n th e floor Th e pot havin g .
rece i ved a s u pply o f soap t h e q u an ,
ti ty of which h as b ee n d u ly gau ge d by
a n otch ed stick t h e stea m cru tch is
,
lo were d an d sin ks in to t h e soap re

, ,
volvin g with con siderable rapidity .
Th e co n t e n ts of t h e little pan a re n ow allo we d to flow

i n t o t h e pot an d soo n afte r th e requ ired qu an tity h as
,
b een cr u tch ed i n t h e revol vin g sh aft is stopp ed an d th e

, ,
c ru tch raise d ou t of t h e pot which is th en wh eele d ,
a way to m ak e roo m for a s eco n d pot a n d is th en d ra wn ,
u
p clos e to a fra m e an d its co n t e n ts allo we d to po u r o u t
,
by ra is in g a n i ro n g ate sit u a te d n ea r its base Fig 8 . .
r e p re sen ts t h e cr u tch i n g pot with i ts gate A ra is ed by t h e

l eve r B an d at F i g 7 is a drawin g of t h e steam cr u tch
.
,
i n which i t s se ve ra l blade s a r e sho wn Th e b ev el .
wh ee l s a bov e i n dicate its con n ectio n with t h e u s u al

sh a fti n g .
I n s m a l l works wh ere ste am is n ot e xten si v ely

,
e m ploy e d wa ste l e y s are p u mp e d fro m t he s oap pa n s by

,
-
23 TH E A R T OF S OA P -III A K IN G .
i ronhan d pu mps which

-
, are lo wered i n to the pan s by
mean s of a chain or rop e .
V a r i ou s ot h e r I m p l e m en t s
pl oy ed i n t he soap a re em
boili n g depar t m en t ; th ese a re th e tro we l (F i g th e .
”
l adl e s (F igs 1 1 an d . th e swi mm e r (F i g an d .
v ariou s broad shov els an d iro n shoots (F i g the .
41 1 g . 9 .
l atte r bein g u sed I OI ‘

con v ey in g l eys an d soap to an d from
t h e pan s B esides
. these, ho wever wh eelbarrows an d
,
Fig 10
. . Fig 1 1
. .
t rol li es s d for con veyi n g materi als

ar e u e , su ch as ca sks of
fatty m atters r esin an d oth er goo ds
, ,
.
A P P A R A T US A N D A P P L IA N CE S . 23
On e of t h e most importa n t, at t h e sam e ti me mos t

an d
disagreeable operatio n s con n ecte d with a soap works i s that

,
-
of m aki n g t h e ca u stic l e ys This is gen erally co n du c ted i n

.
a bu ildi n g at a co n ven ien t distan ce from th e boili n g room

'
an d i n su ch a sit u ation that t h e li me waste r es u ltin g fro m

-
H g 12 . . Fi g 1 3 . .
th e operation can be readily removed to a par t of the

adjace n t gro u n d wh e re it wil l be ou t of th e way Th e .
soda an d slak ed lim e employe d i n t h e produ c tion of ca u stic

soda are , with t h e n ec essary
addition of water boile d toge,
ther by m ean s of steam an d ,
t h e res u lti n g l ey aft e r s u h si

,
den c e of th e carbon ate of lim e ,
is p u mped ou t or drawn off

i n to ta n ks ready for u se .
B a rri n g A pp ar a t u s .
— The
ordin ary apparatu s em ploy ed
for c u tti n g soap in to bars con
s i sts o f a wood en m achi n e r u n
n i n g u po n wh eels (F i g .
A back of sto u t tim be r pro

s e veral fee t abov e t h e
j e ct s
grooved t able a u pon which

,
t h e slabs of soap are piled ,
an d a re kept i n osi t i on by
t h e u pright back Two men

, Fi g 1 4
, , ,
provided with a l en gth of brass

or steel wire looped at each en d t ak e th eir stan d at th e
,
m achi n e an d first m ark t h e width of t h e bars by m ean s of

,
t h e tooth ed gau gin g st ick (F i g which bein g drawn

.
,
e ven ly down wards marks each slab as a gu ide for t he

,
c u ttin g wire Each ma n n ow t akes on e en d of th e wire

.
,
Fi g 1 5
. .
an d p asses a wooden han dle thro u gh th e l oop Th e wir e i s .
th en plac ed i n th e n otch es m ade by t h e ga u ge an d is th en ,
stea dily drawn do wn ward u n ti l it sin ks in to t h e groove

be n eath On e of t h e m en n ow rem ove s his han dle from
.
t h e loop an d t h e oth er draws t h e wire throu gh t h e groove

,
an d r et u rn s t h e e n d of t h e wire to his m ate t h e sam e ,
operation b ein g r epeated u n til t h e en tire n u mbe r of slabs

a re cu t . Th e bars of soap are the n r em oved an d a fresh ,
batch of slabs place d u pon t h e m achin e B ars of soap are .
u su ally abo u t 1 4 5 i n ch e s lon g by 2} i n ch es th ick a n d ,
23 i n ch es i n width .
I n so m e factori es c u ttin g m achi n es are u sed which will

c u t i n to bars a con sid er abl e n u mb er of slabs at on e ti m e .
This m achin e con sists of stron g woo den fram ework with
wro u ght iron fittin gs an d a s eries of stee l wires fi x ed at
-
,
eq u al dista n c es . A lthou gh this m achin e is capable of

c u tti n g a great n u mb er of b ars by a sin gl e m ovemen t t h e ,
wi res are v e ry li abl e to br eak an d this frequ en tly cau s es

,
dela y while t h e brok en wires are bei n g repl ac ed Th e .
m achin e ho wev e r is a v ery time s avi n g on e wh en i n good

, ,
-
order .
C HA P TER I II .
JIA TE RIA L S US E D IN S GA P MA K IN G -
.
T h e F at. O an d
i l s — Ol i ve-oil — Tal l ow — L ard — P al m- oi l — Cocoa-n u t
. . . .
Oi l Castor -oi l Bon e grease — H orse grease K i t ch en st u fl

'
.
- - - -
. . . .
Ol ei n e or Tall ow Oi l — F i sh oi l s — R esi n — R ecov ered G rease — Th e

. .
A l k a l i es — C a u sti c Soda —P otas h — Si l i cate of S oda — Chi n a Cl ay

. .
. . . . .
S ul ph at e of S oda“
Th e F at s an d Oi l s .
— F rom
p eriod wh en th e p rin th e
c i l e s of sa on i fi ca ti on be gan to be u n de rstood by s oap
p p
m akers t h e e mploym en t of oth er tha n th e ordi n ar soap
,
m ate rials com man ded att en tio n ; an d aided by t e i n ,
v est i ga t i on s of ch em ists t h e m an u factu rers grad u ally ,
a dd ed to the ir list of fatty or sapon i fi abl e m atte rs u n ti l , . , ,
at t h e presen t time an y m aterial that will form soap is

,
worked u p i n so m e way or o t her .
Ol i v e oi l as we h ave sho wn form e d t h e basis of con

-
, ,
t i n en t al soaps prior to t h e art bei n g i n trod u c e d in to

En glan d This oil is expressed fro m t h e fru i t of th e oli ve
.
t ree an d co mes i n to t h e m arket i n three differen t con

,
di ti on s : t h e fi n est or vi rgi n sa la d oi l an i n ferior kin d

,
-
obtain ed by greater pressu re of t h e b er ries with t h e ai d of

boili n g water an d a thi rd qu ality obtain ed by boili n g t h e
,
r esid u u m wi t h water I t is t h e latte r variety whic h i s

.
m or e comm o n l y em ploy ed i n soap m aki n g -

.
W h en oli ve oi l is lo we red to t h e temperat u re of

-
3 8 F ahr it be gin s to con cal an d at 20 it s eparat es i n to

°
.
,
°
t wo dis ti n ct s u bstan c e s e a i ne or Ol ei ne whic h is fl u id

, , , ,
a n d marga ri ne a solid p early s u bstan ce M argarin e is

, .
n ot a tr u e chem ical co m po u n d ho we ver bu t is a , ,
m ixt u re of s teari n e an d pal m iti n e Th e proportio n s .
a r e (abo u t ) 72 per c en t e lai n e an d 28 per c en t m ar .

, .
g a ri n e. O liv e oi l is freq u en tly ad u lte rat e d with p oppy

-
a n d oth e r oils Th ese are disti n gu ish ed by n ot con gealin g

.
at t h e sa me t e mp eratu re as oli ve oi l an d also by ret ai n in g -

,
26 TfI E A R T OF S OA P -M A K H VG .
a i r, wh en shakenreadily than p u re ol ive oil I f

u
p m or
, e -
.
5 per c en t of an y oth e r oil be presen t t h e co n solidatio n is

.
,
slo wer an d l ess fi rm bu t i f 1 2 per cen t of foreign oil be

, .
m ixed with it this floats on th e su rfac e for s eve ral days

, .
Oils of poppy sesam e rapese ed or cocoa n u t m ay be

, , ,
-
th u s recogn ised wh en m ixed with oli ve oil -

.
T a l l ow is chiefly ob tain ed from t h e fat of sh eep an d

ox en th e t allow b ei n g first rendered as it is tech n ically
, ,
—
called that is separated fro m th e m embran ou s m atter with
,
which it is associat e d i n th e form of s u et Th e ren derin g .
of tallo w is accom plish e d i n vario u s wa s by first

y re
du ci n g t h e su et to sm all piece s an d th en pa ssin g a cu rr en t ,
of ste a m thro u gh it by m ean s of p erfo ra t ed pipin g or b

y ,
th e m etho d pat en t ed by th e late M r Ch arle s Watt i n .

,
1 8 36 which co n sists i n addi n g to th e fat while i n th e

, ,
steam i n g t u b dilu te su lph u ric acid to whic h a little n itric

, ,
acid is added an d a sm all qu an tity of bichrom ate of pot

,
ash W he n t h e lu m ps of fat are n early dissolved abou t

.
,
on e pou n d of n itric acid dil u te d with on e qu art of wa t e r , ,
is pou red i n to t h e t u b follo wed shortly afte r by abou t , , ,
t wo o u n c es of alcohol t h e whole b ein g briskly stirre d i n

,
.
Wh en th is process was first in trodu ced for th e operation s ,
of t h e tallo w me lte r it was fou n d that can dl es m ade fro m

-
,
t h e tallow th u s treat ed r equ ire d n o stor i ng as it was t erm ed

, , ,
.
I n those days can dl es wer e frequ en tly store d for s ev eral

m on ths b efore b ein g co n sider ed fit for lightin g p u rpos es .
Th e obj ect of th e proc ess was to destroy t h e tissu es su r

ro u n di n g th e fat which steam alon e did n ot accom plish
,
.
”
Lon don or town tallo w is gen erally con side re d th e
, ,
b est m aterial of its kin d bu t R u ssian Sou th A m erican , , ,
an d i n later ye ars A u st ralian tallo ws e n te r t h e m ark e t

, ,
i n large q u an titie s .
F ats or greas es of variou s ki n d s oth e r than t allo w are , ,
al so largely employed i n soap m akin g -

.
L a r d or t h e fa t of hogs is e xte n si v ely u se d esp eci ally

, , ,
by t h e F ren ch i n t h e m an u factu re of soaps A ccordin g

,
.
to U re it is co mposed o f 62 parts of olei n e an d 38 parts of

steari n e i n 1 00 parts an d its fu sin g poi n t is 8 1 F ah r
,
°
.
P a l m oi l which is stated to be u sed m or e ex ten siv ely

o
,
28 TH E A R T OF S OA P -JIA K IN G .
A m o n g t h e other ve ge tabl e fixed oils u sed i n so ap

m ak i n g m ay be men tion ed t h e oils of h empseed, rap e seed ,
cotto seed, poppy, li n seed, se sam u m, col za, b eech n u t, e tc
n - -
.
B eside s t h e ordin ary fats an d oils, cer tain fa tty m atte rs

called grea ses are mu ch u s ed by soap m ak e rs -
.
B on e-gr eas e is s u ppli ed by bo n e boilers, an d fo rm s a -
u s efu l so ap m at e rial for m ottle d soaps .
H or s e-gr e a s e , althou gh n ot an abu n dan t article is ,
ava il able as a so ap m ate rial .
K i t c h e n s t u fl as pr epare d by t h e stu ff m elters is a

'
- -
. ,
ve ry u sefu l m aterial for m ottled soaps an d is largely u se d ,
by t h e L on don soap m ake rs for this pu rpose B ein g t h e

-
.
rod u c e of kitch en waste it con tai n s m an y di f f r t ki ds

p e en n
of fa tty m atte r , bu t a fte r its s eparatio n fro m t h e m ore
solid particles as gristle rin d bon es fibri n et c by pres

, , , , , .
,
s u re i t forms an u n iform fa tty m ass of good con siste n cy

, ,
an d co n tain s a co n siderabl e propor tio n of st ea ri n e which ,
r e n d ers it well su ited to th e m an u fact u re of a c u rd soap

su c h a s t h e L on do n m ottl ed soap .
O l e i n e or T al l ow oi l wh ich has b een sep arate d fro m

,
-
,
tsa rin e by pressu re i n order that th e latter m ay be u s ed

,
alon e for can dle maki n g is a u sefu l m aterial i n com bin a

-
, ,
tion with stron ger fats .
P i s h oi l s are chi efly u s ed i n t h e m an u fact u r e of so ft or

o
potash soaps i n com b i n ation with tal lo w

,
.
R esi n ,or C ol op h on y was first em ployed as a soa p

,
m ate ria l i n En glan d I t is e xt en sively u sed i n t h e m an u

.
fact u re of y ello w soaps t h e p ale or yello w resi n b ei n g pre

, ,
fe rr ed for this p u rpos e Y ello w r e sin gen erally co n t a i n s a

.
lit tl e water which do es n ot exist i n t h e da rker va ri eties

,
.
R e c ov e r e d gr e a s e or Y or k s h i r e fa t is obt a in e d from
, ,
t h e s u ds an d washi n g wa te rs of t h e fu l l i n g m ills I t is of .
a bro wn colo u r of disagreeable odo u r , an d of a sticky

,
con sisten ce Wh en m elted an d a stron g sol u tion of

.
,
fl
'
ca rbon a te o f so da add e d to it e e r v esc en ce t a k e

, s plac e ,
fro m t h e disen gagem en t of c a rbo n ic acid t h e gre as e con ,
sisti n g of s everal fa tty acids which act powe rfu lly u po n ,
t h e ca rbon at ed alkali
’
W h en n eu tralised a n d m ix ed
.
,
Th i s grease often con tai n s oil s whi ch can n ot be sa p on i fi ed.

M A TER IA L S US E D IN S OA P -M A K IN G . 29
wi t h oth er soaps , th e re covere d greas e is u s efu l i n t h e

m an u factu re of th e ch eap er k i n ds of W i n dsor an d oth e r
sc en ted soaps .
T h e A l k al i e s sed i n th e sapon i fi cat i on of th e variou s

u
fat ty s u bstan c e s em ployed i n soap m an u fac tu re are sod a

a n d pota sh t h e form e r b e in g u s e d i n a c a u stic state i n
, , ,
t h e pr eparation of ba rd soap s an d t h e l a tte r also bein g , ,
cau st i c i sed is u sed for m akin g soft soap s Th e soda

, .
s u ppli ed to soap m akers is an 1 mpu re carbon ate of th a t

-
alkali A s we h a ve said soap was for m erly m ade fro m

.
,
ba r i l l a a cr u d e c arbon a te ofsoda obtain e d by th e c alcin atio n

,
o f c er tain pl a n ts which we r e fo u n d on t h e co a sts ofF ra n c e ,
S pain a n d oth er co u n tri e s ; it was also m a de fro m ke lp

, ,
obtain ed by b u r n i n g a great variety of seaweeds on th e

shores of Scotlan d I relan d B rittan y an d N orm an dy i n
, ,
F ran ce W h en Leblan c ho we ver i n trod u ce d his i n v al u

.
, ,
a bl e proc e ss for co n ve rtin g sea salt first i n to s u l phat e of -

,
soda by treatin g it with su lph u ric acid an d aft erwards ,
i n to carbon ate of soda by calcin in g with fi n e coal an d

chalk th e e mploym e n t of barillas an d k el ps gradu ally
, ,
a n d e v en t u ally e n tire ly c eas e d A n d n ow a fter enjoyin g

,
.
,
a lo n g pe riod of u n bou n ded s u ccess oth er i mproved pro ,
c esses a re fast taki n g t h e pl ac e of Leblan c s process ’

.
F or a l en gthe n e d p e riod a n d in dee d u p to t h e presen t ,
t i m e soap m ak ers we r e acc u sto m e d to p u rchase th eir

,
-
a lka li u n d e r t h e n a m e of soda a sk which u s u ally con tain s ,
a bo u t 5 0 to 5 2 e r c en t of soda t h e e x act p er cen tag e

p .
,
b ein g determ i n e d by p rocesses to be e xplai n ed h erea fter .
S oda ash b eside s othe r i m p u rities u su al l y co n tain s fro m

, ,
2 to 3 per c en t of co mm o n salt . .
C a u s t i c S od a is n ow su ppli e d to soap m ak ers a t a

.
-
reaso n able price con s equ en tly th ey prefe r pu rchasin g this

,
i m portan t article to m akin g the ir own cau stic soda which ,
i n volves n ot on ly c on siderabl e tro u ble an d delay i n its

p rep aratio n bu t also an acc u m u l ation of li m e waste
,
-
,
which is n ot al ways easy to ge t rid of i n large citi e s

a n d to wn s .
Th e a u thor i n conj u n ctio n wi t h M r J B erge r Sp e n c e

, . .
,
ob tai n ed a paten t i n A p ril 1 8 8 2 for makin g ca u stic soda

, , ,
by t h e decom position of comm on salt by electricity an d ,
by this process it is expected that th e cost of m akin g this

impor tan t article of commerce will be greatly redu ced ,
e v e n beyon d t h e pr esen t extre mely l ow pric es .
P ot a s h previo u sly ren dered cau stic by boi lin g with

,
qu ickl im e an d water is u sed i n th e m an u factu re of soft

,
soaps A m erican potash is ho wever chiefly u se d for this

.
, ,
p u rpose .
S i l i cat e of S oda or S ol u bl e Gl a s s as su pplied to th e

, ,
trade i s i n t h e form of a thick viscid tran slu c en t m ass

, , , ,
which flows ve ry slowly from t h e casks i n which it is store d

a fter t h e h eads or b u n gs have b een r em oved I t is pre .
pared by boilin g gro u n d fli n ts (silica ) i n a stron g sol u tio n

o f cau stic soda Wh en di ssolved i n hot water it form s a
.
sol u tion which u n ites with c ertain kin ds of soap v ery

r eadily form in g a ch eapen ed compou n d readily m arket
,
able ; an d sin ce t h e silicate of soda possesses con siderable

d etergen t propertie s its adm ixtu re with gen u in e or pu re
,
s oap giv es an advan tage to th e con s u m er which few soap

adu lteran ts can boast Th e in trodu ction an d m ethod of .
preparation of this i n terestin g article i n to soap is du e to

M r Sh eridan wh o obtain ed a pat en t for his in ven tio n as
.
,
far back as 1 8 38 Sin c e that p eriod ho we ver m an y o th e r

.
, ,
paten ts have b een obtain ed for t h e m an u factu re an d

e m ploym en t of silicate of sod a all m ore or l e ss bas e d u po n ,
Sh eridan s in ven tion S ilicate of soda (or sol u bl e glass ) i s

’
.
n ow comm on ly m ad e by calcin in g tog e th er i n a r e v er ,
beratory fu rn ac e 9 part s of soda ash of 5 0 per c en t with

,
.
1 1 parts of clean san d or po wdered q u art z for h a rd soaps ; ,
or equ al parts of p earlash (previou sly dri ed) an d san d for

soft soaps th e latter m ixtu re form in g silicate of potash
,
.
Afte r p erfect combin ation of t h e alkali with th e si l icio u s

m att er it is cast i n to m o ul ds an d a fter wards qu en ch ed
, ,
with water I t is n ext gr0 u n d i n a m ill an d th en boiled i n

.
,
—
water con tai n in g al kali potash or soda as t h e ca se m ay ,
be . Th e solu tion th u s obtain e d is e vaporate d u n til it i a

di cat es 5 9 by B au m e s areom eter or h y drom et e r In this
’
.
,
co n ditio n it is ready for m ixin g with so aps bu t th e sol u ble ,
la i ll s pli d to oap m ak rs i t h fo r m of a
g ss s ge n era y u
p e s e n e -
M A TE R IA L S US ED IN S O P M A K IN G
A -
.
3 1
thick vi scid m ass which they redu ce with hot water to

, ,
an y r eq u ired str en gth .
C h i n a cl a y or K aol i n is som etim es u s ed as an adu l teran t

, .
i n t h e m an u factu re of som e of t h e ch eaper soaps .
S u l p h a t e of S od a or G l a u b e r s S al t is also exten si vely

’
, ,
u s ed i n co mbi n atio n with soaps of t h e ch eap e r ki n d th e

,
m ixt u re prod u ci n g a soap of c on siderabl e h a rdness, while

r edu cin g its percen tage of fat ty materia l .
C H AP T ER IV .
0 A US TI C L E YS .
Th e L ey T an k s — M eth od of P repari n g th e L e y s
. .
T h e L ey T a n k s large vessels m ade of wrou gh t i ron

a re -
plates riveted togeth er ; i n some fac tori es th ey a re con

str u cted of brick work lin ed wi t h c e men t D u ssa u ce recom .
m en ds large t u n lin ed with sh ee t lead with a p erforat e d ,
fal s e bottom which h e b eli e ves wo u ld be t h e m ost d u rabl e

,
a pparatu s for this p u rpose A cock sho u ld be fi tte d n ear

.
t h e botto m of eac h t u n an d th ro u gh it t h e cl ea r l e y
, ,
coll ectin g i n t h e lower par t of t h e v essel b etween th e

diaphragm an d t h e bottom can be drawn off in to v essels ,
pl aced ben eath N ear th e vat shoul d be a p u m p with its

.
spou t arran ged for a su pply of water .
Th e arran gem en t of l ey tan ks i n a M ars eille s soap work s

is as follo ws
N o 1 is called t h e freslt vat i n to which th e fresh alkal i
.
,
an d lim e are i n trod u c e d ; N o 2 is t e r me d th e a va n ca i re i t

.
,
b ei n g on e step i n advan ce ; N o 3 is t h e sm all a va n ca i re .

,
be in g t wo steps i n advan ce an d th erefore co n tain i n g ,
weaker liqu or an d N o 4 is c alled th e water Vat b ecau s e i t

,
.
,
rec eive s t h e wate r directl y In to N o 3 th e m od erat el y

. .
e xha u st e d or sp en t l eys a re thro wn F ro m No 3 t h e l ey . .
is p um ped i n to No 2 to be stren gth en ed an d i n l ike

.
,
m a nn e r fro m N o 2 to N o 1 . U po n t h e lim e p ast e i n

. .
N o 4 whic h h as been t aken from No 3 wate r is pou red ;

.
,
.
,
t h e l e y th u s obtai n e d is pou red u po n t h e li me p aste of

N o 3 which has been rem ov ed fro m N o 2 N o 3 is
.
,
. . .
t wice lixiviated an d N o 2 o n ce Th e rec eiver u n d er

, . .
N o 1 h as fo u r co m pa rtm en ts ; i n t o N o 1 t h e thi rd l ey
. .
,
an d in to No 4 t h e fo ur th l e w hich is so we ak as t o be
.
y ,
CA 0 5 77 0 L E YS .
33
u sed for lixi v i ation in stead of water Th e li me v at No 4 . .

,
wh en exhau sted is em ptied ou t of t h e wi n dow n ear wh i ch i t

,
stan ds i n which case t h e water is po u red u pon th e co n ten ts

,
of N o 3 an d t h e we ak e st l e y u po n N o 2
.
, N o 1 is n ow . . .
a va n ca i re to No 4 b ec au s e this has b e com e i n i ts tu rn t h e

.
,
f r e ak vat i n to
, w hich t h e f r e sh soda a n d q u ickli m e a re p u t .
Th e l ey disc h arged fro m N o 3 co m e s i n this case u po n .
N o 2 an d a ft e r b e in g run thro u gh it is thro wn u po n

.
, ,
No 1 . .
In som e large factori es th e l ey tan ks are pl ace d i n a

bu ildi n g apart from t h e soap ery an d fro m th en ce t h e l ey ,
i s pu m p e d i n to tan ks situ ated n ear t h e soap — pa n s a v ery ,
clean ly an d con ven ien t arran gem en t .
M e t h od of P r e p ar i n g t h e L ey s — This o cratio n is th u s .
directed by M essrs C harle s Ten n an t an d o t h e exte n

. .
,
sive alkali m an u fact u r e rs of St Rol l ox G lasgo w : .A layer ,
of fr esh bu rn t lim e say fi ve m easu res of 1 1 2 lbs each

, .
.
,
is to be laid equ all y over t h e bo tto m of t h e vat an d a ,
few gallon s of wat e r to be th ro wn u po n t h e lim e u n til i t ,
b e gin s to slake or fall This layer is th en to be covered .
i m m ediat ely wi th 6 c wt of soda ash t h e n ext laye r with .

,
fo u r m easu re s of li m e slaked as be for e t h e fo u rth laye r ,
with t h e sa m e qu an tity of so da ash t h e fi ft h layer wi th ,
li m e as b efore an d t h e last layer with t h e sam e qu a n tity

,
of alkali .
A ft er stan din g t wo hou rs th e vat is to be st an ch ed by ,
filli n g it with water or weak l ey of a form er vat ; this is to

be don e gradu ally After stan din g abo u t fi ft een or si x
.
teen hou rs t he pl u g is to be gen tl y loo sen ed so as to allo w

, ,
t h e l ey to ru n off or t rickl e cle ar a n d cau stic a fter i n fi l t ra

tion thro u gh t h e b eds of lim e This is called t h e fi rst .
r un n i n s
g A s
. soo n as t h e l e y c e as e s to ru n t h e pl u g is to ,
be tight en ed an d t h e v a t agai n fill ed with wate r an d afte r

, ,
sta n di n g a s u f fi ci en t tim e to be ru n do wn as before,

This .
i s t h e second r u nn i ngs an d work e d to ge th e r with t h e first

,
r u n n in gs i n t h e soap pa n is an excel l en t l ey an d works

-
,
fr eer an d be tte r th a n i f u s ed s epar at ely A fter t h e vat is .
r u n dry it is to be t u rn ed ov e r i n to an oth er v a t cov ere d

, ,
wi th water, an d agai n ru n do wn Th i s l ey i s very weak , .
1)
an d is seldom worked i n th e soap pan bein g u s ed in stead of

-
,
water to stan ch or fill u p t h e s t ron g or first set vats

,
As .
soda ash is n ot all equ ally solu ble it is som etim es ,
n ec essary to t u rn t h e con te n ts of t h e vat ove r a s eco n d
tim e i n order to ob tain all t h e fr ee alkali bu t exp erien ce

a n d car e are t h e o n ly s u re g u ides Th e r ec e ive rs for t h e
.
l ey a re g en e rally mu ch sm a lle r vats bu t i t is p re ferabl e to ,
have th em of th e same size it be in g a t all ti m e s d esirable

,
to hav e a su ffi ci en t su pply of stron g cau stic l ey .
S ho u ld th e l ey i n t h e co u rse of t h e proc e ss of boili n g

t h e soap clos e as it is t erm ed with t h e m ate ri als a n d
‘ ’
, , ,
n ot s e p a rate a s mal l q u an tity of co m m o n salt thro wn with

,
care i n to t h e boilin g so ap wil l effect a se pa ration ; bu t this

is al ways to be avoided i f possi ble Th e l ey m ay be taken .
o u t of t h e v a t with a p u m p or sypho n A third r un ni n g .
”
m ay be taken fro m t h e first vat to s ta n ch with .
In orde r to asc ertain wh e th e r t h e soda has be en prop erly

an d fu lly c au st i ci sed a few drops of hydrochl oric acid
,
m riatic acid re add e d to a sm all q u a n tity of t h e l e

( u
) a y ,
a n d i f e fi erv escen ce tak es plac e it is a s u r e in dic a tio n t h a t

'
u n cau sti c i se d carbon a t e of soda is pres en t I n this cas e .
t h e l ey m u st be retu rn ed to t h e l i m e again an d again i f ,
n ec e ss ary u n til it is p erfe ctly c a u stic

,
B oili n g t h e lim e .
a n d soda ash is a m e thod fre q u en tly i f n ot g en e rally , ,
a dopt ed an d in d ee d th er e is n o do u bt th a t it is a s u r e r
,
m e thod of ren derin g alkalies ca u stic than by a cold

process .
A sim ple m e thod of asc e rtain i n g i f th ere be an y

carbon ate of soda rem ain in g i n th e l ey is to pou r a little
of t h e l ey in to clear li m e wate r wh en i f t h e m ixt u re
-
,
ass um es a m ilky appearan c e (fro m t h e form a tio n of

carbon ate of lim e ) it i s proof that u n cau sti ci sed carbon ate
of soda is pre s e n t .
In m ak i n g c au stic soda by steam boili n g fi fty pou n d s ,
of fre sh sl ak e d lim e are r e qu ir e d for ea ch on e h u n dred
po u n ds of soda an d abou t t en to t welve parts of water to

,
ea ch part o f soda I t i s u su a l to slake t h e lim e with hot

.
wate r an d wh e n t h e soda a n d li m e with t h e wa t e r have

,
been pu t in to th e tan k or va t t h e st eam i s t u rn ed on an d

,
C HAP TER V .
M A NUP A OT URE or E A RD s 0 AP S .
Ca sti l e or Ol i v e-oi l S
oap — P u re Ol i v e- oi l
. S oap — Marsei l l es Soap . .
F ren ch M arbl ed S oap — N ot es on M ott l i n g — F ren ch F ormu l as fo r .
S oaps — C omposi t i on of P ur e Ol i ve-oil S oap — L on don mott l ed S oap .
—W h i t e C urd Soap
.
C as t i l e or is con sidered th e typ e of al l

O l i v e-oi l S oa p
hard soaps an d when m ade from pu re ma te rials i s
,
white em olli en t (from emol l i er to so ft en an d is al m os t

,
e n tir ely fr ee fro m odo u r

) ,
It is u n q u est 1on abl y t h e b est

,
k n own soap . Th e co m m ercial article which is also call e d ,
M a rsei l l es soap from its m an u factu re i n F ran c e havi n g

,
been first practised i n that city has a pl easin g mottled or ,
m arbled appearan c e with r ed an d grey v e in s p erm eatin g

its s u bstan ce thro u gho u t a n d which are du e to certain i m
,
p u riti es i n th e alkali or produ c ed artifi cially by th e in tro

,
d u ction of a little s ulpha te of iron (green copp eras ) i n t h e

process of man u factu re which becom es d ecom posed an d
,
con verted in to red oxide (peroxide) o f iron A s form erly .
m ade this soap was exceedin gly h a rd an d brittl e bu t t h e

, ,
i n trodu ction of oth er i n gredien ts as th e oils of h empseed , ,
lin seed an d poppy for e xampl e ren d er th e soap less

, , ,
disagreeably hard while a t t h e sam e ti me redu cin g t h e

,
cost of m an u factu re .
P u r e Ol i v e oi l S oa p or W h i t e C a st i l e S oa p is u sed i n
-
, ,
pharmacy i n th e preparation of lin im en ts plasters an d ,
c erat es an d also i n p i lls I t is m ade from p u re oli ve oil

, .
an d cau stic soda free from colo u re d i m pu riti es .
M a r s e i l l e s S oa p — In t h e m an u fa ctu re of M arse illes

soap for commercial p u rposes great care is e xercised as t o ,
t h e stre n gth of th e leys an d al so t h e proport l on s to be

,
appl ied to a given q u an t ity of olive oil A fter a sen es of .

M A N UFA C T UR E OF IIA P D S OA P S .
37
c areful experimen ts made at M arseil les it was fo u n d that

, ,
t h e fol lo win g were th e prop er proportion s of cau stic soda

an d oil for m aki n g this kin d of soap Each 1 0 0 lbs . .
of oliv e oil requ ire fi fty fo u r po u n ds of cau stic soda l e -

y i
of 3 6 B a u m e for p erfect sapon i fi ea t i on an d this a m ou n t

°
,
of l e r epres en ts abo u t of solid ca u stic soda

y
th e u tm ost amou n t t h at m u st be applie d to e ach 1 00
lbs of th e oil u sed Si n ce this oil ho wev er varie s i n
. .
, ,
t h e proportio n of solid mat ter (m argari n e) which it c on

tain s t h e stren gth of t h e l ey em pl oyed i n th e first opera
,
tion of boilin g m u st be r egu lated accordin gly .
g i L( o r on e co n tai n i n g a l ow p e rc e n tag e o f solid

l ey is redu c ed by wate r u n til a B au me s hydro
’
i n g i n it m arks 1 0 to 1 1 (degrees ) E a oil co tai i g

° °
g g n n n .n
a m u ch lar er ercen tage of sol i d mat ter (as l ard oil , lard
or oth er sg
,
li fat ) t h e str en gth of l ey sho u ld be abo u t

8 or 9 B
° °
.
— T h e r eq u isit e q u an tity of l e i n th e
zrs o p er a t i on y (
proportion s above given ) is to be first ru n i n to t h e pan ,
fillin g it to th e exten t of abo u t on e third of its c apacity -

.
H eat is th en applied by fi re or st eam as t h e cas e m ay be , ,
a n d wh en t h e liq u or co m e s to a boil lbs of oil are , .
added a t on e tim e with con sta n t stirrin g In a v ery shor t .
time a thick m ass of a pasty co n sisten c e is for med by t h e

r eac tio n of t h e hot cau stic al kali u pon t h e oil I f from .
m iscalcu lat io n or oth er circ u m stan c e an exc ess of oil has

, ,
b een added this excess will show itself u pon t h e su rfac e

, ,
wh en an addi t i on al q u an t i t y of l ey m u st be at o n c e appli ed .
On t h e other han d i f in stead of formin g in to a thickish

, ,
paste t h e m ixtu re is v ery thi n this in di cates an excess of ,
l ey an d m ore oil m u st be added by degrees This additio n

,
.
will of co u rs e som ewhat cool th e m ixtu re bu t t h e t e mp era

, , ,
t u re soon rises again an d t h e m ass again boils with con,
si de rabl e frothin g Th e boilin g m u s t be k ep t u p for

.
e ightee n or t wen ty ho u rs .
D u rin g th e boili n g con siderabl e e vaporatio n tak e s plac e

, ,
wh ereby t h e l ey b eco m es stron g er ; it is th erefor e n ecessary ,
wh en t h e pasty con di tion b ecom es thick to add wea k l ey ,
fro m ti m e to tim e sin c e th e paste is n ot sol u ble i n stro n g

,
l ey . P reviou s to th e addition of weak leys howeve r t h e , ,

”
spen t or exhau st ed , l eys are pu mp ed or drawn off Th e
,
.
a dditio n of fre sh l eys is k e pt u p u n til t h e whol e of t h e
fatty m atter is ki l l ed as it is t erm ed (that is n eu tralised)

, , ,
or wh en eve r it is fou n d th at th e l ey has lost its cau sticity ,
which is asc ertain ed by dippi n g t h e tip of t h e fi n ge r i n t h e

l ey an d applyin g it to th e to n g u e Every addition o ffre sh .
l ey is acco mpan i e d by con stan t stirri n g A fte r fou r or fi ve .
chan ges of l ey with con tin u e d boili n g an d stirri n g t h e

, ,
m ass beco m es of an u n i form so apy con sisten c e an d a sm al l ,
portion pressed between th e fi n gers b ecom e s i mm ediately

hard an d flaky .
F requ en tly t h e alk al i fro m which th e leys are m ade

con tain s com m on salt su lph ate of soda an d oth er im p u rities
, , ,
which h av e t h e effect of r e tardin g t h e proc ess of sapon i

fi cat i on by keepin g th e al kali an d fa tty m at ters i n a m or e
or less separated state wh ereas th ey r equ ire to be i n ti
,
m ately associat ed to effe ct a pe rfect ch e m ical u n io n W h en .
i t is fo u n d th erefore th at t h e proc ess is progressin g slo wly

, ,
fro m this cau s e it is c u stom ary to th ro w in to t h e pan a

,
quan tity of soap scraps to aid t h e operation .
W h en th e soap pan s are h eated by fi re it is n ec essary to

-
,
u se e v ery pr e cau tion to pr e v en t t h e b u rn i n g of t h e so a p a t
t h e sid es of t h e pan Sho u ld this occ u r ho we ver th e fi re

.
, ,
m u st be slack en ed an d a sm all qu an tity of s tro n g l ey

,
added with brisk s tirrin g which will par tial ly separat e t h e

, ,
a sty m ass fro m t h e l e brin gin g t h e latte r i n con tact

p y ,
with th e m et al of t h e pan an d th u s pre ven t th e bu rn in g

,
o f t h e s apon ifyin g m atte r .
S econd Op ra ti on
e — Th e oil b ein g n ow com plet ely
n e u tra lis e d with alkali t h e com bi n a t ion i n its pre s en t
,
state also con tain s a large qu an tity of water i n t h e shape

of e xha u ste d or sp e n t l ey To rem ove this m an y su b
.
,
stan ces m ay be em ployed bu t com mon sal t which , ,
an swers t h e p u rpos e adm irably is from its ch eapn ess ,
gen erally em ployed Th e proc ess of separation which is

.
,
”
gen erall y term ed cu ttin g th e p an is effecte d by thro w ,
i n g in to t he p an a co n c en trated solu tion of com mon salt ,
or a fe w shov el fu ls of t h e sam e ea ch porti on b e in g ,

M A N UF A C T UR E OF H A R D S OA P S .
39
allo wed to dissolv e be fo re t h e n ext is added F or con .
ve i n t h e salt t h e tr u ck sho wn i n F i 1 6 is a v e ry con

y g , g .
v en i en t v e hicl e . Wh en s u ffi cien t salt h as b een thro wn i n ,
t he soap s eparat e s from t h e

l eys (which also hold gl y ce
r i n e i n solu tion ) an d coagu
late s i n flakes or gran u lar
clots Th e soap boiler by
.
-
,
freely u si n g his shovel

by repeatedly dippin g i t
i n to t h e boi l i n g m ass an d
-
observin g its con ditio n

c an t ell i n a m o m en t wh en Fi g 1 6 . .
e n o u g h sal t has b e en adde d .
A t this p eriod t h e l ey r u n s cle ar off th e shovel or tro wel ,
leavin g t h e soap i n se parate d lu m ps u pon i ts su rface By .
co n ti n u ed boili n g th e clots ass u me a gran u lar or grain like -
appearan ce i n which con dition t h e soap is said to be

,
”
boile d to a cu rd .If t h e boi l in g be co n tin u ed too lon g
a fte r th is stag e it wi l l by m a ki n g t h e salt ed leys t oo c on
, ,
c en t ra t ed r en d e r t h e c u rd so st i fl that t h e vapo u rs arisi n g

'
from t h e boilin g of t h e liq u or ben eath will wi t h diffi c u lty

m ake th eir e scap e thro u gh t h e m ass .
W h en th e so ap has assu med th e form of grai n s or c u rds ,

—
it is k n o wn tha t all t h e su pe rab u n dan t water th at 1 s i t s ,
u ncombi n ed water— i s separate d fro m it an d at this sta e

, g
t h e fi re is d ra wn or t h e st e am t u rn ed off as t h e cas e m ay ,
be a n d t h e pan is allo we d to repo se for a few ho u rs to

,
en abl e t h e l eys t o d eposit Whe n su ffi cien t time h as

.
b een al l o wed for this t h e leys are drawn off by m ean s of

t h e cock sit u ate d at t h e lo we r part of t h e p an .
Tki rd Op era t i on — This is termed fi n i shi ng tbc soap ,
by which process i t b ec om es clean sed from salin e or

oth e r i mpu riti es which are still loosely attach ed or
, ,
m echan ical ly m ix ed with it an d at t h e sam e t i me an y

, , ,
portion s of t h e fatty i n gredien ts wh ich may n ot h ave been

t horo u gh ly sapon i fi e d u n dergo p e r fe ct co n v e rsi o n
,
i n to
soap . Thi s i m portan t op eratio n is effected by mean s of a
l ey of su ch s tr en gth that i t c an n ot dissolve t h e m ade
40 H I E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G .
soap I t m ay be h e re m en tio n e d th a t al tho u gh soap is

.
so l u ble i n v ery weak leys it is absolu t ely i n sol u ble i r ,
stro n g sol u tio n s of cau stic alkali A l l t h e spen t l ey s .
havi n g been drawn off th e soap i t is n ow gen tly boiled ,
with a l ey of t h e stren gth m a rkin g 1 8 or 20 B to ° °

.
,
which 8 or 1 0 per c en t of salt is added Th e qu an tity

. .
of this sali n e l e m fi
u st be j u st s u f ci e n t to coagu l at e or
y
cl ose t h e soap a n d to pre v en t it from adh e rin g to t h e side s
,
of t h e p an . W hile t h e boilin g gen tly proc eeds t h e so ap

is con stan tly stirred Th e l ey i s n ow allowe d to su bsi de
.
,
wh en it is drawn off a s befo re an d fr e sh l ey add ed u n ti l , ,
after a gain boili n g t h e leys retain th eir cau sticity— wh en

,
sapon i fi cat i on is kn o wn to be co m pl et e A t this p eriod .
t h e boili n g beco mes m or e violen t an d frothy an d t h e ,
soap boile r keeps t h e pan fro m boil in g over by con s tan tly
-
u si n g his shove l with which h e scoops u t h soap nd

, p e a
thro ws it ove r t h e boilin g m ass .
A s soon as t h e soap y i elds a n odou r r esem bli n g viol ets ,
an d is scaly wh en p r e ss ed b et ween t h e fi n g e rs witho u t a d
h e rin g to the m t h e fi n ishi n g proc ess is comple te Th e

,
.
ti me occu pied i n this op eration is fro m eight to t e n ho u rs

i n wi n te r an d from t en to fi fteen ho u rs i n su mm er : t h e
,
len gth of tim e h owever depen ds greatly u pon t h e

, ,
qu an tity of m aterial op erated u po n W h en t h e operatio n .
is co m p l e te th e fi re is withdrawn an d th e so ap is allo we d ,
to rest for a few ho u rs aft er which t h e l ey is again ,
drawn off The fi n ish ed soap is white an d fi rm an d c on

.
,
tai n s fro m 1 6 to 25 per cen t of wa t e r W h en t h e l eys . .
are i mp u re con tain in g salts of i ron an d su l ph u r it

, ,
ass u m es a dark shade owin g to particles of m etallic soap

p erm eati n g th e mass W h en this i spt h e case it m u s t be
.
,
again treated with weak l ey an d v e ry gen tly h ea t ed , ,
wh e n t h e dark colou re d soap which is c all e d n iger or

-
,
n igre be in g m or e d en s e than t h e fi n e soap an d n ot sol u bl e

, ,
i n weak l ey s u bside s,
To facilitate th is th e cove r of t h e
.
p an is lo we red an d t h e soap agai n s u f

,
fe re d to re pos e ,
wh en t h e white soap which form s t h e u pp e r stratu m may

, ,
be l adl ed i n to t h e fram e s .
Ti l e fourt/z Op erati on which is t erm ed mottl i ng or , ,

JI A N UFA C T UR E OF H A RD S OA P S .
4 !
marbli n g, is t h e r esu lt of c ertain reactio n s which occ u r

be tween th e im p u rities of t h e l ey (chiefly i ron , su lph u r,
an d al u m in a ) a n d t h e sapon ac eo u s m att er W h en these
.
i m p u riti es e xist i n con siderabl e qu an tity , th ey give a sl ate

colo u red tin t to t h e soap B y exam i n ation it has b een
.
fo u n d that t h e fatty a cids of t h e soap e xch an g e bas e s

with th e salin e i mp u riti e s, an i n sol u bl e dark colou re d -
a l n mi n oferrngi n ons soap b ein g form ed , which is di f

- fu s ed
throu ghou t t h e m ass, with , also, black su lphu ret of iron .
These b ein g h eld i n s u spen sio n by t h e thick soapy m ass

for m bl u ish v e in s i n t h e white gro u n d, th u s givi n g t h e
soap a m arbl e d app ea ran c e . B y exposu re to t h e a i r, h ow
e ve r, t h e iron sal t s b eco m e oxidis ed , an d acq u ir e a r eddish
h u e from t h e fo rm atio n of peroxid e of iron W hen t h e

.
alkali , from which t h e l eys have b een m ade, co n tain s a

large qu an tity of iron an d su lph u r i mpu rities , t h e soap
b eco m es m ottled withou t an y artifi cial m ean s This b ei n g .
s e ldo m t h e case with th e alkali m an u factu red at t h e pre

s en t day (exc eptin g t h e black ash ) t h e desir ed effect is
prod u ce d by addin g to t h e so ap , a fte r it is fin ish ed or
clarified, an d witho u t separatin g it fro m t h e n iger or n igre,
fo u r ou n c e s of green copperas (s u lphate of iron ) for e ach
1 0 0 lbs of oil i n t h e soap
. Th e i ro n salt is fi rst dis
.
solve d i a weak l e , which is add ed to r en de r t h e paste

y
thi n n ish , an d t h e m ixtu re m u st be cooled gradu ally, so
that t h e colou red soap m ay b ecom e thoro u ghly di ffu sed
throu gh t h e m ass Too m u ch l ey m u st on n o accou n t be
.
added, oth er wise t h e darke r an d h eavie r soap will si n k to

t h e bottom . A gai n , t h e coolin g of t h e soap m u st n ot be
too rapid or th e colou red vei n s will close too m u ch , an d
thu s spoil t h e strike of t h e soap
‘
Th e soap is allowe d to rem ain i n t h e pan to cool a li t tle ,

afte r which it is ladle d in to th e fram es In F ran c e ladl es
.
with p e rforated botto m s are em ployed, so that an y l ey

that m ay rem ain m echan ically m ixed with t h e soap m ay
ru n of.f A fte r e ach fram e is fille d th e soap is well
cr u tch ed to m ake it hom ogen eo u s, an d, i f it be de sired to
a dd wat e r, t h e requ isite qu an tity is well cru tch e d i n
whil e t h e soap is still hot . Th e fra m e s are so meti m es
42 TH E A R T O F S OA P -M A K I N G .
cove red with sacks i n cold weath er so tha t th e soap m ay ,
cool slo wly u pon which mu ch of th e b eau ty of t h e

,
s tri ke or m ottle depen ds .
It has b een asc ertai n ed that three po u n ds of olive oil -
will yield fi ve pou n ds of m arbled M arseill es soap wh ereas ,
t h e sa m e am o u n t of oil will on l y prod u c e fou r po u n ds

fo u r o u n c es of white so ap which prove s th at t h e form er ,
r etain s m ore water i n its compo sition than t h e latter .
F e c
r n h M ar bl e d S oa p
— D u ssa u ce i n his ad mi rabl e ,
”
Treatise on t h e M an u factu re of Soap gives an ela bora te ,
description of t h e man u factu re of m arbled soaps as con ,
d u ete d i n F ran c e fro m which we give t h e follo wi n g

,
e xtra c ts
B esid e s ol ive oil th e earth n u t s esam e lin seed col e

-
,
-
, , ,
se ed an d black garden poppy oils greases ta llo ws e tc

,
-
, , , .
,
a re al so u s e d i n t h e fa bricatio n of m a rbl ed soaps bu t t h e

soap resu ltin g from th ese differen t com bin ation s of oily
a n d fatty m att e rs whil e b ei n g of good q u ality can n ot b e
, ,
compared to those obta in e d by t h e dire ct sapon i fi cati on

of oliv e oil- Th e latt er a re al ways d en ser firm er an d
.
, ,
fi n er .
“
H o wever we m ay r emark that th e m ixt u re of ol iv e
,
oil s with oth er oil s co n tain in g le ss stearin e gives i f n ot , ,
t h e b e st a t leas t t h e fi n es t ki n ds of m arbled soap

, Th ey .
a re also m ore u n ct u o u s an d th e ir c u t is so fte r

, an d
s m ooth er as th ey con tai n less stearate of soda th an thos e
,
—
prepared from olive oil th ey are m ore detersi ve an d
-
,
m o re advan tage o u s for u se .
Th e soda s em ploy ed for th es e soaps are of t wo ki n ds ;

on e , call ed soft soda is t h e m o st alkalin e ; t h e oth er
, ,
c alled sa l ted soda is co mposed of soft soda an d com mo n

,
salt W ell prepare d soft soda o u ght to be free from com

.
-
m on sal t ; it is em ployed to prod u c e t h e p a sti ng i n t h e

fi rst operation Th e sa lted sodas are a m ixtu re of so ft
.
so da an d salt Th e proportion s of salt are from 3 0 to

.
4 0 p er c en t of t h e weight of soda
. Th eir al kalim etric .
degree is fro m 1 8 to 22 p er c en t o f p u re alka li . .
I n c erta in circ u m stan c es salt e d soda can be su bstit u t ed

bv co mm o n s alt ; n ever th el ess i t ou ght to h e r em ark ed ,
44 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G.
off, wh en i ts stren gth is u s u ally from 22 to 25 B F resh ° °

.
wate r is th en added, an d, a fte r m an y ho u rs, is d ra wn

off as before , t h e washi n g bei n g con ti n u e d so lo n g as
”
ca u stic alkal i be presen t .
The preparatio n of salted l ey is i n all r espects sim ilar

to t he p rec edin g, except as r egards i ts form u la, which i s
as follo ws
Cru de soft
da ash at 3 3 to 3 8
-so
° °
sal te d soda at 1 8 t o 20
° °
F resh l i me
The p asti ng operat ion is thu s given — Take
Ol i ve oi l
'
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Ear th -n u t oi l
Bl aCk garden popPY Oi l '
c c c c c c c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Th e sapon i fi cat i on
is effe cted i n a sh eet iron ket tl e hold -
i n g abo u t gallon s in to which from 1 25 to 1 5 0 ,

”
gallon s of so ft l ey at 1 0 or 1 2 B are po u red ,
° °
.
, .
H eat is appli e d a n d wh en boilin g comm en c es t h e oils

, , ,
a re add ed by degree s with co n stan t stirri n g S oon a fter

, .
t h e oils hav e been adde d an d t h e boili n g again starte d a , ,
violen t agitation takes place with con siderable foami n g .
A t this ti me th e m ixt u re swells u p greatly wh en th e h eat ,
m u st be lo wered or t h e m ass wo u ld i n evitably boil ov e r

, .
A ft e r a whil e t h e fo am in g c eas es an d a p erfectly ho m o ,
n eou s m ass of a d u ll whit e colo u r is forme d T h

g e e .
boilin g is con ti n u ed for fo u r or fi ve hou rs By th e shu l l i .
tion th e m ixtu re of t h e m aterials become s more an d m ore

i n ti mate ; it also acqu ires m ore co n sisten cy an d stren gth
by t h e evaporation of th e water fro m t h e l ey ; th en add
25 to 3 0 gallon s of l ey at 1 5 or 1 8 B with stirri n g for
° °
.
,
abou t t en m i n u tes B oil a few ho u rs an d when t h e m i x

.
, ,
t u re h as acqu ired a thicker con sisten cy add to it on e ,
pou n d of green vitriol (su lphate of iron ) pre viou sly dis ,
solved i n a few qu arts of boilin g water B y this additio n .
th e paste which was of a re ddish whit e ass u mes in stan

, ,
tan eou sl y a g reen ish colo u r t h e in ten si t y of whic h ,

M A N UF A C T UR E OF H A R D S OA P S .
45
depen ds u pon t h e d egr ee of su lph u ratio n of th e l ey To .
combin e t h e s u lphate of iron with t h e paste t h e m ixtu r e

is well stirred for a few m in u tes ; u n der t h e actio n of t he
soda, t h e iro n is d ecom posed, form in g an oxide of iron .
Th e ch em ical u n io n of this oxide wi t h t h e s u lph u re t of

sodi u m , wh ich a l ways exi sts i n t h e l eys of cr u de soda ,
prod u c es th e colou rin g prin cipl e of th e m arbli n g of t h e
se a1 3 .
1 hord r to
e in tim ate combin ation of th e fatty
e n u e an s r
m atte rs with t h e l ey an d also t o give a good co n sis te n cy
,
to th e paste from 25 to 3 0 gallon s of so ft l ey at 25 B

,
°
.
a re added grad u ally with co n sta n t stirrin g an d t h e boil

, ,
i n g con tin u ed for se ve ral ho u rs Th e pasti n g op eratio n .

,
as it is term ed gen erally occ u pi es abo u t fi fteen ho u rs

, ,
wh en a p er fe ctly n eu tral so ap is obtai n e d .
The sep a ra ti on of t h e soap is th u s con d u ct ed In .
soap factori es t o prod u c e separa tio n they thro w on th e

, ,
soapy m ass by sm all q u an ti t ie s at a tim e lim pid re

, ,
gen erated leys at 25 to 3 0 B W h en th ese leys can n ot

° °
.
be h ad n ew s alted l eys at 20 to can be u s ed or a

°
, , ,
solu tion of salt at 20 B To obtai n 25 gallon s of salt °

.
sol u tion at 20 1 4 ; lbs of sal t are e mployed W h en t h e

°
. .
sapon i fi ca t i on 1 s co m pl et e an d t h e paste has th e r equ ir e d

,
co n sisten c e it is watered with a su fli ci en t q u an tity of ol d

,
an d salte d l e at 25 to To r e n de r t h e actio n of t h e
°
y
l eys m o re thoro u gh u pon all t h e m olec u l es of soap a large ,
bo ard is placed over t h e kettle on which a m an provided , ,
with a h eat er or cr u tch stan ds to stir th e m ass co n tin u ally

, ,
fro m botto m to top i n s u ch a m an n er that t h e l ey brou ght

,
to t h e su rfac e p en etrate s every portion of t h e soap Th e .
paste n ow separates i n to clots or c u rds a n d i f t h e l ey , ,
r u n s off freely from t h e shov el or trowel it is kn o wn that ,
t h e s ep aration is co mpl et e Th e soap is th en allo we d to .
r est wh en t he l ey slo wly s u bsides A fter a few ho u rs t h e

, .
l ey is dra wn off which co n sists of fro m 1 75 to 1 8 8

,
a llo n s o f l e at 1 7 1 8 B This l a f r b i g
° °
g y or ey t e e n .
,
pass ed over an old resi d u u m of s oda exh au sted by wash

i n g wi th wa t e r i s u se d i n t h e op e ra tion o f m o t tl i n g
, .
Th e n ext operatio n i s c alled cocti on (boilin g) by wh i ch ,

46 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
th e co mpl ete combi n ation of th e oils or fatty m atters with

t h e alk a li is en s u r ed It is this op eratio n also which
.
, ,
g i ves hardn ess an d co n sisten cy t o t h e soap i n creas es ,
i t s den sity an d deprives it of all disa greeabl e odo u rs ,

,
b eside s r en derin g it m ore detergen t .
Th e leys u se d i n this op eration are t e rm e d sa l ted l egs ,
b ei n g a m ixt u re of so ft (n ot cau stic ) soda an d a rtific i al

sa l ted sodas ca u st i ci sed by li m e as b e for e de scribe d ; bu t
, ,
b efore t h e application of this l ey t h e soap is treated

wi t h 8 8 gallo n s of col d soft l eg at 20 to 25 B which
° °
.
,
is thoro u ghly well cr u tch ed i n This has t h e effect of .
s ep arati n g t h e soap i n to flakes which float on t h e l ey .
A fte r st i rri n for half a n ho u r th e cove r is lo we re d to

k eep i n th e cat an d i n abou t fou r hou rs after t h e l ey
, , ,
is d rawn off D u ssau c e says : Som e man u factu re rs for

.
“
t h e first s ervic e u se salted l eys bu t i n our j u dgm en t , , ,
so ft leys a re to be preferred In deed there i s alrea dy .

,
i n th e past e a n e xc e ss of salt du e to th e l eys em ployed,
for t h e s eparation an d as too larg e a q u an tity of salt

, ,
i n terferes with t h e u sefu l action of n ew l eys on t h e

m ol ec u le s of soap it is prop er an d ration al to elim in at e
,
it fro m th e paste as m u ch as possible Th e soft leys .
con tribu te to this resu lt This advan tage is n ot t h e

.
o n ly on e th e l eys of coction u sed i n con siderable qu an

, ,
tities i n th e s eparatio n have set free som e fatty m a tte rs

,
i mp erfectly com bin ed ; t h en t h e so ft leys while pu rify ,
i n g t h e past e fro m t h e exc ess of sal t 1 t con tain s de te r ,
m in e th e i n corporation of t h e oily or fatty su bstan ce s

which had n ot been com bin e d be fore an d cou ld n ot be ,
”
i f sa lte d l eys had b een u se d .
Th e above observation s are of con siderable val u e i n ,
a sm u ch as th ey gu ard t h e soap m ak er again st fallin g -
—
i n to a v ery comm o n e rror t h a t of applyin g salt before
sa p on i fi ca t i on is kn own to be co m ple t e .
Th e first appl icatio n of t h e salte d l ey is giv en a ft er

t h e l ey of t h e last op eratio n has b een drawn off F ro m .
1 0 0 to 1 1 5 gallo n s o f salte d l ey at 25 B are p u t in to

°
.
, ,
t h e pan a n d h eat appl i ed with sti rri n g so soo n as boil

,
i n g commen c es .Th e boilin g is to be con ti n ued u n til

M A N UFA C T UR E OF H A R D S OA P S .
47
t h e l ey c eases to taste cau stic which is gen erally after ,
seven or e ight ho u rs A black foam or fob appears .
on t h e s u rfa c e which o n ly c ea se s wh en t h e m at eri als are

,
comple tely satu rate d wi th alkali Th e h eat is n ow ch ecked .

,
t h e m ass allo we d to r e st for thr ee or fo u r ho u rs a fte r ,
which t h e l ey is dra wn off A secon d do se of 1 1 5 to 1 25 .
gallo n s of salte d l ey is n ow giv en of a stren gth equ al ,
to from 25 to 3 0 B an d t h e boilin g res u m e d an d kept

° °
.
,
u
p for t w e lv e to fi ft e en ho u rs w ith occasio n a l stirri n g , .
A bo u t e ve ry hou r du ri n g t h e fi rst eight or t en ho u rs

, ,
a bo u t 5 g all on s of l e at 28 to are add e d to s u pply

°
y ,
t h e plac e of t h e evaporat e d wa te r an d com pl et e t h e sat u ra

tio n of t h e soap I t is u su ally towards t h e close of this
.
boil that t h e ope ration is complete t h e foam h a vin g dis ,
a pp eare d an d t h e soap is n ow sti f

,
f clean an d dry an d , , ,
fu rro wed by deep chan n els Th e l ey thou gh colo u r ed is

.
, ,
clear an d sho ul d be slightly cau stic to t h e taste I f th es e

, .
co n dition s are n ot fu lfi lled t h e l ey m u s t be drawn off after ,
repose for t wo ho u rs an d 75 gallon s of salted l ey at 28

,
°
or 3 0 B added with fu rth er boilin g for seven or eight

°
.
,
hou rs .
—
M ottl i ng Th e n e xt an d last op eration is term ed mottl i ng .
Th e soap havin g r e sted for an ho u r or t wo t h e last l ey is ,
drawn off an d a pu re l ey at 1 2 to 1 5 B is sprin kle d

° °
.
, , ,
over t h e s u rfac e of t h e soap with con tin u al stirrin g which ,
thu s b ecom e s of a som ewhat softer con sisten ce A weaker .

,
p u re l ey a t 8 to 1 0 B is th en adde d an d well stirred i n

,
° °
.
, ,
wh en t h e soap which u p to this tim e was i n hard gran u

, ,
l ar an d c u rd like l u m ps b ecom es so fter t h e grain s of

,
-
, ,
soap b ei n g m ore plastic an d v iscid Th e operation is n ow .
fi n ish ed by boilin g with leys at 5 or 6 B which are ° °

.
,
grad u ally i n trodu c ed oth erwise th e weaker l ey wo u ld

,
spoil t h e adh esiven ess of t h e soap W h en t h e so ap floats .
on t h e l e i la rg e flak es of a gre en ish colo u r it is kn o wn

y n
that it is ready for t h e fram es .
I f t h e con dition of t h e soap with t h e above treatm en t , ,
is defective it arises fro m on e of t wo cau ses 1 Th e

, . .
additio n of t h e cold leys has coole d t h e so ap too m u ch ;

or 2 t h e soap con tain s an exce ss of sali n e m atters In
, , .
43 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN t ?.
the fi rst cas e th e soap m u st be h eat ed gen tly, an d wh en

t h e l ey is s u ffi cien tly warm , stir well u n til t h e prope r con .
sist en c e is obtain ed I n t h e secon d case, ru n off t h e ley s,

.
an d add fre sh pu re l e y a t 1 0 to 1 2 B , with gen tle boili n g

° °
.
an d stirri n g .
B efore pu ttin g t h e m arbl ed so ap i n to fram es , i t is u su al

to first place a l i t tle wa rm l ey at t h e botto m of each fram e,
to preven t t h e soap from adh e rin g t o it some tim es, also , a
pi ece of can vas is la id ov er t h e botto m of t h e frame with
t h e sam e obj ect . When properly boiled, t h e soap is i n
t h e for m of hard an d s eparate grai n s , t h e en tir e m a ss
h avi n g a bl u ish black colo u r, t h e i n ten sity of whi ch
-
dep en ds u pon t h e qu an tity of m e ta llic so aps p res en t i n

t h e m ass , a n d which are du e to t h e salts of al u m i n a a n d
iron con tai n ed i n t h e l ey These m etallic soaps, du ri n g
.
t h e coolin g of t h e m a ss, s eparate fro m t h e white soap

( w hich for m s t h e
g ro u n d or bas e
) i n irr e g u lar v ein s of
varied colo u r, an d thu s a m arbled appearan c e is obtai n ed,

t h e b ea u ty of which d ep en ds g reatly u pon t h e skil fu l
m an ipu latio n of t h e m ottl er , o : work m an wh o su peri n
te n ds this part of t h e ope ration I t is an i m portan t p oi n t
.
to r un t h e soap i n to t h e fram es wh en th e prop er co n ditio n

for good m ottlin g has be en attai n ed .
N ot e s o M ot t
n l i n g — Th e stro n gest l ey is first i n tro
d uc ed, then t h e m edi u m , an d lastly t h e weak est .
Th e pri n cipal poin ts to be obse rved i n m ot tl i n g are

1 Th e i n trodu ctio n of weak leys i n to t h e paste ; 2 Th e
. .
a pplicatio n of g en tl e h eat t o k ee p t h e m ass i n a fl u id
s t ate ; an d, 3 C o n tin u al stirrin g

. .
Th e preca u tion s to be obs erve d are : 1 N ot to add m or e .
l eys than are n ecessary , so th a t t h e h ea vi er m e tallic soaps

hich h colo u rin g pri n ciple s of t h e m ottlin g ) m a
( w a re t e y
be thoro u gh ly dissem i n at ed thro u gh t h e m ass of white
so ap, a n d u lt i m a tely prod u c e t h e m arbled vein s which are
chara cteristic of t h e so ap 2 Th e t em perat u re of t h e
. .
soap m u s t n ot be too high 3 If too m u ch weak l ey h as

. .
b een applied, this , by thin n i n g t h e m ix tu re, will c a u se

t h e h ea v i e r me t allic so a ps to si n k i n to t h e l eys , an d t h e
soap wi ll be whi te i n stead of bei n g marbl ed 4 If t h e
. .
49
l eys be too stron g , t h e m etallic

soaps will n ot separate
prop erly an d th e en tire m ass will con tai n less than its
,
fu ll proportio n of water thereby en tailin g a loss to th e

,
m an u fact u rer .
A l l circ u m stan ces b ei n g fa vo u rabl e t h e follo win g cha ,
r a ct e ri s t i c s will pres en t th e m s elv e s : t h e fl a ke s of soap
a re separate d fro m eac h oth er an d float on t h e l e th y

,y ; e
a re so ft a n d b u lky of a fi n e gr ee n colo u r a n d of a vi scid

, ,
co n sisten ce Wh en ready for t h e frames t h e grain s are

.
,
plian t an d elastic an d have a tremu lo u s an d gelatin ou s

,
appearan ce . Th e soap m u st n ot be pu t i n to t h e frame s

u n til it has cool e d do wn a littl e
,
t h e prop er t em p e rat u re
bein g b etween 1 5 8 an d °
F r e n c h F or m u l a for S oa p s — Th e followi n g form u l ae

represen t som e of t h e fatt y com bin ation s u sed i n di fferen t
localities i n F ran c e i n t h e m an u factu re of soap
O v e Oi l
'
o o o o o o o o o o o o o c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o
This prod u ces a white, odou rl ess soap .
Bl each ed pal m-oi l .
Oi l of sesame
P rodu c es a v ery hard soap of good qu ality bu t n ot so

, ,
white as th e abov e . I t t u rn s sl i ghtl y y ellow by keepi n g .
This is con smered to form a v e ry good soap , an d s u perior

E
50 THE A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G .
to th at of M arseilles bu t u n fort un ately it h as a fai n t

,
sm ell of tallo w which restricts i ts u se i n domestic

,
”
eco n omy .l
()
Th is formu la m ak es a good wh ite soap bu t th e presen c e ,
of cocoa n u t oil gives t h e soap a disagreeable odo u r

-
,
althou gh it im proves its l ath eri n g prop ertie s .
T h e C om p os i t i on of P u r e Ol i v e oi l S oa p accordi n g to -
,
Ure s an alysis is
’
,
8 0 d3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0
F att y aci ds (ol ei c an d mar gari c) .
W ater an d 0 0 10 111211 8 matter 0 .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Engl i sh i mi ta ti on .
SOda O
O O O O O O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F at ty matt ers
W at er, wi th a l i ttl e col ou ri n g matter
1 00 0
Th e ordin ary c omm erci al M a rseill es soap con tai n s fro m

62 to 65 per c en t of fatty ac ids . .
L on d on M ot t l e d S oa p i s gen erally m ade from m elte d

kitch en stu ff, bon e grease, ch eap tallo w, an d a n y i n ferior
fatty m atte r th at will prove servic eabl e The l eys are .
m ade from cru de soda ash , te rm ed bl a ck a sk, t h e i m pu riti e s

”
i n which giv e t h e m ottl ed or m a rbl e d st rike , for which
”
this vari ety of soap is fam ed Th e goods, as th e fat ty .
m at erials are called , are fi rst pu t i n to t h e p an , wh en t h e

first dose of l ey , at sp gr 1 0 5 0, is ru n i n , a fter which . .
t h e fi re is m ade u p b en e ath t h e p an , an d t h e m at eri als

b ro u ght t o a steady boil To assist t h e com bin atio n of .
t h e fatty su b stan c es with th e l ey , a workm an c o n stan tly

5: TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G .
of m ore stron g l ey u n til afte r lon g boi li n g t h e co mpo u n d

, , ,
h as acq u ired a stro n g alkali n e taste C o mm on salt i s .
n ow again adde d to se parate t h e soap as b efore from t h e
l ey an d t h e boili n g co n ti n u ed for some hou rs i n con t act

,
with t h e cau stic l ey so as to en su re th e p erfe ct sapon i fi

,
catio n of every atom of fatty m aterial .
Soda which con tai n s s u lph u re ts (as th e so called bl a ck -
ash ) is preferred for m aki n g m ottled soaps for r easo n s ,
which hav e b een already expl ain ed M ott l i n g is com .
m on l y practised i n so m e Lon do n soap works by in t rod u ci n g -
i n to t h e n early fi n ish ed soap a certai n q u an tity of stro n g

cr u d e soda l ey thro u gh t h e rose spo u t of a waterin g can -
.
Th e den se s u lph ur etted liqu or i n passin g thro u gh t h e

,
pasty m ass an d l ey gives it a m arbled app earan ce Som e

, .
tim es a smal l qu an tity of a solu tion of P r ussian bl u e is

u s ed for this p u rpos e .
W h en cru de sodas howeve r are u sed i n t h e m an u fac

, ,
tu re of m ottled soap t h e m ottlin g is effected towards t h e

, ,
close of t h e op eration by a m ere m echan ical m ixtu re of

,
t h e dark colou red l ey with t h e soap

- I t is effect e d i n th is
.
way t h e workman breaks t h e paste i n all direction s wit h

his rak e after which h e holds it perp en dic u larly till i t
,
r each es t h e l ey wh en h e raises it vertically with a j erk

, ,
m aki n g it act like t h e pisto n of a p u mp by d oin g which ,
h e l i ft s som e of t h e l ey an d spreads it ov e r t h e s u rfa c e

of t h e p aste . In its su bsequ en t descen t thro u gh t h e
n u m e rou s fi ss u re s an d chan n els of t h e soap , on its wa t
y o
t h e bottom of t h e pan t h e dark colo u r ed l ey i m pre gn at e s
,
-
t h e soapy particl es i n vario u s form s an d de grees th ere by ,
produ cin g vein s or m arkin gs which wh en t h e soap is ,
afterwards cooled give it th e desired m arble l ike app ear

,
-
an ce This operation has al so t h e ad van tage of cooli n g

.
t h e soap i n som e d egree which is n ec essary b efor e i t i s

,
”
u t i n to t h e fra m e s or t h e strik e or m ottli n g wo u ld
p , , ,
n ot be p erfect o wi n g to t h e su p erior d en sity of t h e dark

,
article s which fo rm t h e colou re d v ei n s of t h e soap

p .
W h en m ottled soap is ready for fram in g i t is i n t h e ,
for m of a thick gela t in o u s m a ss i n t ersp ers ed with l eys

, , ,
an d i n this co n di t io n i t is l adle d ou t i n to l ar ge pail s an d

M A N UFA C T UR E OF H A R D s oa p s .
53
ut i n to fram es which are pr e ferabl m ad f wood si c

p , y e o n e ,
t h is m aterial retain s t h e heat lon ger th an iron fram es an d ,
by t h e m ore radu al coolin g a fin er m arble d app earan ce

is obtain ed h en m ottled soap is m ou lded i n cast i ro n
.
-
fram es t h e en ds of t h e bars a re liabl e (fro m rapidity of

,
cooli n g at th e side s of t h e frame s) to have a pl ain whi tish

app earan c e i n st e a d of b e in g m arbl ed
, .
W hi t e C a r d S oa p — Th e fin est q u ality of this soap is

m ade from pu re tallo w ren dered as b e fore stat ed fro m t h e
, , ,
”
s u e t of ox en an d sh eep En glish or to wn tallow a s th e.
, ,
Lon don tallow m elters call i t i n con tradistin ction to t h e ,
produ cts i m ported from R u ssia an d oth er foreign cou n tries ,

was gen erally preferre d u n til t h e i n trod u ctio n of A m erican
a n d A u stralian t allo ws which b ei n g of good q u ality are
, , ,
e qu ally s ervic eable i n th e m an u factu re of this soap .
B eside s tallo w ho we ver oth e r m ate rials as lard bleach e d

, , , ,
pal m oil olive oil or m ixtu re s of th ese i n v aryi n g p ropor

-
,
-
,
t io n s a re u sed i n m a ki n g c u rd soap
, .
To prod u ce on e t on of cu rd soap from 1 0 to 1 4 c wt of ,

.
ta llo w or olive oil are requ ired Th e process of sapon i fi

-
.
cation is t h e same as for m ottled soap e xceptin g th a t th e ,
removal of all colou ri n g m atter an d i m pu riti es of t h e l ey

m u st be effect ed by boilin g t h e soap rep eatedly with fresh
l eys afte r t h e rem oval of each previo u s dos e of l ey or by ,
thin n in g t h e soap with a sm all qu an tity of l ey with gen tle

boilin g an d th en coverin g t h e pan an d allo win g t h e soap
,
to repose for s everal hou rs to allo w t h e leys to s u bside , .
By th u s washin g (as we m ay say ) t h e soap W i th l ey all t h e ,
da rk colou re d i m pu rities are rem oved an d s u bside with

-
,
t h e l eys l e avi n g t h e soap cl ean an d wh en cold white

, , , ,
.
When fi n ished t h e c u rd is ladl e d ou t of th e pan an d pu t

,
i n to t h e fram es which sho u ld be covere d with can vas or

, ,
clean em pty sacks so that th e soap m ay r e tain its heat

, ,
a n d th ere by e n abl e i t to clos e prop erly .
Th e follo wi n g is t h e F r en ch syste m of m akin g t all ow

c u rd or gra in ed soap : to tran sform l bs of tallo w .
i n to g rain or c u r d soap 4 00 l bs of p otash h a ve t o be tak e n

, . .
Th e tal lo w is pl ace d i n t h e k ettl e (pan ) a bou t 40 0 lbs of , .
l ey of 1 0 B added an d t h e fi re kin dle d

°
.
,I n a short ti me .
fro m t h e co mm en c em en t of th e boilin g, th e fi re is k ept

well u p, bu t afte rwards it sho u ld be m ode rat ed A fte r t h e
.
u s u al frothin g, it shou ld be asc ertain e d wh e th e r t h e fat
has combin ed with t h e l ey This is k n o wn by t h e yellow

.
bro wn m ass, which , u n de r gradu al u ph eavin g, con tin u es

qu ietly to boil What adheres to t h e spatu la , wh en dipp ed
.
i n to th e m ass an d withdra wn , has a gelati n o u s, greyish

white appearan ce, wi tho u t s eparation of l ey .When t h e
l ey an d fat are n ot com bi n ed , t h e m ixt u r e m ove s i n th e
k ettl e t o an d fro withou t risin g u p ward, e xc ept n ow a n d
th en , i n isolat ed spots, with a boom in g n oise Wh en th e .
co mbin ation is complete, th er e are added, at short in tervals ,

an d i n fo u r or fi ve portio n s , abo u t lbs of l ey at 1 6 °
.
to 1 7 B Th e boilin g n ow b ecom es den se an d lan g u id,

°
.
a n d t h e m ass appears of yellowish bro wn , an d ru n s off

a -
t h e spatul a i n coh e siv e, lo n g, tran sl u c en t stri n gs , an d t h e

soap boils to a past e I f so m e of t h e soap be dropp ed on
.
glass, an d t he sample, whil e still hot, do es n ot appear per .
fe ctl y cl ear, l ey is still wan ti n g . A sm all qu an tity of l ey

shou ld n ow be added, u n til t h e soap , while hot, app ears
p erfectly clear Wh en this period is r each ed, th e c u ttin g
.
“
of t h e pan b egin s .
Th e salt has h er e a do u bl e p u rpose to fu lfil I t m u st

.
tran sform t h e potash in to a soda so ap , an d also separate

its gly cerin e, su lph u rou s liqu or, l ey , an d im pu rities Th e .
fu ll q u an tity of salt r equ ire d for this pu rpos e is n ot

”
appli e d at o n c e, b u t a r ep eat ed
“
s altin g ou t shou ld be
”
given A fter each salti n g ou t , t h e u n der l ey is sepa
.
rate d fro m t h e so ap , an d t h e latter brou ght i n con tact

with water an d sal t B y boilin g tallo w an d pot ash , wh e n
.
th e m aterials are n ot v ery pu re, t h e saltin g ou t is

u su ally p e rform e d i n thre e op era t io n s . Th e l ey is n ow
rem oved fro m th e soap i n t h e u su al way Th e salt is .
eith e r thrown in to t h e so a p i n t h e dry st at e , or i n sol u tion

of abo u t 20 B
°
. W h en t h e m ass t u rn s white, an d ebu ll i
tio n occ u rs all over th e pan i n p atch es, t h e soap risin g
with co n side rabl e v i go u r , it is kn o wn th a t s u ffi ci en t s alt
h as b een adde d . Th e fro th i n g n ow di sap pea rs Th e
.
b oili n g i s co n tin u ed for a n ho u r lon ger, an d t h e n st opped

M A N UFA C TUR E OF H A R D 55
by e xtin gu ishin g t h e fi re so as to allo w an y i mpu riti es ,
still i n t he m ass to settle .
W h en t h e l ey has b een rem ov ed from th e pan 700 lbs , .
or 8 00 lbs of water with 70 lbs or 8 0 lbs of salt dissolve d

.
, . .
i n it are n ow added an d t h e m ass again brou ght to

, ,
a boil A fter boilin g u p it sho u ld be exam in ed to see

.
,
that t h e c u ttin g of t h e pan has been properly efi ected

'
Th e boilin g is then con tin u ed for som e tim e after whic h ,
t h e m ass is allo wed to r epos e as b efore an d t h e salin e l ey ,
again drawn off A lthou gh th e secon d liqu or an d bo i lin g

.
have g e harden ed t h e soap y et this is n ot s u ffi cien t ; ,
th ereforreatly
a third boilin g with 5 0 lbs to 60 lbs of sal t , . .
dissolv ed i n 700 lbs to 8 00 lbs of water is m ade by . .

, ,
which t h e hardn ess of t h e soap is perfec ted A s soo n a s .
it boil s an d froths u p t h e soap mu st be a s i n exam in ed

to ascertain i f t h e p roportion s of salt an d Icy h av e b een
,
s u ffi cien t If en ou gh sal t has n ot b een added, froth

.
app ears on th e su rface of th e boilin g soap an d th e latte r ,
b u rn s readily In this case m ore salt m u st be added

.
,
u n til it boils u i n re gu lar l u mps of soap If t oo mu ch

p .
salt be presen t t h e soap appears u pon th e spatu l a [trowel]

,
i n a separa te d form t h e l ey ru n n i n g off an d littl e gu tte rs

, ,
formed Th i s fau l t is rem edied by addin g a few b u ckets

‘
.
of wat er If a little portio n of t h e soap be press ed by

.
t h e th u mb i n t h e pal m of t h e han d i t harden s im m e ,
di a tel y ; an d i f on r u bbin g it t h e sample retai n s a coh e sive

, ,
character it p ossesses th e req u ired fi rm n ess an d i s solid ;

, ,
i f on t h e oth e r han d it cr u mbles m ore wate r m u st be

, , ,
added an d i f th e sample spreads or smears a fresh l ey of

, ,
s alt of 1 5 B must be added u n til the proper con dition i s

°
.
r eached .
Th e op eration of cle ar boi l i n an d fi tti n g i s n ex t pu r

su ed t o p erform which on e h a of t h e kettle is covere d
,
-
with wooden plan ks an d a m an fu rn ish ed with a stirre r , ,
or heat er b eats do wn th e m ass so that it doe s n ot ru n

, ,
over B y this Operation t h e soap particles are drawn

.
m ore closely to geth e r i n to glob u lar grain s Th ese grain s .
si n k an d on t h e s u rface of t h e k e ttle app ears a white

,
fl aky froth To pre ven t t h e fal l i n g of t h e m ass great

.
,
h eat is n ow n eeded Th e fi re is briskly kep t u p an d th e

.
,
e n t ire k e ttl e cove r e d with pla n ks an d cloths Th e soap .
n ow boils u w ith co n siderable frothin g d to pr v t

p a n e en ,
it fro m r u n n in g ov er on e of t h e plan ks i s rem oved an d

, ,
t h e foa m is bea t en with a lo n g iro n rod u n til it s u bsides .
Th e k ettle is ag a in closely co ver ed an d t h e boili n g re ,
s u m ed t h e preven tio n of overflo w bei n g agai n reg ulated

,
as befo re .
Th e violen c e of t h e eb u ll i tion grad u ally di m in ish es bu t ,
i n its st e ad a whistli n g n oi se is p e rc e ived i n t h e k e ttle .
On e of t h e plan ks is r e m ov ed fro m tim e to tim e an d t h e ,
soap exam i n ed ; wh en i f large an d p erfectly tra n sl u cen t

,
b u bbles rise u p t h e soap is fi n ish ed an d t h e fi re is th ere

, ,
fore ex ti n gu ish ed Th e wood en plan ks a re n ext rem oved

.
to allo w t h e soap to cool an d a fe w b u ckets of soap l ey ,
a re pou re d i n to t h e k ettl e Th e soap is n ow r eady to be

.
u t i n to t h e fram es an d car e is taken that as littl e l e as

p , y
p ossible en ters th e fram es .
B oilin g with so da l ey presen ts this advan tage that t h e ,
soap m ay be fi n ish ed i n on e water Th e first l ey is applied .
at t h e stren gth of 1 0 to 1 2 B Th e whol e of t h e fa t is

° °
.
plac ed i n t h e k ettle with on e fou rth of th e l ey requ isite

,
-
for sapon i fi cat i on , an d t h e boilin g carrie d on as u su al .
A fte r boilin g u p t h e m ixt u re is e xam in e d t o asc e rta in i f

,
t h e prop er com bin ation has tak en plac e i n which ca se ,
fu rth e r additi on of l ey at 1 6 to 1 8 B i s added Th e ° °

. .
, ,
addi tio n of this l ey is co n tin u ed u n til a sam pl e pl ac ed on

a piec e of glass app ears perfectly clear Th e c u ttin g of .
t h e pan follo ws which rem ov es t h e glyc eri n e l iberat ed , an d

,
th e s u rplu s wat e r I n this case m u ch l ess salt is r eq u ired

.
than wh en boili n g with potash l ey F or each 1 0 0 lbs of . .
fa t 1 0 l bs to 1 2 lbs of salt are re qu ired

. . Th e sal t may .
be appli ed i n t h e dry state or i n sol u tion as preferred , .
Th e rem ain i n g op eratio n s a re co n duc te d as before de

sc rib ed .
Sod a soaps m ade by this process hav e som e advan tages ,
pri n cip ally becau se it is i m possible t o r em ov e al l th e

p otash ; b esides which th ey are gen erally very n e u t ra l
,
an d pl a stic — D ussa uce

. .
III A N UF A C T UR E OF H A R D S OA PS
'
.
57
I t was form erly th e practice i n En glan d to m ake tal lo w

soap with potas h l eys , as a bov e describ e d, an d t h e so ft
so ap th u s produ ce d was con ve rted i n to h ard soap by
addition s of sal t i n s u ffi cien t qu an tity to fu rn ish th e
p roper proportion s of soda by th e r eaction of t h e po tash
with t h e n e u tral salt
. Th e high pric e of potash an d a
,
great r ed u ction i n th e cost of soda h oweve r, ca u sed t h i s

,
s st e m to be ab a n d on e d i n t h is co u n t ry
y .
C H AP TER VI .
M A N UF A CT URE OF H A RD S GA P S
Yel l ow Resi n Soaps — C on ti n en tal M eth od —D unn s Process

’
or . . .
M e i n i ek e s Process
’
.
Y e l l ow or R e si n 8 0 ap s .
— A lthou gh
resin is freely sol u ble
.
i n alkalin e leys it is n ot capabl e of bein g con verte d i n t o

,
soap proper by itself When m ixed with fatty m atters i n

.
variou s proportion s ho weve r it forms a series of soaps

, ,
poss essin g high detergen t po we r an d exceedin gly em ol ,
lien t an d agreeable i n u se A well made resi n so ap is n o .

-
do u bt th e m ost pleasa n t of all soaps for washin g t h e ski n .
P oss essi n g n o body of its el f t h e s mallest proportio n of ,
soun d tallo w which it requ ire s to m ake a hard soap is an

eq u al part I t is seldo m ho weve r that so large a pro
.
, ,
portion of resin is u s ed i n soap Th e p ec u liar odou r of .
r esin is greatly disgu ised by its combin ation with fa tty

m atters an d it has b een state d that ran cid tallo w disgu ise s
,
t h e odou r of resin i n soap m ore than an y oth er de scription

of fat or oil exc ept cocoa n u t oil we m ight add which
,
-
, ,
gives an odo u r to soap that even t h e m os t po werfu l per

fu m es overcome bu t for a ti me an d wh en th ey have ,
e vaporate d t h e ran k an d fro wsy s mell of t h e cocoa n u t

,
-
oil remain s .
Si n c e resin will n ot m ake a soap of itsel f wh en treate d ,
with cau stic l eys it is u s u ally i n trod u c ed in to th e so ap pan s

,
-
wh en t h e o th er goo ds or fa tty m atte rs have u n de rgon e t h e

, ,
roc e ss of sa on i fi ca t i on I n d eed i f t h e r e sin we r e ut

p p .
p ,
i n to t h e an w ith th firs t ch a rge of m at erials t h e c au stic

p e ,
l ey wou ld s ei ze it at on c e an d di ssolve it an d th u s pre ven t ,
th e l e v fro m p erform in g its prop er fu n c tion — tha t of

size , an d in
order to di min i sh its weight wh en full ofsoap , ,
i t i s ra is ed by m ea n s of a rope ru n n i n g i n a p u lley by a
secon d m an while t h e fi rst holds t h e han dle of t h e ladle
, ,
dips it in to th e soap an d gu ides it to th e pail which is ,
rested u pon th e edge of t h e pan an d is carried wh en fu ll ,
to t h e soap frames To haste n th e operatio n of filli n g t h e

.
fra mes s eve ral men each carryi n g his o wn pail are
, , ,
u s u ally occ u pi ed wh en a
“
cl ean se as it is t erm ed is , ,
goin g on In larger factories wh ere t h e application of

.
,
st ea m is e xten siv e t h e fi n ish e d soap is p u mp ed ou t of t h e

,
copp ers i n to wrou ght iro n pots (F i g 8 ) r u n n in g on -

.
wh eels , an d which are also u sed for cru tchin g i n liqu or of

“
vario u s kin ds ; th ese pots bein g wheeled u p to th e fram es , ,
a re e m pt ie d i n to th em or t h e so ap is p u m p e d i n to iron or ,
wooden shoots on e en d of which is sl un g on to t h e p u m p

, ,
while t h e oth er rests on t h e u p p er ed ge of t h e soap

fra m e an d wh en th e fram e is fu ll th e shoot is shi ft ed
, ,
to th e n ext an d so on , .
C l ea n si ng — W h en clean sin g y ello w soaps gr eat c are

.
'
i s n ecessary to avoid r emovi n g with th e fi n er soap t h e , ,
dark colo u red co mpou n d called n iger which form s a

-
,
stratu m between th e leys an d t h e pale soap This dark .
brown soap derives its colou r from t h e re sin an d i mpu ritie s

i n t h e l ey an d altho u gh it possesses all t h e characte ristics
,
o f a good soap is u n salable by i tself as a comm ercial

,
article an d shou ld th erefore be worked u p with oth e r

,
lighter goods i n th e m aki n g of ch eaper so ap s .
A n o th er form u la for y ello w soap is th e follo wi n g

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 2, 000 1b8 .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 600
Th ese bein g pu t in to th e pan from 1 5 0 to 1 75 gallon s ,
of soda l e at 1 0 to 20 B a re ru n i n an d t h e stea m t u rn ed
° °
y .
,
on . When th e materials are m elted th e pan is bro u ght ,
to a boil con stan t stirrin g bein g applie d to pre ven t t h e

,
resi n from adheri n g to t h e bottom a n d sides of t h e pan .
Wh en t h e m ass s wells u p e xce ssively t h e h eat m u st be ,
c h eck ed Th e boilin g is con tin u ed for o n ly abo u t t wo or

.
thr ee ho u rs o wi n g to t h e rapidi ty with which t h e com bi n a

,
M A N UFA C T UR E OF H A R D S OA P S . 6!
tio n of th e materials an d th e alkali is effected Th e s t ea m .
be in g n ow t u rn ed off t h e m ass is allowed to rest for abo u t

,
six ho u rs when t h e spen t l ey is dra wn off an d fresh l ey is

,
then added an d th e boil in g r esu m ed an d con tin u ed for

,
abou t three hou rs Afte r repose for si x hou rs t h e l ey is

.
,
agai n drawn off an d fre sh l ey ru n in t o t h e pan Th e

, .
v ariou s boil in gs with fresh l eys are con tin u ed daily u n til
t h e soap has acqu ired t h e proper co n sis ten c e which is asce r ,
t ai n ed by t h e soap boil e r p re ssin g a sam ple pr evio u sly

-
cooled be tween his fi n er an d th u m b I f t h e soap di vide s .
in to hard flakes it is n i sh ed or n early so ; bu t i f greasy

, , ,
sticky an d soft it requ ires fu rth er boili n g with fresh l ey

, , .
I f t h e soap sam pl e is sa tis factory boil bri skly for a shor t ,
time an d then tu rn off t h e steam an d thro w i n a fe w

, ,
pails of cold water Afte r abo u t t wo hou rs th e l ey is to

.
,
be drawn off a s b efore This b ein g don e six or eight pails

.
,
of wate r are added an d well stirred i n an d t h e boili n g ,
briskly pu rsu ed I f from sam ples taken from t h e p aste

.
t h e l ey r u n s off cl ear more wate r is to be added an d t h e

, ,
boilin g con tin u ed If it do es n ot separate from th e l ey an

.
,
e xc e ss of w ate r is pr e s en t an d a s mall q u a n tity—,abo u t

—
hal f a pailfu l of stron g bri n e m u st be added .
'
—
F i ni s/zzng On e of t h e m ost importan t an d delicate
.
parts of th e ope ration is that offi n i shi ng t h e sea Wh en

t h e soap has be en rop erl y fi tted as above it wi l cli n g to , ,
t h e shov e l or tro we an d have a gelati n o u s textu re This .
bein g t h e case th e soap is prope rly fi n ished Sometimes

, .
,
i n order to give t h e soap a bright yellow colo u r a little ,
raw (t hat is u n bleach ed) pal m oil is added

,
This oil while -
.
,
i m partin g an agreeable odo u r to th e soap is believed to ,
dis n ise i n som e d egree th e n at u ral odou r of t h e resin .
qu ick er process for m akin g yello w soaps than th e

former is p erform ed i n t h e apparatu s kn o wn as P api n s
’
di gester . Th e follo win g giv es t h e propor t io n of goods an d

l ey em ployed i n this process
W h i t e t a l l ow
P al m -oi l
R esi n (p owder e d)
Cau sti c soda l ey at 25 B
°
.
Th e se m ateri als are pu t in to th e P ap i n digester an d ,
boiled for an hou r u n der pre ssu re at t h e t em perat u re o f

25 2 F ah r
°
A t t h e en d of this tim e t h e soap is fin ish ed
.
,
an d is a fte r b ei n g allo wed to cool do wn a lit tl e run i n t o

, ,
th e fram e s .
C on t i n e n t a l M e t h od — Th e F ren ch m e thod of m ak i n g
.
yello w or resin soap i n m an y respects differs fro m ou r

own syste m bu t sin c e it pre sen ts m a n y i n tere sti n g featu re s
,
we give t h e process described by D u ssau ce i n his Trea t i se .
I t will be obs e rv ed that by this m e thod t h e resin i s c on

v erted in to a r esin ou s soap so called before it i s added t o , ,
th e hard soap with which it is to be co mbin e d .
F i rst p rocess — In to a pan holdin g from 625 to 75 0

.
gallon s in trodu ce lbs of tallow which is to be melte d .

,
by t h e aid of heat Wh en melted it is to be sapon i fi ed

.
,
with abo u t 75 gallon s of fresh ca u stic (soda ) l ey at 7 or

°
8 B
°
. While ru n n in g i n th e l ey t h e m ixtur e is to be well ,
stirred A l l th e l ey be in g added t h e h eat is to be au g

.
,
m en t e d an d t h e stirri n g con ti n u e d for t wen ty fi v e or thir t y

,
-
m i n u t es A whi te e m u lsio n is th u s formed t h e l ey an d

.
,
t allo w h avin g p e rfectly co mbin ed an d a ho mogen eo u s ,
paste is t h e r esu lt A n hou r after t h e last l ey has been

.
added t h e boilin g becom es m an ife sted by a t u m u ltu ou s

,
m ove m en t i n t h e m ass an d th e form ation of a v ery ab u n

,
dan t white scu m Th e h eat m u st n ow be m oderated an d

.
,
t h e paste stirre d I f th ese pre ca u tion s are n ot su ffici en t a

.
,
fe w pails of cold water or weak l ey are thro wn i n to t h e

p an .
Wt n th e effe rvesc en c e h as c eased th e foam i n g ,
di m i n ish es an d soo n disapp ears en tirely Th e paste is

, .
n o w ho m og en e o u s an d whit e or of a y ello wish tin t ,

.
C on tin u e to boil g en tly ; by boili n g t h e m ixt u re b eco m e s ,
m o re in ti m at e an d p erfect an d acq u ire s m or e con sist en cy ,
by t h e evapo ration of th e l ey C o n tin u e t h e sapon i fi cat i on .
with l ey s a t 1 5 to 1 8 B which are added i n portio n s of

° °
.
,
6 g allo n s at a tim e e ve ry fi fteen m in u t e s for on e a n d a

h al f ho u r A fte r t h e last a ddition of l ey co n tin u e to boil
.
,
e n tly for a few ho u rs withou t addi n g n e w do ses of l e

y .
y con ti n u i n g t h e boilin g t h e pa ste i s satu rated sl owly ,

M A N UFA C T UR E OF H A R D PS . 63
an d grad u ally with alkali ; it becomes den ser an d fi rmer ,
an d m ay th en r ec ei ve stro n ge r l eys witho u t fe ar of t h e

t allo w separatin g fro m t h e already sapon i fi ed m ass Th ere .
wo u ld be n o dan ger of s eparation i f too stron g leys were

u se d wh e n t h e paste is i m p erfe ctly satu rate d with al kali .
To pre ven t this in con ven ien ce t h e m ass is boiled for a few
,
h o u rs a fte r t h e additio n of t h e l e , Th e obj ect of this

boilin g is to ren der th e u n ion of th e mol ec u les more
in tim ate an d complete .
Th e sapon i fi ea t i on is fi n ish ed by th e add i tio n of

25 gallo n s of n ew l ey at 20 to 25 B which is added
° °
.
, ,
6 gallo n s at a tim e e very ten or fifteen m i n u tes

, Wh en .
a l l t h e l ey is add ed th e ste a m i s tu rn ed OE an d t h e
, ,
m ixt u re stirre d for hal f an ho u r B y co mbin in g with .
t h e stron g l ey t h e paste thicken s an d acqu ires a con sisten cy

,
proportion ate to t h e qu ality of th e tallo w Th e time of .
this operatio n vari es from eight to t en hou rs .
S ep ara ti on is effected with cl ear l eys of coction at 20

°
t o 25 B
°
While t h e l ey is b ein g added gradu al ly t h e
.
,
m ass is kept con stan tly stirred Wh en th e qu an tity ofl ey

.
a dded has b een s u f fi ci en t to effect t h e separation oft h e soap ,
a spon tan eo u s chan ge takes plac e i n th e con dition of t h e

paste which form s i n to sm all grain s in tersp ersed with l ey
, .
t e n t h e s eparatio n is co m pl et e which is k n o wn by th e ,
l ey freely separatin g from t h e soap t h e ope ration is fi n ish ed , .
Th e stir rin g is ho weve r k ept u p for hal f an hou r or lon ge r

, , ,
so that t h e separation m ay be p erfect throu ghou t th e m ass

”
I f leys of coction can n ot be had di ssolve from 5 0 to ,
60 lbs of salt i n abo u t 75 gallo n s of n e w l ey at 1 5 to

°
.
18 B
°
. Th e effect will be t h e sam e bu t th e l eys will con ,
tai n an exc ess of salt Th e em ploymen t of t h e form er is

.
to be preferred wh en ever it is possible to obtain them ;

75 gallo n s of su ch l ey at 20 to 25 B or t h e sam e qu a n
° °
,
.
tity of n ew l ey a fter t h e addition of salt are su ffi ci en t to

, ,
“
t'
L ey s of cocti on , or , as we th em , sal t ed l ey s,
sh o u l d cal l ar e
d t h h t h i d m f da an d l i me l eft i n th e l e v a t s, wh i ch
p a sse r ou g e re s u u o so y
se par a t es a n y fat ty m at ter t h ey con t ai n , an d re n ders t h em cl ea r Th e .
l e y s a re p a ssed repeated l y th rou gh fi l ters wh i ch are ri ch er i n soda , an d

q
t h us ac u i re addi ti on al st re n gth .
64 TH E A R T OF S OA P -
M A K IN G.
ef
fec t th e separation . A fter repose for fi ve or si x ho u rs
,
t h e l ey is dra wn off .
Th e l ey b ein g drawn ofl, pou r i n to th e k ettl e

'
B oi l i ng .
-
75 gall on s of n ew cau stic l ey at 24 or 25 B an d apply

° °
.
h eat W h en t h e boili n g begin s, co n siderable foami n g

.
app ears u pon t h e su rface of th e soap, which disp erses on ly

wh en t h e soap is en tirely boile d If a fter fi v e or si x .
ho u rs con tin u ou s boilin g t h e l ey is still cau stic, it m u st be

’
kep t u p u n til all t he foam disappears If, on t h e other .
han d, t h e l ey has lost all its cau sticity, 75 gallo n s of n ew

l ey at 3 0 B are to be added, a n d t h e boil kept u p for fo u r
°
.
or fi ve ho u rs lon ger .
Th e op eratio n b ei n g fi n ish ed, t h e soap is i n th e form of

very hard white grain s, which, wh en pressed b etwe en t h e
fin gers, are redu ced to scales Th e steam is n ow to be .
t u rn ed off, an d t h e m ass allowed to rest for fou r or fi ve

hou rs, after which th e l ey is d ra wn off, t h e qu an tity of
wh i ch will be abou t 5 0 or 60 gal lon s, an d of a stren gt h
e qu al to 27 or 28 B
° °
.
i ng is eflect ed by r u n n i n g in to th e pan 5 8 gallo n s of

'
h
water, an d h eatin g to t e boilin g poin t, with co n stan t
-
stirrin g Wh en t h e rain s of soap are well melted , an d

.
have th e appearan ce 0 flat particles separated from th e l ey ,

t h e operatio n is fi n ish ed I t i s kn o wn that t h e soap i s
.
separated from t h e l ey wh en by takin g it u p with t h e

shovel th e l ey ru n s off i n a colo u rless stream Th e steam .
is n ow tu rn e d off, or th e fi re drawn , an d t h e pan i s well

covered, aft er which t h e whole is allo wed to r est for s eve n
or eight hou rs A t th e en d of this p eriod th e pan is
.
u n cove r ed, an d t h e l e
y dra wn off T h e soap is th en r e
. a dy
to receive its admixtu re of resin o u s soap, which i s prep ared
as follo ws
P rep a ra ti on of R esi n S oap — P u t i n to a pan , capabl e of
holdin g abou t 3 75 gallon s, 75 gallon s of fresh soda l ey a t
30 B A pply g en tle h ea t, an d wh en th e l ey b egi n s to
°
.
boil thro w i n , e very fi ve or six m in u tes (abou t 1 5 to

20 lbs at a ti me ) ,
. lbs of resin , previou sly redu ced
.
t o a fi n e po wd er an d pass e d thro u gh a coarse si eve Th e .
mi xt ure mu st be well stirre d d u ri n g th e whole ti me t o

5
preve n t th e r esin from clo ggi n g an d adh eri n g to t h e

“
sides of t h e pan I t is i m por t an t to m ode rate t h e h eat as

.
,
t h e r esi n soap h as a g re at t en de n cy to expa n d an d a n ,
exc e ss of h ea t wo u ld c a u se i t to b oil o v e r Th e h ea t .
,
ho we ver m u st be kept u p to n ear th e boili n g poin t oth er

,
-
,
wis e t h e m ass will b e co m e thick a n d of a v e ry da rk colo u r .
W h en kep t at n ea r t h e boili n g poi n t it is al ways p er fec tly -
cl ear an d i ts colou r of a reddis h yello w

,
-
.
I f du rin g t h e b oili n g t h e r esi n so ap ris e s an d thre at en s

to overflo w t h e h ea t m u st be ch ecked an d a fe w p ails of
, ,
cold wate r thro wn i n to t h e pan which a t o n ce h as t h e ,
de sire d effect I t is absol u tely n eces sary to stir th e m ass

.
con tin u ally other wise t h e r esi n will agglo m erate i n m asse s
,
a n d th u s pr e v en t t h e l ey fr o m acti n g free ly u pon it Th e .
sa on i fi ca t i on of lbs of r e si n occ u pi e s abo u t t wo

p .
ho u rs a n d t h e resu ltin g com po u n d is p erfectly fl u id a n d

, ,
free fro m solid p a rticle s Th e soap b ei n g n ow ready it i s

.
,
i n trod u c ed i n to t h e tallo w so ap an d thoro u ghly i n co r ,
p ora ted with it by con stan t stirri n g B e fo re doi n g so .

,
ho we v er it is n ec essa ry to pa ss t h e r esi n so ap th ro u gh a
,
coarse si eve so as to free it fro m piec es of s t ra w woo d

, , ,
an d oth e r lik e i m p u ri t i es with which it is fre q u e n tl y
con tamin ated .
I t is con sid ered a bad plan to k e e p po wde re d r es i n i n

barrels esp ecially i n a wa rm situ ation sin ce it i s liable to
, ,
aggl u ti n ate an d form a m o re or le ss co m pact m ass I t is .
bette r to have t h e resin red u c e d to a po wder o n ly a sh ort

ti m e before u sin g it .
A ft e r b ei n g well m ix ed an d ru n i n to fram e s it is som e

t i me s t h e p ra c t ic e to cr u tch each fram e u n til a p ellicle
(or ski n ) for m s on t h e s u rfa ce a fter which t h e so ap is l e ft ,
to cool Soap th u s m ade is s aid to be fi r m an d sligh t ly

.
alkali n e produ cin g a good lath e r e ven i n se a wat er The

,
-
.
p rod u c e fro m t h e proportion s of m ate ri als give n sho u ld

, ,
be l bs of good soap . Th e colo u r ho we v e r is o f a

.
, ,
very dark bro wn y ello w an d by modi fy i n g t h e p roc ess a

-
, , ,
light e r colo u red so ap i s obtai n ed bu t t h e pro du c e i s l ess

-
,
.
Th e se con d proc e ss i s as follo ws

l ut i nto the pan 250 gallo n s of sOda l ey at 8 or 10 B
’ ° °
P
A ppl y h ea t as u su al , a n d, wh en t h e l ey is warm a dd ,
l bs of whit e tal lo w
. . B oil g en tly for fi ve or six
ho u rs, with occasio n al stir ri n g When p erfect co m bi
.
is eflec ted, an d a h om ogen eou s paste forme d,

'
n atio n
a dd 5 0 gallon s of l e at 1 5 B an d boil to se c u re t h e
°
y , .
t hicken i n g of t h e pas te . N ow fi n ish t h e sapon i fi c at i on

wi t h 3 0 or 4 0 gallo n s of l ey at 20 B , an d s tir we l l for
°
.
half an ho u r Tu rn off t h e stea m an d s eparate t h e soap

.
wi t h leys of coctio n (old leys ) at 20 to 25 B i n t h e sa m e

° °
.
way as be fore .
A fter a few ho u rs re st dra w off t h e l ey an d co n ti n u e

’
t h e boili n g with 1 75 to 200 gallo n s of soda l ey a t 25 B

°
.
I f, a fte r boili n g for eight or t e n ho u rs, t h e l ey is still

ca u stic, an d t h e soap form s thi n hard scale s whe n pre sse d
bet ween t h e fi n gers , fro m 600 to 8 00 l bs of y ello w resi n.
m u st be added, which give s t h e soap a fi n e y ello w colou r,

an d t h e grai n of t h e soap is m ore ho mogen eo u s Th e .
boili n g m u st be c on ti n u ed , an d 75 to 1 0 0 gallo n s of l ey
a t 25 to 28 added , which will co m pl et e t h e sa on i fi c a t i on
° °
p
of t h e r esi n A fter fo u r or fi ve ho u rs boil i n g t h e l ey
’
.
sho u ld still be cau s t ic , wh en it is k n o wn that t h e soap i s
fi n ish ed . A sm all sam pl e, droppe d u po n a cold s u r fac e,

sh ou l d set hard an d fi rm i n a few m i n u tes A ft er t h e .
u s u al repose t h e l ey is ru n of f .
N ow ru n i n to t h e pan fro m 1 0 0 to 1 25 gall on s of l ey at

an d a gai n boil , wi t h con stan t stirrin g, u n til t h e m i x
tu re becomes liqu efied IVh e n all t he grain s are melte d ,

.
form in g a n early ho m ogen eo u s paste , from which t h e l e y ,

ho wever, separate s, t h e operatio n is fi n ish ed ; i f t h e l ey
do e s n ot separa te, an additio n of cl ear old l eys m u st be
m ade to aid t h e s eparatio n . Th e st ea m is n ow to be
t u rn e d off an d t h e lid of t h e pan lo we r ed u pon it A fte r
.
a repose of t wen ty fo u r ho u rs t h e leys, togeth er with all

-
i m p u rities, will have s u bsid ed, l eavin g t h e p u re, fi n ish ed

soa p above, which m a y th e n b e cl e an s e d— that is , p u t i n t o
t h e fram e s — i a t h e u s u al way W h e n a l l t h e soap is i n
.
t h e fram e s i t is to be stirre d u n til cool , a n d i f it be de sire d

to give t h e soap a sligh t p er fu m e, an o u n ce of a n ise oil for
e ve r 1 0 0 l b s o f so ap may be c r u tch ed i n To i m p art to
y . .
S A -M 4K I N G
68 TH E A R T OF O P .
D u rin g th e op eration of th e bl ast t h e soap m u st be

k ept i n wh a t is te ch n ically t erm ed an open or grai n e d
”
sta te , an d for this pu rpose salt or bri n e is to be added
wh e n n ec es sary . Ex e ri en ce proves that it i s be tte r n ot
to m ak e a chan ge of ey d u ri n g th e op erati on of t h e bl ast
wh ere t h e l ey of th e stren g th be for e m en tio n ed is u sed,
bu t i f a weak er l e y is em ploy e d, on e or m o re chan g es m ay
be m ade , as is well u n derstood . I t is fo u n d desirable th at
t h e soap sho u ld be k ept at what is call ed a weak state
du ri n g th e m ovem en t of t h e stream s of air th ro u gh t h e
m aterial s, oth e rwis e t h e soap is apt to s well u p fro m t h e
a i r han gi n g i n t h e grai n , an d this is fo u n d tro u ble som e t o
g et rid of, r equ iri n g lo ng boili n

.
g I f dark colo
-
u re d
m a te rial s are u se d, it is well to k eep t h e bl ast i n op eration

th ree or fou r ho u rs afte r t h e resi n is m elted, provide d t h e
soapy mass is kept weak an d open grain ed When a -
.
charge is to be wo rked u po n t he n igre, su ch n igre shou ld

be grain ed, an d t h e spen t l ey pu mp ed or dra wn off as
u s u al , an d t h e fre sh charge a dd ed i n t h e m a n n e r b e fore
m e n tio n ed , u sin g l ess l ey i n proportion to t h e q u a n tity

an d stren gt h of t h e n ig re , t akin g care n ot to t u r n on t h e
bl as t u n til th ere is su ffi ci en t grease p resen t to make t h e
n igr e we ak .
M e i n i c k e s P r oc e s s r equ i r es th at t h e soap pan shou ld

’
-
be fu rn ish ed with a still h ea d a n d coolin g worm , sin c e t h e

- -
r esin is adde d i n th e form of white tu rpen tin e , which,

d u rin g th e boili n g , gives off its volatile oil as a distillate,
wh ich is co n den se d an d sa ved as a by p rodu ct, an d th u s
-
decreases th e cost of t h e soap . lbs of white tu r

.
p en ti n e are m elted i n th e pan by steam h eat with 8 0 0 lbs .
o f t allo w or i n fe rior fa t , a n d wh en t h e m ixtu re r e ach e s
1 0 8 Fahr it m u st g ra d u ally re c e ive , with con stan t

°
.
s tirri n g, 8 0 0 lbs of c au stic soda l ey con tai n i n g 3 0 per

.
c en t of dry so da Th e u n ion of t h e m aterials is v ery

. .
p rom pt at t h e abov e t empera tu re, t h e acids of t h e resi n

a n d gr eas e b e in g co m pl e te ly n eu t ral is e d an d con ve rte d
i n to l iq u id m elte d soap Th e essen ti al oil of t u rpe n ti n e

.
i s se t free at t h e same ti me, and i n Order to promote i ts

AIA N UF A C T UR E 69
'
OF H A R D S OA P S .
vapori sati on s al t bri n e is adde d Th e h ead b ei n g ca 1 e .
fu l l y lu te d u po n t h e p an an d adj u s ted to t h e worm a n d ,
th e m ixtu re bro u gh t to a boil t h e st eam a n d vapo u r o f ,
t h e spirit beco me u n i ted an d p ass ove r in to t h e w rm an d

o ,
When all t h e e ssen tial oil i s dist illed

.
are co n de n s e d .
m e r t h e rem ai n i n g soap is fi n ish e d 1 n t h e u s u al way

, .
P ractic e sho ws that t h e greatest exc ellen c e 1 n r esin s oap

is n ot ob tai n ed by addin g t h e resi n directly to th e oil or
p aste Th e b est plan is to m ake th e grease an d resin
.
soaps separatel an d th en to m i x th e m i n pro e r p ropor

y p
tion s Th e resi n soap is fi rst prepared by stirri n g 8 0 lbs
. .
o f po wd ere d r esi n a little at a ti m e i n to 1 0 0 lbs of so da

, , .
l ey at 25 B an d boil i n g in to a p erfec t sol u tio n

°
.
,
Th e .
a c id propertie s of re si n r en de r t h e co mbi n atio n e a sy a n d
pro m pt e ven wh en th e l ey is m ade fro m a carbo n a te d

,
alkali Th e resi n o alkalin e solu tion is the n to be wel l

.
-
stir red in to t h e fin ish ed paste m ad e from tallo w while it , ,
is still i n th e an ; bu t its tem peratu re sho u ld n ot be above

° p
1 3 5 to 1 4 0 F ahr oth er wise p erfect ho m ogen e ity of th e
°
.
,
m ixt u r e can n ot be obtain ed In this way 1 5 per c en t of . .
re sin m ay be i n trodu ced witho u t m ate rial l y da rke n in g t h e

colo u r of th e tallow soap M o reover t h e qu ality of t h e .
,
produ ct is good S o metim es se veral per cen t of starch

. .
or bran are u sed to assist t h e co mbi n atio n of t h e t wo

soaps W hen t h e soap m aterials are worked by fi re
.
in ste ad of steam th e boilin g sho u ld be con tin u e d gen tly

u n til t h e paste i s u n i for m t h ro u gho u t an d th en t h e sal t is ,
to be added .
Y ello w or re sin soap m ay be prepare d from c u rd soap

, ,
by addi n g to it abou t 25 p er cen t of resin an d th en .

,
addin g from 2 to 4 per cen t of carbon ate of soda an d 1 .

,
or m ore per ce n t of al u m or su lphate of al u m in a t h e.

,
whol e b ei n g boiled with wa te r u n til a p erfec t co m bin atio n

t ake s place To pre ven t t h e resin fro m be co mi n g preci
.
i a t ed abo u t 2 r c en t of dilu te su l ph u ric acid 1 part

p t ,p e ( .
a cid to 9 parts wate r re stirred in to t h e m ixtu r e

) a .
I t i s wel l k n own th at th e a ddi ti on o f sal t to wat er en abl es t h at l i u i d q

a t ta i n a hi gh er t emperat u re t h an 21 2 F , th e boili n -p oi n t of wa t er
°
to g . .
70 TH E A R T OF S OA P-M A K IN G .
A ccordi n g t o Richardso n an d W at t i t is b ette r t o

sapon i fy t h e re sin an d t allo w separa tely, an d to m i x t h e
t wo soaps i n t h e pan , an d th e n t o boil u n til a p erfect
u n io n takes place Sal t is th en added, an d th e soap
.
fi n ish ed i n t h e ordi n ary way

.
Th e u s u al p roportio n s of pal m oil a n d resi n ar e

-
p arts of t h e form er to 1 p art of t he la t t er

.
C HA PTER VII .
M A N UFA OT UR E OF H A R D S OA P S
Treatmen t of t h e N i gers — A n derson s P r oc e ss — C ocoa n u t Oil Soaps

’
-
. . .
S t u r tev an t s P rocess — F re n ch C ocoa - n u t Oi l Soaps

’
. .
T r e a t m en t f
o N g i e s — In th e m an u fa ctu re llo w or of
r .
y e
“ ”
re sin so aps , t h e m a t e ri als, or g oods ,
boiled over
a re
s u ccessive portio n s of cau stic soda l ey of v ario u s de grees ,
of stren gth or den sity a s b e for e e xplai n ed u n til t h e l a st

, , ,
l eys stil l re tain th eir ca u stici ty a ft er con tin u ed boilin g

with t h e fa tty m atte rs A fte r a fe w ho u rs r epos e t h e l eys
’
.
”
a re dra wn off a n d t h e proc e ss of
,
fitti n g co mm e n c ed “
To accom plish this t h e paste is bro u ght i n to a thi n con

,
ditio n by a ddi n g either very weak leys or wat er an d t h e

, ,
boil i n g r es u m ed u n til th e m ass ass u m e s t h e form of an

,
e m u lsi o n . Th e h eat is th en ch eck ed an d t h e soa p ,
allo we d to r es t for t wo or th re e d ays wh en a da rk ,
colo u red s u bstan ce s u bsi des whi ch is called n iger or n igre

,
.
Th e fi n ish ed soap is th en clea n sed by p u m pin g i t o ff

“
fro m t h e 11 1ger i n to t h e fram es gr ea t c are b ein g t ake n th a t

,
n o n e of t h e dark colo u r e d m a te rial is allo we d to be dra wn

-
off with it .
Th e n iger is u s u a ll y e ith e r work ed u p i n s u bs equ en t

boil s of so ap or co n ver ted i n to an i n te rior qu ality of
y ello w soap accordin g to t h e r equ ire m en ts of t h e soap
,
m a ke r . Th e u tili sa tion of t h e n iger ho we ve r h a s , ,
frequ en tly p ro ve d a so u rc e of tro u bl e to t h e soap m ak er -

,
e sp e cially wh en e m plo y i n g l arge q u an tities of dark

colo u red resi n M r A n derson a well k n o wn L on do n
. .
,
-
soap m ak er t u rn e d his a tten tio n t o this s u bj ect m an y

-
,
e ar s ago n d s u b se u e n tl y obt ai n e d a p t t f o m
y a
, q a en r ,
whic h we e xt ract t h e follo wi n g

72 TH E A R T OF S OA P- M A KIN G .
A n d e r s on ’
s th at when c u rd so ap is
P r oc e s s . I fi nd
b oiled to stre n g th an d su bj e cte d to a fittin g proce ss som e ,
wh a t si m il ar to t h e fitti n g pro ce ss u se d i n m akin g yello w

soap t h e re separ ate s from it a p ec u liar s u bstan ce an al o
,
gou s to t h e n iger of yello w soap an d that by rem ovi n g ,
th i s n ige r an d boili n g t h e rem ai n der of t h e goods i n t o

c u rd soap I obt ai n a c u rd soap of be tt e r qu ali ty than t h e
,
origi n al ch a rge of goods wo u ld yi eld wi tho u t this ope ra

tion I also fi n d t h e n iger which I rem o ve e m i n en t l
ada pted for m akin g m o ttled soap to which p u rpose T
.
, ,
a p ly it a cco rdi n gly

p .
I n c arryin g ou t m y p ro cess I proc e e d i n all r esp e c t s ,
i n t h e m an n e r practise d co m m o n l y by so a p m ak e rs u p -
to a ce rta i n poi n t ; th a t is I pl ac e i n t h e coppe r t h e ,
o rdin a ry m ateri als for m ak i n g cu rd so ap wi th t h e or ,
di n ary l eys an d boil th e m t oge th er u n til t h e goods are to

,
’
"
stre n gth an d ribbo n ou t well on t h e fi n ger ; bu t at
,
’
th i s sta ge i n stead of boili n g ou t t h e h e ad an d fi n ish in g

,
a s h e r e t ofo re p ractis ed I co m m en c e t h e p e rfo rm an c e o f

,
m y p roc ess I p u m p ou t t h e stro n g l e y 0 11 which t h e

.
,
goods ha ve been boil ed an d t reat t h e goods with su cce ssive ,
po rtio n s of wea k l ey or wat e r a n d boil th e m t oge th er ,
u n til t h ey assu m e t h e app earan c e of a fitti n g y ello w

copper This con ditio n bei n g arriv e d at I ste p t h e
.
,
o peratio n a n d allo w tim e for t h e n iger to d eposit whic h

, ,
—
m a y r eq u ir e from t we n ty fo u r to thirty si x ho u rs I n ow - .
p roc eed to s ep a rate t h e n i ge r which I e i th er pu m p ou t ,
fro m u n de r t h e p u rifi e d good s to a n a dj ac e n t coppe r o r I ,
re move t h e p u rifi ed good s from abo ve t h e n i ger t o an

a djac e n t copp er a s I fi n d m o st co n ven i en t ; bu t i n e ith e r
,
c ase t h e goods b ei n g t h u s de prived of th e n ige r I add t o

, ,
th em t h e prop er fi n ishin g l ey for c u rd soap an d boil to a ,
su it abl e c u rd or u n t i l t h e so a p i s fo u n d t o be i n a c on di
,
tio n fo r cl ea n sin g i n to t h e fr am e s .
W hen I op e ra te u p on a ch ar ge of v ery i m p u r e
m at eri a l s or wh e n fro m a n y ci rcu m stan c e I co n sid e r it
,
a n advan t a g e I rep ea t t h e p u ri fy i n g or fi t ti n g p roce ss

,
on e or m or e t i m e s i n which c a se afte r s ep a rati n g t h e

, ,
n i er a s b e fo re I add to t h e r e sidu al p a r t i a l l y p u rifi e d

g , ,
MA N UFA C TUR E OF HA R D S OA P S . 73
goods a l ey of m ode rate stren gth on ly (in stead of th e

fi n ishin g l ey for c u rd soap) an d boil taki n g care that n o ,
he ad is form ed I th en pu mp ou t this l ey an d agai n

.
,
treat t h e goods with weak l ey or wate r u n til su fficien tly

dil u ted so as to pe rform th e fittin g proce ss a ft e r which I
, ,
a llo w tim e for s u bsid e n c e sepa rat e t h e n i ge r add t h e , ,
fi n ishin g l ey an d boil to a c u rd as before

, .
H e n ext d escribe s his m e thod of trea ti n g th e n i ge r an d ,
t h e way i n which h e co n v erts it in to m ottle d soap A fte r .
s eparatin g t h e pu rifi ed soap from t h e n iger as be fore h e , ,
adds to t h e latte r t h e ordi n ary l ey u se d for fi n ishin g

m ottl e d soap an d boils u n til t h e soap is fit for cl ean si n g
, ,
or fra mi n g Th e qu an ti ty of n ige r obta in ed from on e

.
boil ho we ve r is n ot s u ffi ci en t to m ake a boil by its el f ;

, ,
th e refore M r A n de rson t akes t h e n i ger r esu ltin g fro m

.
fou r six or m ore boils of soap an d fi n ishe s th e m i n on e

, , ,
ope ratio n as above So m etim e s h e adds to t h e n igers a

, .
”
c ertai n qu an tity of tall o w fa t bo n e grease m el ted st u ff , , , ,
or oth er s u i t abl e m a t eri al s an d th en proc eeds to fi n ish as ,
with a n ordin ary m ottle d so ap .
C ocoa n u t Oi l S oa p s — On e of t h e m ost i m portan t addi

- .
tio n s t o t h e list of fatty m atte rs s u itable for soap m akin g -
wa s t h e v e ge t able su bsta n c e c a ll e d cocoa n ut oi l or cocoa -
bu tter which fro m its extrem e whiten e ss an d capabi l ity

, ,
o f for m i n g a hard so a p soo n be c a m e a n a cc e pt a ble su b

,
st i t u t e i n som e de gr ee for t h e m ore costly t allo w Soap .
m ade fro m this oi l or ve ge tabl e b u tt e r is capabl e of taki n g

, ,
a larg e r p erc en tag e of wat er — an d stil l for m a h a rd

u
p
— th a n a n oth e r kn o wn fa tty m at e ri al Th e so ap
p y .
m a de from i t m oreo ver is m or e sol u bl e i n sali n e or hard

, ,
— —
wat e rs e ven sea water an d for this r ea so n it has lo n g
-
been m ade i n to a soap call e d M a ri ne S oap for u se on ,
board ship .
C ocoa n u t oil ho we ve r wh e n sapon i fi e d h as t h e great

-
, , ,
di sa dva n ta ge of i m partin g an exceedi n gl v di sa g reeable

o do u r to t h e sk i n a n d e ven to articl es cl e an sed by i t s
a g e n cy ; a n d e ven wh en bu t a s m all p e rc e n t a g e of thi s
s u bs t an ce i s blen ded wi th oth e r so ap m a te ri als its pecu ,
l i a rl y o ffen s i ve odou r wil l re st u po n t h e s u r fac e of t he ski n

74 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A KI N G .
for m an y hou rs after washin g with it Soap m ade fro m .
this oil th ere fore sho u ld n e ve r be i n trod u ced in to toil et

, ,
or fan cy soaps , e ven i n sm all qu an tity exce pt for t h e v ery ,
l ow priced qu aliti es
-
.
C ocoa n u t oil doe s n ot r ea dily sapo n i fy with ca u stic so da

-
leys when by itself bu t wh en added to tallow or pa lm o i l

, , ,
-
,
i t do es so witho u t diffi cu lty When sa pon i fi ed by itsel f .
it forms a soap of al m ost u n u sable hardn ess an d for this ,
r easo n be sides its obj ectio n able odo u r it is al ways a sso

, ,
c i a t ed with oth e r fatty m a te rials wh en e m ploy ed i n t h e
m an u fact u re of soap .
St u r te v a n t s P r oce s s — On e of t h e ea rliest proce sses

’
.
for m akin g soap with cocoa n u t oil as an i n gredien t was -
pat en ted by St u rtevan t i n 1 8 4 1 I t co n sists i n first steam , .
i n g t h e oil i n a wood en vat an d addin g to it 6 lbs of ,

.
s u lphu ric an d 1 2 lbs of hydrochloric acid to each t on of .
oil to rem ove as far as pra cticable its obj ectio n able odo u r
, .
A fte r allo win g th e oil to re st for a while it is dra wn ofl

'
, ,
a n d i s th en r eady for th e soap an

p
-
.
make a W /i i te Cocoa oi l S oap — Th e mat erials are -
tak en i n t he follo wi n g proportion s : lbs of cocoa n u t .

-
o i l e ith e r a s it is i m porte d or re fi n e d as above ; 1 68 l bs

, .
of olive or o t h e r s wee t oil or tallo w ; 3 25 gallon s of so da ,
l ey at 24 B an d 60 gallon s of potash l ey at 20 B
°
.
, Th e °
.
co co a n u t oil ta llo w or oi l as t he case m a y be are fi rst

-
, , , ,
u t i n to t h e an a n d h eat applied A bo u t 1 0 gallo n s of

p p , .
t h e so da l ey is th en added an d wh en t h e wh ol e m ateria l s ,
a re u n ited t h e sam e q u an tity of soda l ey is add ed fro m

,
tim e to ti me wi th co n tin u e d boilin g c are b ei n g tak en th a t

, ,
e a ch portio n of l e
y is w ell co m bi n e d with t h e fa tty m atters
before t h e n ex t is applied A s soon as th e whole of t h e soda .
l ey has been u sed t h e boi l i n g is kept u p for abo u t hal f a n

,
ho u r Th e pota sh l ey is th en added grad u ally as before

.
, , ,
an d wh en t h e whol e u an tity has been u sed t h e boilin g

q ,
is k ept u p for abo u t fi ft een m in u tes aft e r which abo u t ,
8 4 lbs of comm o n salt are spri n kl ed slowly over t h e m ass

.
,
t h i s op era t i on occ u p y i n g a bo u t a q u art e r o f a n ho u r .
Th e boi l i n g is t hen con t in u e d for abo u t h al f a n h ou r a fte r ,

76 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K I N G .
qu an tity v ery weak l ey is th e n added t h e te mp era tu re

of ,
of t h e m ass n ot bei n g allo we d to e xc e ed fro m 1 8 0 to °
1 90 F ah r
°
Th e boili n g sho u ld be co n ti n u ed for ab ou t
.
t wo ho u rs a t t h e en d o f which ti m e t h e l ey will have

,
becom e exhau sted A little weak l ey is th e n added an d

.
,
sal t thro wn i n with stirri n g u n ti l a s am pl e allo wed to

, , ,
cool app ears cle an dry an d free fro m greasin ess I f it

, , , .
does n ot possess th ese ch aracteristics an d th e re is n o ,
e vid en c e of ca u sticity a fu rth e r dos e of l e m u st be add e d

y , ,
a n d i f n ec e ss a ry m ore salt .
I f too m u ch he a t be applied th e soap will be co me too ,
thi n ca u sin g a separatio n of t h e tal l o w or p al m oil fro m

,
-
t h e cocoa so ap a n d th e sam e obj ectio n able r e s u lt wil l be

,
obtai n ed i f th e re be an e xc ess of salt or l ey In t h e latte r .
c a s e t h e st ea m is t u r n ed of
, f a n d a li t tle fresh cocoa n u t ,
-
oi l m u st be add ed with con stan t stirrin g u n ti l t h e prop e r

, ,
con ditio n is obta in ed Th e h ea t is to be kep t u p for fi ve

.
or six ho u rs with frequ en t s tirri n g so th at a p er fect an d

, ,
u n i for m co m bi n atio n m a
y t ak e p l ac e WV h en t h e o e ra
p .
t io n is fi n ish ed t h e soap is allo wed to r est u n ti l t h e fol

,
lo wi n g day , wh en t h e pan is to be aga in h eated wh ereby ,
t h e u n ion of t h e alkali a n d fa t t y m a tters b eco m e s m o re

p erfec t an d t h e soap tu rn s ou t harde r an d better than i f
,
fram e d at o n c e on t h e co m ple tion of t h e boilin g It i s .
also co n side re d advisabl e to al lo w t h e soa p to cool i n t h e

an u n ti l it i n dicate s a t e m p e ratu re of 1 5 5 F ahr before
°
p .
re movi n g it to t h e frames an d to wel l cr u tch it wh en i n , ,
t h e fram e s u n til it b e gi n s t o sti ffen wh e reby a m ore

, ,
homogen eo u s co n ditio n of t h e soap is se c u red Th e .
cr u tchi n g ho we ver m u st n ot be applie d wh e n t h e soap

, ,
has cool ed do wn to 1 30 F a h r , or i t will se pa rate fro m °

.
t h e l ey .
I f,a fter allo wi n g th e soap to repo se i n t h e p an d u rin g

t h e n ight it sho u ld be wa n ti n g i n str en gth a lit t le m ore
, ,
l ey m u st be added u n til it tas t e s slightly ca u stic

, Sho u ld .
this n ot be effe ctu al warm stron g bri n e m u st be grad u ally

,
a dd e d ,an d well stirr e d i n u n til t h e de si re d r es u l t is
obtain ed .
So ap co n tai n i ng a l a rge p erc en tage of cocoa n u t oil i s -

M A NUF A C T UR E OF H A R D S OA P S .
77
capa ble of holdin g i n its co n stit u tio n a v ery con side rable
q u an tity of wate r an d y et fo r m a hard soap ; i n deed i n
, ,
so m e so aps we hav e s ee n wa t e r h as been n ot o n ly t h e

,
chie f i n gredien t bu t a l most t h e o n ly on e

,
F r e n c h C oc oa n u t O i l Boa p s — I n F ra n c e th ey m ak e
- .
whit e an d tin te d soaps fr om cocoa n u t oil a n d sin c e th e ir -
m ethod of m an u fa ct u re so m e what di ffe rs fro m th a t ado pt e d

i n this co u n try t h e follo wi n g proc e ss giv en by D u ssa u ce
, , ,
wi ll be read with i n terest .
Wfi zte a n d R ose S oap s — F or th ese soaps th e oil mu st

’
be v e ry white a n d con c re te ; th a t of C ochi n is th e b e s t

an d t h e m ost highly e st ee m ed Su ppos e that a so a p is t o .
be pr ep ared yi eldi n g 5 00 to 60 0 per c en t i n trod u c e 200lbs . .
of oil in to a sh ee t iro n k e ttl e (pan ) of a capa city of fro m

-
3 75 to 400 gallon s M elt th e oil by a gen tle h eat an d a s

.
,
soon as m elted po u r i n it 5 0 gallon s of n e w l ey of soda

a sh at an d boil t h e m ixt u re a ddi n g from ti m e t o ti me ,
sm all portion s of l ey a t 1 8 to u n til t h e past e h a s

°
acq u ired a cau sti c taste W h en i n this state it is a s i gn

.
t hat it is en tirely satu rate d Th e fi rst op e ratio n lasts.
fo u r hou rs .
To h a rden t h e soap an d m ak e it prod u c e th e qu an tity

n a m e d abov e add to it sa lt wa te r (bri n e at 1 8 to 20 i n
)
° °
,
t h e p roportio n of 5 gallo n s e v e ry fi fteen m i n u te s an d a t ,
t h e s am e ti me co n ti n u i n g t h e e bu llition It is i n t h i s .
s econ d stage of t h e ope ration t h a t t h e de gree of coctio n

n d for this
(b oili n g ) of t h e soap m u st b e asc e rtai n e d a ,
p u rpose a c ertai n qu an tity is tak en from ti m e to ti m e an d

allo wed to cool on a dish W h en t h e sam ple b eco m e s .
solid by cooli n g t h e ope ra tion is fi n ish ed G en erall y t h e

, .
qu an tit y of salt wate r u sed is abou t t h e sam e a s th a t of

-
t h e l ey an d at abo u t t h e sam e d e gre e

, F or t h e above .
pre portio n s t h e op eration la sts abo u t seven or eigh t hou rs ,
d u rin g whi ch t h e mixt u re is con stan tly k ept i n a sta te o f

eb u lli t io n . W hen t h e operation is fi n ish ed t h e steam is
t u r n ed off, an d th e soap before b ein g ru n i n to t h e fram es ,
,
i s s u ffe r ed to cool a n d r e st for t welve or fi ft een hou rs .
I ft h e so ap is to be r ose it i s colo u re d as soon a s r u n

,
i n to the frames, and While ye t fluid, wi th 4 l bs or 6 l bs of . .

v el m ilio n , which is well distrib u t ed i n th e m ass by sti rri n g .
To ha ve an u n i form colou r i t is i m portan t that t h e paste

shou ld be v ery fl u id, for i f too cold, a p art wou ld r em ai n
”
white .
W e shall have again to refe r t o t h e s u bj ect of cocoa

n u t oil soaps wh en tr e a ti n g o f r ed u c e d or ch e ap en ed soaps ,
which form an i m p ortan t bran ch of t h e soap - m a kin g

i n d u stry , especiall y i n t h e n orth ern parts of En glan d .
C H A P TER VI I I .
M J K IN G S OA P B Y TH E C OLD PR OCE S S .
H awes s Sy ste m —M ak i ng small u a n ti ti es of S oap - To pr epare aW h i t e

Q
'
S oap — L ard S oap by t h e C ol d P rocess

. .
I r had lon g been t h e d ir es e of

soap m akers to possess -
'
som e proc e ss ofsapon i fi cat i on less tedio u s an d costly tha n

t h e ordi n ary syste ms of soap boili n g I t wa s well kn o wn
-
.
th at cau stic al kalies wo u ld co n ver t i n to sapon ac eou s m a tter

fa t s an d oils , witho u t t h e a pplication of h ea t, an d it wa s
also we ll k n o wn that d u ri n g t h e p roc e ss of sapon i fi ca t i on
by t h e o rdi n ary sy stem of boilin g over ca u stic l eys , a con

si de rabl e a m o u n t of lycerin e wa s set free, an d which ,
g
b ein g a su bstan c e sol u l e i n wate r, pas sed a way with t h e
spen t or waste leys , cau sin g a direct an d positive loss i n
t h e m an u fact u r e .
I a we s s S y s t e
'
m — On e of th e m ost i n ge n io u s practica l
.
i
attem pts to m odi fy t h e ord ary syste m of soap m ak i n g
n -
was tha t de vise d by M r W illia m H a we s, a g en tlem an

.
wh o h ad lo n g been co n n e ct ed with t h e soap trad e , an d wa s

in dee d a m ember of on e of t h e larges t an d m ost en te r
prisin g firm s i n Lo n do n Th e process is well kn o wn as
.
t h e COLD P R OC ESS , an d is th u s d e scribed by t h e i n v en tor

I tak e a n y given q u an tity of tallo w, say 2} to n s, a n d
h avin g m el ted it , k eepi n g t h e t e m perat u re as l ow as pos
sible, I m i x it with t h e qu an tity of alkalin e l ey whic h is
req u ired to completely sat u rate t h e t allo w an d co n vert i t
i n to soap ; an d su ch m ixin g I p erfor m by mechan ical
m ean s , an d th e apparat u s or m achi n e r I employ is h ere
a fte r descri bed I u se t h e ordin ary ey of soap boile rs,
.
-
preferri n g that made from th e st ron gest an d pu rest alkali .
The sapon i fi eat i on of th e tallo w, or o th er fatty m atte r,

m ay be a sc erta i n e d by t h e ab sorptio n or co m bi n at i o n o f
t h e tallo w or fatty m atte r with t h e l ey , care havi n g b ee n
t ake n , i n t h e firs t i n stan c e , to u se a s u fficien t q u an tity
th e re o f, or ab ou t 20 gal l o n s of l e y of 1 7 B to every
°
.
1 0 0 lbs of ta llo w
. I t i s n ec essa ry to s ta te th at t h e p ro
.
‘
portion of alkali varie s with th e di ffe ren t fa ts an d oil -1 .
Th e co m bi n a tio n of t h e fa tty m at te r a n d l ey m a y be
ef fecte d i n a n ordi n ary boi l i n g c ald ron , with t h e additio n
of a m achi n e to prod u c e a n i n ti m at e adm ixt u r e , an d t h e
m i n u t e di vision of t h e ta l lo w Th e whole ap parat u s is
.
Fi g 1 7
. .
re presen ted i n t h e dra wi n gs i n F i g 1 7 It con sists of an

. .
u pright sha ft fro m which ar m s a a a a radiat e t o t h e si des

, , ,
o f t h e caldro n 6 6 . This sh a ft ei t h e r p erm an en tly or t em

,
orari l fi x e d i n t h e copp e r m a y be of wood or iro n T h

p y , . e
m ode of fi xi n g t h e appa rat u s a n d t h e m at e ri als u se d fi rst

will de p en d u pon t h e n at u re of t h e caldro n an d t h e con
v e n i e n ce of t h e m a n u fact u re r A n oscill a ti n g m otio n or
.
,
a rotary m otio n m ay be gi ven to t h e sh a ft an d co n n ect ed

,
ar m s by an y of t h e ordi n ary m e thods of co mm u n icati n g

‘
mechan ical po we r ; or a cyl i n d er m a y be e mploy ed wit h

a s h a ft 0 , pa s si n
g t hrou
gh i t h o n zo nt al l y , and from
M A K IN G S OA P B Y TH E C OL D P R OCE S S . 8i
which arm s 0 c c 0 m ay radiate wh en a rotary m otion will

, , ,
thorou ghly i n corporate t h e fa tty m atte r an d t h e l ey .
Th e si ze of th e cyli n de r for abo u t to n s of tallow

, ,
will be abo u t 6 feet i n diamete r a n d 1 2 fe e t i n l en gth .
It m u st be provid ed with con ven ien t doors D D for charg , ,
i n g an d em ptyin g M otion b ei n g co mm u n icate d to t h e

.
m achi n e an d t h e caldron havi n g b ee n pre viou sly charg ed

,
with t h e tallo w t h e l ey is to be grad u ally added th ereto

, ,
an d i n a short ti m e e ve ry p articl e of t h e fatty m att e r wi l l
be bro u ght i n to in ti m a te co n tact with t h e alkalin e l ey ,
an d by s u ch m ean s sapon i fi cat i on will t a k e pl a c e Th e .
sti rrin g is con tin u e d for abou t three ho u rs or u n til t h e ,
t allo w appears com pl e tely sa pon i fi ed as i s i n dic at ed by ,
t h e m ass thicken i n g a fte r which it is a llo wed to stan d fro m

,
on e to fou r days accordi n g to t h e q u an tity of t h e pa st e

, .
Sho u ld a cyli n der be u s ed th en i m m e diately u pon its

,
bei n g charged with tallo w at a t em pera tu re j u st high ,
e n o u gh to k e e p it fl u id t h e l ey is r u n i n an d m otion com
, ,
m u n i cat e d to t h e shaft an d con tin u ed from 3 to 4 ho u rs

, ,
or less tim e i f th e m a ss beco mes thick soon er A s th e

,
.
ben efit of this proc ess arises m ai n ly from t h e sap on i fi cat i on

of t h e ordi n ary m ateri als i n a com p aratively cold sta te it ,
is desirable as soon as t h e m ass t hicken s an d t h e l ey is

, ,
absorbed that th e cylin der sho u ld be e mptied an d t h e

, ,
con ten ts t u rn ed in to an ordi n ary caldron p reparatory to ,
b ein g fi n ish ed an d con verted i n to ye llow soap by t h e ,
addition of resin ; or in to m ottled soap or white soap by ,
t h e op er ation of fi n ishin g leys as at p resen t practis ed by ,
soap boil ers gen eral ly B y this tran sfe r from t h e cylin der
- .
to t h e ordi n a ry caldron tim e is al lowed for th e combi n a

,
”
tio n of t h e tallow a nd alkali to b eco m e p erfect .
Th e adoption of t h e cold proc ess i n this cou n try has

n ot we be li e ve exte n d e d m u ch b e yo n d t h e li m its of v e ry
, ,
sm all operation s su ch as toile t soa p m akin g for exam pl e

,
-
, .
I n d eed t h e diffic u lty of obtai n in g l eys s u ffi ci en tly con

,
c en t rat ed withou t evaporatio n wo u ld to som e e xten t

, , , ,
stan d i n th e way of its exten ded application A t t h e .
p resen t ti m e ho wever wh en soap m akers are su pplied

, ,
-
wi t h cau sti c soda i n a soli d s tate wh ich ren ders i t ,
Q
82 TH E A R T OF S OA P M A K IN G. -
unne e sc s ary for th em to m ake th eir leys i n th e ordin ary way ,
it m ay be advisable p erhaps th a t th ey shou ld on c e m ore

, ,
t ake t h e cold proc ess i n to co n sid eratio n A ltho u gh soaps .
m ad e by this proc ess re ta in m ore alkali th an those m a de

by t h e ordin a ry m ethods of boilin g an d wo u ld th e refore , , ,
be le ss su itabl e for toile t p u rpos es it is c ertai n that good ,
h o u sehold or lau n dry so aps i f carefu lly prepared co u ld

, , ,
be advan tageou sly m ad e by this syste m .
F or m a ki n g s m a ll q u a n t i t i e s of S oa p by th e cold pro
cess t h e l e sho u ld h a v e a d en sity of abo u t 3 6 B This °
, y .
m ay be ob tai n ed e i th e r by evapora tin g s t ron g n ew c au st ic .
l ey prep ared i n t h e ordi n ary way or by dis so l vin g com ,
m e rc i al ca u stic soda i n wat er u n til t h e req u i red stren gt h

is reach ed .
T o p r e p ar e a W h i t e S oa p — P u t i n to a pan c apabl e o f .
,
holdin g abou t 1 00 gallon s t a llo w l ard or bleach e d p al m , , ,
oil 1 20 lbs cocoa n u t oil 4 0 lbs apply gen tle h eat

, .
-
, .
,
with occasion al stirrin g u n til al l t h e fatty m a tte r is m elte d

, .
W h en th e liq u id grease has attai n ed t h e h eat of

abo u t 1 20 F ahr add gradu ally 8 0 l bs of l ey at 3 6 B
°
.
, , , .
°
.
,
an d stir well u n til a co m pl et e u n io n of t h e fatty m att e rs
an d alkali is ef fe cte d Th e te mp eratu re of t h e in gredi en t s

.
,
a t t h e tim e of addi n g t h e alka li m u st n ot be high er th an ,
1 22 F ahr
°
oth erwi se th ere will be a sepa ration of
.
,
t h e l ey fro m t h e fa tty m aterials I f th e stirrin g h a s b een .
diligen tly pu rsu ed t h e sapon i fi cat i on will be com plete i n

,
abou t t wo ho u rs an d t h e soap is th en ready for t h e fram e I f

, .
it is desired to p erfu m e t h e soap this shou ld be don e while ,
it is i n th e pan an d b efore it h as h ad time to c ool It i s

, .
n ot a good pla n wh en m akin g sm all q u a n titi es of soap to

, ,
a dd t h e p e r fu m e a ft e r t h e so a p is i n t h e fram e si n c e it i s ,
t h en m or e diffi c u lt to effect a p er fect i n corporatio n of t h e

r es pective m aterials .
W h en soap m ade by t h e cold proc ess has been i n t h e

fra me for abo u t fi v e hou rs , a con side rabl e au gm en tation of
i ts tem pe ra tu re tak es plac e o win g to t h e ch em i cal reaction ,
of its co n stit u en ts wh er eby a m or e p erfect com bi n ation is

,
ef fe cte d . I n order to favo u r thi s r e action t h e fram e ,
sh o u ld be clos el cov e re d so soon as i t h as been fi ll e d wit h

y
C H AP TER IX .
OL EI C A CIR ' — S OA P F R 0 11! R E C O VE RE D GRE A S E .
Ol ei c A ci d —Soap from Recov ered G rease —M orfi t s Sy st em of S oap

’
m ak i n g —Ol ei c A ci d Soap s — K ot tul a s S oaps — In stan tan eous Soap

.
’
.
. .
Ol e i c A ci d — I n t h e m an u fact u re of
. steari n e for can dles ,
ordin ary tallo w is boiled i n wooden vats by high ressu re

steam with slaked li me for s everal ho u rs by wh i cpa l i me
-
, , ,
soap is for med This is tran sferred to an oth er ve ssel an d

.
t reate d with dilu te s u lph u ric acid which co mbin in g with , ,
t h e li me form s su lph a t e of li m e which deposits while t h e

, , ,
fatty acids (stea r i c an d ol ei c) ris e to t h e s u rface Th e m i x .
t u re of fatty acids th u s for m ed is n ext placed i n vessels , ,
to cool an d is after wards su bj ecte d to pressu re wh ereby

, ,
t h e ol eic aci d s epa rates an d flo ws i n to v essels r eady t o

receive it A t t h e exten sive can dle works of P rice an d
.
C om pan y t h e ve getabl e fats are deco mpose d in to th eir

con stitu en ts fatty acids an d glyc erin e by t h e action of
, ,
su p erheated steam alon e th a t is witho u t pr eviou s sapon i , ,
fi cati on By a n oth er proc ess pal m an d cocoa n u t oils are

.
,
-
d ecom posed b stron g s u lph u ric acid at a te mperatu re of

abo u t 3 5 0 Fahr produ ced by su p erh eated steam an d t h e
°
.
, ,
res u lti n g m ass is a ft er wards disti lled by t h e ai d of steam

h eated to abo u t 5 5 0 F ahr This is called su lp / mri c aci d °
.
sap om fi i
'
oa t on .
I t will readily be s een th erefore th at as a by prod u c t , ,

-
o f th e can dl e factory ole ic acid m u st be an abu n da n t soap ,
m akin g m at erial an d so i n dee d it is : an d th eoretical l y

, , ,
it sho u ld be con vertible in to soap (oleate of soda) by mean s

o f a carbo n ate d (n ot ca u stic ) alk a li T aki n g advan tage of .
t his fac t M r M orfi t m an v y e a rs sin c e p u rsu e d a l o n g

, .
, ,
OL E I C A CI D —S OA P
'
F R OM R E C O VER ED GR E A S E .
se r ei s of practical expe ri m en ts wi t h a vie w to de velopin g

a p roc ess by which comm ercial oleic a cid com m on ly kn own ,
as Ol ei ne broom oi l an d red oi l
,
—
, resu l t i n g from t h e proc ess e s
—
above referred to cou ld be con ver ted in to soap withou t t h e
em ploy men t of cau stic leys Th e proc esses which h e su bse.
qu en tly i n trod u ced i n clu ded t h e m an u factu re of soaps fro m

”
t h e fatty acids gen erally in cl u di n g recovered grease or
, ,
’
su d oil .
Sin c e t h e treat men t of fatty acids with carbon ate d alka

li es i n ste ad of em ployin g them i n t h e cau stic state as i n
, ,
ord i n ary soap m akin g in volves th e escap e of carbon ic acid

-
, ,
an d a c on seq u en t s wellin g u p of t h e m aterials wh en bro u ght
i n con tact e ven witho u t boi l in g am ple room m u s t be le ft

, ,
i n t h e pan to allo w for t h e grea t i n cre as e i n b u lk which

occ u rs afte r repeated addition s of alkali .
S o a p fr o m R e cov e r e d Gr e tn a — B efo re givin g a bri ef

de scription of M r M orfi t s process it m ay be we ll to refer
.
’
,
to a se ries of experim en ts con d u cte d by t h e au thor som e

years ago with t h e obj ec t of con verti n g recovered grease
,
i n to a m arke tabl e soap Th e grease was first m elted at a

.
tem pe ratu re su ffi cien tly high to liqu e fy it wh en sm all doses ,
of a warm sol u tion of soda crysta l s we re adde d from tim e
to tim e with con stan t stirrin g u n til effervescen ce n o lon ger

, ,
occu rred on th e addition of t h e soda solu tion Th e fa tty .
acids bein g n e w n e u tralised th e sapon ac eo u s m ass was n ext ,
treated with a sol u t io n of obl ori de of soda with t h e obj e c t ,
of lighten i n g its colou r Th e po we rful bl eachin g prop e r

.
ti es of this solu tion wh ich it o wes to t h e p re sen ce of

,
hypochlorite of sodi u m soo n affecte d th e colo u r of th e

,
soap ren derin g it m an y de grees paler bu t som e portion

, ,
o f t h e colo u ri n g m atte r r em ai n e d u n acte d u pon b th e

bleachin g liqu or which becam e e vi den t wh en t h e ob oride
,
ceased to prod u ce an y fu rth er effect .
Th e soap was a fterwards boil ed ov er a stron g salted l ey ,

an d t h e r e s u lti n g pa ste m ix ed i n va ryi n g propor t ion s , ,
with oth er soaps ; bu t alth ou gh th e ct r i de of soda h ad

dim in ish ed t h e p ec u liar odo u r of th e grea se to som e exten t ,
i t was fo u n d that on ly a sm all perc en t age of t h e fatty acid

soap co u ld be worked u p with soaps of b e tte r q u alit y an d ,
e v en th en a kee n n o se wo u ld r ecog n i se its prese n c e When .

86 TH E A R T OF S OA P - JIA X IN G .
p erfu med wi th itro b en zol or cassi a its odo u r was effectu

n -
ally di sg u ised an d it cou ld th erefore be employed i n m ode

, , ,
rate p roportion s i n som e ki n ds of fan cy soaps A s a ru le .

,
soap makers have a gre at di slike to recover ed grease or

-
,
Wakefield fat o win g chi efly to its odo u r bu t which a fter al l

, , , ,
is n eith er so disagreeabl e n or so lasti n g on t h e ski n or lin en

wash ed with it a s that im parted by cocoa n u t oil soaps -
.
M or fi t s S y s t e m of 8 0 a p m a k i n g — This has for its o bj e ct

’
- .
th e con versio n of t h e fa tty acids of co mm erc e i n to soap by

m ean s of carbo n at e of soda i n stead of em ployin g ca u stic
,
leys wh ereby t h e in ven tor prod u c es soap con tain in g de fi

,
n it e proportion s of fatty m ate ri als soda an d wat er th e s e , , ,
p roportion s b ein g deter min ed before t h e m an u factu re com

m en ces . The time occu pie d i n m akin g a batch of soap is
stated to be t wo an d a hal f ho u rs an d i n t wo days afte r
- - -
,
t h e soap is r eady for c u ttin g Thu s fo u r boi l s m ay be

.
made i n on e day i n each pan th ereby r en derin g it u n ,
n ec e ssary to kee p large stocks of soap on han d .
Altho u gh soap m ade by this system can be ru n that ,
is ch eap en ed by th e addition of large qu an tities of water

,
a n d oth e r adu lte ration s it do es n ot i n its i n tegrity con

“
, , ,
tem plate an y su ch degradation On t h e con trary it i s .

,
design ed to fu rn ish soap of th e greatest possible exc ellen ce

at t h e lowest possible cost so that t h e m an u fact u rer m ay
,
have a creditable m ean s of secu rin g both profit an d s u cc ess

again st t h e dishon est com petition of very m u ch i n ferior
”
soaps as made by t h e older m ethods .
Th e fat acids be in already deprived of th eir glyc erin e

, ,
do n ot su ffe r loss i n t e sam e way that n eu tral fats n ece s

sari l y do i n t h e proc e ss of sapon i fi cat i on co n s eq u en tly t h e ,
wh ol e of t h e m at erial u sed i n co mbin atio n with specific

,
p roportion s of soda an d water are u ltim ately obtain ed i n,
t h e form of soap .
A m on gst t h e advan tages which are claim ed for t h e ol eic

soaps is t h e follo win g : t h ey clean s e bette r i n cold an d
h ard wat ers than th e high e st grad e of soap that c an be
m ade from n eu tral fats In deed for m ost p u rposes it is
.
, ,
n ot n e c e ssary to u se hot or e ven warm wa t e r to brin g ou t

,
”
their best effec ts .
-M
88 TH E A R T OF S OA P A K IN G .
portion to form soda crystals n am ely pe r c en t or,

.
, ,
say 1 gallon of wate r for e very 5 lbs of ash This qu an

,
. .
tity of alkali form s a n eu tral soap ; for stro n ger soaps ,
from 21 0 t o 225 lbs of ash are u sed Th e solu ti on of

. .
soda m u st m ark 21 2 F before be in g added to th e hot°

.
’
m ate ria l i n t h e p an an d on ly from six to twelve m in u te s
,
ti m e allo wed to ru n i n t h e whole of th e liqu or Th e .
stirrer is th en set i n m otion a m in u te or l oss after t h e alkali

b egin s to flow an d is k ept u p with t h e h eatin g u n til t h e
, , ,
p rocess is complete Th e brisk ch emical action which is

.
se t u ca u s es a great s wellin g of t h e m ass to a ll ow for

p ,
which a cu rb is fixed above t h e pan Soon a fter t h e l a st .
portion of alkali h as been ru n i n t h e m ass begin s to su b ,
side an d chan ges from its spon gy state i n to that of a

,
clear so ft ho mogen eou s paste which soon assu me s a bri l

, , ,
li an t appearan c e Late r it be com es m ore con sisten t ; an d

.
i n an hou r an d fi ft een to thirty m in u te s from t h e m om en t

t hat t h e al kali co mm en c ed to fal l in to t h e oil t h e p a s te ,
is so stiff an d dry that it cu ts or peels fro m t h e walls ,

’
”
of t h e pa n an d t h e blades of t h e stirrer Th e paste is .
n ow spri n kled ov e r with eight or t en gall on s of boili n g
wate r t h e stirrin g an d h eati n g b ein g co n tin u ed u n til t h e

, ,
paste at first q u ite soft regain s its stiffn ess Soap th u s

, , .
m ade co n sists of i n 1 0 0 par ts oleic acid soda , ,
to wate r ,
In stead of employin g a sol u tion of soda ash M r M orfi t , .
som etim es u ses soda cry stals fu sed i n th e ir own wate r of ,
cry stalli satio n ; an d sin ce this salt of soda has attain ed a

r em arkably l ow price i t wo u ld dou btless i n this co u n try
, , ,
at least prove t h e m ost facile as also t h e most econ om ical

, , ,
for m of soda to apply to this system of sapon i fi cat i on .
Ol eic acid is exten sively u se d by soap m ak ers i n t h e -
ordi n a ry proc ess es of soap m akin g ; bu t it is gen e ra lly -
associate d with a con siderable portion of tall ow or oth er

fa t co n tain in g s tearin e by wh ich a fi r m e r a n d harde r so a p
,
i s ob ta in ed than with oleic acid alon e F ro m 30 to 4 0 .
r c en t of tallow is a fair proportion

p e . .
To m ake soap from ole ic a cid an d tallo w th e pro

—
,
p ortio n s ma
y be ol e i c acid l bs t allo w 90 0 lbs ,
.
,
.
A CID S OA P S . 89
Th e ol e ic acid is fi rst ru n i n to th e p an an d h eated , a fter

which , abou t 1 0 0 gallon s of old l ey , at 22 to 25 B , are
° °
.
i n trod u c ed. In a short time t h e oil assu m es a spon gy

con dition I f n ec essary, t h e operation m ay be hasten ed
.
by addin g a fe w gal lon s of fresh l ey at abo u t 28 B Th e °

.
hea t i s to be kept u p m odera tely for fi ve or six hou rs,

with occasion al stirrin g, u n til t h e grain s of soap form ed
b ecom e dissolved A s soon as this is effect ed, t h e whole
.
is to be bro u ght to a gen tle boil u n til a thick foam appears

on t h e s u r fac e ; this foam m u st be k e pt u n d e r by con
t i n u al agi tatio n , an d i f th e re is a dispositio n of t h e m ass

to rise above th e edge of t h e pan , from 1 2 to 1 5 gall o n s of
l ey at 20 or 25 B m ay be dash ed i n
° °
. . I t is b e tter, h ow
e ve r, t o ch e ck t h e h ea t at tim e s , a n d to add t h e l e y s
cau tio u sly, rather than to be com pell ed to resort to t h e
applicatio n of fresh leys to su bdu e t h e risin g of t h e m ass .
D u ri n g t h e boilin g , a pe rfect separation m u st take plac e,

an d t h e soa p appear i n t h e form of sm al l grai n s Wh en
’
this co n dition is arrived at t h e boilin g is to be con tin u ed

for abou t a cou ple of hou rs , t h e steam th en tu rn e d off, a n d
t h e soap allowed to stan d for abo u t eight or t en ho u rs .
A t t h e en d of this p eriod th e leys are dra wn off, an d t h e

operation of sapon i fy i n g t h e tall o w com m en ced T his .
tallo w is fi rst pu t i n to th e pan , wh en 75 gall on s of fresh

l ey at 20 to 28 B are ru n i n , an d t h e whole well stirre d,
° °
.
to en su re p erfect combi n ation of t h e leys with t h e tall o w .
Th e m ixtu re is th en su ffe red to rest u n til th e follo wi n g

day, wh en t h e steam is to be again tu rn ed on A fte r a .
whil e t h e grain s form ed d u ri n g t h e sapon i fi ca ti on of th e

oil grad u ally disapp ear, an d t h e tallo w b egin s to ass u me
t h e u su al pasty co n dition . A s soo n as this is co m plet e,
which is determin ed by fr eq u en t exa min ation of sm all
sa mples taken fro m th e m ass du rin g th e boilin g, th e steam
is t u rn ed off, an d th e process of sep ara ti on co mmen ced .
To separate th e sapon ifi ed m aterials, small q u an ti tie s of

old leys at 22 to 25 are added (a bo u t 3 or 4 gallon s at a
° °
ti me ) , when con siderable eflerv escen ce occu rs Sim ilar

'
dose s of l ey m u st be added fro m tim e to tim e, with c on

t i n u al stirrin g ; bu t each portio n of l ey m u st be allo we d
to have its fu ll effect before i n trodu cin g t h e n ext oth er ,
wise t h e u prisin g of th e m ass will be so great as to ren de r

it liable t o overflo w Th e addition s of l ey m u st be m ade
.
u n til s eparatio n is effected which m a be asc ertain ed by

y ,
dippin g th e shovel i n to t h e m ass i n th e u su al way wh en , ,
i f t h e soap app ears i n smal l grain s fro m whic h t h e l ey ,
r u n s freely t h e Operation is n early fi n ish e d ; bu t to

,
en su r e its p e rfect com pletion 4 0 or 5 0 g a llo n s of t h e sa m e

,
re in t rod u c ed wi t h brisk stirrin g for abo u t h alf an
{ y
e a ,
l ou r .
Th e soap, which is n ow i n t h e for m ofv ery small grain s,

is allo wed to repose for eight or ten ho u rs, wh en t h e l ey is
drawn off as u su al, an d t h e sapon ifi oa ti on of th e soap
c o mplet e d by boilin g wit h t wo fresh s e rvices ofl eys In .
t h e firs t s ervice abo u t 90 gallo n s of fre sh ca u stic l ey at

24 or 25 are ru n in to t h e pan , foll o we d by gen tle boilin g
° °
for eight or t en hou rs A t t h e e n d of this time t h e leys

.
wil l be free from cau sticity D u rin g th e bo i lin g, h ow

.
e ver, to m ak e u p for t h e e v aporation which t ak es plac e,
2 or 3 gallon s of l ey sho u ld be added abo u t eve ry ho u r

or so .
A fter th eleys of th e last op eration have b een r emov ed ,
a s econ d service of stron g ca u stic l ey is given This l ey .
sho u ld be of 27 or 28 B F rom 60 to 75 gallon s of this

° °
.
l ey are n ow r u n in to th e pan s team t u rn ed on an d en tl e

, ,
boili n g appli ed for fou r or fi ve hou rs du rin g whio t h e ,
soap acq u ir es m or e con sist en cy an d by t h e e vapo ratio n of

,
water fro m t h e l ey t h e m ass decr eas es i n bu lk A s i n t he .
former op eration rep eate d sm all dos es of stro n g l ey m u st

,
be add e d fro m tim e to tim e an d th e thick skin whic h ,
form s on th e su rfac e of th e soa p shou ld be driven in to t h e

m ass by a stirr e r A t t h e co m pl e tion of t h e op era tio n t h e
.
leys sho u ld still be cau stic to t h e tast e after a boil of eight

or t en ho u rs Th e gran u lar soap i f properly fi n ish ed
.
, ,
shou ld wh en pressed between th e fi n gers form hard an d

, ,
dry scales or flakes an d r eadily po wder wh en r u bbed i n

,
t h e palm of t h e ha n d Th e steam is n ow t u rn ed off t h e

.
,
cover of t h e pan lowered u po n it an d t h e soap a llo wed to ,
repo se u n til t h e follo wi n g day wh en th e l ey i s dra wn off

,
.
9 2 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
i t rior
n e of
a cast iro n pan set i n brick work ; B a cast iron
- -
jacket i n to which t h e pan fi t s closely an d is ren dered ,
ste a m tigh t by pre p er l u tin g

-
D D is t h e steam su pply .
Fi g 1 8. .
pip e 0 is an exit pip e for co n d en s ed st eam A t E is a

.
-
.
d i sch arge pi pe for e m ptyin g t h e pan

- .
”
“
Red oil is a v e ry u sefu l fatty m ate ri al for soap m akin g -
.
F orm erly st eari n e was obtai n ed o n ly fro m tal lo w bu t t h e

, ,
—
v ege table ba tters or oils palm an d cocoa n u t— are n ow
,
-
e xt e n si v ely em ploy ed i n its m a n u fact u re W h en steari n e .
i s m ade by su lp h u r i c aci d sap omfi ca ti on an d s u bse q u en t

'
distilla tion t h e oleic acid is of a b ro wn colou r an d is

, ,
“ ”
kn o wn co mm ercia lly as bro wn oil
,
I t has a stron g
, .
e m pyr eu m atic odo u r whic h m ay b e p artially r e m ov e d by

,
passin g a cu rren t of su perh eated steam thro u g h it an d ,
its colo u r m ay be con sidera bly i mproved by treatin g it

with a sm all q u an tity of sol u tio n of bichromate of po tash
an d m u riatic acid as i n bl eachin g palm oil,
- .
These fatty m atte rs do n ot requ ire cau stic alkali for

th eir con v ersion i n to soap sin ce th ey have already b een ,
con v erted i n to fat acids by t h e variou s processes em ploye d

,
i n t h e m a n u fa ct u r e of st earin e for ca n dl e m akin g It is -

.
u su al th e refor e to tr ea t th es e oils with car bon a ted alk ali

, , ,
as befo re sho wn There are howev e r several m ethods of

.
, ,
n e u t rali si n g th e s e fa t acids with carbo n at e of soda fro m ,
which t h e m an u fact u re r m ay sel ect that which has his

preferen c e I t is n ecessary that t h e soap pan sho u ld be
.
-
capacio u s or that on ly a m oderate charge of oil shou ld be

,
OL E I C A C ID S OA P S .
3
op erated u pon at a ti me si n ce a profu se efferv escen ee takes

,
place i m m ediately after t h e alkali an d fat a cids come i n

con tact wh ereby t h e volu me of t h e m aterials is greatly
,
i n creased A gai n t h e alkali m u st be i n trodu ced (with

.
,
brisk stirrin g) very grad u ally u n ti l th e fu ll proportio n h as,
been gi ven .
Ol ei c A c i d S oa p s In m akin g th ese soaps it is t h e

.
-
practic e to esti m ate t h e exact qu an t ity of soda that will be

requ ired to ren der a giv en weight of oleic acid neutra l ,
al th o u gh a slight exc e ss an d for so m e soaps a larger exc ess

, ,
sho u ld be giv e n Som etim es as i n Morfi t s system soda ash

’
.
, ,
is dissol ved i n t h e prope r equ ivalen t of wa t er t o form soda

crystals or soda crystals are m elted i n th eir own water of
,
c rystallisation i n a jack et pan by steam h eat Barilla -

, .
,
kelp bicarbon ate of soda hav e also been u se d to n eu tralis e

,
ol eic ac id bu t the re can be n o dou bt that t h e ordi n ary

,
soda crystals of co mm erce i n th eir fu s ed or m elted state

, ,
a re fro m th e ir co m parative p u rity an d co n v en i en ce to be

, ,
prefe rred to all oth er varietie s of carbo n ate of soda .
Th e de sire d q u an tity of ol eic acid b ei n g r u n i n to th e

an (which sho u ld be a jacket e d pan h eate d by s tea m ) a
p ,
m oderate h eat is applied an d t h e fu sed crystals allo wed to

,
fl ow i n grad u ally with brisk stirri n g which is m ore

,
—
ef fect u ally perform ed by t h e stea m t wirl of M orfi t Th e .
h eat an d stirri n g m u st be kept u p u n til t h e efle rvescen ce

'
c eases an d t h e m ass assu m es t h e co n di tion of a h om ogen eou s

,
p aste If a soap of greate r firmn ess is req u ired dr i ed or

.
,
e tfloresced soda m a b u s e d i n plac e of a portion of t he

y e
fu s ed crystals Th e dri ed sal soda is produ c e d by passin g
.
-
c u rren ts of hot air throu gh th e crystals u n til th ey fall i n to

a powder Or fi n el y po wdered an d si fted soda ash m ay be
.
-
u s e d for i n fe rior ole ic soaps in stead of t h e dried soda

,
crystals I n u sin g th e dry carbon ate of soda ho wever

.
, ,
it m u st be added aft er t h e fatty acid has b een brou ght to

a past e with t h e portio n of fu s e d crystals e mploy ed .
If r esi n is to be i n trod uc ed t h e r e qu isite proportion is ,
to be thro wn i n to t h e pre vio u sly h eated fat acid an d th e ,
st i rri n g co n t i n u e d u n t il t h e wh ol e of t h e r e si n h a s m el te d ,
aft er which t h e fu s e d sal soda is to be r u n i n as d escribed

-
.
Wh en th e so ap has acqu i re d its prop er con si sten c e it i s ,
to be shovelled i n to t h e fra me s i n t h e u su al way or m ay ,
be blen ded wi th variou s proportio n s of o th er soaps .
K ot t u l a s S oa p s — A de part u re fro m t h e ordi n ary sys

’
.
t e m of soap m aki n g was i n trod u c e d by D r Ke tt u la abo u t

-
.
t wen ty fi v e yea rs ago an d a t t h e ti m e attracte d m u ch

-
,
at ten tion In con d u ctin g his process K ot t u l a adds t o

.
,
ordi n ary c u rd m ottled yellow or oth er so aps m ade i n t h e

, , , ,
o rdi n ary way fatty m atters lim e liqu or con cen trate d
, , ,
soda leys an d al u m with t h e obj ec t of produ cin g a cheaper

,
n eu tr a l soap th a n h e b e lie ve s was hith e rto produ c ed Th e .
fat ty m atters h e e m ploys a re su ch as are comm o n ly u s e d

by soap m akers H e first boils soda leys u n til t hey have
-
.
acq u i red t h e s tren gth of abou t 3 0 B an d th en adds °

.
,
to t h e m al u m i n t h e proportio n of abo u t 3 5 lbs to each

,
.
”
c wt . of l e
y H e th en prepa re s a
.
“
li m e liq u or by
addin g to an y requ isi te qu an ti t y of water as m u ch lim e
as it wil l a bsorb or take u p an d to this li me sol u tio n h e ,
adds sal am mon iac i n t h e proportion of abo u t h alf a po u n d

to each c wt of t h e sol u tion So meti m es h e om its t h e
. .
sal ammon iac .
The fatty m atte rs co n cen tra t e d soda leys an d l i m e, ,
liqu or are n ow added to t h e m elted soap i n s u ch propor

tion s that t h e fat ty m atters will becom e d u ly sapon i fi ed ,
an d that t h e soap produ c ed m a y be of t h e r equ ir ed de sc ri p
tion Th e whole are th en boiled i n t h e u s u al way Th e

. .
proporti on s of fatty matte r con cen trated leys an d lim e , ,
liq u or m ay be varie d accordin g t o t h e character of so ap

req u i re d Th e follo wi n g propor tio n s are ho wev er recom
.
, ,
m e n de d — Ord i n ary fitte d soap or c u rd soap 1 0 ton s ; , ,
fatty m atte rs 4 ton s ; soda le ys prepar e d as above 4 § to n s ;

, , ,
li m e liqu or 65 t on s To prod u c e a m ottled soap h e adds

, .
a c ertain qu an tity of u ltram arin e oxide of m an gan es e or , ,
o th er s u i table pigm en t pr evio u sly m ixe d with wate r an d

, ,
t h e whole are th en boile d togeth e r for hal f an ho u r wh en ,
t h e soap is r eady for cle a n si n g i n t h e u s u al way

~
.
I n s t an t a n eou s S oa p — B a m o dific a tio n of t h e abo v e

y .
process K ot t u l a prod u c e s wh a t m ay be term ed an i nsta n

ta neous soap by com bi n i hg fat ty m atters wit h c o n c e n t ra te d
,
CHA P TER X .
CH EA P EN ED S OA P S .
N orman dy s P rocess —Si li cat ed Soaps : Sh eri dan s Process — Geese ge s

’ ’ ’
~
.
P r ocesses .P rep arat i on of Si l i cat e of S oda — P r eparati on of Si li cate

.
of P otassa M i xi n g Si li cate of S oda wi th S oaps

.
-
.
P a s v rou s t o t h e abolition of th e excise du ty on soap , t h e

addi tion of an y foreign su bstan c e to soap, with a view to
ch eapen it, was resiste d by t he Ex cise B oard an d its
m y rm idon s with wo n dro u s p erti n acity ; an d sin c e t h e
e xcis e offi c er was e v e r on t h e prem ise s , like a m an in
p o ss e ssio n , an d r e g u l a rly lock e d u p e a c h copp e r wh e n
t h e ho u r for closi n g t h e factory a rriv ed, e vasion of t h e

l a w was n ot easily m an ag ed A t this p eriod, an y proc ess
. .
paten ted or oth erwise, which i n volved t h e i n trod u ctio n

i n to soap of an y su bsta n ce oth er than fat s, oils, l eys, an d
salt (on which l a tte r s u bstan c e t h ere wa s also a h ig h
d u ty) was a cri m in al o ffen c e D u rin g this p eriod, t h e
.
high prices of m at eri als an d t h e in creasi n g dem an d fo r

soaps ren dere d ch eapen in g processes n ecessary for t h e
p u blic con ven i en c e bu t , u n til t h e du ty wa s su bsequ en tl y
a bolish ed , i m pro v em en ts i n this direction co u ld n ot be
t a k en ad van ta ge of by t h e m or e en terp ri si n g firm s , wh o
we re both wil l i n g an d d esiro u s to adopt i mprovem en ts of
a satisfactory n at u re .
D r N or m a n d y s P r oc e s s , for ch eapen i n g soap by t h e

’
.
addition of su lphate of soda, m et with stro n g oppositio n

fro m t h e excise au thoriti e s , a n d, in st ead of r eapi n g t h e
a dva n tag e of his in gen u it , h e was su bj e ct ed to con stan t
y
irritatio n an d o ffi cial in ter feren ce N orm an dy s proces s,
.
’
which h as si n c e bee n s u bj ected to m o difi cati on s, ac cordin g

CH E A P E N E D S OA P S 97
to t h e requ irem en t s of t h e m an u factu re r is bri efly as ,
follows — Th e soap b ein g m ade i n t h e ordin ary way an d ,
tran sferre d to t h e clean sin g copp er s u lphate of soda i n , ,
t h e proportion of20 lbs for e v ery 8 0 lbs of soap an d 4 lbs

. .
,
of carbon at e of soda or of potash or 2 lbs of e ach are , .

,
thro wn i n to t h e hot soap an d t h e whol e well stirred u n til

,
th e m a ss is p erfe ctly ho m ogen eo u s wh en t h e soap is ready ,
for fra m i n g i n t h e u su al way .
Th e su lphat e of soda an d carbo n ate of soda or potash

, ,
may be in trod u ced i n t h e liqu id state (th a t is fu se d i n ,
their water of crys tallisation ) S u pposi n g t h e q u an t i ty of .
soap to be tre ated is 3 to n s th e su lphate an d carbon ate of ,

“
soda are to be pu t i n to t h e pot or lo wer part of t h e ,
c l ean sin g copp er i n th e p roportion of 28 lbs of th e form er

-
, .
a n d 4 lbs o f t h e latt e r for e v e ry 8 0 lbs of so ap an d th e n

. .
,
allo we d to fu s e i n to a liq u id state Th e soap is th en t o .
be r u n i n to t h e cl ean sin g copp e r with co n sta n t sti r ri n g

-
,
whil e t h e soap is b ei n g tra n sferred u n til t h e m ixt u re is ,
co m plete .
So m etim e s it is d esirabl e to dissolve t h e su l ph ate a n d

carbon ate of soda i n water i n which case 3 c wt of water , , .
,
2 cwt of su lphate of soda a n d 1 cwt o f c arbo n ate of

.
, .
potash (or &cwt of each of t h e t wo latter ) are pu t i n to

.
t h e cle an si n g copp e r an d di ssolve d by h eat as b e for e ;

-
,
a ft er which t h e soap is tra n s fe r re d fro m t h e boili n g
copp er wh en 21 c wt m ore of su lphate of soda an d 3 c wt

, . .
of c a rbo n at e of soda or potash are to be a dd e d (or h a l f
this q u an tity ) an d t h e stirrin g co n ti n u ed a s before u n til

,
a p erfectly ho m ogen eo u s m ass resu lts .
I t is n ow co m m on ly t h e practic e to m elt th e cryst als of

s u lphate of soda (Glau ber s Salt) or carbon ate of soda i n ’
,
a s team jack eted pan a n d to ladle t h e liqu id as req u i red

-
,
n t o t h e m elted so a p a ft e r it has b ee n u t i n to t h e fra m e s

, p ,
wh en t h e u n ion of t h e m at erials is co m ple ted by cru t ch i n g

i n t h e ordi n ary way ; or t h e liqu id sal ts are in trod u ced by
mean s of t h e stea m cr u tch -
.
On e of t h e m ost i m portan t adva n ta ges of t h e above

—
proc ess which as we h ave sa id i s s u bj ec t to m an y m odi
, ,
i —
ti cat on s i s th at t h e s u l ph a t e of soda wh en m i xed wi t h ,
H
-M
98 TH E A R T OF SOA P A K IN G .
soap deficien t i n hardn ess throu gh poorn ess of t h e mate ,
rials of which it is co mpos ed crys tallise s throu gho u t t h e ,
mass an d th ereby giv es it an artifi cial hardn es s which

, ,
preven ts it from washin g a way too freely i n t h e han ds of

t h e la u n dr ess In deed soap m ay be r en d ered so hard by
.
,
em ployin g larg e q u an titi es of this s alt as to r esist t h e ,
stron gest pressu re of t h e th u mb Wh en it is e mployed .
i n e xc ess ho wever it is v ery liable to efl oresce on t h e

, ,
s u rface of t h e soap ren derin g it n ot o n ly u n sightly bu t to

, ,
some exten t u n salable ,

.
S i l i c a t e d S o ap s : S h e r i da n s P r ooe s s Of all t h e
’
.
nu merou s ch eap en in g su bs tan c e s which have b een i n tro

du ced i n to p u re soaps th e si l i ca te o f soda or s
,o l u bl e gl a ss ,
m ay be dee m e d th e m ost im portan t si n c e it n ot on ly ,
favou rs t h e i n trodu ctio n of a large p erc en tage of water i n

c ertain ki n ds of soap bu t it al so possesses i n itse lf a high
,
detergen t prope rty Th e m erit of applyin g silicate of

.
soda to soap is du e to M r Sh eridan wh o obtain ed a paten t .

,
for his proc e ss as far back as t h e y ear 1 8 3 5 at whic h ,
p eriod ho we ver owin g to t h e th en existi n g excise laws

, , ,
it cou ld n ot receive t h at exten sive adoption which h as

fallen t o t h e lot of s u bs equ en t proc esses base d u po n his
origin al an d m ost i n gen iou s in ven tion .
A lthou gh t h e silicate of soda or solu bl e glass is n ow , ,
an ext en sively m an u factu re d articl e of co m m erc e

-
an d ,
for m s a n e c e ssary item i n t h e lon g list of soap m ate rials ,
it may be i n te restin g i f we give a brief o u tlin e of Sh eri

dan s origi n al process H e first formed a detergen t
’ “
.
”
m ixture by boilin g calcin ed q u artz or flin t (previou sly
,
grou n d to an almost im palpable powder ) or san d with ,
stron g cau stic soda or cau stic po tash leys ; th e pro

,
port ion s bein g on e part by m easu re of g rou n d calcin e d

flin t or qu artz to two parts of eith er cau stic alkali m ark ,
i n g 28 B °
Th ese wer e boiled togeth er for abou t eight
.
ho u rs with con tin u al stirrin g u n til th ey b ecam e a

, ,
homogen e ou s m ass havin g t h e appearan c e of sapo n i

,
fi ed m atte r [a visco u s co n di tion

] Wh en i n th is s t at e it .
was ready t o be m ix ed with so ap which wa s don e by ,

”
i n trodu cin g th e detergen t m ixt u re as Sh eridan called ,
7 11 1 :
A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
on cen trat ed
(by e v a poratio n o f w at e r th e r e fro m ) a thic k ,
visco u s com po u n d is obtai n e d whic h is e asily redi ssolv e d ,
by t h e additio n of wate r This thick visco u s compou n d .
con tain s al k ali i n a state of weak co mbin ation with si lica ,
a n d i s th e re fore a n alogo u s to tr u e so a p
‘
which co n tain s ,
al k ali i n a wea k co m b i n a tio n wi t h fatty acids an d it is t o ,
t hi s co n di t io n of alk ali b ein g weak ly co m bin ed i n bo th

c om po u n ds a n d th e re fo re r e ady to e n t e r i n to o t h e r c om
,
bi n a t i on s t h at t h e d e t erg en t prope rti e s of tr u e soa p an d

,
t h e sol u bl e co m po u n d of sili c a an d alka li a re attrib u t a ble .
W h en t h e thi k viscou s co m pou n d of silica a n d a l kali

c
( a bov e m en tio n e d ) is a dd e d to tr u e soaps a n d i n ti m a t e ly ,
m ixe d t h er e with a co mpo u n d soap is o btai n ed at a l ow

, ,
”
cos t posse ssi n g v al u able d ete rgen t prop erti es
, .
P r ep ar a t i on of S i c a t e of S od a
l i — G oss ago prepares
s ilica t e of so da or silicate of pota sh by fu sion m u ch i n t h e ,
sam e way as t hat adop te d i n t h e prod u ction of ordi n ary

glass H e mixes t oge th e r abo u t equ a l p ar t s of dry car
.
bo n a te o f soda an d cl ean san d to whic h is a dde d on e part ,
by weight of g ro u n d coke or ch a rco al for each n in e p arts

by we i gh t of ca rbon ate of soda This m ixtu re is m elted .
i n t h e sa m e way as m ixtu re s of sa n d a n d alkalie s are i n

gl ass m ak i n g Th e m elted m ass is a fte r wards po u red in t o
-
.
cold wat e r which r e n de rs it m or e fri a bl e

, Th e p rod u ct is .
th en gro u n d to a fi n e po wde r an d a fter wards di ssolved by ,
boilin g i n th ree or fo u r ti m e s its weight of wa te r D u rin g .
t h e boili n g l i q u id c a u stic so da is so m eti m e s add ed A ft er .
r eposin g for a fe w ho u rs t h e clea r liqu or is drawn off a n d

c o n c en tra t e d by evapo ratio n u n til it a ssu m e s a viscid c on
dit i o n s u i t a ble for m i xi n g with pu re so ap .
P r e p a r a t i on of S i l i c a t e of P ot a s h — I n m aki n g silica te .
of pota sh t welve pa rts of dry ca rbon at e of po t ash t wo

, ,
part s o f san d an d on e part of coke or ch a rc oal are m ix e d

,
toge th er an d t h e who l e m e lted an d trea ted as abo ve I n

,
.
plac e of san d gro u n d fel spar m ay be u sed i n which case

, ,
three p arts of this m in eral are s u bstit u ted for t wo parts of

san d an d on ly on e hal f t h e qu an tity of alkali is u sed
,
- .
S u lph ate of soda or s u l phate of potash m ay be u s ed i n stead

Or. as Sh eri dan sa i d, H av i n g th e appearan ce of sa pon i fi cd ma tter .
C H E A P E N E D S OA P S . 10 !
of th e c arbo n a te s of soda or potash i n m akin g t h e sol u bl e

”
g la ss i n wh ich ca se three pa rts of e ith e r s u lph a t e a re
,
s u bstitu t ed for t wo p arts of ei th er ca rbon ate an d fo u r ,
ti mes t h e qu an tity of coke or charcoal above given .
G ossage s u bs e qu e n tly fo u n d tha t silicate d soaps co u ld

be advan tage o u sly prod u c e d fro m p u r e so aps co n ta i n i n g a
m u ch larger p ropo rtio n of r esin tha n wa s u s u ally em ploy e d
i n t h e m an u fact u re o f h a rd soaps wh e re by a ve ry e con o ,
m ic al an d l ow pric e d so ap co u ld be p rod u c ed
-
I n p re .
p arin g a gen u i n e soap h e u se d n ot less th an on e pa rt o f

re sin for e ach t wo parts of tallo w or oil or a m i xtu re of ,
both ; an d whe n t h e soap h ad b een fitted an d wa s ready ,
for cl ean si n g h e i n tr od u c ed t h e vi s co u s sol u t io n o f s ol u ble

,
gla ss i n c e rtai n p ropo rtio n s t h e specific g ra vity of which

,
s ho u ld be abou t 1 5 00 (wate r b ei n g
W h en m an u fact u rin g gen u i n e soap to be after wards ,
con v erted in to silic ated soa p i n which a la rger p ropo r tio n

,
of r e sin tha n six p a rts for ea c h t e n parts of tallo w or oil ,
or a m ixt u r e of eac h is u sed h e p refe rs to fi n ish t h e soap

, ,
”
as a stiff c u rd i n which sta te t h e visco u s solu tion of
“
,
sol u ble glass is i n trod u c ed In m i xi n g t h e sol u ble glass

.
with soap it is r eco m m e n d e d that t h e fi rst por tio n o f t h e

,
sol u tion sho u ld be of t h e s pecific g ravity of abou t 1 3 0 0 ,
a n d t h e r e m ai n i n g po rtion s a t i n c reasi n g sp ecific gravi t i es ,
u n t il t h e whol e q u an tity of t h e si l ic at e sol u t io n av e rage s
t h e sp ecific gra vi t y of 1 5 0 0 .
M i x i n g S i l i c at e o S o a wi t
f d h S oa p s — F or effectu ally .
m ixi n g g en u in e so aps with silic ate of soda M r G os sag e , .
e m plo s c e rt ai n appa ratu s t h e si m pl e r form of which is

y ,
rep rese n ted i n th e drawi n g (F i g A circ u lar t u b A

.
, ,
h avi n g t h e for m of an in v e rted con e is fitte d with a se ri e s of ,
blades proj e ctin g bb 6 in side t h e vessel A v ertical shaft B

, ,
.
, ,
al so fu rn ish e d with a s eries of blade s c c c is su pporte d by , ,
a footstep (1 fixed a t t h e botto m of t h e v essel an d by a

, , ,
jo u rn al a d apted to a m etal l ic b ridge pi ece e which is

,
-
, ,
fixed ove r t h e t u b an d sec u red by scre w bolts to its

.
-
side s A b e ve lled cog wh e el is adapted to th e u pr i ht

.
-
sh a ft a n d a h ori zo n tal sh aft al so provided wi t h a b e vel ed

, ,
cog wh eel a n d su ppor ted by s u i table b earin g s is att ac h ed

-
, ,
t o: TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
to t h e t u b t h e two wheels b ei n g so placed that th ey will

,
work i n gear with each oth e r A drivi n g p u ll ey is a ttach ed

.
to t h e horizon tal sh aft which is set i n m otion i n t h e u s u a l

,
way wh en t h e apparat u s i s m a ired to be u sed

e
. Th e
Fig 19
. .
dia me t ers of th e p u ll eys an d wh eels are so re gu lated th at

th e u pright shaft m ay m ak e fro m sixty to eighty rev ol u
tion s per m i n u te A spo u t, j ,is attach ed to t h e lo wer p art
.
of t h e t u b, wit h a stoppe r, g, thro u gh which t h e co n t en ts
of t h e v e ss e l a re r u n off
.
“
Wh en I am abo u t to u se my i mproved apparat u s,
of 1 °
an d 20 c wt cau stic soda l ey of th e sp eci fi c

. of
g ravi ty of 1 t h e m ixt u r e bei n g al so at a t e m pe ra

t u r e of 1 5 0 °
F al ir. Th e wh ole are m ixed togethe r by
agitation .
In to an ordi n ary soa p coppe r is th en pu t 3 0 c wt of th e

-
.
sa m e m ixtu re of fatty oily or re si n o u s m att ers an d 4 0 c wt

, , , .
of cau stic soda (sp gr 1 1 8 0 ) m ixed wit h 20 c wt of

. .
°
.
wat er t h e wh ol e be i n g boil ed toge th er u n til sa pon i fi cati on

,
is co m plete Th e forme r m ixtu re of fatty m atters silicate

.
,
of soda an d so da l eys is th en adde d to t h e a bove an d t h e

, ,
whole aga in boiled togeth er wh en 3 cwt of co mmo n sal t , .
are to be a dd ed Th e boili n g is to be co n tin u ed u n til t h e

.
ma ss is r ed u c ed to abo u t t en to n s wh en i t i s t o be cl ea n sed ,
a s u s u al .
C H A P T ER XI .
CH E A P E N E D S OA P S
D un n s
’
— Gu
P r ocess
ppy s P r oce
. ss — Th om a s s P
’
r oce ss — P ot at o -
fl o u
. r
’
.
i n Soap — Chi n a C l a y — D ou gl as s I mprov emen t s — F u11er s Eart h

’ '
. . .
Soap — D avi s s P rocess

’
. .
I N m akin g silicated soaps t h e st ren gth or den sity of th e ,
sol u tion of sol u ble gla ss i s re g u la t e d by soap makers -
accordin g to t h e qu ality of soap th ey d esire to produ c e ,
a n d t h e n at u r e of t h e goods e m ploye d i n t h e m an u fac

t u re so me materials form in g a pe rfectl hard soap with
-
a very large admixtu re of t h e silicate t m u st be born e .
i n m in d, ho we ve r t h at wh en e ver sol u ble glass is em ploy ed

, ,
a n d i n ho we ve r s m all a propor tio n t h e i n sol u ble bas e , ,
s i l i ca b eco m e s s eparate d i n washi n g

, leavin g a deposit , ,
m ore or le ss u po n t h e s u rfac e of t h e skin or lin e n cl ean s ed

,
by it M o reover al tho u gh silicate d soaps osse ss good

.
,
detergen t properti es th ey are n ot agreeab e for toilet,
p u r poses sin c e th ey a re very apt to i m part an u n pleasan t

,
rou gh n e ss to t h e ski n soo n a fte r u si n g th em .
D u n n s P r oc e s s
’ — Th e obj ec t of th i s proc e ss is to com
.
bi n e silicate s of soda or potash with so ap u n de r pressu re , ,
wh e reby a m o re p erfect u n io n is stated to be effec t ed an d ,
t h e sam e m e thod is said to be applicable to ordi n ary soaps .
F or y ello w soa p M r D u n n t ake s t h e m ate rials i n t h e u su al

.
—
p ropo r tion s say tallo w 7 palm oil 3 resin 3 p ar t s a n d
, , ,
-
, ,
c a u stic soda l eys at 21 B fro m 1 4 0 to 1 5 0 g allo n s°

. .
Th ese are placed i n a steam boiler (Fi g wh ich is fu r .
n i sh e d wi t h a m a n hole sa fe ty valv e a n d a l l oth er a p en d

p
- -
, ,
ages of s u ch an apparatu s wi th a th erm omete r dippin g ,
i n t o a cha mber of m erc u ry A t A is a fe ed pipe an d at B a .

-
,
- M A K IN G
106 TH E A T O
R F SOA P .
discharg e pip e from which t h e fi n ish ed soap passes t o th e

-
,
rec ei vi n g pan at c
-
Th e fi re bein g kin dled, t h e boiler
.
i s h eate d u n til t h e pre ssu re at t h e safe ty valve is su ffi cien t -
to en able t h e tempe ratu re i n t h e boile r to rise gradu ally

to 3 1 0 F ahr a t which poin t it is allo wed to remai n
°
u
p .
,
for abo u t an hou r wh en t h e con ten ts of th e boiler are dis

,
ch arged in to t h e pan 0 an d t h e process is co mplete

, .
D u n n prepare s his silicate of sod a or potash also u n de r

pressu re by placin g i n t h e boiler cr u sh e d flin t or qu artz
,
a n d ca u stic soda or potash i n t h e proportion of 1 c wt of

, .
silic a to 1 0 0 gallo n s of l e at 21 B an d t h e whol e i s

°
y .
,
Fi g 20
. .
then h eated as b efore u n der a pressu re u n til t he t em pera

, ,
t u re of t h e boile r in dicates 3 1 0 F ahr Th e steam press u re

°
.
sho ul d be equ al to from 5 0 to 70 lbs to t h e sq u are i n ch .

,
a n d after a bo u t three or fo u r ho u rs t h e silicat e is to be
discharged by t h e exit pip e an d is th en ready for m ixin g

-
,
with soap i n an y r eq u ir ed propor t ion s .
G u pp y s P r oc e s s — A n i m provem en t was made i n t h e

’
.
above proc ess by M r G u ppy wh o e mployed stron ge r

.
,
leys which were i nj ected fro m a reser voir i n to th e boile r

,
th e arm s so ap i s fi rst i n trod u ced thro u gh th e m an

. Th e
hole an d th e shaft se t i n m otio n wh en t h e salts a re ad ded ,
an d t h e rotary m otio n co n tin u ed u n til p e rfec t co m bi n atio n
is effected I f t he m ass b ecomes too stiff t h e tem peratu re

.
is raised by tu rn in g on t h e steam to t h e jacket or i n to ,
t h e v essel its elf a n d t h e soap wh en fi n ish ed is dra wn off

,
or blo wn ou t thro u gh a pa ssage or cock at th e lo we r

, ,
part of t h e v e ssel an d is con v eye d to t h e fram es i n which

,
i t is cru tch ed for a tim e as is u su al with so aps of this ki n d , .
P ot a t o fl ou r i n S oa p — Th e i n gen io u s i n v en t o r of si li
- .
cat ed soaps (M r Sh e ridan ) co n c e iv e d t h e id e a of ble n di n g

.
with p u r e soap c e rtain proportio n so f potato flou r which h e -

,
carrie d in to effect n t h e ollo wi n g way

i f — E q u al par ts by
weight ofpotato flou r an d cold wate r a re m ixe d thorou ghly
-
,
so that n o l u mps m ay rem ai n To e ve ry 1 2} lbs of t h e . .
flou r u sed 3 7 lbs of a solu tio n of alu m free from sedi .

,
m en t are add e d an d t h e whol e well in co rporated by

, ,
stirrin g To this m ixtu re is added i n t h e sam e prop or

.
,
tion as be fore n am ely for e very 1 2} l bs of potato flou r

, ,
.
-
u s ed 4 0 lbs of soda or potash l eys at 22 B an d t h e

°
,
. .
,
whole m ix e d toge th e r in to a hom ogen eo u s m ass F or .
m aki n g hard soaps t h e soda l eys are to be u sed .
The above m ixt u re which is call ed t h e detergen t

is n owto be h e ated a t a t em peratu re of from
,
”
m ixtu r e ,
1 70 to 1 90 F ah r bu t n ot high e r for fro m thre e to fi v e

° °
.
, ,
ho u rs which is be st do n e by stea m i n a jacket pan D u ri n g

,
-
.
t h e h eati n g t h e m ixt u r e is to be co n stan tly sti rr ed t o ,
preven t it fro m adh erin g to t h e side s of t h e pan Th e .
m ixt u re be in g n ow r eady is to be add ed to m el ted so ap

, , ,
wh en it is i n t h e prope r co n ditio n for cl ean sin g This is .
b est do n e by placi n g t h e soap i n a half ton pan wh en t h e -

,
de tergen t m ixt u re while sti l l hot is to be added a pail , , ,
ful at a tim e an d well cru tch e d i n i n t h e sa m e way t h a t

, ,
c u rd soap is cru tch ed I t is n ec essary that t h e dete rgen t .
m ixtu re an d so ap sho u ld be as n early t h e sam e t em pera

tu re as possible Th e qu an tity of t h e detergen t m ixtu re
.
which is to be a dded to t h e soa p m a y vary fro m on e fi fth -
to on e thi rd by weight ; bu t t h e soa p m aker sho u ld de

- -
term in e this by m akin g sm all sa m pl e s wi t h diffe ren t

CH EA PE N ED S DA P S . 10 9
proportio n s of t h e d etergen t m ixt u re an d allo wi n g th e m

t o cool . A fter well cru tchi n g t h e soap an d d e t ergen t
m ixtu r e t h e co mpou n d soa p is p u t i n to t h e ordin ary
,
fram es .
C h i n a C l a y (K aolin ) i n Soa p — Th e i n trodu ctio n i n to

soaps of solid in gredien ts which possess n o detergen t
propertie s i n th e m selves c an n ot be comm en ded n eith e r
, ,
sho u ld this syste m of ad u lte ration be en cou ra ge d by soap

m akers whose s u cc ess i n t h e m a n u fact u re of soap d ep en ds
,
u po n th eir r e p u tation for ho n esty If t h e p u bl ic wi l l

.
,
ho wever (as th ey c ertai n ly do i n th e presen t age of ad u l

t erat i on ) en co u rage ch eap an d worthless goods i n pr e fe r
,
e nc e to gen u i n e a rticl es e v e n t h e m ost scr u p u lo u s m u st

,
y i e l d to t h e de m a n d .
D ou gl as s i m p r ov e m e n t s i n th e m an u fact u re of so ap
’
con sists i n co mbin i n g an y v a rie ty of clay with soap ; t h e

m o st approv e d s u bst a n c e ho we ve r is kaol i n or C hin a cla y
, , ,
( a s ilic a t e of al u m i n a ) w hich , a bo u n d s ext en sively i n som e
districts i n C orn wall Th e clay is plac ed i n a v essel

]
.
,
h eated by steam or oth er wise an d worked u p i n to a paste ,
wi t h wate r t h e clay b ein g i n t h e proportion of abou t 25

,
p e r c en t of t h e m ass
. H e at be i n g a ppli e d t h e m ixt u re of
.
,
clay an d water is effec ted by con stan t s tirri n g To this is .
th e n adde d a sa tu rated sol u tion of salt i n t h e proportion

of abou t on e twe n ti eth pa rt of t h e whol e
-
Th e proportion .
o f t h e abo ve m ixtu re to be add e d to m elt ed soap i s r e g u

—
l ated by t h e re qu iremen t s oft h e m an u fact u r er th e u t m ost
e xt en t bei n g 5 0 pe r c en t of t h e cla y . P erson s of pec u li ar
.
fa n cy u se th es e argillac eo u s so aps for toil et p u rpose s .
F u l l er s E’
a t
r h So p a — Of al l t h e solid m att ers which
.
hav e been m ech an ically co mbin ed wi th soap th e m in eral ,
su bstan c e kn o wn as fu ller s ea rth is u n dou b te dly t h e

’
best M ore over b ein g i n itself a de te rgen t its co m bin a

.
, ,
tion with soap par takes l ess of t h e character of a m ere

a du lter an t than oth er argillac eo u s ( or clayey ) s u bstan c es .
I n deed lo n g b efore soap was kn o wn t h is s u bsta n c e was

, ,
e mplo y e d as a cl ean si n g m edi u m .
I t is n e arly t wen ty yea rs si n c e th e au th or in trod u c ed

i h m rk t m bi i o f so d f ll s ar h ’
n to t e a e a co n a t n o a
p a n u er e t ,
n o TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
un der title of F u ller s E artb S oap ; bu t altho u gh i t

th e
’
met wi th con siderable approbation as an agreeabl e toilet

soap it fail e d to co m ma n d an e xt en si ve sale
,
Th e m e thod .
of preparin g it is giv en be lo w bu t it sho u ld be s t at ed that ,
t h e obj ect was to in trod u c e i n to t h e soap t h e u t most

am ou n t of th e detersive eart h that coul d be m echan icall y
m ixed with it i n order that t h e latt er an d n ot t h e for m er
, , ,
sho u ld be co n sidered th e active in gr edi en t .
Th e fu ll er s earth sho u ld be of t h e b est comm e rci al

’
qu ality which occu rs i n large l u mp s an d first dried i n an

, ,
oven at a m oderate heat t h e obj ect bein g m erely to expel

, ,
t h e m oist u re with which i t is associat ed so that it will ,
freel sl aben wh en agai n m oisten ed with wate r I t is a

p ec u liarity i n this , an d oth er clays that they are m ore
.
friable aft e r b ein g dried an d th en m oisten ed

, W h en ,
.
t h e fu ll er s earth is thorou ghly baked t h e l u mps a re

’
,
placed on a flat slab with a ledge ro u n d it an d are then , ,
sprin kled with water u n til th ey cease to absorb that

l iqu id which is asc ertain ed wh en an exc ess of wate r
,
c eases to be absorbed or taken u p by t h e dried e arth , .
W Vh en t h e l u m ps have th u s b eco m e sa tu rate d t h e clay ,
becom es v ery so ft an d pasty to th e tou ch I t i s n ow to .
be dri e d at a v ery gen tl e heat u n til all t h e wat e r is ,
exp e lled wh en it will ass u me t h e fo rm of a fi n e bu t n ot

, ,
i mpalpable po wder In this con dition it is easily redu ce d

.
to a po wder bu t i n case th ere m ay be an y l u m ps presen t

, ,
i t shou ld be si fte d thro u gh a fi n e gau ze wire si e ve - .
To mi x t h e fu ll er s ea rth with soap (res i n soap by ’
preferen ce) t h e latter shoul d be pu t i n to a steam jacket

,
an an d t h e earthy powde r spread ov e r t h e s u rface a littl e

p , ,
at a time with con stan t cru tc hin g u n til th e fu ll q u an ti ty

, ,
has been in trod u ced B earin g i n mi n d ho we ver tha t .

, ,
t h e drie d clay is h ighly absorb en t afte r a c ertain q u an ,
tity has been worked i n t h e m ass will becom e con sider ,
a bly stiffen ed a n d th e r eby ren de r t h e cru tch i n g both

,
laboriou s an d diffi cu lt th e refore to m ake u p for t h e wate r , ,
e xp e lle d fro m t h e soap by e vaporatio n a sm all qu an tity ,
of hot wate r m a b add d i f n ec e ssary an d fi n ally a n

y e e y , , ,
de sired p erfu m e added i f for a toile t soap In this way , .

CHA P TE R XII .
D I S IN F E OTIN G S OA P .
Ch l ori di sed S an i t ary Soap — Bl each i n g S oap i n t h e P an — P earl ash . added

t o C ombi n ed S oap — Li me S oap , by L u n ge s M eth od
’
. .
C h l or i di s e d S a n i t a r y S oa p .
—Th e
obj ect of t h e proc ess ,
for which t h e a u th or obtain ed a paten t i n 1 8 65 was t o ,
i m p art to ordin ary ho u sehold an d toile t so aps disin fect ,
i n g d e odorisi n g a n d bl e ach i n g prop erties an d at t h e

, , ,
sa m e ti m e t o i n cr e a se t h e d e t e rsi v e actio n of t h e so ap .
Th e m a t e rial e m ploye d wa s cl zl or zde of soda which wa s ,
p rep ared by m ixi n g chloride of lim e (ble achin g po wd er )

work e d u p i n t o a t h i n pa st e with cold wate r with a ,
—
sol u tion of c arb on at e of soda eith e r so da crysta ls or
soda ash b e i n g u se d a c c ordi n g t o co n v en i e n c e
,
Th e d ou bl e .
deco m positio n which t ak es pl ac e wh en t h e t wo su bstan c e s

(c h lo r id e of lim e a n d so d a ) a r e.
bro u ght i n co n t act r esu l t s ,
i n t h e form ation of ch l orid e of so da i n sol u tio n an d car ,
bo n ate of lim e as an in solu ble pr ecipita te .
To ma ke tbe D i si nfect i ng l lfi xtn re Take of ch lori de

.
-
of lim e 28 lbs an d m i x i n to a thi n p a ste or

. cream with
a bo u t 1 0 g allo n s of cold wa t e r th en di ssolv e 3 2 lbs of so da
,
.
c rys tals i n 1 8 gal lon s of h ot water Th e sol u tion of soda

.
is to be pl aced i n a clean t u b or ca sk (a steam e d oil cask

will do ) an d a cru tch pla ced i n i t for sti rrin g
, Two strip s .
o f wood are th e n laid a cross t h e u pp er ri m of t h e v e ss e l ,
u on which a fi n e wi r e ga u ze si e v e is to be r ested T h e
p
-
.
c h loride m ixtu re is n ow to be ladled in to t h e si eve an d as ,
e a c h l adlefu l is i n t rod u c e d t h e co n t en ts of t h e v e ss e l a re t o
be briskly stirred .Th e o bj ect of p assin g t h e chloride

Oth erwi se ch l ori na ted li me .
D IS I N F E C TIN G S OA P . xx3
th ro u gh a sieve is to keep back u n m ix ed lu m ps fragmen ts ,
of wood ,
an d oth er i m p u riti e s W h en n early all t h e .
chloride has been added with con stan t stirrin g t h e m ass , ,
thicken s an d i n a fe w m om en ts after it b ecom es m ore

fl u id wh en t h e deco m position is com plete an d th e m ix tu r e
, ,
is re ady for u se .
Th e proportion of soap for on e fram e b ein g pu t in to t h e

fram e t h e m ixtu r e i s to be adde d a pailfu l a t a ti m e an d
, ,
well cru tch ed by on e or b preferen ce t wo m en c are b ein g

, ,
taken to clear t h e so ap rom th e sides an d en ds of th e

fram e oth erwise dark p atch e s of th e origin al so ap will
,
appear wh en t h e m ass is cold .
Th e b est kin d of soap for con ve rti n g i n to t h e san itary

soap is a sti ff c u rd from which t h e l eys have been ,
allo wed to drain a s mac/i a s p ossi ble by se veral hou rs ,

’
repose i n th e soap pan I t i s also im portan t that t h e soap

-
.
shou ld n ot be of a h i gher temperatu re than 1 3 0 to 1 5 0 F ° °

.
,
otherwise separatio n m ay occ u r This is ho we ver readily .

, ,
avoided by adoptin g t h e precau tion su ggested A fte r .
cr u tchi n g t h e soap is a llo wed to cool as u su al an d is then

, ,
cu t i n to bars i n t h e ordi n ary way .
W h en this soap is prep ared from ordin ary Lon don grey
m ottled soap t h e bleachi n g prope rty oft h e chloride of sod a
,
wi l l m an ifest itself by t h e su perior colo u r of t h e so ap ,
which while pre serv i n g to som e e xt en t t h e m ottle or

, , ,
”
strike , will be con side ra bly i m prove d ; an d i f t h e
origin al soap h a s been m ade fro m ran k an d coarse goods ,
t h e chloride will have dim in ish e d th e ir disagreeable odo u r

in a degree I n deed t h e chlorin ated soap has a n
e xeceg
ea .
,
ri n gtl y agreeable odo u r as compared with ordi n ary

m ottled soaps I t wi l l be obs erved that i n addi n g t h e
.
,
above m ixtu re to soap t h e carbon ate of lim e r esu ltin g from

,
t h e decom position also en te rs t h e soap , an d this m ight

n at u rally app ear obj ectio n able I t is bu t right to m en tio n
.
th e refore that wh en t h e m ixt ure is prop erly prepared an d ,
its in corpo ration with t h e tr u e so ap satisfactoril y aecom

p l i sh ed t h e i m palpabl e particle s of carbo n ate of lime are
,
n ot p e rc eptible n eith e r do th ey pres en t an i n co n v en i en c e

, y
when th e soap i s u sed for la u n d ry or oth er pu rposes while , ,
on t he oth er han d its ve ry su perior cl ean si n g an d

,
bleachin g powers ren der it in fi n itely m ore econ o m ical to

t h e u ser . I t has b een fo u n d i n large la u n dries that
wo m en whose han ds had s u ffe re d m u ch fro m u sin g m ottl e d
soap con tain in g cau stic l ey i n its in te rstice s were agr e e ,
ably su rprised to fi n d their excoriated han ds assu me

t h e n orm al con dition a fter u si n g t h e chloridis ed soap for a
short tim e In d eed it is a fact that this compou n d so ap
.
imparts a m ost a greeable sm oothn ess to t h e sk i n which , ,
aft er u sin g it becom e s rem ark ably so ft an d glossy

, .
In stead of em pl oy i n carbon ate of soda i n preparin g t h e

ch loride of soda as bef ore described a sol u tion of silicat e
, ,
of soda glass liq u or ) may be u sed for which s u gge stio n

( ,
t h e a u thor was i n debt e d to his fri en d M r J oh n C o wan of .

,
t h e Barn e s Soap W orks In this case th e follo win g pro

.
,
portion s m ay be taken .
C h loride of li me work e d u p i n to a thi n paste or crea m ,
as b e for e 20 lbs silic ate of soda 20 lbs dissolve d i n warm

.
, .
wate r u n til i t m arks abou t 1 8 T waddell These materials

°
.
a re to be m ix e d an d u s e d i n t h e sam e m an n e r as b efore ,
a n d t h e proportio n s of t h e chlorin ated m ixt u re m ay be
re gu lated accordin g to t h e n atu re of th e soap from fo u r to ,
six 60 l b pailfu ls b ein g a fair proportio n for a hal f ton

.
- -
fram e .
W h en th e chloridis ed soap h as b een well prepared li n en ,
a n d floor boards wash e d wit h it b eco m e r em arkably whit e

-
with com parative ly littl e labo u r which facts have been ,
dem on strat ed by rep eat e d an d e xt en sive trials .
I t sho u ld be m en tion ed that th e chloride has t h e effect

of con side rably harden in g soaps fr e e fro m r esin an d i s ,
sp ecially available for soaps con tai n i n g a large p ercen tage

of cocoa n u t oil
-
an d ev en a fte r b e in h eavily ru n or
liqu or ed with silicate solu tion se vera 60 lb pails of t h e
, .
chloride m ixtu re may be added with advan tage Soap of .
this ki n d however shou ld be cru tch ed as u su al u n til begin , ,

”
n i n g to se t .
A n i m portan t appl i c ation of t h e chlorid e of soda i s i n

bl eachin g soap made fro m th e darkest n igers which m ay ,
b ff ct d b i trod u ci n
g certa i n p p
r o ort t ons of t h e
e e e e
y n
S OA P - M A K IN G
1 16 TH E A R T OF .
L i m e S oa p , b y L a n ge
’
s M e t h od — A flat- bottom ed pan i s
p referre d for makin g this soap i n to whic h is i n trod u ce d
,
any given qu an tity of fatty m atte r To this i s adde d .
dou ble t h e qu an tity of water an d slaked lime e u al to

Th e vfhol e is
,
1 2 per c en t of t h e weight of fa tty m atte r

. .
to be boil ed an d stirred (with an agitator by prefe ren c e ) ,
wh en an in solu ble hard lim e soa p an d a sol u tion of

glycerin e are produ ced wh en th e latter may be drawn ofl
'
fro m t h e bottom of t h e pan A c ertai n qu an tity of wate r

.
an d comm ercial carbon ate of soda (t h e latte r bei n g slightly ,
i n exc ess of t h e qu an tity of lim e u sed ) are n ext added an d ,
th e boilin g an d stirrin g co n tin u ed when t h e hard in sol u bl e

,
lim e soap will be de com posed an d a gran u lated car

,
bon ate of lim e will deposit le avin g a sol u ble soda so ap

,
floatin g i n flakes on t h e s u rfac e of t h e liqu id If t h e soda .
e m ployed do es n ot co n tai n s u fi ci en t salt a s u fficien t ,
qu an t ity of sea salt is to be added t o p rom ote t h e

separa tion .
In this way , t h e i n v en tor says “

it is possible to
,
m ake a good soap fro m fatty m atte rs with membran e s or ,
i m p u re oils wi t hou t previo u sly e xtractin g t h e p u re fat or

,
oil Wh en cocoa n u t or pal m oil is sapon i fi ed by this

.
- -
roc e ss t h e q u a n tity of li m e sho u ld be eq u al to a bo u t on e

p ,
fi ft h of th e weight of th e fatty m atter Th e soap thu s .
prepared i s stated t o be ve ry sol u bl e e ven i n salt wa ter , ,
a n d th erefore a tolerabl u re c a rbo n a ted alk ali sho u ld be

y p
u se d
.
C HA P TER X III .
S A P ONIFI OA TI ON UN D E R P RE S S UR E .
Ben n ett an d G i bbe sP rocess — M r Roger s s P rocess — N e w P rocess of

’ ’
. .
S ap on i fi ca ti on G l u t en i n S oap
.
-
.
B en n et t an d Gi b b e ’
s P r oc e s s —
have b een several . Th ere
a ttem pts to produ c e sapon i fi cat i on by oth er than t h e
ordin ary m ean s in clu din g t h e cold proce ss of M r
, .
H awes before described i n which agitation of t h e

, ,
m aterials p erform s t h e preli m in a ry sta g e of t h e op eratio n .
M essrs B enn ett an d G i bbs of N e w Yor k obtai n ed a p a te n t

.
i n 1 8 65 for a m echan ical process which is said to poss ess

t h e followi n g adv an tages : 1 R apidity of m an u factu re ; .
2 I mprovem en t i n qu alit
. 3 I n cr eas ed q u a n tity ; .
4 Eco n o my i n labo u r ; 5
. av i n g i n fu el ; 6 Th e u se of
. .
ch eaper materials ; 7 Sapon i fi cati on of all t h e grea s e ;

.
8 Savi n g of t h e glyc e ri n e which en ters in to th e soap

.
,
.
Th e followi n g d escri ptio n of t h e proc ess is given i n

D u ssau ce
’
s Treati se .
Their process con sists i n agi tati n t h e sapon i fi abl e

m aterials with cau stic or carbon ated a kalie s i n solu tio n
i n wate r i n a cl osed vessel whil e u n de r h eat a n d pre ssu re
, ,
i n su ch a m an n e r as to cau s e a thoro u gh m ixin g of t h e

fats with th e alkalin e sol u tion an d produ cin g an i n sta n ,
t an eou s com bi n ation of t h e fatty acids with t h e bas e of th e

alkalin e solu tion W e su ppose a qu an tity of fatt matte r
.
e n clos ed i n a vess e l with a solu tion of carbon ate 0 soda i n

wate r an d h eat applie d to prod u c e a pre ss u re of 220 to
,
28 0 lbs per squ are i n ch an d a t em p erat u re of 3 5 0 to

°
.
,
4 0 0 F a co mbin ation b et ween t h e fatty acids an d t h e

°
.
,
soda of th e solu tio n will take place on ly at th e u pper su r

fa ce of th e sol u tion wh en i n con tac t wit h t h e u n de r s u rface
P - M A K IN G
1 18 TH E A R T OF S OA .
of th e gr ease the h ea vy l ey occu pyin g th e lo we r part of

,
t h e v e ss el an d soap will o n ly be produ c e d wh er e t h e fa t

,
a n d alkali u n ite .
“
I f we n ow agitate i n s u ch a m an n e r as to st1 r toge th er
a n d th orou ghly m i x t h e co n ten ts of t h e v e ss el t h e whol e ,
will be i n stan tly con ve rte d in to a hom ogen eou s an d e v en

q u ality of soap I t is advisable to u se n o m ore water than
.
is wan te d i n t h e soap .
Th e in v e n tors u se a boi ler or cylin der si milar to a

plain cylin der steam boiler r estin g hori zo n tall y an d
-
,
h eated i n an y con v en ien t m an n e r On e or both h eads of .
t h e cyli n d e r is m ade so as to be con ven i en tly r em ovabl e ,
an d is abo u t t h e fu ll size of t h e i n n e r diameter of t h e
I'h g 21
'
. .
cyli n de r so as t o adm it of th e i n sertio n of a r evolvin g

,
shaft a a a (F i g
, which sho u ld be as lon g as t h e
.
cylin de r itsel f Th e bearin gs of this shaft sho u ld be i n

.
t h e c en tre of t h e cylin de r an d e ith er or bo t h en ds worked

,
throu gh a st u ffi n g box c for t h e con ven ien ce of applyin g

-
to t h e pu lley It po wer to revolv e th e shaft On t h e sha ft .
a re fast en e d arm s 9 g with floats or stirr e rs f j , exten di n g
n early to t h e sid e s of t h e cyli n de r ; t h e a r m s floats or , ,
a git a tors on on e side of t h e sha ft wh en r evolve d carryi n g
t h e fa t do wn i n to t h e al kali whil e t h e a i ta t ors on t h e

oth er side carry th e alkali u p in to t h e f
,
at th u s while , ,
u n d e r h ea t an d pre ss u r e thorou ghly m i xin g t h e whole

, ,
an d ca u sin g t h e con v ersio n of t h e whol e con t en ts of t h e
v e ssel i n s ta n tly in to a u n i form e ven an d good qu ality of , ,
so ap .
process i s 200 lbs of soap for every 1 0 0 lbs of grease

. .
e mploy ed .
Th e proce ss is stated to be applicabl e to makin g an y

kin d of soap i n cl u di n g so ft soap which is prepared with
, ,
t h e sam e rapidity as an y othe r withou t r eq u irin g th e u se ,
of so m u ch pot a sh as i n t h e ordin ary re cess e s .
M r G W R oge r s s P r oc e s s
. . . y an othe r process
’
.
,
n am e ly that of M r
, G W Rogers of L an caste r N Y
. . .
, . .
,
so ap is m ade u n der pressu re at a low temp erature in stea d ,
of t h e high t em peratu re adopte d i n t h e abov e an d si mila r
syst em s by which t h e i n ven tor state s th e re i s a savin g of

,
tim e in asm u ch as t h e soap can be m ade i n from fi fteen t o

,
twen ty fi ve m in u tes with com plete sapon i fi cati on B y

-
, .
t his pl an m oreover t h e m ate ri als beco m e blea cbcd th u s

, , ,
en ablin g i n fe rior goods to be e m p l oy e d i n t h e m an u fact u r e .
Th e m aterials are m ix ed i n a tan k h ea t ed by ste am an d ,
t h e m ass th u s prepare d is ru n i n to an iron cylin der cap able

of holdi n g on e or m ore ton s an d su bj e cte d to a pressu re of ,
abou t 4 00 lbs to t h e squ are in ch by m ean s of a fo rce

.
p u m p driven by steam Th e m ass is kept i n th i s cylin d e r

.
u n t i l sapon i fi c a t i on is com pl e t e wh e n it is r u n i n to fra m e s , .
B y this syst em an y of t h e u su al com bi n ation s of fa tty

m atte rs m ay be em ploy ed an d t h e produ ct is said t o be ,
both fi rm an d tran sl u cen t It shou ld be observ ed that i n .
both processes given carbon at e of so da is u sed i n stead of

cau sti c soda which also ren ders t h e employm en t of
,
c o m m on salt u n n e c essary .
N e w P r oc e s s of S a p on i fi c a t i on M B ergh art has .

-
.
p aten ted a proc ess by which an i mal or ve getable fats or

oils are distilled in to cau stic or carbo n ated l ey s of soda or
potash Th e fatty m at t er is pl ace d i n a j a cketed retort
.
,
h e at ed by high pre ssu re st eam or i n a r etort oth er wise

-
,
h e ated to a t em p era t u re which will volatili se t h e oil or fat

witho u t ch art i n g it W hen t h e oil or fat be gin s to
.
v ola tilis e , air or carbon ic acid gas is blo wn i n t o t h e
r etort whi ch carri es over t h e fatty acids which are con

, ,
den se d i n pr e pe r r ec eive rs A t m osph eric a i r a lo n e or i n

.
,
c o m bi n atio n with s u pe rh ea ted st ea m is pr efe rre d i n c arry ,

.
i n g ou t t his p ar t of t h e pro cess .

B E R GH A R T S P R OC E S S
’
. 1 21
Th e c u rr en t of ai r, or st eam an d air, is som etim es blo wn

i n to th e space above th e liq u id fatty m atter i n t h e retort,
a n d wh en advisable it is blo wn dire ct in to t h e m elte d fa t .
Th e cu rren t of air has t h e effe ct of carryi n g over t h e fatty

acids i n a m ore or less fi n ely divided s tate, wh en th ey pass
in to a chamb er, or seri es of cha mbers, which are fitted
with partition s i n s u ch a way that th e c u rren t, i n passi n g
th ro u gh th em, deposits th e solid fatty acids i n t h e ordi n ary
way .
When th e fatty m atters, as pri n ters grease, for ’
i n stan c e, co n tain a l i z ari ne or oth e r colou rin g m atters,

th e fa tty acids pass ove r from t h e r etort, while t h e
alizarin e or other colo u rin g m atter r emain s i n t h e
retort , an d i s afterwards treate d to separate an y re
m ain i n g fat fro m t h e colo u rin g ma tte r, which is th u s
recove red I t is th erefore i mportan t, when ali zarin e or
.
o t he r colo ur i s prese n t, to avoid too high a t emp eratu re

i n t h e distillation.
In m akin g soap by this proc ess , th e vapou r of th e fatty

a cids i s pass ed dir ect i n to cau stic or carbo n ate l eys of soda
or po ta sh, th e str en gth of which depen ds u pon t h e n at u re

of t h e fatty m att er employ ed . If a slight exc ess of alkali
is u sed, t h e ordin ary process of salti n g i s n ot requ ired .
Th e fa tty acids are bl o wn i n to t h e l eys u n til t h e al kali

is n early or abo u t n eu tralised Th e l ey is by preferen c e
.
con tain ed i n a closed tan k, which com mu n icates direc tly

with t h e ou tle t pipe of t h e r etort .I f n ec e ssary, t h e
fa tty acids may be roasbed b efore bein g trea ted with l ey ,
i n which case th e vapo u rs are allowe d to pass i n to a
cham ber con tain in g water . Th e in ven tor refers to
e m ploy hot air an d s u perhe ate d stea m i n com i n at i on t o
c arry over t he fatty acids in to th e l ey , by which t h e soap
b ecom es boi led du rin g its formation , an d th u s time is saved
i n t h e op eration Th e ai r has an i mportan t eflect i n
'
aidin g th e ch emical reaction , a par t from i ts u se as a

v e hicl e to carry ove r t h e fa tty acids . Th e steam is u se d
prin cipal l y to pre ven t th e charrin g of th e matt ers , an d i n
t h e m a ki n g of t h e soap to assist i n t h e boili n g of t h e sam e.
By t h e e m ploy men t of t h e high te mp er at u re, t h e fat ty

13 3 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G .
acids are separate d from th e glyceryl compo u n ds witho u t

t h e aid of su lphu ric acid or of sapon i fi ca ti on .
Gl u t e n i n S oa p — This proce ss paten ted by Le rb erg

, ,
c on sists i n m aki n g a sol u tio n of gl u t en i n caustic alk ali ,
whi ch i s after wards to be mixed with soa to t h e exten t of

p
abou t t en per c en t . I t is said t o 1 mpart in crease d
em ol l i en cy to t h e soap . Th e solu tio n of gl u ten is th u s
m ade — I n a sol u tion of cau stic alkali (soda or potassa )
at abou t 28 B as m u ch bran or lu ten derived from
°
.
,
an y oth er so u rc e is adde d as t h e alk

, i will take u p afte r
digestin g for som e hou rs wh en a clear hom ogen eo u s
,
m ass is obtain ed . This is n ow strain ed thro u gh a fi n e

si eve or coarse cloth when it is ready to be added to t h e
,
soap i n th e proportion given I t m u st be born e i n m i n d

.
th at n itrogen ou s m at ters s u ch as gl u te n are apt to

, ,
u n dergo deco mpositio n on tr ea t men t wi t h ca u s t ic alkali .

dissolve bu t witho u t boili n g If it is n ot su ffi ci en tly hard

, .
wh en dissolved brin e is to be added u n ti l it becom es qu it e

,
thick Th e n ovelty of this proc ess co n sists i n t h e u se

.
“
o f c au stic pota sh an d dissolvi n g a n d warmin g u t h

,
”
p e
soap a se co n d ti me withou t boilin g it .
L a mb s r t on s P r oc e s s con sists i n sa on i f i n g fatt

’
p y y
m atte rs by boilin g th em with an a lkali n e mi xtu re com
posed of carbo n ate of soda q u ickli m e common salt an d , , ,
al u m t h e i n gr edi en ts b ein g m i xed i n t h e followi n g pro

,
—
portion s z Su b carbon ate of soda 1 0 parts ; qu icklim e
-
, ,
1 0 parts ; alu m 1 part ; comm on salt 1 part

, Th ese , .
,
bein g m i x ed with water are added to th e fatty m atters , ,
an d t h e whol e well boil e d wh en i t is said th ey will be , , ,
com e p erfectly sa n i fi ed Th e so ap produ ced by this .
proc ess con tain s a th e glyce rin e an d t h e produ ct will be ,
a h ard soap of ve ry fi n e ch a ra cte r ; has n o di sagreeabl e
sm ell an d can con sequ en t ly be u s ed for toilet or ordi n ary

,
”
wa shi n g p u rpos es .
M r S y m on s s D i s i n fe c t i n g S oa p con sists i n addi n g to

.
’
ordin ary soaps t h e disi n fe ctin g a n d de odorisi n g su bst a n c e
kn own as thy mol or tby mi c acid which i s solu ble i n water , ,
i n sol u tion s of alkalies &c form i n g co mpou n ds which ,

.
,
a re sol u ble i n wat e r I t s advan tages ove r carbolic acid

.
,
c reosote &c are that it has n o u n pleasan t taste or odo u r

, .
, ,
b e in g very aromatic I ts solu tion s are stron gly an t i sep

.
tic an d possess disin fectin g prope rties i n a highe r degree

,
than carbolic acid an d its weaker sol u ti on s do n ot ac t

,
”
eau t eri si n gl y bu t coolin gly .
S oa p s m a d e fr om A n i m a l R e fu s e A lthou gh it i s .
-
well kn o wn that ca u stic al ka lie s will sapon i fy an im a l

tissu e s m embran eou s m atters an d i n deed all parts of
, ,
an imals e xcept t he bo n e this sou rc e of soap m akin g ,

-
m ate rial has n ot been m u ch explored i n this cou n try On .
t h e C on t in en t howe ve r so m e atten tion has b een de voted

, ,
to th is s u bj ect an d man y proce sses devised for u tili zi n g

,
slau ghterers offal an d b u tch ers waste as soap m a te rial

’ ’
.
Som e of the se proce sses are given i n D ussau ce s Trea ti se

’
,
from which we make a fe w e xtracts

B e r n a d e t s P r oce s s Th e i n te sti n es are deposite d i n
" ’ -
.
VA R I OUS P R OCE S S E S . 1 25
cau stic l ey to preven t decom posi tion u n til th ey are to be

u se d . Th e l ey is th e n h e a t ed u n til en tire sapon i fi cat i on
take s place which op eratio n is easy a n d a very slightly
, ,
colou red grey soap is obtain ed I f req u i red to be whiten ed .

,
a solu tion of chlo ride of soda (see page 1 1 2) is pou red i n to

t h e p an a fte r whi ch comm o n sal t is added to p rod u c e
,
s eparatio n .
V i l l a r t a P r oc e s s h as for its o bj e ct t h e co n ve rsio n of

’
an i m al matters i n ge n era l i n to soap bu t m ore e specially ,
t h e r esid u u m of m eat scrapin gs of t allo ws (qu e ry su e ts )

, , ,
i n testi n es etc F rom these t wo kin ds of soap are obtain ed

,
.
,
t h e first of a green ish white colou r n ot v ery fi rm an d -

, ,
h avin g a disagree able odo u r ; t h e secon d is s i m ila r to t h e

above bu t with t h e addi tio n of resi n an d t allo w p rope rly
, ,
sapon i fi e d a n d m ix e d with t h e a n i m al soap Th e pro ‘ ’

.
.
cess is di vided i n to fo u r operation s

1 M acera ti on
. Th e s u bst an c e s a re pl ac ed i n woode n
.
t u bs capable of h oldi n g abo u t 30 0 or 400 l bs wh en a l ey .

,
com pos ed as follo ws is po u re d over th em — L im e 1 0 p ar t s ; ,
soda a sh 1 2 parts ; water 1 0 0 p arts Th e lim e is first

, , .
.
slaked an d t h e soda ash dissolved i n water an d this is ,
then pou red on t h e lim e with sti rri n g an d t h e m ixtu re , ,
th en pou red over t h e an i mal su bstan ces t h e whole bei n g ,
allo wed t o rem ain i n this c on ditio n for so me t ime bu t ,
with occasion al s t i r rin g .
“
2 Wa sbi ng
. Wh en t h e sapon i fi cat i on (by m ac era
.
tio n ) has been effected t h e a n im al su bstan ces are wash ed

,
i n t u bs to r em ove t h e lim e attach e d to th em aft er which

, ,
th ey are exposed to th e action of t h e ai r .
3 S ol u ti on
. A ft e r su ffi ci en t expos u re to th e air th e
.
,
an im al s u bst an ce s are placed i n a pan wi th a su ffi cien t ,
q u a n t i ty o f w at er a n d for e v e r y po u n d of th em a dd
,
1 2 gallon s of l ey at 4 pre pared as foll o ws —

°
Soda ash ,
1 lb . lim e 1 l b water 6 lbs This l ey m arks

,
. an d
, .
has al ways su cceeded ; however weaker or stron ger ley s ,
m ay be u sed tha t i s fro m 20 to , an d give good

°
res ults .
“
Th e a n im al m atter s bem g c o m ple t e l y di ssolved t h e ,
sol u tio n is to be po u r e d off from t h e lim e an d t h e sol u ,

1 36 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K I N G .
tion agai n boiled addin g d u ri n g t h e boilin g 25 gallon s

, , ,
of t h e s eco n d l ey for e ve ry 2 l bs of s u bstan c e an d con .

,
t i n u e to bo i l u n til on cooli n g it has t h e app e aran c e of a

, ,
fi rm past e .
4 C octi on
. Th e obj ect of this operation i s to gi ve
.
th e so ap a con sisten cy which will r en de r it sal eable as a

comm ercial articl e for which p u rpose tallo w an d resi n are
,
added i n preportion s varyin g from 2 to 1 0 0 per c en t i n .
t h e s e con d l ey above giv en Thu s for treatin g 5 00 lbs .

, .
of t h e soap first obtai n ed tak e : r e si n 1 0 0 1bs ; tall ow , , .

,
5 0 1bs ; liq u or N o 2 200 lbs

. These are to be boiled
, .
, .
u n til pe r fectly sapon i fi ed wh en t h e former soap i s to be ,
add ed little by little to avoid too mu ch s wellin g an d th e

, , ,
boili n g con tin u e d u n til th e paste on cooli n g becom e s , ,
hard wh en it is ru n i n to fram es, an d may be cu t i n abou t

,
”
t wo days a fte r .
C r ev e l s P r oce s s — M e1t i n boili n g wa te r t h e g reas es

’
.
,
m ea ts or oth e r parts of an im als press an d keep t h e re

, , ,
d a u m ; tritu rate an d grin d t h e r esidu u m m ac erate it i n ,
alk alin e liqu or for s everal d ays ; pu t t h e m acerated su b

stan c e in to a pan a n d boil u n til perfect liqu efaction take s
,
place wh en it m u st be allo wed to cool Th e m ass is th en

,
.
to be h eate d agai n an d alkali added gradu ally care bein g , ,
taken n ot to em ploy too stron g a l ey W h en th e m ixtu re .
has acqu ired t h e proper alkalin e stren gth t h e h eat is

slacken ed an d t h e m ass allo wed to cool F ro m 1 0 to 1 5 .
er c en t of r e sin sho u ld be added to t h e above an d wh en

p .
,
sapon i fi cat i on is co m pl e t e d t h e so a p is fram ed as u s u al .
Vi l l a c r os e s P r oc e s s — I n this proc e ss an i m al su b
’
'
—
stan ce s are sa pon i fi ed as follows Take an im al s u bstan ces ,
20 0 l bs cau stic soda 1 0 lbs m elt ed tallo w 4 0 lbs

.
,
.
,
.
Th e pan is first to be h eat ed an d wh en warm t h e soda is , , ,
to be thro wn i n t h e small qu an tity of water it con tain s

,
b ein g su ffi cien t to dissolve it N ow im m ediately in tro .

,
du ce t h e an im al su bstan ce s an d stir well Th e h eat m u st .
be g en tl e a t first an d t h e te mp eratu re grad u ally raised to

,
1 67 F D u ri n g t h e m eltin g t h e mass m u st be stirred

°
.
u n ti l it thick en s th en add t h e 4 0 lbs ,

of t al l o w (with a .
l i ttl e water i f n ecessary ) , whi ch soon beco mes sapon ified,

C HA P TER XV .
M A N UFA OT UR E OF S OF T S GA P S
'
P reparati on of t h e P ota sh L ey — Th e F at ty M a ter i al s E mpl oy ed — S cot ch

.
S oft S oap — Lon don Crown S oap — Resi n i n S oft Soaps — C on

. .
ti n en tal M eth ods .
A L T H OU G H t h e prod u ction of so ft soaps is fa r l ess e xten sive

t han of those comm on ly kn o wn as ha rd so aps , still it is an
importan t bran ch of t h e m an u factu re, si n ce th ese soaps
a re e m ploye d i n m an y u s efu l arts, as for ex ample i n t h e
dr essi n g of woollen textil e fa brics .
Th e alkali em ploy ed i n t h e m a n u factu re of so ft soaps is

potash , an d it is a characteristic of all soaps m ade with
t h is al kali that i n stead of assu m in g a hard solid con
, ,
sisten c e as is t h e c ase with soaps m ade fro m soda th ey

, ,
a re al ways soft t en aciou s an d m or e or l ess tran spar e n t

, ,
.
M oreover potash soaps al ways con tai n a large percen ta ge

,
of wat e r m or e i n a s t ate of m echan ical m ixtu re tha n i n

,
ch em ical combin ation ; an d while 3 parts of fatty m atter

will gen erally yi eld abo u t 5 parts of soda soap t h e sam e ,
p roportio n of fatty m atter treate d with cau stic potash l ey

, ,
will yi eld from 6 t o 7 parts of potash soap .
P otash leys can n ot be separate d from th e soap as i n ,
th e ordi n ary m ethod of pu ri fyi n g soda soaps ; th er efor e t h e

leys em ployed wholly en ter i n to t h e composition of t h e
soap M u ch care is th erefore n ecessary to avoid i n trodu c
.
i n g too gr eat an e xc ess of t h e alkali .
P r e p ar a t i on of t h e P ot a s h L e m— Th e p earlash of com
m erc e or A m erican potash (c au s t ic pota sh ) are ordi n ar i l y
, ,
u s ed for th i s p u rpos e an d t h e form e r is co n verte d i n to

,
ca usti c potash by m e an s of fre sh li m e i n t h e sam e way as

, ,
i n preparin g soda l ey s I t is u su ally t h e practic e to pre

.
M A N UF A C T UR E OF S OF T S OA PS . [ 29
p ar e l eys of t wo or thre e di f fe ren t degr ees of stren gth ,
t h e weake r of which is em ploy ed i n t h e first op erati o n of

a sti ng or pr elimin ary stage of sap on i fi cat i on
p , .
On t h e C o n ti n en t po tash l eys are prepared as follows

I f t h e potash is i n t h e form of hard l u m ps th ese are fi rst ,
”
cru sh ed on a hard ston e by m ean s of an iron pun n er ,
an d i f 3 0 0 or 4 0 0 gallo n s of l e re r eq u ired fro m 4 5 0 to

y a ,
5 00 gallo n s of water are pu t in to a n iron pan an d bro u ght -

,
t o a boi l Th e potash is th en added a li ttle at a tim e

. , ,
u n til t h e whol e q u an tity is dissolved ; bu t care is taken
that each por tion is di ssol ved be fore addi n th e n ext an d ,
so on an d t h e solu tion of t he alkali is acc e crated by con

,
t i n u al stirrin g Th e boili n g is kept u p u n ti l t h e solu tion

.
,
while boili n g m arks from 20 to 22 B

,
° °
.
To cau stici so t h e above sol ution of carbon ate of potash ,
fro m 60 to 70 per c en t of fresh lime mu st be t aken t h e

.
,
weight of lim e b ei n g de te r m i n e d by that of t h e potash

u s ed . Th e lime m u st firs t be slak ed with water as u s u al
«
, ,
an d t h e hydrate of lim e th u s form ed is to be grad u ally
added to t h e hot sol u tion of potash ; it is ho we ver con , ,
si dered pre ferabl e to m ak e t h e lim e i n to mi l k o f l i me by ,
m ixi n g it wit h a m oderate q u an tity of water While t h e .
li m e is bein g i n trodu ced th e m ix tu re is to be kept well

,
stirred an d t h e boilin g sho u ld be con tin u ed for se vera l

,
hou rs wh en t h e fi re is withdr awn an d t h e m ixtu re

,
allo wed to rest so that t h e carbon ate of li me m ay

,
gradually su bside This l ey wh ic h is called th e first or

.
, ,
strong l ey sho u ld stan d a t fro m 20 to 25 B Th e cl ear

° °
.
,
l ey is n ext r u n ofi i n to an iro n tan k or cistern , which

'
m u st be kept closed to preven t t h e absorptio n of carbon ic

acid from t h e air Wh en all t h e clear l ey is dra wn off
.
,
an eq u al q u a n tity of wat er is po u r e d on to t h e lim e an d t h e ,
w ell stirr e d for a short ti m e a fte r whic h it is allo wed

p an ,
to rest u n til t h e li m e has agai n deposited wh en t h e clear ,
l ey c all ed t h e second ley (m arki n g from 1 2 to 1 6 B ) is

,
° °
.
t o be dra wn off i n to a s eparate tan k A third dose of wate r

.
is th en po u red i n an d t h e pan again stirred as before an d

, ,
a fte r abo u t t welve hou rs repose a Mi n i l ey is obtai n ed a t

’
,
abo u t 6 t o 8 13 Further wash in gs of t h e l ime may th en

° °
.
K
r3o TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
be gi ven , u n til th e lim e is perfectly freed from the alkali ,
a n d th es e lat te r washi n gs m ay be use d i n lieu of wate r i n
s u bsequ en t operation s or i n stead of u sin g p u re wate r i n

,
dissolvin g fresh qu an tities of potash when preparin g othe r

b atches of l ey .
So m e man u factu rers em ploy variable ropor ti on s of soda

with their potash leys by which t h e sof , t soaps made with
th em acqu ire a fi rmer con sisten ce than wh en ca u stic po ta sh
alon e i s u sed besides which an advan tage is gain ed by
,
u sin g a proportion of th e che aper alkali When this is .
th e case t h e soda may be dissol ved with t h e potash i n t h e

fi rst i n s tan c e t h e proportion of soda to th at of potash
,
bei n g from 1 2 to 20 per cen t ; bu t W hen a large r pro .
porti on th an 1 5 per cen t of soda is u sed th e r esu ltin g

.
,
soap will n ot be so tran sparen t as ordin ary soft soaps .
The P a t ty M a t e r i a l s e m p l oy e d — Th ese are t h e .
an im al an d v e geta ble oil s Of t h e an imal oils those .

,
of t h e whal e se al an d c od are chi efly u s ed ; t h e v e e

, , g
table oil s are olive hempseed lin seed rapeseed coleseed
, , , , ,
colza poppy &c Som eti mes oleic acid, palm oil an d
, , .
-
,
small qua n ti ti es of tallo w a re also employed i n t h e m an u

fact u re bu t t h e latte r i s on ly u s ed to give th e soap a
,
ran ul ar or fi lik e ap pearan c e

-
g .
In m akin g ft Soap t h e se lect ed oil s are fi rst pu t i n to

,
th e pan an d moderat e h ea t applied u n til t h e oils have be

,
come thorou ghly li q u e fi ed when t h e ti ezrd ley m arkin g

'
, ,
from 6 to 8 B is run i n gradu ally with con tin u al stir

° °
.
,
rin g u n til a perfect co mbin ation of th e al kali an d

,
matters is effe cted whi ch is determin ed by t h e mass

,
assu m in g a perfectly hom ogen eou s con dition th ere bein g ,
n o u n co mbin e d oil on t h e su rface or l ey at t h e bottom of

t h e pan Th e m ixtu re is th en gen tly bro u ht to a boil
.
,
an d this is kept u p with stirrin g for se vera

, hou rs A s , .
soo n as th e paste assu m es a m oderate degree of con sisten cy ,
addition s of th e second l ey at abou t 1 2 to 1 5 B are to ,

° °
.
,
be m ade gradu ally that 1 8 a few gallon s at a tim e e ve ry

,
q u arte r of an ho u r or so con tin u in g to do this with con

,
stan t boilin g for a few hou rs du rin 8 whi ch ti me the added ,
al k ali will become gradu al l y absorbed .

1 32 TH E A R T OF S OA P M A K IN G -
.
is said to wan t strengt/z; or i f th e op aqu e frin ge fi rst

app ears an d th en van i shes it is said to have fa lse stren g th
, ,
an d i n dic a te s that t h e sapon i fi cat i on is i n co m ple te .
S c ot c h S oft S oa p — A con sid erable qu an tity of so ft soap

is m ade i n Scotlan d an d, a ccordin g to Ure t h e followi n g
,
’
,
process is th at gen erally adopt ed 273 gallon s of whale

o r cod oil an d 4 c wt of ta llo w are u t i n to t h e so ap pan
p .
-
, , ,
with 25 0 gallon s of l ey from A m e rican po t ash of su ch ,
alkalin e stre n gth th a t on e gallo n co n tain s grain s of

re al potash H ea t bein g applied to th e bottom pan t h e
.
,
m ixt u r e froths u p v ery m u ch as it approac h es t h e boilin g

t emperatu r e bu t is pre ven ted from boil in g over by bein g
,
beaten down on t h e su rfac e within t h e iron c u rb or crib ,
which su rm ou n ts th e caldro n Sho u ld it soon su bside .
in to a do u ghy lookin g paste we m ay in fer that t h e l ey

-
,
h as b een too stro n g It s prope r co n sist en c e is that of a

.
thin gl u e W e sho u ld n ow i n trod uc e abo u t 4 2 gallon s of

.
a stron ger l ey equ ival en t to , grain s of potash per

gallo n an d a fte r a short i n te rval an addit ion al 4 2 gallon s ;
,
a n d th u s su cc essively till n early 60 0 s u ch gallo n s hav e

,
b een added i n t h e whole A fter sui table boi l i n to .
sapon ify t h e fats t h e prope r qu ality of soap wi 1 be

,
obtain ed am o u n tin g i n qu an tity to 1 0 0 fi rk i n s of 64 l bs

, .
e ach fro m t h e abov e qu an tity of m ate rials I t is gen erally .
s u pposed an d I belie ve it to be tru e from my own

, ,
n u m ero u s e xp e ri m en ts u pon t h e s u bj ect that it is a m ore ,
diffi cu lt an d delicate operation to m ake a fi n e soft soap of

glassy tran sparen cy i n tersp ersed wi th t h e fi gged gran u
,
l a ti on s of st earate of potash than to m ak e a hard soap of ,

”
a n y kin d .
There can be n o dou bt wh ate ve r that co n siderable

j u dgm en t an d cau tion m u st be e xercis ed i n t h e boili n g of
so ft soaps an d i n dete rm in in g t h e ex act tim e when t h e
,
fi re sho u ld be dra wn or th e st eam tu rn ed off as t h e ca se ,
m ay be ; an d wh en this p eriod has arriv ed it is im porta n t ,
th at t h e fu rth er e vaporation of water from th e l ey shou ld

be ch ecke d n ot o n ly by t u rn i n off t h e steam bu t i f con , ,
v en i en t by i n trod u cin g in to t e soap copp er a su ffi cien t

,
-
“
Di cti on ary of Arts. M anufactures, and M i n es .
M A N UFA C T UR E OF S OF T S OA P S . 1 33
qu an tity of cold soap to re du ce th e temp erat u re of th e

m ass .
L on d on “
C r own S oa p of t h e best q u ality is m ade fro m
tal low, l ard, an d olive oil, an d th e cau stic potash leys are
-
gen erally em ployed i n t wo di fferen t degrees of stre n gth ,

t h e weak es t fro m an d t h e s tro n ge st fro m 25 to 3 0 B
° °
.
Th e propor tion s of m aterials em ploye d for 1 8 ba r rels of

soap are tall ow an d lard 5 2 lbs ea ch, an d olive-oil 70
.
gallon s A bou t 4 0 0 gal lon s of l e bein g prepare d, a third

.
of this qu an tity is first pu t in to t e pan , wh en t h e t allo w
an d lard are adde d a n d t h e st eam t u rn ed on ; wh en t h e
fats are m elted t h e olive oil is ru n i n , a n d t h e boilin g con

-
t in n ed gen tly , a fte r which t h e m ass i s a llo wed to re st for

abo u t t wo ho u rs, wh en t h e s team is again t u rn ed on , an d
abou t 20 gallon s mo re l ey added, an d t h e m a ss agai n
brou gh t to a boi l A ddition al qu an tities of l ey are add ed
.
from tim e to tim e u n til t h e frothin g a t first exc essive ,

,
be gin s to m oderate, an d e ven t u ally s u bsides, an d t h e boil

i n g is con tin u ed u n til sam pl es taken from t h e pan exhibit
t h e prop er co n sisten c e . I f t h e sam ple trie d by t h e tro we l
is strin gy, more l ey m u s t be added ; bu t i f it ap pea rs
whitish an d clo tted, this sho ws an e xc ess of l ey , wh en a
m odera te q u an tity of oi l m u st be adde d . To wards t h e
en d of t h e op e ration brisk boilin g sho u ld be giv e n , a n d
fi n ally m oderated ; an d repea ted sam ples shou ld be taken

u n ti l t h e soap is fo u n d to be pe r fe ct ed .
A s e con d qu ality of C ro wn Soap is m ade from t allo w

28 6 lbs , sp e rm -oil 8 0 gallon s, an d cau stic po ta sh l ey 1 35
.
allo ns 9 4 gallo n s of t h e l e an d t h e ta llo w are fi rst ut

g .
y p
i n to t h e pan , an d t h e steam t u rn ed on ; an d wh en t h e
tallow is m elted t h e oil i s to be i n trodu ce d, afte r which
th e ste am is to be t u rn ed off an d t h e con t en ts of t h e pan
allowed to rest for abou t t wo hou rs A t t h e en d of this
.
ti me t h e s team is again tu rn ed on , an d 1 9 gallon s of l ey

added, an d t he whole brou ght to a boil, t h e h eat bei n g
con ti n u e d u n til t h e soap appears to be abo u t hal f m ade .
9 ga llon s of l ey are th en added , with r en e we d boilin g ,

a n d fi n a l ly t h e r e m ai n in g 9 ga llo n s of l ey are i n trod u c ed ,
a n d t h e ooi l i n g co n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e s oap is co m pl ete.

r3 4 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
R e s i n i n S oft S oa p s so ft soaps resi n i s .

— I n m ak i n g
som etim es i n trodu ced to th e e xten t of 5 or 1 0 per c en t of .
t h e wei gh t of t h e fatty m at erial s u s ed Th e r esi n is .
gen eral ly i n trod u ce d in to th e pan i n t h e fo rm of a fi n e

po wde r i n t h e earliest part of t h e ope ration wh ereby i t
, ,
sapon i fi e s with t h e oth e r in gredi en ts or fatty m atte rs .
C on t i n e n t a l M et h ods — Th e m e th od adopted for in t ro .
du ci n g re sin in to this soap at Lie ge i s accordin g to ,
D u ssau ce as follo ws , W hen t he soap is n early don e ,
t h e qu an tity of re sin r eq u ir ed to be added i s d eposited i n

a large sh eet iron caldron pierced with hole s l ike a
-
,
skim m er Th i s caldron is then i mm ersed to three

.
qu arters of its h eight i n th e boilin g soap In con tact .
with t h e excess of l ey con ta in e d i n t h e soap th e re sin

sapon i fi es an d th e r e si n o u s soap pass es thro u gh t h e holes
,
of t h e caldron an d com bin e s in tim at e ly with t h e m ass of
t h e soap i n t h e k ettl e This arran gem en t deserve s to at.
tract t h e atten tio n of m an u factu rers Wh en t h e sapon i .
fi cat i on i s fi n ish ed an d wh en by a well m an aged e vapor a

, ,
-
tion t h e soap i s well boiled its n atu ral colo u r is a

, ,
bro wn ish yellow If this colou r is requ ired th e h eat is

-
.
s topp e d off an d, a fter r estin g a few hou rs th e soap is

, ,
drawn off in to barrels open at on e en d If on th e con .

,
t ra ry t h e soap i s to be green this sh ade is gi ven to it by

, ,
addin g a sm all qu an tity of in digo To prepare this .
colou r m ac erate for a few hou rs in digo of good qu ality i n

,
boili n g l ey A fter separatin g th e l ey ru b it i n a m orta r

.
, ,
an d pass it thro u gh a fi n e si e ve To colou r th e soap add .

,
a certa in qu an tity of th e paste to th e soap an d i n corporate ,

”
by good stirri n g .
In Belgiu m an d H ollan d so ft soaps are m ade from

v e getable o i ls with som e tim es t h e addition of oleic acid
, , , ,
tallow or oth er an i mal fats Th e followi n g form u la is

, .
given for a so ft soap of good qu ality z Lin s eed oil — -

,
60 0 lbs ; coles e ed oi l 8 00 lbs ; oleic acid 20 0 lbs

.
-
,
.
,
.
Th ese m at erials are first pu t in to t h e pan an d h eate d

en t l a n d wh e n i n a liq u id state 75 gallon s of ca u stic
g , ,
l a t 6 t o 8 B are added gradu ally with con

° °
ot a s
p e
y .
,
t i n u al stirri n g Th e pan i s th en bro u gh t to a boil an d

.
,
C H AP T ER XVI .
M A N UFA OTUR E OF s OF T s u p s
Bel gi an Soap R uss i an Soft Soap — G en tel e s P rocess —J acobson s P ro

’ ’
-
. . .
S oap for S il ks an d P r i n ted G oods —F u ll i n g Soap — M L och l

’
cses a
s
--
. .
sott scap .
3 6 18 3 1 1 In B elgi m a hal f hard soap is largely

S u pp - u ,
-
produ ced for t he u se of cloth m an u factu rers, an d i s

e m ploye d i n sco u rin g wooll en t extile fa brics This soap .
c o n tain s a n exc ess of alkali potash ) an e ss en tial fe atu r e i n

( ,
soaps em ployed for this pu rpose Th e cau s t ic l ey is u se d at

.
th ree diffe ren t d egrees of stren gth, n am ely, an d
30 B au me, an d th ese r epresen t t h e fi rst, second, an d th i rd

°
l eys u s ed i n t h e preparation of this soap The fa t ty .
m ate rials are divided in to thre e gro u ps, as follo ws

No I I N o I II .
3 8 0 1bs . Tal l ow 225 l bs . Tal l ow 1 5 0 l bs .
70 Tal l ow- oil 225 B l ea h ed pal m

q
oi 3 00
C ocoa -n u t oi l 150 Cocoa-n u
t oil 1 50 Cocoa-n u t oi l . 1 60
Th e qu an tity of l ey req u i site for 600 l bs of fa tty .
m at erials accordin g to e i t h e r fo rm u l a wi l l be fro m 75 0 to

, ,
775 lbs . On e third of this q u an tity m u st m a rk

an oth er third an d t h e r em ai n de r 3 0 B Th e t wo fi rst °
.
n a m e d fatty m at ters are u t i n to t h e a n wi th t h e wea k e st

p p
l ey an d th e se are boil ed togeth e r a ft e r which t h e seco n d
, ,
s tr e n gth of l e
y is add ed grad u ally follo wed by t h e ,
s tro n ge st l e Th e e n tire q u a n tity of l ey sh o u ld be i n tro

y .
d u c e d within t wo hou rs an d th e boi li n g is k ept u p u n til

,
t h e paste separa te s from t h e l ey wh en tri ed by t h e sho vel

M A N UFA C T UR E OF S OF T S OA P S . 1 37
i n th e u s u al way .Th e soap is th en al lowed to repose,

wh en th e deposited l ey is to be withdrawn , an d t h e cocoa
n u t oil i n a m elt ed stat e is th en in trodu c ed, an d a su ffi ci en t
qu an tity of l ey added to ren de r th e soap cau stic B oili n g .
m u st be con ti n u ed u n til t h e soap is su ffici en tly fi rm , a n d

wh en this co n ditio n is r each ed t h e fi re is wi t hdra wn a n d
t h e soap allo wed to cool down , afte r which it is to be tran s
ferred to shallow fram es B y t h e s ep ar ation of th e l ey
.
which tak es plac e i n t h e a bove proc ess, t h e sali n e

im pu riti es con t ai n ed i n t h e potash a re r em oved A bo u t .
1 2 c wt of soap sh ou ld r esu lt fro m t h e proportion s gi ven

. .
R uss ai n f
So t S oa p — I n R u ssia a so ft so ap is m ad e
.
from a l ey com posed of three parts R u ssian or A m eric an

potash, an d on e part pearlash (a c arb on a te of potash ) , th e
solu tio n or l ey bei n g brou gh t to 1 0 B On e h a lf of th e
°
.
l ey i s add e d to t h e oils or fa tty m a tters i n t h e pan , an d

whil e th e se a re u n d ergoi n g t h e rocess of boili n g t h e
ib
rem a in der oft he l ey is allo wed to f w slo wly i n to t h e pan
fro m a cistern situ ate d a bov e that v e ssel A fte r t h e .
n ec e ssary bo i li n g , an d wh en t h e s oap has acq u ir e d t h e
proper con sisten ce, t h e fi re i s withdra wn an d t h e soap left

i n t h e pan t o cool .
G en t el e s
’
P r o c es s — A proc e ss was su ggeste d by M
. .
G en t el e for m aki n g so ft soap wi t h on e fi ft h part of soda -
m ixe d wi t h t h e potash l ey B y pre fe ren c e, cryst al s of

.
soda are u s ed an d it is im por ta n t th at t h e leys sho u ld be

fre e fro m chloride of sodi u m or oth e r s alin e i m p u ritie s .
Th e fa tty m ateri als re com m en ded for this proc e ss are :

re d oil , 1 0 0 lbs . tallo w, 4 0 lbs h em p seed oil,. lbs-
.
J ac ob s on
’
s P r o ce s s — Th e i n ven tor p repa re s a v ery u se
.
fu l ho u sehold soap by m ixin g ol e ic acid wit h soda or potash

l ey i n t h e follo win g propo r t io n s
D i sti ll ed ol ei n e
While po u ri n g th e hot water i n to t h e pan (i n which th e

o l ei n e is fi rst pl a ced) co n stan t stirr i n g is k ept u p an d t h e ,
l y
e th e n ad de d g ra du ally w i t h co n t i n u e d a i t a t i o n u n ti l
g ,
th e m ass h as a ssu med t h e appearan c e of a thick yellowish

paste withou t gran u les After t wen t fou r h o u rs rest the ’
'
.
-
,
soap is perfectly white an d ready or use Th e advan .
tages clai med for this proc ess are t h e rapidity an d ease
with which th e soap is m ade an d i t s e xtreme sim plicity .
Th e in ven tor says th a t adu lteratio n i s im possible sin ce ,
other s u bstan ces i f in trod u c ed wou ld i n ter fere with th e

, ,
proc ess of sapon i fi cati on Th e econ o my of t h e proc es s

.
also stated to be an i mmrtan t feat u re i n this m ethod of

r pari n g a soft soap
p e .
S oa p for S i l k s a n d P r i n t e d Goods — Th e late P ro fessor

.
Grac e C alve rt of M an ch ester to whos e in defatigable

-
, ;
e xertion s i n in du strial ch emistry m an ufact u re rs were

in debted for mu ch valu able in formation s u gge sted t h e ,
follo win g fo rm u l a for soaps to produ ce t h e high e s t

bri ghten in g effe ct u pon t h e vario us shades of colou r
F or bleachi n g raw silk, white ol ive oil soap is u se d on

-
th e C on tin en t.
Ole ic acid, sapon i fi ed by potash l ey , i s a v ery su itable

fatty m ate rial for m akin g soft soap Th e first po tash l ey
.
sho u ld have a stren th eq u al to abou t 20 B , an d t h e soap

°
fi
.
—
m ay be fi n ish ed wi t a stron ger l ey from 25 to °
P u l l i n g S oap — Th e soa u s ed by cloth m an u factu r ers

l
.
for fu l l i n g or clean si n g woo le n cloth requ ires to be rathe r

more alkal i n e than ordin ary hou s ehold soaps, bu t at t h e
same tim e it mu st n ot con tain su ch an excess of alkali as
t o affect i nj u riou sly t h e m ore d elica te colo u rs of t h e dye d
wool . So me m a n u fac t u rers e mploy a m ixt u re of oleic acid
C H AP T ER XVII .
M A N UF A CT URE OF T OI LE T OR F A N C Y S OA P S .
A pparat us for Re-mel ti n g th e Soap — M ach i n e for Sli ci n g t h e S oa p .
R e -m el t i n g t h e S oap — M i xi n g Co l ou r i n g M att ers an d P erfum es

. .
.
t i n g t h e Soap —S tampi n g t h e Soap .
A LT H OUG H th e m an u fac tu re of toilet soaps occasion ally

fo rm s part of t h e soap m akers b u sin ess, i t is m ore gen e
’
-
rally carried on as a separate t rad e or is at tach ed to t h e ,
b u si n ess of t h e perfu m e r I n e ith er of th e latter case s

.
,
t h e so ap from which t h e toile t soaps are prod u c e d is

gen erally fu rn ish ed by th e lar r soap makers an d is -
,
re m elt ed p erfu med an d tin t ed

-
, , y th e fan cy soap m aker -
.
B efore explain i n g th e sy st em of m an u fact u re i t will be ,
n ec e ssary to direc t att en tio n to t h e apparat u s em ployed
an d t h e m ethods of ap lyin g th em an d i n doi n g so we , ,
m ay as well show h ow t e m an u factu re can be co n d u cte d

.
u po n a m ode rate scale .
A pp a r at u s for th e m el t i n g t h e S oa p —Th e pan s for

-
t his p u rpose m ay be made from wrou ght copp e r fi tted ,
i n to an iro n steam ti h t jacket t h e si ze bein g regu l a ted

-
,
a ccordi n to th e pro able re qu iremen ts of t h e m an u fac

t u re r . hese pan s sho u ld be c apable of con tain in g from
2} cwt to half a t on of m elte d soap
. A sim ple form of .
apparat u s which t h e au t hor h as em ploy ed for this an d

,
o t her pu rposes is sho wn i n th e woodc u t (F i g

,
I t h as .
t h e advan tage of bein g ch eap i n con s t r u cti o n an d econ o
Several sou n d casks (ru m pu n ch e on s an swer admi rably ) ,

h a vin g t h eir h eads rem oved are to be well coope red so
, ,
a s
to be water tight - I n to each of th ese a gal va n i ze d
.
jll A N UF A C T UR E OF T OIL E T OR F A N C Y S OA P S .
i ron copp er or pan A is placed an d is s u pported by i ts

, , ,
flan ge u pon t h e u ppe r edge of t he cask ; bu t i n order to ,
pre v en t t h e e scap e of stea m by which th ese pan s are to be

,
h eated t h e flan ge is to be we ll lu ted with c e m en t This

,
.
m ay re adily be don e by first spreadin g wi t h a tro wel a

stiff paste of P ortl an d cem en t in side t h e ri m of t h e t u b ,
a n d flu sh wit h its e xtre m e e dg e W h en this has set .
u ite h a rd a so me what thin n e r past e of ce me n t is spr ead

q ,
u po n t h e form e r l ay e r a n d t h e a n th e n c a r efu lly lo we re d

, p
i n to its pl ac e when i t wil l beco me i mbedded i n t h e
,
F i g 25 . .
c em en t wh ich shou ld th en be trimm ed n eatly with t h e

,
tro wel In a day or t wo t h e lu ti n g will be s u ffi cien tly

.
h ard to en able t h e v essels t o be u sed A wooden cover 1 8 .
p rovid ed for each pan .
Th e hori zo n t al i ron pipe B con du cts t h e st eam to t h e

, ,
v e rtical pip e s c c 0 each of which is fu r n ish e d with a

,
sh u t off cock D D D an d t h e en ds of th ese pipe s are b en t

-
, ,
so as t o a llow th em to en te r t h e casks throu gh holes

d rilled abou t half way down an d which are carefu lly
-
,
sec u r e d i n th e ir positio n by calki n g with t ow or by an

y ,
oth er con ven ient mean s To allow the escape of coa

,
den sed stea m , an d as a ven t for exhau st e d st eam , a hal f

i n ch hole is dri ll e d at t h e bottom of each c ask, imm ediate ly
above t h e iro n h oop ; an d th ese m u st al ways be k ept
e rfe ctly free , oth erwi se t h e
p an s w o ul d be liabl e to
p
becom e lifted by t h e press u re of th e steam W h en .
requ ire d for u se , t h e taps are first op en ed fu ll, i n ord e r to

allo w an y wa te r which m ay have rem ain e d i n t h e pip e s to
flow i n to t h e t u bs, an d from then ce to esca p e th ro u gh t h e
erforat i on s at t h e bott om Th e taps sho u ld th en be
h
.
alf tu rn ed, an d t h e steam moderat ely tu rn ed on at first,

t o allow th e con den sed wate r t o e scap e free ly A fte r a . .
whi le t h e taps m ay be tu r n ed n early fu l l on , when t h e

- hole s at t h e lo wer par t of
steam w i l l i ss u e fro m th e wa er
t
t h e casks Th e pan s, A , wil l hold abou t 2 cwt of soap
. .
ea ch .
A co n ven ien t form of steam jacket pan is given i n

-
Fi g . 26 . Th e dotted li n es at A show th e position of t h e
F i g 26
. . F i g 27
. .
p an in
jack t Bth e Th e su pply pip e
e . c is fu rn ish e d -
, ,
with a s t op cock
. D is an exit pip e for t h e escap e of
-
.
-
c on d e n se d wat e r an d wa ste st eam F or sm all e xperi .
m en tal op eration s t h e copp er jacket pan represen ted i n -
F i g 27 is a v e ry con v en i en t v e ssel
. .
M a c hi n e for S l i c i n g t h e S oa p P reviou s t o re .
mel ti n g the soap, whi ch i s i n the form Of bars about

be cu t in to shavin gs A wooden box 9 r ec eives th e

.
, ,
sha vi n gs as th ey fa ll from t h e m achi n e Th e bar o r .
slab of soap bein g place d on ,
t h e i n clin ed pla n e e is all o wed , ,
to tou ch t h e c u tter t h e han dle

be in g n ow tu rn ed t h e first blade ,
r em oves a shavin g an d is i m ,
m e di atel y follo wed by t h e seco n d

blade an d so on u n til t h e en tire
,
bar is ou t wh en it is r eplaced ,
by an oth er an d so qu ick is t h e ,
op eration that i n an ho u r t wo ,
c wt of soap m a b e r e du c e d to
y
.
shavin gs by this u sefu l m achin e .
R o m el t i n g t h e
- S oa p — Th e soap to be re m e lted for -
c on ve rsion i n to toil e t soap sho u ld be pu re u n liqu ore d
soap an d of rec en t m an u fa ctu re oth erwi se those s u rfac es

, ,
which m ay h av e b e com e harde n ed by lon g k eepin g will

be tro u bleso me to liq u e fy Th e bars of so ap are first
.
redu ced to thin slices by t h e plan in g m achin e (Fi g -

.
an d a few of th ese are first place d ro u n d t h e i n t erior of
t h e pan an d i n con tact with it wh en t h e steam i s to be ,
tu rn ed on an d after a short tim e t h e soap will b egi n

, , ,
to m elt wh ere i t is i n con tact with t h e pan To preven t

'
t h e soap from bec om i n dry on th e un melted su rfaces it is ,
a good plan to sprin k o i t with wate r After p u ttin g i n .
t h e fi rst few slic e s of soap t h e wood en covers sho u ld be

,
placed over th e pan s an d th ese shoul d n ot be raised u n til

,
su ffi ci en t tim e h as been al lowed for t h e pan s to b ecom e

well h eate d .If n ow on raisin g t h e l i d t h e soap appears
, ,
to have fairly commen c ed to m elt a few more slic es of ,
soap m ay be in trod u ced an d t h e pan agai n covered A fter

, .
a short ti m e fresh q u an tities of soap may be pu t in to t h e

p a n g radu ally a,n d car e m u s t b e tak en to avoid a ddi n g
an exc ess of t h e cold soap oth e rwise it will by chilli n g

, ,
t h e m elte d soap form a con glo m era te m ass which will n ot

,
r eadily liqu efy I f the se pre ca u tio n s are obse rve d th ere
.
wi ll be n o di ffi cu lty i n t h e re m eltin g A s fast as t h e soap

-
.
mel t s i t will si nk to the botto m of t he pan ; an d, i n order

M A N UFA C T UR E OF T OI L E T OR F A N C Y S OA P S .
to assist th e m in glin g of th e m el t i n g soap with that which

is alr eady liqu efi ed gen tle stirri n g m ay be appli ed a n d
, ,
fre sh batch es of slic ed soap adde d gradu all y u n ti l t h e ,
n is s u ffi cien tly fu ll Th e h e at m u st be kept u

p with
p a .
,
occasion al stirrin g with a s mall wooden cru t ch u n ti l t h e ,
m ass is perfectly ho m og en eou s an d fr ee from u n m elted

l u mps .
S i n ce toil et soaps are requ ired to be som ewhat firm er

an d harde r than ordin ary ho u sehold soaps a c erta in ,
am ou n t of evaporation of th eir com bin ed water m u st be

allowed to take place du rin g t h e re m eltin g ; bu t this m u s t -
n ot be carrie d too far oth e r wis e t h e soap will be liable to

,
crack du rin g th e s u bsequ en t pressin g or stampin g ope ra

tion s A gain it will be n ecessary to evaporate a po rtion
.
,
of t h e co mbin ed wat e r to allo w for t h e addi tio n of t h e
e ss en tial oils or p er fu m e s which a re to be blen ded with i t .
Wh en dry colou rin g m atte rs as Verm ilion yello w , ,
ochre red lead and vario u s metalli c oxides have t o be

,
-
,
m ix ed with t h e m elte d soap , care m u st be taken n ot to

allo w th e paste to beco me too stiff oth er wise when these , ,
a e i n corporat ed with t h e m ass it m ay beco me u n man a e
gl g
,
a e .
M i xi n g C ol ou r i n g M Th e pro
a t t er s an d P e r fum es .
-
portion s of colou rin g matte r an d essen tial oils to be added

to t h e m el te d soap bein g weigh ed an d meas u red , m ay be
worked u p togeth e r wi t h a
spatul a, an d t h e m ixtu re
th en po u red in to t h e soap
a n d thoro u ghly i n corp o
rated by con tin u al cr u tch F i g 30

i n g or sti rrin g Or t h e
. .
colou rin g m atter may be added a little at a time t o a , ,
po rtion of t h e m elted soap dipped ou t of t h e bulk by a

s mall ladle (F i g an d wh e n this is well mix e d it sho u ld
.
be po u red in t o t h e pan an d stirred i n t h e r em ain der of ,
t h e colou r be in g i n tro duce d i n t h e same wa B thi

y y s .
m e thod t h e colo u rin g m att ers an d essen tial oils may be

v e ry p erfectly an d u n i for ml y ble n ded with th e soap paste .
W h en p erfumes are u sed wi t hou t colo u rin g matters th ey

'
,
: 45 TH E A R T OF S OA P- M A K I N G .
sh o u ld be slo wly po u red i n to th e pan with sti rrin g u n ti l , ,

th e r equ isit e proportion has b een added Th e soap b e in g .
p erfu m e d an d colou red sm all sam ples shou ld be tak en to

,
de te rm i n e i f it be of t h e prop e r con sisten c e t o set hard

an d fi rm wi tho u t be in g b rittl e It is n ow ready for t h e
.
fram es which for sc en ted soaps are m u ch sm aller tha n

, , ,
those employed for hou sehold soaps .
Th e con dition of th e soap when ready for th e fram es is

that of a thick pasty m ass an d m u st be tran sferred to t h e
,
fram es by mean s of t h e short han dl ed ladl e F i or

( g
-
.
s wimm er (F i g . an d wh en t h e fram e is ful l t h e so a p
shou ld be pressed or patted do wn so as to preven t an y ,
hol lows or cavities bein g form ed thro u gh t h e irregu l a r

distribu tion of th e soap i n th e fram e The soap shou ld .
a lso be well covere d with clo ths so that t h e coolin g m a

, y
be v ery gradu al .
C u t t i n g t h e S oa p — W h en t h e soap i s s u ffi cien tly cold

.
it is cu t in to slabs an d bars proportion ate to th e size re

qu ired for th e tablets which gen erally run eight six fou r
, , , ,
or two to th e pou n d Th e bars are n ext div ide d i n to cak es

.
or blocks th e widt h of which is r egu lated accordin g to

,
t h e size an d weight of t h e tabl ets .
S t a m p i n g t h e S oa p A s t h e tablets of t oilet soaps are

.
-
g en erally of an oblon g form with rou n ded corn ers t h e

, ,
cakes which have b een cu t from th e bars requi re to be

tri mmed b efore th ey u n de rgo th e proc ess of stam pi n g .
This is gen erally don e as follows A workm an tak in g a ,
cake i n his han d passes each sharp edge of t h e cake over

,
t h e bl ade of a plan in g m achin e s u ch as is shown i n F i g 28

, .
,
t h e blade of t h e m achin e b ein g so adj u s te d as to r em ove

o n ly a sm all portion from t h e edges Th e corn ers are n ext .
tri mm ed with a kn ife an d each cake i s weigh ed from ti m e

,
to ti m e du rin g t h e trimmin g u n til it approach es t h e

,
re qu ire d weight for th e tablet .
Th e cak e s th u s prepared are n ext pu t aside to dry or ,
a re plac ed i n a dryin g room so that t h e s u rfac e m ay be

-
,
free from stickin ess b efore th ey are s t am p ed Th e c ak e s .

,
a fter b e i n t r i mm ed an d dri e d as d e scribe d a r e fi rs t

g ,
m ou l de d i n a l e ve r pr e ss (F i g which give s them t h e

.
1 48 TH E A R T OF S OA P M A KIN G
-
.
or sc ewr press This u seful press i s li ke t h e former eu

.
, ,
ort d u pon a stron g wood en tabl e which latte r m u st

p e ,
s ec u red to t h e floor by bolts or screws a a represen ts .
t h e fram e of t h e press 6 t h e scr ew fu rn ish e d at its lo we r ,
en d with a socke t i n to which t h e u ppe r h al f m o u ld i s

,
-
sec u red by a scre w ; 0 is th e lo wer half m ou ld an d which -

,
is con n ecte d to t h e m ovable rod d Th e fly e e i s su r .

, ,
m o un t ed by t wo h eav y balls ff Th e u pright wrou ght

,
iro n rods g q are adapted by scre ws to th e hori zon tal bar

, ,
belo w i t It Th ese rods pass ben eat h t h e cast iron or brass

, .
-
m atrix z i an d raise t h e m ovable rod d after each stroke

’
, ,
of t h e press by which m ean s t h e stam ped tablet is se t

,
free an d bein g rem o ved is r eplac ed by an oth er

, , , I n th e .
u pp e r h al f m o u ld is fix ed by m ea n s o f a sc r ew t h e en
-
, ,
graved s ta m p which i s to i m press th e soap A fter stam pin g .
t h e table ts th ey a re care tu l l y t ri m m ed a t t h e e dges an d ,
are th en ready for wra p i n g u

p p .
C H A P TER X V I II .
M A N UF A CT UR E OF T OIL E T S OA P S
Rose S oap Oran ge- flower S oap

. . Ci n n am on Soap M u sk S oap
. .
—Bi tter A l mon d Soap W i n ds or. S oap . Brown W i n dsor S oap .
— Vi ol et W i n dsor S oa — Sav on au Bou q u et — S av on a l a C an n el l e

fi
. .
— Al mon d-oil Soa a sh m l l w S oap — Van i l l a Soap — Ben zoi n

p r a. o .
B os e S oa p . or S a v on h l a B os e , m ay be m ade fro m
e ither of t h e followi n g form u l ae, th e soap bein g previou sly
wel l m elted, as be fore described
I
W hi te cu rd soap, ma de from best tall ow 60 l bs
.
40 ,
V er mi li on i n fi n e powder 3 ozs .
Th e v er m ilion is to be fi rst wel l m ix ed wit h th e soap ,
reat care b ein g taken to en su re p erfect in corporation .
e s tea m is th e n to be tu r n e d of f an d wh en th e soap has

,
c ool ed a l ittl e t h e follo wi n g p er fu mes are t o be adde d i n

abo u t t h e proportio n s giv en
oi l s of ci nn am on an d cl ov es, of ea ch
Soap prepared fro m t h e above form u la h as a d elicat e

ros e colou r is v ery fragra n t an d em oll i en t
, , an d i s i n d eed
on e of t h e fi n e st of toil et soaps .
bergamot
n eaol i
'
Oil s of cl ov es an d ci n n am on , of each
TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G
'
1 50
Ora n ge-fl owe r S oap .
W h i te cu r d soap
C olo u r with
Y el l ow
M i ni um
P er fu m e with
0 11 of P ortu gal
Ci n n am on S oa p .
C olo u r with 2 lbs . of yellow ochr e an d p er fu me with
M usk S oa p .
P al m '
Oi -
l soap c e e e o c e e e o c o c o o o o e o e o e o c 0 0 0 0
C olou r with
Brown och re, or B oze .
P erfu m e with
Oil s oi n a sk an d b ergamot , of each 7 are
Po wder of cl ov es, pal e roses, an d gi l l i flower , of each 9
Bi t t e r A l m on d S oa p , S a v on d A m an d e s A m er e s
’
or .
W hi te curd soap
Oi l of bi ttcr al mon ds 2ooze .
W i n ds or S oap — This fam ou s toil et soap as pr epared

.
,
i n L on don , is g en erally m ade from tallo w n i n e parts an d

oli ve oil on e part, an d i s perfu med (for every
- l bs .
of t h e paste) with
Oi l Of caraW a
g
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o e o o e o c o e s e s
Oi l s of l av en er an d rose mar y , of ea ch
Or, for e ach 1 00 lbs . of soap ,
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 5: TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K I N G .
a lit tle at a t im e , an d well cru tch ed or stirred i n to t he

m el ted soap .
S a y on a u B ou q u et — This so ap is prepared from the

followin g
Oli v e - oi l soa p
P erfu m e with
Oi l of b ergam ot
Oils of cl ov e , sassafras, an d t h y m e, of each
C olo u r with
22 l bs .
S a v on a l a C an n e l l e .
(C i n n a m o n S o ap .
)
W h i te curd soap
P al m - oi l soa p
C olo u r t h e paste with

Y ell ow och re
An d perfu m e with
Oi l of ci n n am on
sa ssa fras a n d bergam ot , of ea ch
A l m on d - oi l S oa p is , accordin g to D u ssau ce prepared ,
i n F ran c e as foll o ws an d sin c e it is sold at a high pric e

, ,
th e m at e rials mu st be of t h e best an d p u rest qu ality .
Th e oil of s wee t alm on ds mu st be p er fe ctly fre sh an d ,
th e carbon a t e of so da ch emically pu re Th e so da is dis .
sol v e d i n wat e r addin g to it on e third of its weight of

,
-
sl acked lim e ; stir fro m tim e to tim e an d afte r several ,
ho u rs filte r ; con cen trate th e l ey by e vaporation u n til it

,
m a rks 3 6 B ; th en tak e 1 2 parts for 25 parts of oil

°
.
,
i n trodu ce th e l ey in to a jar , an d gradu ally in corporate t h e

oi l b e i n g car e fu l to stir t h e m ixtu r e u n til it has t h e a
, p
p ea ran c e of a so ft greas e I n t wo or three days its
.
con sisten cy is su ch as that it c an be ru n in to chin a m ou lds ,
i f plac e d i n a room t h e t emp eratu r e of which is fro m 71 t o °
In abo u t on e m o n th it can be tak en from th e

m o u lds Th e te mp e ratu re of t h e l ey m u st be fro m 4 0 to
°
.
5 9 (1 04 to 1 4 0 F
° ° °
bu t th e soap m ay be prepar ed
m or e r apid l y by placi n g t h e m ixt u re on warm ash e s an d ,
M A N UF A C T UR E OF TOIL E T OR F A N C Y S OA P S .
addin g a little warm wate r to t h e l ey so as to preven t its ,
con cen tration This soap is very white with a sweet

.
,
”
tast e an d odo u r It becomes very hard
. .
M ar s h m a l l ow S oa p .
W hi te cu rd soap an d pal m- oi l soa

p , of each 40 l bs .
C olo u r with
Gamboge
P erfu m e with
Or, th e follo win g

6 ozs.
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 li Zfi o
2 ozs
3
This soap m ay be colo u red rose with verm il ion or , be

left as a white soap if desi red .
V an i l l a S oap .
C olo u r wi th
B e n zoi n S oa p .
Th e soap m u st be i n t h e form of a very st i fl paste,

'
oth erwise t h e ti n ctu re of ben zoin will ren der it rath er soft .
B ro wn ochre m ay be u se d as t h e colo u r i n g agen t .

C H AP TER XIX .
M A N UFA OT URE OF T OI L E T S OA P S
Fren ch Sy stem of maki n g Toil et S oaps — F ormul a for Fren ch Toi l et .
Soaps Sav on de G u i mau v e — S av on au x Fl eu rs d Itali e — S avon de

’
-
Van i ll a Soap —Rose - l eaf

. . .
C ri m ée Sa on do Pa m s
v .
-
l — V ol et Soap
i — . .
Sav on a l a M aréch al e — L ett u ce S oap — A mbergri s S oap

.
Soap
e s0 a —Gl y ceri n e Soap
. . .
El der fl ower S oap — Lem on Soa

-
. u .
S av onn ett es or W ash bal l s —Vi o et W ash bal l s

. on ey Sav on n ett es .
Sa v on n ett es of S weet H erbs — S av onn ett es of C amph or —Sav onn ettes

. .
of N er oh — Sav onn et tes a l a V an i l l a —M arbl ed S av onn ettes — S avon

. .
n ett es au Mi el — Fl oati n S tt es - S an d Ba l l s
g av
. on n e . .
F r e n c h S y st e m of M a ki n g T oi l e t S oa p s .
— In stead ofpre
parin g toilet soaps from re m elte d soap as before described -
, ,
a system is adoptedon th e C on ti n en t by which these soaps

are m ad e by a seri es of m echan ic al op eration s whi ch we
will en deavo u r to de scribe as brie fly as possible Th e variou s .
op eration s are arran ged u n der t h e foll owin g h eads — 1 .
C u ttin g th e soap in to shavin gs 2 M ixin g t h e e ssen tial . .
oils an d colo urs with th e soap 3 G rin din g th e soap . . .
4 P o u n di n g th e soap i n a m ortar 5 B ellin g th e soap

7 Stamm
. . . .
6 P ressin g
. n.
g . .
Cu ttin g t h e soap in to sh av i n s i s pe rform ed by a

m achin e su ch as is shown m F i g 9 an d t h e shavin gs are .
,
pl aced m a lead lin ed wooden box Th e prop er propor .
tion of essen tial oils an d colo u rin m atter (except when

t h e soap is requ ired to be white are first mixed i n a
separate v essel with a little alcohol an d th e m ixtu re is
s
, ,
th en added gradu ally to th e shavin gs with con tin u al ,
stirrin g Th e perfu m ed shavin gs are n ext placed i n a

.
gri n din g machin e throu gh which th ey are all o wed to pass

-
,
s everal ti mes u n ti l a p erfectly homogen eou s paste i s form ed

, .
1 56 TH E A R T OF S OA P M A K IN G -
.
hal f an in ch is allo wed b et ween each so that th e air may

- -
,
circ ul ate ro u n d th e m an d th u s fa cil it ate th eir dryi n g o n

,
th e s u rfac e I t is i m ot tan t that t h e dry in g shou ld be

.
as rapid as possible 11 abou t a week t h e s u rfac e of t h e

.
cake s will have b ecom e harden ed an d ready for pressin g , .
This is don e by m ean s of a lev er ress F i g 3 1 which

m erely gi ves to th ese cake s t h e prelim in ary form of th e
.
, ,
m ou ld To apply t h e press on e of t h e cakes is placed on

.
,
t h e lo wer h al f of t h e m ou ld an d t h e l ever is th en forc e d

,
do wn wards an d then raised when th e cake is rem oved ,
an d an oth er s u bstitu te d for it an d so on u n til all t h e cake s

, ,
have been stru ck Th e edges of t h e cake s are th en

.
trimm ed after which they are again set aside to dry an d

, ,
wh e n su ffi cien tly so th ey are removed fro m t h e dryin g

room an d th e harden ed skin which has form ed u pon th e
,
s u rface is carefu lly r em oved by m ean s of a sh arp kn i fe ,
with which t h e cak es are dextero u sly scrap e d by t h e work

m an . I t is said th at a good work man can scrap e forty
do zen of cake s i n a day .
When t h e cakes hav e b een scraped th ey are m oisten ed

with alcohol to improve t h e sm oothn ess of th eir s u rfac e
, .
To accom plish this t h e fin gers of t h e right han d are

,
dipp ed i n alcohol an d this is spread qu ickly over t h e cake

, ,
which is th en rolled i n both han ds by which i t beco m es ,
m oisten ed all over i n a few m om en t s Th e cakes are again .
dri ed for abou t t wen ty fou r hou rs after which th ey are -

,
r ead y for t h e fin al stam pin g which is effected i n t h e fly ,
or screw press by which an ac tive man can m o u ld

,
c ak e s of soap per day .
In t h e above proc ess th e re is a loss of abo u t 1 4 or 1 5

er c e n t of water du ri n g t h e s e ve ral dryin g op eratio n s
p .
,
bu t this is allo we d for i n t h e op eration of balli n g i n which ,
t h e cak es are m ade h e avi er than t h e r esu ltin g fi n ish ed

soap is r equ ired to be Th e sc rapin gs of th e c akes are
.
afte r wards work ed u p i n fu t u r e batch e s of t h e sa m e kin d

of soap .
F or m u l a for f r e n c h T oi l e t S oa p s — Th e follo wi n g .
are som e of t h e form u lae for toil e t soaps adopted by t h e
F ren c h m akers
JI A N UF A C T UR E OF TOIL E T OR F A N C Y S OA PS . 1 57
S a v on d e G u i m a u v e M arsh m allo w Soap

.
( .
)
10 l
P al m - Oi l soap c o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
C ol o u r with
Oran ge mi n eral
P erfume with
Oil of l aven der
mi n t 0
w m way 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
l em on
Oi l s of rosemary an d th y me , of each
S a v on P l eu r s d I t a l i
’
au x e.
20 l bs .
P e rfu m e with
geran i u m
C olo u r with
Brown 0 0h re o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o c o
S av on de C ri m es .
C ol ou r with
V em il i on
-
I v orY bMCk
P erfu m e with
Oi l s of th y m e, mi n t , an d rosemary , of each .
Oi l of l av en der
Ti n ct ure of ben zoi n

S a v on d e P a l m s .
P e rfu m e with
0 11 of bergamot
cl ov e s
V i ol e t S oa p .
(Y ello w ) .
Y el l ow cocoa-n u t oil
P al m-oil
Tal l ow .
Soda l ey at 3 6 B
°
.
P owdered orri s r oot -
To which are added th e follo wi n g p erfu m es

Oi l of l em on
C olou r with cadm i u m yellow .
V a n i l l a S oa p .
C ocoa-b u tt er
P al m -oil
Starch
P erfu m e with
On ofrose
’
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L ard with prepare d by addin g th e van illa to

v an i lla is
t h e lard (1 oz to t h e keepin g it at a m oderate h ea t
.
for som e days th en strain in g &c

, , .
B os e -L e a f S oap .
R ose made
Co coa -n u
t oi l
Whi t e wax
S oda l ey , 3 6
°
P otash l ey , 3 0
P erfu m e with
Oil Of roses 2 0 28 0
bergam ot
ci n n amon ( y )
C e l on
C olou r wi th an i lin e fast re d, a light pin k .

E l d e r-fl ower S oa p .
P erfu me wi th
Colo u r light green .
L om on S oa p .
P e rfu me with
C ol our li ght yello w with cadm i u m yell ow .
Or an ge S oa p .
P erfu me wit h
Colou r dark yel low with n aphthalin e yello w .
G l y c er i n e S oa p .
44 l bs .
44
22
Gl y ceri n e (pu re) 22
Cau st i c l ey , 4 0 B
°
27
Al coh ol , 96
°
Melt th e greas e at 1 04 F add th e alkali by sl o w

°
.
, an d
degrees k ee i n g th e h eat l ow to preven t evaporation an d

, ,
stir con stan t y Wh en t h e l ey h as become absorbed a fte r

.
,
three or fou r ho u rs stirrin g add th e al cohol which shou ld

’
,
be warm ed stir till it becom es cl ear t h en add t h e gl y ce ,
ri n e a n d wh en mixed t h e water a n d p er fum e ; t u rn i n to

, ,
AI A N UFA C T UR E OF T OIL E T OR F A N C Y S OA P S .
th e fram e, po u ri n g slo wly This soap i f care fu lly mad e .

, ,
is a v ery su perior on e .
Th e sa m e au thor give s th e followi n g form u l a for pre

parin g white C asti le soap with or withou t olive oil ,
-
1 . Oli v e oi l -
4 0 part
G rou n d su et 30
Tal l ow . 30
2 Ol i v e-oi l
. 30
30
P al m -
n u t oi l 40
3 0 Ol i v e oi l'
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 30
C ott on see d oi l
-
30
T all ow oil -
40
4 . P al m oi l (bl each ed)

-
S esa m e-oil . .
T all ow
S a v on n et t e s , or W a s h b a l l s
Th ese m ay be m ade from — .
a n y oft h e m ilder toile t soaps or fro m t h e s u bj oi n ed for m u l a , .
Th e sph erical form is given by pre ssin g t h e soap i n

m ou l ds or by first form i n g th em i n to b al ls with th e han d
, ,
a n d wh en q u ite dry an d hard t u rn in g th em i n a lath e .
A ccord i n g to M r B e asl e y th e y a re for

. m ed i n to sph erical ,
balls by ta ki n g a m ass o f th e prepared soap i n t h e left

han d an d a con ical dri n k i n g glass with rather thi n
,
“
edge s i n t h e right B y t u rn i n g t h e glass an d ball of
.
soap i n e very direction th e ro u n ded form is soon gi ven ;

wh en dry t h e s u r fac e is scrap ed to r en der it m or e sm ooth
, ,
”
an d e ven .
Washballs are som etim es made with th e addition of

po wde red starch or farin a an d so m etim es san d H a vi n g ,
.
bu t a co m paratively li m it ed sal e th ey are u s u ally pre ,
pared i n sm all qu an titi es .
Vi ol e t W as h b al l s .
P al m-oil soap .
F ari n a (starch )
Fi n e powdered orri s
C u t th e soap i n to fi n e sh a v i n gs an d m elt over a h ot

wate r ba th a ddin g a s m all q u an tity of wate r
-
, Th en add .
t h e fari n a an d i n corporate it well by stirrin g Lastly .

,
add th e o rris po wd er an d m i x well ,

.
A brass t ool i s commonl y us ed for thi s pu rpose .
it
1 63 TH E A R T OF S OA P - RI A K I N G .
H on ey S a v on n e t t e s .
Fi n est y el l ow soap
P al m -oi l soap
M elt an d th en add
Oi l of V erben a, rose, geran i u m,
or i
g gn er grass
-
S av on n et t e s S we et H er b s — M elt 1 2 lbs of wh i t e
of . .
c u rd soap , an d th en add t h e follo wi n g m ixt u r e of essen tia l

oils
Oi l s of l em on an d bergamot , of each 4 ozs .
th y me, l av en der , wi l d th y m e , m y rt l e , an d
m arj oram , of each

mi n t , sage , an d wormwood, of each
fenn el
S a v on n et t e s of C a m p h or .
W h i te cu r d soap .
M elt, with t h e addit ion of a little water, an d then add

Spermaceti
C am ph or (ou t smal l ) 0
These are first to be m elt ed togeth er ,

an d th en added to
t h e liqu id soap .
S av on n e t t es of N e r ol i .
M el ted cur d soap

Orri s powder
Or p ow der
Oi l 0 n erol i .
E ssen ces of mu sk an d amb ergri s, of ea ch
S a v on n et t e s s
. l a V an i l l a .
1 2 l bs .
M elt, wi th a li ttle water, an d th en a dd t h e follo win g

m ixt u re
Bal sam ofT ol u

P eru
Tm ct ure of ci nn a m on
Oi l of cl o ves
Ti n ct ures of musk an d a m ber, o f ea ch .
briskly stirrin g t h e m ass so as to m i x or b eat air i n to

,
t h e soap . This agi ta ti on shou ld be kept u p u n til t h e

m ass is at le a st do u ble d i n vol u m e
.
S a n d B al l s are m ade by i n corporatin g with m elted a n d

-
p erfu m ed soap certa in proportio n s of fi n e river san d .
A bou t on e-third san d to t wo thirds soap is a fair ropor

tion Th e san d ho weve r shou ld be pa sse d th ro u gha fi n e
-
.
, ,
si e ve be for e u si n g. So m e ti m es fi n el y powdered p u m ice i s

-
s u bstit u te d for t h e san d

.
C H A P T ER XX .
S OF T T OIL E T S OA P S .
Napl es Al m on d Cr eam — F ren ch M e th od

Soap , or W h i t e S oft Toil et
. .
S oap — P o wdere d Soap s — Sh av i n g Past e

. E ssen ce of S oap — Essen ce
.
-
n i
de Sa v o V e an n — Essen ce de S avon Oori n t h e — T ran sparen t S oap . .
TH E alkali n e bas e of th ese soaps is pota sh , an d t h e fatty

m att er g en e rally u sed is good hog s la rd, tho u gh som e
’
tim es cocoa n u t oil is in trodu c ed to pro m ote th e lath erin g

-
prope rties of t h e soap This latter oil , ho wev er, shou ld

.
be u s ed spa ri n gly, sin c e it i n vari ably le a ve s a di sa greabl e

—
odou r on t h e skin a fte r washin g a serio u s obj e ction i n
toilet s oaps .
N a p l e s S oa p , or A l m on d C r e m
a — This
l a t pre . e eg n
arat i on which h a s bee n m u ch u s ed as a sh avin g so a p

p , ,
is prepared as follows — A pota sh l ey m arkin g 3 6 B ,

°
.
,
is first prepare d N ow take 20 lbs of clarifi ed h og s lard

. .
’
,
a n d plac e this i n a sm all copp er j a cke t pa n or oth e r c on -
v e n i en t v e ss el an d apply en t l e h e a t sti rri n g co n tin u al l y

, g ,
with a wooden stirre r W hen t h e lard is abou t h al f

.
m elte d bu t free fro m l u m ps add 5 lbs by weigh t of t h e

, , .
, ,
p otash l ey an d con tin u e t h e agitatio n an d also t h e sam e

,
degree of tem pe ratu re wh en afte r an hou r or so soap

, , ,
gran u les will ha ve deposited at th e bottom of t h e pan whil e ,
a layer ofu n sapon i fi ed fat will float on t h e su rface A n oth er .
5 lbs of t h e sam e l ey m u s t n ow be adde d an d t h e m ixtu re

.
stirred wh en t h e gran ul e s a n d oil will disappear an d t h e

, ,
m ass ass u m e t h e form of a past e Th e h ea t an d occasion al

.
sti rrin g m u st be kept u p for abou t fou r ho u rs by which ,
ti m e t h e m ass will b eco m e a stiff pa ste wh en it r equ ire s ,
t o be b eat en li ghtl y Th e h eat sho u ld th en be withd ra wn

.
,
( 66 TH E A R T OF S OA P - JI A X IN G .
an d t h e pa n closely covered ove r so that th e cooli n g m ay ,
be very grad u al an d slo w .
W h en qu ite cold th e soap is t o be pu t i n to a m arble

,
m ortar an d wel l po u n de d with a wo oden pestle by which ,
process t h e separated particles become u n ited an d a per ,
fec tl y ho mogen eou s p ast e form e d which has a beau ti fu l ,
pearly lu stre ; h en c e it is som etime s called p ea rl so ap .
This preparation is u su ally pe rfu m ed with oil of bitter

al m o n ds ; h en c e it is also calle d a l mond crea m .
P r e n c h H e t h od — F i ft y po u n ds of hog s la rd an d 1 0 lbs
'
’
. .
of cocoa n u t oil are pl a ce d i n a ste am jacke t d

p a n a n
- -
,
m elted ; 5 0 lbs of potash l ey m a rkin g 20 or 21 B are

.
° °
.
th en adde d gradu ally with con stan t stirrin g an d t h e , ,
h eat of th e m ass is to be kept at from 1 40 to A ft e r

°
a while t h e m a ss thicken s by t h e evaporation of th e ,
water fro m t h e l ey ; i f a ten den cy to s epa ration of t h e fatty

m atte r is e xhibite d t h e h eat m u st be lo we red an d i f
, ,
n ec e ssary a little stron ger l ey added u n til sapon i fi

,
cation is com plete which gen eral ly occ u pies abo u t fou r
,
ho u rs To fin i sh t h e operation 3 0 lbs ofpotash l ey at 3 6 B

.
, .
°
.
m u st n ow be added with con tin u al sti rrin g an d care

, ,
m u st be taken to k eep t h e he at b elow t h e boilin g poi n t -
of wate r W h en th e past e h as becom e qu ite stiff t h e

.
,
s tea m is to be t u rn e d of f an d t h e paste allo wed to cool,
do wn after which it is pu t in to ston e jars for fu tu re u se

, .
To co n vert this in to p earl soap it is pou n ded i n a m arble

m ortar a few po u n ds at a tim e from I } to 2 drach m s of
, ,
oil of bitte r almon ds bein g added for each po un d of soap .
t en t h e so ap is r equ ir ed t o be of a de licat e ros e colo u r ,
fro m 1 5 to 3 0 grain s of v erm ilion to each pou n d of soap

mu st be added an d well in corporated by t h e pestle an d
,
m ortar .
A lthou gh th e oil of bitter alm on ds is pri n c i pally u sed

a s a p e rfu m e for th es e soap crea ms as t h ey a re c alled , ,
oth er fragran t s u bstan c es are occasio n all y employed F or .
e xa m pl e Cr eme A mbrozsze is p erfu m ed wi th liqu id storax

' ’
an d be n zoin a n d Cr eme de Cacao M ousseuse wit h oil of

,
cac ao .
W h i t e S oft T oi l et S oa p — Cristian i giv es t h e follo wi n g

.
( 68 TH E A R T OF S OA P I I A K IN G
-
.
P owd er e d S oa p s .
— A l l h ard
soaps m ay be redu c ed to a
fi n e po wder wh en p erfe ctly dry by trit u ration with a
, ,
p estle an d m ortar bu t th e op eration is gen erally con fi n ed

,
to cosm etic soaps for shavin g or oth er toi let p u rposes .
Th e soap b ei n g previou sly p e rfu m e d i n t h e u s u al way

, ,
is cu t in to thi n sh a vin gs an d th ese are laid u pon sh eets o f ,
pap er an d plac ed i n t h e dryin g roo m or dried i n an y -

,
con ven i en t way A s soon as t h e shavin gs beco m e brit tle

.
th ey are i n a con di t ion for powderi n g Small qu an tities .
at a tim e sh o u ld be care fu ll y red u c ed to a po wde r i n a

m ortar an d t h e po wd er afte rwards passe d thro u gh a fi n e
,
si eve t h e fi n e po wder bein g placed i n a j ar a n d kept well

,
covered A l l coarser particles re tain ed by t h e si eve

.
sho u ld th en be p u lverised an d sifte d as befo re u n til t h e ,
e n tire q u a n tity is r ed u c ed to a po wde r fi n e en o u g h to pass
thro u gh t h e sieve .
A lthou gh it is b ette r to colo u r th e soap i n th e p rdi n ary

way b efore po wderin g it t h e colo u ri n g m atte r m ay i f , ,
preferred be i n trodu ced in to th e m ortar wh en t h e soap is

,
a bo u t hal f r edu c ed to po wder an d th e n work e d u w it h

p ,
t h e soap u n til tho ro u ghly i n corporate d F or rose colo u r .

-
,
abo u t on e drachm of v e rm ilio n to each po u n d of soap

shou ld be u sed F or yellow from on e to t wo drachm s of
.
,
fi n el y powder ed gam boge

-
Oth er shades of colo u r h ow .
,
e v e r m ay be giv en i f d esi red

, .
P o wd ered soaps n am e d aft er th eir r esp ective p er fu m es

, ,
a re m u ch e steem e d as shavi n g so a ps by t h e fastidio u s ;
a n d p erhaps t h e so calle d rose soap p er fu m ed wit h oil of

-
,
rose an d t i n ted by v ermilion m ay be con sidered on e ofth e ,
m ost d elicat e preparation s provide d that it has b een m ade ,
fro m a good white tallo w soap free fro m coco a n u t oil -
—
.
S h a v i n g P a s t e This p opu lar cosm etic m ay be pre

.
p ar ed i n v a rio u s ways bu t t h e follo wi n g form u lae m ay ,
be t aken as r ep resen tin g t h e m od e of m an u fa ctu re 1 Tak e .
N apl es so ap 1 l b ; C astil e or M ars e illes soap $ 15 ; ho n ey

,
.
, ,
5 lb . e ss en c e o f a m b e r gris oils o f cassi a a n d n u tm e g of, ,
e ach 20 to 3 0 d rops M i x th es e in gredi en ts well togeth er

.
i n a m ortar addi n g a little ros e wat er u n til a p erfe ctly

,
-
,
ho mogen eou s paste is form ed 2 Take of white or virgin . .

S OF T TOIL E T 1 69
wax, sp er mac e ti , an d al mo n d oil , of ea ch 2 ozs ; m elt ove r .
a water bat h , an d th en add 3 ozs of W in dsor soap pre

-
.
v i ou sl y worke d u p i n to a past e with a little ros e wat e r -

.
M i x al l well togeth e r an d plac e i n a jar, which sho u ld be

kept well covered 3 W hit e soft soap, 1 2 ou n c es sp er
. .
m acet i an d oliv e - oil, of ea ch 1 5 oz M elt the se i n gred i en ts .
all togeth e r, an d stir u n til t h e m ass is n early cold ; per

fu m e with an y e ss en ti al oil, or a m ixt u re of p erfu m es ,
accordi n g to taste .
E s sen c e of S oa p — U n der
this title variou s pr ep ara
tion s are m ade bu t th ey are all solu tio n s of soap i n warm
alcohol with gen erally t h e additio n of a sm al l qu an tity
, , ,
of potash Soaps m ade from v e getabl e oil s a re p re fe rr ed

.
,
beca u se th ey rem ain cl ear a n d liqu id wh en cold wh e rea s ,
those prepared from an im al fats becom e solid i n coolin g .
D u ssau ce gives t h e fol l o win g for mu l a for prepari n g this

soap
W h i te M arsei l l es soap 6§ ozs
q
.
A l coh ol at 85 °
1 u ar t .
P otash 6 drm s .
Cu t t h e soap in to fi n e shavi n gs an d p u t th em i n to a ,
bottl e holdin g abou t half a gal lon (a W i n ch ester bottle

”
- -
wo u ld s u it adm i rably) ; add t h e alcohol an d potash an d ,
h eat gen tly witho u t boilin g over a water bath ; stir with
, ,
-
a glass rod W h en t h e solu tion is com plete t ake it ou t

.
,
of t h e wat e r bath an d add t h e e ss en c e s

-
,
A very s wee t .
p e rfu m e m a
y b e giv en to this pr eparatio n by addi n g to
it
v erben a
To colou r yello w add 2% dra chm s of saffro n

,
.
This e ss en c e con ti n u es limpid at t h e ordin a ry tem pera

t u re To u se it po u r a little i n to half a tu mbler of wat er
.
,
an d sti r qu ickly .
E s s e n c e d o S a v on V i e n n e .
W h i te soap
C arbon a te of potash
Al coh ol at 95
°
L av en der wat er -
D igest an d fi lte r .
1 70 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K I N G .
E s s en c e d e S a v on C or i n t h e .
Al coh ol at 8 0
°
P ota sh
Essen ti al oi l
D igest as b efore .
A n y p e rfu m ed toile t soap m ay be co n v e r ted i n to an

”
e sse n c e , bu t dou btle ss t h e white Castile so ap wou ld
form t h e m ost ele gan t preparatio n beside s b ein g t he m ost ,
em olli e n t .
T r a n s p ar e n t S oa p — Soap wh en pe rfectly dry is readil y

.
, ,
solu ble i n warm alcohol an d advan tage is taken of this ,
ch emical fact i n th e m an u factu re of Transp aren t S oap

perh aps th e m ost elegan t form whi ch this su bstan c e is
capable of assu min g .
To prepare tran sparen t soap eith er tallo w, almon d or , ,
soft soaps m ay be u sed bu t i n eith er case t h e soap m u st

,
be ren dere d p erfectly free fro m water Th e soap is first .
cu t i n to thi n slic e s or shavin g s an d th e s e a re th en dri e d ,
over a wate r bath or by hot air Equ al parts by weight

-
, .
of t h e dri e d soap a n d re ctifi e d spirit a re u t i n to a still

p ,
h eated by a water bath On ly m oderate h eat is applied

-
.
,
othe rwise t h e spirit woul d pass over withou t di ssolvin g t h e

soap . I t is so m etim e s t h e practic e to powde r t h e soap i n
a m ortar after dryin g b efore treatin g it with t h e spirit ,
by which it becom es m ore readily diss olved If it is .
desire d to colo ur t h e soap an y colou ri n g m atter sol u bl e i n

,
alcohol may be em ployed an d it is b est to colou r th e spirit,
b efore addin g it to t h e soap .
W h en th e soap is com pletely dissolved it is allo wed to ,
rest for an hou r or m ore accordin g to t h e qu an tity afte r, ,
which t h e clear an d tran sparen t liqu id is pu t i n to t h e

fram es i n which it will solidify on coolin g
,
W h en cold ,
t h e soap is cu t i n to pi ec e s of an y r equ ired si ze an d th es e ,
a re m o u lde d i n t h e sam e way as oth er toile t soaps Th e .
soap does n ot howeve r acqu ire its characte ristic tran s

, ,
u n til afte r it has been e xpose d to dry air for a

p a r en c
y
co n siderable time To colou r t h e soap red a stron g tin ctu r e
.
,
of archil may be u sed an d for y ellow t u r m eric m ay be

,
C HAP T ER XX l .
M ED ] CA TE D S OA F S .
S i r H M arsh s Su l ph u r Soap — M ercu ri al S oap — M edi ci nal S oft S oap

'
. .
A n t i m on i a l S oap C arbol i c A ci d S oap

.
— M edi ca t ed Tar S oap — T ooth
Soa p — L i qui d G y ce
. l ri n e So p
a — B ordhardt s H erb S oap — Ar sen i cal
.
’
.
Soap — So p o
a f r W as h i n g D o g s — T urp e n t i n e S oa p
—.T ar S oap .
B l a ck S oap — V ar i ous S ubstan ces i n trodu ce d i n t o Man u fa ctured S oaps .
MA N Y di fler en t
'
su bstan c es hav e b een i n trodu c ed i n to

so ap for t h e re lie f or c u r e of c u tan eo u s affection s an d for
oth er pu rpose s amon g st which m ay be m en tion ed t h e
,
follo wi n g
Si r I M a r s h s S ul p h u r S oa p — Wh ite soap 2 ozs
.
’
.
an d s u blim e d s u lph u r oz are t rit u rat ed i n a m ort a r .

,
with 1 or 2 fl u id drach m s of r ectifie d spirit u n til a ,
sm ooth past e is form ed Th e spirit shou ld be fi rst

.
colo u red stro n gly with alk an et root A few drops of .
ot to of roses are added to gi ve t h e soap an agr eeable

fragran c e .
M e r c u r i a l S oa p is m ade from po wde red Ca stil e soa p

4 ozs corrosive s u bli mate 1 d ra chm dissolved i n rectifi ed
.
, ,
spi rit 1 fl u id oz Th ese in gredien ts are t o be t/zorougll ly

.
m ix ed i n a W edgwood m ortar .
M e di ci n al S oft S oa p is m ad e fro m pu re oliv e oil sapo n i -
fi e d with a cau stic l ey m ade from p u re pota sh Th e l ey .
is a dded gradu ally an d cau tiou sly to t h e oil dur in g t h e

boilin g an d t h e greatest care tak en to avoid an exc ess of
,
alkali W h en t h e m ass assu m es a t ran sparen t an d gela

.
t i n ou s app e aran c e t h e additio n of l ey is stoppe d

,
Th e .
boilin g is con tin u ed u n til t h e soap h as acqu ired t h e prop er

c on sis t en c e .
M E D I C A TE D S OA P S . 1 73
A n t i m on i a l S oa p — P u re Castile soap (white) i n powd er

1 $ oz golden s u lph u re t of an tim o n y 2 dra ch m s sol u
.
, ,
tion of cau stic potassa 6 drachm s D issolve t h e s u lph u re t .
i n t h e potash an d add to t h e soap ; th en trit u rat e i n a

m ort a r u n til a stiff paste is for med I t sho ul d have a .
greyish white colo u r

-
.
C a r b ol i c A c i d S oa p — A s a po werful a n tiseptic carboli c ,
acid h ad lon g b een kn o wn bu t it wa s n ot u n til t h e lat e

,
D r Grac e C alvert had d ev elope d its m an u fa ctu re u pon an

.
-
exte n sive scale that its u s efu ln e ss co u ld be fu lly taken

a dva n tage of Si n ce th en ho we ve r its em ploym en t as a
.
, ,
disi n fecta n t an d deodoriser has b eco m e u n iversal an d i ts ,
i n co rporatio n with soa p which has taken t h e n a m e of

,
Carbol i c S oap has been v e ry e xten sive

, I n d eed this .
,
article has n ow b ecom e a n ec essary an d u sefu l a rticle of

co mmerc e Abo u t 2 per cen t of carbolic acid is adde d
. .
to soap i n a m elted state an d th orou ghly i n corporat ed by

,
cru tchin g I t is th en p u t i n to a frame a n d wh en cold is

.
,
c u t i n to squ ar e s an d m o u lde d i n t h e s a m e way as ordi n ary
fan cy soaps or for m ore exten sive u se it m ay be form e d

, , ,
i n to b ars of t h e ordi n ary size Carbolic soap m ay be .
prepar ed from t h e foll owm g

H alf pal m soap
-
S t arch s
C arbol i c aci d, i n cry stal s

Oi l of l a v en der
cl ov es
M e di c a t e d T a r S oa p .
C ocoa - n u t oi l
Tall o w
J u n i per t ar
Soda l ey , 4 0 B
°
.
T oot h S oa p .
Ta l l o w soap
P u m i ce powder (fi n el y si ft ed )
P r ep ared ch al k
L i q u i d G l y c e r i n e S oa p is th u s m ade :
Ol ei c ac i d
C ocoa n u t oi l (be st )
-
P otash l ey 3 6 B
°
.
:
Gl y ceri n e
1 74 TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K I N G .
Th e i n gredi en t s are sapon i fi ed

at a gen tle h eat , an d
mfli ci en t alcohol at 95 adde d to mak e t h e soap cl ear
°
.
B or dh ar dt ’
s H e r b S oap .
Ol i v e- oi l soap
P erfu m e with
C olou r blu e .
A r s e n i c a l S oa p i s u sed by bird an d an imal stu flers to

'
preserve t h e ski n s from t h e attacks of i n sects I t is .
—
pre ared b th e fol owi n g formu l a W hi te soap arsen iou s
l
acip an d y
,
i me sl ack ed by air of each 4 ozs , carbon ate .
of soda 1 2 ozs ; powdere d cam phor 1 oz Th e whole of

“
. .
, ,
th ese in gredien ts are work ed u p in to a paste with pestle ,
an d m ort ar a sm all qu an tity of wat e r b e in g adde d du ri n g

,
t h e m ixin g .
A S oa p for W a s h i n g D ogs an d oth e r an i m als is some

t imes made by m ix i n g S tockhol m ta r (wood tar ) with melte d
soap Th e tar shou ld first be di ssolved i n pyroxylic
.
spirit ( wood n aphtha ) .
T ur p e n t i n e S oa p or Starkey s Soap i s prepared as

’
, ,
—
foll o ws z Take of Ven ice t u rpen tin e oil of t u rp en tin e , ,
an d carbo n ate of potash of e ach e qu al p art s ; plac e th e s e

,
i n a m ortar (previo u sly warm ed) an d tritu rat e th em ,
together addi n g a li ttle wate r u n til a hom ogen eou s mass

, ,
is formed ; pu t it in to a paper mo u ld an d aft e r a fe w days ,
ou t t h e so ap in to slic es an d keep th em i n a well stopp e r ed

-
,
bottle .
is m ead f ro m soap t i t o shavi gs 2 pa t s ;

T a r S oa p c u n n
r ,
t ar 1 ,
part ; an d liq u or o f p o tas s a 2 parts ; t h e w hol
,
e b e i n g
i n tim ately m ixed i n a m o rtar .
B l a c k S oa p or F arri e
,
r s S oap is a co
’
a rs e k i n d
,
o f so f t
soap m ade from fish oils an d cau stic pota sh ; so m e ti m e s
,
t ar i s add e d B e sid
. e s t h e s u b st a n ce s a b o v e n a m e d i o d 1 n e
‘
, ,
C H A P T ER XX II .
Al l S CEL L A N E 0 US S OA F S .
Soap t o be u sed i n C l ot h M an u fa ct ori es — W hi t e C ocoa -n u t Oil Soap

.
D resden P al m S oap — A l t en b urge s Resi n S oap

.
’
. Ox gall S oap
.
- -
S cou ri n g Bal ls — B orax S oft Soap — B ora x S oap P owder —L on don

.
-
.
S oa p- P owder .
S oa p t o b e u sed i n C l ot h M &c — Ku rten

a n u fa ct or i e s , .
m ak e s t h e follo win g i n te re sti n g obs e r vation s on t h e pre

a rat i on of soaps to be u sed for m illin g a n d oth e r sim ila r
p
p u rposes, which will assist i n gu idin g t h e soap m ake r
‘ -
wh o m a n ot be fu lly acq u ai n ted with t h e re qu i rem en ts

o f t h e c oth scou rers
-
In preparin g all soaps in ten de d
.
for t h e u se of t h e abov e men tion ed e sta blish m e n ts , gr eat

-
care is in dispen sably n ece ssa ry i n givin g t h e l ey i ts

proper proportion of stren gth , for i f t h e l ey be too weak
t h e st a ffs can n ot be p roperly clean s ed, an d also a grea sy
m atte r is co m mu n icated to th e m which i n e ve ry cas e is
very i nj u riou s ; on t h e oth er han d, i f th e l ey is too stron g
i n t h e soap , t h e stu ffs are se c u red too m u ch , an d r etai n
al ways a dry stiffn ess which sho uld be special ly avoided .
W h en t h e cloth is sec u red or m illed it is a r u le to u se

soap of a qu al i ty correspon din g with that of t h e st u fls,
'
for it is prov e d by expe ri en c e that a cloth which is really

good, an d which is called stou t cloth , m u st be m illed a
lon ger tim e than a zephyr or light stu ff for pan taloo n s,
on ly requ ire to be washed , else th e y wou ld loose
t h e elasticity which is i n dispen sable to th em .
I n ex ec u tin g an orde r for soap for m illin g , t h e m ake r

sho u ld d i rect his atten tion to ascertai n wh eth er t h e p ro
c e ss of m illin g was accordin g to t h e an cien t m an n er by
stocks or t h e n ew m ethod by cylin de rs B y t h e firs t .
”
A rt of M an u factu ri n g S oap . B y P hi l i p K ur t en .
E
M IS C E L LA N O US S OA P S . 1 77
m eth od th e mil li n g r equ ire s lon ger ti me an d t he em

ploym en t of a soap wh ich do es n ot dissolve too qu ickly,
whilst by t h e la tte r m ethod a soap is wan ted which do es
n ot con ge al t OO qu ickly A m o n g t h e soaps which do n ot
.
dissolve qu ickly we r eckon those which are prepared from

tall o w or palm Oil with soda l e from whic h it is after
-
wards s eparat ed A soap wh i c dissolves t h e qu ick e st is

.
that which has been boiled from Olive Oi l , wi t h an addi -
tion Of tallo w, then som e ol ein soap ; i n a word, t h e

-
gen u in e soap I t is, ho wever, tru e that green or brown

.
soap al ways dissolves qu ickest ; n evertheless it is n ot fit

for m illin g h eavy cl oth with t h e stocks , becau se on that
accou n t th ey do n ot thicken su fli ci en tl y A lthou gh th e .
m an u fact urers of cloth will n ot casil decide on u sin g an y

l
oth er sort Of soap, y et t h e soap-bo i er sho u ld n ot be l ed
away by t h e opin ion that every maker Of th e sam e article
can m ak e u se Of t h e sam e sort of soap , b ecau se , a s we hav e
al ready observed, n ot on ly t h e differen t qu ali tie s Of cloth
an d t h e m e thod e mploy ed i n th eir m an u fa ctu r e sho u ld
be tak en i n to con side ratio n , bu t also t h e di ffe ren t pro
p ert i es Of t h e wate r u s e d I t i s,
. th e re f or e , t h e d u ty Of
e ve ry soap boiler t o su pply each m an u fa ct u rer with t h e
-
ki n d Of soap which , i n that man u factu rer s own Opin ion , is

’
t h e be st adapted for his p u rpose an d for t h e q u ality Of

his ma terial We will for that reason m ore fu l ly de scribe
.
t h e p reparatio n Of t h e differ en t sorts Of soa p .
H ard a n d Unsa l ted S oap for M i ll i ng Ol otlzs of

S up eri o r
q ua l i ty
— This ki
. n d of soap i s m ad e e i t h e r O f
tallow or cocoa n u t Oi l , or whiten ed pal m-Oi l with an
-
additio n Of coco a n u t Oi l , an d i n th e follo win g m an n er

-
Th e palm Oil or t h e tallo w sho u ld be boiled i n t o a fi r m

-
grain e d soap with a cau stic soda l ey , which is added till

‘
t h e soap sho ws a stro n g grain a n d b ears a good pre ss u re

Of t h e h an d, an d t h e sam ple sho ws a su fli ci en t firm n e ss
wh en cool , an d wh en t h e l ey , which still rem ain s u n
salted i n t h e soap, leave s a sh arpish taste on t h e ton gu e .
W e have then a soap, it is tru e, bu t it is n ot fi t for

m i lli n g , beca u se it does n ot y et poss ess a s u ffi cien t sco u ri n g
Mr K ii rten i s i n
. error in recomm en di n g soda soaps for th ese pu rposes.
1 78 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G.
qu ality m erefore will n ot clean se th e cloth from its dirt

, ,
glu e an d greas e TO give t h e soap t h e n ec essary powe r

, .
t o effect t hat p u rpos e an additio n Of cocoa n u t Oi l i s -
requ isite an d for that reaso n t h e u n salted l ey which

,
remain s i n th e soap m u st be got rid Of a n d t h e soap ,
po u red agai n i n to t he boile r bu t withou t an y l ey F or , .
e ve ry 1 0 0 lbs Of palm Oi l or tallo w u s e d for t his so a p

.
-
25 lbs Of cocoa n u t Oi l m u st be added which is m ix ed with

.
-
,
t h e se a wh en cold i n s mall q u an titi e s or which is m or e , ,
a dv i sab e wh en i n a state O f solu tio n an d th en m ade t o

, ,
boil afresh W h en it is in ten ded to m ake a soap Of a

.
s u perior q u ality an d to dim in ish th e l ey i n order to ,
sapon ify cocoa n u t Oil a cau stic l ey of soda Of 28 or 3 0

-
° °
is requ ired Th e l ey i s added till th e soap has acqu ired a

.
good firm n ess an d wh en tried a taste rath er stron g of

, , ,
l ey remai n s on t h e t on e A s soon as this is fo u n d .

,
t h en t h e soap m u st be a o wed to bo i l for half an hou r to

ascertain wh eth er t h e sam e taste y et r em ain s ; i f n ot a ,
little m ore l ey m u st be added till t h e taste retu rn s .
W hen t h e soap is n ot y et s eparate d from th e l ey to effect ,
t h at p u rpose som e salt m u st be u sed an d con ti n u e d till ,
t h e soap on t h e spatul a s epara t es fro m t h e l ey Th e soap .
wi ll rem ain som e hou rs i n t h e bo i l er to cool an d be afte r ,
wards pou red in to t h e fram e W h en it is desired to .
Obtai n a larg er produ c e althou gh with t h e con viction that ,
t h e u al i t y will n ot be so good i n stead Of a l ey at 28 or

°
,
30 or t h e satu ration of t h e cocoa n u t oil on e 22 to 24

°
-
,
° °
m u st be u sed an d th e soap po u red in to t h e fram e i n t h e

,
state Of paste an d n ot un salted ; bu t i n this case care m u st

,
be taken that t h e soap is n ot bro u ght to a high e r d egree

Of h eat than 25 R eau m u r oth erwise t h e soap
°
fro m t h e cocoa n u t Oi l wou ld stick to t h e bottom Of t h e

-
boi le r .
W h i t e C oc oa n u t Oi l S oa p
- — C ri stian i gives t h e fol .
lo win g dire ction s for m akin g this soap i n a simple an d

i k w — To r e par e 1 00 l bs O f this soap i n trod u c e
in to a kettle holdin g from 20 0 to 25 0 gallon s 200 lbs

q u c ay .
,
“ .
,
Th e t erm k ettl e i s gen erall y u sed i n A meri ca i n preferen ce t!

soap pa p
n or co per
-
. 80 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G.
P ur ifi ed c x-gal l 1 p art .
2 p art s .
Th e soap is ou t in to sha v in gs an d mel te d i n t h e ox gal l -
at a m oderate h eat, evaporatin g u n til Ofproper co n siste n cy .
Th e ox gall is prepared by boi l in g it with 1 0 t o 1 2 pa r ts

-
of wood spirit a n d strai n in g .
S c ou r i n g-
B a l l s .
W h i te cur d soaP O O Q Q O Q O O O O O O 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 5 lbs 2 0 23

o 0
P earl ash 6 n 6
Oil of j uni per . 3 3
M i x together, havin g pr eviou sly added a little water to

the soap an d pearl ash to dissolve th e m by a m oderate
h eat ; add th e Oi l of j u n i per an d m o uld in to balls
'
B or a x S oft S oa p .
S oda l e , 1
y
P otash ey 1 0 B °
, .
S ol u ti on of borax, 1 0 B
°
.
Th e soda l ey is added t o t h e m elte d gr ease an d h e ated

till it form s a cl ear liqu id or is com bin ed, wh en th e pota sh
l ey an d borax sol u tio n a re add ed I t sho u ld be a s em i .
solid tra n sl u c en t pas te , an d is u su ally sold i n q u art can s .
B or a x S oa p -p owd er .
3
2
1 pa r t .
Each i n gredi en t is thoro u ghly drie d an d all m ix e d

t oge th e r by si fti n g .
L on d on S oa p -p owd e r .
Y ell ow soa p o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
S oda cry stal s

P earl a sh
S u l ph at e of soda
P a l m - oi l
.
Th ese i n gredi en ts a re co m bi n ed as well as possible

witho u t an y wate r an d th ey a re sprea d ou t to dry a n d
,
t h en gro u n d in to a coa r s e po wd er Thu s i n an i n fin it e .
de gree can th e vari e ty of soap powde rs be m ul tipli ed -

.
Th ey a re adapte d for hard wate rs as the ir exce ss Of al kali ,
n eu tralis es t h e li m e — Cri sti an i .

’
.
C H A P T ER XXIII .
M I S CE L L A N E OUS P R 0 CE S S E S .
J Pr ocesses — L ev at s P rocess V i ol et s P al m -Oil S oap

’ ’ ’
i
e n n n gs s . .
- .
H a mpel s S h avi n g S oap

’
— M arri ot t s P oce sr s — S a wdu st i n S oap
’
.
— L e wi s s P rocess —B orax Soap — C a mph or an d A mmon i a S oaps

.
’
.
.
—M ack a y an d S ell er s P rocess — P et rol e u m Soap : Bas tet s P ro

’
‘
c ess.
— m
B esson an d Re y s P cess
’
ro — T a r d a n i s P r oc
. es s — H al f r esi n
’
.
-
S oap —. P ay e s P oc e
n r s
’
s — B an k m an n
. s P r o ce s s — J ey es s P r ocess
’
.
’
.
V ar i c as s P r ce
’
o ss — L o r bu r y s P r oc e ss — C l
'
e a v er s T e re b en e S oa
p
’
q —
.
Sch ar r s Li u i d Soap
’
— B i chf o rd
. s P oc
r e ss M arki n g S oaps
’
. .
A P A R T fro m t h e ordin ary, or, i f we m a y say so, recogn ised

soaps, i n n u m erable paten ts hav e b ee n taken ou t fro m tim e
”
to t im e for vario u s i mpro vem en ts, m odification s, or
“
addition s, t h e m erits Of which m ay e asily be deter mi n ed

by a sm all trial wh en th e n ew process do es n ot, which is
t OO freq u en tly t h e case, b ear t h e bra n d Of ab su rdity on
”
t h e v e ry fac e of it Th e follo win g abstracts fro m a fe w
.
Of th e pat e n t sp ecification s will en abl e t h e r ead e r to form
his own j u dgm en t as to wh eth er an y Of th e proce sses

d escribed i n brief will be worth a fu rth e r acqu ain tan c e,
i n which case h e wi ll n at u rally Obtai n a copy Of t h e
sp ecification , an d i f n ecessary, pu t him self i n comm u n i ca
tio n with t h e paten tee, provided, of co u rse, that s u ch
pat en t is i n fu ll force .
i
J e n n n gs s P r oc e s s e s
’ — 1 C om bi n e lbs of stearic . .
or m argari c acids, as free from olein as possible, or palmi

t i n or an y v e getab l e or an i mal stearm or m argarm , at
t h e t e mp erat u r e Of 21 2 F , with a sol u tio n of bi car
°
-
.
bo n ate Of potassa or soda of a specific gravi ty Of abou t

stir con stan tly u n til an in ti mate co mbin ation is
Obtain ed, an d n o s ep a r ation visibl e wh en tri e d with t h e
sh ovel or t ro we l Wh en th e m ass has cooled do wn to
.
x8 3 T[ I E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
abou t 60 F add 1 lb per cen t of liqu id am mon ia of

°
.
, . .
a bo u t a n &1 lb per c en t Of t h e stro n ge st sol u tio n of

. .
cau stic pota ssa ; th ese are to be added grad u ally an d we ll ,
m ixed by stirrin g u n til p er fectly combi n ed D issol v e .
1 5 to 1 8 per c en t of resi n by boilin g i t with a solu tion

.
of carbo n at e of potassa an d soda i n eq u al parts .

or as ,
m u ch as will giv e t h e solu tio n a sp ecific gravity Of or

abou t when boili n g hot M i x th es e perfe c tly with .
t h e stearic or m argaric acids an d carbon at ed alk ali ;

th en add a stron g solu tion of cau stic potassa or soda ,
u n til p e r fect sap on i fi ca t i on is produ ced Th e dose of .
ca u stic alkali will m u ch depen d u pon t h e p u rity of t h e

stearin e or m argarin e employ ed Th e s eparatio n is n ow .
ef fecte d b u si n g co mm o n salt or s u lphat e Of soda as
u s u al . I t h e soap is to be colo u rle ss n o resin m u st be ,
e m ploy ed an d a l a rg e r dos e Of liq u id am m o n i a a n d c a u sti c

,
al kali m u st be u sed accordi n g to t h e dry n ess oft he steari n e

to be operated u pon .
2 W hite c u r d soap is dissolved i n abo u t on e th ird Of its -
weight o f water to which is adde d com

.
, p /ton y (black r e si n ) ,
carbon ate Of soda an d al um F or this p u rpose t h e re sin

, .
( at t h e rat e O f 2 5 p er c e n t O f t h e q u a n tity O f soap.

) is
dissolved with abou t 6 per cen t of carbo n ate Of soda of .
c o mmerc e to t h e r e sin e mploy e d u si n g abo u t a lik e weight ,
of wat er as th er e is Of t h e r esin Th es e m at t ers bein g .
boiled togeth er till t h e resin an d alkali are dissolved ,
t h e co mpou n d is to be added to t h e dissolve d so ap a n d ,
t h e whole Of t h e m att ers are to be boiled till t h e work m a n

on takin g a sam ple fi n ds that t h e soap i s hard an d s m ooth ,
as is well u n derstood by soap boilers To thi s com pou n d -

.
is to be added a q u an tity Of su lphate Of alu m i n a (co mm o n

a l u m ) with a vi e w to i m prov e t h e colo u r say from abo u t ,
2 to 4 per c en t Of t h e tallo w or Oi l an d r esin i n t h e

.
m ixtu re u sin g m ore or l ess Of t h e al u m accordin g as t h e

,
r esin is less or m or e p u re Th e whole co mpo u n d is to be .
boiled u p an d th en allo wed to stan d from t wo to fou r hou rs

,
.
I n ord er to prev en t t h e r esin precipitatin g a qu an tity of ,
dilu te su lph u ric acid is in trodu ce d an d stirred i n to t h e

abov e m ixtu re Th e st re n gt h of each sol u tio n of acid
.
water are added A l l th ese in gr edi en ts are to be well

.
m ixed t oge th er, an d fi n ally 1 2 5 p er c en t Of spirit at .
90 is to be add e d an d well in corporate d with t h e m ass

°
.
Th e com pou n d is then to be cove red, an d all Owed to r est

'
for a while, afte r which it i s to be fil ter ed, an d is th e n

ready for u se .
M r s M a rr i ot t s P r oc e s s — F or makin g a washin g or
.
’
.
”
clean sin g co mpo u n d, t h e i n ven tor m ix es with com m on
yello w or an y fan cy or toilet soap abou t an eq u al pro
portion Of very fi n el y powdered pu m ice, which is added to
-
t h e soap i n its m elted stat e Th e powdered p u m ic e i s to

.
be thorou ghly i n corporate d with t h e soap , so as to be

e q u ally distribu t ed thro u gho u t This compou n d co mbin e s
.
t h e de tergen t qu alitie s Of t h e soap with t h e frictio n al

a ctio n Of t h e p u m ic e ; at t h e sam e tim e, wh en u s e d for
washin g or cl ean sin g p u rposes , t h e soap lu b ricate s t h e

particles Of th e po wdered p u m ice an d m odifies its abrasi ve
action , thu s pre ven tin g i nj u ry to t h e fin est fabrics .
S a wd u s t i n S oa p — M r W a ller form s a washin g or

. .
clean sin g co mpou n d by addi n g to m elted soap c ertai n

qu an titi es Of sawdu st, an d well m ixin g t h e whole toge th e r
by stirri n g or cru tchin g Th e sawdu st m ay , i f pre ferre d,
.
be i n trod u c ed du rin g t h e proc e ss Of m an u fact u re i n t h e

sam e way that ot h er i n gredien ts are added to so ap .
L ewi s s P
’
r oc e s s — M r L e wis m ix es potato flo u r, dex
. .
trin e, or oth er su itable farin ac eo u s su bstan ces with a

viscou s sol u tio n of sol u ble glass or solu tion Of sili c a te
Of soda or si l ica t e of pota sh , i n t h e propor t io n of abo u t
on e part fl o u r to t e n or t we lve parts Of t h e sili cate Th e .
soap is m an u factu red fro m Oleic acid i n t h e u s u al way ,

with t h e additio n of a sm all qu an tity Of r esin , say abo u t
on e part o f re sin to abo u t t en parts of soap W h en t h e .
process is fi n ish ed, an d while t h e soap rem ai n s hot an d

i n a fit con dition for r u n n in g in to t h e coolin g fram es, t h e
above co m pou n d Of t h e silicate an d farin ac eo u s su bsta n c e
is added i n t h e proportio n Of abou t on e part by weight to
three parts Of t h e soap, m ore or less Th ese m ateri als are .
thoro u ghly in corpora t ed or m i x ed by c ru t chin g an d st i r

rin g, a n d th en t h e whole is tr an sferred to t he fram e s
as u su al .
M IS CE L L A N E O US P R OCE S S E S . 1 85
F or ho u sehold or lau n dry pu rposes h e u ses by pre

feren ce a soap m ade Of Oleic acid m ixed with co mm on
‘
tallo w or an imal grease an d resin ; i f n ecessary h e adds ,
a c e rtain pro ortion Of F r en ch chalk t o giv e fir mn e ss to

t h e soap . Tp e sol u tion Of si licate Of soda sho u ld have a
sp ecific gra vity Of abo u t 1 70 by Twaddell s hydro ° ’
m et e r .
B or a x S oa p — Mr Ro wbot tom produ ces borax dry soap

. .
,
or soap po wde r by addi n g bora x to t h e u su al carbon ated

or sili cated ash or alkali or othe r su bstan c e u s ed i n t h e
,
m an u factu re of dry or po wd e r soaps F or borax so f t.
soap s h e adds a sol u tio n Of bo ra x to t h e i n gredi en ts

u su ally em ploy e d for m akin g ordi n ary soft soaps b efor e
or d u rin g t h e m an u fa ctu re or h e dissolves by h eat an y

,
ordin ary so ft soap i n t h e borax solu tion an d i n corporates ,
t h e sa m e a ft e r whi ch t h e m ass i s allo wed to cool i n t h e

,
u su al m an n er .
C a m p h or a n d Am m on i a S oa p s — M essrs C oope r an d . .
S m ith in trodu c e th e se s u bsta n c es i n t o ordin ary hard or so ft

soap th e form er bei n g pre vio u sl y m elted Th e camphor is
, .
fi rst dissolv ed i n c am phin e or rectified Oi l Of t u rpen tin e ,
or i n alcohol Th e sol u tion of cam phor is added to th e

.
hard or so ft soap i n an y desired q u an tity accordin g to t h e

u se to which it is to be appli ed Th e car bon at e Of a mm on ia
.
is first red u ce d to a fi n e po wder an d this is well in cor ,
p or a t e d w ith t h e soap by stirri ng Th e carbo n ate of .
a m m o n ia is adde d i n t h e proportion of fro m on e to fi v e
parts by W e ight to e very 1 0 0 parts Of soap Th e addi tion .
Of cam phor to t h e soap is said to give it val u abl e di si n
fect i n g prop ertie s while carbon ate of am m on ia i n creases

,
t h e detergen t po we r Of th e soap Th e camphor m ay be.
u s ed wi t ho u t t h e carbo n a te of a m m on ia a n d t h e l a tt er ,
withou t t h e for m er or th ey m ay both be add ed to t h e

,
same soap .
I n addition to t h e cam phor sol u tion an d carbo n ate Of

ammon ia t h e paten tees prefer t o add Of borax abou t
,
1 0 per c en t to t h e soa p an d also glyc eri n e to t h e ext en t

.
,
Of 5
p er c en t I n addin g borax it is dissolv ed i n as sm all
.
a q u an tity Of wat er as i s practic abl e an d t h e sol u tion i s ,

[ 86 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K I N G .
a dded to m elted hard soap In treati n g so ft soap th e .
cam phor an d am m on ia may be adde d e it he r sin gly or

conjoi n tly an d wi t h or witho u t borax a n d glyc e rin e
, .
Th e borax m ay e ither be added i n solu tion or i n fi n e

powder In m akin g soft soap for ships u se 2 per c en t
.
’
.
Of tar is adde d to so ft so ap i n additio n to th e oth er

i n gredien ts t h e tar b ein g fi rst di ssol ved i n pyroxylic
,
spirit .
M ac k a y a n S ell er s P r oc e s s
d — Th e pate n t ees proce ss
’
.
’
c on sists i n m ixin g with soap du rin g its m an u factu re , ,
chl orate of potash or an y other su bstan c e which i n pro ,

”
cess Of solu tion i n water will give off oxygen , Th e .
chlorate Of potash is sifted i n to or m ixe d with t h e soap

on t h e poi n t of its s ettin g or j u st b e fore it is allo we d to
,
cool i n s u ch m an n er that t h e oxidizin g agen t i s n ot th en

,
dissolved i n su ch soap base bu t preserved th erein m ore ,
or less i n con tact with t h e soaps treated Th e Obj ect of .
i n trodu cin g t h e chlorate or oth er oxidizin g agen t is to

, ,
faci litate t h e rem oval Of di rt d u rin g t h e proce ss of

wash i n g P roportion s : abo u t 7 l bs Of ch lorate to 1 1 2 l bs
. . .
of soap .
P e t r ol eu m S oa p : B a s t et s P r oces s — C au stic l ey at
’
.
3 6 B i s plac ed i n a su itable vessel an d th en e qu al parts

°
.
,
Of an im al fatty m atter an d m i n eral Oi l are plac e d i n

separate v ess els Th e com bin ed weight of t h e fat ty m a tter
.
a n d t h e m in e r al Oi l b ein g taken as a stan dard boracic ,
acid su fli ci en t to di ssolve t h e alkali is u sed ; t h e m in eral

Oi l i s h eate d to a tem p erat u re Of abo u t 90 F an d
°
t h e an im al fa tty m atte r i s m elted by steam h eat an d ,
while i n this con diti on a qu an tity Of boracic acid is

dissolved th erein which with that acid u s ed as before will
, , ,
m ake u p on e half per c en t of t h e combin ed weight Of t h e

- .
fatty m att er an d m in eral Oil employed .
Th e partially acidified an i mal fatty m atter an d t h e

m i n eral Oi l b ein h eated i n separate vessels are n ow
u n ited by gradu al ly pou rin g t h e form e r i n to t h e l att e r
,
with co n stan t stirri n g or agita tion i n order to e ffect a ,
p erfect combin ation t h e acidified alkali i s then gradu al ly

added a n d t h e m a ss k ep t well s t i rr e d
,
.
(8 8 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
t he bottom of t h e boil er A fter havi n g wash ed t h e li me .
soap a littl e an d clos e d t h e top a c e rtai n q u an tity Of ,
wate r is added to t h e soap an d also a q u an tity Of com ,
m e rc i al carbon ate of soda e qu ival en t to an d rath e r i n

e xce ss Of t h e q u an tity Of li me u sed .
0
Wh en th e i n gredien ts are well m ixed an d th e m ixtu re

boiled t h e hard i n solu ble lim e soap will be decom posed
, ,
an d t h e li m e precipitated i n th e form Of a gran ul ar car
bon a te while a sol u ble soda soap or potash soap (wh ere
,
potash is u s ed to form a so ft soap) is produ c ed which ,
floats i n t h e shap e Of flakes on t h e top of t h e wat er m ore ,
e speci ally i f sea salt has b een adde d

-
Thi s is t h e reason .
wh y t h e shap e Of t h e tru n cat ed con e is preferred for t h e

boiler an d its bottom flat Th e h eat is appli ed on ly rou n d .
t h e boil e r .In this way it is said to be possible to m ake

good soap u sin g fatty m atter with m em bran es an d very
,
i mpu re Oils witho u t in cu rrin g t h e expe n se Of extracti n g

t h e p u re fat or Oi l If cocoa n u t Oi l or palm Oi l a re to be
.
- -
sapon i fi ed a q u a n tity Of li me eq u ival en t to t h e fi ft h Of

,
their weight can be u sed Th ese so aps bein g very solu ble .
,
e ven i n salt wat e r it is n ec e ssa ry to use tolerably p u r e car

,
bon ate s of t h e alkali .
H a l f r e s i n S oa p by H iggin s s proc ess is produ c ed as

’
-
, ,
—
follo ws z F or a ch eap lau n dry soap is taken prim e tallo w
or equ ivalen t fat lbs which is sapon i fi ed as u su al
,
.
,
with cau stic soda Of say , 3 0 stre n gth A ft er t h e first or

,
°
.
”
grease charge an eq u al q u an tity v i z 1 0 00 0 1bs Of ,
.
,
.
,
clear resin is added an d sapon i fi ed i n t h e u su al m an n er .
A bo u t lbs Of cau stic soda at a stren gth of 3 0 is

.
°
u s ed for t h e whol e Upon t h e com pl etion Of t h e sapo n i fy

.
i n g proce ss an d while t h e com po u n d is i n a hot fl u id s tate

,
before fram in g a qu an tity Of crystallis ed stearic acid Of

,
comm erc e eq u al i n am ou n t to abo u t 2 per c en t Of t h e

,
.
whole m ass is added or abou t 3 per cen t Of stearin e t h e

, ,
.
,
su bstan ce i n eith er case b ei n g i n a m elted state This i s .
added gradu ally while th e soap is hot an d is thorou ghly

cru tch e d in to t h e body which is th en framed i n ,
t h e u s u al m an n er Th e m ass solidifi es in to a hard an d

.
u sefu l soap havin i n i t s co m po sitio n eq u al po rtio n s of

g
,
M IS CE LL A N E OUS P R OCE S S E S . 1 89
re si n o u s an d fatty m atter in stead of on ly on e third or

,
-
on e fo u r th as u su al
-
.
This soap is said to preserve its qu ality an d hard n ess

bet te r than ordi n ary resin soaps do es n ot b eco m e u n du ly ,
dry an d brittle an d also po sse sses t h e advan tage that

,
while i n m ost lau n dry soaps a large portion is waste d

beca u se of th eir extreme sol u bility which cau s e s th em to ,
dissolve to a greater exten t than is requ ired for t h e

strictly detersive pu rposes t h e soap produ c ed by t h e ,
above process is said to last lon ger b esides b ein g also ,
cheape r .
M r G P a y n e s P r oc e s s co n sists i n tr eatin g fatty or

. .
’
Oily m atte rs a n
d s u bj e cti n
g t h e sam e u n de r press u r e i n , ,
an au toclav e with li m e an d wat e r .
A ft er t h e deco mposition Of t h e fatty or 0 i m att er i n

t h e a u toclave t h e aq u eou s solu tio n Of glyc erin e is with
,
dra wn an d i n stead of decom posin g t h e lim e soap wi t h

,
acids as i n th e ordin ary proc ess of m aki n g stearin e t he

, ,
in ven tor employs for its decomposition stro n g cau stic soda
or potash leys or a solu tion of carbon ate of soda or potash
, .
Th e hydrate d or carbon ate sol u tion is u sed i n abo u t t h e

proportion of 7 per c en t of t h e alkalin e base to from 60 or
.
70 per c en t of t h e fatty acid th e s e proportion s bein g

.
,
varie d within c ertain lim its ; i n all cases care m u st be

t aken that t h e alkali shall be su fi ci en t to com bin e with or
satu rate t h e whole of t h e fatty acid Th e decompositio n .
Of th e li m e soap b m e an s Of t h e hydrate or c a rbon ate of

y
soda will resu lt i n t h e produ ction of a soda soap an d where ,
t h e hydrate or c arbo n ate Of potash is u sed for s u ch dec om

positio n th e produ ct will be potash soap th e li me i n eithe r ,
case bei n g precipita te d i n a m ore or less i n sol u ble con di

tion Th e soaps Obtain e d by this proc ess m ay be fi n ish ed
.
i n a soap copp er i n t h e ordin ary m an n er

-
.
M r B an k m an n s P r oc e s s has for its obj e ct to fu rn ish so a p

.
’
i n t he form Of thin pe rforat ed sh eets or table ts so th at a ,
si n gle piec e m ay be torn Off for each washin g of t h e han ds

or fac e A n u m ber Of fram es are plac ed on e above an oth e r
.
,
an d a re s ec u r ely fasten ed t og e th er i n s u ch a m an n e r that
t h e joi n ts are wat er tight Th e soap t o be trea ted is pu t

- .
i n t o th ese fram es, an d th e sides or s ection s are capabl e o f

b ein g rem oved so as to leave t h e soap proj ectin g Thi n .
sh av m gs are plan ed from t h e block Of soap by a cu tt e r
passi n g alon g t he su rface, an d th e shavin gs or sh eets are

t h en su bj ected to th e action of a rolle r which co m pre ss es
an d sm ooths them Then a perforator di vides each shavin g
.
or sh eet in to correspon di n gly s m all piec es Each sh ee t .
shoul d be abo u t 3 in ch es lon g by 2 i n ch es broad , an d

p e r
forated crosswise so as to form fou r tablets Th e sh eets .
have th en abou t t h e thickn ess an d portability Of p osta ge

s tamps A bo u t on e do zen of s u ch sh e ets m ay be arran ged
.
i n a packet i n form of a pocket book Th e pack et will

-
.
t hen con tai n t he m aterial fo fort y eight separate wash

r -
i n gs I f desired, th e soap m ay be i m pre n ated with car

l
.
bol i c acid , tar, or other m edi ci n al m at eri a .
M r W J ey e s s P r oc e s s
.
’
.
— Th e i n v en tor i n trod u c es
.
an t h raci n e s alt, n aphthalin e , or an y sim ilar crystallis abl e
h y drocarbon i n to th e ordin ary in gredien ts Of soap Eith e r .
of t h e abov e salts i s added t o an d mi x e d with t h e ordin ary
i n gredi en ts Of soap at an con v en i en t p eriod d u ri n g th e

y
m an u factu r e before solidi fication , an d i n vario u s propor
ti o n s, accordi n g to t h e u se to which it m ay be i n ten ded to
apply th e soap .
M V ar i c a s s P r oc e s s
.
’
Th e practice n ow, says th e
.
i n ven tor, i s to sapo n ify fats with alk ali es witho u t an y

previou s treatmen t Of t h e fa t, lookin g to t h e prelim i n ary
d ecom positio n Of t h e sam e Th e resu lt is a co mparativ ely
.
slo w sa on i fi cat i on , an d all t h e glyc e ri n e which do es n ot

p
rem ain i n t h e soap m echa n ically su sp en de d is carri ed off
i n th e wast e l ey an d lost Th e obj ect of this in ven tion is
.
t o prepare fats for i n stan t sapon i fi cat i on , an d to save all

t h e glyc e rin e To effect this, t h e in ven tor first extracts th e
.
glyc erin e from fats i n th eir n eu tral state by t h e direct

action Of steam an d water, u n der a pressu re Of abo u t
1 5 0 1bs , wh ereby a so ap stock is produ c ed su sc eptibl e of
.
i m m edi at e sapon i fi cat i on wh en com bin ed with a n alk alin e

l ey . B eside s t h e i m portan t advan tage Of savin g all t h e
glyc erin e , t h e whole process Of soap m aki n g i s said to be
-
materi ally hastened, and the resul tin g soaps are of su peri or
t o: TH E A R T OF S OA P - JI A X IN G .
Th e in gredien ts are plac ed i n a vat or oth er su i t abl e

v ess el an d boil ed by inj e ction Of steam for t wo ho u rs
, .
Th e liq u id a fte r be in g boiled is passed thro u gh a si e ve

, , ,
to s eparate t h e solid portion ; it is th en cooled do wn to

bet we en 90 an d 1 22 F Th e solid or third portio n
° °
.
is pu t i n to a cask (which is provided wi t h a t ap n ea r t h e

botto m ) an d u pon it is pou r ed abou t 40 to 4 4 gallo n s Of
boilin g water which is thorou ghly in corporat ed by st i rri n g
, .
It is then allo wed to rest u n t i l it becom e s cle ar wh en th e ,
clear portion is ru n ou t by t h e tap in to a su i table rece ive r ,
an d bro u ght to t h e boili n g poi n t by t h e i nj e ctio n Of -
stea m Th e steam is n ow tu rn ed off an d 1 5 2 l bs Of so ft

.
, .
soap an d 20 lbs Of A m erican pearla sh are add ed with ,
stirri n g Th e soap which h ad previou sly coole d do wn is

.
n ow i n t rod u c ed an d we ll m ix e d by stirrin g wh en t h e ,
compou n d is ready for u se .
M r Bi c kfor d in trod u c e s po wd ered F re n ch ch alk (stea

.
tite , or soapsto n e ) i n to soap em ploy i n g fro m 4 to abou t 7 ,
e r c en t accordi n g t o t h e p u r os e for which t h e soap is

p .
, p
to be u sed F or a n u rsery soap 4 per cen t is recom
.
, .
m en ded an d for toil et soaps 5 per cen t Of t h e po wder

, . .
—
A s far back as 1 8 3 8 M r S he ridan th e ori gin al i n .
v en t or Of silicat e d soaps — paten ted a proc ess for combin in g

po tato flou r water an d soda or potash l eys (preferri n g
, ,
t h e latter alkali ) i n t h e follo wi n g proportion s — po tato

flo u r 1 6 lbs ; water 270 lbs ; po t ash leys 1 00 lbs I t
, .
,
.
, .
wil l be seen as is too frequ en tly t h e case with i m prov e

,
m en ts i n soap that t h e sa m e idea has been Often paten t ed

,
si n c e
.
M a r k i n g S oa p s — M r D u n n su gge ste d m ark in g soaps

. .
,
colou red soa ) or oth e r sim ilar m aterial i n this way

Th e soap is fl rst sta mp ed i n t h e u s u al m a n n er an d wh en ,
dry t h e im pression is filled i n with plastic soap Of a differen t

colou r by m ean s Of a spat u la or i f t h e i m pression is fi n e
a n d sm all wi th dry po wd ered an d colo u red soap by
, ,
mean s o f a spatu la with wh ich a little Of th e p o wder is

,
spread ove r t h e impressed s u rfac e .

C H A P T ER XXIV .
AL K A L IME TE r OF DE TE RMI NIN G

. M E TH OD S
TE E P E R CEN TA GE OF R E A L A L K A L I IN
C OMM E R OI A L S OD A A S H ; P OTA S E ; A ND
CA US TI C A L K A L I
’
.
Moh r s Al kal i meter — P reparat i on th e T est-Aci d — S ampli n g A l k al i es

of
’
—Th e A ssay N orm an dy s M eth od —Testi n g C om m erci a l P ear

. . .
’
. .
l ash es —T o determi n e th e P ercen tage of real or an h y dro

.
I r m u st be
'
bviou s that m a man u factu re which con su m es
O
vast qu an titie s Of m ateri als of variable qu al ity some mean s ,
of estim atin g t h e a ctu a l val u e sho u ld be at t h e com m an d of
t h e co n s u m er Th e scien c e of ch em istry which as we have

.
, ,
sho wn res cu ed th e art of soap m akin g from th e empiricism

,
-
an d 1 n oran ce which r u l ed i t s opera ti o n s u n til littl e m ore
than g ort y y ears si n c e has sho wn n ot o n ly t h e pri n cipl e s

,
of ca on i fi ca t i on bu t a lso t h e m ean s by which t h e pre cise

p ,
val u e Of th e variou s in gredien ts employe d i n t h e art m ay

be dete r mi n ed with absol u te c er tai n ty an d with com ,
arat i v e e ase an d si m plicity

p .
It was t h e cu sto m form erly for t h e soap boil e r to -
e st im ate t h e stren gth of his alkali by firs t po u ri n a

g
u art Of wate r on a po u n d of t h e a sh an d th e n p u t t i n g
q ,
i n to t h e sol u tion a l u m p Of D u tch soap which flo at e d m ,
i t ; h e th en added m ore wate r gradu ally u n til t h e piec e of

soap san k an d th e m ore water that was requ ired to effect
,
th is Obj ect th e rich e r i n alkali was t h e ash s u pposed to

,
be . It is n eedl ess to say tha t a t e s t of this kin d wou ld

be all bu t worthl ess .
Th e first adoptio n Of a sys t em for esti m at i n g th e relative

v al u e of alk ali es by ch em ical agen cy wa s m a de by t h e
cele brat ed F r en ch ch em ist Va u qu e lin ; this was follo we d
by D escroi zel l es i mportan t in ven ti on of t h e al kal i meter by
’
,
th e aid Of which tole rably acc u rate res u lts co u ld be obtai n ed .
0
To ou r own cou n try m an D r A n dre w U re ho we ve r we

, .
, ,
are i n d ebt e d fo r t h e em ploym en t of a t e st acid that re pre -
sen t s t h e absol u t e a mo u n t Of alkali i n a given comm e rcial

sa mple Of soda or potash wh eth er i n th e form Of carbon ate
,
or of cau stic alkali To un derstan d t h e m ethods of de te r

.
m in in g t h e pe rc en ta ge Of real alkali i n a co mm e rcial

sam pl e it m ay be n e c e ssa ry to r efe r bri e fly to t h e la ws Of
ch em ical co mbin ation defin ed by t h e atom ic th eory Of
D r D alton
. This great ch emist di scovere d that all su b
.
st an c es com bi n e i n de fi n i te p rop orti ons or eq u ival en ts for

exam pl e 1 part by we ight of h y drogen combi n es with
,
8 parts of any on to form water Th e equ i val en t n u mber .
of hydrog en t erefore , is 1 that of oxyg e n 8 a n d that of

, , ,
wate r 9 A gain 3 eq u ival en ts of oxygen co m bi n e with

.
,
1 eq u ival en t Of su l ph u r (1 6) to for m su l ph u ric an h ydrid e ,
th u s s u lphu r 1 6 oxygen 24 equ als an h ydrou s s u lph u ric

, ,
an hydride 4 0 or m o n ohydra te d acid (stron g oil of vitriol )

,
4 9 ; th ere fore 4 9 is t h e equ i va l en t or com bin in g n u m b e r

,
Of this acid a n d i t c a n n ot be m ad e to u n it e with alkalis or

,
oth e r bases i n an y other proportion For exam ple forty .

,
~
n i n e gra i ns by weight Of u re s ul ph u ric acid will n e u tralis e

p
exactly 5 3 grain s of a nhy drous car bon a te o f so d a 3 1 gr ain s ,
of p u re a n hy drous soda (sodic oxide ) or 4 0 grain s Of ,
hy dra te of soda (cau stic soda) This bein g so i t is o n ly .

,
n ec e ssary t o have exactly 4 9 grain s Of s l ph u ric

p u r e u
a cid i n grain s Of water to form a test aci d which -

, ,
wh en em ployed to n eu tralise an alkalin e solu tion will ,
sh ow by t h e proportion of dilu te acid u sed to sat u rate t h e

,
alkal i t h e absolu te p erc en ta ge pre s en t i n t h e sam ple

, .
Th ere are t wo prin cipal m ethods Of an alyzin g or

a ssayi n g alk alie s by m e an s of t h e t est acid t h e fi rst of -
,
which is vol umetr i c or by meas u re ; an d t h e s eco n d

,
ra vi metr i c or by weight I n t h e for m e r t h e t e st acid

g
-
.
, ,
or stan dard solu tion is applie d by m ean s of a glass

v e ssel t e rm ed an a l ka l i meter or bu rette whic h holds u p to , , ,
i ts 0 or z ero m ark e xac t ly grai n s Th e scale i s

,
rad u ate d in to 1 0 0 divisio n s which a re agai n s u bdivide d

g ,
i n to ten ths Th ere are se veral form s Of th e bu re tte or

.
alkalimete r all m ore or l ess admirabl e for t h eir i n gen iou s

,
1 96 TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G.
pressu re of t h e fi n gers an d which co sts al most n oth i n g

, .
I t co n sis ts Of a s m all pi e ce of v u lcan i se d i n di a r u b be r -
tu be which is closed by a clam p of brass wire (F i g

, .
Th e en ds of th i s cl am p which I call a pre ss u re cock are

,
-
,
ben t lateral ly a t right an gles i n Oppo si te direction s an d ,
fu rn i sh ed with kn obs so t h at wh en both en ds are pre ss ed

,
t h e clam p is op en ed an d a si n gl e drop or a con ti n u ou s

,
c u rren t of liqu id m ay be allowed to escape at pleas u re .
Th e m eas u rin g t u be i s a straight glass cyli n d er B as ,
u n i form as possibl e gradu at ed i n to 0 2 or O l c u bic c en ti

'
m e tre s an d some wh at con tracte d at its lo we r en d so as t o

, ,
fi t i n to t h e i n dia r u bb er tu b e A sm all pi ec e Of glass tu b e

-
.
,
in s erted belo w th e pressu re cock form s t h e spou t Th e -

, .
pressu re cock has t h e advan tage Of n ot leakin g for i t

-
,
close s Of itself wh en t h e pressu re of t h e fin gers i s

rem oved .
Th e m easu re fu rn ish ed with t h e pressu re cock is -
fast en ed u po n an appropriate stan d which can be place d ,
a t an
y r eq u ire d h eight W h en u se d it i s fill
. ed abo ve ,
t h e ze ro poin t with te st liq u or t h e cock op en ed for an -

,
i n stan t so as to l e t t h e air e scape from th e spo u t an d t h e

, ,
l ev el of t h e solu tion is th en adj u sted This is don e by .
brin gi n g th e ey e level with th e zero poin t an d applyin g ,
a gen tle pressu re t o t h e cook u n til t h e liqu id has su n k

so l ow that th e i n ferior cu rve of t h e l iqu id to u ch es t h e
gradu atio n li ke t h e circle of a tan gen t ; t h e cock is th en
closed an d at t h e sam e m omen t t h e liqu id r e main s at
,
zero , an d con ti n u e s to do so for weeks i f e vaporation i s ,
pre ven ted Th e test m easu re bein g n e w n ormally fi lled

.
,
t h e exp eri m en t m ay be co m m en c ed ; this is don e sitti n g ,
while t h e filli n g of th e m easu re is do n e stan din g .
Th e weigh ed sa mpl e of alkali is fi rst plac ed i n a

b eak er glass an d t h e test liqu or is allo wed to flow
,
-
in to i t by gen tly pressi n g t h e cock B oth han ds are set .
at l iberty for wh en t h e pressu re cock is rele ased it closes

,
-
of itsel f Th e vol u m etric op eratio n m ay be in t erru pte d at

.
pl easu re i n orde r to h eat t h e liqu id shake it or do what

, , ,
e v e r els e m ay be r e qu ired Th e qu an tity of liqu id u s ed

.
may be read off at an y mo men t an d i n rep eatin g an ex ,

A L K A L I M E TR Y . 1 97
ri men t th e
p e
li m it of t h e qu an tity u se d oe ore m ay be
a proa ch ed so n ea r that t h e fu rth er additio n O f liqu id m a
-
”
y
be m ade drop by drop .
W h en a lkali es are a n alyzed gravi metri cal lg a Sp ecifi c

g ra vi ty bot
-t l e F
( gi 3 5 ). c a pabl e Of holdi n g e xactly
grain s Of distilled wa te r is em ployed an d this , ,
wh en fille d with t e s t liq u or weig h s (exclu si v e

-
,
of t h e ta re of t h e bot t le ) e xactly gra in s .
grain s of th e te st liqu or con ta in s e xactly

-
49 grai n s Of rea l s u lph u ric acid Th e t es t acid

.
-
to be u sed vol umetr i ca llg that is with t h e alka

, ,
l i met er has a sp ecific gra v ity of 1 0 32 at 60 F

°
,
an d grai n s by measu re con ta in e xa ctly 4 9 Fi g 35 . .
grain s Of real or an hydro u s su lph u ric acid .
P r e p a r a t i on of t h e T e st -a c i d or S t a n d ar d S ol u t i on
When m akin g t h e test liqu or it is advisable to p repa re a
-
qu an tity s u ffi ci en t for m an y opera tio n s si n c e th e re is ,
n e c es sarily a c ertain am o u n t of tro u ble in volved i n its pre
p ar a t i on .I t m a
y b e r e adily m ade by m ixin g 1 pa r t o f
con c en trated su lphu ric acid with 1 1 or 1 2 parts Of di sti lled

wa ter t h e m ixtu re be in g effected i n a
,
W in ch ester
bottle which holds rath er over half a gallon Th e acid
, .
s olu tion mu st be a dj usted or brou ght to t h e proper stren gth

afte r it has coole d down to 60 F an d it sho u ld be fai n t ly
°
ti nged wi t h litm u s which will give it a pin kish h u e

, .
I f t h e acid is of t h e prop e r stren gth i t s h o u ld exa ct l y

sat u rate 5 3 grain s Of p u re carbon ate of soda pre vio u sly
c alcin ed at a red h eat or 3 1 grain s of p u re an hydrou s
,
soda TO prepare th e an hydrou s carbo n ate of soda pla ce

.
,
a fe w cr y stals of carbo n a te of soda i n a B erlin po rc el ai n

cr u cible a n d h ea t t h is o ver a s pirit lam p or B u n sen bu rn er ;
,
-
wh en all t h e wate r of crystallisatio n is expell e d co n tin u e

t h e calci n atio n u n t i l t h e m a ss is at a bright red h eat wh en ,
t h e v e sse l m ay be set aside to cool Now care fu lly wei gh

.
ou t 5 3 grai n s of t h e c a lci n e d carbon at e a n d dissol v e i n ,
abo u t 2 ou n c es of distille d wat e r i n a beaker glass Th e - .
alkalim eter is n ow to be charged with t h e te st acid to -
t h e l e v e l o f ze ro an d (i f M oh r s b u ret t e be u s ed ) t h e be ak e r
’
,
c o n t a i n i n g t h e alka l i n e sol u tio n is to be pl a c ed u p o n t h e

t di
s an m m e diat ly b n e th
e e a t h e e xit t be N ow press th e
- u
.
n Obs of t h e pre ss u re cock, an d allo w a portio n Of t h e liq u o r

-
to flow in to th e beaker W hen t h e eflerv escen ce which

.
'
i s imm ediately set u p s u bsid e s, m ake fu rth er a ddition s Of

t h e t est -liqu or fro m ti m e to ti m e, un til th e efl e rv e scen c e
'
becomes slu ggish , wh en th e acid m u st be added with

greate r cau tion W h en t h e solu tion approaches satu ration
.
i t a cqu ire s a p u rplish ti n t (du e to t h e litm u s with which

t h e acid is tin ge d ) , wh ich it r etain s u n til t h e poin t Of
satu ration is reach ed, wh en it su dden ly chan ge s t o p i nk
or on io n red colo u r A fte r each addition Of th e acid th e
-
.
solu tio n shou ld be stirred with a thin glass rod, an d before

t h e fi n al chan ge from p pl e to pin k or o n ion red, t h e
u r -
e n d of t h e gla ss rod sho u ld be applie d to a strip of bl u e
li tm u s paper, wh en , i f t h e spot tou ch ed assu m es a red

-
colo u r, t h e satu ration is co mple te if, on t h e co n t rary, th e

paper is u n chan ged, or h a s a violet or r eddish h u e, add
t h e te st liqu or, on e or t wo drops at a ti m e, with con tin u e d
-
stirrin g, u n til a drop Of t h e solu tion applied with t h e rod

r edden s th e litm u s pape r, wh en t h e satu ration is fin ish e d
-
.
I f an y te st - liqu or r em ai n i n t h e bu re tte this i n dica te s that

th ere i s an excess Of acid i n t h e test Ii u or ; co n seq u en tly
-
m ore distille d wa te r m u st be added to t e b u lk , t h e bu re tte

em pti ed an d re fill e d with t h e re d u c e d liq u or, a n d an oth e r
5 3 grain s Of an hydro u s carbo n ate treate d as b efore, u n til

grain s of t h e aci d liqu or exactly n eu tralise th e solu
tion Sho ul d t h e whole con ten ts Of t h e bu rette i n t he
.
fi rst trial h e u sed b e fore satu ratio n is com plete, a li t tl e m ore

s u lph u ric acid m u st be pu t i n to t h e W in ch este r or test acid
-
bottle, an d a 5 3 gr ain sol u tion Of carbon ate of soda trea te d

as before A v ery little practice will en able t h e operator
.
to adj u st his t st liqu or with p erfect accu racy ; an d, i n

e -
orde r to pre ven t m i stakes, t h e bottle s h ou ld be labl ed

”
Test acid, an d sho u ld be kep t clo sed wi t h its glass
-
st oppe r .
es —
S a m pl i n g A l k a l i
Th e ordi n ary soda ash of com
.
m e rc e is u su ally p ack ed i n wooden casks a n d i n o rder to

se c u re a fair av e ra ge sa m pl e fro m a l a r g e n u mb e r of th e se
c ask s, which m ay r e pre sen t on e co n sign m en t , i t is i m por t a n t

zoo TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
fl ow grad u ally i n to t h e al kali n e solu tion (wh ich shou ld be

c on stan tly stirred with a glass rod) un til th e liqu id
a ssu mes a p u rple tin t , which it retain s u n til t h e exact
o i t of sat u ration i s rea ch ed , when i t s u dden ly ch a n ges
p n
t o pin k . It i s co mm on ly t h e practice to warm t h e

alkalin e solu tio n so as to expel t h e carbon ic acid which i s
e volved a n d absorbed by t h e sol u tio n d ur in g t h e proc e s s
Of satu ration . W h en t h e n eu trali sation i s com ple te, t h e

alkalim ete r is al lo wed t o repose for a fe w m omen ts, so
t hat t h e a cid liq u or m ay drain fro m t h e in te rior Of t h e
lass i n to t h e b u l k of t h e fl u id, a n d t h e q u an tity Of t e st
g
acid u se d is th en de te rm in ed by readin g Off t h e n u mb er
Of division s which have b e en exha u sted .
E very alk alim eter divisio n of M ohr s bu r ett e (Fi g 3 4)

’
.
represen ts T h t h part, or 1 per cen t , Of alkali, wh en .
1 00 grain s a re t aken for a ssay .
I n commerci a l assay s, wh en 1 00 grain s (or som e

aliqu o t part th ereof) are tak en for tria l, t h e p ercen tage
resu l t is Obtain ed from t h e n u m ber of a lka l i meter di vi s i ons,
or t h e n u mber Of grain s Of t h e test acid co n su m ed by -
t h e com m on R u le of P roportion
’
Thu s : A crude sa mp l e
.
Of po t as h , h a v i n g t ak en 90 alkalim e t er division s of t e s t
acid to n eu tralise it, wo u ld con tain

1 00 1 4 7 90
rly 42}
or n ea c en t of pu re p otassa If o n l y 50 25
pe r . .
, ,
or 20 grain s a r e t e sted t h e r e s u l t m u st Of c O rse be

, ,
u ,
doubl e qua drup l ed &c as t h e case m ay be

, , .
, Or t h e thi rd .
term Of t h e proportion m ay be mu l tip l i ed by t h e denomi

n a tor of t h e fracti on r e pre s e n ti n g t h e aliqu o t p a rt This .
,
i n th e case Of 5 0 grain s (rep eatin g t h e above e xam ple) ,

wou ld be
1 00 47 45 x2 42 30 3
-
as b efore ; bu t even th ese easy calcu latio n s m ay be

si m plifi e d as is sho wn b e lo w
, .
On e of t h e ad van tage s an d n ot t h e l east att en di n g

, ,
t h e u se o f test acids co rre spo n din g to e q u ival en ts is th a t

-
,
by mean s o f t h e si m ple R u l e of T h r e e t h e p ercentage

’
,
A L K A L IM E TR Y . 20 1
q ua n t i tyof a l ha l i may be fo u n d, wh eth er 1 00

or a n oth e r
y
n u m be r Of grain s hav e been s u b m itt e d to t ria l F or the .
weight of the samp l e tested (i n ra i n s ) b ears t h e s am e r e

lation to t h e equ i va l ent weight 0 the a lka l i u nder exa mi na
t i on tha t t h e n u mber of a l ka l i meter di vi si ons or of t h e
,
ra i ns of test a ci d cons umed do to t h e /

g
-
p er c e nta
g o
e f a l ra l i
s ought Th u s with a sa mple of 3 3 grai n s of p ea r l ash
.
, ,
takin g 3 5 a lka l i meter di vi s i ons or 3 5 0 gra in s (e v ery

1 0 g rain s be i n g 1 3) of t est acid for n eu t ralisa t io n-
This wo u ld be
33 2 4 7 35 4 98 5 3
or n e arly 5 0 per c en t of p ure p ota ssa By su b stit u tin g

. .
t he eq u i val en t Of t h e dry ca r bona te of p otassa (69 ) for

t ha t of p u re potassa u se d above t h e q u a n tity of that ,
article corre spo n di n g to t h e s am e weigh t of t h e p u re

alkali m ay be at o n c e fo u n d R ep eatin g t h e last exam ple
.
this will be
33 69 35 73 1 8 8 -
or ne arly 73 1 per c en t Th e sam e applies to all t h e

.
”—
al ka li n e bas e s a n d th eir c a rbo n ate s A J Cool ey . . . .
Th e follo win g table shows th e equ i va len t or com bin i n g

proportion s of alkalie s with 4 9 grain s of real (that i s ,
a n hy dr ou s) s u lph u ric acid
gra .
3 4 7 P ot assa (an h y drou s)

h y drou s sul
3 51 i z
49 8 11 1
p
1 11 i g 6 6 H y d ra t e of p ot assa (pu r e cau sti c
en] p ota sh )
3 69 Car bon ate Of pot assa (a n h y dr ou s )
gt .
5‘ 3 1 So da (an h y drous)
1 0 00 grai n s 8 4 0 H y dra te o t soda (pu re ca ust i c soda)
( ater grai n
w
0 63 C a rbon a te o f soda (a n h y drou s)
mea s ure ) 8p 3”
'
‘
l
<1 1 4 3 C r stall i sed carbon ate of soda

y
N or m a n dy M e t h od — D r N or man dy
’
s . . gives t h e fol
l o win g me th od of as sayi n g co m m ercial soda an d pota sh
“
Comm erci al Han dbook

“
of Ch emi cal A n al y si s . By A N or ma n bY
Lock wo o d a n d CO .
20 1 TH E A R T OF S OA P - 211A K IN G .
C ommerci a l S oda — F ive h u n dred grain s a re weigh e d

ou t fro m t h e thorou ghly po wde red an d m ixe d sam ple .
A ft e r b ei n g d ri e d it sho u ld be gen tly ig n ite d i n a orce

p
lain Or plati n u m cr ucible an d allo wed to cool W1 t h ou t
,
e xpos u r e to t h e air Wh en cool it is again weigh ed ; th e

.
loss in dicate s th e am ou n t of m oi st u re I t is th en washed .
i n to a beaker i n which it is dissolved Sho u ld an y i n

, .
solu ble residu e r em ain i t is filte red Off drie d a n d weighed ; , ,
t h e cle ar filtra te is m ade u p [with distille d wate r] to

e xactly grain m eas u res Th e solu tion is well .
m ixed tog eth er an d fro m it , grain m easu res are

taken t ran s fe rre d to a beaker t h e sol u tion m ade blu e by
, ,
a few drops of litm u s wate r h eated n early to boilin g an d

, ,
t h en te ste d with t h e n orm al acid or stan dard test acid] -
u n til th e n e u tra l poin t is r e ach t h e proc ess m ay be

rep eate d se v e ral ti m e s i f n e c e ssary to be c e rtai n of t h e
, ,
accu racy Of t h e an alysis In order howe ver to avoid all

.
, ,
ambigu ity arisi n g fro m t h e carbon ic acid a su ffi cie n t ,
q u an tit of a cid m ay be added to ren der t h e a cid very

decided y red an d then t h e n orm al ca u stic alkali added
,
drop by dr op un til t h e liqu id chan ges su dd en ly to

violet blu e
-
Th e n u m be r of division s Of t h e b u rette
.
that have b een req u ired to effec t this m u st be ded u cte d

from t h e q u an tity of a c id origin ally u sed By this .
bachrva rd or resid ual m ethod v ery sharp res u lts may be

obtain ed
E xamp le —S u ppose 8 5 0 b u rett e division s of th e n or
.
m al acid hav e been r eq u ire d th e follo win g calc u lation ,
gives t h e am o un t of r eal carbon ated al kali i n t h e sa mpl e

l 000
'
8 50 5 3 z a:
a:
4 5 , th e a m ou n t Of carbon ate of sodi u m i n 5 3 grai n s
of t h e s am ple .
Th e soda ash Of com m erc e con tai n s g en erally, besides
Th e n orm al cau sti c alkal i sol u t i on i s prepared by di ssol v i n g exactl y

66 grai n s of h y dr at e of potassa (pu r e caus ti c potas h ) , or 4 0 grai n s of
h y dr t e o f soda (p ure c u st i c sod ) ,
a a a i n wa t e r -
grai n measu res of di s
ti l l ed wa ter . Th e sol u ti on i s apph ed from a bu ret te .

of p u re potassa Th e n u mber of m easu res con su med read

.
o ff by mere i n sp ecti on fro m t h e b u r e tt e scal e gives t h e

, , ,
e x ac t pe rc e n ts e of t h e sa mple of po t a sh un d e r e xam in a
ti o n Or i f orm an d m “
’
e thod be adopte d t h
.
, y s as e ,
e q u ival en t of c arbon ate of potass i u m is 69 t h e weight of ,
t h e sampl e t o be operated u po n to m ak e i n sol u tion

rai n m eas u res will be 690 I t m so m e ti mes be con
g ay .
v en i en t t o e m ploy a n or m al su l ph u ric acid grain ,
m easu re s of wh ich shal l be equ ival en t t o precis ely 1 0 0

grain s of t h e an h ydrou s ca u stic alkali F or t h i s p u rpose.
it i s ob viou s t hat differen t stan dard acids will be requ ired

for soda an d for potassa That for soda m u st be of su ch
.
a s tren g th that grain meas u re s shall satu rate

e xactly 1 71 grai n s of p u re carbon a t e of sodi u m an d that ,
for pot a ssa m u st be precisely equ ivalen t to 1 4 68 grain s

of p u re carbon at e of potassi u m Th e ad va n tage of t h e
.
s tan dard abo ve descri bed i s i ts e u ival en cy bo th t o po ta ss a

”
q
an d soda .
There are m an y oth er metho ds of det erm in in g th e per

cen tag e of r e a l alkali i n t h e co mm e rci al prod u cts tha n
t ho se re ferre d to b u t t o en te r i n to this s u bj e ct m ore fu lly
,
wo u ld i n volve m ore spac e than t h e li m it s of this work

wo ul d perm it Si n c e m oreover soap m akers a re n ow
.
, ,
-
su pplie d with c a u stic soda as also ca u stic po t ash

, th e ,
n ec essity for t estin g soda an d potash es i s greatly

di min ish ed .
T o d et er m i n e t h e p er c e n t a ge of r e al or an h y d r ou s
a l k a l i i n a sam pl e of ca u stic soda or potash
, M B a r res
.
will reco mm en ds th e follo wi n g m ethod : A sol u tio n of “
chlori de o
f b a r i u m is add e d i n e xc e ss to a sol u tio n of t h e
sample u n d er exa mi n ation , an d t h e whole i s filt e re d ; t h e

precipitate of carbo n ate of baryta left on t h e filter is
wash ed with a little wa te r an d t h e fi l tra te an d t h e wash
,
i ngs placed i n a deep glass t u be ; a str eam of carbon ic

ac i d gas i s then passed t h ro u gh t h e m ixed liqu or u n til i t
c eases t o occasion a precipitate of carbo n ate of baryta .
This last precipitat e is s eparated on a filt er wash ed dried , , ,
a n d W ei gh ed Ea ch gr ai n r ep res e n ts 3 1 5 gra i n s of rea l

.
'
”
or a rt/z
y d roas sod a or 4 77
g rain s of a n h dro u s po t a ssa
'
y .
A L K A L IM E N TR Y . 20 5
Ure says : A dd th e fi rst portion s of th e t e st acid v e ry

-
grad u ally to th e sam ple, ca refu lly ob se rvi n g th e effe ct .
W h en t h e effer vesc en c e at len gth com m en ces the wei ght

,
or m e asu re of th e te st liqu or expen ded sho ws t h e q u a n tity

-
of p u r e ca usti c a l ka l i u n d e r tre atm en t

(n e arly ).T h e
r es u lt depen ds u pon t h e fact that little or n o carbon ic
acid gas is expell ed from t h e liq u id on t h e addi t ion of
t h e t e st a cid u n til t h e ca u stic portion i s very nea r ly
-
neut ra l esed
'
.
CH AP TER XXV .
ME TH OD S OF A NA L YZIN G OR 4 8 8 4 YIN G S GA P S .
Soap A ssay — Ba mpel s M et h od —D Arcet M eth od —Ri ch ardson

’ ’ ’
. . s an d
’
W at t s M eth od .
h is of th e great est im port an ce to th e soap maker th at h e -
shou ld be able to estim ate t h e exact pre portion s of fa tty

m atter alkali an d water i n e ach boi l of soap wh en fi n ish ed
, ,
an d rea dy for sal e i n orde r that h e m a d et erm in e t h e

, y
cost of m an u factu re an d estimate his profit A sim ple .
m e thod of assay i n a sam pl e of sea is t h e followin g

S oa p A s s a m— l To esti ma te t e p ercentage o
.
f w a ter ,
take a fa i r sam ple , say fro m a re c en tly cu t bar of soap ’
,
an d weigh 1 0 0 grain s C u t th is in to thin slic es or

.
sh avin gs an d pu t th em in to a sm al l orcel ai n caps u l e

which is then t o be plac ed ove r a water b
, ,
.
ath kept boilin g -
,
or over an oil bath h eate d to 3 5 0 F u n til th e shavin gs

-
°
.
,
a re q u ite free fro m wate r i n which con dition th ey are

,
e xc e edi n gly brittle Th e shavin gs shou ld be weigh ed

.
from time to time , or u n til th ey c e ase to lose weigh t by

co n tin u ed h eatin g Th e u ltimate loss i n weight in dicates
.
t h e p erc en tage of fre e or u n co mbin ed water which i n , ,
t h e case of c u rd an d m ottled soap shou ld n ot exc ee d 3 5 ,
c en t ? T h e loss i n y e llo w or resi n soap woul d be

p er
a bo u t 4 5 r c en t an d i n C astil e or olive oi l soap abo u t -

p e .
,
1 4 or 1 5 per c en t .
II To esti ma te tbe combi n ed fatty aci ds dissolve 1 00

.
,
r ai n s of t h e soap to be e xa m in e d i n 4 or 5 o u n c es of
g
b oili n g distille d wate r i n a porcela in capsu le th en a dd a ,
l ittle hydrochloric acid an d stir ge n tly ,

Th e acid com .
,
If th e h as dri ed on th e su rface, th e sampl e sh ou l d be tak en from

soap
th e i n te ri or of th e bar .
1 U
"
re g i v es t h e foll owi n g an al y si s of L on don curd soa p
— F at , 62
soda , 6 ; wate r,
of gen tle h eat t h e al cohol will di ssol ve th e soap an d l eav e

al l th e s e i m p u riti e s i n an i n sol u bl e state G ood mottled .
soap sho u ld n ot l eav e m or e than 1 pe r c en t of i n sol u bl e .
ma t ter an d white or y ello w soap l e ss still

,
Al l soap t o .
which earthy or silicio u s m a tter has b een added is opaqu e

in st ead of b ei n g t ran sparen t on t h e edges as is t h e case ,
with all gen u in e fitte d soap Th e dri e r t h e soap t h e m ore

.
tran sparen t it is . N OR M A N D Y
- .
The re is n o bette r te st for i n sol u bl e impu ri tie s th an

dissolvin g a given weight say — 1 0 0 n —
grai s of soap i n
alcohol ‘
. A fte r t h e in solu ble m atte rs have su bsi ded t h e ,
clear solu tion shoul d be pou red off an d t h e residu al matte r ,
washe d several time s with alcohol afte r which i t shou ld ,
be carefu lly dri ed an d weighe d .
To determi ne the n ature o f t he f ya tt ma tte r s w h i ch h av e

been u sed i n t h e m an u factu re of soap is a di fi cu l t an d
so m eti mes a very laboriou s t ask A n approxim at e resu lt .
m ay be obtai n ed ho we ver by first satu rati n g a n aqu eo u s

, ,
sol u tion of t h e soap with a solu tion of tartaric acid ; t h e

fatty aci d s which float on t h e s u rfac e m ay wh en cold be , ,
tran sferred to a orcel ai n capsu le an d h eated gen tly ove r ,
a wate r bath -
. y applyi n g a th ermo m et er t h e fu si ng ,
oi n t will give som e ide a of t h e n atu re of th e fatty m aterial

p ,
as to wh eth e r t h e soap was m ade from tallo w or oil s or a ,
combin ation of both A gain i f t h e fatty acids have b een

.
,
separate d by dilu te s u lphu ric or hydr och loric acid i f a ,
little be r u bbed i n t h e pal m of t h e han d t h e odou r wi ll

fre qu en tly i n dicate t h e n at u re of t h e fatty m a te rial .
S o ft soaps are assayed i n t h e sam e way as hard soaps ,
bu t t h e m an ipu lation is som e what m ore tro u blesom e an d ,
th e r efore in volves a little extra cau tion .
Un sap on ifi ed F a tty M a tter — A prop erly m ade soap i s -
en ti rely sol u b l e i n wate r I f th er efore a ft e r a sam ple of

.
, ,
soap h as been dissolv ed i n hot wat e r an d allo we d to re st
for a whi l e a fi l m of fatty m atter appears on t h e su r face

an d which m ak es a gr easy sta i n u po n p a p er
) that portio n ,
of t h e fat has n ot been sa on i fi ed

p .
Good meth y l ated spi ri t an swers equ al l y wel l , a nd i s much ch ea er

p
th an al coh ol .
M E TH OD S OF A NA L YZIN G OR A S S A YIN G S OA P S . 20 5.
Sin c e pu re soap i s en tirel y sol u ble i n alcohol an y i n ,
sol u bl e colo u ri n g m atte r whic h may h ave be en i n trodu c e d

i n to t h e soap m ay r eadily be s eparated an d i f d esirabl e , , ,
exam i n ed by ordi n ary che m ical te sts .
B a m p e l s M e t h od of A s s a y i n g S oa p s 1 Th e an alysis
’
-
. .
of soaps do es n ot pr e s en t a n y m ore di ffi c u lty an d m ay be ,
do n e i n as little ti m e an d with as mu ch precision a s that

of alkali e s 2 Th ere is n o n e c essity for a n alyzi n g m arbl e d
. .
soap for it ca nnot be a du l terated ; an exc e ss of water wo ul d

,
precipitate t h e m arblin g an d t h e i n t rod u ction of foreign ,
su bstan ces wo u ld pre ven t its form atio n 3 F or t h e whi te . .
or u n icolo u red soaps i e man u factu red accordin g to th e

, . .
M ars eille s method t h e q u an tity of water is deter m in e d by

,
t h e u s u al proce ss Th e soap i n thin shavi n gs is su bm itte d

.
to a t em erat u re of 21 2 F Th e soa p is weigh ed

°
.
before an after dryin g t h e diffe ren ce i n weight givin g ,
t h e proportion of wa t er On e dra ch m dissolved i n 2 o u n c e s

.
of h ot water in di cate s by t h e lim pidity of t h e sol u tion

, ,
i f t h e soa p h as been m an u factu red by l i quefact i on If th e .
sol u tion is m u ddy this effect is du e to t h e pr esen c e of

,
resi n Liqu efi ed soaps do n ot r equ ire fu rth er an alysis

.
,
for th ey can con tain n eith e r in sol u ble n or i n ert s u bsta n c es .
4 Un icolou red white or oth e r liq u e fie d soa ps m ix ed

.
, ,
with resin m an u factu red by sapon i fi cat i on an d e vapo ra

,
tion al ways produ ce mu ddy solu tio n s 5 To ascertai n

,
. .
t h e pre sen ce an d q u an tity of in sol u ble s u bsta n c e s con

t ai n ed i n soap t h e process is simple an d e asy
, In trod u c e .
in to a sm al l test tu be a few grain s of soap an d h eat it

-
,
with abou t t en ti m e s its weight of alcohol Th e sol u tion .
is soon complete d i f th ere is n o i n sol u ble i mp u rity i f on ,
t h e co n trary a deposit is le ft it is t o be well wash e d

, ,
several ti mes with alcohol an d weigh ed aft e r dryin g It s , .
weight i n di cate s t h e qu an tity of i n sol u bl e s u bstan c es i n

t h e soap .
When th e proportion of water an d in solu ble m a tter

h as been asc e rtai n ed t h e op erator has approxi m ately
,
determin ed th e val u e of t h e soap In deed i f t h e soap .

,
has given 3 0 or 3 4 pe r c en t of wate r an d 1 or 2 per cen t .

, .
of i nsol u bl e m a t te r i t i s c e rtai n t h at t h e soap con tain s 6

,
P
210 TH E A R T OF S OA P —
M A K IN G .
per c en t fof alkali , an dfatty acids

60 per , w h i ch
cen t . of
a re t h e co n st an t proportion s of t h e m arbl e d a n d p u re
white liq u efi e d soaps I f, on t h e con trary, t h e proportion

.
o f wate r e xc ee ds 3 5 pe r c en t , or t h e i n solu bl e m at te r 2
.
r c en t , it is a c e rtai n proo f that t h e soap has be en

p e .
adu lte rate d In either case it is u seless to de term i n e t h e

.
proportion s of fatty an d in ert su bstan c e s that t h e soap

con tai n s .
B y b u rn in g a sma ll qu an tity of soap an d assayi n g t h e

r esidu u m i n t h e same m an n e r as by t h e alkali m etric
proce ss t h e real qu an tity of a lkal i an d in e rt s u bstan ces
,
i s de te rm i n e d at t h e sam e ti me Th e alkalim etric assay.
is n ot n e cessary ; i n deed wh en soap is bu rn ed t h e , ,
r e sid u u m obtain e d co n ta in s all t h e fi x ed prin cipl e s of t h e
soap bu t i n st e ad of havin g t h e soda i n a ca usti c sta te as

, ,
i n t h e soap it e xists i n t h e form of a carbon ate

, .
6 To asce rtain t h e valu e of th e soa p as to t h e pro

.
portion s of fatty a cids an d base it con tain s t h e follo wi n g

is r eco m m en de d — A giv en weight of soap i n solu tion is
decom pose d by a n a cid ; t h e fat ty acids floa t on t h e su rfa ce
of t h e liq u id an d it is easy to coll e ct th em an d det er m in e
,
th eir weight W h en they do n ot collect easily th ey are

.
,
m ix ed with a k n o wn weight of white wax (pre vio u sly

dried ) which h asten s thei r solidification A cake is thu s .
obtain ed which wh en cold an d dri ed is we igh ed t h e

, , ,
weight of t h e wax u se d bei n g dedu cted from t h e gross

W eight of t h e c a k e To ob tain t h e proportion of alkali
.
,
calcin e a given weight of t h e soap i n an iro n l adle ; all

t h e sod a b ecom e s tran sform ed in to carbon at e an d t h e r e al ,
q u an tity of t h e alk ali is dete rm in ed by t h e al kal imetric

t est.
D A ’
r t
ce s M e
’
t h od — If pr efe rr ed D A rcet s system m ay
’ ’
,
be adopte d which con sist s i n diss olvin g 2§ drach m s of

,
soap i n 2 o u n c es of hot water ; fro m 1 to 25 drach m s of

p u re a n d drie d whi t e wax are th en added an d t h e W hole ,
boil ed u n til t h e wax i s m elted wh en t h e m ixtu re is dec em

,
posed by t h e n or m al t est acid as i n t h e ordi n a ry alkali

-
m e tric p roc e ss A fte r cooli n g t h e W eight of th e fa tty acids

.
,
i s de term i n ed by ded u ctin g t h e we ight of wax u sed By .

an TH E A R T OF S OA P - M A K IN G .
th e al kalim etric test to dete rm i n e th e am o u n t of potash

or soda i n com bin a tion with t h e fa t ty acids .
A t t h e sam e tim e th a t t h e soap sol u t io n is d ecom posed ,
t h e fa t a n d re sin acids rise to t h e s u rfa c e an d th e se a re

,
collected on a weigh ed filte r washed wi t h hot wate r d ri e d

, ,
i n vacuo a n d again weigh e d

,
.Th e we ight e xp re sse s t h e
joi n t am o u n t of fatty an d re si n acids i n t h e soap C old .
alcohol wil l dissolve ou t al l t h e fatty acid toge th er wi th a

,
small prop ortion of t h e resin fro m t h e fil te r an d t h e ,
fi lte r drie d i n vacuo an d weigh ed a s b efore gi ve s approxi

,
m ately t h e a m o u n t of re sin i n t h e soap .
To de te rm in e wh ethe r t h e b ase of th e soap is soda or

ota sh t h e sol u tio n of t h e s ul ph a t e s filt ered fro m t h e fatty
p ,
acids is con cen trated an d treated with tart aric acid an d

bichloride of pl atin u m i n t h e u su al way Th e filte r .
con ta in in g t h e m atte r i n solu ble i n alcohol is dried an d

weighed after b ei n g thoro u ghly wash ed i n alcohol
, In .
ge n u in e soap this i n sol u ble m at t e r is of very s mal l am o u n t ,
n ot exc e e d i n g 1 p e r c en t for m ottled a n d e ven l es s for

.
y e llo w soa p .
CH AP TER XXVI .
P URIF YI N G A N D B L E A CH I N G OIL S A ND FA TS .
Bl each i n g P al m-oil : W att s Ch rome P rocess -Recovery of th e Chrome

’
—Bl each i n g Pal m-oil wi th C h romat e of L i ma —Pu ri fy i n g

. .
D unn s M eth od —J ust i ce s M et h od

’ ’
.
A VE R Y n ec essary bran ch of t h e soap m aker s art is that of

-
’
decol ou ri n g or bl eachi n g oil s or other fatty m atte rs pre

v i ou s to th eir in trod u ction , wi t h oth er a n d s u p erior goods,
in to t h e soap pan The most i m portan t of al l sapon i fi abl e

-
.
materia ls possessi n g a colo u r n atu ral to itself is p a l m oi l ; -
bu t its deep oran g e-red colo u r , except for special p u rpose s,

wo u ld ren der it comparatively val u eless as a soap m aki n g -
mate rial i f th ere wer e n o m ean s of deprivin g it of its

charact eristic colo u r In t h e early part of t he presen t
.
cen tu ry man y attempts were m ade to destroy, m odify, or

i n som e de gree to re du c e t h e i n ten sity of th e red colou r of
this oil I t was su bj ected to a high temperatu re, which
.
chan ge d t h e red to a bro wn tin t ; n itric acid was fou n d

to chan ge t he colou r from red to y el lo w it was su bj ected
to th e oxi di si n in fl u en ce of t h e air , which greatly redu ced
its obj ect i on ab e redn ess, an d n u merou s other processes
( i n cl u di n g of co u rs e chlo ri n e ) we re d ev is e d to r e n d e r it
serviceable as a par tial su bstitu te for tallo w ; bu t it was
n ot u n til t h e y ear 1 8 3 6, wh en M r 0 Watt i n trod u c ed
. .
h i s n e w well - kn o wn process for bleachin g pal m oil by -
mea n s of chro m ic acid, that t h e u sefu ln ess of t his oil as a

soap m ate rial co u ld be fu lly enjoy ed . By all t h e previ ou s
proc ess es, th e colou rin g m atte r ofth e oil, tho u gh m odi fied,
was n e ith e r rem ove d n or actu ally destroyed, for it was i n
v ari ably fou n d that, i n co n tact with ca u stic alkali , t h e colo u r
m ore or l ess ret u rn ed an d th erefore aflected t h e u ltim ate
'
,
TH E A R T oz? S OA P -M A K IN G .
c ol o u r of t h e soap B y t h e chrom e proc ess ho we ver

.
“
, ,
t h e colo u ri n g m att er of t h e oil was en tirely r em ov e d an d

th e oil r en de red as white as t h e fi n e st En glish tallo w .
Th e i m po rtan ce of this p roce ss at a tim e wh e n palm oil -
was worth abo u t £32 per t e n an d t allo w abo u t £5 6 can

r eadily be i m agin ed an d a ltho u gh so me y ears elapsed
,
before th e trade fu lly re cogn ise d i ts importan ce it was ,
e ve n tu ally adopted by all soap m akers i n e ve ry part of

-
t h e Ki n gdom . Th e proc ess is con d u cted as follo ws

B l e a c h i n g P a l m -oi l W at t c h r om e P r oc e s s — On e
’
s .
t on of ra w palm oil m elted by steam h eat an d allo we d to

-
settle is placed i n a wooden t u b or vat, an d is stirred with

a wooden cru tch u n til it h as a tem pe ratu re of abou t 1 20 F °
.
or e ven lo wer i n hot weath er ; 28 lbs of bich rom a te of .
potassa are then dissolved i n boilin g water an d th e solu tio n

u re d in to t h e vat an d t h e stirri n g con tin u e d ; 60 lbs of .
d roc hl ori c acid are th en adde d, an d t h e sti rri n g vigou r

y
ou sl y k ept u I n a fe w m om en ts t h e oil ass u m e s a dark
p .
bro wn colou r, which i n a fe w m in u tes chan ges first to a

d ark green an d th en qu ickly to a lighter green , with
slight foam i n g , wh e n t h e operatio n is co mplete If s mall .
sam ples are taken from tim e to tim e an d placed u pon a

pi ec e of glass or porcelain , t h e rapid chan ges of colo u r
app ear v ery rem arkable, an d wh en th e last stage is
r eache d (which is som etim e s t h e case within fi v e m in u te s
afte r t h e acid h as been i n trodu ced) t h e oil u pon th e palette
will be p erfectly free fro m colo u r If n ew a drop or t wo
.
of t h e bl each ed oil be tr eate d with a drop of soda l e , t h e

y
m ixt u re will be q ui te colourl ess i f t h e op eratio n h as b een
p rop e rly con du cted A c u rren t of ste a m or a fe w pails
.
of boili n g wate r are n ow i n trod u c e d , with b risk stirri n g ,
a fte r which t h e oil is al lowe d to r epose I n abo u t t welve.
”
ho u rs t h e green liqu or, as it i s called, is drawn off by
a plu gged op en in g at t h e bottom of t h e vessel , an d t h e
bleach ed oil is th en ready o f r t h e soap coppe r
- Th e green .
liqu or, which con tain s oxide of chrom iu m i n solu ti o n , i s

care fu lly preserved, an d m ay be tre ate d for the recovery
f
o t he chro m e by a proc e ss w h ich w ill b e d e sc ribed
h ere after .
21 6 TH E A R T OF S OA P - J I A X IN G .
A fte r a fe w ho u rs r est th e cl ear liq u or is r u n off an d fresh

’
wate r added, which , a fte r a fu rthe r repose is ag a i n ru n off, ,
this operatio n of wa shi ng b ein g co n tin u ed u n til t h e cl ear

liqu or is tastele ss Afte r abo u t t welve hou rs r epose, t h e
.
’
whole of t h e liqu or is ru n off, an d th e dep osi t, which is a

m ixt u re of oxide of chrom i u m an d li m e afte r b ei n well
fi
,
drai n e d, is spread ov er an iro n plate, with a fu rn ace re be

n e ath to t h e d epth of abo u t t wo i n c h e s Th e fi re b ei n g kin dle d,
.
t h e paste is fi rst allo wed to dry, wh en t h e h e at is grad u ally

i n creas ed Wh en t h e plat e acq u ire s a ch erry red h eat
.
-
th e grey m ass will gra du ally ass u m e a yello w colo u r n ear est
t h e pl a te , an d t h e m ass will bre ak u p i n to i rreg u lar cak e s .
W h en th ese have b ecom e roasted abou t half throu gh th ey

m u st b e t u rn e d ove r on e by on e , a n d t h e roasti n g con ti n u ed
u n t il t h e whol e ass u m e s t h e y ello w tin t of chr oma te o l i me
f .
I t will gen erally be fou n d th at t h e l u m ps will fall i n to a

coarse po wder , i n which case, i n o rder to en s u r e u n iform ity
an d to pr e ve n t over hea ti ng (which m u st be st rictly a voided
-
)
t h e s u bstan c e shou ld be co n s t a n tly t u rn ed ov er by m ean s
of a tro we l or shov el , a lo g han dl e d tro wel b e i n g a m ost
n -
con v en ien t tool for t h e p u rpose I t is ad visable i n prae

.
tic e t o shift from t h e c en tre of t h e plate thos e por t io n s

which a re s u ffi ci en tly roasted an d to r eplace t h em with
“
those whic h are l ess don e t h e fi n ish e d m aterial may

b e sh ovelle d i n to an iron box or barro w, a n d th ere allo we d
t o r emai n u n til cold, wh en it m ay be p u t in t o a cask u n ti l
r e q u i red for u se .
B e a c i n g P a l m oi l wi t h C h r om a t e of L i m a
l h - — Abo u t
60 lbs of t h e chro m ate of li m e pre pa re d as above are
.
sprin kled i n to a vat con tain i n g a ton of m elted pal m oil, -
a n d well cr u t ch e d or stirr ed i n ; an d wh en t h e whol e has
b een in trod u ced 60 lbs of hydroch loric acid are added, an d

.
t he sti rrin g con tin u ed u n til t h e u s u al reaction take s pla ce

a n d t h e oil is com pl e tely bl e ach e d A fe w b u ck ets of hot
.
wat e r m ay n ow be i n trod u c ed with brisk agita tio n a n d t h e ,
u s u al ti m e t h en allo we d for settlin g I t is hardly n eces

.
sary to say that t h e green liqu or re su ltin g from this opera

I t i s v ery i mp o rta n t t h at th e h ea t sh o u l d be on l y of a du l l red. Be
on d th i s poi n t t h e produ ct becomes decom p osed an d u se l es s
y .
P UR IF YIN G A N D B L E A C H IN G OIL S A N D F A TS . 21 7
tion m ay be treate d as b efore , an d the chrom e a ga in

re covered
—F ish oi ls m ay be p u rified by fi rst boil
.
P u r i fy i n g 0 i 1 s .
—
i n g th em with a weak ca u stic soda l ey abou t hal f a po u n d
of t h e alkal i dissolv ed i n hal f a gallon of warm wate r to
each t on of oi l . This bein g wel l stirred in t o t h e oil half ,
a pou n d of s u lph u ric acid di lu ted wit h six tim es its weight
of wate r i s th en adde d t h e whol e be in g boil ed by stea m
,
for abo u t a qu ar te r of an h o u r Afte r abo u t an ho u r s r est

’
.
t h e liqui d is ru n off fro m t h e botto m of th e vat an d t h e ,
Op e ra t io n of ble achi n g com m en c ed 4 lbs of bichro m ate . .
of potassa dissolv e d i n hot wa te r is fi rst in trodu c e d an d this ,
is i m mediately follo wed by addin g 2 lbs of su lphu ric acid .
dil u ted as be fore an d after steam has been blown throu gh

t h e oi l for a short tim e 1 lb of n itric acid dil u ted wi t h
.
1 q u art of wate r is i n trod u c ed an d t h e boilin g co n tin u e d

,
for half an hou r lo n ge r Th e oil is th en to be well wash ed

.
with boili n g water an d th en allo we d to re st u n til all t h e

,
liqu id m atters have su bsided .
A l l fixe d v egetable oils an d also fats m ay be pu rifi ed

a n d d ecol o u r ed by m ean s of chrom ic acid bu t t h e op era ,
tion is m ore effective when a sol u tio n of bichrom at e of

pot assa an d either dil u te su l ph u ric acid or hydrochloric
acid are m ixed d u rin g t h e proc ess wh en t h e alkali bei n g , ,
a t t a cke d by t h e aci d s ets t h e chrom ic acid fre e

,
M e l t ed .
k itch en stu ff a n d oth e r ran k fatty m att ers m ay be gr eatl y

-
i mprove d both i n smell an d colo u r by j u dicio u s treatm en t

, ,
wi t h sm all qu an titie s of bichrom ate an d an y m i n eral acid ,
bu t i n orde r to rem ove t h e trac es of green oxide of ch ro

m i u m which are apt to rem ain i n fatty m atters co n tai n i n g
a co n side rable am o u n t of stea rin e it is advisable to we ll ,
wash t h e bl ea ch ed fat by th e free use of ste am or by

m ean s of boilin g wate r an d th e v e s se l i n which t h e op e ra
,
tio n s have been co n d u cted sho u ld be well cover ed with

sackin g so as to retain th e h eat as lon g as possible an d ,
th u s facilitate th e su bsiden ce of th e green l i quor .
I n t h e p u ri fyin g of fish an d oth e r oils chlorid e of lim e ,
m ade i n to a t h in cream y m ass has freq u en tl y been e m ,
ployed wi th th e additi on of dilu te su lph u ric acid A bo u t

, .
l per c en t of t h e chloride an d l } pe r c en t of s u lph u ric

. .
ac i d dilu te d with t wen ty tim e s i t s weight of wa t er are

abou t t h e right proportion s Th e oil is first gen tly heate d,
.
t h e chlorid e of li m e is then adde d an d well stirre d i n , aft e r

which t h e dilu te acid is i n trodu ced, an d t h e agitatio n k ept
u n til a sam l e xhibi t a satis factory app earan c e
u
p p e s .
Steam is th en blo wn i n or hot water applie d to thorou ghly

wash t h e oil , wh en it is allo wed to rest for so me ho u rs .
Th e clear oil is th en r un off i n to a pre pe r re ceptacle .
Solu tion s of tan , or tan n ic a ci d, follo wed by chloride of

lim e an d dilu te s u lphu ric acid have al so b een u sed i n
p u ri fyin g fi sh oils .
D u n n s M e t h od — M r D u n n p u ri fi e d th ese oils by h eat

’
. .
i n g th e m with steam to a te m pe ratu re of from 1 8 0 to °
20 0 F , an d th en forci n g a stre a m of hot air thro u gh t h e

°
.
o i l , a ft e r which t h e oil was wash e d by ste a m or hot wate r
an d a fte r wards filte re d A stro n g sol u tio n of comm o n

.
salt , or a m ixt u re of salt an d su lphate of copper (bo th i n

solu tion ) , an d t h e whole well agitated for som e ti me , i s
an other m ethod of pu ri fyin g fish oil whic h has been
freq u en tly adopt ed Th e o i l is a fte rwards filt ere d thro u gh
.
res h charcoal , or i s allo we d to clari fy b estin g for a fe w

fio y r
rs
u .
P al m an d oth e r oils frequ en tly con tain foreign m a tte r ,
t h e pres en c e of which is l ik ely to re tard t h e che m ical

action of t h e bleach in g agen t ; it is be tter th e refore t o , ,
re m o v e th ese im p u ritie s by fi rst h eatin g t h e oil an d th en

a llo wi n g it to re s t for se ve ral ho u rs so that th e s e m atters
,
m ay s u bside .
J u st i c e ’
s M e t h od of P u r i fy i n g an d B l e a ch i n g Oi l s an d
r at s con sists i n m ixin g with these s u bstan c es while i n ,
a m elte d state pu lv erised dry fu ller s earth an d th en

,
’
-
,
separatin g t h e earth fro m t h e oil or fat by all owin g it to

s u bside Th e fatty m atte r to be p u rified is plac ed i n an y
.
v e ss el s u ite d to t h e p u rpos e an d is h ea te d u n til it is

,
p e rfectly liq u id Th e t e m p erat u re r equ ired of co u rse

.
v ari e s with t h e di ffe ren t kin ds of oil or fat bu t it is si mply ,
s u ffi cien t that t h e materi al to be treated be brou ght t o t h e

l iqu id state t en t h e fa t is thoro u ghly m elted a qu an tity
.
C HA P T ER XXV II .
R E C O YE R Y OF TH E GL YOE R IN E FR
'
WA S TE
OR S P E N T LE YS .
You n g s P rocess — P a y n e s P rocess —Versman n s Process O Farr ell s

’ ' ’ ’ ’
-
. .
P ro cess — Th om as a n d F u l l er s P roce ss
.
’
— A l l an s P rocess — L awson
'
. .
an d S u l man s P rocess — Cl ol us s M eth od — Ben n o, J appé, an d Co s

’ ’ ’
. . .
M et h od .
Ir h ad al ways b een a so u rc e of r egre t th at th e en or mou s

q u an tity of glycerin e set free d u ri n g t h e process of sapo n i
fi cat i on sho u ld have b een r u thlessly wasted, an d that n o
practical eflort shou ld have been m ade to recover this
'
v al u abl e produ ct fro m t h e e xhau st ed l eys Th e high pric e .
of glyce ri n e, ho we ve r, n atu rally t u rn e d att en tio n t o t h e
soap mak er s waste leys, which were kn o wn to co n tain

-
’
large q u an tities of this i mportan t su bsta n ce ; an d to save

it fro its s al ate
m u u f — t h e u —
g tter ce rtain in gen io u s per
son s have devised vario u s methods for its extraction Of .
t h e s ever al paten ts which hav e been obta i n ed for recove r

i n g glyceri n e from spen t leys, t h e follo win g abstracts will
prov e i n terestin g, bu t as th ese paten ts are of r ecen t dat e
th ey can n ot, of cou rse, be worked withou t t h e con sen t of
t h e r esp e c t ive pat en tees .
M r B en j a mi n Y ou n g s P r oc e s s con sists i n fi rst pu t

’
.
ti n g th e waste l ey in to c apacio u s evaporatin g p an s or -
oth er s u itable v essels, provided with coils of pipe m ade of

s u itabl e m etal, thro u gh which s u p erh e a ted or ordi
an
y
n ary stea m is passed Th e fre e an d carbon ate d alkalie s
.
(soda or potassa ) a re n e xt n e u tralis e d by addin g a sol u
tion of su l ph u ric aci d i n abou t t h e follo win g propor tion s ,
n a m el y on e p a rt of wa ter an d on e part of t h e s ul ph u ric acid

,
of co m m e rc e (68 i n abo u t t h e proportion of t wo gallo n s

°
of t h e d i l u ted s u lph u ric acid to e very forty gallo n s of t h e

R E C O VE R Y OF TH E GL YCE R I N E . zz .
wast e so ap li q u or -
Th e sol u tion of s u lph u ric acid is add ed
.
t o t h e wast e soap l iqu or i n its origin al b u lk, or wh en it is

-
redu c ed to abo u t on e h al f that b u lk by e vaporation Su .
rh eat e d or ordin ary ste am is th e n pass e d thro u gh t h e coils

p e
ofpip e co n n e ctin g with t h e e vaporatin g pan s , a n d t h e wa st e

-
liq u or is co n c en trated to abo u t on e ten th of t h e origin al

-
volu m e I f an y resin or fa t is con tai n ed i n t h e waste

.
liqu or it is adm issible to add a slight exc ess of t h e di lu te

t h —
acid, an d to rem ove e same t e r esin or fat by strain
h —
i n g t h e con c en trated liqu or thro u gh cloth or an y oth e r
su itable m aterial m ade in to bags or oth erwise, a fter it has
b een evaporated to abo u t on e ten th of its origi n al vol u m e
-
.
A sm all q u an tity of carbon at e of li me is then added to t h e

strain ed li q u or, an d it is fu rth e r co n c en trated by e vapora
tio n u n til u po n coolin g it assu m es t h e con sisten cy of a
syr u p or paste, which con sists of a m ixtu re of chloride s
an d s u lph a te s of soda a n d potassa, s u lphate a n d c arbon at e
of lim e , an d glyc e ri n e Th e en tir e con t en ts of t h e ev apo

.
ra tin g vessels are th en placed i n a c en tri fu gal m achin e,

su ch as is u sed for ca u sin g t h e separation of s u gar fro m
mol a sses, which is th en set i n m otio n an d ca u sed to rotate
rapidly on i ts axis, th ereby ca u sin g t h e rem oval of t h e
glycerin e By this m ean s t h e greater portion of th e sal ts
.
of soda , potassa , an d lim e are r e tai n e d i n t h e i n te rior of

th e c en trifu gal m achi n e, th e glyc e rin e bein g thrown off
by t h e rapid rotation of t h e m achin e A s t h e glycerin e .
thu s obtain ed holds a c ertain qu an tity of salts i n sol u tio n ,

th ese are se parated by distillation .
M r G e or ge P a y n e s P r oc es s
.
’
i n ven tor .
—Th e
t ak e s t h e
spen t l ey resul tin g from t h e m an u factu re of soap an d
sat u rat e s an y fr ee alkali pr e s en t with an acid H e prefers .
to u se su lph u ric hydrochloric or n itric acid H e th en

, ,
.
takes a solu tio n of tan n in or tan n ic acid an d adds thi s ,
to t h e sp en t l ey after bein g n e u tralised by th e acid This .
solu tio n sho u ld con tain abo u t on e part by wei ht of t an n i n

or tan n ic acid to abo u t t en pa rts by weig t of water .
Th e addi tion of t h e sol u tio n to t h e l ey is co n tin u ed u n til

i t c ease s to precipi t ate a n y alb u m i n o u s or gelati n o u s
ma t ter .
22: TH E A R T OF S OA P -M A K IN G .
Th e precipitate which is th u s formed is separate d by

fi ltratio n or is allo wed to settle
, Th e r em ain i n g liqu id
.
con sists chi efly of raw or i m p u re glyc erin e an d chloride

of sodi u m Th e sol u tion sho u ld be warm ed as e xpe ri en c e
.
,
sho ws that h eat facili t ates t h e form atio n an d separatio n of

t h e pr ecipi tat e I n s om e i n stan c es t h e sol u tio n m ay be
.
fo u n d to be slightly acid i f so it m u st be n eu tralised by

,
t h e addition of m ilk of li m e Th e cl ear liq u or which is

.
,
a m ixt u re of glyc e ri n e an d sp en t l ey is n ext h eated to

,
expel t h e wate r th ereby co n cen tratin g t h e m ixtu re an d

,
re m ovin g from t h e sa m e a l a rg e q u an tity of t h e salts ,
which will crystal lise ou t d u ri n g th e proc ess of e vapora

tion F or this p u rpose h eate d air su perheated steam or
.
, ,
t h e direct he at of t h e fi re m ay be em ploye d .
B y this proc ess a co n c en trated sol u tio n of glyc erin e i s

obtain ed con tain in g abo u t 1 0 per c en t of s alt a n d t h e .
,
glyc eri n e may be s eparated by distillation an d refin ed i n

t h e u s u al way Th e i n ven tor says that
. t h e glyc e ri n e
obtain ed by this p rocess m ay be m ore easil y r efin ed by
dist illa tion th an th a t obta in ed by an y kn o wn proce ss .
V er s m a n s
n P’
r o e
c ss — Th e obj ect of this i n v en tion is
.
t h e r ec ove ry of glyc erin e from soap l eys a n d its m ore or ,
le ss com plete separation fro m chloride of sodiu m c arbo ,
n at e of soda an d ca u stic soda

,
A lar ge p ercen tag e of
.
t h ese salts is s eparate d by si m ply boili n g do wn t h e soap

l ey an d rakin g ou t t h e salts as th e y b eco m e in solu bl e .
Th e con cen trated solu tion is th en allowed to cool a fter ,
which carbon ic acid gas is passed thro u gh it u n til t h e

who l e of t h e carbon ate an d cau stic soda is con ve rte d in to
bicarbon ate of soda which b ei n g m u ch less sol u ble i n
,
glyceri n e than either t h e c arbon ate of soda or cau stic

soda m ay r eadi ly be r em ove d by fi ltratio n or oth e r con
,
ven i en t m ean s .
Th e in ven t or sometimes co mm en c es by passin g carbon ic

acid gas thro u gh t h e origi n al soap l ey bu t h e fi n ds it ,
m or e con v en ien t to fi rst red u ce t h e bu lk of th e liq u id by

boilin g do wn th e reby separatin g large qu an tities of t h e
,
salts an d th en treatin g th e liqu id with c arbon ic acid Th e

,
.
l iq u id from wh i ch t h e bicarbon ate of soda has b een

2 24 I TI E A R T OF S OA P AI A K I N G.
-
ec t e d d
j to istillatio n to r ecov e r th e glyc eri n e O r t h e .
sp en t l eys m ay be treated with qu ick lime to con ve rt t h e -
carbon ate of soda i n to cau stic sod a an d after filtratio n ,
boile d to con c en tration an d th en fat or fat acid m ay be

,
adde d to rem ove th e soda an d su ch salts as m ay be i n

su spen sion Th e m ethod desc ribe d abo ve ho we ve r is
.
, ,
prefe rred u sin g si mply con c en trate d leys an d a fat acid

,
as th e m or e effectu al m ean s of clearin g t h e liq u or of

salts .
A l l an s P r oce s s
’
Th e i n ven tor fi rst n eu tralise s t h e
.
-
spen t leys with an y m i n er al acid wi th agitation A ft e r .
settli n g h e adds a solu tion of al u m chloride of lim e or

, , ,
cru de pyroli gn eou s acid stirrin g thoro u ghly If pre , .
fe rred h e e vaporate s to n early

, saltin g poin t before
addin g an y of t h e s u bstan ces m en tion ed a bove an d allo ws ,
th e reci itato to deposit Afte r s ettli n g h e draws off

t h e c ear l iqu or an d e vaporat e s i t to a con cen trate d c on
.
dition i n pan s (to which t h e h eat is on ly appli ed at t h e

sides or i n shallo w pan s with alepin botto ms to which
)
t h e ;eat is applied Th e liq u or is t on distilled i n a
.
,
glycerin e r etort h eated by su perheated steam from within ,
a n d provided with an exit pip e at t h e botto m which ,
carrie s off t h e precipita te d salt as it accu m u lates .
L a ws on a n d S u l m a n s P r o c e s s con sists i n first eva o

’
p
ratin t h e leys to a den sity of from to an d
g
all owm g t h e sol u tion to cool Th e salt liqu or be in g th u s
.
con cen trated th e residu al soapy m at t ers rem ain in g i n

,
solu tion are ren dered in sol u ble an d risin g to t h e s u rfac e , , ,
m ay readily be rem oved by ski mm in g or oth er wise for

fu rth er u se To rem ove t h e albu m in ou s m atters rem ain
.
i n g i n th e li qu or it i s first h eat ed afte r which a salt of ,
chro m iu m sesqu ioxid e is added which is capabl e of tan n i n g ,
or ren derin g alb u m en in solu ble The qu an tity of t h e .
u m sal t added will dep en d u on t h e pe rc en ta e of

g
albu m in ou s matter e xistin g i n th e ey Th e albu mi n o u s .
m atte rs thu s r en dere d i n sol u ble by th e addition of t h e sal t

ar e precipitated an d rem ov e d .
Th e rem oval of th es e m atter s at th is stage pre v en ts

t h eir decompositio n by fu r t h er e vaporation an d t h u s a ,
R E C O VE R Y OF TH E GL YCE R IN E . 25
pu rer an d m ore con cen trate d glycerin e of better colou r

t han u su al is obtai n ed Th e al k al i n i t of th e liqu or i s
.
at th e sam e tim e n eu tralised by a su i tab e acid .
Th e in ven tors rem ark A v e ry co n v en i e n t m ethod of

,
ef fectin g ou r i n v en tio n so as to ob tai n th e se t wo re su lts

, ,
i e t h e t a n n i n g of t h e alb u m in o u s m atte rs an d t h e
. .
n e u tralisa tio n of t h e alka li n ity is to u se t h e wast e liq u or

,
r esu ltin g fro m th e bleachin g of tallo w or oth er fats or oils

( chro m e liq u or F or a l ey s u ch as t h e a bov e we m a
y
add t h e bleachi n g liqu or i n t h e proportion of say 1 to , ,
3 gallon s for e ve ry 1 0 0 gallon s of origi n al l ey ; bu t t h is

m u st de pe n d en tirely on t h e stren gth an d colo u r of t h e
l ey W hen treatin g highly colo u red l eys we add a pro
.
-
,
portion of free chrom ic acid to th e wa ste liq u or which , ,
by th e oxidat ion an d destru ction of th e colo u rin g m atters ,
is red u c ed to a salt of chro m iu m sesq u ioxide capable of

”
r em o vi n g t h e alb u m in o u s m atte rs as above .
The qu an tity of chrom ic acid will n ec essarily var bu t

for t h e above qu an ti ty of l ey we sho u ld say abo u t al f a
'
pou n d of bichrom ate of potash added to a m ixtu re of

three qu arters of a po u n d of su lph u ric acid i n 2 lbs ofwater
-
.
,
an d add th i s m ixtu re i n th e proportion of 5 lbs to 20 lbs . .
t o e very 1 00 gallon s of l ey a ccordin g to circ u m stan c e s

, .
W e n ow treat th e liqu or with a sm al l exce ss of calci u m

carbo n ate (say for exam ple 1 to 2 gallon s cream of
, ,
”
whitin g to 1 0 0 gallon s of l ey ) an d m a in tain at a boilin g
,
t e mpe ratu re for a short ti m e This precipitates t h e whole

.
of t h e chro m ic s alts an d n eu tralise s a n y slight proportion

,
of acid r e m ai n i n g Th e chro m ic oxide con tain e d i n t h e

.
resu ltin g pre cipitate can be recovered for an oth er opera

tion i n an y su itable an d well kn o wn m an n er Th e re -
.
sa lt an t liqu or obtai n ed by r em ovin g t h e precipitate by

su bsiden ce or filtration wi ll be fo u n d cl ear an d alm ost
colou rless I t i s th en co n cen trated by fu rth er evapo ration
.
,
which cau se s t h e gradu al s epara tion of t h e sal t which can ,
be again u s ed i n t h e m an u fa ct u re of soap .
Th e cru de glyce rin e fin ally obtai n ed is of greate r p u rity

an d b e tte r colo u r th an u s u al .
I i
V c t o
.r C l ol u s s M e t h
’
o d — To effect a separation of
.
Q
C H AP T ER XXVIII .
US E F UL N OTE S A N D TA BL E S .
P i ck li n g Soap — Th e Ol eometer —A1u mi n at e of S oda — D et ermi n ati on of

.
R e si n i n S oa — D t t i f R si i S — C h eap Al m on d S oap
p e e c o n o e n n o a
p
A n al y ses of Soft Soaps — P otat o-flou r m Soft Soap —Sa pon i
. .
Soa p —J el l i fy i n g — T waddel l s
.
fi cati on of N eu tr al F at t y B odi es b
’
. .
H y drometer — Cau sti ci si n g S oda d

o a S of t S oa p
— H al f Soap
—A du l te rat i on of Comm erci a l Si l i cat e of Soda S oaps or C ali co
. . .
ri n t ers — Fu l l i n g S oaps — T abl e sh owi n g t h e P er cen ta e of S oda

p . .
g
m C austi c L ey — 1 abl e sh owi n g th e P ercen t a ge of A n h y drous Cau st i c
‘ I
.
P otash i n Cau st i c L e — Com parat i v e F ren ch an d E n gl i sh Th er

m omete r S cal es —Tab 9 sh owi n g th e Speci fi c Gravi t y correspon di n g
.
wi t h Bau m é s H y dromet er (Li q u i ds den ser th an W at er) — T abl e

’
sh owi n g th e Speci fi c G rav i t y c orrespon di n g wi th t h e D egrees of

Bau m e s H y drom et er (Li qui ds li gh t er t h an W ater) — Tabl e of
’
.
Esse n t i al O s
il — F u si n g an d C on geal i n g P oi n t s o f F ats an d Oi l s
K ii rt en s Tabl e — B oil i n g-poi n t s of some Vol atil e Gi l a —Boil i n g
.
'
.
p o i n t s o f C a u st i c Al k a l i n e L e s — T a b 1e sh ow i n g th e uan tQi t y of
y
C austi c S oda i n L ey s of di fferen t D ensi t i es (W at er 1 0 00) — Tabl e of
.
th e M ech an i cal P ower of St eam .
P i ckl i n g S oa p — Un der thi s

attractive h eadi n g we m ay
state that som e very comp etitive soap m akers have occa -
si on al l y adopte d a plan of artificially harden i n g t h e

s u rfac e of soap con tain in g an in fi n itesim al proportion of
fatty m atte r by soakin g it for a few ho u rs i n a stron g
solu tion of com m on salt Th e soap bars (which r eq u ire.
carefu l h an dlin g are gen tly deposited i n th e stron g

bri n e wh ere th ey are allowe d to remain u n til t h e su rface
,
is su fi ci en tl y in du rated after wh ich they are qu ickly

,
ri n sed an d th en su b mitted to th e dryin g roo m for a short -
tim e B y this m ethod th e soap assu m es a vi rtu e wh ich it

.
does n ot possess .
Th e O l e om et e r —This v ery u sefu l in stru m en t for ascer

.
,
t e in i n g t h e d en sity of fi xed oils is thu s desc rib ed by M r ,

.
C ool ey A d elicate areo m eter or hydro meter so ,
weight ed a n d gradu ated as to adapt itself to t h e den sitie s

of t h e l eadi n g fix e d oils A s t h e di fferen c e s of t h e spe cifi c
.
of sodi u m an d alu m in u m B au xite i s calci n ed with soda

.
ash wh ereby an al u m in a te of soda i s form ed an d t h e

, ,
oxide of iron is separated by lixiviation t h e resu ltin g ,
liqu ors be in g e vaporated u n ti l a dry co m m ercial al um i

n ate of soda is obta in e d t h e co mpositio n of which is
,
soda 4 3 ; al u m in a 4 0 ; water an d im p u rities from t h e

, ,
soda ash em ployed 9 , C ryol ite (powde red) is m ix ed

.
with si x e qu ivalen ts of lim e an d boiled with water ,
wh en an i n sol u ble fl u oride of calci u m i s formed an d t h e

al u m in a be com es dissolved i n t h e exce ss of cau stic soda .
I f an exc ess of li m e is u s ed t h e alu m in a will be prec i p i

,
t a ted l eavin g ca u stic sod a alon e i n sol u tion

, We u n de r .
stan d that soap is m ade i n t h e Un ited States to a con

si de rabl e ext en t fro m al u m in at e of soda .
F or m akin g soap from alu min ate of soda abou t e qu al ,
parts of lard an d tal low are preferred an d the se sho u ld ,
n ot be h eat e d to a great e r ext e n t than is u st n ece ssary t o

'
l iq u efy them Th e m aterials are n ot boiled i n t h e u s u al

.
wa y bu t t h e co m bin ation is effected at t h e lo west t em

,
era t u re at which th ey c an b e in ti m at ely mix ed

p .
T o d et e r m i n e t h e Q u an t i t y of R esi n in S oa p s .
M r S u th erlan d recomm en ds t h e fol lowin g process, which

.
is said to give ve ry satisfactory resu lts — 3 00 grain s of

soap in t o sm al l pi eces are in trod u ced in to a capsu le
cu t
a n d cove re d with con c en tra te d hydrochloric acid t h e ,
con ten ts are gen tly boiled till th e soap is dissol ved an d
en tir ely decom pos e d ; 4 o u n c e s of hot water a re adde d ,
an d t h e caps u l e is set aside to cool W hen cold th e c ake

.
,
of fatty acids an d r e si n is r em o v ed an d wash e d s ev e ral
tim e s with warm water A fter cooli n g it i s dri ed an d

.
g en tly re m elted an d kept for a few min u tes at 21 2 to

,
°
e vapo r at e all trac e s of wate r .
This cake con tain in g th e fatty acids an d th e resin

is carefu lly weigh ed .
1 0 0 grain s of th e m ixtu re are plac e d i n a caps u l e an d

cov ered with stron g n itric acid an d t h e temp eratu re
rai sed to t h e boilin g poin t ; a powerfu l reaction takes plac e
-
with viol en t e volu tio n of n itro u s v apou rs Th e h eat is .
wi thdra wn till t h e violen c e of t h e action s u b sides an d is ,

US E F UL N OTE S A N D TA B L E S . 23 !
again applie d to m ain tai n a gen tle eb u llition for a few

m i n u te s . S m all portion s of n itric acid a re s u cc e ssiv ely
added till n o fu rther distin ctly appreciable qu an tity of
n itrou s acid is given of f Th e fatty acids are n ow allo wed
.
to cool an d are rem ove d from t h e acid solu tion stro n gly
,
colou red by tere bic acid Th e cake is th en wash ed by

.
m elti n g it i n a fu r ther qu a n tity of n itric acid W h en .
cold it is dried an d m elte d a t a gen tle h eat til l acid fu m es

c ease to be given off Th e res u ltin g cake is t h e p u re fatty
.
acid free d from resi n t h e latte r bein g in dicated by th e

,
loss It will be obs er ved that a correction m u st be mad e

.
to obtain th e exact relative proportion s b et ween fat an d

resi n origi n ally p u t in to th e soap pan as fats on bein g -
,
decom posed lose abou t 4 } per c en t of th e ir origin al .
weight . H en ce i n m a kin g t h e calc u latio n a prop ort i on ate

,
addition m u st be m ade to t h e fatty acid before di vidin g

its weight by that of t h e r esin in dicated This proces s .
may be also u sed to d eterm i n e resin i n bee s wa x

’
- .
D e t e ct i on of R e s i n i n S oa p — M r C B ar ford decom . .
poses t h e soap with hydrochloric acid an d wash es t h e ,
m ass thu s obtain e d with wate r H e then treats it with a

.
ca u stic soda l ey of th e specific gravity of 1 1 dil u te d with

6 vol u m es of wate r avoidin g e xcess
,
H e then e vaporate s .
it to dryn ess over a water bath gri n ds u p t h e residu e an d

-
, ,
dri es i n stove at On e portion of this po wder is

u tilise d for t h e de te rmi n atio n of t h e fa tty acids an d ,
an other portion is pu t in to a v e ry dry bottle an d from 5 ,
to 6 per c en t of absolu te alcohol are adde d for e very

.
g ramm e of soap It is heate d at

. to dissol v e t h e so ap
o f t h e fatty acids a n d of resin an d al lo wed to cool again,
while well stopp ered Th e alcoholic liqu id when cold is

.
, ,
m ix e d with 5 ti m es its vol u m e of e th er Th e whole is .
well shaken u p an d left to s ettle Th e resin soap is en tir ely .
dissolved whilst t h e soap of t h e fatty acids is deposite d

,
al most en tirely A fter stan din g for 24 to 4 8 ho u rs th e

.
eth ereal liqu id is de can te d an d t h e r esid u e is tre at ed with

,
hydrochloric acid This m ethod i s based u pon t h e slight

.
sol u bility of a soda soap of t h e fatty ac i ds i n th e above

m ixtu re of alcohol an d eth er .
C h e a p A l m on d S oa p — To im par t t h e o dou r of bitter

al mon ds to soap , n i tr o benzol has been m u ch e mploy ed
-
.
It is e xc ee din gly po werfu l as a erfu m e an d m u st th er e ,
fore be u sed i n m oderation t is largely u s ed i n som e.
parts of En glan d for scen ti n g ch eap tablet soaps In sm all .
q u an titi es it has also b ee n employed to di sgu ise th e dis

agre eable odo u r of cocoa n u t oil -
.
A n al y s e s of S oft S oap s — Th e follo win g an alys e s m a

.
y
be u se fu l as sho wi n g th e co m position of se v eral we ll made -
soft so aps
G ood so ft soap of Lon don m ak e : P ota sh 8 5 oil an d

tallo w 4 5 wa te r 4 6 5 i n 1 0 0 parts — Ure . .
Then ard gives t h e com positio n of soft soap as : P otas h

9 5 ; oil 4 4 0 ; wate r 4 6 5 1 00 .
B elgian so ft or gr een soap P o tash 7 oil 3 6 water

57 1 00 . Ure .
Scotch so ft soap : P otash 8 oil an d tallow 4 7

wate r 4 5 1 00 Ure
. .
A n oth er well m ade so ap : P otash 9

-
oil an d fi 34
wate r 5 7 1 00 . r
A n oli v e oil (G allipoli ) so ft soap from Scotlan d con

-
sisted of pota sh with a good deal of carbo n ic acid 1 0, oils

4 8 , water 4 2 1 00 — Ure
. .
A rap esee d oil fro m Scotla n d con sisted of pot ash 1 0

oil wat e r
A s em i hard soap from V e rv i ers, for fa ll i n g clo th , c al l ed
-
savon éco nomi qu e, co n sist e d of po t ash 1 1 5 «1 fa t solid) 62

( »
wate r 26 5 1 00 Ur e
. .
M J u n e m a n n propos es t o m ak e a soap by dissolvi n g 28

.
p arts of soda ash i n 1 00 parts of m olasses, an d stirrin g

i n 1 0 0 parts of oleic a cid .
P ot a t o F l ou r i n S oft S oa p — In t h e year 1 8 3 8 Sh e ri dan

(t h e or i gi n a l i n v en tor of silic )
ate d soap obtai n e d a pate n t
for m akin g so ft soap with po t ato flou r Th e proportio n s .
we re : po t a t o flo u r, 1 6 lbs ; potash leys , 1 0 0 lbs. wat e r, .
270 lbs . H ow m an y ti m es h as t h e sam e proc ess b een ,

with slight m o di fi ca t io n s, re pate n te d -
L i q u or e d s oa p s a re s u ch as h a v e wate r (with or
witho u t sil i ca t e of soda ) add ed to th em afte r r em oval fro m
234 TH E A R T or S OA P -M A K IN G.
tral fatty matters by th e free alkali es The di fferen c e i n .
hardn ess of t h e n ew li me soap bein g set aside (it was n ot

so hard) on e m igh t have su pposed that t h e sapon i fi cati on
,
h ad been p erform ed with cau stic lim e .
A n oth e r e xpe rim en t was m ade by m ixin g M ars e ille s

soap with its weight of wate r an d on e qu arte r of its
weight of oliv e oil - Th e t emp eratu r e an d op eratio n were
.
t h e sam e . Th e m atter after t h e r eactio n had all t h e

, ,
properties of an acid soap it was solu ble i n cold alcohol

a n d i n an aq u e o u s sol u tio n of potassa or soda A cids .
s eparated from it a fatty s u bs tan c e likewise en tirely

solu ble i n cold alcohol an d alkalin e solu tion s .
I t re s u lts from t h e do u ble exp eri men t which has j u st ,
b een described tha t soaps are as capable as alkali es of

,
decom posin g fatty bodies in to glyc eri n e an d fatty acids

it will th u s be u n derstood wh y I have given to this n ote
t h e appare n tly paradoxical title S ap on ifi eati on Qf N eu tra l
,
F a tty M atters by S oap s .
I ha ve, m oreove r, ascertain ed that at t h e t emp eratu re

of 3 29 F
°
wat er do es n ot act on oils
. To deco mpose
.
th em it is n ec essary that t h e m i xtu re of fatty m atters an d

wate r shou ld attain an d be m ain tain ed for a lon g ti m e at
t h e tem perat u re of 4 28 F assig n ed by M B erthelot for
°
. .
t his l att e r sapon i fi cat i on .
In En glan d, where P ric e s hou s e m an u fact u res imm en se

’
u a n ti t i e s of steari n e can dle s , t h e sa on i fi c at i on is

q p p er
for me d by t h e action of s u perh e ated steam at a still
h igh er tem peratu re Then ce resu lt fatty acids an d free
.
g lyc e ri n e w hich is n e arly p u r e, an d w h en c e arts ,

m an u
fact u res, an d m edicin e hav e already dra wn great advan

t ages, an d which will , probably, be mu ch in creased .
I n t h e n e w r eaction s of which we sp eak it will be

u n d er stood that wate r, at a t em p eratu re of fro m 3 1 1 an d
°
3 29 F , decom pose s a n eu tral soap i n to an acid so ap an d

°
.
v ery basic soap , an d that t h e latte r acts i n a s econ dary

m an n e r on a fre sh qu an tity of fa tty m atter i n t h e sam e
m an n e r that a free alkali wo u ld do Th e obs ervatio n s of
.
M Ch evre u l , relative to th e action of wate r on so aps,

.
a ccord with th i s expl an atio n .

US E F UL N OTE S A N D TA B L E S . 23 5
Th e exp eri m en t of M M illy, wh i ch serv ed as a fo u n ds

.
tion for m y work, m ay be explain ed i n an an alogo u s man n e r .
I t m u st be adm itte d that t h e sapon i fi cat i on of su et by

m ean s of 4 per c en t of its we ight of lim e presen ts se v er a l
.
distin ct phases i n which a basic or n e u tral soap is form ed

at first an d is th en chan ge d i n to a relatively acid soap .
Th e observation s of which I have b een gi vin g a su m

m ary fi n d a si m ple in terpr etation i n M C h ev reu l s works
’
.
on fatty bodi es . They lead u s to look forward to fresh

d evelop men ts i n th is class of n u mero u s an d import an t
su bstan ces W hen t h e elemen ts of water alon e cau se t h e
.
deco mposition of n eu tral fatty bodies in to fatty acids an d

glycerin e, we m ay expect th at scien c e an d i n d u stry will
mu ltiply an d vary th e ph en o m en a of sap on i fi cat i on .
J el l i fy i n g is a t erm appli e d to soap wh ich , aft er be in g

dissolved i n a c er tain qu an tity of water, sets in to a j el ly
wh en cold Soap m akers fr equ en tly t est t h e j ellifyin g
.
-
property of th ir soaps n this way

e i — A fter havin g care
fu lly weighed 1 o un ce of soap, this is c u t u p in to thin
shavin gs, an d these are plac ed i n a porc elain capsu le ; 75
ou n c es of water (by m easu re) are then added, an d th e
whole gen tly boiled ove r a spirit lamp, con sta n tly stirrin g
-
with a glass rod u n til t h e soap is all dissolved C old .
water i s th en added to make u p 1 6 o u n c es, an d t h e sol u

tion of soap is th en set aside to cool If th e soap is of .
good q u al ity it shou ld gel atin ise i n h al f an hou r I n .
cloth factories , an d large lau n dri es also, th e characte r of

soap is determ i n ed by its con gealin g or j elli fyin pro
p e rt i es
. F o r this p u rpos e 1 c wt of soap. is boi e d by g
steam heat i n 8 0 gallon s of water Wh en thoro u ghly .
dissolv ed, cold water is added to make u p 1 70 gall on s i n

all. A t t h e en d of t welve ho u rs or so t h e sol u tion of soap
will have se t in to a j elly i ft he soap has been of good qu ality .
T wa d del l s h y dr om et e r is u sed i n E n gla n d for liq u ids

’
h eavi er than water I t s degrees are con v erted in to specific

.
gravitie s by mul tiply in g th em by 5 , addin g an d
dividin g t h e su m by Th u s
20 TW . 20 X 5 °
1 00 0
236 TH E A R T OF S OA P - JI A X IN G .
T waddell s fi g ures advan ce

’
5 in
°
ea ch n um b er t h u s
,
1 000 speci fi c gravi ty i s N o 0

1 0 05 l
1 0 10 2
1 0 16 3
1 020 4
an d so on .
C a u s t i ci zi n g S oa .
— M r P arn ell s plan for
.
’
cau st i c i si n g
soda liqu or u n der pressu re app ears to have proved very
s u ccess fu l i n practic e an d to h av e effected a co n siderabl e
savin g i n fu el Th e Op eration is con d ucted i n hori zon tal
.
cylin ders abo u t 7 feet i n diam e te r an d 3 0 feet lo n g pro ,
v i ded with a r evolvi n g sh a ft or a gita t or an d c a ges for

holdin g t h e lime Each charge is abou t 4 0 0 c u bic feet of
.
soda liqu or an d takes abou t three an d a half to fo u r hou rs

,
to c au sticise u n der a pressu re of from 5 0 to 60 lbs to th e .
squ are in ch It is sta te d th at 9 0 or 92 pe r cen t of t h e

. .
soda is cau sti ci sed b this m ethod an d t h e cau stic liqu or ,
ell T m
‘
c o m e s ou t u to 3 2 wadd h ud co n tai n s fro m
°
p e .
3 to 4 per c en t of free lim e . Each t on of 70 p er c en t . .
c a u stic soda req u ire s 1 5 or 1 6 per c en t of lim e On e . .
a pp ar atu s t u rn s ou t abo u t 70 to n s weekly Th e p aten t ee .
s ays 1 I treat t h e alkalin e carbon ates or alkali n e

.
,
carbon ates m ixed with cau stic li m e u n der a pressu re ,
greate r t han t h e ordin ary atm ospheric pressu re so as to ,
obtain a su ffi cien tly high tem peratu re to cau se t h e alkalin e

c arbo n ate an d t h e cau stic lim e to react u pon each other .
Thu s it is possible u n de r pressu re of 5 0 lbs per squ are

, .
in ch to effect th e reaction with a sol u tion of 1 2 00 specific

,
ravity or ov e r 2 I a gita t e t h e m ixe d alkali n e car

g . .
bon a tes an d lim e d u rin g t reatmen t i n t h e man n er abov e

de scribed i n order to facilitate t h e r eaction an d hasten i ts
com pletion 3 A fter th e reactio n has taken place I
. .
m ain tai n t h e pressu re u pon t h e prod u cts an d k e ep th e ,
t em peratu re co n stan t u n til I have separated t h e cau stic

soda or potassa or both fro m t h e carbon ate of lim e pro
, ,
du ced i n order th a t t h e re action m ay n ot be re ve rsed by

,
a redu ction of t em peratu re taki n g place whilst t h e cau st ic

alk al i es a n d t h e car bon ate of lim e are i n con tact .
S od a S oft S oa p may be m ade fro m a m ixt u r e of soda

forms a j ell y on cooli n g, t h e obj ect of its i n trodu cti on

was eviden tly to thicken t h e silicate, givin g it t h e appea r
an ce of a very con cen trated produ ct, an d to preven t its
stren gth be in g taken wi th t h e hy drom ete r .
S oa p s for C al i c o-p r i n t e r s — Th e soap u s ed by calico

.
prin ters for cl eari n g alizarin e work mu st be very

n eu tral , t h e alkali bein g n ot o n ly k ept do wn i n qu an tity ,
bu t its thoro u gh com bin ation with t h e fatty acids s ecu re d

by ve ry carefu l boilin g Th e s u periority of t h e madder
.
pu rples for which t h e fi rm of B oy l e an d Son s were lon g

fam ou s was du e to th eir practic e of re m eltin g t h e b es t -
soaps procu rable with an addition al qu an tity of p alm

l u l l i n g S oa p s — For us e i n wool len man u fa ct u re a
‘
.
gen u i n e oi l soap h as been foun d i n practic e su pe

p
-
rior to al otash oth ers R e sin gives harshn ess to th e fibre of

.
wool, so m u st n ot th erefore on an y acco u n t be u s e d Soda .
also in j u res t h e su pplen ess of t h e wool, so i n discardin g it

t h e m an u factu rer follo ws t h e teachin gs of N atu re Th e .
n atu ral l u brican t of wool , c all e d sa i n t, is a ki n d of potash
soap, con tain in g a bare trace of soda Sili cate s al so m u s t .
n ot be u s ed ; i f presen t th ey a re de com pose d i n t h e pro
cess of fu ll i n g, &c , an d deposit free silica, which gra tes

.
on t h e fibre an d in j u re s its lu stre

T o p r ev e n t t h e b oi l i n g-ov e r of t h e C op p e r , a pi ec e
of m ac hin ery called a fan is u s ed at so m e so ap - works .
This con sists of a revolvin g paddl e fu rn ish ed with bl ade s

which tou ch th e top of t h e boili n g m atte r .
S m al l j ac k e t p a n s m ay be m ad e from t h e alloy of
-
alu m in iu m an d bism u th of th e C ro wn Al u m in i u m Com

pan y i n stead of silver which possesses t h e advan tage of
, ,
be in g chea ) er harder an d less fu si ble than t h e m ore

costly m etal
, ,
P a l m k e rn el Oi l
- — Th e D iam on d Oi l Com pan y of
.
L iverpool rec en tly favou red t h e a u th or with a sam ple of

th is oil which wou ld appear to be a u sefu l m ate rial i n
,
soap m akin g j u dgin g from its firmn ess at th e tem pe rat u re

-
,
of I t b e ars a stro n g r e s em bla n c e to cocoa n u t oil -

.
C ot t on s ee d a n d P a l m n u t O i l s — O u a- u n of t h e
-
cco t .
high price of tallow these oils are alm ost i n d i spen sable to
,
US E F UL N O TE S A ND TA B L E S . z3 9
th e soap m an u factu re r B oth oils are com m on ly u sed

.
togeth er for makin g hard s oaps cotto n seed oil bei n g ,

-
partic u l arly u sefu l i n su mm er , on accou n t of t h e large

p roportio n of stearin e (a bou t 3 0 per c en t ) it con tai n s which .
,
r en ders t h e soap m ore com pact an d cap abl e of withstan di n g

t h e action of high er t e mp eratu re s C ru de cotton see d oil .
-
h as a r eddish bro wn colo u r an d wh en in ten de d for expor

-
,
t at i on is u su ally treat e d with soda Th e oil th u s refi n e d.
has a den sity of 0 9 26 an d solidifies at abo u t 2% C

, .
D u ri n g l ate y ears cotto n see d oil h a s b een exten sivel y u se d

-
for t h e adu lt e ratio n of olive oil P al m n u t oil is obtai n e d

.
-
from t h e palm n u t e ith er by pre ssu re or e xtractio n with

-
,
carbon disu lphide or li ght p etroleu m t h e latter b ei n g ,
preferable as carbon disu lph ide wh en n ot p erfectly clim i

, ,
h ate d from t h e oil ca u s e s s erio u s t r o u bl e givi n g bo t h a bad

, ,
sm ell an d colo u r to t h e soap m ade from it P alm n u t oi l .

-
is seldom u sed by its elf for soap m akin g as it produ c e s a -

,
very brittle an d easily cracked soap wh i ch co m bin e s with ,
bu t little wat er, an d thu s ca u se s t h e prod u c e to be v ery l o w .
P alm n u t oil is ho weve r of im por tan c e wh en m ixe d wi t h

-
, ,
oth e r fats In orde r to free ordi n a ry r efin ed cotton see d

.
-
oil from colou ri n g m at ter , it is treated with t h e en tire

qu an tity of l ey at 24 B au m e requ i re d for t h e com ple te
,
°
,
sap on i fi cat i on of t h e fats to be u s ed a n d t h e m ixt u r e is ,
boiled Th e other fats are n ow added an d after addition

.
,
of wate r t h e sapon i fi c a t i on which h as n ot y et en tire ly

,
—
taken plac e is com pleted J ourna l of th e S oci ety of
,
Chemi ca l I n dustr i es .
S p e ci fi c G r av i t y &c . —A ccordi n g to D e
of h ar d ,
Sau ss u re, t h e sp ecific gra vity of hogs lard at 60 is

° ’
0 93 8 (wat e r i n its fl u id st at e, at it is 08 92
at 1 5 5 i t is 0 8 8 1 , an d at 20 0 it is 0 8 63 Th e specifi c
° °
.
gravity of
°
at 1 22
Bi su l ph i d e
of Carbon .
Txa u sn owm o ra n Sr n cm o Gu m ooaa s sr os n m o wrm ru n

D r e am s B a u xt H r n a ox sr sn
’
or s .
Li q id
u s l i gh ter th an W at er .
TA B L E or E ssmvrnu . OILS .
N ame .
Oil ofabsi n th e worm Oi l of mu gwoxt

wood) el ecampan e
d il l badi an e
an i s e an el i ca
g
ach e, or parsl ey P ort ugal
US E F UL N O TE S A N D TA BL E S . 243
TA B L E or Essnxrm 0 1L s
Col ou r .
Oi l of c i n n amo n Oi l of y arro w
ch am omi l e
j
ca e pu t
casca ri l l a
c a ra wa y
ch er vi l
l i gh t brown
Evem e AN D C om m u ne P om r s or F u rs sun Om .
S u bstance . D egrees F ah ren h ei t .
Ca stor an d o
p ppy oil s freeze at 0 or Zero .
W al n u t 1 l r eezes
-0 1 15
°
Oi l of beech n u ts freezes
°
29
Al mon d-oi l con geal s
°
30
Ol i v e-oi l freezes
°
36
H OFSGS 10 5 q 6 8
' °
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66
C ocoa n u t oi l sol i di fi es 70
°
L ard fuses
Oi l of roses an d oi l of cedar-wood sol i di fy at
°
79
L ard mel ts 97
°
at
S perma cet i fu ses
°
1 07
P al m -oi l mel t s 1 17
M a rgari n e fu ses 1 20
T al l ow fu ses 1 27
°
B ees -wax fu ses

’ °
. 150
S teari n e mel t s 1 68
°
R esi n becomes soft 1 60

°
Dammara resi n fu ses 164

°
TH E A T OF S A P M A K IN G
R O -
.
K U RTE N S TA BL E
’
S n owm o ra n C on r osrr ro x P n o n u cr o r S oa r
AN D BY r u n C OLD P a o
e s ss r a on e on ca xr u r s n L s r AN D e r un s or C ocoa -n or On .
wrrn P A L ou , L a an , AN D T A LLO W
u -
.
coa -n u t oi l No 1 .
.ri s toi l et , roun d 5 36

f
q
i
m dsor, s u are
evi n g No 1
. 1 20 27
e vi n g No 2
. 27 12 12
ashi n g N o . 1 1 25 27 12
N° 2
1 35 27 50 15
°
rdi n ary eoco a-o il -

225 21 75 12
B omm o P omr s or som e V om n nr. Orns
Su bstan ce . D egrees F ahren h ei t.

Oi l of sassafras begi n s t o boil at 223
28 0
28 4
297
3 02
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 302
345
bi t t er al m on ds b ons at 35 0
t h y m e boil s at 35 6
oran e-peel boi l s at 35 0
g
APP ENDIX A .
M sl a n g Soap i n small Qu an ti t i es — P earl Soap - P owder Extract of Soap .

-
.
— W ash i n g P owder — W ool -wash i n g C om pou n d— U n i v ersal W as h

.
i n g -P owder — Th e R ecov ery of G l y ceri n e from W aste L ey s — Al l en

an d N i ck el s M eth od —
. .
Ven a bl es P rocess — M odern Germ an M e th od

’ ’
.
of M aki n g Soap — R em ov al of F r ee Al k a li fro m Se a s — Tran sp aren t.
Soaps ma de by Co d P rocess l — M i a lh ’
N e tra l s — S m hi re
. e s . u p a p .
Soa p — D r W ri gh t s C ss
’
l i fi ca ti of S o a P r cesses — M ari n e Soap
P
a o n o
—
.
or H y drate d Soap — Bl ak e an d M axwell s Test i n g Soap s

’
rocesses .
—D et erm i n ati on of Gl y ceri n e D r M u t er s M eth od — D et ermi n a

— . .
’
.
ti o o
n f R e si n i n Soap — E i eh .b au m
’
s S o a — Soaps for C ali co P ri n te rs
an d D y er s — Soap for Si lk D y ers — S oap v es — Za] m on s A rom ati c
’
.
M ou th Soap — A romat i c An t i se ti c Tooth Soap — U n n a s Ov er - fatt y

.
’
Soap s — D i mbl eby s W eh h aze Soap

’
- — C ast or Oil Soap — W ei se s
’
.
F orm u l a for W i n dsor s p — R e n deri n g Tall ow — Sil i cate s of Sod a

. .
an d P ot ash — W e s Proce ss B arri n g Soap by M ach i n ery W ay s

’
.
— — ’
.
S i li cate d Soa In c an d G rey M o tl ed Soa ps F u l l i n g Soa — Soa

t p
t o R em 0 v e tai n s — Cotton - se ed O1I —C hl ori nat ed Soap
. . mm er .
n ak i n S oap i n S m al l u an t i i — F or som e years

g Q t e s .
past th e G reen ban k A lkali C om pan y, of S t H elen s L an

’
.
,
eash i re , have prepared a n d pop u lari ze d a refi n ed 98 p er .

‘
cen t cau stic soda i n a fi ne p owder , packi n g it i n can s hold
.
i n g from 1 0 lbs to 4 cwt . Th e po wdere d soda doe s n ot

.
deliqu esce an d liqu efy l ik e ordi n ary cau stic soda, an d an y

qu an ti ty m ay be taken from t h e can an d th e rem ain de r
n ot de te riorat e e ven i f t h e ve ssel be l eft 0 en for so m e
days To m ak e soap with this alkali n o bo g pan s are

'
requ ired, an d it is perfect l easy to m ak e a few poun ds of

soa p at a ti m e i f t h e fo lo win g di recti on s are exactly
follo wed
1 Tak e exacfl y 1 0 l bs of dou bl e r efi n ed 98 per c en t
. . .
cau stic soda po wde r (G reen ban k ) , pu t it in to an y can (n ot
c oate d with t i n ) or j a r with 4 % gallon s of wa te r , sti r it

on ce or twi ce, when th e soda wil l qu ickly dissolve an d
become q u ite hot L e t it stan d u n til th e l ey th u s m ade i s
.
3 48 A PP E N D IX .
cold . 2 . Weigh ou tplace i n an y co n ven ien t vessel

an d
for m ixin 75 lbs of clean grease tallo w or oi l (n ot
mi n e ral 0 g I f grease or t a llo w be u sed m e lt it slo wly
.
, ,
°
ove r a fi re un til it is liqu id an d of a temperatu re n ot

,
ove r 1 00 F ahr If oil be u sed n o heatin g is requ ired 3

°
. . .
P ou r t h e l ey i n to th e m elte d fa t or oil i n a con tin u ou s

stream at t h e same tim e stirrin g with a flat wooden stirrer
,
a bou t 3 i n ch e s bro ad C o n tin u e en tle stirrin g un til t h e

.
g
l ey an d fat a re thorou ghly combm ed an d appear of t h e
con sisten ce of hon ey D o n ot stir too lon g or t h e m ix tu re
.
,
will separate a ga in Th e tim e requ ired varies som ewhat

.
with t h e weath er an d t h e k i n d of tallow grease or oil , ,
u se d from fifteen to twen ty m i n u te s is gen erally su ffi ci en t .
4 W hen t h e m ixin g is com ple te d pou r off t h e l iqu id soap

.
i n to an y su fii c i en t l y large squ are box for a m o u ld p re ,
v i ou sl da m pin g t h e side s with wate r so as to pre ven t t h e

y
soap st i ck i n W rap u p th e box well with old blan kets or
better stil l leave it i n a warm place u n til t h e n ext da y
,
, ,
wh en t h e box wi ll con t ain a block of 1 30 lbs of so ap .

,
which can afte rwards be cu t u p wit h a wir e (se e page

I f t h e grease or ta llow be n ot clean or con tain sa l t it m u st , ,
be ren der ed or pu rifi ed by boilin g with wate r so as to thro w

, ,
ou t im pu ri ti e s Th e pre se n c e of salt wou ld spoil t h e

.
operation en tirely (cau sin g th e l ey to separate ) bu t dis ,
colou red or ran cid fat is qu ite adm issible .
If th e soap tu rn ou t streaky or u n e ven it has n ot been

thorou ghly m ixed I f very sharp to th e taste too m u ch
.
soda h as been taken i f soft m ild an d greasy too li ttle , , , .
I n eithe r c ase it m u st be thro wn i n to a pan an d bro u ght

to a boi l with a li ttle m ore wate r In t h e first cas e boilin g .
is all that is n ecessary i n th e oth e rs a little m ore oil or

a little m ore soda mu st be added A n y smal l er qu an tity of .
soap than t h e above m ay be m ade by taki n g t he in gre

di e n t s i n sm a ller re po rtion s bu t it is n ot advisable to
m ak e m ore than d
,
ou ble t h e qu an tity prescribed as it ,
wou ld be diffi cu lt to work m ore by han d B y workin g .
su ccessive batch es howe ve r a p erson cou ld tu rn ou t 2

, ,
ton s of so ap a day simply with apparatu s obtain able i n

e very hou s ehold B y a ddi n g a few drops of an e ssen tial
.
250 A P PEN D IX .
su lphites cyan ides fe rrocy an i des su lphocyan ides &c

, , , ,
.
,
owm g to th e c u stom i n that p art of th e n orth of sapo n i , ,
fy i n g with cau st i ci sed bl ack ash li qu or i n ste ad of ca u stic -
soda . Th e im pu r iti e s n am e d ren de r it v e ry di fficu lt to

recov er th e gl cerin i n sa t i sfactor con diti on from leys of
this kin d r A H A llen 0 Sheffield an d M r B
. . . .
, , . .
N ickels of L on don paten ted a proc e ss which is design ed

, ,
to overcom e this diffi cu lty Th e proce ss is base d u pon th e .
fact that wh en a solu tion of a cop ) er salt is adde d to soap

l eys pre viou sly ren de re d n eu tral or fain tly ac i d t h e ,
su l ph oc y an i de s are wholly pre cipitate d toge th e r with sul ,
h i d s cya n ides fe rrocyan ide s or sili c a t e s as is al so t h e

p e, , ,
case with alb u m in ou s re sin o u s fatty colou ri n g an d oth e r , , , ,
organ ic m atters Th e precipitate se ttle s with great facility

.
,
an d t h e filt e red liqu id is obta in e d n early colou rle ss t h e ,
c opp er be i n g afte rwa rds r e cove red from t h e pre cipitat e by

roastin g an d treatm en t with su lphu ric acid This proce ss .
wou ld appear to pre sen t co n side rable advan tage s i n t h e

treatm en t of spen t leys for it is well kn own that u n less ,
t h e whole of t h e su lphu r com po u n ds are re m ove d vol atil e ,
s u lphu r com po u n ds appear i n t h e di stilled glyce rin e ren ,
de rin g th e produ ct t otally u n fit for th e m an u factu re of

dyn am ite .
Vena bl es P r ocess — Th e waste l ey which m ay be fi ltered

’
,
i f n ece ssa ry is n eu tralise d with su l phate of a lu m in a alu m

, , ,
or an y solu ble salt of alu m in a or an y su bstan ce con tain i n g ,
alu m in a when th e sodiu m hydrate or c arbon ate combin i n g

, ,
with t h e a cid pre cipitate s t h e al u m in a which com bin in g

, , ,
wi th so m e of th e o rgan i c m atters an d car ryin g off t h e ,
rem a in der pu rifie s t h e leys Th e liqu id is n ow to be fi l

,
.
t ered an d con c en trate d by e vaporation I n ste ad of m e rely .
n e u tralisin th e salt of alu m i n iu m m ay be added till th e l ey

g ,
b ecom es a ci d an d it m ay be afterwards ren dered alk alin e

,
by t h e ad di tio n of ca u stic li m e or a n
y oth e r a lka li T h e ,
.
spen t leys m ay also be first partially n eu tralised by addi n g

a sm all qu an tity of hydrochloric or su lphu ric acid an d ,
th e r em a in in g fre e sodiu m h y drate W ill th en be n eu

t ral i sed by th e alu m in iu m s alt wh ich m ay be adde d to ,
Speci fi cati on N o . A u gu st 3 1 st, 1 8 8 6 .

A P P E N D IX .
5 1
n eu rat lisa tion or to exce ss ; i n th e l atte r case th e li qui d

shou l d be afte rwards n e u tralised or ren de re d alkalin e ,
.
Th e glyce rin e m ay th en be recove re d by distil l atio n as u su al .
M od er n G e m a n M e t o o
r h d f M a k i n g S oa p — Th e boi l .
i n g is con d u cte d as follo ws — Th e p an is char ed with

1 9 0 gallon s of soda l ey of 1 3 B an d lbs 0 t h e best
°
.
tallo w The se a re gen tly boiled for t wo hou r s afte r t h e

.
m ixt u re h as b eco m e m ilky ; t h e h eat is th en withdra wn ,
t wo ho u rs re pose is allo wed an d t h e l ey is th en ru n off

’
.
,
B oi lin g with fr esh l ey follows an d wh en th e s oap on , ,
pressu re b etween t h e fin gers form s clean solid sca les a , ,
few b u ckets of l ey a re thro wn i n to cool it an d agai n ,
drawn off afte r settin g for awhil e Th e soap is a gain .
boiled u p with n in e or t en gal lon s of fresh l ey an d wh en ,
t h e fu sion is com ple te a tri a l of th e pa ste is m ad e with t h e

,
spatu l a I f it ru n s from t h e l ey wa te r is adde d ; i f it

.
,
doe s n ot ru n it m u st be boiled a little lon ger addin g a

, ,
bu cket of water con tain in g a thi rd of its we ight of comm on

sal t i n orde r to effect th e separa tion of th e soap W hen
, .
this separation appears to be co mplete afte r se ttlin g fo r ,
abou t an ho u r th e l iqu id which con tain s t h e greate r part

, ,
of t h e l e r em ai n i n g from t h e first boili n g which is gen e

y ,
ra lly of a deep bo ttle green colou r is drawn off A bo u t

-
, .
e ight b u ck e ts of wa te r are n ow adde d an d t h e boilin g con
t i n u ed till th e in corpo ration is com ple te I f on exam in a .
tion t h e soap r u n s from t h e wate r m ore wate r m u st be ,
added i n sm all qu an tities at a tim e till th e ru n n in g ceases

, , ,
a n d t h e p a sty m ass wh en shake n tremble s like a gela

, ,
t i n ou s com po u n d Th e ope ration is fi ni sh ed by well —boil

.
i n g th e co n ten ts of t h e pan an d u n l ess t h e soap h a s a , ,
blu ish tin ge i n which case it shou ld h a ve an othe r washin

"
t h e he a t is with drawn t h e pan cov ere d u p an d t h e wh o 9

, ,
left at rest for a da y or m ore Th e so ap is then la dled .
in to fram e s .
‘
R e m ov a l of P r e s A l k a l i fr om S oa p s — I n cases .
wh ere it is desirable to obtai n soaps free from u n co mbin ed

alkali , variou s a gen ts m ay be appli e d to n eu trali se t h e
alkali bu t it is pr efe rable that t h e produ ct re su ltin g fro m
,
Ri ch ar dson an d Wat ts ’
Technology , v ol . i .
, p t
ar iii .
, p 678
. .
25 3 A P P E N D IA
th e com bin ation sh ou ld i n itself posse ss detergen t proper

ti es whereby t h e soap whi le b ei n g ren de red harm less so
, ,
far as re spects alk ali n e reaction becom es im prov ed as a ,
cle an sin g m ediu m Upon this su bj ect D r W right i n his

. .
,
C an t or L ectu res says :

‘
,
I t is obviou s that t h e proc e ss of
rem eltin g an d blen din g togethe r variou s kin ds of stock
soaps i s n ot capable p er se of dim in ishin g t h e av era ge
am ou n t of free alkal i presen t i n t h e m ate rials bu t by th e ,
addition of su itable in gredi en ts to t h e m ass m ore or l e ss ,
com plete rem oval of free alkali m ay be brou ght abou t .
I n ce rtain ca se s this is to som e e xten t effecte d by in cor

o ra t i n w ith t h m ass a sm all p rc tag ith r f r si
p g e e e n e e e o e n
( a lo n e or
,
dissolv e d i n g l c e ri n e ) or ol e ic acid or e v e n ,
palm oil or oth e r sapon i fi a l s glyce ride a partial sapon i fi ,
cation then takin g pla ce so that t h e e xc ess of al kali ,
b ecom es m ore or less n eu tralise d by com bin ation wi t h

fa tty or re si n ou s acids ; bu t these m ethods are b n o
m ean s u n iver sa lly applicable with a dvan ta ge althou gh i n , ,
c e rtain case s they are highly con ven i en t m ore e sp ecially ,
for se c u ri n g soaps u se d i n c ertain in du strial proc esses i n

con n e ction with textile fabrics B oric acid has also b een .
em ploye d for t h e u r ose t h e produ ct of its com bin atio n

p ,
with t h e exc ess o soda (borax ) b ein g well kn own as a

u sefu l varie ty of detergen t an alogou s to si l ica te an d
alu m in ate of soda m ore e sp ecially i n soaps in ten de d for
,
t h e l au n dry borax b ein g re pu te d to have a whit en in g

,
action on lin en &c clean ed th erewi th ; wh e th er it is of

, .
,
e qu al advan t a ge wh en appli e d to t h e h u m an skin h ow ,
e ver m a , y w ell be do u bt e d .
C e rtain m etallic salts n ot ably sul ph ate of i ro n have

, ,
for m an y years been u s ed as an adm ixtu re i n vario u s

highly esteem ed soaps th eir action p a rtly con sistin g i n
,
n e u trali satio n of fre e alkali by co m bin ation th e re with of

,
t h e a cid of t h e m e tall i c salt whilst th e m e tallic oxide is ,
set free an d s e rv e s as a colou r in g m atte r ; thu s C astile

so ap of th e old fashion ed kin d (a far su p eri or article t o
-
m u ch n ow sold u n de r th a t n am e) is produ c ed by a ddin g

su lph ate of i ro n to th e cu rd so that som e of th e free ,
alkali b eco me s con v erted i n to su lphate of soda whilst th e ,
J ou rn al f the Soci ety of A r ts

o , v ol . xxxi i i p 1 1 00
. .
z54 A P P E N D IX .
m u n i ca ti n g to t h e h an ds or obj ects wa sh ed with th e so ap

”
a very disagreeable odo u r .
Th e follo wi n g form u la m ay be given as a n i ll u stratio n

of t h e n atu re of t h e m ate rials u se d i n preparin g this class
of soap M elt t h e followin g with agitation : C ocoa n u t

.
‘
-
oil 1 0 k ilos ;1 ca ste r oi l 1 0 kilo s ; n eu tral tallo w 8 kilos

, .
‘
-
, , .
C (122 F ahr ) with 1 4 kilos

°
an d sapon i fy th e m at 5 0
°
. . .
of c au s t ic soda a t 38 B an d co n tin u e stirri n g u n til p a sti

°
.
,
n e ss s ets i n A dd loaf su gar 8 kilos

. an d wate r at 8 5 C , .
°
.
( 1 8 5 F 8 3 litr s I taki g car bri g it i gra

°
e ; n e to n n
d u ally A s soon as t h e soap begin s to solidi fy at t h e
.
side s th e boil e r is jacketed with a water bath kept at 8 0

,
-
,
°
C (1 76 u n til it has atta in e d t h e prop e r con sisten cy

°
.
,
an d t h e sc u m has separated A dd 20 to 3 0 p er c en t of . .
loadi n g agita te well an d then stir i n a boilin g solu tion

, ,
of on e kilo of crystalli ze d soda i n on e litre of wa te r ; d e

.
y ,
p e rfu m e an d fin ish off t h e b atch as u su al Th e lead

, .
i ng referred to is m ade from m i n e ral oil an d soap

shavi n gs th e pe troleu m bein g previo u sly deodorised by
,
m ea n s of a solu tion of bl ea chin g powde r an d hydrochloric

acid an d afterwards treated with chalk to n eu tralise an y
,
acid pre sen t 3 0 kilos of t h e p u rified oil are h eated to

. .
5 0 C (1 22
°
. mi xe d with 2 kilos of well dried soap
°
.
-
shavin gs an d heated u n til a sam ple is fou n d to solidify on

,
cool in g .
f
I n rh fe ren ce to th e above formu l a D r Wright observe s , .
I t is e viden t tha t e v en withou t t h e l oa di ng t h e resu ltin g

m ass wou ld n ot con t a in as m u ch as h alf its weight of actu al
soap for th e in gredi en ts con sist of 28 kilos fa tty gl y cer
, .
ides (represen tin g a little m ore th an t h e sam e weight

of an h ydrou s soda soap — abou t 29 kilos ) an d kilos . .
of wa t e r soda an d s u ga r so that wh en 3 0 p er c en t
,
of ,
.
l o adin g i s added t h e re su ltin g mass wo u ld n ot co n tain

,
m u ch m ore t han on e third its we ight of actu al soap -

.
On th e oth er han d th e total a lkali u sed (partly as ,
c au stic soda solu tion partly as c rystals) repre sen ts abou t

,
J ou rn a l of t he Soci ety of Chemi ca l I n du stry , A pri l , 1 8 8 3

q
.
1 A ki l ogram me e u a l s 2 l bs as ozs n earl y

“
. . .
A li t re e u al s 34 fl , ozs n earl y
1 q . .
A PP E N D IX . 255
1 1 3 per cen t of th e am ou n t ch em i cal l equ ival en t to th e

.
fat t y m atte rs, fu rn ish in g , con sequ en t a

e xc e ss offree a l ka l i , equ al to on e e ight -
h
of that com bin ed
as soap, a qu an tity very far i n e xcess of th at com patible
with good qu ality as r e gards i n j u riou s acti on on ten der
ski n Th e quan tity of su gar pre scribed r epresen ts som e
.
1 3 per cen t r eckon ed on th e m ass withou t loadin g, an d

.
abou t 27 per cen t of th e actu al soap formed Thi s

. .
formul a, a art from t h e loadin g, resu l ts m t h e produ ctio n

of an artic e of distin ctly b ett er qu alit than m ost of t h e
tran sparen t soaps of this kin d n e w sol i n G reat B ri tain ,
for th e se soaps u su all y con tain a still larg e r e xce ss of
alkali (ran gin g from 1 5 to 25 per cen t , an d e ven m ore .
bein g often fou n d) wh ilst t h e amou n t of actu al soap i n

t ablets fresh from th e facto ry (an d n ot dri ed by exposu re
i n shop win dows) rarely exc eeds 4 5 per cen t , so that .
th ese art icles are abou t as m u ch a com poun d of su gar

”
can dy an d so da cryst als as th ey a re soaps, i f n ot m ore so .
In th e m arket these soaps are comm on ] kn own as

tra nsp aren t gly ceri n soap s, an d they m ay e prepared h
from eith er of th e su bj oi n ed formu la
I M elt together su et an d Ceylon cocoa n u t oil , of ea ch
.
-
5 00 part s ; castor oil , 250 parts ; palm oil , 5 0 parts, an d

lycerin 5 00 parts Sapon ify t h e mi xtu re at abou t 1 67 °
g
.
ahr , with soda l ey of

. s
p g r. 5 00 par
. t
, s T h e solu .
t ion of soda shoul d be added gradu ally, an d t h e whole

kept well stirre d whi le th e sapon i fi cati on is p rogressin g,
whi ch wi ll occu py abo u t fi v e m in u tes Th e resu ltin g
.
soap is th en r em oved from t h e m elti n g an an d mi x e d

p
with 600 parts of stron g alcohol or m ethyl ate d sp i rit,
t h e whole be in g well agita te d u n til qu ite clear 1 5 0 parts .
of si m pl e syru p are th en adde d, as also t h e n ece ssary

e rfu m e s , an d t h e soap i s th en t i to m o l ds
p p u n u .
II Tallo w, 20 lbs
. palm oil, 1 2 lbs caster oil , 8 lbs
. . .
soda l e , at 3 8 B , 20 l bs
°
y . 9 6
.
p e r c en t alcohol , 2 0 lbs
. .
gl y cerin , 20 lbs , an d su gar, 5 lbs dissolved i n wate r,

. .
5 lbs Th e tal l e w an d palm oil are first m elted, an d t h e

.
l ey n ext added, an d sapon i fi cat i on effect ed as u s u al , with

stirrin ; t h e al coh ol i s then added, an d wh en thi s has
g
256 A PP EN D IX .
become well i n corporate d , th e gl yc e ri n is a dded Th e .
soap m ay be p erfu m ed with b ergam ot, 25 0 grain s ; citron ,

90 grain s ; laven de r, 20 grai n s ; n eroli, 3 0 grain s ; rose
m ary , 5 grain s, an d a fe w dr ops of otto of rose s dissolve d
i n 1 lb of 96 per c en t alcohol m ay be added if de sired ,
. .
an d t h e soap colou re d with sa f fron su bstitu te .
I II M elte d t allo w, 209 lbs cau stic soda l ey at 4 0 B

°
. . .
94 6 1bs , an d alcohol 1 1 0 lbs

°
. On e half of th e alkali is
.
to be added to t h e m elted tallo w, th e h eat bein g kept as

o —
l w as possible abou t 120 F W h en , with con stan t
°
.
st i rri n t h e l ey has thorou ghly com bin e d, th e rem ai n de r

I
of t h e cy (to which t h e alcohol has b een previo u sly added)
is n ext in t rodu ced, an d t h e h eat well re gu lated ; sapon i fi
cati on takes place rapidl y N ow add t h e perfu m e, cool,
.
pou r in to t h e fram es, an d con tin u e t h e coolin g very

gradu ally Th e tran sparen cy will n ot be apparen t u n til
.
t h e soap has been expo se d for som e tim e to t h e air To .
perfu m e t h e above 22 lbs of mixed essen ces m ay be u sed

. .
M i a l h e s N e u t r a l S oa p
’
M M i al h e describes a soap
.
-
.
whi ch h e stat es com bin es t h e advan tages of b ein g pre

pared wi t hou t heat, an d thu s avoidi n g t h e loss of t h e
glycerin i n combin ation wi th t h e fatty m atters, an d of
b ein g free from that alkalin ity gen erally presen t i n soaps
p repared i n t h e cold I n its preparation th e ordi n ary
.
toilet soap, m ade withou t h eat, is cu t in to shavin gs an d

expose d, i n a prop e rly clos ed cham b er, to t h e a ction of
carbon ic acid gas Th e soap ab sorbs a qu an ti of th e
ty
.
a s proportion at e to t h e qu an tity of cau stic so a which

g
has escap ed sapon i fi cat i on , an d by th e tran sform ation of
t h e free alkali in to bicarbon at e, it lose s all its cau sticity .
I t th en con stitu te s a p erfec t ly n eu tral soap , con tain i n g all

t h e glyc erin of t h e fatty bo di e s em ployed i n its m an u
factu r e, an d a certain qu an tity of bicarbon ate of soda .
S a m p h i r e S oa p — This soap
. recen tly paten ted by
,
M e ssrs F i eld, of Lam beth , L on don , con sists of palm 0 1 1

.
an d ole in , sap on i fi e d with iodi ze d potash , obtain e d from
t h e ash e s of seaweed . Th e re su ltin g soap is su bsequ en tly

m ill ed, afte r com ple te ly exp elli n g th e water, an d it i s
de al k al i sed by the i ntrodu cti on of an ammoni acal sal t
-
z58 A P P E N D IX .
so e xc eedi n gly hard that it can n ot be cu t with a kn i fe .
Th e cu ttin g of t h e pan with salt is n ot ho wever practi sed , ,
with thi s soap .
C ocoa n u t oil has th e remarkable propert y of com bin in g

-
with large qu an titi e s of water an d still yield a soap of

c on side rabl e hardn ess This fact is ext en sively taken
.
adv an tage of i n t h e preparatio n of liqu ored soaps t h e ,
oil b e in g m ix e d with palm an d oth e r oils form in g soaps ,
which are artificial ly m ottled a blu e or grey colou r an d ,

"
sold at a l ow rice I t is even possible t o prepare soap
.
on a large sea e i n a few ho u rs witho u t salt an d a lm ost
withou t fi re by th e u se of cocoa n u t oil an d t al l e w togeth er -

,
with stron g l ey by m erely warm in g them su ffi cien tly to

,
melt t h e fat an d keepin g th em con stan tly i n a state of

agitation Soap prepared i n t his m an n er h as a fin er a
p
.
ea ran ce an d s ets i n t h e m o u ld so that it can be cu t t

p , .
con tain s however n early all t h e water of t h e l ey as th ere

, , ,
is very little e vaporation i n t h e p an together wi th t h e ,
en tir e am ou n t of foreign salts an d i n a fre sh state h as , , ,
le ss re sem blan ce to soap than stiff dou gh tak in g deep ,
im pression s from t h e thu m b an d havin g a sli m y con si st ,
en c e wh en sq u ee ze d b etwe en t h e fin ge rs W hen dried .
for a l en gth of ti me th e re is a copiou s effi orescen ce of salts ,
bu t it fin ally acqui re s th e con sisten c e of ordin ary soap .
M arin e soaps are often m et with con tai n in g 70 per cen t .
of wat er an d e ven m ore .
B l a k e an d M a xw el l s P r oc es s — B this proc ess a soap

’
y .
is produ ced by com bin in g soap i n t h e state call ed soft

”
cu rd , with a hy drated soap or n eu tral soap n ot deprive d,
of its wate r Th e cu rd soap m ay be prepare d as u su al

.
,
bu t th e pat en tee s prefe r that it shoul d be m ade with soda

l eys of t h e stren gth an d i n t h e pre po rtion s given below ,
wh ereby a so ft cu rd is obtain ed which is bette r adapte d

for com bin in g with n eu tral soap Th e soap thu s form ed .
m ay be separate d from th e water or e xc ess of l ey by , ,
cu ttin g t h e p an i n t h e u su al wa ith e r by m ean s of salt

y e
or stron g leys Th e resin soap is prepared as follows z
.
.
A bou t on e third of t h e r esin to be u sed is m ix ed with a

-
Ri char dson an d Watts ’

Technol ogy , vol . i .
, p art i ii .
, p 68.3 .
A PP E N D I X. 25 9
sm a ll qu an tity of fatty m atter equ al to from 6 to 1 0 p er

,
cen t of t h e re sin an d t h e m ixtu re slowly m elted Th e

.
,
.
rem ain de r of t h e r e si n is th en adde d gradu a l ly by s m all ,
portion s at a tim e as t h e added portio n s m elt an d wh en ,
th e whole is m elte d t h e r e st of t h e l ey is i n trodu c e d Th e .
heat is then in creased till t h e m ixtu re boils an d th e boili n g ,
con tin u ed for abou t three hou rs or u n til sapon i fi cat i on is

,
co mplete when th e m ass will have t h e con sisten ce of thick

,
glu e or paste Th e hy dra ted soap is prepared i n an other

.
an fro m an of t h fa tty m atte rs m en tion ed be lo w eith e r

p y e ,
sin gly or i n com bin ation an d to it are tran sferred t h e soft

,
cu rd resin an d t al l e w soaps These soaps afte r boilin g

, , .
,
to gether for abou t t wo hou rs wi l l becom e thoro u ghly,
combin ed an d t h e co m pou n d soap will have t h e app ear

,
an ce of ordin ary soap i n re ce ss of fin ishi n g Th e soap

shou l d be rem oved t o th e f i smes withi n t wo or three hou rs
.
after it is fi n ish ed an d th e frame s sho u ld be covered so as

,
to retain th e h eat as lon g as possible .
Th e foll owin g table gives t h e oily an d fatty m atters

which ma y be u sed for m akin g t h e so f t cu r d an d t h e ,
stren gth an d qu an tity of t h e soda leys m ost su itable for

sp ecially effectin g the ir sapon i fi cat i on Th e weight of .
l ey requ ired to sapon i fy ea ch 1 00 lbs of fatty m atte r m ay .
be fou n d by dividi n g t h e n u m ber of de gree s by th e stren gth

of t h e l eys a pplicable to ea ch kin d of fa t .
F at to b e used.
Q u an ti ti es of
l ey i n S tr en gt h of l ey i n
degrees Bau mé . degrees B au me .
1 0 0 l bs of tal l e w re ui re q
p a l m - oi l
t al l e w el em
resi n
Th e oil s fa ts th at m ay b e
an d u sed for m ak i n g th e
hy dra ted soap an d t h e qu a n tity an d s tren gth of t h e l eys
r e qu ired for sa on i fi ca t i on are
p
260 A PP E N D IX .
S tren gth of l ey i n
degrees Bau mé .
1 00 l bs . of t all e w re q u i re
9!
tal l ow el em
ol i v e oil
T e s t i n g S oa p s (Fi l ei nger s — l l Va te r
’
— I n . .
t h e case of har d soap , 5 gram s, scrap ed from t h e sid e s an d

cen tre of a fresh sec tion , are first very gen tly warm ed to
avoid di rect m el tin g then over a wate r bath , an d fin ally
,
-
i n a dry i n box at 21 2 F ahr , u n til t h e wei ght rem ain s

- °
.
con stan t or soft soap , 1 0 gram s a re t aken , spr ea d i n a

.
thin layer over a l arge watch glass, an d trea te d i n t h e

sa me way .
2 Un s p o i fi e or F ree F a t
. a n d — Th e dry residu e from 1 .
is fin ely powdered an d washed on a filte r three or fou r

tim e s with lu kewarm p etroleum e the r Th e fi ltrates are .
collecte d i n a weigh e d beake r, e vaporat ed, dri ed, an d

weigh e d .
3 F ree A l ka l i
.
— Th e r e sidu e from 2 is digest ed for a
short tim e with alcohol (95 per sli ghtly warm ed ,
filtered, th e residu e on th e filter, wash ed wi t h wa rm
alcohol , an d t h e filtrat e, to which a fe w drops of ph en ol
h t h a l e m solu tion ar e added, titrate d with 1 3 3 su lphu ric

p
a cid .
4 F orei gn B odi es
. Th ese are fou n d by t h e u su al
.
-
m ethods, togeth e r with t h e chlorides, su l phate s, an d car

bon a tes of t h e alkal i e s on t h e filte r i n 3 .
5 F a tty A ci ds
.
— Th e n eu tral i zed alcohol ic solu tio n from
.
3 is m ix e d with wate r i n a m ode rat e si zed porc el ain basin , -
t h e fatty a cids separa t e d by su l phu ric a cid, an d aft e r

m elti n g an d settl in g, 5 gram s of dry wax are add ed .
.
Wh en t h e whole is cool , t h e fat acid wax is rem ov ed, -
Chemi ker Zei tung, 1 8 8 4, an d Chemi st and D ruggi st, 1 8 8 4 , p 290

. .
262 A P P E N D IX .
acids as before de scrib ed is ren dered stron gl y al kal in e with

, ,
a solu tion of cau stic soda an d th en a dilu te solu tion of ,
s u lphate of coppe r is dr oppe d i n with stirrin g u n til t h e , ,
hydra te d oxi de of copper thu s form e d begin s to fail t o

dissolve Th e filtere d blu e solu tion is com pared cal ori m et
.
ri c al l
y wi th a k n o wn q u an tity of a stan dard sol u tion of
glycerin tre ate d side by side i n t h e sam e way W h en .
su gar is presen t t h e alcoholic e xtract obtain ed as above

, , ,
m u st be h eated with di lu te sul phu ric or oth e r acid for

som e tim e so a s to i n s er t th e su gar Th e fl u id is th en
, .
r en de r ed alk ali n e an d sol u tion of su lph a te of coppe r

,
dropped in to t h e boili n g liqu id as lon g as suboxide of

coppe r is redu c ed after whi ch t h e cal orim etric e stim ation
,
of t h e glyc eri n is proc ee ded with as b efor e t h e com pa rison ,
b ein g preferably m ade with a kn o wn solu tion of glycerin

a n d can e su gar tr eate d sim ul ta n e ou sly with t h e sa m ple
u n d e r e xami n ation .
D r M u ter s M eth od — This m ethod m ay be u sed for t h e

! ’
. .
dete rm in ation of glyc erin i n so ap an d soap leys t h e pro ,
c es s b ein g b ased on t h e power of glycerin to a rr e st t h e

precipitation of copper hydra te by t h e alkal i e s Th e pro .
cedu re i s as follo ws
1 T ak e 1 gram of ab sol u te glyc erin an d wa sh it i n to

.
a lo n g stopp e r e d grad u at e d tu b e h a vin g a stop cock at

, , ,
-
5 0 c c from th e bottom
. . .
2 A dd 5 0 c c of a stron g solu ti on of pota ssi u m hyd rate

. . .
( l i n 2) a n d th en a weak solu tion of su lphate of copp e r ,
v ery grad u ally an d with con stan t shakin g u n til a fair

, ,
a m o u n t of copp e r hydra te is produ c e d which r em ain s
u n di s solve d ; m ak e t h e whol e u i n to a given b u l k clos e

p ,
t h e tu b e an d set aside to se ttle

, .
3 W h en p erfe ctly cl ear run off from th e t ap i n to a

.
,
be aker a given volu m e of th e deep blu e li qu id an d add to ,
it th e slighte st possible exc ess of n itric acid .
4 P ou r i n a defin ite e xc e ss of am m on iu m hydrat e

.
,
b ri n g th e b eaker u n der t h e bu rette ch a rged with volu

m e t ric solu tion of potassiu m cyan ide an d ru n i n till ,
dec olou rised .
The A na ly st, 1 8 8 1 , p 4 1
. .
A P P E N D IX . 263
Th e nu c c of th e cyan ide u se d aft er calcu l atin g

mb er of . .
,
t o t h e whole b u lk origi n al ly i n t h e t u be repre sen ts 1 gram ,
of glyc e ri n Th e res u lt has ho we ve r to be co rrecte d by

.
, ,
goin g throu gh a blan k exp erim en t with t h e sam e am ou n ts

of e v e rythi n g bu t wi thou t th e l c i d d d cti g t he
, gy er n a n e u n ,
c c of cyan ide taken from that pre viou sly formed Th is

. .
.
precau tion is n ecessary becau se copper hydrate is n ot qu i t e

i n sol u ble i n t h e stron g al kali bu t on ce m ade an d de du cted , , ,
t h e differen ce give s t h e tru e valu e i n glycerin of t h e

cyan ide solu tion an d when that has b een thu s stan dard
, ,
ised an y n u m ber of estimation s can qu ick ly be m ade Th e

, .
glyce rin to be dete rm in ed m u st first be isolated as free ,
from in termixtu re as possible as prev io u sly described , .
D e t e r m i n at i on of R e si n i n S oa p — Th e m ethod propose d
by C l a dd i is as fo ll o w s — A bo u t 0 5 gram of t h e m i x
n
g
t u re of fatty acids an d resin are di ssolved i n 20 c c of . .
stron g alcohol an d with ph en ol phthalei n as an in dic ator

’
-
, , ,
soda i s run i n to slight su per satu ration Th e alcoholic -

.
e lu tion afte r boilin g for t en mi n u te s to en su re com ple te

, ,
sapon i fi ca ti on is m ixe d with e th e r i n a adu at ed
till th e volu m e is 1 0 0 c c To th e al coIib

,
l i c an d ethe real
. .
solu tion 1 gram of very fin ely po wdered n eu tral silver

n i t rate is adde d an d t h e con ten ts of t h e cylin de r a re
,
shak en thorou ghl y for t en or fi ft een m i n u te s A ft e r t h e .
precipitate has settled 5 0 c c are m easu red off an d i f ,

. .
, ,
n ec e ssary filte red in to a s e con d gradu ate d cylin d e r

,
A .
little m ore sil ve r n itrate is added to see if t h e precipitation

is complete an d th en 20 c c of dil u te hydrochloric acid
, . .
( 1 2 ) to d e co m pos e t h e silv e r r e sin at e A n aliq u ot part .
of t h e e th ereal solu tion is e vaporat e d i n a ta red dish an d
weighed as re sin dedu ctin g a sm all correction ,
gram for 1 0 c c ) for oleic acid Th e am ou n t of resin

. . .
s u btrac te d from t h e com bin ed weight of fatty acids an d

resin as foun d before ives th e fatty acids
, , .
B i oh b a u m s S oa p 0 m ake se a from stron g smelli n g

’
.
fish fats F Eichbau m takes 4 0 0 e s of th e fat 25 kilos

, . .
, .
raw palm oil 25 0 ki los of l ey of 1 2 B an d warm s u

°
,
.
p .
, .
A fu rther sim ilar am ou n t of l ey of 1 5 B s added an d

'
°
.
,
Chemi ca l N ews, A pril 1 4th , 1 8 8 2 .

3 64 A P P E N D IX .
t h e mass, afte r bei n g thorou ghl y m i xed by agi tati on i s ,
all o wed to boil ti ll clear an d free from scu m an addition ,
of l e
y b e in g m ad e w h e n n ec e s sary T h e m ass is th en .
pou red i n a thin stream throu gh 20 l ey 5 0 kilos powdered °

,
.
resin are added gradu ally an d then 4 0 ki los of l ey of

, .
an d t h e m ass bo i le d W hen ready t h e soap i s sal ted i n

.
,
t h e ordin ary way Th e addi tion of resin is said to con

.
si derabl
y l e ss en t h e fi sh
y sm el l .
S oa p s for C al i c o P r i n t e r s a n d D y e r s A ccordin g t o .
-
Scheu rer a soap for brighten in g colou rs su ch as ali zarin ,
or garan cin shou ld first of all produ ce a p er fect ly whit e

,
grou n d u pon which t h e colo u r th en appears m u ch m ore

,
brill i an t an d i n t h e secon d place it shou ld n ot attack t h e

,
colou r itself On com pari n g from th i s poin t of vi ew t h e

.
v ariou s soaps occu rri n g i n comm erce t h e M a rseille s soap

was fou n d to be t h e best althou gh th e r eason for thi s ,
su periority was n ot at first obviou s A soap which attacked .
t h e colou rs u sed to be r e garde d as too alkali n e bu t on ,
an alysi s it was fou n d to con tain n o m ore al kali than t h e

b est so aps I t was e sp eciall y th e ol eic acid soaps which
.
e xhibite d this i n j u rio u s alka lin ity at t acki n g all shade s of,
c olo u r
. This behaviou r is at t ribu ted by Scheu rer to t h e
fact that m an y se called alkalin e soaps m ade with olei c
-
acid sim ply con tain both free oleic acid an d free alk ali ,
b ecau se t h e sapon i fi cat i on has n ot been complete Su ch .
so aps m ay be p erfe cte d by con tin u in g t h e boilin g It .
sh o u ld be r em em b ered that t h e com bi n ation of t h e acid
a n d soda r equi r e s a con side rable ti m e — t wo ki n ds of so ap ,
an a ci d soap an d a basi c on e s eem to be produ c ed at t h e ,
b egin n in g of t h e process an d th ese gradu ally u n ite to

,
fo rm a n eu tral soap Th e reaction c an be hasten ed e ith er

.
by in creasin g t h e tem pera tu re or pressu re thu s at a pres , ,
su re of atm osphe re Scheu rer fo u n d that a b etter soap

,
wa s obtai n e d i n t wo ho urs than i n t welve hou rs un der

ordi n ary pressu re A soap m an u factu red by D au m as
.
B A ll éon of M a rs eille s is recomm en ded as th e type of t hat

’
, ,
b est s u ited for dyein g an d prin tin g pu rposes I t is com .
o se d as foll o ws
p
“
4
J ourn a l of t he S oci ety f
o Chemi ca l In dustry , 1 8 8 3, p 28 6 . .
266 A P P E N D IX .
S oa p L e av e s prepared by passi n g con ti n u ou s paper

are
sh eets ove r roll ers th rou gh a hot sol u tion of soap t h e ,
exc e ss of soap a ttach e d to t h e su rfa c e b e i n g scrap e d of f .
Th e p ap e r is th en p a ssed ove r dryin g cylin ders an d from

th en c e to a c u t tin g m achin e .
Za l m on s A r om a t i c M ou t h S oap — 1 lb of n eu tral
’ ! . .
soap prepared from fat of t h e b est qu ality is di ssolved i n

, ,
cold distilled water abou t 3 % ozs fi n ely sifted c a ttle fi sh

, .
-
bon e are add ed to th e solu tion an d t h e whole evapora ted ,
at a gen tle heat W h en t h e desire d con sisten cy is n early

.
reached add three qu arters of a dra chm each of oil of pep

-
p erm in t oi l of sage vi rgin hon ey a n d white vin egar or

, , ,
oil of lem o n s M i x t h e whole qu ickl y by stirrin g an d pou r

.
,
i n to su itable m ou lds t o cool C olo u ri n g matter m ay be .
added as desired .
A r om a t i c A n t i s ep t i c T oot h S oap — Ca stil e soap 1 lb . .
fi n el y powde re d pu mi c e 1 oz
-
t hym ol 20 grai n s ; oil of
, .
,
W i n te rgreen 3 0 drops , Shave t h e soap in to ribbo n s b eat

.
,
it in to a paste with a little water an d add first t h e pu m ice ,
an d n e xt t h e thym ol an d W in tergr een dissolved i n a sm all
qu an tity of alcohol .
U n n a s O v e r fa t t y S oa p s T— Th ese soaps are sp e ci ally

'
-
.
design ed for em ploym en t i n cu tan eou s affection s I n .
com m en cin g his experi m en ts Un n a first p repared a

n orm al soap of fixe d com position which cou ld be i n cor ,
p ora t ed w ith v ario u s m edici n al s u bst an c e s Whil e .

,
th eoretically h e con sidered that beef fat was t h e m ost

,
perfect h e foun d practically that an advan tage was

, , ,
e i n od by addin g 1 p a rt of olive oi l t o 8 parts of b eef fa t .
h e alkali es em ploye d were soda 2 parts an d potash 1 ,
part this com bin ation bein g less apt to blister when
,
m edi ci n al su bstan ces we re added to t h e soap C ocoa n u t .

-
oil t ho u gh produ ci n g a soap which l ath ers well was

, ,
fo u n d to m ak e th e skin dry afte r con tin u ed u se E ven a .
n eu tra l soap wh en con st an tly u sed ten ds accordm g t o

, , ,
U n n a to prod u ce an u n pleasan t roughn ess from ra

,
m ov ,
in t oo co m pl e te ly t h e n atu ral e i h n ess of t h e ski n

— a
g
Chemi s t a n d D ruggi s t, 1 8 8 0, p 1 3 . .
1 E di n bu rgh M edi cal J ourn al , 1 8 8 5 .

°
A PPENDIX . 267
i
v ew, we sho u ld t hin k t hat will n ot be v e ry readi ly ,
acc e t ed H e th ere fore leav e s th e soap over fa tty that is

.
-
, ,
besi es th e fat n ec essary for perfect sapon i fi cati on an ex ,
ce ss am ou n tin g to 3 or 4 per cen t is added A n y secon . .
da ry addi tion of glycerin or vaselin e h e en ti rely rej e cts .
Thi s soap h e term s over fa tty n orma l soap ; it m ay be u se d

-
as an ordi n ary washin g soap i n all fo rm s of in flam m atory

di se ase s wh ere ordin ary soap is forbidden as i n ,
e c zem a e ryth em a
, an d for skin s poor i n ,
fat with a
ten d en cy to dryn ess ; also as a soap for h ea lthy people
whose occu pation com p el s th em to wash frequ en tly i n t h e
cou rse of t h e day
‘
Th e com posit ion of t h e soap is as
.
1 6 part s best ox fat

2 oli v e oil
6
3
27
In this soap abou t 4 per cen t of oil remain s u n sapon i .
fi ed . I t is of a yellowish whi te colo u r of a waxy con -

,
sisten c e an d qu ite pe rm an en t I t form s an e xceedin gly

, .
good soap for children an d i f ru bbe d on th e han ds an d,
wipe d off again i n a few m in u te s with a dry towel it le ave s ,
t h e han ds sm ooth an d little liable to be i n j u ri ou sl y affected

,
by dam p cold or lon g con tin u ed con tact with carbolic

, ,
-
a cid I t will be readily s een ho wever that t h e u n sapon i

.
, ,
fi ed fatty m atte r rem ain in g on t h e ski n afte r t h e above

t rea tm en t wi ll qu ickly be con ve rte d in to fatty acids em it ,
tin g a di sagree able odo u r while possibly they wou ld , , ,
cau se i rritation to delicate skin s .
Over fa tty M arble S oap is prepared from equ al part s of

-
t h e above soap an d t h e fin est po wde red m arble an d it is ,
said that it wi ll be fo u n d u seful i n t hin n in g down t h e

horn y laye r of acn e thu s repl aci n p u m ice ston e an d
,
-
san d soap an d whil e powde re d m arb e ru bs of

-
, , f t h e scal e s
or thicken ed epidermi s t h e over fatty n orm al soap leave s
,
-
t h e polish e d su rfac e sm ooth an d n orm ally u n ctu o u s
We sh ou l d fa n cy t h at th e de tergen t roperti es of such a soap wou l d

be l i t tl e , wh i l e p
i t s an ti sept i c p owers wou l ( be n u lli fi ed b y t h e free fat .
268 A PPENDIX .
plan t h a zel S oap .

— Th e j u ice of th e
H a ma mcha oi rgi mca or comm on wych hazel is m ix ed
’ '
-
, ,
with soap an d t h e vario u s com pou n ds for toil et pu rpose s

,
which con tai n soap an d it is said that s u ch com pou n ds ,
are ben eficial i n case s of bru ise s an d l ace ration s of t h e
C as t or Oi l S oapThis soa prepared as be low is said -
by M r H amm er to an swer {est for preparin g soap l in i

.
, ,
"
.
m en t (L i n i men ta m S ap onzs C o )
'
Sa n i fy 2 pin ts of castor oil with 6 ou n ces of cau stic

t as an d 2 pin ts of wate r by h ati g u n til a tra n s
p o e n ,
paren t m ixtu re is obtain ed ; th en add a satu rated solu tion

of 8 ozs of chloride of sodi u m stir u n til cool all ow to su b
.
, ,
si de for a day decan t t h e li qu id portion cu t i n piec e s an d

, , ,
dry for u se .
W ei s e ’
s F or mu l a for W i n ds or S oap .
—Tallow 4 0 lbs .
an d olive to 20 lbs are sapon i fi ed with soda l ey of

oil 15 .
,
19 B t h e soap n ext tre ated W i th a l ey of 1 5 B an d

° °
. .
,
lastly with a l ey of an d t h e o erat i on is con du ct ed as

for c u rd soap bu t n o e xce ss o alkali m u st be u se d
, .
W h en boil ed clear t h e soap is left i n t h e ) an for six or

it is n ext com ple te ly separatedfrom t h e l ey
,
eight ho u rs ,
an d is th en place d i n a flat m oul d an d re sse d u n til it n o

p ,
lon ger exhi bits an y flu x to pre ven t it from m ottlin g To ,

.
t h e above proportion s th e followin g p erfu m es are added

Oi l of cu mi n 1 0 oz oi l of be rgam ot
, 6 oz oil of.
, .
laven de r 3 oz oil of ori gan um 1 oz an d oil of thy m e

, .
, .
, ,
3 oz .
R e n d er i n g T al l ow som e soaperi es it is th e cu stom.

— At
to clarify or render th eir own fats wh ereby th ey obtain ,
rfec t l p u re tallo ws while at t h e sam e ti me ef fec t in g

p e ,
so m e van tag es i n th e way of profit This operation i s .
m ore e sp ecially a n ec essa ry part of th e man u fac tu re i n

districts wh ere cru de fats are abu n dan t Th e operation s .
of ren deri ng t all ew are : 1 dry i n t h e fa t ; 2 m in ci n g ; , ,
3 boi lin g or m eltin g

, Th e ro u g fats or su ets as th e y .
, ,
com e fr om th e slau ghte r hou se s are s u s en ded from beam s

i n a wel l ven ti lated loft u n til su ffi ci en t p
-
-
y dry afte r which ,
f P ha rmacy , 1 8 8 3 , p 3 1 3
Year Book o . .
270 AP PENDI X .
By D A rce t
’ ’
m eth od , th e cr u de fa t i s boil ed by steam ,
s
with abo u t on e fo u rth its bu lk of wa te r, acidu la ted with 2

-
to 3 per cen t of sul ph u ric acid, i n an open or l oo se ly

.
covered lead lin ed vesse l B y an oth e r m ethod a steam

-
.
tight cylin de r is em ployed , i n which t h e fa t is su bj ected

to a pre ssu re of 5 0 to 60 lbs pe r squ are in ch, th e boilin g.
Fi g 3 7
. .
be in g k ept u p for abo u t ten hou rs I t is said that by this .
m ethod 1 2 per c en t m ore tallo w is obtain e d tha n by an y

.
other m ethod adopted A n oth er process con sists i n keep

.
i n g t h e tallow m el te d for som e tim e abo u t 2 pe r c en t of , .
oil of vitriol largely dil u ted with water bein g a dde d

, , ,
an d th e whole is k ept con st an tl agitated Th e tallo w .
thu s treated i s allowed to cool s owly an d t h e resul tin g ,
c ake is afte r wards rem elted with a la rge qu an tity of

boilin g wate r to re move all traces of th e acid A v ery
,
.
ef fectu al way of washi n g ou t t h e acid is to blo w ste am

th rou gh th e liqu id fat for half an hou r or so an d wh en
,
- -
,
t h e ste am is sh u t off to k e ep t h e p an cove re d u p so a s to

, ,
retain t h e h eat as lon g as possible by which m ean s t h e ,
con den sed ste am carryin g trac es of acid with it gradu ally
, ,
su bside s leavin g t h e t all e w free

,
.
A v e ry effectiv e m ethod of ren derin g tallo w is obtain e d

by m ean s of M e ssrs M e rry weathe r Son s paten t su per
.
’
h eatin g apparatu s an illu stration of which i s shown i n

,
A P P E N D IX . 2 7:
F i g 37. .apparatu s is stat ed to presen t th e fol lo wi n g

Th e
a dv an tag e s ov e r t h e m e thod o f m e ltin g by fi r e h e at —1 -
,
Th e coppe r is n ot i n j u red by local h eat an d will last for ,
man y ears ; 2 th ere is little ri sk of bu rn in g th e tallo w or

,
fat u rin g t h e h eatin g ; 3 th e pan costs 5 0 per cen t l ess , .
that those ordin arily u sed ; 4 t h e pan can be in stan tly ,
ch ecked thu s pre ven tin g th e dan ge r of boili n g over ; 5

, ,
n o risk of accid en ts from fi re ; 6 e con om y of fu el Th e , .
follo win g are t h e de tails of t h e apparatu s

a is t h e s u p erh ea te r form ed of wro u ght i ro n l ap,
-
welded t u bes set i n a brick oven with ordin a ry fu rn a ce

,
b ars as sho wn
,
.
6 is th e ste am boile r t h e wa te r i n which is k ept to its ,
rop e r l v l by m ean s of a s elf re gu l a t i n g feed -

p e e
0 is t h e chimn e y .
d d are t h e pip es an d cocks con n ectin g t h e boiler with th e

su perh eater .
g is t h e pip e w hich co n n e cts t h e s u p e rh e a t e r with

k t h e fat pan which i s se t i n brickwork to preven t loss
,
-
, ,
of h eat .
I n case s wh ere it is es sen ti al to destroy obn oxiou s fu m es

arisin g from t h e m eltin g process a paten t cover is provided ,
for t h e fat pan , k .
S i l i c at e : of S ofi a an d r ot a s h Wag/ s P rocess This

. .
process is describ ed i n t h e specification of t h e paten t as

follo ws
I pu t in to a su itable pan h eate d by ste am or i n an y ,
con ven ien t m an n e r a qu an tity of cau stic alkalin e l ey

,
ash or soda or both as t h e c ase m a b

( pot ) f abo ut 18
°
, y e o ,
Tw so that t h e silica solu tion wh en m ade shall have a

.
,
°
gravity as n early 3 6 as possible an d afte r hav in g raise d ,
this l ey to th e boilin g poi n t I add by degrees t h e rock or

-
clay eith e r i n sm all pieces or gro u n d to powder u n til

‘
, ,
t h e alkali has taken u p as m u ch silica a s it will dissol v e .
Th e h eat is n ow withdrawn an d th e u n di ssolved earthy

matter is allo wed to settle Th e c l e ar liqu or is ru n off .
,
an d a fre sh qu an tity of water is a dde d t o t h e sedi m en t
A produ ct foun d i n Surrey an d cen t ai n i n g somet i mes as mu ch as 70

pe r cen t of si.li ca.
z73 A PPE N DIX .
to wash ou t fu rth er portion s of solu bl e m at te r Th e .
liqu o rs so obtain ed are solu tion s of al kalin e si licates Th e .
qu an tity of rock or clay requ ired wi ll vary with t h e per

c en tage of solu ble silica which it con tain s I fi nd i t .
n ec essary for e ve ry 3 1 parts of actu al soda or 5 3 parts ,
of carbo n ate of so da r en d ered cau stic to em ploy as ,
m u ch of th e rock or cl ay as con tain s 78 parts of solu ble

si l 1 c a .
I prod u ce sim ilar alkalin e silicates from th e rock or

clay by gen tly heati n g it i n a fu rn ace with alkali es or
alkalin e carbon ate s I n this case combin ation of t h e
.
,
m ate rials an d produ ction of t h e alkalin e silicate s tak es

place at a tem perat u re m u ch be lo w that which is n ecessar
wh en oth er form s of siliciou s m att e r are u sed an d tho u gh ,
preferrin g t h e m ethod form erly m en tion ed for t h e treat

m en t of th e rock or clay t h e on e la st describ ed m ay be
e m ploye d Th e alkalin e silicat e is dissolv e d ou t from th e
.
fu rn ace d m ate rials by water or alkalin e l ey I prefe r i n .

,
e ith e r case to satu rat e t h e alkal i as fu lly as

,
ossi bl e wi t h
sili ca bu t this is n ot absol u tel n ec essary

,
h e silicat e s .
so produ c ed are m ore su itable or t h e soap m aker for t h e -

,
follo win g am on gst oth e r reason s — 1 Th ey are m ore .
econ o m icall y produ c ed 2 Th e cau stic property of t h e

. .
alkal i con tain e d i n th em is m ore perfectly n eu tralised .
3 . They co n tain n o iron alu m in a or other m atter i n ju r

, ,
i o u s to soap 4 Th e soap produ ced by th em is th erefore

. .
of su pe rior qu ality as well as ch eaper

,
Th e al kalin e .
sili cate s produ ced by eith er of th ese processes m ay be

e m ploye d i n an of t h e m ode s n ow u se d by soap m ake rs
y
-
i n in corporati n g t h e silicate s of t h e al kalie s with soap .
B a r ri n g S oa p b y M a c h i n e r y — A ve ry u seful m achin e
for c u ttin g soap in to bars is sho wn i n F i g 38 an d con .
,
si sts of a fixe d fram e of wood work A A an d a m ovable -

, ,
l e ver fram e B B attach e d to A A by t h e cen tre pi n 0 Th e

-
, ,
.
fram es are wide en o u gh t o re c eive a slab of soap 4 5 i n s .
lo n g by 1 5 i n s wide This is placed i n an in clin ed posi tion

. .
,
as s ho wn by t h e dotted li n e s restin on th e bar D of th e

fi x ed fram e an d again st a seri e s 0 g
,
wires stre tc h ed u pon
Ri ch ardson an d W atts ’
Tech n ology , v ol i .
, part i ii .
, p 664
. .
274 A PPEN DIX .
soap become s st iff an d th ere is th en added 4 4 per cen t of

, .
solu tion of si licate of soda of 3 6 Tw Th e boili n g is n ow °

.
con tin u ed till t h e soap bec om es thin an d li m pid wh en 24 ,
e r c en t of comm on salt is thro wn i n an d t h e boilin g

p .
,
con tin u e d for three or fou r hou rs wh en t h e soap m ay be ,
clean sed eithe r at on c e or after it has been allowe d to

st an d for a fe w hou rs I f op en steam be u sed it is be st to
.
h av e t h e silic ate solu tion an d t h e l ey of greate r stren gth

than tha t m en tion ed i n proport ion to t h e qu an tity of,
wate r which is co n den sed from su ch steam in to t h e

soap pan -
.
B l u e a n d G r e y M ot t l e d S oa p e — F or preparin g th ese .
soaps which are m u ch patron ised i n th e n ort h of En glan d

, ,
t wo so a p pan s a re re qui red

-
In on e pan a fi tted soap is .
prepared fro m tal lo w an d palm ke rn e l oil or cocoa n u t oil - -

,
which is afte rwards rem ov e d to t h e secon d pan an d for ,
e ve ry lbs of soap are adde d 25 0 lbs of silicate of soda

. .
solu tion th e whole b ein g thorou ghly in corporate d by

,
boilin g u n til th e soap boiler j u dges that th e proper con

,
-
dition for m ottlin g has b een reach ed Th e colou rin g .
— —
m atter u l tra arin e for bl u e m e ttle worke d u p in to a
m
thi n n ish pa ste with water is th en sprin kled ove r t h e su r ,
fa c e of th e boili n g so ap a lit tl e at a t i m e u n til t h e fu ll

qu an tity has b een in trodu ced ; th e p roportion of u ltra
m a rin e p er t on of so ap is from 5 to 1 0 lbs If t h e so ap .
be i n too liq u id a sta t e th e colou rin g m atte r is apt to per

m e ate t h e en tire m a ss givi n g it a bl u e tin t throu ghou t
, ,
an d t h e d e si re d m ottl e d app e a ran c e will n ot be att a i n e d .
W h en properly con d u cted t h e blu e p i gm en t sho ws i n t h e

so ap i n blu e patch e s which app ea r i n stron g co n tra st to
,
t h e whit e grou n d of th e soap givi n g it a pl ea sin g a ppear ,
an c e to t h e ey e Th e grey m ott led soap of th e sam e cl a ss

.
is colo u red with fi n ely powdered oxide of m an gan ese fro m ,
1 to 3 l bs to t h e t e n in trodu ced i n t h e s am e way as abov e

.
, .
A r ed mottl ed soap is al so produ c ed with v erm ilion .
P u l l i n g S oa p — Th e followi n g for m u l ae a re giv en by

.
"
M r K in gze tt for a soft soap to be u sed for clean si n g an d
.
scou r i n g woollen fabrics

A l ka l i Trade, p 1 75 . .
A PP EN DIX . 3 75
II .
Th e so ap shoul d con tain a slight exce ss of al kali bu t ,
n o re sin
(w hich hard en s t h e fabrics ) sta rch or silicat e ,
shoul d be pre sen t .
S oa p t o R e m ov e S t a i n e Thi s is prepared from a .

-
good white soap cu t in to th i n shavin gs F or 6 lbs of th e

, . .
soap tak e on e ex gall an d t h e whi te s of fou r eggs an d

-
, ,
m i x al l th e in gredien ts i n a m ortar addin g 2 lbs of , .
p o w d e re d alu m Wh e.n t h e w hol e h a s b een w e ll i n cor

p o ra t e d t,h e m ass is to b e k e pt i n a da m p plac e for
twen ty fou r hou r s I t is said that this soap fin ds m u ch

-
.
favou r with scoure rs for rem ovin g grease &c , .
C ot t on s e e d Oi l — This oil wh i ch is largely m an u fac

- .
,
t ur ed i n t h e Sou th e rn S tate s of A m eri ca is a good deal ,
u sed as a soap m ate rial e spe ciall y i n t h e n ort h of En glan d

, .
In its cru de state it i s of a darkish colou r an d som ewhat ,
v i scid bu t wh en pu ri fi e d it is cle ar an d al m ost colo u rl e ss

, .
Th e cru de oil b ein g m u ch ch eap e r than th e refi n ed art icl e

, ,
is preferred by soapmak ers Th e oil doe s n ot of itself .
m ak e a good hard soap bu t wh en m ix ed with oth er m a ,
t eri al s i n t h e proportion of abou t on e third it form s a

,
-
,
u sefu l soap m ate rial an d a good soap m a th u s be oh

, y
t ai n ed There are some ) coul ie r di fficu ltie s i n t h e
em ploy m en t of cotton s eed oi l for soapm akin g
.
ho wev er , ,
i f it be u sed i n con siderable pre portion s ; for exam pl e t h e

cu ttin g of th e pan or separation of t h e soap by com mon
,
salt do es n ot take place so readily as u su al bu t this is

, ,
overcom e by addi n g water to t h e pan Th e colou r of t h e

[
.
soap m ay be im proved by boilin g th e soap over spen t l eys

con tain in g carbon ated alkali .
C h l ori n a t e d S oa p — P owder ed Castil e soap 1 1 oz .
an d dry C hloride of L im e 1 oz are b e a t en in to a m ass .
with su ffi ci en t R oc t i fi ed Spirit holdin g i n sol u tion Oi l ,
of V e rb en a or of G in ge r G rass
, oz Th e m ass is th en
-
, .
fo rm e d in to fi a t tabl ets an d wrapp ed i n thin sh e e t gu tta

,
p h
c rc a .
C om m e r c i al V a l u e of S oa p s — D r . . B u ch n er give s a
’
1 76 A PPEND IX .
m ethod by which th e am ou n t of hard so ap i n a sam pl e

m ay be calc u la te d from th e am ou n t of fa t ty acids obta in ed
wh en a given qu an tity of th e sam ple i s de com posed by
stron acid H e u ses a flask th e n eck of which is gradu
g .
,
a te d m t o c u bic c en ti m e tr e s ; in to this flask half fi lle d ,
with wate r h e pu ts hal f an ou n c e of t h e so ap an d di ssolves

,
it H e th en adds t h e acid e i the r comm ercial hydrochloric

.
,
a cid or dilu te s u lph u ric acid an d warm s t h e m ixt u r e , ,
wh en t h e fatty acids are se t free H e n ext adds su ffi cien t .
water to al low t h e r eadin g of t h e cu bic c en tim etre s t h e

acids m easu re i n t h e n eck of th e flask Th e fatty acids .
from di fi eren t sou rce s differ slightly i n sp e cific gravi y ,
bu t D r B u ch n e r fo u n d that t h e ave rage weight of a c u bi c

.
cen tim etre is 09 3 gramm e which is practicall y n ear ,
en o u gh A s th e acids are com bin ed with 1 6 of glyce rin

.
1
,
it is easy kn o win g th e weight of th e acids to calcu late

, ,
t h e we ight of t h e fat u sed an d as on t h e av e rage 1 00 l bs .
of fat give 1 55 lbs of good h a rd soap t h e weig h t of th e .

,
r eal soap can be calcu late d wh en t h e weight of t h e fat i s

kn own Th ese calcu la tion s m ay be m ade by u sin g t h e
.
table given b elo w Th e resu lts ho we ver are n ot to be .

, ,
c on side red scie n tifically acc u ra te bu t n ear en ou gh for ,
ordin ary b u sin ess pu rpo ses Th e m ethod on ly r equ ires .
on e we ighi n g is e xecu ted i n a few m in u tes an d is so

, ,
si mple tha t it can be perfo rm e d by an o rdi n ary workm an .
1 C u bic cen tim etre s of fa t acids s eparated from half

.
an ou n c e of soap
-
.
I I P e rc en tage of wat er l e y gl yc erin &c i n th e sam ple

.
, , , .
,
.
I I I P e rc en tage of good h ard so ap

. .
I . II .
97
69
63
57
51
44
38
32
26
20
13
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 78 A PPENDIX .
Th ere are three methods of m akin g c an dl es n amely by , ,

” ” ”
di pin g mo u ldin g an d
“
rol li n g Th e c h e ape r
kin d ; of tallo”w can dles are produ ced by dippin g ; stearin e
, , .
com posite an d para ffi n ca n dles are m oul ded an d those

, ,
prepared from wax are bas ted an d rolled .
B efore de scribin g th e va riou s details of t h e man u fact u re ,
it wil l be n ecessary to direc t atten tion to th e m aterials

em ploy ed an d th e m ethods adopt e d to ren de r th em s u it
,
able for c an dle maki n h e pri n cipal materia ls u s ed i n

‘
can d l e m akin g are tal lo w, that is r efi n e d an i m al fa ts

-
-
,
t
s e arin , pal m —
oi l paraf fi n o zoke ri te wax an d fatty acids
, , , , .
Ch evre u l an d B racon n ot whos e i n vestigation s con cern in g

,
th e c om posi t ion of fatty bodi es have been of t h e greate s t

both to th e soap maker an d can dle ma n u factu rer
-
,
proved that fats as they occu r i n n atu re are a com bin a

, ,
tion of t h e simple flu i d an d soli d fa t s olein stearin e an d , , ,
m argarin e i n v ariabl e proportion s t h e fu sibi lity of t h e ,
co m pou n d fat va i n g as t h e liq u id or solid con stitu en ts

re on de rate ats are th u s classifi ed — 1 U n sa on i
p .
p .
—
fi ab e ats a s pa s fi
f r n for e —
xample which are u n chan ged
,
wh en boil ed with a sol u tion of caustic potash 2 Sapo n i . .
fi abl e fats (al so called gly ceri des) , which wh en boiled or , ,
left lon g i n con tact wit h al kalin e solu tion s are gradu ally ,
r esolv e d i n to (a ) fatty acids which combin e with th e ,
alkali form in g soap water an d (b) t h e tri atom ic alcohol

, , ,
-
glyce rin e 3 F atty acids com bin e with m ost base s

. .
,
form i n g salts an d can be displac e d by stron ge r acids

, ,
floati n g u pon warm aqu eo u s solu ti on s as an oily fl u id .
F atty acids accordin g to th e ir r espective boilin g poin ts

, ,
a re desig n at e d vola ti l e fat ty aci ds an d fi xed fa tty ac i ds .
H ei n t z whose r esearch es cor roborate those of C he vr eu l

, ,
fou n d that th e fate of tallo w an d pal m oil e ssen tial ly con -
sist of stearic palmi tic an d oleic acids i n combi n ation

, , ,
with glycerin e stearin pal m iti n an d olein an d are con

, , , ,
se q u en t l y glyceride s I n on e respect ho weve r

.
, ,
from Ch e vreu l i n asm u ch as h e co n siders th e m argaric

,
acid obtai n ed by sapon i fi ca t i on to be a co mbin atio n of

alm itic an d stearic acids a vie w which is n ow gen erally
p ,
a cc epted .
A PPENDIX . 2 79
T a l l ow — Th e an imal fats chiefly u sed i n ca n dle m aki n g -
a re m u tto n an d b ee f s u e ts a n d con sist of steari n pal m iti n

, , ,
an d ole in t h e s t eari n ho we v e r pre pon deratin g bu t vary

, , , ,
i n g i n p erc en tage i n diffe ren t sp e ci e s of an im al t h e n a tu re ,
of its food an d its a ge

, M u tton fa t con tain s m ore ste ari n
.
than beef Th e m eltin g poin t of b eef fa t is 1 0 0 F wh i l e

.
°
.
,
tha t of m u t ton fat is from 1 0 0 to 1 06 F Melted m u tto n ° °

.
fat b eco m e s solid at 1 0 0 E , bu t i n solidifyi n g its t em

°
rat u re rise s to 1 1 1 F
°
p e .
R e n d e ri n g T al l ow — Th e ro u gh fats as th ey com e from

.
,
t h e bu tch ers r eq u ire to be clarifi e d, or ren dered as it is

, ,
Fi g 3 9
. .
tech n ically termed by which process th e pu re fa tty

,
m at te rs or ta llo w a re sep arat ed fro m th e mem bran o u s

, ,
a n d c e ll u lar tiss u e s which are attach e d to t h e m Th e fat s .
a re u s u ally su sp en d e d from wooden b eam s i n a well

ve n tilate d l e ft to dry aft e r which th ey are su bj ected to a
,
process of m i n ci n g ei th er by mean s of a series of re volvin g

,
k n ive s fix e d t o a tabl e an d worked by h an d (F i g

, or .
i n l arge r e stabli sh me n ts by m achin e ry driven by ste am

po we r The m i n c ed fat is n ext boiled which i n sm all
. ,
works is con du ct ed i n an ope n pan or copp er, care b ei n g

280 A PPENDIX .
taken tha t th e fi re plays o n ly u pon t h e bo tto m O f t h e pan ,

to r even t t h e fa t fro m b ei n g b u r n e d or d i scolo u red .
t is u su al to fi rst pu t a q u a n ti ty of rendered tallow or

wate r in to t h e pan , an d wh en this is mel ted th e m in ced fat
i s i n trod u ced , t h e whole b ein g kept stirre d u n til t h e fat i s
co mple tely liq u efi ed Th e m elted fat is n ex t rem oved by
.
mean s of a lad l e or swimm er, a n d p assed thro u h a brass

sie ve, or wicke r bas et Th e .
m elted an d strain ed t al l e w is
'
n ow a llo wed to repose for a

tim e to allo w fu rther im p u ri
,
tie s t o su bside an d is after,
wards con v ey e d to store casks

u n til r eq u ir ed for u se The .
“
solid re sidu u m called crack
,
”
li n gs , retain ed by t h e sie ve ,
is n ext su bj ec t e d to moderate
h eat an d grad u al bu t i n creas
,
i n g pre ssu re (F i g which.
sq u ee zes ou t a greater portion

of t h e r em ai n in g fa t l eavi n g ,
a hard cak e to which t h e

,
n am e greave s is applied .
B y t h e abov e m ethod Of ren

d eri n g tallo w beef fat is said
—
to yield as a maxi mu m pro
—
du ct sel dom attain ed 95 per
cen t of tallo w fro m ordin ary
.
rou gh fat an d 2 per cen t of

, .
refu se ; an d m u tton fat 91 per

Fi g 4 0
. . cen t of t allo w an d 4 5 per
.
,
cen t refu se
. .
This cr u de method of ren derin g tal lo w is open to several

obj ection s am o n gst which m ay be m en tion ed t h e follo w
,
ing — I n an op en copp er it is di fli c u l t to k eep t h e h eat

u n i form ; agai n t h e c ell u l ar tiss u e s do n ot b ecom e com
l t el y b rok en u p whil e th e y acqu i re s u ch e xtre m e hard

p e ~
,
n e ss that t h e ress is un able to squ ee ze ou t t h e whole of

t h e fat. I n l arge es tablish m en ts t h e Open c opp er i s
28 2 A PPENDIX .
tallo w is abou t 1 2 p er c en t m ore than is obtai n ed by an y .
oth er m e thod .
A n apparat u s for r en derin g fat by stea m h as been i n tro

du ced by M e ssrs M e r ryweathe r an d Son s of L o n g A cre
.
, ,
Lon don an illu stration of which i s giv en i n F i g 4 1 to

, .
,
which t h e r eade r is refe rred .
Th e tallo ws of co mm erce be fore bein g u sed for m akin g ,
can dles gen eral l y req u ire to be s u bj ected to a fu rthe r

,
refi n in g process which m ay be effec ted by eithe r of th e

,
m
follo wi g e thods
n — 1 Th e tallo w b ei n g m e lted 2 p er
.
,
c en t of s u lph u ric acid largely dilu ted with water is i n t ro

.
, ,
du ced an d t h e whole kept briskly agitat ed for so m e ti m e

, ,
after which th e tallow is all o we d to cool slo wly Th e .
resul tin g c ak e is n ext re m elted with a large q u an tity of

-
boilin g wate r to thoro u ghly wash it 2 Steam is blo wn . .
thro u gh t h e m elted fat for half an hou r or so it is th en

allo we d to cool an d se ttle 3 A littl e n i tre i n solu tion i s
. .
added to th e melted fat with co n stan t agitation an d soon

, ,
after a little dilu te su lphu ric acid added or a solu tion of ,
bis u lph a te Of potash 4 A sm al l q u an tity of dilu te n itric

. .
acid i s added to t h e m elte d fat 5 C hrom ic acid or a . .

,
m i xtu re of bi c hro m ate of potash solu tion an d dil u te

-
s u lph u ric acid i s u sed .
In each of t h e fore Oin g m ethods th e tallo w re qu ires t o

be well wash ed wit h ot wat er or steam an d sho u ld be ,
allo wed to cool slo wly so that th e chemicals may effec tu ally
,
deposit .
L ar i — Th e fat of t h e hog or lard is m u ch u sed i n , ,
A m erica i n t h e m an u factu r e of can dl e s a fte r t h e ol ein h as ,
been e xpressed from it Th e q u ality of t h e lard ho we ve r

.
, ,
vari es accordin g to t h e n atu re of th e an im al s food ; th u s ’
t h e fat of hogs fe d u pon grain or pota to es is hard an d ,
ossess es great body as is also t h e case when th e an i m als

pave been fed u pon malt ; bu t th e fat of hogs which have
,
b ee n fed u po n bre wers or distillers waste poss esses bu t

’ ’
little body is so ft an d oily an d of a yello wish co l o u r

, , ,
h a vi n g a m eltin g poin t Of on ly 8 1 F °
.
S t e a r i n is t h e solid po rtio n of fats an d is i n solu bl e i n ,
alcohol Th e co m merci al ar t i cle ho we ver is i n reality

.
, ,
A PPEN DIX . 28 3
s et aric acid an d is prod u ced by seve ral diffe ren t ch em ical

,
roc e ss es w hich w ill be pr e sen tly d escribed T a llo w

p ,
.
ste arin or as it m ay be te rm ed rea l stearin was form erly

, , , ,
mu ch u se d i n can dl e m akin g an d is Obtai n e d as follo ws

-
,
R efi n ed tallo w is first m el ted an d th en allo wed to cool ,
very gradu ally b ei n g k ept con stan tly stirre d u n til it has
,
b ecom e solid a process wh ich u s ed to be te rm ed p a cki ng

,
the ta l l ow . Th e m at e rial th u s tre ated is n ext p u t in to

bags an d su b m itted to grad u al bu t in creasin g pressu re
, ,
wh en a large proportio n of t h e olei n b eco mes squ eeze d

ou t l eavi n g t h e stea ri n e i n hard cake s which a fte r bei n g
, ,
m elt ed wi ll form m o u ld
,
can dle s Of e xcellen t qu ality .
S teari c acid (co m m on ly calle d steari ne) is prep ared on t h e

comm ercial scale by eith er Of t h e follo win g m e thods
I. L i m e S a p on i fl c a t i o n 2 r oc e s s — Ordi n ary tallo w or .
,
a m ixtu re Of tallow an d bleach ed pal m Oi l boiled i n a -

,
large wooden v essel fi tted with a p erforated coil Of steam

,
pipes by m ean s Of stea m at a hig h press u re with abou t

1 5 or 1 6 per c en t of hydr at e of lim e—that is re cen tly
, ,
.
,
slaked lim e — for three or fo u r ho u rs or u n ti l perfect ,
sap on i fi cat i on tak e s plac e by which a li m e soap is form ed ;

,
t h e whole is th en allo we d to cool an d t h e produ ct whic h , ,
is a com po u n d of stearate an d pal m itate Of lime is a fter ,
wards r em ov ed to an oth er wooden v e ssel an d treated with ,

—
abou t fo u r parts of s u lph u ric acid previou sly dil u ted
—
with wa ter to every thr ee p ar ts of slake d lim e origin
ally u sed i n t h e sapon i fi cati on an d t h e action is prom oted ,
by th e aid of s t ea m h eat an d con sta n t agitatio n Th e

, ,
.
m ate rial i s th en allo wed to r est when t h e liberate d ,
a t ,
—
f t y acids r is e to t h e s u rfac e an d th e s edim en t su lphat e
of li m e a n d wat er — collects at t h e bottom of th e vessel .
Th e fatty m aterial i s n ext ladl ed i n to a n o t h er v essel i n ,
which it is well washe d with wate r steam b ein g blo wn ,
i n to it to assist th e proc ess It is th en allo wed to cool.

,
an d is after wards red u c ed to sh avi n gs by m e an s of a s eri es
Of kn ives worked by m achi n ery an d t h e shavi n gs a re,
th en placed i n can vas bags whic h are su b mitted to t h e ,
action Of a powerfu l hyd ra u lic pre ss by which a con ,
si derabl e portio n of t h e ole ic acid is sq u e ezed ou t Th e .

38
4 A PPEN DIX .
re us l tin g cak es ofstea ri n e (stearic ac i d) are again su bmi tted

to t h e acti on of s team an d wate r an d on ce more cooled , ,
an d then r ed u c ed to a coarse po wder which is again su b ,
mi t t ed to t h e join t action of stea m an d pressu re t h e cakes ,
be in g placed i n bags mad e from goats h air The heat ’

.
an d press u re are k ept u

p for abo u t t wo hou rs by which ,
tim e t h e remain der of t h e oleic acid is removed Th e .
refin ed cakes are n ext re m el ted by steam an d so meti mes ,
a l i ttle wa x is adde d to des t roy t h e crystalli n e stru ct u re
of t h e ste a ric acid The m aterial is fin ally c ast i n to

.
blocks for t h e marke t Th e melti n g poi n t of t h e resu lti n g

.
produ ct is fro m 1 3 2 to 1 3 5 F ° °
.
II A c i di fi c a t i on I r oc e s e —
.
'
It h ad lon g been kn o wn .
that fats are decom posed by co n cen trate d su l h u ri c acid ,
i n a lik e m an n e r to that which is eflecte by cau stic

'
al kalies bu t while t h e acids en te r i n to com bin atio n with

,
t he fatty acids s etti n g free glyc e rin e it was h eld by

, ,
P ren y that s u lph u ric acid com bi n ed with both prod u ci n g ,
fro m t h e acids of t h e fat su lpho stearic su lpho pa l m itic -

,
-
a n d s u lp h o ol e ic acids
-
an d from t h e glyc eri n e
,
su lpho
, ,
glyce ri c a cid D r B ock ho weve r en te rtain s a diffe ren t

. .
, ,
v i e w Of t h e r e actio n which h e explain s as follo ws

, By
th e li m e sapon i fi ca t i on m ethod li m e soap is for med an d , ,
e xtractio n of t h e glyc erin e is r en d e red possible By .
a c i dificatio n t h e whole proc e ss is e f

,
fected at o n ce Wh en .
properly co n du cted th e fat wash ed ou t with water al ways

, , ,
re m ain s as a n eu tral fa t wh ereas wh en con c en trated , ,
s u lph u ric a cid is u sed n ot a trace of glyc erin e is le ft

, .
A cidific atio n wh en prop erly con du cted is on ly a pre

, ,
li m i n ary op eratio n i n ten de d to break u p or carbon i ze

, , ,
al bu m i n ife ro u s m atte rs With du e care on ly th e en

.
,
v eIOpes of t h e c ells are black en e d an d th e s e a re sol u bl e ,
n eith e r i n fa t n or i n fatty acids Th e prod u ctio n of a really .
black solu tio n is o n ly an e vid en c e that a ce r tain part of

t h e fa t has been charred which sho u ld be avoided u n der
,
al l circ u m sta n c e s . B y p rop e r acidification t h e n e u ,
tra l fat is on ly u n coated as it were an d free d from t h e

, ,
c e lls or a t l ea st t h e l a tte r are so r u pt u red as to allo w of

,
t h e easy e xit of t h e fa t This latter is th en i n a co n dit ion

.
28 6 A PPEN DIX .
F . It can sc r el
a c y be d eemed a u efu
s l mat erial for
can dle m aki n g
-
.
W an n — U n der this h ead is classe d - 1

a
A n i m al .
wax e s ; 2 Ve get able waxe s ; 3 M in er al wax es

. . A n i m al .
waxe s in clu d e bee s wa x an d sp erm ac eti A fte r t h e hon e y

’
.
h as b een r em ove d fro m t h e c ells of t h e ho n eycom b, t h e

m
latter is m elted i n wate r, at a oderate h eat, an d th e
liqu id m ass is th en strain ed, an d th e cl ear wax a fte r wards
m e lte d an d cast in to cakes or rou n d tabl e ts B ees wax
’
.
is brittle at 3 2 F , become s soft an d plastic a t 8 8 to

°
.
°
8 5 F , an d its m eltin g poin t is fro m 1 45 to 1 55 F Th e

° ° °
-
. .
commercial article is fr equ en tly adu lterated with fari n a,

resi n , an d m u tton su et, or stearin e C r u de wax, e spe cially
.
tha t which i s im porte d, is gen erally loaded with dir t

an d oth e r forei gn m atters , to fre e it from which it
req u ire s to u n dergo a process of refin in g, wh ich is con
d u c ted as follows — Th e cr u de wax, with abou t 5 per c en t .
of wat e r, is plac ed i n a cl ean bright copp e r or sto n e ware
boiler, which shou ld be fitted with a steam j acket W h en .
th e wax h as be co m e p erfectly liqu id , an d a ft er boilin g for

a few m in u tes, a little Oi l of vitriol is sprin kled over t h e
su rfa ce, i n proportion of 5 or 6 fl u id o u n ces to each c wt .
of wax .G re at care is n ec essary, ho we ve r, oth er wise t h e

wax wil l froth u p an d boil ove r Th e acid sho u ld be well
.
spread over t h e whole su rface of th e liq u id, i n m od e rate

qu an tities at a tim e W hen t h e whol e of t h e acid has
.
b een in trodu ced, t h e steam m u st be tu rn ed off, an d t h e

n cover ed u p a n d l eft for a few hou rs to s e ttl e an d cool
p a .
W hen su ffi cien tly cool for mouldi ng, t h e wax m u st be

gen tly skimm e d with a hot ladle, an d th en l adle d or
”
oth er wise drawn off in to hot t i n jacks, from which i t
is po u red in to basin s, whe re it is left u n ti l cold W h en .
t h e r efin ed wax has be en withdra wn fro m t h e s edi m en t,

th e rem ain der i n t h e m eltin g pan is allo we d to b ecom e
-
cold, an d th e cake, or foot is rem oved u n der t h e su r

fac e, an d t h e cake m ay th en be r e -m
elted a n d strai n ed
thro u gh can vas I t is u su al, ho wever, to tr eat th ese

.
cak e s i n a se co n d op era tio n .
B l each i n g W ax — TWO m ethod s of bleach in g wax a re

A PPENDIX . 28 7
a dopted on e bei n g atmosp heri c an d th e oth er ch emi ca l ;

, ,
t h e forme r i s ho we ver t h e o n ly m ethod by wh ich t h e

, ,
m at erial c an be ble ach ed withou t su fl eri n g i n j u ry In

'
a tmosp h er i c bleachin g t h e wax is fi rst r ed u c ed to s mall

,
pieces whi ch are laced i n a vat fu rn ish ed with a per

,
forat ed coi l of ead pipi n g thro u gh which stea m is ,
adm itte d A sm all q u an tity of v ery dil u te Oi l Of vitriol

.
,
i n t h e proportion Of 1 lb of th e co n c en trated acid to eac h .
t on Of wax is added an d t h e co n t en ts of t h e vat th en

, ,
b oiled for some ti me with bri sk agitatio n by which t h e ,
i m p u ritie s separate an d fin ally deposit to t h e bottom of

,
Th e wa x which has n ow b e com e cl eared

’
t h e vat .
,
is ,
n ext con ve yed to a tan k t h e bot to m of which is p e rfor a te d

,
wi th holes abou t i in ch i n diamete r Th e wax trick lin g

-
.
,
th rou gh th ese holes i n thin stream s passes on to a re ,
v ol v i n g dr u m on e hal f of which is i m m ers ed i n a tan k of

,
cold water A s th e dru m revolve s it carri e s with it a

.
lay er of wate r u pon which t h e wax flows an d th u s

, ,
becom es divide d in to ve ry thi n strips or ribbon s , which

bein g carried by t h e re volvin g dru m u n der t h e water ,
beco m e dislodged an d as th ey ris e t o th e s u rface th ey are

,
r em oved by m ean s of a rake an d are aft e rwards spread ,
thin ly an d ev en ly on sh eets of can vas plac ed i n t h e op en ,
air so that th ey m ay become exposed to t h e com bi n e d

,
i n fl u en ce of th e su n an d th e atmosph e re They a re .
th u s left bein g freq u en tly tu rn ed to expo se fresh su r face s

,
to t h e su n l ight an d also frequ en tly sprin kled with wate r

—from 4 to 1 0 weeks accordin g to t h e weath er D u rin g
,
.
,
t h e above p e riod th e ribbon s are re m elte d o n c e or t wic e -

,
divide d i n to ribbon s as before an d again spread ou t to ,
bleach A ll varietie s of wax do n ot yi eld equ ally to th e

.
above or n atu ral m ethod of bleach in g ; som e are said to

, ,
”
be stu bborn while oth e rs which m ore readily yield to
, ,
t h e i n fl u en c e of su n light are t erm ed kin d , .
r e l a or chi n e s e W a x — This m ate rial is form e d u pon

-
,
t h e you n g bran ch es of F raxi n u s Chi n ensi s or wax t re e by ,

-
,
an in s ect (C occu s p e la ) A ft er b ei n g scra p ed fro m t h e

- .
trees t h e cru de wax is clean se d fro m i mp u r i ti es by

,
spreadi n g i t on a strai n er which cov ers a cylin drical vessel ,

288 A PPENDIX .
placed i n a cau ldro n of boili n g wate r ‘Vh en t h e p u ri fi ed .
wax co n geals it is fit for t h e m arket I t has a crysta ll i n e

, .
stru ctu re ; its m eltin g poi n t is abou t 1 8 0 F an d is °

.
,
h arde r than spe rm ac eti In Chin a ca n dle s are m ade .
fro m this m at e rial bu t m ore gen erally it is bl en ded with

,
so fter fats whi le so metim es it is u sed as a co a tin g for

,
m aterials which m elt at a lo wer tem p erat u re I t is so me .
time s colou red with al k an ot root .
S p er m ac e t i — This beau tifu l fatty m at e ri al is Obtain ed

fro m Oi l taken fro m t h e h ead of t h e Spe rm W h al e (P hy seter
macrocep h a l us) an d which afte r de ath s eparate s as a
, , ,
solid Sperm ac eti is also Obtain ed fro m th e blu bber or

.
body fa t of t h e whale after m eltin g an d coolin g wh en

-
, ,
t h e solid m at erial separate s an d deposits Th e m e thod of .
se paratin g t h e sp erm a c eti crystal from t h e Oi l has b e en

“
fu ll y de scribed i n t h e J u ry R ep or ts E xh i bi ti on 1 8 5 1 1 , ,
P u rified sp er m ac eti is white crystalli n e or scal y brit t l e , , , ,
in odoro u s an d alm ost tasteless

, I t s m el ti n g poi n t is .
-
from 1 1 0 to 1 20 F °
W h e n spermaceti h as be en p u rifi ed
°
.
by dige stin g with al cohol r ep eatedly what rem ai n s is t h e ,
cet i m of C h e vreu l or pu re spe rm ac eti t h e boili n g poi n t

, ,
-
of which is 61 6 F at which temp eratu re it distils with

°
.
,
ou t alte ratio n .
V e get a b l e W a x e s — Th er e are s ev eral s u bs tan c es which

.
h av e be en classed u n de r this h eadi n g which are i n reali ty ,
fats C a rn au ba or stone ware h o wev er m ay m ore prop erly

.
,
-
, ,
co m e u n der t h e design a tion of wax from its grea t h ard ,
n ess as co mpared with ordi n ary fa ts

,
I t is Obtai n e d fro m .
t h e l eaves stalks an d be rrie s Of t h e C arn au ba p al m

, ,
C
( p o ern i c i a ccm f )
era i n w hich it occ u rs as a thi
, n fi l m
u pon t h e l eav e s &c which are coll ected an d dri ed wh en
, .
, ,
t h e wax is p eel e d or boiled Off th en m e lt ed i n e ar th e n ,
pots an d t u rn ed ou t wh en cold Th e wax is Of a y ello wish

,
.
colo u r an d v ery hard an d brittle W h en bl each ed it i s

, .
p erfectly white an d has a m eltin g poi n t of fro m 1 8 2 to

,
-
°
188 F °
I t is occasio n ally e m ploy e d to harden can dle s
.
,
bu t n ot m ore th an 2 pe r c en t can be u sed for thi s .
ur os e o th e r wis e t h e can d l e s a re apt to c rack J

p p , p
a an .
Ju ry Rep orts , Exhi bi t i on 1 8 5 1 , p 626 . .

deposi ts occu rrin g at Troh oby es an d B ory sl a w, i n Galicia,
an d i n t h e islan d of Tch el ek en , i n t h e C aspian Sea It .
u s u ally occ u rs as a com ac t brown s u bstan c e, t ho u gh so me
d
times it is yello w, an occasion ally black Ozokerit has .
b een e xten sively u sed by M essrs F ield, of L am beth , .
Lon don, i n th e m an u factu re of can dles , an d th e m ethod of

refi n i n t h e cru de article h as be en fu lly described by M r .
Leopol F i el d ‘
.
W i ck s —
. A n i m portan t featu re i n con n ec tion with t h e
a
c n dl e m akin g in d u stry is t h e preparatio n of t h e wicks for
-
th e variou s kin ds of can dles r equ ired by t h e con s u mer .
For ordi n ary tallo w or dip can dles, th e wicks are m ad e

from th e ravi n gs of Tu rk ey sk ein cotto n , lightly twisted ,
-
th e threads b e i n g k n o wn i n t h e trad e by t h e N os 1 6 to .
20, that is 1 6 to 20 “
ban k s of t h e th rea ds weigh l lb .
T wisted wicks are on ly u se d for tallow an d wax c an dles,

while plaited or bra ided wicks are u sed for al l t h e b ette r
m a te rials of which can dle s are co mpo sed, as stearin e, com
posits, arafli n , &c Th e plaite d wick, which was in tro
.
du ced y C am bacer es, has for its obj ect th e doin g a way
with t h e n ec e ssity of sn u fli n g On e pri n cipal effect of
.
plaitin g t h e wick i s to ca u se it to ben d over while th e

can dl e is bu rn in by which its en d become s directed to
t h e o u te r part 0 t h e flam e, wh e re, bei n expose d to t h e
actio n of atm ospheric oxygen , it gradu al y con su mes, an d

th erefor e n e eds n o sn u fli n g Th e ben din g of t h e wi ck is
.
pro moted (1 ) by t wistin g it with on e stran d shorter than

t h e oth e rs, whi ch b eco mi n g som e what stretch ed d u ri n g t h e
m o u ldi n g, again con tracts wh en t h e fat m elts, cau si n g t h e
wick to b en d ove r ; (2) or t h e sam e en d is effe cted by
plaitin g t h e cotton in to a fl at wick wh i ch n atu rally
assu mes t h e requ isite c u rve du rin g t h e comb u stion of th e
can dle .
M an y su bstan ces have b een i n trod u c ed i n to plaite d

wicks to pre ven t th e too rapid co m b u stion an d sm o u lderi n g
of t h e wick a fter t h e can dle has been p u fl ed ou t ; t h e
'
process i s te rme d p i ckl i ng an d con sists i n dippin g t h e

,
wicks i n su bn itrate of bismu th grou n d u p with oil ,

”
“
C an tor L ect ures, J an u ary , F ebru ary , an d M arch , 18 83 .
A PPENDIX . I
(P al m e r s paten t) or i n a weak solu tion of borax or boracic

’
,
acid ; oth er su b stan c es have also been u sed for this

pu rpose .
h —
M a ki n g t e C a n dl e s D i p p i n g — F ou r or m or e . of th e
Tu rk ey sk ein s, accordin g t o t h e in ten ded thick n ess of t h e
wick, arewou n d off in to botto m s or clu e s , an d a fte r wards

c u t by a sim pl e m achin e i n to l en gths corr e spo n di n g to
those Of t h e can dles to be m ade Th e l en gths are t he n
.
do u bled, t wisted, dippe d in to m elted t allo w, an d r u b bed
Fi g 4 2
. .
bet ween th e pal m s of th e han ds u n til th ey are p erfectly

straight th e h e m are th en passed throu gh a lon g rou n d
, , ,
wooden rod t er med a broach side by sid e an d as

, , ,
e qu i distan t as possible
- . Th e breach e s wh en su ppli ed with,
wicks i n this way are th en place d u po n a fram e h u n g

, ,
abov e th e cistern abou t eight of th em b ei n g t h e u s u al

,
n u m be r for t h e dippi n g fra m e This fram e an illu stra tion

.
,
of which is sho wn i n F i g 42 is c a pabl e of b e i n g rai se d

.
,
or lo wered by a si m pl e m ov em en t of t h e h an ds a t will .
Th e workm an n ow g en tly an d ste adily pre ss es t h e frame

292 A PPENDIX .
do wn wa rds , by which th e wicks become di p e d i n to t h e

m el te d tallo w, an d t h e co u n terpoise at ta c ed to t h e p
m ac hi n e, whe n th e pressu re of t h e han ds is relax ed , cau ses
t h e frame to rise ou t of t h e trou gh Th e fram e is n ext
.
carefu l ly rem ove d an d placed on a dri ppin g frame, or p ost,

ben eath which is a shallo w tray to rece ive t h e dri ppin gs
from t h e wicks A fre sh batch of wicks is th en t reate d i n
.
a sim ilar m an n e r, bu t for t h e se co n d an d s u bseq u en t
dippin gs t h e tall o w re qu ires to be coole r th an th at

e m ploy e d i n t h e first i n sta n c e , a bo u t 1 0 0 to 1 1 0 F bei n g
° °
.
t h e u s u al t em perat u re, or at a poin t wh en it is dispos ed to

solidify at t h e sides Of t h e tro u h A fte r each dippin g
l
.
t h e can dle s are allo wed to coo s u ffi cien tly to allo w t h e

n e xt l ay e r of ta ll e w to ad he re to its pred ec e ssor witho u t
distu rbi n g it These r epeated dippin gs are con tin u ed

.
u n til t h e can dl es have acqu ir e d t h e n e c e ssary t hick n e ss

a n d weight .Th e last dippin g is con du cte d with grea t
care, to en s u re as p erfect u n i formity Of su rfac e as possible .
I n t h e e ven t Of t h e en ds of t h e can dle s beco mi n g too

thick, t h e work m an dips th em for a few m o m en ts i n t h e
warm e r ta llo w ba th , wh e n t h e e xc ess of tallo w beco m e s
m el ted a way Th e fi n ish e d can dle s are th e n tran sfe rred
.
to an oth er ap artm en t to u n dergo t h e processe s ofp oundi ng

a n d tyi n g . F or th e for m er p u rpos e a pair of sc a le s a re
pl aced on a ben ch , on which also is laid a qu an tity of t h e
n ew- m ade c an dles A lad th en tak es i n han d a c ertain
.
n u m be r of can dles , six or e ight, for exa mple, accordi n g to
wh eth er the y are 6 s or 8 s, i n te ch n ical phras eology, th a t

’ ’
is, ru n n i n g six or eight to t h e pou n d, an d placi n g t h e

proper n u m be r i n th e scale, sees at a glan ce wh eth er th ey
fairly cou n te rbal an ce t h e l l b weight i n t h e opposi te
.
sc ale pan
-
. I f th e weight be i n e xc e ss, h e qu ickly selects
a thi n n er looki n g can dle fro m t h e b en ch , r e m ov es a sto u te r
-
on e fro m t h e scal e pan , an d i n t his way q u ickly Obtain s a

-
fair ave rage we ight A short len gth of stri n g is th en

.
ass ed thro u gh t h e loop of t h e wicks by m ean s of a bodkin ,

p
an d t h e strin g th en ti ed i n to a kn ot .
M ou l di n g — Ou t h e sm all scale can dl es are moul de d by

.
h an d fram es (see F i g The wicks bei n g i n serted i n

.
294 A PPEN DIX .
types of t h es e machin es oth er place

a re descr i bed in an ,
an d t h e dire ctio n s for com m en c i n t h e u se of t h e m a c h i n e

are th u s given —
by M r E C ow es 1 R aise t h e tip
. . .
m ou lds to t h e top of t h e m ain m o ulds 2 I n se rt a v ery . .
fi n e wire dou bled an d of su fi ci en t l en gth to go thro u gh

, ,
t h e tip m o u ld an d pisto n an d exte n d b elo w t h e pis to n

,
.
a bo u t 6 i n in sert t h e en d of t h e wick i n t h e loo p m ade

.
by t h e dou bled wire an d draw u p t h e wick t hro u gh th e

,
t i p m o ul d an d s ec u r e it i n an y co n ven i e n t m a n n e r for t h e
,
fi rst pou rin g ; th en lower t h e piston s as far as they will

go an d po u r i n t h e m ateri al an d wh en cold shave off
, , , ,
t h e bu tts then place th e racks i n a vertical position with ,
t h e tip bars thro wn ou t ; t h e cran k is th en t u rn ed an d t h e ,
can dles ej ecte d in to t h e racks t h e racks are th en closed

by t u rn in g th e han dle an d th e tip of each can dle is h eld
,
precisely ove r t h e c en tre Of its m ou ld n ow th e piston ,
block with piston s is l et do wn an d t h e wicks are h eld by ,
t h e c an dl e s abov e an d spools belo w passi n g thro u gh t h e ,
piston s an d thro u gh a sm all apert u re i n t h e c en tre of t h e

tip m ou ld th ey are all strain ed e xac tl i n t h e c en tre Of t h e
m ou lds an d all is re ady for t h e m e t ed m at erial again
, ,
which wh en cold t h e wicks are s e vered belo w th e tip bars

, , ,
a n d t h e racks with t h e can dles a re th en r em o ve d to an y
d esirabl e place .
In m o u ld in g s tearin e th e cake s of stearic acid are m elt ed ,
an d fro m 3 to 5 r c en t of wax or 1 0 to 20 r c en t o f
p e .
p e ,
.
para ffi n added to pre ven t t h e stearic acid from crystal

, ,
”
l i zi n g or to bre ak t h e grai n
,
“
as it is termed Th ese , .
m ate rial s are well m ix ed by stirri n g an d wh en t h e ,
m a te ri al is n early on t h e poi n t of sol i di fyin g it is p ass ed ,
i n to t h e m o u lds which are pre viou sly h eate d to abo u t

,
TO produ c e a p oli sh e d su rfac e on t h e can dle s

°
1 20 F .
,
hot an d c old wate r sho u ld be al tern ately p assed in to t h e

wa te r way Of t h e m achin e .
I n m o u ldin g sp erm candl es as thos e prod u c ed fro m ,
sp er mac e t i are term ed t h e m at eria l is first m e lted an d

,
h ea t e d to a t emp erat u re appro ach i n g that of b oilin g wa t e r

it is th en r u n i n to t h e pre vio u sly h ea te d m o u lds an d i n ,
o rder to p reserve its tran sp aren cy i t sho u ld be cooled as ,

A PPENDIX . 295
qu ickly as pos sible Sin ce this su bstan c e like stearin

.
, ,
has a highly crystal lin e text u re it is u su al to m i x with it ,
abou t 3 per c en t of wax P arafli n can dle s may be . .
m o u lded i n th e sam e m ou lds as t hose u sed for t h e t wo

latter m ate rials In this case ho weve r th e m o u lds shou ld
.
, ,
be h eate d to abou t 1 5 0 F or slightly above t h e m eltin g

°
.
poin t of parafli n an d a few m om en ts after t h e m o u lds

,
have b een filled th ey sho u ld he su dden ly chilled with cold '
wate r t h e obj ect Of this bein g to pre ven t t h e m ate rial

,
fro m cryst alli zin g on t h e s u rface which ren de rs it opaqu e ,
i n ste ad of bein g clear an d tran sparen t u pon which m u ch

To ren der para mn
,
of t h e b eau ty of t h e m at erial d epen ds .
le ss liable to soften an d b en d 5 to 1 0 per c en t of ste aric ,

.
acid is added .
C om p os i t e C an dl e s — This m aterial origin ally paten ted.

,
by M r J P W i lson is a m ixtu re Of cocoa stearin e an d

. . .
,
-
stearic acid Th e co mpou n d is rather greasy to th e tou ch

.
,
bu t yi elds a bright light .
N i gh t L i gh t e These su bstitu tes for th e on c e fam ou s

r
-
r u shlight are prepare d from stearin e an d cocoa steari n e or -

,
fro m cocoa n u t Oi l an d palm itic acid i n varyi n g propor

-
tion s Th e wick which is exc eedi n gly thin is fasten ed to

.
, ,
a squ are piece of t i n foil termed t he sustai n er an d s ecu red , ,
i n t h e c en tre of th e s mall case by a drop of wax T he s e .
cas es th u s prepared a re plac e d i n ro ws an d th e n m elt e d

, ,
m ate r i al pou re d i n fro m a t i n can or j ack B y an oth e r .
m ethod t h e n i ght light is m ade of a som e wh at harde r

m ateri al chi efly co mpo sed of palm itic acid n o case b e i n g
, ,
u s e d bu t t h e light is plac e d i n a s m all gl ass

, Th e m el te d .
m ate ri al is ru n i n to a spe cial m o u ldi n g fram e an d wh en ,
cold t he n ight lights are tu rn ed ou t r eady pe rforate d for

a wick which is after wards in serted by han d
, .
W a x C a n dl e s —F or m aki n g th ese ca n dles t h e wicks

.
a re m ad e Of u n bl each e d Tu rk ey cotto n W ax is n ot s u it .
able for m o u ldi n g i n th e ordin ar way o win g to its ,
liability to adh e re to th e m o u lds an also con tractin g to a ,
great e xten t i n t h e act of cooli n g To prep are th e .
can dles t h e wicks are fi rs t war med i n a stove an d are

, ,
th en su sp en ded u po n a wooden or m e tal hoop sl u n g Ov er a

296 A PPEN D IX .
bath of m elte d wax th e workman provided wi th a smal l ,
ladle dips this in to th e li qu id m aterial an d m ovin g t h e

, , ,
hoop gradu ally ro u n d h e pou rs t h e wax ove r ea ch wick i n

,
su cc ession at t h e sa me time givin t h e wick a slight tu rn

,
g
wi th his fi n ger so that t h e m ateri al m ay flow eq u ally on
,
al l parts of t h e wick Th e hoop i s kept gen tly revolvin g

.
i n this way an d t h e wicks basted with th e wa x u n til t h e

,
c an dl es hav e attai n ed abo u t on e th ird of th eir r e q u ir ed -
size t h e hoo p i s th en place d on a rack an d while t h e wax ,
is coolin g on this a secon d hoop is taken an d treate d i n

,
t h e sam e way Th e first batch of can dles is a fte r wards

.
again baste d wi t h wax u n til t h e can dles a re abo u t half t h e

proper thickn ess While still war m t h e can dl es are n ext
.
rolled u po n a m arble slab wetted with water by m ean s of ,
a rollin g board by which s m ooth an d u n i form c li n ders

'
a re obtain ed .
,
i
Th e can dl es a re agai n su spen ded fi om t h e
hoop i n re versed position an d basted with t h e wax as ,
b efore u n ti l th ey have acqu ired th e requi site thickn ess ,
wh e n th ey are again roll ed on t h e slab an d cu t to u n iform ,
len g ths an d th eir tops tri m med with a piece of wood

, .
L arge wa x can dl es s u ch as are u se d for eccl e siastical

,
p u rp os es are m ade by layi n g th e W icks on a shee t of wax

, ,
then foldin g t h e wax over it an d th en rolli n g as above , ,
other l ayers of wax b ei n g rolled on u n ti l t h e requ i red

thickn ess i s obtai n e d .
298 DE X
IN .
An ti mon i al soap, 1 73 B i n k s al kal i meter, 1 95

’
An t i mony , gol den su l ph u ret of, 1 73 Bi n oxa l at e of potash , 1 39

A p parat us an d a ppl i an ces, 1 6 B i tter al m on d soa ps, 1 5 0
barri n g, 23 al m on ds, oi l of, 1 50
for re mel ti ng th e soap, 1 40
-
Bl ack ash , 4 1
A r r xs n xx, 24 7 garden poppy oil , 44
Areomet er, 228 i v ory , 1 67
Arse n i cal soap, 1 74 resi n , 1 8 2
A rsen i ous a ci d, 1 74 soap, 1 72, 1 74
A3 11 , bl ack, 4 1 Bl each ed pal m - oi l , 4 9
soda, 29, 93 Bl eac h i n g, Wa tt s ch rome process,
’
Assay , of soap, 206 21 3 , 21 4

al kal i es, 1 99 w m f m
gi é
p a i o i l i th c h ro ate o li e,
Assay i n g al kal i es , 1 94
soa ps, 206 powder, 1 1 2
D A rcet s meth od, 21 0
’
soa p i n t h e pan , 1 1 5
’
Hampel e meth od,

’
Bl u e, Prussi an , 5 2
R i h tu dson an d Watt s meth od,
‘ ’
Boi l i n g, 5 6, 64
g1 i ov er, t o pre v en t, 238
A ssay s, commerci al , 200 p o i n t s of c a u st i c al kal i ne l ey s, 243
A ustral i an ta l l ow, 26, 5 3 p o i n t s o f s o m e v ol at i l e oil s, 224
“ ”
t o st ren gth , 72
ADIAN E, oi l of, 24 1 Bol e, 1 63
Bal m mi n t, oi l of, 242 Bon e fa t, 1 23
-
Bal sam of Porn , 1 62 grease, 28

Tol u , 1 62 Borac i c ac i d, 1 8 6
Bel l i n g, 1 5 6 Borax, 1 39
Bal ls, san d, 1 64 soa p, 1 8 5
scou ri n g, 1 80 soap powder, 1 80
-
wash , 1 61 soft soa p, 1 8 0

B an km an n s process, 1 8 9 t oi l et soap, 1 75
’
B ari l l a, 2, 29, 93 Bordh ardt s h erb soa p, 1 74

’
Bari u m, c h l ori de of, 1 99 B ran , 69, 1 75

Barri ng a ppara t u s, 23 soa p, 1 75
B ary ta , carbon ate of, 204 B romi ne, 1 75
Bau x i te, 229 B rown oc h re, 1 5 7
Beec h n u t oi l , 28 , 242
-
oi l , 85
Beef m a rrow, 8 3 soa p from , 8 5 , 1 39
Bees wax, fu si n g poi n t of, 242
- - S pan i sh , 1 50
Bel gi a n soa p, 1 3 6 W i n dsor soap, 1 50
soft or green soa p, 231 B ure tte, 1 94
’
Ben zoi c ac i d, 1 75 B i n k s, 1 95
soap, 1 75 M oh r s, 1 95
’
Ben zoi n soa p, 1 5 3 B u rn t si en n a, 1 5 3

t i n c t u re of, 1 5 3 B u tter, coc oa, 73
Ben zol e, n i t ro, 8 6
’
Be n n ett an d G i bbe s process, 1 1 7 AC AO, oi l of, 1 66
Ben n o, J a ppé, an d C o s met h od of
.
’
C admi u m y el l ow, 1 5 8
C epu t, oi l of, 242
fl
cov eri n g gl y ceri n e, 227
Bergam ot, essen t i al oi l of, 1 4 9, 242 r
C c i n ed fli n t, 98
Bern ardet s process, 1 24
’
q
u a rtz, 98
Beacon an d Remy s process, 1 8 7 soda, 1 1 1

’
B i carbon a te of potassa, 1 8 1 C al ci u m ca rbon ate, 225

soda, 93 C a l dron , 8 1
Bi ch ford s process, 1 92
’
C a mph i n e, 1 85
Bi c h rom a te of potash , 26, 92 C amph or, 1 62
o ta ss a 21 4 an d ammon i a soaps, 1 86
p ,
IN D E X .
299
C amph or i ce soa p, 1 75 C h romi c ox i de, 21 4

C an dle-mak i n g, 277 C hromi um, ox i de of, 21 6
C aramel , 1 5 1 q
ses u i ox i de of, 225
C arbol i c aci d, 1 24, 1 75 C i n n amon , essen t i al oi l of, 1 49, 242
soa p, 1 73 soap, 1 5 0
Ca rbon ate of bary ta, 204 t i n c t u re of, 1 62
l i me, 23 C i tron ell a, oi l of, 1 5 7, 242
p o t as h , 1 00 lari fi ed resi n , 23 7
soda, 28 C lay , C h i n a, 3 1 , 1 05
C arbon ated al kal i , 28 , 92 i
p pe, 1 1 1
l ey s, 1 21 C leansi ng, 60
’
of potassa, 1 2 l ea ver s process, 1 9 1
l l u s s met h od of recoveri ng gl y ceri n e,
’
C arbon i c aci d, 8
C arawa oi l of, 1 50, 24 2 § 2s
C ascari la , oi l of, 242 C l oth man u fact u re, soap used i n , 223
C ast i l e soap, 8 , 36, 1 61 C l ov es, essen ti a l oi l of, 149, 242
C astor-oi l , 27 powder of, 1 50
oi l soap, 1 75 C ochl ea ri a, oi l of, 242
Cassi a, 8 6 C oc i n i c ac i d, 8
p o w d er e d ,
1 5 1 C ocoa bu tter, 73
C austi c alkal i , 9, 44 n u t oi l , 27, 73, 75
al kal i n e l eys, boi l i n g poi n ts
-
soaps, 71 , 74, 75 , 77
244 oi l , 75
l e stron8 C ocos n uc i fera, 27
g
l e s, 32, 1 21
l i me, 233
C oc ti on , 43
l eys of, 63
oke, grou n d, 1 00
potassa, 1 2
soda, 8 , 29 old process 79
C a u sti ci si ng sod a, 236 soap, 13 3
C edar wood, oil of, 242 soft l ey , 46
C erates, 36 ol esee d oil , 42, 1 30
C ha l k, 29 C ol oph on y , 28 , 1 8 2
F ren ch , 1 85 C ol za oi l , 28 , 1 30
p p re ar e d , 1 73 C ombi n ed soaps, 1 1 5
C h amomi le, oi l of, 242 ommerc i al assa s,
' y
C h arcoal , grou n d, 1 00 soda, 202
C h eap al mon d soap, 23 1 C ommon sal t , 1 0
C h ea pen ed soaps, 96, 1 05 C ompa ra ti v e F ren ch and En gl i sh
C h erv i l , oil of, 24 2 t h ermometer sc al es, 239
C h erry l a urel , oi l of, C omposi t i on of pu re ol i v e-oi l soap , 5 0
C h evreul s di scovery , 3
’
C on ti n en t al met h od of maki ng y el l ow
t h eory , 7 soa p, 62
C h i na c l ay , 3 1 , 1 05 C on ti n en tal soaps, 1 3 5
i n soa p, 1 09 C ool i n g worm 68 ,
C h l orate of potash , 1 86 C oppe r or soa p- pan , 1 7

p o t a ss i u m , 2 0 3 C opperas, green , 4 1
C hl ori de of bari u m, 204 ori a n der, oi l of, 242
l i me, 1 1 2 om mea l soa p, 1 75
-
p o tass i u m ,
1 3 orrosi v e su bl i m ate 1 72
,
soda, 85 , 1 1 2, 1 1 4 ot ton -seed oi l , 28
sodi u m, 1 3 re a m , al mon d, 165
C h l ori di sed san i ta ry soap, 1 1 2 of wh i t i n g, 225
C h l ori n ate d soa p, 1 1 3 C rea ms, soa p, 1 66
C h romate of l i me, 21 6 C reme ambroi si e, 1 66
bl eac h i n g pal m-oi l wi th , 21 6 de cacao mou sseuse, 1 66
C h rome, recovery of, 21 5 C reosote, 1 24
C h romi c aci d, 27, 21 2 Grevel s process, 1 26
’
30 2 IN D E X .
Lard wi th l ettuce, 1 59 L on don C rown soap, 1 33

v an i ll a,15 8 mot tl ed , 50
L au n dry soa s, 8 2 soa p-powder, 1 80
L aven der, oi of, 1 50, 242 t al l ow, 26
water, 1 69 L u mbe rton s process, 124
’
Lawson an d S ul man s process for re

’
c overi ng gl y ceri n e, 224

Lead, margarate of, 8 M AC HI NE, barri n g, 23
c u t t i n g, 24
oxi de of, 8 for sl i c i n g soap, 1 4 2
red, 1 45 for stampi n g soa p, 1 47
Lebl an c s process for maki ng soda, 3
’
M agn ol i a, oi l of, 1 74
Le mon rass, oi l of, 1 60 M ai ze flou r, 1 75
g
j m ce , 1 8 3 M ak i ng ol ei c soaps, 93
oi l of, 1 5 3 , 242 M an gan ese, oxi de of, 94
soa p, 1 60 Man ufact u re of h ard soa ps, 36, 5 8 , 71
L et tuce, l ard wi th , 1 59 of soft soa ps, 1 28 , 1 36
soap, 1 5 9 of toil e t soaps, 1 40
Le vat s process, 1 8 3
’
Marbl e sav on n ettes, 1 63
L es p rocess , 1 84 M argarate, 1 0
Ley , alkal i n e, 9 of l ead, 8
ca us ti c , 9 M argari c aci d, 8
col d soft, 46 M argari n e, 25 , 37
M a ri n e soap, 73
M arj ora m, oi l of, 1 62, 242
M arrow, beef, 8 3
M arsei l l es soap, 36
M ars h s, Si r H , su l ph u r soap, 1 71
’
.
L eys, ca us ti c , 32, 1 21 M arsh mal l ow soap, 1 5 3

of cocti on , 63 M ateri al s used i n soap-maki n g, 25
p o tas h ,
1 28 M atters, membran ous, 124
sal ted, 4 6 M ea t , res i du u m of, 1 25
soda, 3 3 M edi cated soaps, 1 72
spen t , 3 8 , 220 tar soa p, 1 73
wast e, 220 Medi ci n al soft soap, 1 72
L i ch en , 1 8 3 M ei n i cke s process, 68
’
L i ebi g s research es, 1 0

’
M embran ous matte rs, 1 24
L i me, 8 , 33 M ercuri al oi n t men t, 1 75
c arbon ate of, 23 soap, 1 72, 1 75
ch l ori de of, 1 1 2 M ercu ry , 1 05
c h roma te of, 21 6 bath , 1 1 9
l i q uor, 94 M etal l i c soap, 8 , 40
m i l k of, 1 29 M eth od of prepari ng l ey s, Tenn an t
sl aked, 23 , 3 3 C o s, 33
’
.
soap, 8 4 , 1 1 6 eth ods of an al y si n g an d assay i n g

L u n ge s meth od of maki n g,
’
soaps, 206
D Arcet s meth od, 21 0
’
1l 6 ’
su l ph ate of, 84 Rampel s meth od, 20 9

’
waste, 23 Ri ch ardson an d Wa tt s meth od, 214

’
L i n i men ts, 3 6 eth y l a te d spi ri t , 208 , 223

L i n seed oi l , 28 , 1 30 i l k of l i me, 1 29
q
L i u i d amm on i a, 1 8 2 i n eral , oran ge, 1 5 3
gy l c eri n e soa p ,
1 73 i n i u m, 1 59
soa ps, Sch a rr s, 191 i n t, 0 11 of, 1 5 3
’
q
L i u or, l i me, 94 M i scella n eous processes, 1 8 1
q
L i u ored soaps, 232 ’
B ast et s process, 1 8 6
L i th arge, 8 Besson an d Re my s process, 1 8 7
’
L i tmus, 202 ’
Bi ch ford s process, 1 92
30 6 IN D E X .
Rose, essen ti al oi l of, 1 49 Savon au x fleurs d Ital i e, 1 5 7

’
15 8 d aman des améres, 1 5 0

’
de C ori n t h e, essen ce de, 1 70

M P. 77, 1 49 de C ri mes, 1 5 7
water, 1 63 de gui mau ve, 1 66
Rosemary , oi l of, 242 de al me, 1 57
Roses, otto of, 1 72 de i en n e, essen ce do, 1 69
p o w de r of, 1 50 vert, 1 35
Rh odi u m, oi l of, 1 5 8 S avon n et tes or W ash bal l s, 1 61
Ri ci n l c ac i d, 27 a l a v an i ll e, 1 62
R i c i n us commu n i s, 27 a n ml el , 1 63
Ri ver-san d, 1 64 floati n g, 1 63
Root , al kan et, 1 72 marbl e, 1 63
1 58 of c a m h or, 1 62
R0
su m sof, 242
Ru n n i n gs, fi rst , 33
of n ero i , 1 62
of sweet h erbs, 1 62
S awdust i n soap, 1 84
secon d, 33 S cen ted soaps, 1 40
’
Rnu l an potash , 1 91 Sc h arr e process, 1 91
soft soap, 1 37 S cotc h soft soap, 231
t al l ow, 26 S ecu ri ng bal l s, 1 80
S c rew ress, 1 48
p
Seal oi 1 30
S econ d l ey , 129
ru n n i n gs, 33
8 ad oi l , v i rgi n , 25
-
S eed, cot ton , oi l , 28
S al am mon i ac , 94 Semi -h ard soap, 231
S al i cy l i c ac i d, 1 75 S eparati on , 43
soap, 1 75 S erpol et, oi l of, 242
S al i n e l ey , 40 S esame oil , 26, 1 61
S al soda, 93 S esamu m oi l , 28
S al t, an t h raci n e, 1 90 q
S es u i oxi de, ch romi u m, 224
c om mon , 10 S h av i n g pas te, 1 68
soap , Hampel e, 1 83
’ ’
G lau ber s, 31
of sorrel , 1 39 Sh oots, 23
t ruck , 39 S i en n a, bu rn t, 1 53
S al ted l s 46 S i l i ca, 1 05
a, 42 Si l i cate of al u mi na, 1 09
Bai ti n g oi n t, 21 9 of pot ash , 1 00
i
S al ts of ron , 40 re parati on of , 1 00
su lph u r. 40 of soda, 3 p 98
S am l i n g al kal i es. 1 98 re
p p a rat i on of 30 1
p
, ,
San bal l s, 1 64
-
adu l terati on
S il i cated soaps, Sh eri dan s roccas, 98
’
ri ver, 1 64
San i tary soa 1 1 2 G ossages processes, 9 1 01 , 1 03
S aponari a o ci n al i s, 139 soap, 1 1 1
S apon i fi cati on expl ai n ed, 7 soaps, 1 75
n ew process of, 1 20 S l aked l i me, 23 , 33
of n eu tral fat ty bodi es by soap, 23 3 S li ced soap, 1 45
u n der pressu re, 1 1 7 S o p,
a a l m o n d -oi l
, 1 52
S apon i fy i n g, 9 al a mi n o- ferru gi nous, 41
S assafras, oi l of, 242 ambe rgri s, 1 59
S av i n , oi l of, 242 ammon i a an d camph or, 1 8 5
S avon a l a c an n el l e, 1 5 2 a n al y si n , 206
a l a M aréch al e, 1 5 9 g
an i mal , 25
a l a rose, 1 49 an ti mon i al 1 73
q
an bou uet, 1 5 2 apparat u s or f
re- melti ng, 140
IND E X .
Soap, arsen i cal , 1 74 S oap, i n stan tan eous, 94

assay , m6 i odi n e, 1 75
206 w
p3 3
assay i n g, 0 88 75
Bel gi ax i , 1 36 l ar co1 process, 8 3
soft, or 8 1 een , 23 1
ben zoi c, 1 75
.
y
l au ndr , 8 2
l emon , 1 60
ben zoi n , 1 5 3 l et t u ce, 1 5 9
bi t ter al mon d, 1 50 l i me, by L un ge s meth od, 1 1 6
’
bl ac 1 74 q
l i u i d, S c h arr s, 1 91 ’
bl eac i n g i n th e pan, 1 1 5 l
g y ceri n e, 1 73
borax, 1 85 q
l i u ored, 75
soft, 1 8 0 L on don crown , 1 33 ”
t oi l et , 1 75 mottl ed, 50
Bordh ardt s h erb, 1 74
’
y ’ m ot t l e d , 1 1 3
b ran , 1 75 Mr . h s soft, 1 3 9
brown oi l , 8 5 , 1 39 mach i n e for sl i ci n g, 1 42
W i n dsor, 1 5 1 mari n e, 73
camph or, 1 8 5 M arsei l l es, 36
i ce, 1 75 marsh mal l ow, 1 53
carbol i c ac i d, 1 73 medi cate d tar, 1 73
C asti l e, 8 , 1 61 medi ci n al soft, 1 72
or ol i v e oi l , 36 mercu ri al , 1 72
C astor-oil , 1 75 meta l l i c, 8 , 48
ch eap al mon d, 23 1 mottl ed, 50
c h ea pen ed, 96, 1 05 mu sk, 1 50
ch l ori di sed san i tary , 1 12 N apl es, 1 65
ch l ori n ated, 1 1 3 n eu tral , 8 8
ci n n amon , 1 50 oa tmea l , 1 75
cocoa-n u t oi l , 73 , 1 78 ol ei c aci d, 8 8 , 93
c ol d, 1 3 3 oran ge, 1 60
C on ti n en tal , 1 35 orange flower, 1 50
-
copper or pan , 1 7 cx-gal l , 1 8 0

c om meal , 1 75
-
p a l m , 1 5 7
c reams, 1 66 D resden , 1 79
croton oi l , 1 75 V i ol et s, 1 8 3
’
c u t ti n g, 1 27, 146 p a n s , 1 7
di si n fecti n g, 1 12 p a ra f fi n ,
1 7 5
Sy mon s s, 1 24 en t, t h e fi rst, 2
’
p a t
Dresden pal m , 1 79 pea rl , 1 66
l y wh i te, 1 70 e t o l e u m, 1 75
p r
d
el er flower, 1 60
-
Bastet s process, 1 8 1
’
essen ce of, 1 69 p i c kl i n g, 228

factory , i ts apparat u s and ap p o t a sh , 8 , 1 3 , 128
p l i a n ce s,
1 6 p o t a t o -
fl ou r i n , 1 08
fan cy , 1 40 p o w d e r ,
L on don , 1 8 0
farri ers , 1 74
’
p o w d e r e d, 16 8
fi tted, 1 4 p ur e o l i v e - il
o , 36
frames, 1 9 composi t i on of, 50
F ren ch marbl ed, 42 t e mel t i n g, 144
-
formu l a for, 49 resi n , 5 8 , 1 8 8

fu l l er s eart h , 1 09
’
m i n i n , 1 34
fu ll i n g, 1 38
’
Al ten bu rge s, 1 79
u ten rn , 1 22 f 6 4
'
g l p p re a r at i on o ,
l y ceri n e, 1 60 resi n ou s, 62
a lf pal m, 237
-
rose, 77, 1 4 9
alf-resi n , 1 8 8 rose-l eaf, 1 5 8
ard, ma n u factu re of, 36, Russi an soft, 137
“ 1159t d: 8 2 sali cyli c, 175
3 e
r IN D E X .
Ti nt tu re of benzoi n , 15 3 Vol at i l e oi ls, boi l i ng-poi n ts of, 243

of ci n n amon , 1 62 Vol u metri c an al y si s, 1 94
of musk, 1 58
of van i l la, 1 5 3
Ti ssu es, an i mal , 1 24 W A KEFI ELD fa t, 86
W al n ut-oi l , m
q
To determi n e th e uan ti ty of resi n i n Wash bal ls, 1 61
soa p, 230 v i ol et, 1 61
Toi l et soap, ful l er s eart h , 1 1 0
’
Waste l eys, 220
soaps, French , formu l a for, 1 54 iey s, recov ery 0 f l
gy ceri n e from,
sw F ren ch syste m of maki n g, 23, 220
ig? l i me, 23
ma n u fac tu re of, 1 40, 1 49, 1 54 Water, l aven der, 1 69
soft soa ps, 165 rose, 1 63
Tol u , bal sa m of, 1 62 Watt s full er s earth soap, 1 09
’ ’
Tooth soa p, 1 73 oc ess for bl eachi n g pal m oi l ,

p r -
Town tal l ow, 26 214

T ra nsparen t soa p, 1 70 oc ess for re cove ri n g chrome,
p r
urmeri c , y el k w 1 70
$ urpen ti n e, oi f of 68 sa m m soap’ 1 12
V en i ce, 1 74 Wax, 1 58
wh i te, 68 ’
bees , 242
Twaddell s h y drometer, 228 , 235 1 75
’
see
wh te, 1 5 8
LTRAM ARIN E, 94 Wh al e-oi l , 1 30
Umber, 1 5 1 Whi te cocoa-n u t oi l soap, 225
Un combi n ed soap, 39 c oc o n u t oi l soap,
a-
to make, 74
U n sal ted soa p, 224 c u rd soap, 3 6, 5 3, 1 62
U n sa pon i fi ed fatty matter, 208 soa p, 8 2, 77 1 60
Usefu l n ot es a n d t abl es, 228 soft, t oi l et soap, 1 66
t al l ew, 49
A LE RIAN, oi l of, 24 2 t al l ow soap, 1 5 7
Van i ll a, l ard wi th , 1 5 8 t u rpen ti n e, 68
soa p, 1 5 3, 1 5 8 wax, 15 8
t i n ct u re of, 1 5 3 Wh i ti n g, cream of,
Va ri es a s process, 1 90
’
W i l d thy me, oi l of, 1 62
V ari ou s processes, 1 23 W i n dsor soap, 1 50
i m pl emen ts, 22 W ood spi ri t, 1 8 0
V au q u el i n s sy stem of esti ma t i n g th e
’
W ooden frames, 1 9
v al u e of al kal i es, 1 93 W ormwood, oi l of, 1 62
Vegetabl e oi l s, 1 30
p a r c h m e n t , 1 3 9 ARROW, oi l of, 242
Ven i ce t u rpen t i n e, 1 74 Yell ow, cadmi u m, 1 5 8
V erben a, oi l of, 1 5 3 co co a -n ut oi l
, 1 5 8
V e rm i l i on , 1 45 soa p, 75
Versm an n s process for recov eri ng green pi men t, 1 50
’
gy l ce r i n e , 222
g
na b t h s i ne, 1 60
oc re, 1 45
’
V i l l acrose s process, 126
V i l l a e process, 125 or resi n soap, 5 8
Vi ol et soap , y el l ow, 1 5 8 resi n , 28
Wash ball s, 1 61 tu rmeri c, 1 70
W i n dsor soa p, 1 51 v i ol et soap, 1 5 8
Vi ol et s pal m-oi l soap, 1 8 3 Y orksh i re fat, or rec overe d grease, 28
’
’
V i rgi n sal a d-oi l , 25 Y ou ng s process for recoveri n g gl r
Vi tri ol , green, 44 ceri n e, 220
n mn n B! J . I . “ are! A ND 0 0" M ED, orrr ROA D, mm .

A D V E R T IS E M E N T S .
STAGLINT, CHESTERFIELD
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a l STAGLINT. LONDON .
ROBINSON mn,
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P ri n t e rs, G ol d a n d S i l v e r B l ock ers , a n d M an u
fa ct u re rs of R o u n d , S q u a re a n d F o l di n g ,
C A RD B OA R D
(E S TA B L I S H E D
fil e r g as p -
ma k ers an o Q ’
er uf mers .
ROUND BOXES
F or S h a v i n g S oa p s , C os me t i q u e s , S oa p P owde rs, T oi l et
P owd e rs, &c .
FANCY HAND MADE S Q UARE BOXE S -
F or T o i l e t S oa p s , P e rfu m e ry , & c .
MACHINE MADE S Q UARE BOXE S -
F or all P a c k i n g P u rp os e s re q u i ri n
g S t re n gt h a nd C h e a p n ess .
ME TAL E DGE S Q UARE BOXE S

F or Ext ra S t ren g t h .
FOLDING BOXE S
For S oa p s , B ot tl e s , &c .
, e i t h er Pl a i n or P ri n t e d .
O u r “ I N T I N G O P P I OI i s f u r n i sh ed wi t h N ew F on ts of 7ype, and
th e bes t M ach i n ery fo r p r i n t i n g F ol d i ng B oxes, L a bel s, (SJ c
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G OL D m B IL “ ! B L O C K IN G f or F i r s t C l as s P V or k , wh ere t he
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WheatBridgeMills&HolmeBrookWorks Chesterfield , .
LON D ON W A R E H OU S E
5 5 , FA N N S T .
, A LD ERS G AT E S T EC. .
ST A K DA B P
O
W OR K S
The Industri al Arts . Manufactures , &c .
a H A N D Y B OOK F OR n a n w n n s : Be i n g a P rac ti c al Gu i de t o t h e
A rt o f B re wi n g a n d M a l t i n g E mbra c i n g t h e C o n c l u si o n s of M od e rn R e se a r c h
.
w h i c h bea r u po n t h e P ra c t i c e o f B re wi n g B y H s a ns a r E n wa n n s W R IG H T , M A . . .
C ro wn 8 v c , res 6d c l o t h
30 p . . .
bk
l a y be con su l ed w i h ad va n t a g e b y t h e st u d en t wh o i s p ri n g h i mse l f for e xa m i n a t i on ]
te s t s , wh i l e t h e sci e n t i fi c re we r wi ll fi nd i n i t a r esu me of a l l t e m os t i m port a n t d i sco ve ri e s of
m od e rn ti mes . Th e wo r i s wri t te n t h ro u gh ou t i n a c l e a r a n d conci se man n er, a n d t h e a n t h e r
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t ha t i t i s one of t h e est i f n ot t h e b e s t —wh ch h as y et been wri t t e n on t h e s u bj ec t of be e r
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’
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.
C E M E N T S , P A S T E S , C L U B S A N D G U M S : A P rac ti ca l G u i de t o
t h e M an u fa c t u re a n d A p p l i c a t i on o f t h c tv a ri ou s A gl u t i n a n t s req u i red i n t h e
B u i l di n g, M e t a l - W o rk i n g, W o o d - W o rk i n a n d L e a t e r-W o rk m g T ra de s a n d for fi
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W o rk s h o p L a bo ra t ory o r O ffi c e U se W i t u p wa rds o f 90 0 R ec i p e s a n d F o rm u l a g
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wh i c h i s n ot i n con si d e ra l e , t h i s man u a l i s t ru st wo rt hy ”—A t h en c u m
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a mo n t h e i n n u m e r of n d u s ri e s i t t o u ch es
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I n t h i s good y col l i on of rec ei s i t wo u l d b e s t ran ge i f a ce men t for an y p u rpos e ca nn ot

be fou nd .
” —Oi l a mt C ol ou r ma n s ’
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P R A C T I C A L P A P E R - M A K I N G : A M an u al for P a er- mak e rs an d

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O wn e rs a n d M a n a ge rs of P a p e r- M i l l s W i t h T abl es , C a l c u l a t i on s, &c B y G . . .
C LA P PB R T ON P a e r-m a k er W i t h I l l u st ra ti o n s of F i bres fro m M i c ro -p h o t o gra ph s

. . .
C ro wn 8 v c , 5 3
h i s man ua l wi l l be foun d 0
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Th e a u t h or ca te rs fo r t h e req u i rem en t s of respon s i l e mi l l h an d s a p p ren t i ce s, &c . ' “u”

t se rvi ce t o s t u d e n t s of t ech n ol og . a s we l l as t o v et e ra n pa per
b . .
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m a e rs an d mi ll own e rs l e i l l u s t ra t i on s fo rm a n excel l en t fea u re ” P a p er T r a d e R e vi ew
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W e re com me nd e ve ry ody i n t ere sted i n t h e t rad e t o get a copy of t h i s t h orou gh l y p ract i cal
.
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oo P a p er M a k i n g
. .
LA UN D RY M A NA GEM EN T . A H an dbo ok fo r U se i n P ri v at e a hd
P u b l i c L a u n d ri e s, i n c l u di n g D e s c ri p t i v e A c c o u n t s o f M od e rn M a c h i n e ry a n d
A p p l i a n c e s fo r L a u n dry W o rk B y t h e E D IT O R o f “
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s h o u l d ce rt a i n l y occ u
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y an h on ou red p l ac e on t h e sh el ves of a l l h 'o‘u se eep ers

of t h e n e wes t a p p l i a n ce s a n d meth od s
”—
I loe Q uee n .
k .
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E L E C T R O -P L A T I N G : A P ra c ti c al H an d bo ok on t h e D e po si ti on o f
C o ppe r, S i l ve r) N i c k e l , G ol d, A l u m i n i u m , B ra ss , P l a t i n u m, &c , are W i th . .
D es c ri p t i o n s of t h e C he m i c a l s , M at e ri a l s , B a t t e ri es , a n d D y n a mo M a c h i n es u se d
i n t h e A rt Ry W U n c n a n r , C E A u t h o r of El ec tri c L i gh t , ” &c Th i rd
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Ed i t i o n wi t h A d i t i o n s zro wn 8 vo , 5s c l ot h
A n exce l l en t pract i ca l man ua l ” —E n a m een a a
. . . .
A n exce l l e n t wor k
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H or ol oai c al J ou r n al
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F A C T O R Y A C C O U N T S : T h ei r P ri n ci pl e s a n d P rac ti ce A H an d .
bo o k fo r A c c o u n ta n t s a n d M a n u fa c t u re rs , wi t h A p e n di c es on t h e N o m en c l a t u re
o f M ac h i n e D e t ai l s ; t h e In c om e T a x A c t s ; t h e a ti n o f F a c t o ri es ; F i re a n d
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B o i l e r I n s u ra n c e ; t h e F a c t o ry a n d W o rk s h o p A ct s , &c , i n c l u d i n g a l s o a G l o ss a .
o f Te rm s a n d a l a r ge n u m be r o f S p e c i m e n R u l i n 9
. B y E M IL E G A R C K E a n d J . .
F E LL S F o u rt h Edi ti o n , R evi se d a n d E n l a rge d

. e my 8 vc , 250 p a g e s , 63 st ro n gl y . .
bo u n d .
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A ve ry i n t e rest i n d escri pti on of t h e req u i re men t s of F act ory A ccou n t s
a s si m i l a t i n g t h e
rou gh l v a ree wi t h
act ory A cc ou n t s t o t h e ge n e ra l commerci al
— A cc m mt a n ts J ou r n a l
’
t h e p ri n c i pl e
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b b k
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C h a ract er sed b e xt reme t h orou gh n e s s Th e re a re few own ers of facto ri es wh o wou l d n ot

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de ri ve g rea t .
e e i : f om t h e pe usa
n r r l of t h i s most ad mi ra l e wor L oca l G over n me nt .
C h r on i c l e .
T A B L E S OF W A GE S at 5 5 5 ,
4 , 2 , 0 an d 4 8 H ou rs pe r W ee k . S h ow
i n g t h e A m o u n t s o f W a ges fro m O n e-q u a rt er o f-a n -h o u r t o S i xt y -fo u r h o u rs , i n o
e a c h c as e a t R a t e s o f W a ges a dv a n c i n g by O n e S hi l l i n g fro m 4 3 t o 5 5 3 p e r we ek . . .
B y 1 n o u n s G A R B U r r, A c c o u n t a n t S q u a re c rown 8 vo , 6s h al f-bo un d
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L on d o n : C a os sv L o c k wo on 8: S O N , 7, S t at i oners H all C ou rt , E C ’
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STAT xONE as HA L L C O U RT .
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LO ND ON . EC
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.
S eptember. 1 8 9 6.
C A TA L O G U E OF BOOK S
IN C L U D IN G NE W A N D ST A N D A R D WORK S IN
ENGINEERING : CIVIL, MECHANICAL, AND MARINE;

ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ;
MINING, METALLURGY; ARCHITECTURE,
BU L
I D ING , INDUSTRIAL AND DE CORATIVE ARTS ;
SC IENCE, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES ;
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING ;
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING AND ESTATE AGENCY;
LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS .
PU BL I S H E D B Y
C R OS BY L O C KW OO D S ON .
M E CHANI CAL E N GIN EERIN G, et c.
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A u th or of Rai l way M ac h i n ery .

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v i sed S mal l 8 vo. 70 0 pages. 63 boun d i n fle xi bl e l eath er cov er. roun ded
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S u u u ARr or C O N TENT S .
M A T E EN AT TC AL T A EL E S M E A S U RE N EN T o r S URTAC E S AN D S OL rns
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book an d h e i s rea ll y u n ri vall ed i n t h e art of c on den sat i on V e r ftc u en tl y we fi nd t h e Ig l o rma
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t i on on a gi ve n su bj e ct i s su p l i e d by gi v i ng a su mma d escri pt i on 0 an e xpe ri me nt . a n d a St a te

u en t of t h e resu l t s o b t ai n e g
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p a ges ; an d t h e re are ru l es gi ve n for se vera l cal c u l at i on s, wh i c h rules cann ot be fou n d In oth e r
p oc k e t -book s as fo r e x
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ds t o t s ui In on e word . i t i s an excee d i n gl y h an d y an d effi ci en t t oo l . possess ed o f whi c h
t h e en gi nee r be sa ve d m a n y a wea ri so me ca l c ul a t i o n. or more wea ri some h u n t th ro ug h
v ari ous t e xt -books an d t eati ses. an d . as su ch . we reco mmen d It t o our rea de rs.
.
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form . O n t h e con trary . ea c h con tai ns wh at i s not t o b e fou n d In t he ot he r 3 an d M r C la rk tak es .
more room an d deal s at more len gt h wi t h many su bj ect s t h an M ol es wo rt h possi bl y c oul d " .
It wou l d b e fou n d d i ffi cu l t t o comp ress more matt e r wi t h i n a si mil a r compa ss. or p rod uc e a
book o f 650 pag e s wh i c h sh oul d be mo re com p ac t or c on ve n i e n t for ocl ret re fe ren ce
W i ll b e ap p re ci at e d b y me ch n al cal e ngi nee rs of al l cl asses —P ra mm l eng i n eer
.
" ‘
. .
e ki nd of work th at pract i cal men re q u i re to have n ear t o them

”
J ust t h .
B
C ROS B Y LOC K WOOD 0 S ON S C A TA L OG UE
’
.
HR HUTTON S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS

’
. .
H a n d boo k fo r Wo r l es M a ’
er e.
TH E WOR K S M A N A GE R S A N D B OOK OF M OD ER N
'
R UL E S . TA B L E S . A N D D A TA Fo r .
En gi n e ers, M i li wri t s . an d B oi l e r
M ak ers ; T ool M ak e rs. M ac hi ni s ts, an d M eta l W ork e rs ; ran an d B rass
Foun d e rs . t o B y W S H u r r o n . C i v i l an d M ec h an i cal E n gi neer A u t h or
. . .
.
”
Th e Pra c t i c al E n gi n eer s Han dbook
.
oi I'l fth Ed i t i on . c arefu ll y R e

’
.
v i se d. W i th A dd i ti on s i n On e han d some fl ol nme, medi u m Bv o . pri ce rss

. .
s t ron b ou n d
l [j ust pu bl i s h ed
gz
. .
W ‘ A ut hor M u n
g “ unfil l ed Ru l es and b eta h r hi s own use i n a great
va ri ety o mod rn engi n eer i n g work , a nd ha vi n m f
.
f d h i t l l
x t
—
se u
e g ou n s no es e re e y u .
d eci ded o pu bl i sh t hem- revi sed ” d ate bel i evi ng t hat a pra ct i cal work . su i ted to
t h e u rn “ ce n s u s - T s or wo m an a N c i n s Ea s. m i d be fa vou ra bly recei ved .
n the F ou rt h E di t i on th e F i rst S ecti on h as been re-i rri tten a n d i m raved by th e

i
a dd i ti on of m orons I l l ustra t i ons an d n ew ma tt er rel at i n t o S I B A II N G l N E S a nd ‘ '
G A S B N c i N ES Th e S econ d S ect i on has been en l a rged a n I l l u st ra ted . an d th rou gh

.
ou t t h e book a grea t n u mber of ent en da ti ons a n d al terat ions h ave been mad e. wi t h th e
obj ect of renderi ng t he book more generall y ese/i l l .
Ori i t i e ns or T i ts P a nes.
m i . u th er m m i nhu ma n th e pai nmcvn n em wh e n“ colle cte d wo rksh op
not es for ap cati on i n wo rk sh o ract i oe, rat her t h an from the th eore tl cal o r li te ra ry as pe ct T h e
gg
.
vo l u me con s a gre a t de al of t t h e of i n forma ti on whi ch E gai n ed onl y by practi cal exp eri
en ce. an d is se l d m ri tt
o w e n i n books. “
E a — m
Th e volume i s a t exce e di n gl y one: bri n k ! wi n n gh ean na n memoran th . and
“ ‘
rules. and we ll wort h y of be i n on ev ery mech ani c al e ngi neer s W

g
‘
olff M ech a n i ca l W or ld — .
Th e i n fe rma ti on i s ' reci se i y th a t ill t o b s re q u i n d i n pract l ce. Th e work forms a

l
d esi rab le ad d i ti on t o t h e i b ra ry n ot onl y
—
works manager. but of any one conne cte d wi t h
'
ge n e ral en gi n e e ri ng H i n w y o nm a l
. .
V A formid able mass o f a ct s an d a readi ly sccau l bi e th rough I n eh bqn te In de x

S u ch s vol u me wi ll be fou n d a lu t e l y ne cessary as a book of referen ce l n a ll sort s
o f worlts
‘ '
on ne c t e d wi t h t h e me ta l t rades
"
Ry l a nd s I r on Tra des C i rcu l a r
'
.
— .
Bri m u l of u sefu l i ni ormatl on . st at ed i n a conc i se torm. M r H u tt on s books h ave met a

'
- -
.
i n g want amon g engi nee rs T h e b oo k must prove eat s nab ti s ni l to e very

.
_
N ew M a nu a l for P r a c t i cal E n di n e er s.
H A C ompri si n g
’
TH E P R A C T I C A L E N GI N E E R S N D -B
OOK .
a T reati se on M od e rn E n gi n es an d B oi l ers : Mari n e . Locomot i v e an d S t a

An d co n t a i n i n g a l arge col lecti on of R ul e s an d Prac ti cal D at a
.
t i one t y .
re l at i n g to r ec e n t P ra c ti ce i n D esi gn i n g an d C on s t ru c t i n g a l l k i n d s of
En gi n e s, B o i l e rs. an d o the r E n gi ne e ri n g w ork T h e wh ol e con sti t u ti n g a .
c omp re h e ns i v e Ke y t o t h e Board of T ra d e an d oth e r Exa mi n a t i ons i or C e rt i

fi ca te s of C om e te n cy i n Moder n M e ch an i c al En gi n e e ri B W A L T ER S
.
p
.
H D T T ON , C i v i an d M ec h an i c al En i ne er, A ut h or of T h e “
or S M an a ser e
’ '
H a n d book for E n gi n e ers u ward s of 3 70 Il l u s trat i on s

"
F
.
a c i t h p . i ft h
Ed i ti on , Rev i s e d, W i th A ddi ti on s
.
Medi um Sv o, n earl y 50 0 p p . p ri ce 1 8s
v
. . .
S tron e boun d .
[ 7m pu bl i s hed' .
Thi s worh i s desi gn ed as a compani on to the A uth or s W onxs

a
D
'
MA N AG E R S H A N BO O K
’ - "
I t possesses ma ny new an d ori i n a l fea tu res. a n d con
g
.
ta i ns , l i ke i ts predecessor. a q u a n ti ty of ma t ter not ori gi na ly i n ten d ed for publ i ca

ti on bu t col l ect ed by t he a u t h or for h i s own u se i n t he constru ct i on of a grea t variety
of NIO D E R N E N o i N EE Ri N G W O R E .
Th e i n orma t i on i s g i ven i n a con densed an d con ci se an d i s i l l ustra ted by

u pwa rds o 370 Woodcu ts 3 a n d compri ses a q ua n ti ty 0 ta bu l a ted ma tter of g rea t
v a l u e t o a l l en gag ed i n desi gn i n g . con struct i n gm r esti i ng for E N G i N E S . B OIL E R S .
a n d O T B E E E N u i N E E RJ N G W O RE
.
O I N ION S or T H E P RE S S. P .
W e have k e p t i t at h an d j or se ve ral we e h s re fe rri n g t o It as occasi on n ess -an d we have n ot
m n i on consul ted i ts pages wi t hout hndi ng the u l c e rati on of wh i ch we were i n q ue s t

,
we a
O
-A
A t h orou gh ood prs cfl cal h and book . wh i ci t n o engi ne er can go through wi t h out l earni ng
g
so meth i n g th at w i e of servi ce t o N a i f M a r i n e E ngi n eer — .
“
A n excel len t book of reference for eng i neers. and a val uabl e t ext booh for stud en t s or
—
o
e n g hi eeri ng
"
. Scot sm a n .
T h i s val u ab le man u al emb odi es th e result s an d expe ri ence of th e l eadi ng au th ori ti es on

me ch ani cal Chgi nee ri ng —8 m l drng N ews.
”
.
Th e au t h or has c oll e ct ed t og et h er a su rp ri si n g q uan ti ty of rules and pra ct i cal da t a. and h as

sn own mu ch j u dg men t i n th e sel ec t i on s h e has ma de Th ere is n o doubt t h at t hi s book i s
—
.
on e oft h e most use fi i l of i ts ki n d i u b li sh ed . an d wi ll be a 7 0 1 l m di mf E rq m eeer

J
ar
3
o
p p u co p e n u .
“
A mass of i n formati on . set o wn i n simpl e lan e. an i n su ch a form th at i t can b c
re fe rre d t o at an y ti me T h e m at t er i s un i forml y g
. an d well ch osen and is y ei n d
b y t h e il l u st rat i ons Th e book wi l l fi n d i t s we on t o most en gi n eers sh el vu . It wi ll rank as
'
.
o n e of t h e m o t
s u sefu l b o o k o f re fer en c e
"
ra d i ca l E ng i n eer . .
Fu l l o f u se fu l i n format i on an d sh ould bn foun d on th e 1:6 c “ all practi se ] u gh c c rs

— £ rsg l i s l t H efi a rsts.
4 5
F ol e y s Ofll c e ’
R efer en c e B o ok for Me ch a n i c al
E n gi n e e r s.
TH E M E C H A N I C A L E N G N E E R I S RE F E REN CE B OOK '
for M
ac h i n e an d Boi l er C onst ru c ti on
E n oru aa a ru o D ar a P art II B O IL E
n
-
o r s u .I T w Pa t
R C o er
Part I G a a m
Wi th 5 : Pl t
. .
,
rn . auc i a es an
. t on d .
n u mero us Ill uetra tron a B y H a nso n F ou r .

S econ d Edi ti on , .
R evi sed t h rough ou t an d mu ch En l a rged. F ol i o, { 3 33 net h a l f-bou n d . .
S u u u aar or C ori n na s. - L 7 “ ! pu b l i she d .
PA RT I .
M — C rnc mrrn ns u c s s AN D or G a n n o n —M ou n n r or i n n a r ra
—
u s u nn s
—
.
.
A n u s , &c S au n a s . C u s n s , F ov a r n C n n r ax o r O s c n u r ron
gon n a AN D C U B E Root s
E na c
— M
.
P S r nn n c r n o r u s eu m .
—
-
a ra n a r s rc rr r
S v a n on or T u n a s —Rs c xr a o c a n s —
. .
L o oa axr r ms
c rr rc
M a n s v aa r xo n
.
G u v xr rn s A N D W n ro rrr s
S rn
E r a s r rc rr r
ET S
T nsr
F arc rxo n .
S n n n r s or
.
T aa n s u rs srorr
o r P ows a - F r ow o r L! u rn s —F xo w
M AL .
.
.
'
.
—
— or (h arm —A ra P o u r s ,
. . . . .
W o a a AN D Pown H u r - C ou a v s u ar ac n C o u
n o n —E xwm s ro n m o C O N T RA C N O N B E N S E R S , &c —S p u n o r S r u u s n xr a
. .
—
‘
—E xrl msro n or G a s e s —S r nan

. . . .
P a or n u n as C o r ri n e T o o “
—
. . . . .
S r ar rc Po n c a s G u v ru r xo x A N D B u tt o n s C orr a n S n s ar s a rm
— —
. .
A r r u c r x o n M o r xon AN D C o u r u u T u n a s S c a a ws , N o r a. Bo ar H an n a,
— &c —Va a xo v s Rn c xru s AND s c nn
. .
1 1 0 " or R s s v m r o u P n c a s Ac c u
—
o . .
s o u r an W o r m C a m us a rm Ran w s m u on s M a n n a .
-
Wr r n D IA G RA M S r o a V a n s -
G u n , B u r m a A N D Ror n s, D rsc n aaoa a rm
S u c t i on Pru e, S c an w P ao rn nn n s , a n n C orrs a P i u s .
PA RT II
Rm r m o —Bon a a S a r r rn o . C u n t
.
T n u r m c o r , Powan o r B on u s
ru m , A N D M o v u r rn c s —F u s t s , &c
.
U an t u r R
. a m o n - N ou s o n C o u . . .
C v u u n n xc a n Bon a a E XM l P L E S o r B o n u s A N D 8 9 3 3 0 3 or
S HE L S L
s r a u c r ro n
F u r Pu r n s
.
S
.
C ra c u u a
u r e
F u a n ac a s
— G i a nn a
.
S ru u sm rs
Ho nes Powa a.
N ou mu a m: N o r man . .
— .
S c an ws H r n aw u c
. T n sr s .
W rr n D IAG RA M S r a n an Bon n C anc u n rows AN D D u wmos or ru n-

.
Vaa xa r rn s or Bon u s .
‘
J Orrm o u s o r m a P a s se .
The book i s ou e whi ch ev ery me ch an i eel en gi neer may , wi t h ad van ta¢ e t o hi mse li add t o
'
M n F ole y i s well fi t t ed to comp il e su ch a work T h e d i agrame are a t featu re

y y fi y
.
of t h e work R i n g t h e wh ol e work . i t ma y be ve r fai rl st at e d t ha t t F ol e has

y
. O .
p rod u ced a v ol u me wh i c will u n d ou bt ed l fu lfi l t h e d esi re of th e auth o r an d become i n di spen

s a bl e t o al l me c h an i cal engi n ee rs —M a n n c E ng i neer
"
.
y x x
.
W e h ave carefull e ami n”ed t h i s work. an d p ro n oun ce i t a most e ce ll en t refe rence

for t h e use of ma ri ne en gi n ee rs q/ A m n ann S ec recy o/ l
'
. E ngi n eers ;
A ve ri t a b l e mon u me nt of i n d u st ry on th e p art of M r F ole y wh o h as su cc e eded in p ro d u ci ng

what i s si mpl y i n val ua bl e to t h e en gi neeri ng p l uton i u m M a uri n e — .
.
C oa l an d Sp e ed T a b l es
C BOOK OF COA L A ND TABLE S
.
A PO K ET SPE ED f
Th M
or
En gi neers and S tea m-tu m
k
L
P k
N . By N E
”
SO P ou r. A u t h or of e ec h an i cal
,
E n gi n eer s Re fe ren ce B oo e t-si ze , 3s 64 cl ot h

'
. oc . . .
“
Th e se t ab les d esign ed t o meet th e re q u i re men t s of every -day use : th ey are
are of M
c i e n t sc op e for most practi cal p urp oses. an d ma y be commen d ed to e ngi n eers and use rs of
—
.
ate s m i Iron .
’
.
T h i s p oc ke t b ook well meri ts th e att en ti on of th e

-
pract i cal oer. M r. F ol ey h as con
u se tu l se t of ta bl es. t h e i n forma ti on c on ta i n e d i n w i s fre q u entl y req ui red by
p i i e d a we
En gi n eer» g mconsu mers an d users of et eam Im a n d Coal W
”
. — e Rev i ew.
S t ea m E n g i n e
“
T BOOK ON STEA M I
.
TE X TH E EN G NE W ith Su
g
- . a
l e me n t G as E n n es , a n d Pa a r H e ar E n o m a s
'
on By T . .
M t L aw, Professo r of M ec h an i c s at t h e R oy al
B
A . ar t
M
-a -
oo n nv n . r s er . .
C ol l ege of S ci en ce , Lo n d on ; A u th or of Th e Pri n ci l ea of
“ "
ec h an i c s .
”
T h e E l e men ts of M ec h an i sm, &c T we l fth E di ti on , n l arged W i th n u . .
m erou s Il l u s t rat i on s C rown 8 v o. 63 cl oth . . .
"
Professor Goodeve has gi v en us a trea ti se on t he steam engi ne wh i ch will bu t comp ari son
x
hing wri tt e n by H u l ey or M a well. an d we can x a ward itno hi gh er prai se. E np fn eer . —
”
r Good e ve s t eat -h ook l s a work of whi ch every m

i n eeu h oul d poeeeu hh asl i .
‘
. e
ME CHA NICA L E N GI N E E RI N G . etc. 5
G as E n gi n es
ON GA S E NGINE S
.
- W i th A ppen di x desc ri b i n g a R ec en t
E ngl xIc wi t h T u be Ign i t er B y T
c l ot li
.
G oo n xva, M A . C rown 8 v o 23 6d
.
l l h d
. M . . . .
. [j ust p u n e .
L fi e all M r Good e ve s wrl . t h e re sen t i s n o except i on i n poi n t of gen eral excell en ce

'
It i s val uabl e li tt l e vol ume - AI or Wor ld . .
S t e a m E n gi gn .
n e D esi
A HA N D B OO K ON TH E S TE A M E NGINE , wi th espe c i al
R e feren ce t o S mal l an d M e di u m-si zed E n i n es F or t h e U se of E n gi n e
M akers , M e ch an i ca l D rau gh t smen , E n gi n eer n g S t u d e n t s an d U se rs of S t eam g
.
Power B y H a rm a n H arm a n , C E E n gl i sh E di ti on , R e-edi t ed by t h e

. . .
A u th or from t h e S econ d G e rman E di t i on , an d T ran sl a t e d . wi t h c on s i derabl e

A dd i t i on s an d A l t era ti on s, l
y H H P P o wns s , i th W
a
. . .
n ear l y Il l u st ra t i on s rown 8 v 0 , gs c l ot h
A p e rfect e n cy cl ope d i a of th e st eam e n gi n e a nd i ts d etai l s an d on e wh i ch must t ak e a pe r
. . .
—
.
man ent p l a ce i n E n g l i sh d raw i n g-offi ces an d wo rk s h o s A F or em a n P a t t e r n-m a k er
x
. .
k
T h i s i s an e ce l l e n t b oo . an d s h ou ld be i n t h e an d s of al l wh o a re i n t e re st e d i n t h e con
st ru c t i on an d d es i gn of me di u m si ze d st ati ons e ng i n es ca re fu l st u d of i t s con t e nt s A y
y
-
.
a n d t h e arran e me n t o f t h e se ct i ons l e ads t o

g e con c l u si on t h a t t h e re i s p rob a b l n o ot h e r b oo k
hk e i t i n th i s c ou n tr y
T h e v ol u me a i ms at sh ow: t h e resu l t s o f p ra ct i c al e p e ri en ce . an d i t x
y may cl au n a comp l e t e a ch i ev e me n t of t hi s i ea —N at u r e
.
c e rt ai n l . .
T h e re can be n o q u est i on a s t o i t s v al u e W e c ordi ali c ommen d i t t o all con cern e d i n t h e

d esi gn an d constru ct i on of t h e st eam engi ne "—M ecl ra n i ca i
.
ar i d . .
8 te a m B oi l er s
TRE A TISE ST A Th i St
.
A ON E M B OI L E RS : e r rength , C oa
si n eti on , a n d E conomi cal Worki ng B y R os s ar W n . sou, C E . F i fth Edi ti on
. .
ramo, cl oth .
6s
—
.
"
T h e b est trea ti se t h at has e ver be en p u bli sh ed on st eam boil ers. E n,gi sreer .
T h e au t h or sh ows h i mse lf rfe ct mast e r of hi s su b j e c t. an d we h earti l rec ommend all em y
pl oy i ng steam p ower to possess of th e work.
"
Iron Tr ade Ci rcu l a r .
B o i l er Ch i m n e y s
B OILE R T
.
A N D F A C TOR Y C H I M N E rs hei r Draught Power -
and S ta bi l i ty Wi th a C h ap“t er on L i gh tmn C ond uctors By R os t e r

. .
W n so n , A u t h or of A T reati se on t eam B oil e rs. &c S ec on d .
E d i t i on C rown 8 v o. sr 64 c l ot h
A
. . . .
val u ab l e con tri bu t i on t o t h e li t erat ure of sci en t i fi c b ui l d i ng

"
. Th e B u i l der .
B o i l er Ma k i n g
BOILE R MA KE R S RE A D Y RE CKONE R ASSIS T
.
TH E -
’
6 .
A NT Wi t h E xampl e s of Pract i cal G eome try an d T em pl at i n g. for th e U se

.
of Pl aters, S mi t h s an d Ri v et ers B y Jo a n C o v a r n n v , E d i t e d b y D K C u l ts .
. . .
T h i rd Ed i t i on , 4 80 p p , wi t h 1 4 0 Il l u s te F c ap 8 v o. 73 h al f-boun d
—
. . . . .
N o work man or a p p ren ti ce sh ould be wi th ou t thi s boo I ron Tra de C i r cu l a r .
L o co m o t i v e E n g i n e D e v e l op m e n t
L T TS DE VE L OPME NT
.
TH E OCOM O IVE E NGINE A N D I .
A P op u l ar T reat i se on t h e G radu al Imp rov em en t s m ad e i n R ai l way En gi n es

b e t we e n 1 80 3 an d 1 8 96
Ra i l way ork i n g,
W ”
&c
B y C E M E T E S r a n r r o s , C E . A u t h o r of S afe
.
Fi ft h E d i ti on , Re v i sed an d E n l arge d
.
L N
i t h 1 20
.
' '
. .
. W
Il l us tra ti on s C rown 8 v o, 33 6d c l o t h gi l t [J u st pu bl i sh ed
y
. . . . .
S t u d e n t s of rai l wa hi st o ry an d all wh o a re i n t e res t e d i n t h e ev ol u ti on Of t h e mode rn l ocomo

wil l fi n d mu c h t o at t ra ct an d e nt e rta i n i n t h i s v ol u me Th e T i mes . .
k
T h e au t h or of t hi s wo r i s wel l k n own t o t h e rai l wa worl d . an d n o on e rob abl y ha s a
k
b ett e r n owl of t h e hi st o ry an d d eve l o me nt of t h e oc omot i ve
p Th e v 0 u me be fore us
"—
yy
.
sh ul
o d be o f v no t o all conne ct e d w i t h t h e rai l wa s st em of thi s c oun t ry N a tu re. .
E sti m a ti n g for E n g i n e er i n g W or k , (20

STIMA TE S COSTS A ND A CCOUN TS
.
E NGINEE RING E .
A G u i d e t o C ommerci al E n gi n e eri n g i t h n u m erou s E xamp l e s of E st i W

W
.
mat e s an d C ost s of M i ll wri gh t ork , M i sce l l an eo u s P rod u c t i on s, S t eam

E n gi nes an d S t eam B o il ers ; an d a S ec t i on on t h e Prep arati on of C ost a
A cco un t s
Thi s i s an axe
B A G E ER . M an s o n N AL
D e m y 8 v o. rss c l ot h
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.
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W e acco rd t h e wo r u n q u ali fi ed p rai se T h e i n forma ti on i s gi ven i n a plai n, strai gh t forward
.
mann er. an d bears t h ro

every ph ase of commer
ou t ev i d en c e o f t h e i n t i m ate
engi n eeri ng.
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l l ea ¢ n i ee l ar i d . —
a ct i cal acq uai n tan ce o f t h e au t h or wi th
Br
6 C ROSB Y L OCK WOOD 0 SON '
S C A TA LOG UE .
FI E R S FI E E R -
NG INE S A N D F IRE -B RI GA DE S. W i th
M
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a Hi s tory : Fi soi
re -E n gi n e , h ei r C on st r uct i on , Use, an d
t anage ment Re !
mark s ou F i re-Proo f B ui l d i n gs , an d th e Pre se rv at i on of L i fe from 0 ;

S t at i sti c s o f th e F i re App l i an ces i n En li eh T own s ; Forei gn F i re S y ste ms ;
H i n ts on F i re-B ri gad e s, &c ao B y s a u na s F T Yo vu o . C E i th . . . . . W
n u me rou s Il l u stra t i on s 5 4 de l 8v 0 . £1 4s cl oth
To th oee lnte rest e d i n m
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e eu bj e ct o fi res fi re app are tu s we most h eart i l y commen d thi s
h ook .l t i s th e onl y Eu gi lsh work we uow h ave up on Engi n eer i ng .
B oi l er m a k i n g.
PL A TING AND B OIL E RMA KIN G A P ract i c al H andbook
for Wor ks ho p O pe rati ons (F ore man
Pat tern - a ker) , A u th or o M D o se rs
a t te t n i ng,
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i ll us tra t i o n s C rown 8 v o. 73 6d c l o th
.
[ i rst pu bl i sh ed
. . . .
T h e lat est p ro d uct i o n from t h e pe n of t h i s wri t e r i s c h ara ct e ri se d b y t h a t e v rden c e of close

acq ua i n t a nc e wrth works h o p m et h od s wh i c h wi l l re n d e r t h e bo o k e xc ee d i n gl ac c e p t a bl e t o t h e y
t act i c a l h an d W e h av e n o h es i t at i on tu commen d i n g th e wo rk na e -se rv mu bl e and t ac t i cal
ra mi book o n a su bj e c t wh i c h h as n or h i t h e rt o re c e i v ed m uc h a tt ent i on fro m t h ose q to d e al
wi t h i t i n a sat rsfa c cory mann e r M ed u m m l W or l d .
— .
E n gi n e er i n g C on st r u c t i on .
PA TTE RN MA KING A Practi cal Treati se embraci n t h e M ain
-
,
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3
well wri t t en tech ni cal g u i de , e vi d en tl wri t ten by a man wh o u n de rstands an d h as p rac y
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p l i c i t , th us re n d e n g t h e work an e ce llen t e n ds m
m ast e r of hi s trade } - E swl i s h M ech a n i c.
x
fo r the ap p renti ce who desi res to b ecome
D i ct i on a r y Me ch a n i c a l E n gi n e er i n g T er m s of
L OCK WOOD S DIC TIONAR Y O F TE RMS USE D IN
.
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i n t h e D rawi n ofi ce, Patt ern Sh op , F o u n dry . F i tti n T u rn i n g, S m i t h s a n d
'
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-M a k e r
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t e rn M a k i n g S ec on d Ed i t i on , R ev i se d
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“
gi n eeri ng Th e p ract i cal a rgi n e eri ug pu pi l wi ll fi n d t h e bo ok of g re a t v n o i n

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" ea ter —M o d ern “ ? M a r ket .
Mi l l G ea r i n g .
TOOTH E D G EA RING
A P rac t i ca l H an db ook for O ffi ces an d
W k or s h o p s . By j o ss r rr G H o a xe s , Pa tte rn -M aker ) ;
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cl oth .
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ym m
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h ea rt i l rec om m e n d i t t o al l i n t e re st ed as t he »most p rac t l cat b ook on the
H eeh a ca l W or l d
m u n mi t i g
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8 CR SB O Y L OC K WOOD 0 S ON S C A TA L OG UE .
'
Y ea -
I er m u l ae & c
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ru B o ok of En i n e er i n V
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TH E EN G N EER YE A R 0 0 K F OR 1 é C ompri si n g
F ormul a , Ru l es , T ab l es , D ata an d M emoran da i n C i v i M ech an i cal , E l ec
M ar i n e an d M i n e E n gi n eeri n g
t ri ca l , . B y H R Ke n na A H. . .
T ec h ni c al Ofi cer of t h e E n gi n eer-i n -C h i e t s Odes, G en eral P ost

.
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Ofi ce , L on d on , A u th o r of
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A H an d book of E l ec t ri c al T es ti n g, ” Th e
E l ec tri cal En
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&c W i th 8 0 0 i l l u strati on s, 3 ily .
E ngrav e d for t e work C rown 8 v o . 670 ages , 83 l ea t h e r

. es t pa l as hed . . .
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referen ce Th e
w
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”
T h i s val u a bl e an d we ll -d esi g ne d b ook of refere nce meet s t h e de mands of all d esc ri p ti ons as
m
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s wi t h u p -t o-date i n form at i on i n e ve ry bran ch of engi n eeri ng and const ructi on.

8 add m s .
T h e n ee d s of th e engi ne eri ng pro fessi on c ould h ardl y be su pl i e d i n a more admi rabl e.

co mpl et e and c on ve n i en t form T o sa t h a t i t mo re th an su stai ns
. comp ari sons i s prai se of t h e
h i g h est so rt , an d t h at may Ju stl y be sa d of i t - M m mg y ou r-u a l
"
. .
“
Th ere i s c e rt ai nl y room for t h e ne w comer, wh i ch su p e s e xp l ana ti ons an d d i rect i on s. as
well as fo rmu l a an d tabl es It deserv es t o be c ome one t h e m os t su c ce ss of t h e te c h n i c a l
—
.
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ann ual s A rck tta t
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Bri ng s t oget h er wi t h great ski ll all t h e t e c h n i cal i n format i on wh i c h a n e n lu ce s h a s t o use
da y i t i s i n e v e ry wa y a d mi ra bly e u i p
. an d i s sure t o ro v e succ e lf S cots m a n — .
e u p -t o-d at en ess of M r K e m s c omp ti on i s a q ual i ty t wi ll n ot b e l ost on t h e bus y

'
.
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g
P or t a b l eE n gi n e s .
TH E P OR TA B L E E N G IN E : ITS CON S TR UC TI ON A N D
N A N A C E M E N T A P rac t i cal M an u al for O wn e rs an d U se rs of S te am
.
E n gi n es gen era l l y B y W rn n ra u D r am! W m aa a o u c n

. W i t h go Ill us tra .
ti on s C ro wn 8 v a . 33 64 cl oth
. . . .
“
T h i s i s a wo rk of vai u e t o t h ose wh o use steam machi nery S h ou id b e read by everr .
o ne wh o has a st eam en gi n e , on a farm or el se wh er e - M ¢ r b L e ns Exp res s

"
. .
W e cord i all y comme n d thi s work t o” b u ers an d owners of st eam engi n es. and t o t h ose wh o
h ave to d o wi t h th ei r c onst ru cti on or use on e” Tra d es a n d . .
S u ch a g en eral k n owl e dge of t h e st eam e as M r ans b rou gh fu rn i sh es to th e m de s

s houl d be acq u i re d b y all i n t e ll i g en t own e rs an d ot ers wh o use t h e st ea m eng i n e —
.
B u i l d i ng N ews . .
An e xcel l e n t t e xt -book of t h i s u sefu l fo rm of eng i n e . T h e H mts to Purch ase rs con t ai n a

good d eal of commonsense an d p racti ca l wi sd om .
"
— E ng l ¢ rl s Al ec/ta n k .
i r on and S t e el .
I R ON A N D S TE E L A Work for the F orge , F oundry . F actory ,

and Ofli cc C on t ai n i n g read y , u sefu l , an d t ru s t wort h y
. In forma ti on for Iron
mas t e rs an d th ei r S t oc k -t ak ers ; M a n a gers of B ar, Ra i l , P l a t e , an d S h ee t
Rolli n g M i l l s ; i ron an d M etal F oun ders ; Iron S h i p a n d B ri d e B u i l d ers ;
M e ch an i cal , M i n i n g, an d C on su l t i n g E n gi n e ers ; A rch i te c t s, on t ra c t ors ,
B ui l d ers, an d P rofe ssi on al D ra u gh t smen B y C a u c u s H on s , A u th or of .
sm o. 65 l ea th e r
“
T h e S l i d e Ru l e ." &c N i n th E di ti on
—
. . . .
F or comp re h e n si ve n ess t h e b ook h as n ot i t s e q u lm

—
.
”
One of th e best of t h e pock e t books E rsg l £rh M ech a n i c . .
"
W e oordi all y re commen d th i s book t o th ose engaged i n conslderi h g the detaii s of all ki nds 0
i ron an d st eel worb "
N ¢ e ¢ l S ci ence .
— .
E l e m en t a r y M e ch a n i cs .
C ON D E N S E D M E C H A N I C S . A S el e ct i on of F ormu l a
e, R u l es ,
T abl e s , an d D a ta fo r t h e U se o f E n gi n ee ri n g S t u de n t s , S c i en c e C l asses , &c .
i n Accord an c e wi t h t h e R e q u i re men t s o f t h e S c i en c e an d A rt D e artm en t .
B y W G C a s wr o n n H u m-ma,
. . C rown 8 v o, as 6d c l o t .
T h e b ook i s we ll fi t t ed for t h ose wh o are e i t h e r confron t e d wi t h ra ct i ca l ro bl ems i n t h e i r

p
wo rk . or are p re parin g for e xami nat i on an d wi sh t o refresh t h ei r h owl etre by gomg th rough t h ei r g
”—
fo m u l a agai n M r s E sq m a r
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r c . .
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S t ea m .
TH E S A F E US E OF S TE A M C on t ai n i n g R u l es for U h .
profe ssi on al S t e am u se rs B y an E xc u s e s S e v
- en t h E d i t i on
. S e we d , 64 . . .
“
i f st eam-users wou ld b u t i e arn t hi s li tt le book by h eart . boi ler exp losi ons would bect me
m enti ons by th e i r rari ty
”
—
E ng l i rl s M ech a n i c.
.
W a rm i n g .
H E A TI N G B Y H OT WA TE R : wi t h
an d S u g In format i on
e sti on s on t h e b es t M et h od s of H eati n g P u bli c , Pri v at e an d H orti cu l t u ral
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C rown v o. as M n e t
B y W a n n a o na s
.
.
S econ d Edi ti on
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. . .
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“
val uable l i tt l e treati se —Tl u P l u mber a n d D a m

”
. .
01 m E N G IN E ERIN G . S UR VE YI N G , m .
g
C IVI L E N G IN E E RIN G . S U R VE YI N G , et c.
L i g h t R a i l wa y s .
L IGH T R A IL WA YS F OR TH E UN I TE D K I N G D OM ,
I N D I A , A N D T H E C OL ON I E S A P rac t i ca l H a n d b ook se t t i n g fo rth t h e
P ri n c i p l e s on wh i c h L i gh t R a i l wa y s sh ou l d b e C on st ru c t e d , W o rk e d an d
Fi n an c ed an d d e ta i l i n g t h e cost of C on str u c ti on , E u i p m en t , R e v en u e ,
;
a n d W orki n E xpe n ce s of L o ca l R ai l wa y s a l re ad e st a b i sh ed i n th e a b ov e
men ti on e d o u n t ri e s , a n d i n B e l gi u m , F ran c e , wi t ze rl an d , &c B y Jo a n .
C H A RL E S M a c a w , Ill u st ra t e d wi t h 4 0 P h ot o a h i s
P l a t e s an d ot h e r D i a gr am s M e d i u m 8 y o , 1 53 c l o t h
. [j u st pu Its ed . .
E xa c t l y wh at h as b ee n l on g wan t e d an d su re t o h av e a wi d e sal e —
.
, R a i l way N ews . .
Wa t er S up p l y an d W a t er W or ks .
TH E WA TE R S UP P L Y OF TO WN S A ND TH E C ON
S TR UC TI ON O F WA TE R- WORK S : A P rac ti cal T reati se for t h e U se oi
E n gi n eers an d S tu den t s of E n gi n eeri n g B y W K B u ns o u ,
J
-
. . .
P rofes sor of S an i tar E n gi n e eri n i n th e Im p eri al U n i v ersi t y , T ok y o, ap an ,

a n d C on su l t i n g E n g n e e r t o t h e o k y o W a t er-work s W i t h an Ap e n di x on
p
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Th e Bti eot s of Ear t h uak es on W a t erwork s, by Joa n M IL N E , P z S , P ro

J
‘
. .
fe asor of M i n i n g i n t e Imp e ri al U n i v ersi ty of ap an W i t h n u me rou s .
P l a t es an d Il l u st ra t i on s S u p er-roy al 8 v o . 25s bu c k ram

.
[j u st pu bl i shed. . .
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i n th i s h an ds ome v ol ume M r B u rt on s p rac t i cal t re ati se sh ows i n all i t s sec t i on s t h e fru i t

'
. .
of i n d e p en d en t st u d y an d in di vi d ual e xp e ri e n ce i t i s la rgely b ase d u p on h i s o wn p rac ti ce i n t h e

.
b ran c h of e ng i n e e ri ng o f wh i c h i t t rea ts . an d wi t h su ch a basi s a t reat i s e can sc arc e l y fai l t o be sug

g es t i ve an d u se fu l
"
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. .
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’
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a n d vi orou s l angu an d forms an e xh au st i v e t reat i se on a b ran c h o f en gi nee ri ng t h e cl ai ms oi

g
wh i c h i t woul d be d i cul t t o over est un at e —S wts ma n
”
- . .
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qu
o f all i ts p roba bl e rea d ers .
y
T h e v ol ume i s well got u p . an d t e i ll us trat i on s are e xcell e n t p .
Th e L a n cet .
Wa t er S up p l y of C i ti es a n d T own s .
A C OM P R E H E N S I VE TR E A TI S E q»the WA TER -S UP P L Y
’
OF C I TIES A N D TO WN S B y W IL L IA M H o l ma n, A an d .
M i n st
. . A u th or of C as t an d W rou gh t i ron B ri d ge C on st ru cti on ,
M E . .
,
Il l u s tra t ed wi t h so D ou bl e Pl a te s, 1 S i n gl e P l ate , C ol ou red

.
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F ron ti s i ec e , an d u ward s a t 250 W ood cu t s, an d c on ta i n i n g 40 0 p age s oi

T e xt . p
mp 4 t o, £6 . e l e gan t l y an d su b st an ti al l y h al f-boun d i n morocco .
T h e most sy st emati c an d v al ua b le work u on wa ter su ppl y hi t h e rt o p ro d u c ed i n En gli sh o r
In an y ot h er la ng u ag e
p
M r H umb e r s work i s ch arac t eri se d al mo st t h rou gh ou t b y an
. .
exh aus ti ve ness much more di sti n ct i v e of F re n ch and German t han of E ng li sh t e ch ni cal treat i ses .
4 “ M 7 0
W e can congratulat e M r H umber on h avi ng been ab le t o gi ve so large an amount of i nfor

.
mati on on a su b ec t so i mport an t as t h e wat er su p of ci t i es an d to wns T h e p lat es, fi tt y i n

y drawi n gs of e xe c u t e d works. an s
.
number, are i n ne wou l d ha ve comman d e d th e att ent i on

of eve ry eng i nee r wh ose p rac ti ce ma y li e i n t hi s bran ch of th e p rofessi on —
"
8 u i l d¢ r . .
W a t er S upp l y .
R UR A L WA TE R S UP P L Y : A P rac t i ca l H a n db ook on the

S u p pl y of W a t e r an d C on stru c t i on of W a t e rwor k s fo r sm a l l C ou n try D i st ri c t s .
B y A L L A N G R EE N W E L L , an d W . T C u na r, F G S . . . .
W i t h Il l u stra ti on s C rown 8 v o . 53 c l ot h
.
[j ust pu bl i s h ed
. . .
We cons c i e n t i ou sl y rec o mmen d i t as a v e ry u se fu l b ook for t h ose c on ce rn e d i n ob t ai n

i ng wa t e r for small di st ri ct s, gi v mg a g re at de al o f p rac ti cal i n forma ti on i n a small comp ass .
"
T h e v ol u me con ta i n s v al u ab l e i n format i on u p on a ll mat t e rs c on ne ct e d wi t h wat e r su p l y .
I t i s fu ll of d et ails on pai n ts wh i c h are c on t i n u al l y be fore wa terwo rk s e ng i n e e rs ”

a rm
’
'
. s.
H y dr auli c T a b l es .
H YD R A UL I C TA B L E S , C O-E F FI C IE N TS and F ORM UL JB ,
for fi ndi n t he D i s charge of Wa ter ram Ori fi ce: N otchcs Wa rs P i pes, and
Ri vers. y N s Vi L L a , C i v i l
on n n gi n eer, M IA Th i rd E d , careful l y . . . . .
R e v i se d , wi cons i d e rab l e A ddi t i ons N umerou s Il l u st e. C r 8 v o, i 4r cl oth

. . . .
A li k e val uabl e to st u d en ts an d en gi ne ers i n p ract i ce 3 i t s st u d y wi ll p re ve n t th e ann oy an ce of

avoi da bl e fai l u res, an d assi st t h em to se l ect t h e readi es t means of su cc essful ly ca rr i n out an:
”—
y g
gi ve n w or k c onn ec t e d wi t h h y d rau li c e n g i n e e ri n g t n g y ou r-mi l
It i s, of all Engl i sh b ook s on th e su bj ect th e one nearest t o comp l et enes , - d ” m
. .
. s
cr oss ? w as WOOD e soN s C A TA L OG UE
.
'
.
H YD R A UL IC M A N UA L . C on si st i n g of W orki ng T abl es an d
E xp l an a tory T ext In ten ded as a G u i d e i n H y d rau li oC al cu l ati nn e a n d luci d
.
at i on s B y L ewi s D A s e as o n A u th or of A i d t o S urv e y Pract i ce.

“ "
'
. .
ern Me trol ogy , "

ao ou rth E i ti ou , E n l arged . L arge s r sv e. i 6s cl . . . .
T he auth or h a s he d a wi de e xp e ri en ce i n h y dra uli c en gi n ee ri a g an d h as b een a carefui ob

server of t h e fac ts whi ch h ave come und er h i s noti ce a nd from t h e great mass o f ma t eri al at hi s ,
c omman d h e h as constru ct e d a man ual wh i ch m b e acce p t ed as a t rus t-wort h i d s to t h i s

W e c u li saay racomm i i d th i s voi ume to w d eal s. ”
g
au h e t t h e en prof sd on
'
th m a a s! a ’ mportan t 5 1!g g
.
e ve i omna i t f t tn j ’ci
"
fiM i "t .
h e stan da rd-work i n t h i s d e n t of mechan i cs - S o t rm n

"
w rk k i b fi fi m
. .
T he most u sefu l fea t ure of
m
h at i s snpe n nnnaM and i ts
t h o rough ad op ti on of re cen t enu '
t h e te xt h hi M i n gre at pare a short m d nt of th e
g e at modern eap erh a i t s.
r
"-
-
W a t er S t or a g e, C on ve y a n c e , an d Ut i l i s a t i on .
WA TE R E N G IN EE R I N G the M easu re A P ract i cal T reati s
e on
ment , S t orage , C on ve y ance , a n d Uti i i sa t i on o f W ate r for th e S u p o f T own s,
fer :hi i ll P ower, an d fo r o t he r P u rpo ses B C a n aL r-zs S l ui c e A
, ”
. gli
.
A u t h or of S an i tary W ork i n t h e S ma l er T o wn s , an d i n Vi ll a ges, &c

,
“
.
S ec on d E di ti on W i t h n u mer ou s Il l u st rat i on s C rown 8 v o, 7s 6d cl o t h

. . . . .
As a small p ract i cai t rea ti se on t h e wa t er au p ot t owns and on smne eppi i sati m s of

“
wat er we tt h e work is i n man y res pe ct s e xc el l en t f - ngr m n n

,
gz } .
h e au th or h as c oll a t ed t h e resul ts de du ce d from t h e e xperi th e n i s of t h h ost emi nen t m

a u th ori t i e s . an d h as p re sen m
d t h e m i n a com act an d cal form. accompan i ed b y very cl ear
an d d et ai l e d es p lanat ns. w T h e aPP wa te r as a mon ve p oi ver is treeb d very
m
eas e lly an d e xh a u st i ve l y B u i l der .
— .
“‘ F or an on e wh o de si res t o b e i n tl m sti i d o f h d rau i i es wl th a e ei si derat i on f

o th e pn cti oal i
z g
a p pl i ca flea s f t he sci en e e t here i s no bet t er g
”
d
y
D r ai n a g e .
ON TH E D RA I N A G E OF L A N D S TO WN S , A N D B UI L D . ,
IN G S B y G D B u r sa r , C E , A u t h or of T he P racti cal Rai l way E u

. . . . .
Rev i sed, wi t h l ar 0 A d di t i ons on Re cru i t Pu ssi e s w

' ,
n ee r, &c .
a a m a c n E u c i u n n a m c , by D I N N E A R C L A RK, A u th or or
.
“
T ramway s : T h e i r C on st ruc t i on an d W orki n g, " “
A M an ual of Rul es .
T abl es , an d D a ta for M e ch ani c al E n gi n eers, &c. T h i rd :Ed i ti on

"
S m al l .
c ro wn 8 v o , 4 s 6d c l ot h . . .
[J ust pu bl i shed .
“
T h e n e w mat t er add e d t o M r D em s e xcell en t work i s ch arac t e ri se d
. t h e compreh en
asp an d a c curacy o f d etail for whi ch name of M r D K C lark i s a
"
iv vou ch er
f‘‘z
s
. . . .
mc u .
A s a work on recent racti ce i n d rai nage en gi n eeri ng . t h e book i s to be commu i d e d t o al l

“
g
wh o are mak i n g t h a t b ranc of m gi ri ee ri ng sc i en c e t h ei r sp e ci al st u dy —l m
m
. .
A comp reh ensi ve man u al on d rai nage engi n eeri n g. an d a useful i nt rod uct i on mt h e
emul ati ng N ews .
R i v er E n gi n e er i n g .
R I VE R B A RS The C a uses of thei r F orma ti on , and thei r Treat

men t by I n duced Ti da l S cou r wi t h a D escri p t i on of t h e S uc c essful R e ,
du ct i on b t h i s M e t h od of t h e B a r a t D u bl i n B y I J M A N N , Ass i st E n g.
y
. . . .
t o t h e D u l i n P ort an d D oc k s B oard R oy a l 8 vo . 7s 6d c l o th . . . .
W e recommen d all i n t e res ted i n h a rb ou r works an d i n d e ed t h ose con cern e d i n th e III! -
oy emen t s o f ri vers gen eral l y —t o read M r M ann s i n teres ti ng work on th e treatm ent of ri ver
, .
'
c —E ng i n eer
. .
ref
fl a m wa y s an d t h ei r W or ki n g .
TRA M WA YS TH E I R C ON S TR UC TI ON A N D WORK IN G
'
E mb ra ci n a C ompre h en si v e H i story of t h e S y st em ; wi t h
a n e xh a u st i v e
A n al y si s 0 t h e v ari ou s M ode s of T rac t i on , i n c l u d i n g Ho rse -P ower, S t eam ,
C abl e T ract i on , E l ect ri c T ra c t i on , &c ; a D e sc ri p t i o n of th e V a ri et i e s of Roll .
i n g S t oc l an d am p l e D e t ai l s of C o st a n d W orki n g E xp e n se s N e w E d i t i on ,
fif
.
T h orou g y Rev i s ed , an d In c l u di n g t h e P rogress rec e n tl mad e i n Tram wa y

C on s tru ct i on , B y D K I N N E A R C L A R K M In s t C . W i t h n u m e rou s . . . . g
Il l u s trati on s an d F ol di ng Pl at e s In On e Vol u me, 8 vc , 78 0 p a es, . 28s , .
bo u n d i n b u c k ram . us t pa l ash ed .
mterest d u m
m}
y must re fe r to i t , as al l rai l way en gi neers ha ve turne d t o t he a ut hor s
’
m : Agm i g
gamddcos gg fnt
’‘ e
“ An
i g ma; u
en c al r o ram way s i n whi ch t h e hi st ory of t h i s ki n d of l ocomo
t i on . an d a d escri p ti on a of th e v i ar ou s mo u of h y g t é ays , are t o be fou nd. m
B u sl d sn g N ews
'
T h e b est fo m of rul e, th e be st mod e of com b u sti on , and t h e b est med i ani eai appl aus e
- '
r
are so h url i n di c ate d i n t h e work un d er re vi ew, t ha t an y e ngi ne e r a bou t t o con st ruct a crea m y
wi l l b e en a le d at on ce to obtai n i h e pre ct l cal i n formst i on whi ch wili be oi most servi ce so h i m.
A m ”.
CR SB O Y LOCK WOOD S ON S C A A LOG UE
’
T .
AN OUTLINE OF TH E ME THOD OF C D C TI G A ON U N
TRI G ON OU E TRI C A L S UR VE Y, for t he F ormat i on of Goo Meat and
Tape ra h i cal l aps a nd P l ans, M i l i tary Reconnai ssance, L evel mg . &c , wi th
é
.
U se l rob l ems, F ormul a , an d T a bl es B Li eu t -G en e ral F l o s s , K B . .
F ou rt h E di t i on , Rev i se d an d tl y Ro-wri t ten y M a or G e neral Si r C a n t ”

'
W a nn a . KB i th t o P l a t es and i t s c eden t s Roy al 8 v o. 1 6s

. . .
c l ot h .
“
l h e sh n pl s h ct th at a l ourt h edi ti on has h en fi l ed for h th e b a t h sd mony t o i ts me ri ts
‘ ‘
N o wo rds of pral se from us can t h e posi t i on so we ll and so ste adi l y mai ntai ne d by t h i s
work S i r Ch arles W arren has re th e en t i re work . an d mad e such addi t i on s as ws se naceasa ry
t o bri ng ere ry port i on of th e oont en ts up m me pse su t dam - d
.
dm
”
.
c ur ves, Ta b l es for S e tt i n g-ou t .
TA BLE S OF TANGE NTIA L A NG LE S A ND M UL TIPL E S

5 6th ” -out C u rra /ram 5 to 900 Ra d i us
{g
r B y A na n n n a a B an a na s , .
l a sa c F ourth ndi t i on P ri n ted on 4 8 Card s, an d sol d i n a cl ot h boa ,

wai stcoat- 0 c m si ze, as 64
. . .
8
. .
d a t ed on a sma n eard whi ch . h eh g pl aced on the th eodol u i sav- th e h a n d

“
Bach t abi e
g —
free t o mani pu l at e t e i nstru ment n o smali ad van t age as re ga rds th e ra pi di ty of work “
E ng t n a ~
r .
— .
“
Ve ry han d y ; a man may k now t h at all hi s da y ’s work must fail on t wo ol th ese cards.
h e put s i nto hls own card -oass. and h avo th e rsst bshi nd. ” A m —
E a r t h wo r k .
HA ND Y G E NE RA L E A RTH WOR K TA B L E S . G i v i ng
t h e C on t en t s i n C u bi c Yard s of C e n t re an d S l ope s of G u t t i n s an d E mb a n k
men ts from 3 i n c h es t o 8 0 fee t i n D t h or H e i gh t , for u se w th e i th e r 66 fee t
C h ai n or 1 0 0 fe e t C h ai n
mou n ted i n cl ot h cas e, 33
v H a r so n B v c x, .
.
[J a
u s
O n a S h e et
t p i s h ed
u bl
. w .
E a r t h wor k .
E A R TH WO R K TA B L E S . S h owi n g t h e C on t en t s i n C u bi c
Yards of E mb an k me n ts , C u tti ngs, &c . of H e i gh t s o r D ep t h s u p t o an .
a ve ra ge of 80 fe e t B y Jo sa r u B a oa n aa u r , C E . an d F u n c xs C a u r m , C E
. . . . .
C rown 8 v e . 5 3 c l ot h
m
. .
Th e way i n wh i ch a c cu ra cy i s s t a i ned . b y a si m di vi si on of ea ch cross i nt o

fl —
e
d emeri ts. two i n whi ch are c onstan t an d one vari abl e. i ngen i ous
"
A th em ns. .
k M
E a r t h wor m t of ea su r e en
A MA NUA L ON E AR TH WOR K B y A
, .
. nn .
I
. S G al l a n
. t,
C Wi m . m
E S
. di i mth n u D i a gra s
erou s . econ d E t on . o, as. 64 . cl ot h .
m
m t amou n t of practi cal i nformati on. g
“
A g admi rab arrange d. and avai l ab le for rou h
m r wel ll as i or th e mon exac t calcn s re q i n th e engi ne er s and oon traa or s

‘ '
T u n n el l i n a
CA L TUNNE LL ING
.
P R A C TI . Exp l ai n i n g i n det ai l t h e S et t i n g
ou t oi t h e work s, S h aft-si n k i n
H ea di n -d ri v i n g, R an u g t h e L i n es an d
'
an d
L ev e l l i n g u n de rgrou n d, S u b xc ava ti n g. i mberi n g, an i
t h e C on stru c ti on
oft h e B ri c k wo rk of T u n n el s, wi t h t h e a mou n t of L a bou r re a i red for, an d th e
C os t of, t h e v ari ou s porti on s of th e work B y F a a n m uc x S u m s. M J u st . .
C E . F ou rt h E d i t i on . Re v i s ed an d F urt h e r E xt en d ed , i n c l u d i n g t h e M ost
.
R ecen t (1 8 95 ) E xa mp l es of S u b a q u eou s a n d o th e r T u n n e l s , by D K m u aa a -
.
C u a x, M i n et C E . i mpe ri al 8 v o. wi t h 34 F ol di n g Pl a te s an d ot h e r i l l u s
. . .
trat i on s, £2 23 cl ot h . .
[j ust pu bl i s hed .
Th e esti ma ti on i n whi ch M r 8 h ms s book on tu nnenl ng has been h el d l os ove s t nu t y y e ars

“ '
.
cann ot b e more tru l y e xp resse d t h an i n t h e word s oft h e la t e Prof Ran ki ne T h e b e st sou rc e o f i n

—A rrh t ad
.
formati o n or t h e su b je ct of t unn el s i s M r K W Si mms s work on Pra ct i ca l T u nnel!

“ ‘
'
. . .
i t has b ee n regard ed from t h e first as a t e xt -book of t h e su bje ct . Mr C it h as

m
.
knmense l y to th e valu e at t h e u ng “ .
T u n n e l S h a fts
CONSTR UCTIO N OF UNNE L SHA FTS A
.
TH E L A RG E T :
P rac ti cal a nd Theoreti ca l E ssa By H W as son Bu c x. .
-
R esi d en t E n gi n e er, L o n d on an N orth es t ern Rai l way . Ill ustrated wi th

F ol d i n g Pl at e s Ro 8 vc . m cl ot h
. . .
"
M an y oi t h e met h od s veu are of eat reme pract i cal vai ue t o the mason gand the observati oo s
’
th e form of arch t h e ru l e s for ord eri n g t h e st on e , and t h e const ru cti on of the” temp lat es wi n be
h an d o f con s i derabl e use W e
.
comm en d th e b
. oo k t o t h e en gi ne eri n gprofeasi om — B u tl d i ng N ews .
W in b e re gard ed b y c”l vi l e ee rs as ot th e u tmost vahm aud calculat sd t o save much ti me

‘
and ob vi at e many mi sta ke s Gu a rdi a n.

.
C IVIL E NGINEE RING S UR VE YING . , etc . 43
O bl i q u e B r i d ges.
A PRA CT ICA L A ND THE ORE TI CA L E SSA YON OB LI UE
B RID G E S W i th 1 3 l arge P l ates By t h e la t e G ao a o a W ar son c os ,
. .
-
F ourt h E d i ti on , re v i sed by h i s S on , 1 H W a r s on B u o x, . .
an d wi th t h e a d di ti on of D e sc ri p ti on t o D i agrams for F aci li mtm th e C on

st ru ct i on of Obli q u e Bri d ge s, b y W H Bannow, Roy vo. rat c l
. . . . .
"
T h e st and u d mxt -book mr ah en ne u s rega rdh g sk ew u ch. i s M r Buck s tre ati se. aad i t
i
’
g
would be i mpossi b le t o consul t a b ett er —E rwi n err .
~
.
“
M r Bu ck s m ad n b n cogl un d as a smn da rd teat -booh hi s t reatment has di vest ed th e an d
'
.
ot man of t he i u t ri cs ci e s su‘
) posed to b e lo ng t o i t As a gu i d e t o th e engi neer snd arch i
”—
fi
.
tact . on a con i e edly di fi cul t subi ect . M r. Bu ck s work i s unsu rp assed. M i ng N ews.
'
Ca s t an d W r ou g h t I r on B r i d g e C o n s t r u c t i on
COMPLE TE PRA C TICA L TRE A TISE CAS T
.
A A ND ON
O
A N D WR UG H T I R N B RI D GE O
S R UC I N
F oun da ti ons In T h ree P art s T h eoreti ca l , P racti ca , an d —
ncl u di ng I ron C ON T
l
T O i
if
. esc r t i ve . By
W i nni au H ou s aa , an d T h i rd E i ti ou . Re
vi sed au d mu c h i m prov ed wi t h u s D ou l e P l a t e s (so oi whi c h n e w fi rst
b
app ear i n t h i s edi ti on ) , an n u merou s A ddi t i ons to th e T ext In Two Vol s. . .
i mp 4 to. £6 1 6s 6d hal f-bou n d i n morocco

. . . .
I r on B ri d g es.
IRON BRIDGE S OF MODE RA TE S PA N Th e i r C on st ruc .
t i on a n d E rec ti on B H a na n t o n W e ap o n P a n n a a p , l at e In sp ec tor of
.
-
Iron work t o t h e S a l i ot C orp orati on W 1 th 4o Il l u st ra ti ous . t ame . as c l o t h

—
. .
,
“ ”
S t u d e n ts an d en gi n eers sh oul d obta i n th i s b ook for const an t an d p racti cal use C o1h ery .
G u a rd i a n .
O bl i q u e A r c h es .
A PRA C TICA L TRE A TISE ON TH E CONSTR UCTION OF
OB i LI UE A RC H E S . By Joa n B ar r . Thi rd Ed i ti on . wi th Pl ates. Im
pe r al vo. 83 cl oth ..
S ta t i c s, Gr a p h i c and A naly t i c.
GRA PHIC A N D ANA L YTIC thei r P racti ca l A ppaS TA TICS i , n
ca ti on to t he Treatmen t of S tresses i n R00 3 , S ol id Gi rd ers. L att i ce B owstn n g
i ers, an d ot h er Fra meworks
a n d S u s en si on B ri dges, B raced I ron A rc es an
d P .
C on ta i u m g D i agrams a n d P l a t e s t o S c al e
.
B R u n son G a s a s a , C E
. . . .
i t h n u merou s E xam l e a, man y t ak e n from e xi sti n g S tru ct ure s S pe c i al l y .
arran ge d for C la ss-wor i n C ol l e ges an d Uni ve rsi ti es S ec on d Ed i ti on , Re .
v i sed an d E n larged . 8 v e . xos . c l oth .
mm
m
a o
“
T h e work i s excallent fi om a n d cal p ol n t of vi e w, and h n evi deu ti y bem wi th
. gm
mu ch ca re T h e di re ct i on s for wo k g are ampl e , an d are ill ust rat ed by an ah”n u well
hook for th e practi cal draug h t sman .
sel ec t ed exampl es. It i s an excell en t tea t -
G i r d er s, S t r en g t h of.
GRA PHIC TABL E FOR FA CIL ITA TING TH E COMP UTA
O O
.
TI N OF TH E WE I GH TS OF WR O UG IE I T IR N A N D S TE EL
G IRD E RS , etc , for P arl i a me n tary a n d oth er Esti mates
. By I H . . . W arson
B u c x, On a S h ee t . as 64 . .
S t r a i n s, C a l cu l a t i on of.
A HAND Y BOO K F OR TH E CA LC ULA TIO N OF STRA INS
I N G IRD E RS A N D S I M IL A R S TR UC TURE S , A N D TH E I R S TRE N G TH .
C on si s ti n g of F ormu l a an d C orrespo n di n g D i a m e, Wi t h n u merou s det ai l s

for P ract i cal A p pl i ca ti on , &c B W XL L t a u (Ju an a, A . ao.
F i ft h Ed i ti on C rown 8 v o. n ear y we W oodcut s an d 3 P l a tes , 73 . M cl ot h .
. .
l i s h M ech a n i c.
u O
ca oss r L C K moon s SON S CA TA LOG UE
’
.
M es .
TR USS ES or oon A N D I w P ractica l Ap l i cati ons la; R ON
g
.
S ci ence i n D etermen i n g t he S tresses. B rea ki n g Wei ghts. S al e L S oantl i ngs

b
,
and D eta i l s o C onstruct i on wi th C o mp l et e Worki n g D rawi n gs y W rnu a se

,
. ,
C ai rn ru e, urv e y o r A ssi st an t M aster, T rai ners School o i Sci ence an d

-
.
O bi ou 8 vo . 4s 64 cl ot h
ms w m
A rt
mw
m
. . . .
fl m “W
2
. m rm
S tr a i n s i n I r on wor k.
TH E STRAINS ON STR U CTUR ES OF IRON WO RK wi t h

Prac ti cal Remark s on Iron C on s tru c ti on B y F W . S a m oa. l d ust C E.
. . . .
S ec on d Edi ti on . wi th P l a tes R o al 8 v o. sr cl oth .

y —EW
. .
I hé student cann ot and a

“
tt e e li tt le
'
on thi s sub ect. j .
B a r l o w s S t ren gt h of M a t er i a l s , en l a r g e d by H m n ber
’
Tf R N T T R L
.
A TR E A ISE ON THE ST E G H OF MA E IA S :
wi th Rul es or A pp l i ca ti on i n Arc h i tectu re . th e C onst ructi on of Bus si on
B ri d ges Rail way s ao B y Pa r t : Ba nnow T HIS A N e w Ed i ti o n . ev i s ed
.
by h i s Son s 9
.
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d en ts : Thei r C a us e a nd P reven ti on : a nt h a D escr ti on M odern A fi l i a nces
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ueu on rai lway mstt ers wlll h d s pe rte ct ency clo Re a m
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N N .
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ot h er st ru ct u res . i s a l au dab l e on e . for t hi s i s a b ran c h of p h y s i cs u pon wh i ch t h e en gi n eer or arc hi

t ect can fi nd bu t li tt l e rel i ab l e an d c om reb eussv e dat a i n boo Bu i l der . —
W h oever i s con cerned t o kn ow t e e ffec t o f c h an ges o f t emperat u re ’on such stru ctn ret a
suspe nsi on bri dges an d th e li k e. c oul d not d o b et ter t h an con mi t ” M r. K e ll y s vahi ab i e and h a ndy
exposi t i on of t h e g eome t ri cal pri nci p l es i n vol ve d la t h ees ch anges. 4 eetrn ee n .
F i e l d F or t i fl c a t i on .
A TRE A TISE ON FIE L D FO R T IFICA TIO N TH E A I T A or
FO T RE C O N OI T
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P R RESS S ME . M NG A
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CR OSB Y L OC K W OOD 0 S ON S CA TA L ’
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THE POPULAR WORKB OF NIOIMEL REYNOLDS

T n a E n e ma D arva s a P u s an l
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L oco m o ti ve E n g i n e D i i vi n g
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.
. .
t rat i on s an d P ort rai t oi A u t h or C rown 8 vo es 64 cl oth .
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TH E MODE L
LOCOMOTI VE E NGINEE R FIRE MA N , ,
and
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n i cal k i nd. an d ri v er sh o u l d b e famili ar wi t

act s t
at e ve ry h. ng l i eh M ech a n i c.
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“
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W a sh oul d b e glad t o see th i s boo k i n t h e p o"ssea l on ot e veryone i n t he ki ngd om
ev e r la i d. or i s t o l ay , i n n ds on a loc omo ti ve engi ne . l n n.
wh o h as
C on ti us R ilw y Bnuo k a a ra es .
CONTINUOUS RA IL WA Y B RA KE S A P racti cal Trea ti se on
:
t h e several Sy stems i n Use i n t he Un i ted K i ngdom t hei r C ons tructi on an d
P erforma nce W i t h c Op i ou s Ill ust ra ti on s an d n umerou s T abl es. B y M rc n u r.
.
R av a ow s. L arge c rown 8 vc . or cl oth . .
pul ar explanati on ot th e di il eren t brak es It wi ll be ol t assi stanoe i u form

‘ '
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o p i n i om n r -t i n the bea k er gs
.
d will be smdi ed wi t h b en d s by th oee wh o ta ke an

M ech a n i c .
En g i n e - D r i vi n g L i fe .
E NGINE DR IVING L IFE - S ti rri n A dventures and I nci den ts

i t h L i f L o com o t i ve -E n i ne D ri vers
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F rom fi rst t o last perfe ct l y fasci nat i ng W i l k i e C olli us s most th ri lli ng concep t i ons are th rown
'
—N orth Br i t ta M a i l
.
1 nt o t h e sh a d e b y t ru e i nci den t s. e n dl ess i n th e i r va ri e t y, rel at e d i n every .
“
A n one wh o wi sh es t o ge t a re d i nsi gh t i n t o rai l ws li fe cannot o the r th an read E
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'
' ’
l ove of t h e e ngi ne -dri vi ng p rofessi on wi ll earry bi n ou ti ll h e h as read every page.

"
& a er day k eo tew — .
P oc k et C om p a n i on for E n g i n e m en .
T H E E N G IN E M A N S
’
POC KE T COMPA NION AND PR A G
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TI C A L E D UC A T R F OR E N G I NE M E N , B IL ER A TTE ND A N TS ,
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s t ron gl y b ou n d for p oc k et wea r .
T h i s ad mi rabl e work i s well m i t ed t o acoompli sh i ts obj e ct , bei ng the h on est work mansh lp ol
a compet en t engi n ed
—Gl a sgow H era l d .
"
A most meri t ori ous work vi ng i n a su cci nct an d practi cal i orm ali t h a i nformat i on sn mi gi ne
.
mi nd qr ded rou s of m aster i n g sci en ti fi c pr i n c i pl es o t hi s dai l y ca lli n g w o u i d r e q u i re

”
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b oou t o th ose who are st rlvl ng o b scome efi d ent mechani cs. ” —D et b C h m i d e.

MA RINE E NGINEE RING NA VIGA TION , , etc . I7
M A R INE E N G I NEE R I N G , S H I P B U IL D I N G ,
N A VI G A T I O N , et c .
P oc ke t - B o ok for N a va l A r ch i t e c t s a n d S h i p b u i l d e r s,
TH E N A VA L A RCHI TE CT ’
S AND S H I P E UIL D E R S
’
P OC K E T B OOK o F om ul a , R u i es, a nd Tabl es.an d M A R I NE E NG INE E R S

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'
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’
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In t h es e da y s of advan c e d k n owl e dg e a work li k e thi s i s of t he great est va lu e l t con ta i ns a .
va st amo u n t of i n fo rma ti on W e u n h es i t a ti ng say t h at i t i s t h e most val u able comp i la t i on fo r i ts

it
.
spe c i fi c p u rp ose t h at has e ve r be e n p ri n t e d O nav al arc h i t e ct , e n gi n ee r su rv e y or, or

wood o r i ron sh i pb ui l de r, ca n a fford t o be wi th ou t t h i s work —N a i et i ea t M a g a z i n e
.
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be fo un d t o con ta i n t h e most m e i u l ta b e s an d form u la re u i re d b y sh i p b i i i l d e rs. ca re fu ll y c o l lec t ed

'
from t he best a ut ho ri ti es. an d u t t oge th e r i n a p o p ul ar an d si m l e i orm —A ng rn eer

" ‘
. .
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sol vi man y oi th e n ume rou s p rob le ms th a t p re se n t t h emse l v es i n t h e co urse of hi s work —Ir on
‘
‘
n h e re i s n o d ou ot t h at a c k et boo k o f t h i s d esc ri p t i on mu st b e a n ' c r sc i tv i n t h e sh i p
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—
.
,
p resen t ed i n a h an d y form M a rsn e E ng i n ee r

"
. .
M a ri n e E n gi n e er i n g .
MA RINE E N GIN E S A N D S TE A M VE S S E LS (A T rea ti s

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S e n i or S u rv e y o r t o th e B oa rd o f T ra d e a t L i v e rp ool ramo. 5 s c l o t h boa rd s . . .
W ell ada pt e d t o g i v e th e y omw st ea msh l p en gi n ee r or mari ne eng i ne an d bol i er mak er a

m al i n t rod u ct i on i n t o h i s p ra c t i ca l wo rk - M ei h a n i ea l W or l d
"
.
We fee l su re t h at t h i s t h orou g hl y re vi sed ed i t i on wi l l c on t i n u e t o b e as p op u l ar i n t h e fu t u re

as i t h as been i n t h e pl m
l i i for ll a si aeJ t con t ai ns more use i hl i n forma ti o n t h an a i
y sun i la r
A s a c ompe n di o us an d u se fu l gu id e t o en ne e rs of ou r me rcan ti l e an d roy al 0 “ d serv i “ a

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T h e i n orn a ti on gi v en i s bo t h so u n d an d sensi bl e . an d well q uali fi ed t o di rect y ou n sea

g
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M on . draugh tsmen . and y ou ng engh i e ers.

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Gl a H er a ld .
M ost useful t o t o rv ey o rs ,
— m
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E n g l i s h -F r e n c h D i c t i on a r g of S e a T er m s
TE CHNICA L DI C TIONA R Y TE RMS
.
OF S E A , P H RA SE S
A N D W OR D S US E D IN T H E E N GL IS H G F RE NC H L A N G UA G E S .
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l
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P i a R i E , l a te of t h e Ai rman S tea mshi p C omp an y . Fca p 8 vo. 5 s c l ot h i mp

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p
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. .
o wn e rs.
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. .
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A v e ry d i c ti on a ry , wh i c h h as l ong be e n wan t e d by
u se fu l F re nch an d E n gli sh e ngi n ee rs .
mast e rs , ofi ce rs an d ot h e rs
"
. W or l d .
P o el ec t - B oo kf or M a ri n e E n gi n e er s .
A P OC K ET-B OOK OF US E F UL TA B L E S A N D F OR
M UL / E F OR M A RI N E E N GI NE E RS B y F RA N R P RO C T O R. A L N A . .
T h i rd E di ti on Roy al samo, l ea th er, gi l t e d ge s, wi t h st rap , 4s

. .
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d i e on t h m g m t f b il d i —N a u t i asl M a n n i n g
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o n e ana e en o o e rs a n e n g nes .
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M I N I N G A N D M E TA L L URG Y . 2!
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K IN GD OM C omp ri si n g a D escri p ti on of th e C oal F i eld s, an d of t h e
.
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t h e Ri se an d P rogre ss of Pi g I ron M an n ac t ure B y c rra a n M ean s , A ssi stant .
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G ol d E x tr a c t i on ;
T H E C YA N ID E P ROC E S S OF GOLD E X TRA C TION an d
i ts P rac t i ca l A pp l i cat i on on t h e W i t wa t e rsra n d G ol d F i el ds i n S o u t h A fri ca .
B y M E rs su n , M E . M em In s t M i n i n g an d M et al l u rgy . A u t h or of T h e
. . . . .
M e t al l u rgy of G ol d , &c W i t h D i a gra ms an d W ork i n g D rawi n gs

"
. L arge .
c rown 8 vo . 7s 64 c l ot h (j us t pu bl i s hed
q
. . . .
T h i s b ook i s j u st wh at was n ee de d t o ac u ai nt mi n i n men wi th t he act u al work i ng o f a p ro

'
wh i c h i s n ot on] t h e most popu l ar b ut i s as a gen ru l e . t h e most successi ul for t h e e xt rac

t i on of gol d from tail h —
. .
w sf M i n i ng y ou m a z .
“
Th e wo rk wi ll p rove i n val uaMe t o all i n te res t ed i n gold mi n i ng. wh e th e r me tall u rgi sts or as
”—
i nvest ors C l rem s¢u l N ews
. .
S i l v er , M e t a l l u r gy of.
TH E M E TA L L URG Y OF S IL VE R A P racti cal T rea t i se on
th e A mal gam a t i on , Roas t i n g, an d L i xi v i a t i on of S il v er O res. i n cl u di n g t h e
Assa n g, M e l ti n g an d Re fi n i n g, of S i l v er B u l l i on
i B M E rs sn n n , A u t h or
q a
. .
0f I‘
h e M et all urgy of G ol , ao d "
T hi rd Edi ti on . i t h 1 5 0 i l l u strat i o ns
. .
C rown 8 v o. roe 6d cl ot h [J u st pu bl i shed

m
. . . .
A p ra ct i cal treati se, an d a t e ch n i cal wo rk whi ch we are con vi n ced will su s l on g -fe l t wan t
mE t rec ti on! me n. an d at th e sa me t i me be ot val ue t o st u dent s an d ot h ers

’
ect ly connec te d
d u stri es —
an
M m i n,g ? ou m a l
—
"
vi . .
”
F rom fi rst t o i sst t h e book i s t h o roug hly soun d an d rel i abl e C ol l i er7 Gu a r d i a n . .
“
F or ch e mi st s. p ract i cal mi n ers . assay e d an d i n v est ors alik e. we do n ot k now of an y work ,
on t h e su bi e ct so l n nd y and yet so compreh ensi ve . - G l a sgn

"
l { eve i d.
L ea d , M e t a l l u r gy of
TH E M ETA L L UR G Y OF A R G E N TI F E R O US L E A D : A
P rac t i c al T re ati se on th e S me l t i n g of S i l v e r-L e ad Ores and t h e Re fi n i n g of
L ead B u l l i on . In cl ud i n g Re p or ts on v ari o u s S me l ti n g E sta b li sh m en ts an d
Descri pt i on s of Mod ern S me l ti n F urnace s an d P l an ts i n E urope an d
A m e ri ca B y M E rs sn s n M E , u t h e r of T h e M e tal l urgy of G ol d . &c.
“ "
. . .
C rown 8 v o. 4 0 0 pp , wi t h r§3 i l l ust ra ti on s , u s 64 cl oth

.
. . . .
Th e nu me rous meta ll ur al p rocesses wh i ch are i uil y an d ext en si v e ly treat ed of emb race

all th e st age s e xpe ri e nc ed i n gg .
p assage of t h e l e ad from t h e va ri o us natural stat es to i ts i ssu e

.
from t h e re fi ne ry as an art i c l e of c ommerce —P m et wa l E ng i n eer

"
. .
T h e p re se nt v ol u me full y ma i n t a i ns t h e rep u t at i on of t h e aut h or Th ose wh o wi sh t o obt ai n .
t h orou gh i n si gh t i n t o th e pre se n t st a t e of t h i s mdu st can not d o bett er t h an re ad t h i s v ol ume .

—
a
a n d all mi n i ng en gi n e e rs cann ot ai f l t
o fi n d m any u se fu l i n t s an d su ggest i ons i n i t
"
l n d u s t r res . .
i t i s most care fu ll y wri t t e n an d i llu st ra ted wi t h c a pi tal d rawi ngs and di a grams In fac t i t i s .
t h e work of an e xpert for expe rt s. by wh orn i t wi l l be p ri s ed as an h dl sp en ss bl e te xt

B ri s tol M ercu ry .
I r on M i n i n g .
TH E IR ON ORE S OF G R E A T B R ITA IN A N D I R E L A N D
Th ei r M ode of Occurren ce , A ge , an d Ori n , an d t h e M et h ods of S e archi n g
for an d W orki n g t h e m, wi t h a N ot i c e 0 s ome of th e i ron Ores o f S p ai n .
By JD Ks u n ana ,
. . M i n i n g E n gi n e er C rown 8 vo. r6s cl oth . . .
T h e aut h or h as a t h orough p racti ca l k n owl e d e of h i s su b ect , a n d ha s su ppl e men t ed a care

!u i st u dy of t he ava il abl e l it e ratu re by un pu bl i sh e d fo rm at i on ed from h is own o bse rva t i ons .
T h e resu l t i s a ve ry usefu l v ol u me wh i ch cannot fai l t o be ol val ue t o all i n t erest e d m t h e i ron

'
—
”
"
h a nt of t he coun t ry l n d n st n es
u r K e n dal l is a
. .
m
at au th ori t y on th i s su bj ect an d wri t es from personal observati on :
C oll i ery G u a rdi a n .
M r K e n dall s book i s t h orou gh l y we ll d on e

. In i t th ere are th e outl i n es of th e bi st o of .
ore mi ni n g i n e v er ce nt re an d t h ere i s e v e ry t h i n g t h at we wan t t o k n ow as t o t he ch arac t e r 0 t h e

y —
o res of e ac h d i st n ct . t h e i r comme rc i al val u e an d t h e cost of worki ng t h em 1 m a n d St eel
Tra der j our n a l .
24 CROSB Y LOCK WOOD b S ON S C ’
A TA LOG UE .
N ew D i y
cti on a r y o f E l e c t r i ci t
TH E S TA ND A R D E L EC TR I CA L DIC TIO N A R Y
.
A P p . o u.
fW m U d
n eeri n
A M g .
C
l ar D i c t i on ar y
A .
w
A m
h D
fi i
T
&
u t h o r ofC ww
“
o
on t ai n i n g u p a rd s of
The
T er s
ri t h
se i n t h e Prac t i ce of E l ec t ri ca l En gi
ord s a n d
D e n i ti o n s B y
e ti c of E l ec t r ci t y .
"
’
O C onnor S
c ro
a ns .
n 8 v o.
. .
.
, .
630 p p .
, 3 50 Il l u st ra t i on s , 7s 6d c l ot h . .
[fi rst pu bl i shed.
.
T h e work h as man y att ra ct i ve feat u res i n i t . an d i s be y on d d ou bt . a we ll p ut t oge t h e r an d

usefu l u bl i c at i on T h e am ou n t of gro u n d c o ve re d ma y be gat h e re d fro m t h e fa ct t ha t i n t h e
.
i n de x a ut re fe re n ces wi ll be foun d T h e i n c l u si o n o f su c h c on i p arat i ve l mod e rn words

.
as i rn pe d c J re l u c ta n c e . & c , sh ows t h at t h e au t h or h as d esi re d t o be u p t o at e . an d i n dee d

‘ ’
e n e .
t h ere a re o th e r i n d i ca t i ons of care fu l n e ss of c om p i l a t i on T h e wo rk is o n e whi c h d oes t h e au t h or

.
d d i h l d f l l ! d E l ¢ d n a rl 12m m
‘
g ree t c re i t an t s ou p ro v e o g re a t v a u e es p e ci a t o st u e n t s -
”—
, . .
V e ry comp le t e an d c on t ai n s a l a rg e amou n t of i i i i i i n format i on I n d sss tm r . .
A n en cl o la of e le ct ri cal sc i e n ce i n t h e com of a d i c t i on a ry .
i s s ou n an cl ea r T he b ook i s we ll p ri n t ed . we ll ust ra t e d . an d we ll u p to d at e , an d may

"—
.
con fi d e nt l y re c ommen d ed B m ld¢ r . .
T h e v ol u me i s e xce ll e n t l y p ri n t e d an d i ll u st rat e d. an d sh ou l d fo rm o f t h e li b rary of

e very on e wh o i s conne ct e d wi t h e l e ct ri ca l ma t t e rs
'
11 ¢ r dwo re Tr a de ou rs-cl . .
—
E l e ct Li h ti g of Shi ps
ELEC TRIgS H IR L I G H TI N G
n .
A H an d b oo k on t h e P rac t i cal
Fi tt i n g an d R u n n i n g of S hi p s El ect ri ca l P l a n t F or t h e Use of S h i pown e rs
B
u i l d ers , M ari n e E l ec t ri c i an s an d S e a - goi n g E n gi ne e rs-i h - h ar ge
’
.
C
an d
J . W . U a i ra a r, C E W i t h 8 8 Il l ustra t i o n s '
. rown 8 v o . 7s 64 c l ot h
.
By
T h e su b e ct of sh i p e l ec t ri c l h ti n g i s on e of vast i m rt an ce i n t h ese d ay s and M r U rq u

,
. C . .
.
i g
i g
o
. .
h a rt i s t o be h gh l y com l i men t e d o r p lac i ng su ch a rai na h work at t h e se rvi ce of th e p ract i ca l

mari n e e l e ct ri c i an "
e S tea m s h ip . r .
Di st in ct ! a b ook whi c h of i ts ki n d stands al most al o ne , an d for wh i c h th ere sh ould be

—
a
d eman d ”
E ct r-
. i t a l Rm .
yH
C ou n tr El t i L i gh t i g ou s e ec r c n
ELEC TRIC LIG H T FOR CO UN TR Y H O USES A P t i l
.
ra c ca
H k m w
w
C a n d b oo
W k
t i c u l ars of t h e J H C on t h e E rec t i on a n d R u n n i n g of S
o st of P l an t an d or i n g By .
al l
.
In s t a l l a t i on s ,
.K u i o i -i r
i t h p ar
row n av o.
u bl i shed
.
rs. ra p pe r . [j p u st .
Me t i L i gh t i g
c r c n
THE ELEM ENTA RY P R INCIP LES OF ELECTRIC LIG HT
.
A C wm A T
IN G By An n
C w S ssoc i a t e l E E h i rd E d i t i on .
‘
. . an t e en . ro n . . . .
W
E n l a rge d an d R e v i se d . i t h 1 6 I l l u s t ra t i o n s. ro n 8 v o . rs 6d cl ot h . . .
ne wh o d esi res a sh ort and th oroug hl y cl e a r e x ti on o f t he el emen “ p ri nci p les of

fi wm
"
An
g
el ectr i c-li h ti n g ca nno t d o be tte r t h an read t hi s li tt l e m '
r 0 03m .
D y m i E l t i i ty
n a c ec r c
THE EL EM EN TS OF YNA M IC ELECTRI CITY
.
D AND
M A G N E TIS M B y P i n u p A T K N S O N , A M . P h D , A u t h or of T h e E l e
.
m en ts of E l ec tri c Li gh ti n g. &c C r 8 v o, wi t h n o Il l u s t rat i ons , ros 6d cl

"
I . . . .
“
. . . . .
E l e c tr i c M o t or s , &c
THE ELEC TRIC TRA NS FORM A TION OF P O WER d i t
.
w C
an s
A M
p p l i ca t i on b y t h e E l ec t ri ci o tor, i n c l u d i n g E l ec tr i c Ra i l ay o n s tr uc t on .
m M A m . Ph D , u t h or o f Th e E l e e n t s of E l ec tri c L i gh t
C w
B y P A r x so n , A '
. . . .
Wi n g, ao i th 96 Il l u st ra t i o n s
l ro n 8 v o. 7s 6d c ot h
Dy
. . . . .
mo C n a t ti on s r u c on .
H 0 W TO M A KE A D YNA M O A P ti l T ti f A m t rac ca rea a eu rs.

C
ss or
m
C on t a i n i n n u e ro u s Il l u s tra t i on s an d D e t ai l e d In s truc t i on s for on s t ru ct
m m Aw
F “
C w
i n g a S a l D y n a o. t o P rod u c e t h e E l e c t ri c L i gh t
i ft h E di t i on , Re v i s ed an d E n l ar e d ro
By
n 8 v o . as c l ot h
a s h C ao n s
T h e i nst ru ct i ons gi ve n i n t h is u n p re t en ou s li t tl e boo k are su fli ci en t l y cl ear and e xp li ci t t o

.
.
. .
.
ena bl e an y ama teu r mec h an i c p oss e ss e d of av erage sk i ll an d t h e usu al tool s t o be fou nd i n en

amat eur s worksh o p . t o b ui ld a p rac t i cal d y namo me chi ne .
"
T oast B o ok of E l ec t r i ci t
THE S T UD EN T S ’
TE X B OOK OF ELEC TRI CIT Y By
C
-
.
M 630 p age s . wi t h 470 Il l u st ra ti on s

C w
H
ro
N oa n , F R
a n si rS
n 8 v o, 93 cl o t h
.
.
.
.
. . . h e aper E di ti on
[j ust pu bl i shed .
.
El ect r i c i t y .
A MA N UA L OF ELECTRICIT Y : Incl udi ngGa l vani m , M
neti sm. D i e -M a gneti sm, E l ect ra-Dy na mi c s B y H ana! M Now , Ph D E R
F o urt h E di t i on (i 8 59) . 8 v o. £1 at cl ot h . .
. . .
A RCH ITE C T URE . B UI D IN G . L si c. 25
AR C HITE C T U RE , B U IL D IN G , e t c.
B u i ldig C o t ti
n ns ru c on .
P R A C TI CA L B U I L D ING CONS TR UCTI ON A H an db ook
for S p i
Bi
P e rso n s E n gage i n
d
x m
A
B k
tu d en ts Pre ar n g for E a i n a t i on s, an
d
u l di n g
S
a oo of Re fere n ce for
urve y or, L ec tu re r on
:
B C wi h
u i l di n g
sv a , 4 5 0 es .
m C
1
t
fS i
on struc t i on a t t h e D urh a
l h
N
B y 0 8 1! P
Ill us tra t i ons

ol l ege o
nt e s ,
res 6d c ot
c en ce,
.
e wc as t l e M edi u m
ust pu bl i shed .
.
. . .
.
Th i s v ol ume on e of th e most comp let e e xposi t i on s of bui l dhi g c onst ru n we h av e seen .
It c onta i ns all t h at i s necessary to pre pare st ud en ts for t he va ri ous exami nati ons i n bu i ldi n g con
B u i l d i n g N ews
"
st ru ct i o n. .
“
T he d epen ds n ear!y as m u ch on h i s d i ag rams as ou hi s ty p e T h e p es s
a u t h or
— n
.
t h e h an d of a man of e xp eri e n ce i n b u ildi n g op e rati ons an d t h e vol u me must u l ess t

man y t ea c h e rs as wel l as t o st u den ts Th e A r ch i teJ . .
T h e work i s sure t o p rov e a fo rmi d a bl e ri val t o gre at an d small comp et i t ors ali k e . an d bi d s
fa i r t o ta k e a p e rman e n t p lac e as a fa v ou ri t e stu d e n ts t e xt -b ook T h e large n u mb e r of ill u st ra ’
.
t i ons d e se rve pa rt i cu l ar men ti on for t h e t ea t me ri t t h ey p ossess for p urposes of refere nc e , i n e x

act l y corresp on d i ng to conveni ent scales
’
? ou r I n st B ri t A r ch es —
y
. . . . .
M a son r
P R A C TI CA L M A S ONRY A G u i de t o t h e A rt of S ton e C u t
C h C
:
ting m i S e t t i n g-Ou t . an d W orki n g o f S t ai rs ,
C w &W k h h N h
.
i rc u l a r
o
or , Arc es ,
p r si n g t e o n s t ru c t i on ,
i c e s, D o me s , P e n d en t i v es , Va u l t s , Tra cery W i n
se of S t u d e n t s , M as on s an d ot h er W or kme n
W I LL I A
d o s, F or t e
U B
y
c .
B
.
M R P u n c u a ss . .u i l d i n g In s pe c t or t o t h e To wn of H ov e Roy a .
8 v o . I 3 4 p age s, i n cl u i n g 50 L i t h ograp h i c P l at e s (abou t 40 0 se p arat e D i a

d
gram s ) , 7s 6d cl o th [ j
.
. . . u st pu bl i s he d .
T h e ill ust rat i ons are wel l t h oug h t o u t an d cl ear T h e vol ume places wi t h i n re ac h of t h e p ro .
fes si onal mason many use ful dat a fo r sol vi n g t h e p roble ms wh i ch p resen t t h emsel ves da y by day
'
—
.
G l a sg m H er a ld .
Th e N ew B ’
ui l d er s P r i ce B o o k, 1 8 9 6 .
LOCK WOOD S ’
B UIL D ER '
S P RICE BOO K F OR 1 8 96 . A
C ompreh en si v e H an d book of t h e L at est P ri ce s an d D at a for u i l de rs , B
Arc h i tec ts, E n gi n eers, an d on tract ors B y P u tt ers T W M i ne r s .
c l ose l y -p ri n t ed p ages , crown 8 v o. 4s c l ot h
C .
.
.
. .
Th i s book i s a very u seful on e an d sh ou l d fi n d a p lac e i n every Engli sh ofi ce conn ect ed wi th

rofessi ons —I n d u rt ri es
,
t h e bu il di ng an d en ri ng
—
. . .
"
A n e xce ll e n t ook of A r cl i i ted
—c omp re
e ren ce . .
In i t s n e w an d re v i sed form t hi s Pri ce Boo k i s wh at a work of thi s ki nd sh oul d l i e

”—
hensi ve , reli abl e, well arrange d, legi bl e , an d wel l b oun d 8 r i t i s h A reh i tsd . .
N ew L on d on B ui ldi n g A ct , 1 8 94.
TH E LOND ON UI LD ING A C T
B 8 94 : wi t h t h e B y -L a ws
C ty C
, 1
an d
CB R e gu l ati on s o
a se s an d In de x .
f th L d
C w 8
By A
e
x J D m DA u
on
.
on
.
ou n
av
o un ci l , a n d In t rod uc t i on , N ot es ,
L L M of th e Inn er Te rn l e .
i ust pu bl i s a:
. . .
a rri st e r-a t - L a w
z
. ro n 6d l th
v o . 3s . . c o .
M r Da vi d s man ual w l be wel come

‘
T o al l arch i tec ts an d di st ri ct surve y ors an d b u il de rs. . .
B u i ld i n g N ews
—l l l urtrrst rd
.
“
T h e v ol ume wi l l doub tl ess b e eage r!y consu l t ed by t h e bull di ng fra terni ty
C a rpent er a n d B u i l der .
CONCRE TE N A T URE
'
11 s
'
AN D US ES A B ook for
Archi te cts
S U TC LI
FF E,
, B u i l d ers , C on tract ors ,
C l er ks of W orks
ro wn 8 v 0 , 73 6d c l ot h
an d
.
C . .
.
. B G s o ao a L
ust l u hed
.
T h e au t h or t re ats a di fii cu l t su b ec t i n a l u c id man n e r T h e manu al fi ll s . a on g ga p e lt

It .
”
ca re fu l an d e xha u st i ve e q ual ly u se ui as a st u d e n t s gu i de an d a arch i t ect book of refe re n ce
'
.
? ou rn a l Qf R oy a l I nd i an a ’s o/ B r i t slrh A r ch d ed s
‘
- .
Th ere i s roo m fo r t h i s n e w book , wh i ch wil l p ro babl y be for some ti me t h e sta n da rd work on

th e su bj e c t fo r a bu i l d e r s p u rp ose —Gl a s
' "
H er a l d
—
. .
A t h orough l y use ful an d comp re h e v e work

”
8 r i i'i rh A n h d‘ed . .
M e c h a n i cs fo r A r c h i t e c t s
THE M ECHA NICS OF A RCHI TECT URE
.
: A T rea t i se on
Ap p li ed M ech an i c s, es l a l l y Adap ted to th e Use of Archi t ect s Bv E W . . .
T u tu , M A Au th or Th e S c i en ce of B u ll d i n &c S e con d Edi ti on ,

i l l u s t w i th
. . .
E n l a rged . rag D i agrams . C r avo . 73 c l oth [j ust pu bl i shed . . . . .
Th e book i s a ve ry useful an d h el p ful manu al of arc hi t ect u ral mech an i cs. an d real l y cont ai ns
su fi cl en t t o e na b le a ca re fu l and pai nst aki n g st u d en t t o p t h e p ri n ci pl es beari u p on t h e ma
j o i of bui l di ng p robl ems M r T arn h as adde by t h i s v ol u me t o t h e de of grat i tu de
wi i z
. . ,
i s o wi n g t o h i m by archi tectural st u d en ts for t h e man y val ua bl e work s whi c h h e h as pro
d u ced fo r t he i r use ”
Tl i e B u i lder
.
— .
“
Th e mec han i cs i n th e vol ume a re re all mecha n i cs, an d are h armon i ou sl y wrough t i n wi th
t he di sti nct i ve professi onal manner p roper t o t su bj ect .
— Th e S chool rnas ter .
26 CROSB Y LOCK WOOD Go S ON S C A
’
TA L OG UE .
D es i g ni n g B ui l di n g s.
TH E D ES IG N OF
B UI L D I N G S Be i n g E l e men t ary N ot e s
on t h e P l ann i n g. S ani t a t i on an d O rn amen t i v e
on M od ern P rac t i c e
ormat i on of S t ru ct u res b ased
Il l ust ra t ed wi t h N i n e ol d i n g Pl at es
. B y W W oo n
F
F C .
. .
L E Y, Ass i st an t M as t er, M e tropoli t an D ra wi n g l a sses, &c 8 v o. 6s cl ot h . . .
Si r Wm C h a m b er s ’
s T r ea ti s e on Ci vi l A r ch i t e ct u r e.
THE D ECORA TI VE R T OF CI VIL RCHITEC T RE
.
PA A U
W I LL I A C
.
W i th P ort rai t , Il l u strati on s. Not e s. an d

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an i n e s.
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. .
rec i an Ar ch i t ec t u r e , b y JO S E P H w n r. F S A Re vi sed
.
'
. . .
y . . .
Vi l l a A r ch i t e ct u r e .
A HA ND Y B OOK OF VILLA A RCHITECT URE : B ei ng a
S eri es of D esi gns for Vi l l a Res i den ces i n va ri ous S ty les W i th O u tl i n e
fi
S pec i cati on s an d E sti mate s
S i re s an d Towers of En gl an d. &c
"
By W i c xa s , Archi t e c t, Au t h or of T h e
“
61 Pl a tes . 4 to . 1 u s 6d h al f-moroc co
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.
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. . . .
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wh ol e
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?
of t he
‘
arti st i c arc hi t ect . an d
—
‘0
wi l l p ro ve v ery val uab le and sugge snv e. "
B u i l di ng
Tex t -B
o o k fo r A r c h i t e c t s.
THE RCHITEC
A T S G U D : B ei ng a Text B ook of Usefu l I E .
-
Ia orma ti on for A rch i t ec ts, Is n gi neers S u rvey ors C on t ra ctors, C l erks 0I

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& B F
or hs. c. R oo s a s T h i rd EcLt i on
.
use ful i n formati on for arc h i t ect s. e

.
'
. C rown
.
8 v o. 33 6d . . c l ot h .
A s a t e xt -bo ok o
t o fi nd a han d l er or mo re com pl e t e li tt le vol u me S ta .
"
— n ee ra, surve y o rs.
rd .
&c .
L i n ea r P er sp e c t i v e .
A RCHI TEC T UR A L P ER S P ECTI VE Th e wh ol e C ou rse an d
O p era t i o n s t h e D rau gh t sman i n D rawi n g a L arge H ou se i n L i ne ar P e r
of
s ec t i v e Il l us t ra te d b y 4 3
d i t i on , En l a rged
. old i n g P l a t e s
8 v o . 33 6d boards
By F
. O F a nc u s ou S e c on d . F . .
. . .
(j u st pu bl i s he"d . .
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It i s t h e most i nt ell i gi bl e of t h e t re a t i ses o n t hi s i ll t reat ed su bj ect th at I h ave met Wi th -
.
IN G R ES S BE L . Es q . i n t h e R J B A You m l
g
. . . . .
A r ch i t e c tu r a l D r a wi n
RA C TI CA L R ULES
.
P ON D R A WIN G for the Operati ve B ui l der

.
a nd You n g S tud en t i n A rchi tect u re . B y G P YN E . . u P l at e s, et c . 73 6d . bd s .
Vi t r u v i u s ’
A r ch i t e ct u r e
THE A RCHITECT RE VI TR U VIUS P OLL I O
.
U of M A R C US .
Transl ate d by l o se rs! q N ew Ed i ti on , Re v i sed b y

t h e Tran sl at or
xr
W i th 23 P l at e s
,
F cap . 8 v o . 53 c l oth .
g g g d V l i g
. . .
D esi n i n , M e a s u r i n , an a u n
THE S T UD EN T S G UID E t th P RA CTICE
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f M A
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.
B w T
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E n a nn D on sou . Arc h i t ec t
C
D A TA
t i on o .
W b E W M i xth E i t on . W i th 8 P la t es
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RN , .A
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Thi s e di t i on wi ll b e fou n d t h e most comp le t e treat i se on th e pri n ci pl es of measuri ng and

.
.
.
.
val u i ng arti fi cers work t h at hm y et been p u bl i she d — B u i l di rqg N ews

'
. .
P o c ke t E s t i m a t or a n d T e c h n i c a l G u i d e.
THE P OCKE T TECHNI CA L G UID E M EA S URER AN D
T M O
M
U
W k
OR
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C
E S I A T R F OR B IL D E RS A N D S R VE Y
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u l di n g
on ta i n i n g T ec h
omp l e t e
.
.
.
fi
n i c al D i re ct i ons for
H
i
i n g t h e p art s of a B u l di n
i
d
A C B
M
T
e asu r n or i n al l t e
S p e ci cat i on s for ous es , R oa s, and D rai n s. an an easy
S
col l e c ti v e l B a rr on
rad e s,
e th od of E st i ma t
ev e n th E di t.
y y .
W ai st coat p oc ke t si ze , 1 3
. . .
l eat h e r. “ed ge s
E —
-
. .
9 N o bulld er arc hi t ect . survey or or v alue r sh o

'
. l be wi t h out hi s Beat en
. Bu i l d i ng N ews . .
D o n a l d s o n o n S e ci fl ca ti o n s .
THE HA N D B O K OF S P ECIF I CA TIONS : or. P rac ti cal
G u i de t o t h e Arch i tec t , En gi n eer. S urv e y or. an d u il der, i n d rawi ng u p B
S peci fi hat i on s an d
P rece den t s oi u i l di n gs act u a l B C
on trac t s for Work s an d
e ecu t e d b
on st ruct i on s Il l u strat ed b y
emi n en t A rc h i t ec t s an d En x C .
&c };
N ew E d i ti on
x
'
n ee rs B y P rofes sor T L
. ONAL D S ON , . . . .
v o. wi t h u p wards of p a ges of Te t an d 33 P l at es. 1 1 1 3 5d cl oth . . . .
Val uab le as a re cord and more val ua b le sti ll as a book of p reced en ts

say
.
t h at D onaldson s Han d b ook of S pe ci fi cat i ons must be bough t by all arch i te cts
’
S ufi ce i t t o
B u i l der ,
.
.
—
a! C OS B R Y LOCK WOOD b S ON S CA
’
TA LOG UE .
C A RP E N TR Y , TIM B E R, et c.
Tr ed g o l d ’
y R i d 2 E l a g d by T n
s C arp en tr , e v se ( n r e ar .
TH E ELEM ENTA R Y P RINCIP LES OF CA RP EN TR Y

F
.
q
A T reati s on th e P ress ure an E u i li ri u o m T m m i i
an ce of i
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se e, th e S pec i c G ra v i ti e s of M a t e ri a l s , ao
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C
i t h an Appen d i of S
. . i men s of Vari ou s R
T n ou a s
of Iron
fix .
an d S t on e . i l l u sti at e d S e v e n th Ed i ti on , t c ron gh i rev i se d an d con si d erabl

su l ar ed b
i ng
E a n n a u T R N , M A , Au t h or 0
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.
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l i t h or P l ates, P ortra i t of th e Au th or, an d se v eral W oodcut s

A
Th e S ci e nce of u i l
in
. . B
.
O n el arge V ol , 4 t o, pri c e £1 53 cl oth

—
. . .
”
Ough t t o be i n e ve ry arch i te ct s an d ev ery bufld u s l brl ry
’
B srd dsr
'
. .
A work wh ose mon u men t al e xcelle nc e must c ommen d i t wh ere ver sk i lful ls con
T h e au t h or s p ri n c i l es are ra t he r confi rme d th an i mp ai red by ti me .
n u d
— add i ti onal
’
.
ph t ss are of grea t i n t ri nd c S u i Id sng N ews.
y
C a rp e n t r
CA RP ENTR Y A N D
.
} OIN E R Y T h e E l e me n t ary P ri n c i pl es
T
oi
g W
C arp e n t r
C . h i e fi y comp ose d from
.
t h e S t an d ard W ork of T R O M S
T a z a r i s a o n Jo m a a v b E W
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i ft h E d i t i on , R e v i sed a n d E t e n d e d i s m o , 33 6d c ot h
e P l a t es t o ac comp an y a n d i l i u s t rat e t h e fore goi n g
x . . .
.
.
.
. y
b oo k
W i t h D e scri p t i v e L e t t erp re ss 4 t o 63 c l o t h
. . , . .
T h ese two v ol u me s form a c om l e t e t re as u ry of c arp e n t ry an d j oi n e ry an d sh oul d be i n th e

p
da oi e v e ry carp e n t e r an d j oi n e r i n t h e e mp i re —l r on
,
"
g
. .
W o o d wo r k i n M a ch i n
WOOD WORKING M A CHI ER Y : It s R i se , P rogress . an d
C on struc ti on W i t h H i n t s on t h e M an a gemen t of S a w M i ll s an d th e E con omi
c al C
on v e rsi on of Ti m be r
l e ad i n g B a i s h .
.
Il l u st ra t ed wi t h E am p l es of Rec e n t D e si gn s by
F
ren c h , an d A me ri ca n E n gi n e e rs
.
M P owrs
x B B
g
ans , . .
S ec on d Ed i ti on , Re v i sed , wi t l a rge Ad d i t i on s .
L a r e c row n 8 v o. 4 40 p p or c l ot h [J us t pu bl i s hed
. . .
Mr e i s e vi de n tl y an e xpe rt on t h e s u bj ect an d he h a s coll ec te d so mu cn i n forma ti o n t h at

—A rrl si t sce
.
t h e book i s all su d me n t for b u i l de rs an d ot he rs e n gage d i n th e con v e rsi on of t i mbe r

"
- . .
Th e most comp re h en si ve com u m oi wood -wo rk i ng machi nery

'
"
a u t h or i s a t ho ro ugh master of his a s l oct .

"
B u i l di ng N ews . —
S a w M i l ls .
SA W M ILLS T h e i r Arran ge me n t M an age me n t an d t h e

an d
E c on omi cal C ou v ai si on of Ti m ber (A
in B y M P o m s Ban rown 8 v o . i os 6d c l ot h .
. CC o mra n i on Vol u me t o W ood work
. .
.
. .
e a d m i n i rtm t ton of a l arg e sawi n g est a b li sh me n t i s d l . c u sse d an d t h e su b j e ct exami n e d

b orn a fi n an ci a l sta n d p oi n t H e n ce t h e si z e . s hape . o rde r. an d di sp osi t i on of saw-mil ls an t h e
.
d
l i k e a re gon e i n t o i n d et a i l. an d t h e co u rse of t h e t i mber is t rac e d from i ts re c e t i on t o i ts d el i ve ry
i t i ts con v e rt e d stat e W e could not desi re a more corn p l e te or p ract i cal Bu i l der .
y
.
Ni c h o l s on s ’
C a rp en tr
THE C A RP E N TE R S NE W G UID E
.
B oo k ofL i n es for C ar
'
or,
m i m ri n c i l es esse n ti a l for ac u i ri n g a
pw
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sp
n o l ed e of
W k w
F A
y
P
ar e n t ry
r s i n g all t h e
E l e en ta r
oun de d on t e l at e
Ed i ti on . Rev i se
. ar e s N C H O S ON S
A s i i r i raL , F S A
'
t an d ard
W i th P ract i cal
I L
2
or d e
'
7
. . . . .
Rul es on D rawi n g, by G P r u . $ i th 74 P lat es, 4t o, £3 1 3 cl ot h .

. .
C i r cu l a r Wor k
R P EN TR Y A N D
.
CIRCUL A R WORK IN CA f OI N E R Y A
C C
:
Tre at i se on i rc u l ar W ork
Prac ti ca l
G s on o s C LLIO N G S W i th D i agrams
A n e xce ll en t exam p l e o f wha t a boo k
. .
of S i n gl e an d D ou bl e
S e c o n d Ed i t
u rv atu re
rsmo, 23 6d c l ot h .
Ch eap i n pri ce . cl ear i n

. .
.
—B
of t h i s k i n d sh oul d be .
an d pra ct i c al i n t h e e xampl es se l e c u i l d er .
H an dra i li g n
HA ND RA ILING CO M P LE TE IN EIG HT L ES S ONS
.
. On
Sq C t Sy t m E J S G T h fG m
h H li f x M h i I i
an d
B ild C
th O L D r l- e
‘
e uare - u s e . . . i ORP, e ac er o eo
W i th l gb t
x
'
u ti t i ng on s t r u c on a t e a a ec an c s n st t u te .
P l at e s an d ov er 1 5 0 P ra ct i c a l E erc i se s 4 t o . 33 ( d c l ot h . . . .
work .
L i k el y t o b e of c o n sid erable va l ue t o j o i n ers and ot h ers wh o t ak e a p ri de i n good
h earti l v commen d i t t o teac h ers and st u de n ts.
”
T rrn ber Tr ades —
C A RP E N TR Y, TIM B ER , etc. a,
H an dra i l i n g an d S ta i r bu i l d i g n
R CTIC L TRE T E ON H N R LIN
.
A P A A A IS A D AI G : S h owi n g
N ew an d S i m 10 M e th od s for i n di n g t h e P i t ch of t h e P lan k, D rawi n g th e
M ou l ds Bev e i n g, Joi n ti n g-n , an d S qu ari n g th e W re at h B y G zo ac a
F
C o n n m oa S e con d E d i ti on , a
, .
. e v i s e d an d E n l arged , t o wh i ch i s ad ded A
rsmo, 23 cd cl ot h l i mp
W
T n u r rss o n S r axaa u xn n ru o
ill be found a n t"
W
! i n th e execu t i on of th i s dfi cu l t branch ofj
. . . .
Al most e very cu l t p h ase 0 t hi s some wh a t i n tri ca t e b ranch of j oi nery i t

a i d of pl at es an d e xp lana t ory l ottu m
"
Fu m
~ Ga d “. — m
T i m b er M ’
er c h a n t s C omp a n i on
THE TIM B ER
.
M ERCHA N T S AND B UILD ER S ’

C OM
PA O
m
C i
NI NN ew a n d op i ou s Tabl e s of th e R ed u ced W ei gh t an d
. on ta i n n g
si zes , from O n e t o a Th ou san d B
C
M a t ten s, of al
l
easure en t of D e al s an d
Pi eces an d th e re l at i v e P ri ce t h a t eac h si ze be ars r L i n ea l
P et ersb urg S t an d ard H un dred ; t h e ri ce e r u b e oot of
oot t o an y F
C F
ri ce
F
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v en
q u are T i m r t o an y gi v en P ri c e pe r Load of 0 ee t ; t e p roporti on at e
th e s tan dard, t o B
qu are Ti mb er b y t h e L oad
.
2
Val u e of D eal s an d a t t en s
oi so F e e t ; t h e re adi e st m 3
e of as ce rt ai n i n g t h e P ri ce of S can t l i n g
L i n ea! F oot of an y si ze , to an gi ve n Fi gu re p er C u be oot , &c &c
W i L L i A M D o wsm c ou rth E i ti ou , Rev i sed an d . F
orrec t ed C r sv c . 33 C F .
.
.
.
E v e ry t h i ng i s as con ci s e an d cl e ar as i t can possi b l b e ma de T h e re can be n o d ou bt .
ry ti mbe r me rch a nt an d b u i l d e r ou h t t o p ossess i t

"
a l l A uk/ cr i t t er . .
W e are glad t o see a fou rt h e t i on of t h ese admi rable tabl es, wh i ch for correctness
‘
du pli ci t y of arrang emen t l eave no t hi ng t o be d esi r TM Tra des y am “.
P r a c ti ca l T i m b er M e r ch a n t.
THE P RA CTICA L TIM B ER M ERCHA N T
B e i n g a G u i de
.
B Bu i l ders, &c , c ompri si n

for t h e u se of u i l di n g C on trac tors, S urv ey ors
us efu l Ta bl es for all p u rposes c on n e c t ed i t h t he Ti m be r Trad e , M ark s 0
W ood E ss ay on t h e S t ren gth of Ti mb er, R emarks on th e G rowt h of T i mber,
W .
“
&c B y W .R x c -
rra a n so r
t S e con d E d i t i on
. cap 8 v o, 33 64 cl ot h
.
Thi s han d y ma n ual con n i ns much val u ab le i nformati on for t h e use or t i mb e r merchant s.
. F . . . .
bd ldm fore st ms an d all ot hers con ne ct ed wi t h the growt h. sale. and manufacture of tu bes
"
. .
P a ck i n g C a se M a ker s, T a bl e s for .
PA CKING CA S E TA B LES ; sh owi n g th e n u mbe r of S u per
F Bx k C
-
fi ci a l ee t i n o es or P ac i n g- ase s , from si x i n ch es s u are an d u p ward ;

By W t rra an so x,
. i be r ro Tm B k —
er . T hi rd E di ti on 0 l ong 4 to, 33 64 cl .
. . .
i n val ua bl e l ab our-savi ng tables I m m ong rr

wmsave mu ch labour an d ca l cul ati on m —
. .
"
. .
u erfi c i a l M e a s u r e m en t
TR A D ES M A N S
.
HE ’
G UID E TO S UP ERF ICIA L M EA
S URE ME N T Tabl e s ca l c u l at ed from r t o 20 0 i n c h e s i n l en gt h , b y t to rod
.
i n ch e s i n b rea d t h F or th e u se of Arch i tec t s, S u rve y o rs , E n n e e rs, Ti mber

.
B
M e rc h an t s, u i l d ers, &o. B y Iarra s H awxrit o a F ourt h di ti on Fcap , . . .
3s 6d cl ot h
. . .
use ful coll e ct i on of tab les to faci li tat e rs i d cal cula ti on of su rfaces. Th e e xa c t area of an y
A
surface of wh i ch th e li m i t s h a v e bee n asce rt a i n e can be i ns t a nt l y de t ermi n e d . T h e book wi ll be
—
found of t h e great est u t ili ty t o all e ngag e d i n b ui ldi ng
T h ese ta b l es wi ll be foun d of
dci al measuremen t.
”
B ng l i sl s [I
t assi stance to
a te. —
W
tonal S wa n so n .
re q ui re t o mak a calcu lat i o ns i n su per ”
F o r es tr y
THE EL EM EN TS FORES TR Y
.
OF D esi gned t o afford In

C
.
.
m P l a n ti n g an d are of Forest Tree s for O rn am en t or

fi
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h a t i on co n c ern i n g t
t,
.
i t h S u ggest i on s u p on t h e
L arge cro n 8 v c . ros c l ot h
e
reat i on and C are of W ood l an d s
.
CB y E B.
.
.
Ti m b er I m p or t er s
’
Gu i d e
THE TIM B ER IM P OR TER S TIM B ER M ERCHA NT S A N D
.
' ’
U
A
G
B IL D E R S S TA N D A RD
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. . .
,
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i th o p arat v e
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eri can D eal s, i n c l u d i n g al l i n t er e d i a t e E pe n ses ,
al ti c
rei gh t ,
Toge t h er wi th c op i ou s i n formati on for t h e Re tail er an d
.
i n suran c e , a o &c .
B
.
u i l der Th i rd Edi ti on , Rev i se d rs m o , as cl ot h l i mp

. . . .
“
E ve ry t hi ng i t p re t en ds to be z b ui lt up i t le ads one l rom a foru t t o a tre en ail an d
u ally
i n as a mak e wei gh t. a hen of con cerni ng bri cks. col umns. ch asm . &c. —£ n g l u h
" '
cc n ;
“
so C R OS B Y L ocr WOOD s S ON s cs
'
D E C OR A T IVE A RT S , et c .
W ood s and M ar bl es (I m i t a t i on of) .
S CHOOL OF P A INTI NG F OR THE IM I TA TION OF WOOD S

A N D M A REL E S , as T a u gh t an d P rac ti se d by A R Va n n s a B o s e an d P.
B
. .
V a n n a n u a o , D i rec t ors of t h e Ro tt erd am P ai n t i n g i n sti tu ti on . Roy al fol i o,

i s} b y i s} w i t h 24 fu l si ze
l -
ol o ure d
P l a t e s ; al so rs p l ai n
Pl a tes. compri si n g i s4 F i gure s S ec on d an d h eap er Edi ti on . P ri ce £1 i t s 64 .
. C C
.
L i st o f P l a tes .
— s.
a.
an d
3 W
Vari ous T ool s re q ui red tor W ood Pai n t i n g
al nut : P r e li m i
Fi n i she d S p e c i me n —4
n ary S ta es o f G rs i
ooi s use d for
.
n i
g
ng
M arb le Pai n ti u an d M e th od o f M ani p ulati on

6 S t R e rn i fi
arb le : Earli e r Operat i o ns and
—
. .
F i n i sh ed S pe ci men q M e th ods of S k et chi ng

di d eren t G rai ns, K n ots. &c —8 . 9 A sh : Pre
.
—
. .
ii S tage s a n d F i n i sh ed S pe ci m& re
W
.
M e th o f S k e t c h i ng M arble b rai ns - xx . se .
Bre ch e M a rb le Prel i mi nary S of

an d F i n i sh e d S p e c i men —r3 a pl e : M et h
—
.
o f P rod u ci n g t h e d i ffe ren t G rai ns u , x : Bi rd s

’
ey e M ap le : P re l i mi nary S t an d mi she d i
— fi —
S p eci me n rd M e th ods of
ta ren t S pe ci es of
.
W t cli i ng t h e dif
hi te M arbl e r r8
M arble : Pre li mi nary S tages of ocess an d
h i te . W o
i n consu lt i n g t hi s book
t h e op rt u n i t y t o st u d y i t
"
.
B u i l de r
- . .
W
Th ose wh o d esi re t o attai n sk ill i n t h e art of p ai n ti ng woods and marbl es wi ll fi n d advan tage
S ome of th e orki n g M en s Cl ubs sh oul d gi ve th ei r y oung men
'
u
comp re h e ns i v e gu i d e t o th e art The e xp lana ti ons of th e t h e maul
. ti on and
manage me n t o f th e c olou rs , and th e beaut e xec u t e d p lat es not be t h e le ast ua bi e t o th e
st u den t who ai ms at maki ug hls work a
H ou s e D ec or a t i on .
T Y
ELEM EN A R D ECORA ION A G u i de to t h e S i mpl er T
Fo rm s of Ev e ry d a y Art
TI O N B y w a s W P ac e r
.
Toget h er wi t h P RA C TI C A L H O US E D E C OR A
.
Wi th n u merous i ll ustrati ons i n On e Vo l

.
.
.
. . ,
5 3 . stron gl y el f-bou n d
H ous e g G i i g t
P a i n ti n , ra n n , e c.
HO US E P A IN TING G RA INING M A RB L I NG A N D S IG N
Si x
. , ,
W T G A i l M
W C RI
i th
IN ,
W
Pra c t ca
A D
m
ol ou red P l a te s an d
an u al of B y E n ni s
ood E n grav i n gs
—
rs
.
.
. avrn sou .
o, 63 . c l ot h
boa rd s
th Ed i ti or
.
.
s ss ot h i om ad oa oi use to t he amat eu r an d of vd u e
”
A the p racd cal man
‘
B ag
”I J a n z
i to . s /i
e
D ec or a t or s, R e c ei p ts fo r .
THE D ECORA TOR S '

ASS S I TA NT A M odern G u i de t o D e
cora t i v e A rt i st s an d A mat eu rs , P ai n t e rs, W ri ters, G i l de rs , ao on t a i n i n g
u p wa rd s of Goo R ec e i p t s , R u l es an d i n s t ru c t i on s ; wi th a v ari et y of i n forma
. C
t i on for G en e ral W ork c on n e c ted
D e c ora t i on s, &c S i th E d i t i o n. x
i t h e v e ry C l as s of i n teri or an d E t e ri or
1 52 pp , c rown 8 v o, 1 3 i n wra p p er
W .
.
x
. .
F ull
of rec ei p ts of val u e t o d e co rat o rs. p ai n t ers , gli d e rs , &c. Th e book con ta i ns th e gi st of
l arger t reati se s on c ol our a n d t ec h n i c al p rocesses. i t woul d be di fi cui t to eet wi t h a work so fi ll m
oi vari e d i n forma ti on on th e pai nt er s art .
‘ "
B m ld i ng N ews. — ’
M oy rS m i t h on I n t er i or D ec or a t i on .
T
ORNA M EN A L IN ERIORS A NCIEN A N D M OD ERN T , T .
By I M o r a S u ry a
. S u pe r-roy al 8 v o , wi t h 32 fu ll -p age P l at es an d r h merous
.
s mall er i ll u st ra t i on s, h an d s ome l y bo u n d i n c l ot h , gi l t t op , p ri c e 1 8 3 :
Th e b ook i s wel ! illust rate d an d h and some ly u m m d con t am s soms true cri ti cl sm z n d a
"
gre t man y good eaamp lss of d ecot ati ve T“ B u i l d er M .

cn oss Y L OC K WOOD L OG 0 3
'
S ON s .
N A T U RA L S C IE N C E , et c.
t h e O ri gi n an d
on
RA S .Il l ustrated by 6
. .
ren dere d more val uabi e an d
Th e C on s t e l l a t i on s .
STA R G R OUP S A S tuden t s G ui de to the Constel l a ti on s
’
By
J L
.
. DG
E LA R os x ac , A n t h or of Th e Vi si bl e U n i v erse , .
h H
T h e S ce n e 0 t e ea v e n s
"
W i t h so M aps Small etc , 53 cl oth si l v ere d
. . . . .
A kn owle dge t h e p ri nci pal const e ll at i ons vi si bl e i n ou r l ati tu des may be easi l y ac q u i re d
from th e t hi rt y ma ps an d ac c ompany i n g t e xt con t ai n ed i n t h i s wor N ¢ t u rr —
t h magn i t u de —
“m
.
T h e v ol u me con ta i ns t h i rt ma sh owi ng st ars of t h e si x t he usua l nak ed -e y e

li mi t - an d each i s accompani e d ei c omme n ta
’
a ads t o faci li tat e re c ogn i ti on an d b ri n g

i n t erest F o r t h e p u rp ose ya z
.
mi dn i g h t p omp
g
t o n ot i ce obj ects of s
g
su rvey of t h e
? .
d t h e h e avm nmh l d b e bett e r t han a se t ot de hne at l ons ave scarcel y t we n ty sq uaro

’
u
i n c h e s i n a re a an d i n di ng n ot h i th at cann ot a t on ce be i den ti fi e d rub y R evi ew
gf
.
A v ery compact an d ha n y d ‘ d e t o t h e con st e ll at i on s

"
Am ~ .
— .
.
.
A s t r on o m i ca l T er m s
TRONmOM ICWA Lh GLOS SA RY ;
.
AN AS or, D i c t i on ary of T e rm s
i n As tron o y T
it a bl e s o f D a t a an d L i sts of Re mark abl e an d
u sed
In t erest i n
T h e Vi
C U i l O b& m w
e l esti a
l o n v erse , "
j ec t s
c
By
.
E L L a a n G os x,
S al l cro n 8 v e . as 64 c l ot h
R A S Au th or of
.
.
. .
F . .
.
.
A v u se fni l it t l e wo rk i or begi n ners i n astron o my , an d not go P“ by more

ran ce d st u n t sfl i iZ
Th e Ti mes .
A st ronomers of all ki nds will be gl ad t o have i t for referenc e. "
Th e M i c r o s c op e.
THE M ICRO S CO P E : It s C on st ru ct i on an d M an age men t , i n
c l u di n g Tec h n i q u e
By D r H a r em V A N
, P h o to-m i c ro
R e-E di t ed an d u g en t ed from
ra p h y , an d t h e P ast an d F
A m
u t u re of th e
M
F
the
i c ro se c
our
w i t h w
Far d s o f 2 0
a u sc x
.
ren c h E di t i on , a n d Tran sl a t e d b y W arren : E

W ood cu t s Im 8
a r re n , F G S
c , 1 8s c l ot h
.
. B . . .
4 0 0 p a g e s , u 5 p v . . . .
A t ra nsl ati on o f a k n ow n w o rk a t-on ce o

p p u l ar an d comp reh ensi ve
"
Ti mes
—N at u rr
. . .
“
T h e t ran sl at i on is as fel i ci t i ous as i t i s accu rate . .
Th e M i cr os c o e.
P HO TO M I C - OG RA P H Y . By Dr H . . van H armon . E xt rac ted
from th e above W or k . Roy al sv e . wi th Ill u st rati ons , i s . se wed.
A s t r on o m y
TRONOM Y
.
AS . B th e l at e R ev . R os s a r M a m , F R S '
. . .
Th i rd E di t i on , Rev i sed , y Wu T L i mi t , B A same , as cl oth

.
—xw m
. . . . .
.
“
A sou nd an d si mpl e treati se. an d s u pi u i book i a bq i n m
"
R e c en t a n d F oss i l S h e l l s
T
.
A M A N UA L OF HE M OLL U S CA B ri ng a Treati se on Recen t

a nd F ossi l S hell s By S P . EQ S . W i th an Appe n di
. . . . x
on R ecen t a nd F ossi l C on chol ogscal D i s coveri es, b y R am a T a r n ,
F G S . . W i th a Pl ates an d u pward s of 30 0 W oodcu ts Repri n t of ou rt h
.
rown 8 v c . 7s ed c l o t h
. F
E d i t i on , i 8 80
—
. . .
A most valu abi s st ore h ouse ol conch ol ogi ml and ge oi egi cal i ni a mai i u S cwna Gos s ip
"
“
y
. .
G eol og an d G e n e si s.
TH E T WI N RECORD S or CREA TI ON or, G eol ogy a nd
Genesi s : thei r P er/ect H armony a nd Wonderful W
I
V C T O R L E Va u F ca sv e . sr x cl o th
C on cord . B y G ua no : .
m
.
e
. .
“
A val ua bl e cont rib ut i on t o e vi den c es of R eve l ati on. and di sp eses con cl usi ve l y th “
argu me n ts oi th ose wh o wo uld se t c od s
W orks agai t od s Wosd . N o di fi cu lty ls ahi rk e t‘ .
’
an d n o so phi st ry i s l eft unexposed Tl u k ed . —

g
.
G eol o y
T Y TREA TIS E ON GEOL OG Y P HYS I CA L
.
R UD IM EN A R
h B i
,
A N D H I S TORIC A L W . l f i th t e s ec i a re e re n c e to t e r ti s h seri es a
Roc ks B y R T a rx, FG S W Ill i m h b it u strat ons. sa sr. cl ot oard s
'
. . . . . aso e,
NA T URA L S CIENCE , al l .
33
DR LARDNER S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY

’
. .
HA ND B OOK OF M ECHA NI CS . R e wri tt en

- and En l arged b y
B L o e ws ,
. P ost 8 ve . 6s . cl ot h .
“
M r L oewy has . carefull y revi se d the book . “ b roug h t i t li p 00 ” W W W
lV
HA ND B OOK OF H YD R OS TA TICS P NE UM A TI CS . E n l arged

by B . Lo s wv, P ost 8 v e . 5s . c l ot h .
F or th ose wh o d esi re t o at tai n an accu rat e k n owle d ge of h y si cai wi thout th e pro
sci en ce
found met hod s of math emati cal i n ve sdgati on. t h i s work i s we ll
’
Wad i —C h en n a i N ews .
HA ND B OOK OF HEA T . E di t e d an d al most en ti rel y R e wri t t en

-
b y B a mau i n L oa wv . &c . P ost 8 v e . os . c l oth .

"
T h e t le is al way ’ cl ear an d pre d se an d con vey s i nstruct i on wi th out leavi ng any cl oudi ness
:g
o r l urk i n g l u b ts be hi n tl
”
E rig'i rreer tng —
TICS
.
HA ND B OOK OF OP . B y D r L e m ma s . . E di t ed by T O . .
H u mm er BA P ost 8 v o . sr c l ot h
W
. . .
, .
ri t t e n by an abl e sc i e n tifi c wri te r an d be au t i fu ll y ill ustrat ed M ag az i n e .
ND B OO K OF ELECTRICIT Y NETIS M
.
HA AND MAG . By D r .
L a an n z n . E di ted by G C . . F os rs n. B A'
. . P ost sv a. 5s . c l oth .
T h e book cou l d n ot have be en en trust ed t o an y one bet t er cal culate d t o p reserve th e t orso and
l u ci d st y l e of L ardn e r P opu l a r Sd ena Revi ew. —
HA ND B OOK OF AS TRONOM Y . By D r . L A RD N E R . F ou rt h
Edi ti on by E D u m . P ost 8 vo. 9s 64 cl ot h
as , . . .
Proba bl y no ot h er book co n tai ns th e sa me amoun t of i n forma ti on i n so

com pe ndl ons an d wel l
—
arrange d a form c erta i n l y none at th e p ri ce at whi c h t hi s i s odore d t o th e pu b li c
"
A t h em rn
’
.
— .
“
W e can do no oth er t han p ron ounce thi s work a most val ua b le man ual of ast ronomy , and we
strongl re commen d i t to all wh o wi sh t o a c q ui re a ge ne ral — —
ance thi s su b li me sci e n ce.
"
b u t at the
Q ua m r l y 7 m m l of Sc i ence. — corre ct ac q uai n t
_
DR LARDNER 8 MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART

'
. .
THE M U S E UM OF S CIENCE A N D A RT Edi ted b .
Dr . L aa n n z a W i t h u p ward s of new E n av i n gs on W ood In 6 D ou b 0

. .
Vol u m e s, £1 rs i n a new an d . el egan t cl ot h i n d i n g ; or han d somel y boun d i n

h alf-morocc o, 3 1 s 6d . .
i n teresti ng 9 n b li ca ti on. alik e i n formi ng an d a tt racti ve Th e p per-comm

“
A ch e a an d
B
.
subj e cts of ormn ce an d eat sci en ti fi c k n owle dg e. consid e ra bl e In du cti ve owers. and
ft eatmen tJ —
a
r S mt e or .
Th e M useu m oi S ci en ce and A rt i s t h e most val uabl e con tri bu ti on th at h as ever b een
'
‘ ’
mad e S l r D A V “) m wsr n . Il l th.

”-
to the S ci enti fi c i nst ructi on oi e very cl ass i f sod ety .
s
S epa rate books formed from t he a bove. full y I l l ustra ted . sui tabl e for
,
“
Workmen s L i bra ri es, S ci en ce C lasses, etc '

.
S t e a m a n d i t s Us es . as cl ot h . .
Th e M i c r os cop e. as cl ot h P op u l a r A st r on o m y
.
4s 6d cl oth
. . . . .
Th e B e e a n d Wh i t e A n t s as s l ow. . .
T h e E l e ct r i c T e l e g r ap h i s . .
Dr . L a r d n er ’
s S ch o o l H an d b o o ks .
NA T URA L P HILOS OP HY FOR S CHOOLS . F c a p 8 v o. 3s 64
. . .
ve ry con ve n i en t cl ass -book for j un i or stu d en ts i n p ri vate sch ools. —Br mrh Qua r ter l y
R
ANIM A L P HYS IOLOG Y FOR S CHOOL S F cap 8 c 3s v Gd

d —
. . . . .
Cl l wi w Gmt m
"
d ll l ill Ch e ll arrange an d exce e n t ’s
e ar y r i l
tt e n. y ustrate . i o ron c e.
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRA P H By D r L A RD NE R

,
Re
F
. . .
v i se d by E aro n s , . B B cap . 8 v o. as Gd . . cl oth

—Engi i sh
. .
One of th e most read able books extant Ele ctri c T el egraph. M echa n i c.
"
on th e
34 CROS B Y LOC K WOOD 6 a
SO N S CA TA LOG UE
'
.
R efr i g tg er a ti n e c.
REFRIG ERA TING
,
AND ICE M A KIN G M A CHINERY -
A D e sc ri p t i v e Tre a t i se fo r E mp l y i g R f i g
B y A J W ALL I TA L
th U f P e se o ti g e rson s o n e r e ra n
k C E
a n d Ic e- M a i n g In s t a l l a ti o n s
A s soc M e m be r i n st C E
. . . .
d th,
W th i l l t ti
i
an
C w 8 o
6d
u s ra l th
e rs .
on s .
.
ro
.
n vo,
S-
73 .
Y
.
E R,
c o .
. .
[j us t pu bl i shed
P rac ti ca l, e xp l i ci t an d p rofu se l y ill ust rat e d .
—Gl a sg ow H era l d '
.
Ch e m i s t r yf or E n gi n e er s , e tc.
ENGINEERING CHEM IS TR Y A P rac t i ca l T rea t i se for t h e
U se of A n al y ti cal
om pri s i n
CC
h e mi st s , E n i n e er s Iron M a sters , i ro n o un ders ,
e th ods o f Ana l si s an d Val ua ti on of th e
F
S tu d en ts, an d o th ers g y
Pri n ci p al M at eri al s u se d i n E n gi n eeri n g W ork , i th n um erou s An al y se s,
x
E amp l es , an d S ugges t i on s
.
B y H Jo s n u s P n rw r s
W
fo rm erl y An al y ti c al an d o n su l t i n g C . F C S
h emi st t o t h e G reat Eas t e rn R ai l way
rown 8 v o, 4 00 p p , wi th i l l us tra
C C . . . .
S e con d E di t i on , R e v i se d an d E n l arged . .
t i on s , 1 0 3 6d c l o t h
. . .
[j us t pu bl i shed .
i n t h i s wo rk t h e au t h or ha s re n d ered n o small se rvi ce t o as n u merous bod y of p ract i cal men .
Th e a na t i cal me th od s ma y be p ro n o u n c ed most sa t i s fa ct o ry , bei ng as ac cu rate as the

ly
d espat ch re q u i re o f e n gi n ee rm ch emi st s pe rmi ts —C l u rm a rl N ews . .
T h e b ook wi ll be v ery u i t o t h ose wh o re q u i re a h an d a n d c on ci se " su m of ap p rov ed

y
met h od s of anal si ng an d v al u i ng me tal s, o il s , fu e l s, & c It i s. i n fa ct , a work fo r ch emi st s. a do .
t o t h e rou t i ne 0 t h e en gi n e e ri n g la borat o ry T h e book i s ful l of good t h i ngs As a .
b ook of t ec h n i ca l ana l y srs. i t i s v e ry wel come .
T h e anal t i ca l met h ods gi ve n are , as a wh ol e , su ch as a re li k ely t o gi v e rap i d an d trust

wo rt h y resu l ts n e x n c e d h an ds T h e re i s mu ch e xcell e n t d es cri p ti ve ma tt er i n t h e wo rk , th e
"—
.
Oil s an L u bri ca ti on b e i ng sp e ci all y n ot i cea ble i n t h i s res pe c t E ngs m rr

'
c h apt e r on . .
M a n u fa c t u r e of E xp l o s i v e s
ITRO EX P LO S I VES
.
N -
A P ra c t i c al T rea t i se
th e c on ce r n i n g
P ro p ert i e s , M a n u fa ct ure , an d A n a l y s i s of N i tr a t ed S u bst a n c e s , i n cl u di n g
t h e F u l mi n a t e s , S m o k e l e ss P owd ers , a n d e l l u l o i d B y P G E R
F IC F C S
. . .W i th n u me ro u s Il l u strat i on s
. .
D S N F O RD ,
ro wn 8 v o , gs c l ot h
C . C . .
.
AL A .
[j u st pu bl i s hed .
M r S a n fo rd g oe s st ea d i l y t h ro ug h t h e wh ol e l i st o f e x osi v es c om mon l y used H e nam es .
an y v e n e xp l o s i v e a n d t e l l s u s o f wh a t i t i s c o m p o se d a n d row i t i s man u fa c t u re d
, T h e book i s .
c a ce l e n t t h ro u g h ou t a n d w e h e a rt i l y re c om me n d i t — Tl rc E n g i n eer
, .
E x p l o si ves a n d D an g e r o u s G o o d s.
DA NG ERO U S G OOD S T h e i r S ou rc e s a n d P rope rt i e s, M o de s
o f S t ora ge an d Tra n s p ort
, W i t h N ot es an d omm en t s o n A cc i den ts ari s
i n g t h ere fro m t oge th e r wi t h t h e G o v ern me n t an d R a i l wa y
.
l a ss i ca t i on s
C C fi
, ,
A c t s of P a rl i a me n t &c A G u i de fo r t h e u se o f G o v e rn m e n t an d Ra i l wa
O fi c i al s S t e a msh i p O wn e rs In s u ra n c e
u s e rs o f
,
,
E x l os i v e s a n d D an gerou s G o od s
.
omp a n i e s an d M an u fac t u rers an

By H
, C
“
A u t or o f E n gi n e eri n g h e mi s t ry , &c "
C . .
C
Jo s a v a P H IL L l P S , F I C
rown 8 v c , 3 50 p
p os
. .
[j ust pu bl ssiu d
. . .
c l oth . .
E a: l o si '
ve s .
HA N D B OOK ON M O D ERN EX P LOS I VES B ei n g a .
P ra ct i ca l Tre a t i s e on t h e M a n u fa c t u re an d A p p l i ca ti on of D y n am i t e , G u n
Co t t on , N i t ro-G l c e ri n e , an d o th e r E p l o si v e
M an u fa c t u re of ol i od i on - ot t on
o mp o u n d s
C In c l u d i n
B y M E l S S L E R , A u th or of T h e
x C . th e
e ta l
U“
l u rg of G o l d , &c
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rown 8 vo , ros 6d c l ot h. C .
u i n ot on l y t o t h e mi n e r, b u t a l s o t o o fli ce rs o f b o t h se rvi ces t o wh om bl a s ti ng and th e

.
.
use of e xp l osi v es g e n e ral l m a y at an y t i me be co me a n e c e ssary a uxi li ary

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—N a t u n
y .
A v e ri t a b l e mi n e o fi n t o rma n c zi on t h e S i l eC t of e xp l osrves emp l oy e d for mi l i t a ry . mi n in g

a nd bl ast i n g p u rp ose s — 4 m v a n d N a vy C a r a ts
”
. . .
A l ka l i T r a d e , M a n u fa c t u r e o f Su lp h u ri c A ci d, e t c.
A MA A NU L OF THE A LKA LI TRA D E , i n c l u di n g t h e
M an u fa c tu re S u l p h u ri c A ci d , S u l p h a t e of S sda , an d l e ach i n g P owd er B
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of
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.
an d L o n d on
3;i t 23 2 Il l ust ra t i o n s a n d W o rk i n g D ra wi n gs , an d c o n
.
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Te t S ec on d Edi ti on , wi th Ad di ti on s S u p er roy a l 8 v o , £r ros c l ot h
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.
- . .
“
T hi s book i s wri tt en by a man u fa ct u re r for manu fact ure rs Th e worki n g de u i ls o f t he moat .
a p prove d forms of a t h es e are a ccomp a ni e d b y n o le ss t h an a s wood on

pa ra tu s are gi ve n . an d
vi nga all ot w i u c ma y b e u u d for t h e p of con si r u cti on E ve r ste p i n t h e man u
d—
.
m
bed i n t hi s an ua l , an each i mp rove men t e xp i a i n e A th cm m
”
actn re i s ve ry fu ll d
y es c ri . .
36 CROSB Y L OCK WOOD e SO N S CA TA LOG UE
’
.
INDUSTRIAL A RTS, TRADES , AND MANUFACTURES .
C ot t on S p i n n i n g
CO TTON NUFA C T URE :
.
MA A M an u al of P rac t i ca l I n st ru o
ti on i n t h e P roc esses of O p e n i n g,
an d S p i n n i n g o f C ardi n g,
o tt on , t h e M e t h od s o f D ei n g, &c
C
o mb i n g, D r a wi n g, D ou bl i n g
F or t h e U se of O ra
C
k
.
t i v s a, O v e rl oo ers an d M an u fac t u re rs y Jo a n L xs r n a , Tec h ni c In

.
'
s t ru c t o r , P e n d l e t on 8 v o, 73 6d c l o t h . . . M a ch i nery
.
.
T h i s i n va l ua bl e v ol u me i s a di s t i n ct ad v a n c e i n t h e l i t e rat u re o f c ot ton man ufactu re ”

i t i s th oro ugh l y re l i a b l e fu lfi ll i n g n earl a ll th e re q ui re me n t s d esi red " —G l a rg c w H er a ld
.
i i n g etc
, . . .
F l ou r M a n u fa c t u r e
F LO UR M A NUFA C TURE : A T rea t i se
, .
on M i l l i n g S ci en ce
an d P rac ti ce B y P rofes sor F a i n n n i c n Ki c x Tran sl at ed from t h e S e con d
. .
En lar ed an d Re v i sed E d i ti on wi th S u p l am en t By H H P P own s ,

A -M. t C E
. N earl y 40 0
.
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p
. Il l us tra te wi th 28 ol di n g P l at es, an d t oy
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F . . .
y
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Thi s val uable ls, an d remai n . t h e st an dard au t h ori ty on t h e sd en ce of
Th e mill er wh o h as read au d di g est ed t hi s work wi ll h ave la id t h e fou n dat i on , so t o sp eak . a su c
eessfui career ; h e wi ll h av e ac q u i red a n u mber of ge n e ral p rin ci l ea whi ch h e c an rec ae d t o
a pp ly In t hb h a n dso me vol um e we at l ast h ave th e ac c e p te d t e xt - ook o fmod ern ml l l i g i n good.
. g g
soun d E ng li sh , whi c h ha s li t tl e , if an y , t rac e of th e G erman i di om
”
Th e M i l le r . .
A g l u t i n a n ts
TES
.
E M E N TS P A S , ,
G L UES AND G UM S : A P ract i ca l
G u i de t o t h e M an u fac t ure an d A l i cat i on of t h e v a ri o u s A ggl u t i n an ts re
ui red i n t h e B
u i l d i n g M e ta l -W or n g, W oo d -W o rk i n g a n d L e a th er-W ork
n g Trades, an d for W orksh op , L a bo ra t ory o r O fli c e U se
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W i th u p ward s o f
goo R ec i p e s an d F ormu l a By H S T ND G E rown 8 v o , as c l ot h
. . C A A
W e h a ve p leasu re i n spea ki n g fav ou ra bl y of t h i s v ol u me S o fa r as we h a ve ha d expe ri e nce ,
. . C .
. .
—
.
whi ch i s n ot th i s man ua l i s tru st wo rt h y

i n c onsi de ra b l e , A th e n e u m
"
. .
A s a re ve la ti on o f wha t are c o n si d e re d t ra de se c re t s. t hi s b o ok wi ll a rouse an amoun t o f

cu ri osi ty among th e l arge n u mbe r o f i n d ust ri es i t t ou ch es
"
D a d y Ck r on i d e —
g
. .
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S oa p -sn a ki n
THE A RT OF
.
S OA P -M A KING : A Practical Handbook of the

M f fH
F f Ed i R
a n u actu re o a rd and S oft S oa T il tS t A D
C d l M ki g C w s
By A W A
gfi d
r, t o e ea s , e c . L EX N ER TT ,
i th i t on , e v i se d , i n cl u d i n o ern an e- a n . ro n vc, 73 6d . .
cl o th . u bl i s hed
'
[j ust .
"
T h e wo rk wul prove very asatuh not mere ly t o th e t ech no ca l st u den but t o p t acti cal
soa p -b oi le r wh o wi she s t o un derstan d t h e th e ory hi s art N ews of . }
p rac ti cal treanse on an art whi ch has al most n o l i t erani re i n
“
z
A t h e rou gh ou r
We ep atul at e . au th or on t he su ooars ef hi s en deavour t o fii l a voi d ln Engi i sh li t era
gm
n
g
t ure . u .
P a p er M a ki n
RA CTICA L P A P ER M A KING
.
P A M an u a l for P a pe r-ma ke rs
C
-
Own ers an d M an agers of P ap e r- M i l l s W i t h Tabl es a l c u l a t i on s ,

an d
B G C h a rr n a r o n , P aper-maker
.
rown 8 v o, s cl ot h C . W i th
.
Ill u strat i on s of Fb .
i re s from M i c ro
&c .
P ot ograp h s 5 . . . [J ust publ i s hed .
The for t h e re q ui re men t s of re s pon si bl e mi ll h an d s, ap re u t i ces, &c , wh i l st

a u t h o r ca t e rs
S
.
t hi s man ual wil l be fou n d o f great se rvi ce t o st u d en ts of t e c h n ol ogy , as we as t o ve t e ra n paper

mak e rs an d mil l owne rs T h e i ll ust ra t i ons form an e xc e ll e nt fea t u re —P a r T r ade R evi ew
. . .
W e re commen d e ve ry body i n t ere ste d i n t h e t rade to ge t a copy of t s th oroug hl y p racti cal

'
tu t —
P OM ”d i v
g
u
e
P a er M a ki n .
HE PAP
A RT MA OF G A P racti cal ER
andbook of t/cc KIN H
M a nufactu re of P aper from Ra gs E spa rto S tra w, a n d other F i brous M ateri al s
In c l u d i n t h e M an u fa c t u re of P u l p fro m W ood i bre wi t h a D es c ri p ti on of
, ,
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t he M ac l u s t A p p l i an c e s u sed
an d To h i c h are ad de d D etai l s of
P roc e ss e s for e cov erl n g S oda from W a s t e L i q u o rs B y A n a xm n s a W T T .
Au th or of Th e A rt of S oa M aki n g W i th Ill ust s ro wn 8 v o. 7s Gd cl oth
"
.
. C
.
.
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. .
It may b e d e d as th e st an work o n t h e su bj ect T h e book i s fu ll of val ua bl e In .
-mak i n
f m t i T h of P a p er g: ”i s i n e v ery res pect a mod el o f a te xt -b oo k , ei ther for a
hni cal class or fo r t h e p ri vate st u de nt —P e ) er a n d P r i n t i ng Tra des y ou rn a l
o r a on e.
te c . .
L ea t h er M a n u fa c t u r e .
TH E ART OF LEA THER M A NUFA C URE T B ei n g a
P ract i ca l H an d boo k , i n wh i c h th e O rati on s of T an n i n g,
L e a t h er D re ssi n g are ful l y D e sc ri be an d t h e P ri n c i l es of Tann i n
u rry i n g, an d
Ex
C
.
p la i n ed an d man y R ec en t P rocesse s In t rod u ced ; as a s o th e M eth for

t h e E s ti m at i on of Ta n n i n , an d a D escri p t i on of th e A rt s of G l u e oi l i n g, G u t B
"
D ressi ng, &c
A sound . c o mp re h en
B y AL e r m n s n W T T
si ve t rea t i
.
se on t a a n d i t s ac
rown 8 v c . 93 c l oth
c u se r
-
A
l ee It i s an e mi nentl y val uabl e
. C .
. .
w - C h em i ost Revi ew
"
p ro du c ti on. hi ch r e d oun d s t o th e cre d i t i n bo a u t h o r an d p u b li she rs . .
I N D US TR IA L A N D US E F UL A RTS .
37
W a t ch A dj u s t i n g.
TH E WA TC H
A DJ US TE R S M A N UA L A P rac t i c al G u i de
’
for t h e W a t ch an d C h ron o me t e r A dj u ste r i n M a ki n g S p ri n gi n g Ti mi n , ,
an d A dj u st i n g for Isoc h ron i sm , P osi t i on s an d T e mp e ra t u res By C . .
F a rr r s 370 p a ge s, wi th Il l u s trat i on s , 8 v o , 1 63 cl ot h [j u st pu bl i shed

'
. . .
H or o l o gy
DERN H OROL OG Y i
.
A TR E A TIS E ON M O , n T heory and P rac

m
ti c e T ran sl a t ed from t h e F ren ch of C u n n s S A U N IE R , ex-D i rect or oi t h e
.
S ch ool of H o rol ogy a t M m

acon , b y
W atc h M an u fa c tu re r, an d E W A R
UL IE N T a rrr
i ce,
W i th 78 W ood cu t s an d as C ol ou re d C o er Pl ate s
n,
D DA M B esan con
A , A ssay er i n t h e Roy a l M i n t
e con d E di t i on . SS u p er
. . .
p
.
roy al 8 v o , £2 23 c l o t h { 3 m s h a l f-
ca
. .
Th e re i s n o h orol o cal work i n th e E n g li sh at all t o b e com red t o t hi s re d uc

oi M S au n i er s fo r carri es an d com p l e t en es s t i s ali k e good as s gu i e fo r t h e st u en t an d
'
—
. .
us a re fe renc e for t h e e xp e ri en c e d h orol ogi st an d ski ll e d workman H or ol og ~i ea l y ou m a l

T h e l at es t , t h e m ost c om p l e t e , an d t h e most renabl e of t h ose li t e rary re d uc t i ons t owhi ch
.
con ti nen t al wat c h mak e rs are md e b t e d for t h e me ch an i cal su peri ori ty ov er t e i r E

- h fa ct , th e Book of B ooks . i s M Sa uni er s ‘ T reati se
’
—
lis h b ret h m
Wa k l ema b er . y m l l er a S i l versm i th .
W a t c h m a ki n g
. .
TH E WA TC H M A K E R S H A N D B OOK '
. I n t en de d as a W ork
sh 0 p C omp a n i o n for t h ose en ga ge d i n W a tc h maki n g an d t h e Al l i M ech an i
T ra ns l a t ed from t h e F re n ch of C u v n w s Ss u tu a n , an con si dera
ca l A rt s
ab l y en l ar ed
.
by
g
on a s J
T a rr s u s ,
D D
V i ce-P resi d en t of th e
H orol ogi c a In st i tu te , an d E W A R RI G . M A . A ssa e r i n t h e R oy al M i n t G . .
.
W i t h n u m erou s W oodcu t s an d 1 4 C oppe r P l at es hi rd E di ti on C rown . .
8 v o, 9s c l ot h . .
Eac h ‘art i s t ru l y a tre a ti se i n i ts elf T h e arrangement is good an d t h e l anguage i s clear an d

m el ee i t is an admi rab l e u i de for th e y ou ng wat ch mak er ”
E
.
—
e very rehu i remen t i n a h and
. .
I t is i mp ossi b l e t o s
f
book In t en ded or t h e
t oo h i g h l y of i ts exc elle n ce
use oi a wor man k f
It
d w
Sh ou l d be oun i n e very orkshop.
”
Wm an d
.
.
—
Thi s b ook c on tai ns an i mmense nu mbe r of ra ct i cal detai l s beari ng on the dail y occupati m
e! n wat ch mak er
”
W a tch m a ke r a n d M d a l wor (C hi cago).
k
.
W a t ch es an d Ti m e e ep er s .
A H IS T OR Y OF WA T C H E S A N D OTH E R TI M EK E E P E RS
D
.
B w as F
AL , KE N rs. Gd . boards ; or as. 64 . c l ot h gi l t .
1
.
en dal s book . for i ts si ze . i s the best whi ch h as y e t ap pea re d on t h i s su bj ect i n t he

’
—
l .
Engli sh lan gu a I n d m t r i e r. .
Ope n th e wh e re y ou may . t h e re i s i n t e re sti n g m

att e r i n i t c on ce rn i n g th e i ngen i ous
de vi ces of t h e an c i e n t o r mode rn h o ro l oge r Th e su bj e c t i s t re a t ed i n a li be ral an d en t ertai ni ng
—
.
sp i ri t , as m h be d f h an wh o s a mast er o th e craft.
i f Sat urda y R ev i ew,
"
i g t e xp e c t e o a i st o ri
El e c t r o l y si s of G ol d , S i l ver , C opp er , e t c.
E L E CTR O D EP OS I TI ON -
A P raeti ca l Trea ti se on the E lectroly si s
o Gol d S i l ver, C opper , N i ckel , a n d oth er M etal s a nd A l l o s
fon s of V ol tai c B at te ri e s M a n e t an
,
y W i t h d e sc ri p .
d D y n amo E l ec tri c M achi n es , T h er

.
ti , g o -
moprl es, an d of t h e M a teri al s an d Processes u sed i n ev ery D ep artmen t oi

.
t h e A rt an d se v e ra l C h a t e rs on E l ec tra- M et all u r B A nn / m
,
gy y
W A T T , A u th or of E l e ct ro e tal l urgy , &c T hi rd Ed i ti on , Rev i sed C rown
“ "
o a n .
.
.
8 v o , gs . c l ot h .
E l e ct r a - M e t a l l u r gy .
E L E C T O M E TA L L UR G Y P racti cal ly Treated B y A L nxAN D s r

R -
.
W ar r , A “
‘
u t h or o f E l ”
ec t ro-D e
p os i t i on , &c T en th E di t i on , i n cl u di n g th e .
most rec e n t P roc e s se s ramo , s c l o t h b oard s

i
. . .
"
F re m th i s book bot h ama teur an d ma y learn every th l ng necean ry i or th e successful
W o r ki n g i n G ol d .
TH E E WE L L E R S A S S I S TA N T IN TH E A R T OF WORK
’
IN G I G LD O
A Prac ti cal T reati se for M asters an d W ork men C omp i l ed
from t h e E xp eri e n c e of T h i rt y Yea rs W ork sh o P rac t i ce B y G a o a o a E
’
,
g
.
.
”
G a n , A u t h or of T h e G ol d smi t h s H an d boo k ,
’
0 C r 8 v o, 73 6d c l ot h . . . . .
T h i s manu al of t ech n i cal e d u ca ti on i s a mren t l des ti n ed t o b e a val uabl e uxillary t o

h an di c raft wh i c h i s c e rta i nl y c a p a b l e of gre at i g
x rov e ni e n t fl h Th e Ti m es .
Ve ry usefu l i n t h e work sh o p , as t h e k n ow ed ge i s p racti ca l . ha vi n g been sc u i re d b y i on
k
l
C pe ri c u ce . an d all th e rec i e
p s an d di rect i ons a re 8 l 1m teed t o be su c cessfu l ”
. w el l “ a t }
3 8 C ROS B Y LOC K WOOD 6 S ON S CA TA L OG UE .
'
E l e c t r op l a t i n g .
E L E C TR OP L A TIN G A P rac t i c al H a n dbo ok D eposi

on t h e
t i on of C o p er, S i l v er, N i c k e l G ol d Al u mi n i u m, B ra ss, P l a ti n u m ac are
p , , ,
. .
W i th D es e n p ti on s of t h e C h e m i c al s, M a te ri al s, , B a tt e ri es an d D namo
M ac hi n e s u se d i n t h e Art B y J W U R Q U H A RT C E T h i rd Ed i t i on Cr vo.ss.
"—
. . . .
Ii orol og l ea l y e a r ned
. . .
A n exc ell en t work . gi vi ng t he n ewest i nformat i on . .
E L E C TR OT YP IN G The Reproducti on and M u l tipli ca ti on of P ri nt

i ng S urfaces a n d Works of A rt by t h e E l ectra-deposi ti on of M etal s By I W . .
U R Q U H A RT , C E . . C rown 8 v o, sr . c l o th .
T he book Is t h orou g hl rsct i a l T h e rea de r i s. th e re fore . con duc te d t h ro h th e i n di ng
l s ws ot m ct n ci ty fi h en t h rw g
z y
.
t he me tal s use d b y t h e dep fl ti ng

'
ern th e e p p ars tu s. an
p rooeu e emp t o t h e ii nal p e p arati o
r n o ‘ w
t he e rk
"
A r t
p
ou -
ru a l . .
—
T H E G OL D S M ITH S H A N D B OOK B y G E O RG E E G EE ,
'
. .
e we l l e r, T h i rd E d i t i on , c o n s i de ra b l y E n l a rged
&c ram o .
a s 64 cl . bds .
”—
. . . .
A good. soun d e d u cat or, wh i ch wi ll be ac ce p t e d as an a u th o n t y H or ol og raal 3 0 3 m l
W or k
. .
S i l ver sm i t h s ’
.
TH E S IL VE RS M I T H S H A N D B OOK B y G E ORG E E G E E . ’
. .
l s wei l er &c S econ d E di t i on R e v i se d rzmo , 3s 6d c l o t h

, . . . . . .
Th e ch i ef me ri t of t h e work i s i t s p ra ct i cal c h a ra ct e r T h e work e rs i n t he trade will .
M
”
i l , di sc over i ts meri ts when th e y si t do wn t o st u d y i t - B Iri sh M ech a n i c . .
i
n
.
"
Th e above t wo works toget h er, stron gly h al t ow e d , pri ce 7s.
S h eet M etal W or ki n g .
S H E E T M E TA L WOR K E R ’
S I N S TR UC T OR : C o m pri si n g
a G e ome tri cal Prob l e m s a n d P ra c t i ca l Ru l es for D e sc ri b i n t h e
S e l e ct i on of
Var i ou s P a tt e rn s R e q u i re d b y Z i n c , S h ee t -Iro n , C o pe r, a n d T i n l a te
W ork e rs B y R E U B E N H E N R W A R N , P rac t i cal T i n l a t e W o rk er N ew Y
.
Edi ti on , R e v i sed an d reat l y E n l a rge d b y O S E H G H O R N E R ,

A u th or of P a t t ern N ak i n g, &c g
C rown 8 v o , 254 p a ge s , wi t h 4 3 0 Il l u s .
J P .
.
t ra t i on s 7s 6d , c l ot h
. . . .
[j u st pu bl k hed .
B r ea d an d B i s cu it B ki ng
a .
TH E B R E A D AND B I S C UI T B A K E R S AND S UG A R
’
BOIL E R S A S S IS TA N T In c l u di n g a l arge v ari e ty of M od ern Reci p es

’
. .
B R O B E R T W E L L S , P ract i ca l B ak e r C rown 8 v o, or c l oth

I —
. . .
large number ot wri nkles for the ordi n ary cook , as wel l as th e bak er
’ ”
S ¢ tu r q m . .
C on fe c t i on er y for H ts. ot el s a n d R es t a u r a n
TH E P A S TR YCOOK A N D C ON FEC TI ON E R S G UID E ’
.
F or H ote l s R e sta u ran ts and th e T ra de i n gen e ral , ad ap t ed al s o for Fami l y

,
U se B y R O B E RT W E L L S C rown 8 v o , as clot h
m
. . . .
W e cann ot spea k too h l y of th i s re all e xce ll e n t work In t h ese days of keen comM ti on
our rea ders cann ot d o be tt er ri p urc ha se th is b ook .
"
—B e h ers
.
'
Orn a m en t a l C o n fe c t i o n er y .
ORN A M E N TA L C ON F E C T I ON E R Y : A G u i de for B akers ,

C on fe c ti on e rs an d P astry coo ks ; i n cl u d i n a v ari e t o f M od e rn R ee l 8 , an d
Rem ark s on D eco ra ti v e an d C o l ou red ork W th rag Ori gi n al . es i gn s .
B y R O BE RT W E LL S C rown 8 v o , c l ot h l t, 5s. .
“ work ,
A val u able cal . an d sh ou ld be i n th e dr of every b ak er an d confe cti on er. T he
M oti ve desi gn s are wort h tre bl e th e amoun t ch arged for t h e whole work. ”
Ba h ¢ rs Ti mes .
’
—
F l ou r C o n f e c t i on e r y .
TH E M OD E R N F L O UR C ON F E C TI ON ER . W h ol esal e and
Retai l C on t ai n i n g a l arge C oll e c t i on of Reci p e s for C h e a C ak es , Bi sc u i ts ,
g
.
ao W i t h R e ma rk s on th e In gred i en ts u sed i n t h ei r dan ufac ture

. . By
R W EL L S
. Crown 8 v e , as cl oth. . .
L au n dr y W or k .
L A UN D R Y M A N A G E M E N T . A H a n dboo k for U se i n P ri va te
an d Pu bl i c L au n d ri es , Inc l u d i n g D e sc ri p t i v e A ccou n t s of M od ern M ach i n ery
an d A p p li an ces for L aun dry ork . S mal l c ro wn sv c , as. c l oth . W
T h i s b ook sh ou l d ce rt ai nl y occu p y an h on o u re d pl a ce o n t h e sh el ves of all h ou se k eep er!
who wi sh t o keep th emsel ves a re m m ”: of t h e ne wes t appl ian ces an d me t h ods "
Th e Qu eers. .
—
C R OS B Y L OC K WOOD S ON S C A TA L OG UE
'
40 .
COMMERCE, COUNTING HOUSE -

WORK , TABLES, et c .
C o m m er c i al F r e n ch .
A N E W B OOK OF C OM M E RC I A L F RE N C H : G ra mmar
Voca b u l ary C orrespo n d e n c e C omm e rc i al D oc u m en t s G eo hy
A ri t h met i c—L e xi con B y P C a n a o u n P rofessor i n t h e C i t H i g h ool g?
— ;
. .
,
d
.
j . B S ay (P
. ar i s) C row n s v e 4s 6d c l o t h . u st pu bl i s he , . . .
.
C o m m er ci l E d u c a t i on a .
L E S S ON S IN C OM M ER C E . B y P rofessor R G a u na n o . . of
t h e R oy al H i h C ommerci al S ch ool a t G e n oa Ed i ted an d R e vi sed b an n a . J
G A U L T . P ro e ssor of C omme rce an d C om me rci al La w i n Ki n g s l
o i e ge .
'
L on d o n S e con d E d i t i on , Re v i se d C rown 8 v e , 33 6d
. pu bl i shed . . . .
T h e u bli sh ers of t h i s work h a v e re n de re d c o n si de ra ble se rvi ce t o th e ca use of c ommerci al '

m ent i on py th e opp ort u n e T h e work i s pe c u l i a rl y ac ce p ta b le
re d u ct i o n of this v ol u me .
t o Engli sh rea de rs an d an e mi ra b l e a d d i t i on t o e xi st i n g cl as s-b ook s i n a p h rase . we t h i n k t he .
wo rk att ai n s i t s Obj e ct i n fu rni sh i n g a b ri e f a c c ou n t of t h ose laws an d cu st oms o f B ri ti sh t ra d e wi t h

"—
wh i ch t h e comme rc i al man i n t e rest e d t h e re i n sh oul d b e i am il i ar Ch a mu r o/ C om m e m y ose m l ’
. .
A n i nva l ua bl e gu i de i n t h e h an ds of th ose wh o a re p re pa ri n g for a c ommerci al care er .
F or ei n C om m er ci al C or r e sp on d en c e .
TH F ORE I G N C OM M E R C IA L C OR RE S P ON D E N T : B ei n g
Ai ds t o C ommerci al C orre spon den c e i n F i v e L an s e— En gl i sh , F rench ,
'
G e rman Itali an , an d S p an i sh B v C on a n E su n S econ d Edi t i on .
C rown E
. . .
v o, 33 6d cl oth . . .
"
Wh oever wl sh es t o correspon d i n all th e l anguages me nti oned t’ M r Bak er canno t do bett er
d u n stu d y t hi s work t h e mate ri al s o fwhi c h are exc el l e n t an d con ve n i ez T h e y c on-
.
tl y arran ged in
m
l i nen l e tt e rs b u t —wh a t a re far m ore use fu l—sh ort passage s sen t en ces or
.
,
not of en t i re 3 .
ph rases “ p re e s t h e same e n e ra l i de a i n va ri ous l oa m y

en mi nat i on c on vm t h at i t i s un usu any compb t e wel l “
“
A carefu l ce d us nrra ng e d.
A c c ou n t s for M a n u fa c t u r er s .
F A C T OR Y A C C O UN TS : T h e i r P ri n ci l es an d P ract i ce A
p
H an d boo k for Ac coun tan t s an d M an u factu re rs , wi th Appe n di ces on t h e N o
.
mencl atu re of M ac h i n e D e t ai l s ; t h e In come T a x Ac ts ; th e Rat i n of F ac

t ori es F i re an d B oi l er In su ran c e ; t h e F a c t ory an d W ork sh o p
'
c t s . &c . .
i n c l u di n g a l s o a G l os sa of T e rm s an d a l arge n u mb e r of S ec i me n R u l i n gs
J p
.
By E u xn n G a a c xn an M F a r ms F ou r t h E d i t i on , evi s ed an d E n
. . .
l arge d D emy 8 v e , 250 p ages, os st ron gl y b oun d

. .
m—
.
"
A A ccounts. th e
0! “ g t h e F act ory A ccoun t s t o t h e gen eral commerci al we 1 ks Is one whi ch
wi t h A a:ou n ta n ts y ea rn “
" ’
q re e . .
Ch aract en se d by ext re me t h oro n ess T h ere are few own ers of fact ori es wh o wou ld not
Lea rl Goon -u m —
.
h i ve great b en efi t from th e p erusal 0 t hi s most ad mi rabl e work ”

Ch m i d e . .
M o d er n M e t r i ca l U n i ts an d S y s t em s .
M OD E R N M E TR OL OG Y : A M an ua l of the M etri ca l Uni ts

and Sy stems of t h e P resen t C en tu ry W i th an A pp en di x con tai n i n g a p ro osed
E n l i sh S y st e m B y L owxs D A Jn c xson , Au th or of
’
.
p Ai d ‘
g
. .
&c L arge c rown 8 y o, xzs 6d c l oth

"
t0 u rv e y P rac ti c e , . . . .
W e re commen d t h e work t o all in t e rest e d i n t h e p racti cal reform of our wei gh ts an d men
a rses.
" —N a t u re .
Th e M S y st e m a n d t h e B r i t i sh S t a n d a r d s
e tri c .
A S E R IE S OF M E TR I C TA B L E S i n whi ch the B ri ti sh S tand ,
a rd M easu res and Wei gh ts are compared wi t h t hose of the M etri c Sy stem at esent
i n Use on t he Conti nen t B y C H B owm a n , C E 8 ve , ms 64 stron gl y . . . . . . . u nd.
“
M r D ow s T abl es are we l l M togeth e r as a ready r eckon“ tor th e con versi on
’
of one
sy stem i nto th e o er —
.
A th en¢ u m
"
. .
I r on S h i p bu i l d er s a n d M er ch an t s W ei gh t T a b l es . ’ ’
I RON -F L A TE WE IG H T TA B L E S : F or I ron S hipbu il ders,

E ngi neers, and I ron M erch an ts C on ta i n i n g th e C al cul a t ed W ei gh ts of u p .
wards of 1 50 0 0 0 di ii eren t s i ze s oi Iron P l a t es , from 1 foot by 6 i n by t i n t o . .
1 0 fee t b 5 f
eet b r in W ork ed ou t on t h e basi s of 0 lb s t o t h e sq uare
y . .
foot of ron of r m ch i n t h i c kn ess C arefu l l y c omp i l an d th orou gh l y R e

v i sed by H B u am u son a n d W H S I M SO N
. O bl on g 4t o, ass h al f-boun d . .
.
P . . .
"
Thi s wo rk will be foun d of gre at u t i li ty . T h e au th ors ha ve had mu ch pract i cal e xperi enc e
or wh at i s wan t ln In m a ki ng est i ma tes n nd th e use of t h e book n lil save mu ch ti me i n mnki ng
el ab orat e u l cu i nt fims - E ng l i sh M ec h a n i c.
COMME R CE . C O UN TIN G HO USE WORK -
, TA B L E S , etc .
41
k
C h a d wi c s C a l cu l a t or fo r N u m
’
ber s and W ei gh t s
C o m bi n e d
WEIGH T A CTION A L GAwL GU
.
TH E N UM B ER , ,
AND FR
L A T OR C on tai n i n g u p ward s of
. S e p ara te C al cu l at i on s sh o i n g at
a gl an c e t h e v a l u e a t 422 d i fi eren t ra t e s, ran gi n g from t h 0 a P en n y t o
203 . e ach , or p e r c wt , an d £20 p er t on , of a n y n u m ber 0 art i cl es c on soou
l i v el y , from r t o 47o —A n y n u mbe r of cwt s , rs , an d l bs , from x c wt t o
.
g
o
cwt s —A u
. . . . .
. n u mbe r of t on s, c wt s , q rs , an d bs , fr0 m r t o
. t on s
.
y . .
W i nnu m a a n wxc x, Pu bl i c A ccou n tan t T h i rd E di ti on , R ev i sed an d Im .
p r o v e d . 8 v 0 , 1 8s , s t ro n g l
.
y b ou n d fo r O fli c e w ear a n d t e ar .
I s adapted for t he us e of A ccoun ta n ts a nd A ud i tors, Ra i l way C ompani es,

’
IS
C anal C ompa n i es S h i p rs, S h i ppi n g A g en ts, G en era l C a rri l rs, etc
.
I ran/su nda e,
fi
.
B rassfm ders, Ii eta l erc h n ts, I ran M a n ufactu rers, Iron mongers, E n
e
gi
ne rs,
a
l ach i msts, B oi l er M a kers, M i ll m i gh ts. R oofi n g, B ri dge and G i rder M a kers, ll sery
’
P ropri etors, etc Ti mber M erchan t s, B u i l ders , C ontractors, A rchi t ects, S urve ors,
.
A ucti oneers, Va l uers, B rokers, M i l l Owners a nd M a n ufactu rers, M i l l F a rh i s s

M ercha nts , a n d Gen era l Whol esal e Trad esmen A l so for t h e Apporti on ment o . }
M i l eage C ha rges for Ra i l way Trafi i c .
refe re n ces a re e ven m ore u i ckl y ma d e q

It i s as e asy o f refe ren ce for an y an swe r or an y n u mb e r of answers as a d i ct i onary , and th e
p rove i n val uab le t o a ll wh o h ave "an y con sxd e rab l e

.
q
F o r m ak i n g u p a ccoun t s or esti mat es t h e b ook must
u an t i ty of cal cul a ti ons i n v ol vi ng p ri ce and
measu re i n a ny combi n at i on t o do —E n gan eer . .
H C omp r eh en s i v e
a r ben s ’
W ei gh t C a l cu l a t or .
TH E WEIG L UL HT CA C A TOR of T ab l es . B ei ng a S e ri es
ou a N ew an d C om e h e u si v e P l an , e xh i bi ti n g a t On e R efere n ce t h e e xact
y pr
al u e of an y W e i gh t l 0 m 1 l b t o 1 5 t on s , at 30 0 P rogressi ve Rat e s, from 1 4
.
t o 1 68 s p e r c wt , an d con tai n i n g
. . D i rec t A n swe rs , whi c h , wi th th ei r
C ombi n a ti on s , con si sti n g of a sm gl e addi ti on (most l y t o be pe rformed at
si gh t) , wi l l afl ord an aggre gate of A n swe rs ; t h e wh ol e bei n cal cu
l at e d an d d e si gn e d t o en su re correc tn e ss an d omot e d espa t ch By “ a!
gi
.
H an s e n , A cc ou n tan t . F i ft h E d i ti on , care l y C orrec ted R oy al sv c , .
{ s1 r .st ro n l
gy h a l f-
bou n d .
[j ust pu bl i she d .
A t a ct i cal an d use ful work of refe ren ce for men of b usl n w gen erally 3 i t Is th e best of th e
“
we v e seen —I m .
Of p ri ce les val ue t o
fi eld In dep en den t.
er
m .
es: men . It ls a uecemary book l u all mercan til e
B a r b en s
’
C omp r e h en si ve D i s c ou n t G u i d e.
TH E D I S C O UN T G UI DE . C ompri si n g seve ral S eri e s of
T abl e s for th e u se of M erc h an t s, M an u fac tu rers, Iron mon gers, an d ot h ers,
by wh i ch may be ascertai n ed th e exa c t Profi t ari si n g from an y mod e of u si n g
D i scoun t s, ei th e r i n t h e P urch as e or S al e of G oods, an d t h e met h od of ei th er
Al teri n g a Ra te of Di scoun t or Ad v an ci n g a Pri ce , so as t o p rod u c e , b y on e
Opera t i on , a su m t h at wi ll rea l i s e a n y re q u i red rofi t after all owi n g one or
more D i s cou n t s : t o wh i c h are add e d T abl es of ont or A d v an ce from i t t o
90 p er c en t , T abl es of D i scou n t from x} t o 98} pe r cen t , an d T abl es of C om
. .
mi ssi on , &c , from i t o t o p er cen t B y H E N RY H a rma n , Acc ou n tan t

. . N ew .
E di ti on , R ev i sed an d C orrect ed D emy 8 v o, 544 pp , £1 55 h al f-bou n d

. . . .
“
A book su ch as t h l s can oul y he a re ci at e d b y b ush es men, t o wh om th e savm ol ti nts
ma ns savi ng ot mon e y W e h ave t h e i n au th ori ty of Professor J R You ng t ha t t g e tabl aa
‘
. . .
th rough ou t t h e wo rk are const ruct e d u p on st ri ct ly a ccu ra te p ri nci pl es T h e work Is a model .
of ty p ograp hi cal cl earn ess an d must of grea t val ue t o merc han ts, manufactu rers. an d
gen eral traders —B r i ti s h Tr a de y m
.
”
. al .
N ew W a g e s C a l c u l a t or
TA B L ES A G ES
.
OF W at 54 , 5 2 . 5 0 an d 4 8 H o u rs pe r W ee k .
S h ow i n g t h e A m ou n t s o f W e s fr o m O n e -
q u ar t e r-oi - n h ou r
a t o S i x t -f
y ou r
h our s i n eac h ca se a t R a t es 0 W a ge s ad v a n c i n g b y O n e S h i l l i n g from to
m er wee k . B y T a o s G a u s u r r , A c c oun tan t S q u are c rown 8 v a , os' '

. . .
an d ,
[j ust Pi t- i lk “ .
I r on an d M et a l Tr a d es C a l cu l a t or . ’
TH E I RON AND ME TA
r TR A D E S C OM P A N ION '
. F or
exp e di ti ou sl y ascert ai n i n g t h e Val u e of an y Goods b ou gh t or sol d b y ei gh t , W
trom rs. p er cwt t o rrzs e r c wt , an d from on e farth i n g er p ou n d t o on e
E
. . .
sh i l li n g p er p ou n d . By H O H A S D o wm a 396 p p , gs. l os t or
m
. .
- t
fi thgu
l
gal gfi gd g fil ? ge — 3 7 3
..
f li ke ‘
gh sp e l a th an d me s O ls . .. t
M ot he r h usluam i n whi c g r
i
mu chan i ae i s h ough t au d sol d by walgh t. Ra i l w
”
. m
C R OS B Y L OC K woon s s oz
v s C A TA L OG UE
'
4 s .
D I R E C T C A L C U L A T O R S,
By M . B . C OT S W OR T H , of H o l ga t e , Y o rk .
QUICKEST AND M OST ACCURATE M EANS OF CALC ULATION KNOWN .
ENSURE AC CUR ACY BASE, SA VE TIME an d mo

an d S PEED WITH m .
Accoun t s ma y be ch a rged ou t or ch e ck e d b y t h e se me an s i n a b ou t on e
t h i rd h e t i m e re q u i red b y ord i n a ry m et h od s of ca l cu l a t i on . Th ese
u n ri v a l l e d C a l cu l a t ors h a v e v ery c l e a r a n d ori gi n a l con t ri v a n ces
for i n st an t l y fi n d i n g t h e exa ct a n swer , b y i t s i i xed p os i ti c u n ri t h ou t
ev en si gh t i n g t h e t op or si d e or t h e p a ge Th ey a re v a ri ed i n a rran ge .
men t to su i t t h e spe ci a l n eed oreach p a rt i cu l a r t ra d e .
A l l t h e l ead i n g fi rms n ow us e C a l cu la tors , even wh ere t hey em pl oy ex erts .

p
it h -
In d i c a t or l et t er s i n b ra ck e t s sh ou l d b e q u ot ed .
“
R A I L WA Y e TRA D E R S C A L C UL A T OR
»
( R 8 T ) 1 0 s 6d
’
; . . . .
In cl u d i n g S ca l e of C h ar ge s for S m al l P arc e l s b y M e rch a n d i se T rai n s

D i rec t C a l c u l a t or —t h e on l y C a l c u l at or u b l i s h e d gi v i n g e xac t c h a rge for
.
"
p
t s , Q rs an d L b s , t o ge t h e r
"
. . C al cu l a t i n g T a b l e s for e v e ry i a r a t e to
. . .
roos p er ton
. W a e s C al cu l a t or
. P ercen t a ge R a t e s ”
G rai n , F l ou r, . .
Al e , &c , W e i gh t C a cu l a t o rs
.
"
.
D IR E C T C A L C U L A T OR (I R) i n c l u di n g al l t h e a bov e e xc ept
”
C a l cu l a t i n g T a bl es . 73 .
D I R E C T CA L C UL A T OR (A) by i d, 25 . e ach open i n g, e xact

pe n ce t o 4 0 3 p e r t on . .
sr .
D IR E C T CA L C UL A T OR (B) by rd .
, 4s . ea c h o pe n i n g, e xac t
pe n ce t o 40 3 p er t on . .
4s Gd.
DI REC T
.
C A L C UL A T OR (wi t h t s. a n d Q
(c) by Id . rs . to
n e ar e s t fart h i n g) . t o 40 s p e r t o n . .
4 s 6d. .
D I R E C T C A L C UL A T OR (Ds) by rd .
gr ada t i on s . S i n gl e T ons
t o 50 T on s . t h e n b y fi ft i e s t o T o n s , wi t h t
r, 0 0 0 e v al u e s e l ow i n exac t .
p e n ce p a y a b l e , frac ti on s of 3d . a n d u p wa rds b e i n g cou n t e d a s i d 63 6d . . .
D IR E C T C A L C U LA T OR (D) h as from to T on s i n
a d d i t i on t o th e (D s) C al cu l at or .
7s 6d. .
D I R E C T C A L C U L A T OR (Es) b y Hi grad at i o n s (A s (D) t o . .
r 0 0 0 T on s wi t h t
, s an d Q rs v a l u es s h o wn se p a rat el y t o t h e n e arest
, . .
far t h i n g) .
5s 6d . .
D I RE C T C A L C UL A T OR (E) h as from to T on s i n
addi t i on t o t h e (E l ) C a l c u l at o r 63 64 . . .
e a c h ope n i n g, e xac t
D I RE C T C A L C UL A T OR (F) by i d 23 .
p en c e t o 4os p er t on . . 4s cd . .
D I R E C T C A L C UL A T OR (G) b y rd , rs . . ea c h open i n g 6 i n by .
9 in N eare st i d
. In d exe d (G 1 ) 3s (i d as 6d
. . . . .
D I R E C T C A L C UL A T OR (H b y 1 d , rs . . eac h ope n i n g 6 i n by .
9 in . To exa ct pe n c e . In d e xe d H I) 33 6d . . 23 . 6d .
D I R E C T C A L C UL A T OR (K) S h owi n g Va l u e s o f T on s, t s .
s i n e v en p en ce (frac t i on s of i d as fo r t h e R etai l C oal T rade

e
an d . . .
4s 6 .
RA I L WA Y A N D TI M B E R TRA D E S M E A S UR E R A N D C A L
C U L A T OR (T) (as p rep are d for t h e Ra i l way C omp a n i e s) T h e onl y book .
p u bl i sh e d gi v i n g t ru e c on t e n t of u n e q u a l s i d e d a n d rou n d t i mbe r b y e i gh th s
of a n i n c h , q u art e r gi rt h W e i gh t s from C u b i c F ee t— S t a n d ard s, S u p e rfi c i al
F ee t , an d S t on e t o W e i gh t s—Ru n n i n g F e e t from l e n gth s o f D e a l s —S tan dard
,
M u l ti p l i ers—Ti mb er M easures—C u st oms R e gu l at i on s, &c 3 s 6d. . .

44 C R OS B Y L OC K WOOD 6 S ON S C A TA L OG UE
’
.
D a i ry F ar mi n g .
B R I TI S H D A I R YI N G A H a n dy V ol u m e on t h e W ork of th e .
D ai ry -F arm F or t h e U se of T e c h n i ca l In s tru c ti on C l as ses , S t u den t s i n

.
A gri cu l tu ral C o ll e ge s , an d th e W orki n g D ai ry F ar mer B y P rof P S n a t no n , -

. . .
l at e S p ec i a l C om mi ssi on e r o f t h e C an adi an G ov ern men t , A u or o f D ai ry

F arm i n "
&c W i t h n u me rou s Il l u stra t i on s C rown” 8 v o , as Gd cl oth
W e c on g,e n n e c omme n d i t a s a t e xt boo k on dai ry farmi n g —A g r feu l t u ru l Ga s ew
. . . . .
- '
a —N ortl s
. .
Proba b l y t h e st h alf wn man ual on dai ry work t h at h as y et be en p rod u ce d

-c ro .
"
Br i t i s h A m l tu m t
—
.
I t i s th e so u n d est li t t l e work we h a ve y e t see n on t h e su bj ec t T) i e Ti mes .
Da i r y
.
M a n u al .
M I L K , C H E E S E A N D B UTTE R : A P ra c t i c a l H an dbook
on t h ei r P rope rt i e s an d t h e P roc esses of t h e i r P rod u c ti on , i n c l u di n g a
C h ap t er on C ream a n d t h e M e t h od s of i t s S e p ara t i on from M i l k By r
{g
i ts
V
.
O L I E R , l at e P ri n ci p a l o f t h e W e s te rn D a i ry In sti t u te, B e rk e l e y i th .
C o l ou re d P l at e s an d zoo Il l u st s C rown 8 v c , 7s 6d c l ot h.
j ust pu bl i s hed. . . .
A n e xh au st i v e a n d mast e rl y p rod u ct i on It may b e cord i al l y re commeu e d t o al l st u den ts

.
p rac t i t i on e rs of d a i ry s e i e n c e — N B A m a d tu m r
q
. . . .
W e st ron g ec o mme n d t h i s v e ry comp re h e ns i v e a n d ca re fu ll y -wri tt en boo k t o da i ry -fa rmers

an d st u d e n t s of lLr
ry mg It i s a d i st i n ct a c u i si ti o n t o t h e li b rary of t h e agri c ul tu ri st —A g m vd
.
”
.
t u m ! Ga z ette .
A gr i t u r a l F a c t s a n d F i g u r es .
cu l
NOTE -
B OOK OF A G RI C UL T UR A L F A C TS A N D F I G URES
F OR F A R M E R S A N D F A R M S T UD E N TS B y P a i u a o s n M c C on n s nn, .
B Sc F i ft h E d i ti on R o al samo roan , l i t ed es , wi t h ban d

all y t ee ms wi t h i n formati o . an d we c z
an cord al ly re ommsu d It t o al l ouns ct sd w i g f
. . .
“
L i t er- l th
—N or fl r B r i t i sh A M
agri cul t ure.
"
S m a ll F a rm i n g .
S YS TE M A TI C S M A L L F A R M I N G The L essons of my or ,
F a rm B ei n g an In trod u cti on t o M ode rn F arm P rac ti ce for S mal l F armers
. .
B R S c or r B u n s W i t h n u merou s Il l u st rat i on s, crown 8 vo, 63 cl oth

'
a i s th e corn pletest book of tts ch ss w—

. . . .
e hav e seem an d oue whi ch e ve ry ams tsur h rmse

wi ll res d wi t h pl easure an d sc cep t as a “ def F i eld .
M od e r n F ar mi ng .
O UTL IN E S OF M OD E RN F A R M IN G B y R 3 0 0 1 ? B U RN
0 n omy —
. .
S o i l s , M an u re s, a n d C rop s —F arm i n g an d F armi n g

.
C at tl e, S h eep
an d H orse s M a n a eme n t of D a i r P i gs , an d oul try Ut i l i sati on of $
T own - S e wa ge , Irri a t on , &c S i xth di ti on g
In On e Vol ,.
pp , h al f . . .
b oun d , profu sel y Il u stra ted , rat .

“
Th e ai rn o f th e au t h or h as been t o make hl s work at on ce com reh u i sl ve and
p
an d h e has su c cee d ed to a degree whi ch en t i tles hi m to mu ch cre di t J am i " 4 m .
’
.
A gr i cu l t u r a l E n g i n e er i n g .
F A R M E N G I N E E RIN G , TH E C OM P L E TE TE X T-B OOK OF .
C om ri si n g D rai n i n g an d E mban ki n g ; Irri ga ti on an d W ater S u p p l y ; F arm

R oa F en c es, an d G a t es ; F arm B u i l di n gs ; B arn Imp l emen t s an d M a
s,
ch i n e s ; F i el d Imp l emen t s an d M a ch i n e s ; A ri cu l t u ral S u rv e y i n
"
P rof o a n S c o r r
. J g &
age s , h al f-bou n d , wi t h ov er Goo Ill ustra ou s, m .
.
c
W ri tt en wi t h gr ea t care as we as wi th k n owl ed ge an d ab ili ty Th e au t h or h as done hi s

.
B y
.
.
work we l l ; we ha v e fou n d hi m a v ery trust wort h y gu i de w"h ereve r we have t est ed h i s stat ements
Th e vol ume wi ll be of great va lu e t o agri cu l tu ral st u den ts —
.
M ¢ r b L a ne M ess . .
A gr i c ul t u r a l T eas t -B o o h
'
.
TH E F IEL D S OF G R E A T B R I TA I N : A T ext -B ook of

A gri cu l t u re , ad ap t ed t o th e S y l l abus of t h e Sci e n ce an d A rt D e art men t
p
.
F or E l e m en t ary a n d A d v an ced S t u d en t s B y H u c n C n a u s s r s B oard c l .
T rade ) S e c on d E di ti on , R e v i sed , wi t h A ddi t i on s e o, as 64 c l ot h . .

"—
. . .
"
A most comp re h ensi v e vol u me, gi vi n g a mass o f l n forrnati on A g r i eu l t un l E m m i “
—
. .
"
It i s a l ong ti me si n c e we h a v e see n a book whi ch has p l eased us more. or whi ch con h h s
s uc h a vast an d u se fu l fun d of k n owle dge E d u a rt rm l l i m es
"
. .
Ta b l e s fo r F a r m er s , e t c .
TA B L E S , M E M OR A N D A , A N D C A L C UL A TE D RE S UL TS
for F a rmers, G ra ri ers, A gri cu l tu ra l S tu den ts, S u rvey ors, L a n d A gents, A uc
ti on eers, etc W i t h a N e w S y s t e m of F arm B ook -k e ep i n g B y S rn u s r F ru it
. .
c rs . T h i rd E di t i on , R evi sed 27: p p , wai st coa t -poc k et si ze , rs 6d l ea t h er

. . . . .
We i ghi n g less th an 1 os , an d occu py i n g n o more sp ace t h an a mat ch b ox, i t con ta i ns a mass

.
facts an d c al cu l a ti ons wh i ch h as ne ver b efore In su ch h an dy form, b een ob tai na b le E very

, .
ti on on th e fa rm i s d eal t wi t h T h e work may be t ak en as t h o roughl y a cc urat e , th e wh ol e

”—
.
t h e t abl e s h a vi n g be en revi se d b y D r F ream W e cordi ally recommen d l t B el l s Wa l l y

'
. . .
H arm
A G RI C UL T URE , F A RM I N G , G A RD EN IN G , t i c.
A r t i fi ci a l M a n u r es a n d F o od s.
F E R TIL I S ERS A N D F E ED I N G S T UF F S T h e i r P re per
D
:
t i es an d U se s A H an db oo k for t h e P ra c t i ca l Farm e r B y BE R N A R D E R Y
f
. .
D S c (L on d ) W i t h t h e T e xt of t h e F e rt i li sers an d F ee d i n g S tu fi s A ct o
’
. . .
1 8 93 , t h e R e gu l at i on s an d F orm s o f t h e B oa rd o f A gri c u l tu re a n d N o t e s on
. . V D
t h e A c t b y A 1 D A I , B A , L L . M , of t h e In n er T emp l e , B arri st e r-at L a w
. . .
-
.
C rown 8 v o , n o p ages , i s c l oth . [ us t pu bl i shed

g
. .
A n e xc e ll e n t sh i l l i n gs wort h D r D y e r h a s d on e farme rs good se rvi ce i n p ci ri g at t h e i r di s

.
p osal so mu c h usefu l i n format i on i n so i n t e ll i g i bl e a form Th e Ti mes

"
. .
Th e M ana g em e n t o f B e es .
B EES F OR P L E A S URE A N D P R OF I T : A G u i de t o t h e
M a n i p u l a ti on B ees , t h e P rod u c t i on of H on ey , an d t h e G e n eral M an age
men t of t h e
T h e l u t en
of
A p i ary B y G G O R O N S a mson
. . D
C rown 8 v c , rs c l ot h
bee -k ee r wi ll fi nd exact l y t h e ki n d of i n format i on re u i re d t o en abl e hi m
.
q . .
to mak e a su cc st a rt wi t hi s h i ves T h e au t h or i s a t h orough l y c omp et en t t ea ch e r, an d hi s

—M orn i n g P os t
.
b ook may b e comm en d ed ”
kk
.
. .
F a rm d E s t a t
ane B o o -
e ep i n g .
B OOK -K E E P IN G F OR F A R M E R S 6 ES TA TE O WN E R S .
A P rac t i c a l T re at i se , , re se n t i n g i n T h re e P l an s, a S y s t e m ad ap t ed fo r al l
C l as se s of F arms B y . ou n s a n M W o om u m , C h art e red A ccou n t an t
. S ec on d .
Edi t i on , R e v i s ed C rown 8 v c , 3 3 6d c l oth boards ; or as 6d c l ot h l i mp

"—
. . . . . .
T h e v ol ume i s a capi tal stu d y of a most i mp ort an t su bj e ct A gr i a d t u r a l Ga r et h . .
T h e y ou ng fa rmer, l an d an d surve y or wi ll fi n d M r W ood ma n s treat i se more tha n

'
rep ay i t s cost an d st u d y —
.
Bu i n g N ews
"
. .
F a rm A t B o ol e. c cou n
WOOD M A N S YE A RL Y F A R M A CC OUN T B OOK
'
. G i v i ng
a W eekl y L abo ur Acco un t an d D i an d sh owi n g t h e In come an d E on
di t u re un der ea ch D e tm en t of rope , L i v e S t ock , D ai ry , &c &c i th . .
V al uati on , P rofi t an d as A ccou n t , an d B al anc e S h e e t a t t h e en d of th e

Year .
k ee p i n g for F armers
J
B y O H N S ON M W o o n i u m . C h art ered A cc ou n t an t , A u th or of Book
"
F ol i o, 7s 6d h al f boun d
.
[cu l t um
—
a
. . . .
.
Cont ai ns e ve ry re q ui si te form for kee p i ng fa rm accounts re ad il y an d ac curatel y ”

AM .
E a rl y F ru i t s, F l ow er s , and V e ge t a bl es .
TH E F OR C IN G GA R D EN or, H ow t o G row E arl y F ru i ts .
F l owers, an d Ve s tabl es. W i th E sti mates for B u i l di n G l ass
P l an s an d
h ou se s, Pi t s, an d rames . By S a u n a s W oo n C rown 8 v o, sr 6d o th . . . .
“
A good b ook , and fai rly fill s a c t h a t wu i n some d Th e book i s wri tt en wi t h
rg
’
v acan t
f gl
.
great cs rq and con tai ns a great dea a uable teach i ng

"
.
G oo d G a r d e n i n g .
A P L A I N G UI D E TO GOOD GA RD E N I N G or . H ow t o G row
Vegetabl e s, F ru i ts, an d Fl owers By 8 W 0 0 0 F ourth Ed i ti o n , wi th con . . .
si d erabl e A ddi ti on s, &c , an d n u merou s Il l us tra ti on s C rown 8 vo 3 s 64 cl

. . . . . .
good b oo k an d on e t o h s hi g hl y recommen de d ss a practi cal gu l da

"
A Th e pracd cd
—A tl rm u m , .
M a y be mmen d e d t o y oung gardeners,

re c o cottage “ . an d spe ci all y t o ama teu rs, for t h e
ph l n. si mp l“e an d i stwort h y i n formati on i t gi ves on common matters too oft en ne gl ecte d .
M bM »‘a r
G a i n fu l G a r d en i n g.
M UL T UM IN -P A R VO GA RD E N IN G ; or, H ow t o m ake O ne
-
Acre of Lan d p rod u ce £6ao a ear by th e C u l t i va ti on of F ru i t s an d V egetabl es

al so, H ow t o G row F l owers a Th r e e G l as s H ouses, so as t o real i se £1 76
annu m c l e ar P rofi t B y S u ma c W o o n A u t h or of G ood G ard en i n g, 53
.
"
: ,
F i ft h C h ea pe r Edi t i on , Re v i sed , wi t h A ddi ti on s

an d C rown 8 v c , rs se wed . . .
"
W e are b oun d t o re commen d i t as not on ly m i t ed t o the cass of th s amat su r and gsnfl sms n s
—
'
gardu i er b u t t o t he mark et grower

,
”
W ”q u i res . .
G a r d en i n g for L a d i es .
T H E L A D S M UL UM - IN -P A R V
O F L O WER G A R D E N ,
'
I E T
and A ma teu rs C ompl ete Gui de W i t h Ill u st s B y 8 W 0 0 0
'
C r 8 vo, 33 6d cl . . . . . . . .
R ec e i p ts for G a r d e n e rs.
G A R D E N R E CE I PTS E di t ed by C H A RL ES W Q u m. ramo. . .
rs 6d c l ot h li mp
k
. . .
M a r e t G a r d e n i n g.
M A RK E T A N D K I TCH EN GA RD E N I N G B y C on tri bu t ors .
to “
Th e G arden "
C ompi d y
l e b C W S ru w, l ate Ed i tor of G arden i n g
.
"
. .
same as 64 cl oth hoard s

"
Il l u strated . . . .
4 6 C R OS B Y L OC K WOOD 6 S ON S C A TA L OG UE
'
.
A UCTIONEERING. VALUING, LA ND SURVEYING

ESTATE A GENCY, etc .
A u c ti o n e er s ’
t A ssi s t a n .
TH E A P P RA I S E R , A UC TI ON E E R , B R OK ER H O US E A N D .
E S TA TE A G E N T A N D VA L UE R S P OC K E T A S S I S TA N T, for t h e Val ua '
ti on for P u rc h ase , S al e , or Ren ewal of L e ase s , A n n u i ti e s an d Re v e rsi on s, and

of rap e rt y ge n e ral l ; wi t h P ri c es for In v e n t ori e s, &c B Jo n-m W a n n a ,
é
.
V u er, &c S i xth

. d i ti on , R e-wri tt e n an d great l y e xt en ed by C N o a ru e .
.
S u rv e y or, V a l u e r, &c Roy a l szmo, 5 3 c l oth
. . .
A ne a t an d con ci se book o f refere n c e, con ta i n i n g an ad mi rab le an d cl early li st cl

d f i
q
t o i es. an a v e ry pra c ti ca l gu i de t o d e t ermi ne th e v al ue of fu rn i t ure fl c
d ”
p oe s o r n v en r l a n de d .
C on t a i ns a l ar 0 u an t i t y o f va ri ed an d use ful i n format i o n as t o t h e va l ua t i o n for

p u rchase.
sal e , or re n e wal o l ea ses, a n n u i ti es a n d re ve rs i ons. an d o f
p ro pe rty g en e rall y . w”i th r i oes for
In ve n t ori es. and a gu i de t o d e te rmi ne t h e val ue of i n t e ri or fi tti n gs an d ot h er efl e cts ad o
’
. .
A u c t i on e er i n g .
A UC TI ON E E R S TH E I R D UTIE S AND L I A B I L I TI E S .
A M an u al of In st ru c ti on an d C ou n se l fo r th e You n g A u c ti on e er B y R o a a a r .
‘
n raa s ,
A u c t i on e er S ec on d E d i t i.o n , R e v i s e d an d p art l y Re-wri t t e n
D emy .
8 v o, rss Gd cl oth
. . .
O p rm o u s o r r u n P RR s s .
Th e sta n da rd t e xt -bo ok on t h e t o i cs o f wh i c h i t t re a ts —A tl ren a u m . .
T h e wo rk i s on e o f g e ne ral e xe c n t c h ara ct er, an d gi ves mu ch i nforma ti on i n a compen

dl ous an d sa t i s fa c t o ry fo rm —B u rlde r
‘
M ay b e re c o mm e n d e d as gl v mg a g reat d eal o f i n forma ti on on t h e la w re la ti ng bu

au cti on ee rs, i n a v e ry re a da b l e fo rm —L a w y ou r m rl .
A u ct i on ee rs m a b e c o n g ra t u la t e d on ha v i ng so p l e as i n g a wri t e r t o mi n is t e r t o th ei r
—
nee ds — S ol rc rtor s
’
e ter n a l .
l m m m gw
“
E v ery a u c ti o n ee r ou gh t t o p osse ss a cop y of t hi s e xcellen t work "
. .
o r grea t v a u e t o t h e p rofes i on
l
W e re a ddy wel come t h i s b ook from th e fact th at It
t rea ts th e su bj e c t i n a manne r some wha t n e w t o t h e p rofes i on —Erta tes Gu m
.
"
. .
I n wo o d E s t a t e T a b l es
’
s .
TA B L E S F OR TH E P UR C H A S I N G OF E S TA TE S F reehold. .
C opy hol d , or L easeh ol d ; A nn u i ti es, A dvowsons , et c , an d for t h e Rene wi n g oi .
L ease s h el d u n d e r C a th e d ra l C h u rc h e s, C ol l e e s or ot h e r C orp ora te bod i es .
for T e rm s of Ye ars ce rt ai n an d fo r Li v e s ; a o fo r V al u i n g R e v e rsron ary

.
E st a t e s , D e te rred A n n u i t i e s, N e xt P re se n ta ti on s , &c ; t o t h er wi t h S u a a t e ’
.
F i v e T ab l es of C o m p ou n d In t ere st , an d a n E xt e n si on 0 t h e sa me t o L ower
an d In t e rm e d i a t e R a t e s B y W In wo o n . s4 t h E di ti on , wi t h c on si d erabl e
. .
A d d i t i on s, an d n ew an d v al u a bl e T abl e s o f L o gari t h ms for t h e more D i ffi cul t

C omp u t a t i on s of t h e In te re st of M on e y , D i scou n t , A n n u i t i e s, &c , b y M F a no a . .
T u o u a n , of t h e S oc i é t é C redi t M obi u er oi P ari s C rown 8 v o , 83 cl oth . . .

"
Th ose i n tereste d i n th e p u rch a se an d sal e of m an d i n t h e adj ust men t of comp en sati on
eases. as we ll as i n t ra nsac ti ons i n ann ui ti es. life Insu rances. & c . wi l l fi nd th e p resent e di t i on ol .
emi nen t se rvi c e d i m m

. er
In wood s T a b le s st i ll mai nta i n a most en vi able re p uta h on Th e new i ssu e h as be en en ri ch ed
‘ ’
.
M F ed or Th oman. wh ose carefull y arrange d T abl es cannot

E
ad d i ti ona l c on t ri b u t i ons b
l to S
.
m ym
”
e of t h e u tmost u t i li t y . z .
A gr i c u l t ur a l V a l u e r s A ss i s t a n t .’
TH E A G RI C UL T UR A L VA L UER S A S S I S TA N T A P ra c
’
.
ti cal H an dbo ok on t h e Val u ati on of L an de d E s t a t es ; i n c l u d i n R u l es and

D at a for M easu ri n g an d E st i mat i n g t h e C on t e n ts , W e i gh t s, an Val u es of
A gri c u l tural P rod u ce an d T i mb er, an d th e V al u es of F e e di n g S tu fls
'
M a n ure s, an d L a bo u r ; wi th F orms of T e n an t-R i gh t -Val u a t i on s , L i sts o i

L oc al A gri cul t u ral C u stoms , S c al e s of C om p e n sati on un d e r th e A gri cu l tu ral
H ol di n gs A c t , &c &c B y T o n B aro n r , A ri cu l t ural S urv e y or'
S econd
g
. . .
E d i t i on , mu c h En l arge d C rown 8 v c , 5 3 c l o t
. .
F u l l o f t a ble s an d exam l es i n con ne cti on wi th t h e val ua ti on of ten ant -ri g h t , c rat e s. la bour.
con t e n t s
. an d w e h ts of t i m a n d fa rm p ro d u c e o f a ll ki n d s — A g n a rl mru l Gu a rd s
'
A n e mi ne n p rac ti cal h an d boo k, fu ll of p ra cti ca l ta b les an d d a ta

value t o su rve y ors an d auc t i on ee rs m p re p armg va l ua ti ons of al l ki n ds
”
of u n d ou bted i nt en t and
F am er . — .
P l a n t a ti on s a n d U n d er wo o d s .
P OL E P L A N TA TI ON S A N D UN D E R WOOD S : A P rac t i cal

H an d b ook on E st i ma t i n g t h e C ost of F ormi n g, R en ov a t i n g Imp rov i n g, an d ,
G ru b b i n g P l a n t at i on s an d U n d e rwood s , t h e i r V al u a t i on for P u rp o se s oi
T ran sfe r , R e n t a l , S a l e , or A sse ssm e n t B y T o n B RrG a r , A u th or oi
'
.
T h e A gr c l t u ra V al
i u l u e t s A s s i s t an t "
&c C rown 8 v o 3 3 64 c l ot h
"—
, . . . . .
d
T o v al u e rs fo est ers an age t i t wi ll b e a we l c o me a id N or t) r B u m-
Ir A m a a-in
s
r
. n s r . .
We ca l c u l a ted t o n si st t h e va lues i n t h e di sc harge of h i s du

ll an d of un ou b t e d In t erest
an d use b ot h t o survey ors an d au ct i one ers i n pre p ari ng val uati on s of ki nds .
" —K en t a m
C ROS B Y L OC K WOOD 6 S ON S C A TA L OG UE
’
48 .
A C o m p l e t e E p i t o m e of t h e L a ws of t h i s C o u n tr y .
E VE R Y M A N S O WN L A W YE R A H A N D Y BO O K on T H E
' -
P ai n c i r u t s o r L A W A N D E g u rrr W i r i r A C ONC I S E D IC T IONARY

.
O F L EG A L T E R M S B y A B A i t i u s r i m Thi r t y th i rd E d i t i on , careful l y
- '
m
. .
Revi sed , an d i n c l u di n g N e w Ac ts of P arl i amen t of 1 8 95 . C o r i si n g t h e

S u mma ry j u ri sd i ct i on (M a rri ed Women) A ct , 1 8 (gi to a gi s t rates p
l arge l y i n creas e d p o w er s fo r t h e P r o t e c ti o n o f i -
u s e d i v es ) , a s 9? w e l l a s
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, Sol i ci tor . F cap 8 v o, 3s 6d cl oth
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W EA L E S S E R IES
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SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL

W O RK S .
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C IVIL ENG IN EER ING A ND S URVE ING Y 2 A RC HIT EC T UR E A ND B UILDING
mwun A ND M ETA LL URG Y s INDUST R IA L A ND use ruu A RTS .
M EC HA N IC A L t ue ms s a mo . 4 Ae mc uu u a z, GA RD ENING , ETC .
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B OO KS O F R EF ER EN C E A ND M ISC ELLA NEO US VOL UM ES
C R OSBY L OC K WOOD A N D SO N,
’
7, S T A TION E R S H A LL C OU R T , L ON D ON ,
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WEAL E s .
C I VIL E N G IN E E R IN G S U R V E YI N G .
Ci vi l E n gi n e er i n g
YD
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I t C E ns In c l u d i n T rea t i se on H
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wi t h L AR by D K E IT I O N S . . C LA RE , M I C E . . .
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A T rea t i se o n t h e E n gi n ee ri n g Ope ra t i ons c on n ect e d wi t h t he Se t t l e me n t of
W ast e L a n ds i n N e w C ou n t ri e s By E W A R D O BSO N , A I C E W i t h
n u me ro us P l a t es S e cond Edi t i on .
. D D . . . .
I ro n B r i d ge s of M od e r a t e S p a n
T h e i r C on st ru c t i on
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. D D RE . With 0
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{ p ' ,
oo i e , a n d ot h e r W or k s .
B y F R A N C IS C A M P IN , C E . Fo u rt h E di t i on
k
.
C o n s t r u c t i o n a l I ro n a n d S t ee l or , W
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.
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P Y
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By G D R . . YS D A LE
DEM SE , C E . .
2 10
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A T h e oret i ca l an d Prac ti cal T rea t i se on t h e S t ra i n s, D e si gni n
t i on of W orks o f C ons t ru c t i on By F R A N C IS C A M IN , C . P .
an d E re c
S a n i t a ry W or k i n t h e S m a l l e r T ow n s an d i n V i l l a ge s .
By C H A R L ES S L A G G , A ssoc M In st C E . . . . . Se c on d Ed i t i on
R oa d s a n d S t re e t s T h e C on s t r u c t i on o f . ( )
In T wo P a rt s : I T H E A R T o r C O N S T R UC T IN . C O M M ON R OA S , by H
L A W , C E , R e v i sed by D K C L A R K , C E ; II R EC E N T P R A C T ICE : In
. . . .
G
.
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c l u d i ii g P a v e me n t s of W ood , A s p ha l t e , e t c
. .
B y D K C L A RK , C E . . . . .
Ga s W or k s T
( h e C o n s t r u c t i o n of ) ,
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R e -wri t t e n by W I L L IA M R IC H A R S , C E
By S H U H ES , C E
E i gh t h E d i t i o n D . .
. . . .
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t he W i t h a D es c ri p t i on o f t h e P ri n c i p al
p
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g
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S A M U E L H U H ES , F G S , C E E n l a rge d Edi t i on
. . . . .
T h e P ow e r of W a t er,
dri ve F l o u r M i ll s , a n d t o gi v e mo t i on t o T u rbi n es an d
As a p p l i ed
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. u a l i t i e s o f W a t er Ill u st ra t e d .
Th e D ra i n g
a e of L a n ds , Town s , a n d B u i di n s .
l g
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R e v i se d , wi t h l a rge A dd i t i on s on R ec e n t
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P ra c t i ce by D K C L A R K , M I C E
. .S e con d E i t i on , c orrec t e d . . . .
E m b a n k i n g L a n d s fr o t h e S oa m ..
W i t h P a rt i c u l a rs o f ac t u al E mba n k me n t s &c By J O H N W IGG I N S , . .
T h e B l a s t i n g a n d Q u a r r y i n g of S t on e ,
F o r B u i ld i n g a n d o t h e r P u rp ose s W i t h R e ma rk s on t h e Bl owi ng of
J
u
G Y II
.
Bri dges . By G e n S i r . . B UR O NE, K C B . . .
F o u n d a t i on s a n d C o n c r e t e W or k s .
W i t h P ra c ti ca l R e ma rks on F oo t m , Pla n ki n g Sa n d, C on cre t e Bé t on ,

i
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P i l e -dri v i n g, C ai sson s , C ofle r D O BS O N , M R I B A

'
an d a ns . By E . . . . . .
S e v e n t h E d i t i on
’
4 WEA L E S SC IEN TI FIC A N D TEC H NIC A L S ER IES .
M E C H A N I CA L E N G IN E E R I N G .
Th e W o r k m a n s M a n u a l o r E n gi ne e r i n g D r a w
’
By J
O H N M A xT O N , I nst ru c t or i n E n g i n ee ri n g D ra wi n , R oy al
g ava l
C ol l e ge , G ree n wi ch S e v e n t h E di t i o n 30 0 P l a t es a n d D i a grams
. .
F u el s : S o l i d , L i q u i d , a n d G a s e o u s .
The i r A n a l si s an d Va l u a t i on F o r t h e U se of C h e mi st s a n d En
J
e e rs . .
By H .H I L L I PS , F C S , fo rme rl y A n a l y t i c a l a n d C on s u l t i n g
. . . bem i st .
t o th e G rea t East ern Ra i l wa y Se c o n d Ed i t i on , R e v i sed . .
F u el , I t s C o m b u s t i on an d E c on om y .
C ons i st i n g of an A bri d me n t Of A T rea t i se on t h e C o mbust i on of C oa l an d

t h e P re ve n t i on of S mo e By C2 W W I L L I A M S , A I C E W i t h E xt en
.
’
. . . . . .
s i v e A ddi t i on s by “ In s t C E Th i rd Ed i t i on
K C L A R K , 1M . .
s A ssi st a n t
. . .
Th e oi l erm a k er
’
BD ra wi n g e mp la t i n g, an d C a l cu l a t i n g Bo il e r W ork , &c C
in
,
T B y J O U R T . .
N EY , P ra ct i ca l Bo i l e rma k er Ed i t e d b D K C L A RK , C E . . .
T h e B o i l e r -M a k e r R ea d y R ec
’
s on e r ,
wi t h E xa mp l es Of P rac t i ca l G e o m e t ry a n d T e mp l a t i ng for t h e U se O f
Pl a t e rs, S m i t h s, a n d R i v e t e rs By O H N C OU RT N E Edi t ed by D X . J Y .
C LA R K , M I C E S econ d Edi t i on , re v i se d , wi t h A dd i t i on s
. . . .
Ti n l a s t two W orks i n On e Vol u m e , [ml / bou nd ,
D K C LA RK
.
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en t i
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t l ed
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T H E BO I L E R
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S t ea m B oi l er s
Th ei r C ons tru ct i on and M a na ge men t . By R A R M S T RO N . G , C E . . Ill ust ra t ed
S t ea m a n d M a c h i n e ry M an a e en t .
A G u i de t o th e A rra n emen t an d Ec on om i ca l M a n a ge me n t
g m Of M ac h i n e ry
By M P owi s BA L E ,
. I n st M E g . . .
S t ea m an d t h e S t ea m E n gi n e,
S ta t i on a nd P orta bl e . B e i n g an E xt e nsi on o f t h e T re a t i se on t h e St ea m
E n gi n e o Mr .
J SE W E L L
. . By D K C LA R K , C E . T h i rd E di t i on
. . .
Th e S t ea m E n
A T reat i se on t e M a t he ma t i ca l Th eo ry o f, wi t h R u l es and E xa mpl es for
P ra ct i es l M e n B T BA K E R , C E 1 /6
ine
. . . .
Th e S t ea m Eng
D
.
By D r L A R . N E R. Ill u st ra t ed
L oc om ot i v e E n gi n
P
es ,
By G D D E M S E
. . Y , C E W i th l arge A dd i t i ons
. . t rea t i n g O f t n e M od e rn
L ocom o t i ve by D K C L A R K , M I ns t C E
. . .
3 10
En gi n e -D r i vi n g
. .
L oco m o t i v e .
A P rac t i ca l M a n u a l for E n gi n ee rs i n c ha rge O f L oc o mot i v e E n gi n es

M IC H A E L R EY N O L S Ei h t h Ed i t i on D
3 3 6d l h p cl ot h boa rds
.
g . . .
'
.
S tati on a r y E n gi n e -D r i vin g .
A P ra c t i cal M a n u al for E n gi n e e rs i n ch a rge O f

M IC H A E L R Ei H O L S Fou rt h Edi t i on D . .
33 .
S ta t i on a ry En gi n e s
6d l i mp c lot h boa rds
. .
.
Th e S m i t h y a n d F or e . g
In cl u di n
Secon d
t h e F a rri e r s A rt
’
i t i ou re v i s ed
an d C oa c h S mi t h i n g . By W .
J . E C RA N E
.
2 16
.
M od e r n W or k s ho p P ract i ce ,
A s a p pl i ed t o M ari ne , L a n d , an d L oco mot i ve E n gi ne s , Fl oa t i n D ocks ,
D re d n
gi g
F ou r
M achi n es , Bri dges , S hi p bu i l d i n g, &c
di t i on , Il l us tra t e d
By G
.
.
J . . i N T ON .
h a n i c al E n gi n ee r i n g .
C orni i M t llr s ng M l di o e a
g C a s t i n g , F orgi n
u rgy , u n , , T ool s , W orksh op
M ac n e ry , M e c h an i ca l M an i p u l a t i on , M a n u fa c t u re O t h e S t ea m E n gi n e ,
&c {
l i y F R A N C i s C A M I N , C E T hi rd Ed i t i on P
i
. . .
D et ai l s o
'
M a c h i n e ry .
C om pri si n g In st ru c t i on s for t h e E xe cu t i on o f v a ri ou s W ork s In I ron

F i t t i n g-S h op , F ou n d ry , a n d Boi l er-Ya rd By F RA N C IS C A M IN , O E . P .
In t he
’
WHA LE S SC IENTIF IC A N D TE C H NI CA L S ER I ES .
E l em en t a ry E n gi n e e r i n g
A M an u a l for Yo u n g M ari n e En gi n ee rs a n d A p pre n t i ces In t h e F orm O f .
u s t i on s an d A n s wers o n M e t a l s, Al l oy s , S t re n g t h o f M a t eri al s , &c

g S B R E W ER Se con d E di t i on
.
y
i 2 10
. .
P ow e r n M ot i o n
H o rse powe r M ot i on , T oo t h e d Wh e e l G eari n g, L on g a n d Sh ort D ri v i n
Ban ds , A n gu l a r Forc es , &c By A M ES A R M OU R , C E T h i rd E d i t i on 2 / . J . .
I r on an d H ea t,
i n t h e C on st ru ct i on Iron Bea ms,
E xh i bi t i n g t h e P ri n ci l e s
P i l la rs , a n d G i rders . J c o n ce rn ed
. A R M O U R, C E . .
of
P racti ca l M ec h a n i sm ,
A n d M ac h i n e T oo l s By T BA K E R , C E W ith R e ma rk s T ool s d
J
. . . . on an
M ac h i n e ry , by N ASMY I H, C E .
' ‘
. .
M ec h a n i c s :
Be i n a c on c i se
.
E xp os i t i on O f t h e G e n e ra l P ri n ci p l e s of M e c ha n i ca l S ci e n ce ,
a nd t ei r A p l i c at i on s By C H A R L E s T O M L I N S O N , F R S
Co n s t r u c t i o n
. . . .
C ran es (T h e of ) ,
M a c h i n e ry for R a i si n H e a vy Bod i es for t h e E rec t i on Of Bu i l d
And
i n gs, &c
o t h er
. By J P OSE H GL Y NN, . R S . .
N A V I GA TI O N , S H IP B U IL D IN G, E TC .
T h e S a i l or Sea B oo k
’
D
s
A R u di me n ta ry T rea t i se o n N a v i ga t i on I y JA M Es G R E E N W OO , B A
I
. . .
W i t h n u me rou s W oodcu t s an d C ol ou red ’l a t es N e w an d e n l arge d

B y w H R OSS E R
.
E di t i on . .
P ract i ca l N a v i ga t i o n
J D
.
C o n s i st i n g O f 1 H R S A IL O R s S EA -BOO K , by A M ES G R E EN W O O an d W H
’ ’
. .
R O SS E R t o ge th e r wi t h M a t h e ma t i ea l a n d N a u t i ca l T a bl e s for t he W ork i n
J
'
o f t h e P robl e ms , H EN R L AW, C E a n d P rof R YO U N Y 7/ . . . . . G .
N a v i ga t i o n an d au ti ca l A s t ro n o m y ,
In T he ory a nd P rac t i ce . By P ro f .
J . R . YO U N G . N e w E di t i on .
M a t h em a t i ca l T a bl e s ,
F or T ri gon o me t ri ca l , A s t ro n o m i ca l , a n d N a u t i ca l C a l c u l a t i o n s ; t o wh i ch Is
re fi x e d a T rea t i se o n o ga ri t h m s H oge t h er wi t h a
L B y L AW, C E T
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e ri e s O f T a bl es fo r N a v i ga t i o n a n d N a u t i ca l As t ro n o m y B y P ro fess or
G
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e mp R ope s , Wi
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By R M U R R A Y C E E i gh t h E d i t i on , t h orou hl y R e v i s e d , wi t h A dd i
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t i on s by t h e A u t hor a n d by G EO R E C A RL I S LE ,
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sm
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I ro n - B u i l di n g .
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. Fi ft h E di t i on
N a v a l A rc h i t e c t u r e
A n E xpos i t i on o f El e me n t a P ri nci p i a By J A MES PEA K E
ai v e r
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P ri n ci p l es Of t h e C on s t ru c t i on of. By H A K O N A . S -
O M M E R I EL D T
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A tlas of E n gr a v i n gs
. T O Il l ust ra t e t h e T we l v e la rg e fol di n g Pla t es R oy a l 4 t o, c l ot h
a bov e . .
T h e F orm s of S h i p s a n d B oa t s .
W BL A N . D . S ev e n t h E di ti on , rev i se d , wi t h n u merou s Il l u st ra t i ons
'
an d
Od e l s
6 WEAL E
’
S S CI EN TIF IC A N D T EC HNIC A L S ER IES .
A R C H I TE C T U R E AN D TH E
B UILDIN G A R TS .
C on s t r u c t i on a l I r o n an d S t eel W or k ,
P u bli c, Pri va te , D omest i c Bu il di ngs
as
CAM P
a pp li ed
IN , C E
to
.
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B u i l d i n g E st a t e s
D ev el op men t , Sa l e , P u rch ase , a n d M a n age men t of Bu i l d
A T re a t i se
i ng L an d .
on t h e
B y F M A IT L A N
. D
S eco n d Ed i t i on , re v i se d .
Th e S c i e n c e of B u i l di n g
A n El e men t a T re a t i se on t h e P ri n e i pl es of C onstru c t i on By E . . WYN D
H A M T A RN , . A Lo a d
. . T hi rd E di ti o n , rev i se d an d en la rge d [6
Th e A rt or B u i l di n g :
Gene ra l P ri n c i pl es of C onst ruc t i on , S t re n gt h , a n d U se O f M a t e ri a ls , W ork
D ra wi n gs , S p ec i fi ca t i on s, &c By E W A R D D O RSO N , . D 21
n
6
A B oo k on B u i l d i n g,
C i v il
T HO R E P) an d
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E cc le si as t i ca l
Secon d Ed i t i on
By S i r E . D M UN D BEC K E T T , Q . C .
(Lord G R IM
D w e l l i n g -H o u s e s T
( h e E t i on of ),
Il l u s t ra t ed by a P ers pec t i v e Vi e w P l a ns, an d S ect i o ns O f a P a i r o fVi l las, wi th
,
S pe ci fi cat i on , Q u an t i t i es, a n d E s t i ma t es By S H B ROO K S , A rc h i t ect 2 16 . . .
C ot e B u i l di n g .
y C B R UCE A L LE N
. El ev en t h E d i t i on , wi th C h a p t e r
. on Economi c C o t
t age s for A ll o t me n t s, by E E A L LE N , C E . . . .
A c ou s t i c s i n R e l a t i o n t o A r c h i t e c t u r e an d B u i l di n g :
T h e L a ws o f S ou nd as a p pl i e d t o t he A rra n s me n t o f Bu i ld i n gs By Pro
G
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fessor T R O E R S M IT H , F
. N ew di t i on , R e v i sed
T h e R u di m en t s of P r a c t i ca l B r i c k l a y i n g
G en era l P ri n ci pl e s of Bri ck la y i n A rch D ra wi n g , C u t t i n , a n d S et ti n g ;
P oi n t i n g ; P a vi n g, T i li ng, &c y A A M H A M M ON
g
W i t h 68 W oodcu t s
. D D .
Th e A rt of P r a c t i ca l B r i c k C u t t i n g d S et t i n g
D
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By A D A M H A M M ON W i t h go En gravi ngs
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B ri c k w o r k
A P ra c t i c al T rea t i se , e mbody i n g t h e Gen eral an d H i ghe r P ri n ci pl es Of
Bri c k l a y i n g, C u t t i n and Se tt i n g ; wi t h t h e A p pl i ca t i o n of Ge omet ry t o R oo f
T i l i n g , &c By F vA L K E R
. . g 1 16
B ri c k s a n d Ti l e s,
R u d i me n tary Trea ti se M an u fa ct ure Ou t l i ne of th e
.
on the of co n ta i n i n g an
P ri n c i pl es o f Bri ck ma k i n g By E . . D O S SO N , A ddi t i on s
C T O M L IN S O N , F R S
. Il l ust ra t e d
. . .
3/
T h e P r a c t i ca l B ri ck an d T i l e B oo k .
C omp ri si n g : BR IC K A N D T IL E M A K I h G , Prac
t i ca l B R I C K L A Y IN , by A
w i t h I l l t
G
H A M M ON ;
l h lf
E D O RS O N ,
RIC K WO R K , b y F
-bou n d
. D .
. WA LK E R .
55 pp0 . 3 70 u s ra t i on s , st ron g y a
C a rp e n t ry d J oi n er y
P P
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Y
T H E E LE M E N T A R P R IN C I LES O F C A R E N T RY Chi c fly compose d from t h e .
S t a n da rd W ork of T H O M AS T RE DG O L D , C E W i t h A dd i t i on s, a nd T REA T IS E
Y
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O N JO IN ER , by E W T A R N , M A Fift h Edi ti on, R e vi sed

. . . .
en t ry a n d J oi n er y —A t
O f 3 5 P la t es t o accompa n y an d i ll u st ra te t h e fore goi ng book . Wi th
D es cri p t i ve Le t terpress 4to . .
WEALE S
’
.
SC IENTI FIC AN D TEC H N IC AL S ER IES .
M a s on r y an d S t on e -C u t t i n g .
The Pri n ci pl es of M ason i c Pro i ect i on an d t he i r app l i ca t i on t o C on stru ct i on

D
By E W A R D O SSON , M R I D A D . . . . .
2 16
.
A r c h es , P i e r s , B u t t r e s se e , &c
Experi men tal Essay s on t h e P ri n ci pl es of Con st ru ct i on By W . BL A N D .
1 16
Q u an t i ti es an d M ea s u r e m en t s ,
In Bri cklay ers , M asons , P las t erers , Pl u mbe rs
’ ’ ’ ’
P a i n t ers , P a perha nge rs
G i l de rs , S mi t hs , C a rpe n t ers a n d oin e rs W ork
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J .
,
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H ORT ON F ifth Edi t i on

. .
4 10
Tke a bove, st rong ly bou d n i n les t / Mr , M oe ss .
L i gh t
A n In tro d u cti on t o t h e Sc i en ce of O pt i cs D esi gned for the U se of S t u den ts
of A rc hi tect ure , E n
H A M T A RN , M A ,
n eeri n g , an d o t h er A ppl i ed S ci ences By E W N
.
. . Y D
1 16
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u t h or of T h e S ci e n ce o f Bu il di n g, &c
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By GEOR E W IG H T W c , Arc hi t ect . F ift h E di t i on , re vi se d a n d e n l arged
by G H US i t ISSO N G U IL L A U M E ,
.
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T h e Orde rs an d t h e i r IEsth et i c Pri n ci p l es By W H LEE D Ill ustr t e(

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A rc h i t e c t u re — Sty les
Th e H i st ory a n d D esc ri p t i on of t h e St y l e s Of A rch i t ect u re Of Vari ous
C oun t ri es from th e Ea rl i e st t o th e P re sen t P e ri od By T T A L B OT B UR , Y
F R I B A Il l ust ra t e d
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2 10
D
. . . . .
OR Y E RS A N D ST L ES OR A RC H IT EC TU RE , i n O ne VoI .
, 3s 6d . .
A rc h i t e c t u r e — D e s i gn
T he Pri nci pl es o f D es i gn i n A rch i te ct u re , as ded u ci bl e fro m N at ure and
exem
Y
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i fi ed In t h e W orks of t h e G re ek a n d G ot h i c A rchi t e c ts
L A C G A RRET T , A rc hi t ec t Il l us t ra t e d
By B o w . .
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2 16
Tl i e t h ree [ reced i ng Work s i n On e h a nds ome Vol
D ”
M O E RN A RC H IT E C T U R E , p ri ce és
l ea tf bou n d , en t i t l ed
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P e r s p e c t i v e fo r B e gi n n e r s .
A a Yo un g S t u de n ts A mat eu rs i n A rc h i t ec t u re , Pa i n t i ng, &c

IgG
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B E O RG E P N E .
2 10
A rc h i t e c t u r a l M od e l l i n g i nP ap er.
By T A R IC H A R
. . D S ON . W i t h Il l u st ra t i on s, e n gra ved by O . J E W IT T 1 16
G l a s s S t a i n i n g, an d the A rt of P ai n t i n g on Gl a ss
F rom th e Ge rm an of D r G E SS E RT a n d E M A N UE L OT T O . F R O M EE RG W i t h
G
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an A ppe n d i x on T H E A R T O F E N A M E L L I N 2 16
Vi t ru v i u s — T h e A rc h i t e c t u re o f.
In Te n Book s Transla t e d from t h e La ti n by
. J OS E PH G W IL T , F S A . . .
,
F R A S
. W i th 2 3 P l a te s
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A rc h i t ec t u r e ,
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and es of t h e A rt i n G reece
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By th e EA RL o r A BE R EE N .
1 10
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Tbe two t r ea di ng W orks i n On e h a n d so"me Vol , wf bou nd , en t i t l ed .
A N C IEN T A RC H IT ECTU R E , M e 6 &s

’
W EAL E S SC IEN TI F IC AN D TEC HN IC A L S ERI ES .
I N D U S T R IA L AN D US EF U L A R TS .
C e m e n t s , P a s t a s , G l u es , an d Gu m s.
A P ra ct i ca l G u i de t o t h e M an u fac t u re a n d A ppl i ca t i on of t h e va ri
o us
A ggl u t i n an t s re q u i re d for W ork sh op, La bo ra t ory , or O fli ce Use Wi th

u p wa rds of Rec i an d F ormu lae By H C S T A N A E D G
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2 10
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C l oc k s an d a t o es, a n d B e l l s,
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Q C (Lord
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G R IM T H O R E) S ev e n t h E d i t i on
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Th e Gol dsm i t h H a n db o o k
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s .
C on t ai n i n g fu ll In s tru ct i o ns i n t h e A rt of Al l oy i n g, M e l t i n g, R e du c i n g ,
C ol ou ri ng, C o l l e ct i n g an d Re fi n i n R ec ov ery of W a st e , S ol ders , Ena mel s,
&c , &c
. By G E O R E E G E E
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h i rd E di t i on , en la rge d . .
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’
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. O n t h e sa me pl a n as t h e G O L S M IT H S H A N BOO K By G E O R E E G EE
’
. G . .
S e con d Edi t i on , R e vi se d
Th e l o s t t wo W orks , 0 ” ha n d som e V0 1" h a t/ M ’d t 7“ “
Th e H al l M a rk i n g
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J e w e l l ery .
C omp ri si n g a n a cc ou n t o f a l l t h e di ffe re n t A ssa y T own s o f t h e U n i t ed

K i n dom ; wi t h t h e S ta mps a n d La ws re l a t i n g t o t h e S ta n da rds a n d H all
M a r s a t t h e va ri ous A ssa O fii ces B y G EO R E E G EE 3 10 . G .
P r a c t i c a l O r ga n B u i l i n g .
B W E D IC K S ON , M A Sec on d Ed i t i o n R e vi se d wi t h A dd i t i on s 2 16
B
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C oa c h - u i l di n g
A P rac t i ca l T rea t i s e By A M ES W B UR G ES S W i t h . J . .
5 7 I l l us t ra t i on s 2 16
T h e B ra s s F ou n der s M a n u a l :
’
In st ru c t i ons for M od e l l i ng , P a t te rn M ak i n g , M ou ld i n g, T u rn i n g , &c B

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W G RA H A M
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ms By W S econ d Ed i t i on , re v i sed 1 16
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J
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i n , &c
g By . W U RQ U H A RT , C E
. . 2 10 . .
Ga s Fi tting
J
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A P ra c t i ca l H a n d book . By OHN BLA C K . Se con d E d i t i on , E n la rge d .
W i t h 1 0 Il l u st ra t i on s
3 2 16
C on st r u ct i on of D o o r L oc k s .
F rom t h e P a pe rs of A C H O B B S Ed i t e d by C H A R L ES T O M L I N S ON , F R S
. . . . . .
W i t h a N o t e u pon I RO N S A F ES by R O BE RT M A L L E I Il l u s t ra t e d 2 16
' ‘
.
Th e M od e l L oc o m o t i v e E n gi n ee r , F i rem a n , an d
E n gi n e -B o y .
C omp ri si n g a n H i s t o ri es ] N o t i ce of t he P i o n ee r L oco mot i v e En gi n es a n d

t h e i r I n v e n t ors By M IC H A E L R E N O L S
. S econ d E di t i on
n u me rou s Il l us t ra t i o n s , a n d P ort rai t o f G e o rge S t e p h e nson
W i th Y D . .
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By G BA E N O C H . D
W i t h i a fu l l pa ge E n grav i n gs of E xa mpl es
.
-
Th e A or B oot an d S h oem a k i n g .
In c l u di n g M ea su re me n t , L as t -fi t t i n g, C u t t i n g-ou t , C l osi n a n d M ak i n g
J
O H N BE F O R LE N O D D
W i t h n u me ro us Il lus t ra ti on s T i rd Edi t i on 2 1
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6
h a n i ca l D e n t i s t r y
A P rac t i ca l T re a t i se o n t h e C on s t ru c t i on o f t h e Vari ou s K i n ds of A rt i fi c i a l
D e n t ures By C H A R I ES H UN T E R
. T h i rd Edi t i on , revi se d 3 10 .
W ood E n gr a v i n g
A Pra c t i ea l an d Ea sy In t rod u c t i on t o t h e A rt . By W . N . BROW N
L a u n d ry M a n a ge m e n t
A H an dbook fo r U se i n P ri v a t e a n d P u bl i c La u n dri es
o f M odern M a ch i n ery a n d A p p l i an ces
Inc l u di n g A c co u n t s
B t h e E IT O R o f T h e L a u n d D .
J 8
. .
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W i t h n u merous Il l ust ra t i on s
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10 WEAL E S SC IENT I FIC A ND TEC H N IC A L S ER IES .
A GR IC U L T U R E , GA R D E N I N G , E TC .
D ra i n i n g an d E m ba n
A P rac t i ca l T re a t i se . By Prof . OH N S C OT T . With 68 Il l u st rat i on s 1 16
I r r i ga t i o n an d W a t er Su ply
A P rac t i ca l T rea t i se on W a te r e a do ws , Se wage Irri ga t i on W a r i n
p g &c ;
By P rof O H N
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on t h e C on s t ru ct i on o f W e l l s , P o n d s , R eservo i rs , &c . .
J
SC O T T Wi t h 34 Ill us t ra t i on s
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1 16
F ar m R o a d s , F e n c es , and Ga
A P rac t i ca l T rea t i se on t h e R oa ds, T ra m wa y s , an d W at erwa y s o f t h e
arm ; t h e P ri n c i p l es of E nc l osu res ; an d t h e di fle ren t k i n d s o f F en ce s,
'
G a t e s , a n d S t i l es By P rof O H N SC O TT . W i t h 75 Il l u st ra ti ons
. J
1 16 .
F a rm B u i l d i n gs
A P ra c t i ca l T rea t i se on t h e B u i ld i n gs necessary for v ar i ou s k i nds of F a rms ,
t h e i r A rrange me n t a nd C on st ru c t i o n , W i t h P l an s a n d E s t i ma t e s
J O H N SC O T T W i th 1 0 5 Il l us t rat i on s
.
B y P rof
2 10
. .
B arn Im pl e m e n t s an d M ac h i n es
T rea t i n g O f t h e A p l i ca t i o n of Powe r an d M a ch i n e s d i n t h e Thre shi n g
J
u se
barn , S t ock y a rd, a i r y , &c B y P ro f S C OT T . . . . W i t h 1 2 3 I ll ust ra t i o ns .
F i e l d Im l em en t s
a n d M a c h i n es
Wi th p
ri n c i p l e s a n d D e ta i l s of C o n st ru c t i o n
M a nagem e n t , &c By P rof OH N S C O T T
. . J .
a nd P o i n t s o f Exc el l en ce , t h e i r
W i t h 1 3 8 I l l ust ra ti on s 2 10
A gr i c u l t u r a l S u rv ey i n g
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gJ
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for Va l u i n g E s ta t es By P ro . . S C OT T . W i t h 62 Il l us t ra ti on s 1 16
Farm E n gi n ee r i n g
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.
By P ro fe ssor S C OT T
OH N C o mpri si n g t h e a bo v e S e ve n Vol u mes i n O n e ,
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p a ges , a n d o v e r 60 0 I l l u s t ra t i o n s H a l f- bo u n d .
1 2 10
Ou t l i n e s of F arm M a n a ge m e n t .
T re a t i n g O f t h e G eneral W o rk of t h e Fa rm ; S t o ck ; C on t ract Work

L a bou r, &c By R S C O T T B UR N
. .
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Ou t l i n e s oi
'
L a n d e d E s t a t e s M a n a ge m e n t .
T rea t i n g of t h e Va ri e t i e s o f La n ds , M e t h ods o f Farm i n g, Se t t i n g ou t of -
F a rms , R oa ds, F e n ce s, Ga t es, D ra i n a ge , &c B y R SC O T T B U R N 2 16 . .
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. .
S oi l s , M a n u r e s , a n d C r Op s .
(Vol I O UT L I N E S O F M O D E R N F A R M IN G )
. . . By R SC OT T B U RN
.
2 10
F a rm i n d F arm i n g E c on om y
D
an .
(Vo . II . O UT L I N ES OF MO ER N FA R M IN G) . By R . S C OT T B U R N 3 10
S t oc k C a t t l e, S h ee d H or s e s
M D
: p, an .
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.
2 16
D ah w Pi d P ou l t
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ol . OF M RN EA R M I NG .
) By R S C OTT B UR N
.
2 10
U t i l i z a t i on o f S e w a ge , I r r i ga t i o n , a n d R e c l a m a t i on
of W a s t e L a n d
D
.
(Vol V O UT L I N ES O F M O E R N F A R M IN G ) By R S C OT T B U R N
. .
2 16 . .
Ou t l i n es of M od e r n F a rm i n g .
By R .S C OT T B U R N C o n si s t i u o f t h e . a bove F i ve Vol u mes i n O ne ,

pp , p ro fu se l.
y Ill ust ra t e d , h f-bOq
1 2 10
12
’
W EA L E S S C I ENTIF IC A ND TEC H NI C A L S ER IES .
M A TH E M A T I C S ,
A R I TH M E T I C , E TC .
sc r i p t i v e G eom et ry ,
A n El e men t a ry T rea t i se on wi t h a T h e ory of S h adows a n d of P e rspe ct i v e ,
e xt ra c t e d fro m t h e F re n ch of G M O N E T o wh i ch i s a dded a D esc ri p t i o n G
J
. .
of th e P ri n c i p le s a n d P ra c ti ce of Isome t ri ca l P roj e ct i on By F H EA T H E R, . . .
M A . W i t h I 4 P l a t es
.
2 10
act i cal P l a n e G e o m et r y
G i vi n t h e S i m p l e st M od e s of C onst ru c t i n g F i gu res con t ai n e d i n o n e P l an e
an d ome t ri ca l C o nst ru c t i on of t h e G ro u n d By F H E A T H ER , M A .
J . . . .
Co m
W i t h 2 1 5 W oodc u t s
e S e ct i on s ,
.
A n a l y t i ca l Geom et ry d
A R u di me n t a ry T re a t i se on By A M ES H A NN
an
. J . A N e w E di t i on , re
wri t t en a n d e n la rge d by P rofessor J R YO U N . . G 2 10
E u c l i d (T h e E l e m e n t s o f
)
W i th ma n y A ddi t i on a l P ropos i t i on s
.
and E xpl ana t o ry N o t es ; t o wh i c h i s

p re fi xed an I n t rod u c t ory E ssa y on L ogi c . By H E N R L A W , C E Y 2 16 . .
S ol d a l s o s e a r a t e ly p , vi z
E u cl i d . T he F i rs t T hr e e Book s . By HE NR YL W CE A , . .
E u cl i d . Boo k s 4 , 5 , 6, II , t o. By H E N R YL W CE A , . .
P l a n e T r i go n o m e t r y ,
Th e E l e me n t s of . By J A M ES HANN
S p h e r i ca l T r i go n o m e t r y
T h e El e me n t s of By
G
L IN , C E .
A M ES H A N N
.
. J
R evi se d by C H A R L E S H D ow
,
. .
“
3 O r wi t /i The E l em en t s q/ P la ne T r i g on om et ry , i n One Vol u m e, as 61 1 . .
D i ffe r e n t i a l C al cu l u s,
E l e m e n ts of t h e By W S B W O O L H O U S E
. . . .
, &c .
I n t e gr a l C a l c u l u s .
B y H O M E RS H A M C ox, B A .
A l ge b r a ,
T h e E l e me n t s of By A M ES H A .
i n g M i sc e l l a n e o u s In v e s t i ga t i on s , a n d
J DD ON, M A
a col l ec t i o n
. . W i th A ppe ndi x,
of P ro bl e m s
c on t a i n
2 10
A K ey an d C om p a n i on t o t h e A b ov e .
An ex t e n si ve re p osi t ory Of Sol v e d E xa mp l es an d P robl e ms i n A l ge bra

J
.
By . R YO U N
. G . 1 16
C o m m e rc i a l B o o k -k ee p i n g .
W i t h C omm erc i a l Ph ras es F orms i n E n gl i sh , F re n c h , It a l i a n , a n d

Ge rman . By J A M ES HA DD an d
ON , M A . .
1 16
A ri t h m et i c,
A R u di m en t ary T rea t i se on W i t h fu l l E xp l an a t i on s o f i ts T heo ret i ca l
.
P ri n ci p l e s , a n d n u merou s E xa mp l e s for P ra c t i ce For t h e U se o f S c ho ol

a n d for S e l f- In st ru c t i on B . J
R YO U N , l a t e P ro fessor o f M a t h e ma t i cs . . G
.
i n Be l fas t C o l l ege E l e v en t Edi t i on . e 1 16

A K ey to th e A b ov e
J
.
By . R . YO U N G
E q u a t i on a l A r i t h m et i c ,
A pp l i ed t o Q u e s t i ons o f In t e rest , A n n u i t i es Life A ssura nc e , , an d G e n eral
C omm erce wi t h va ri ou s T a bl e s by wh i ch a ll C a l c u l a t i ons ma y be gre a t l y
fa ci l i ta t e d . By W . H i PS LE v
A ri t h m et i c ,
R u di me n t a fo r th e U se of S c h oo l s a n d Se lf-Inst ru ct i on By J
HA DD
ON, . A . R e v i se d v S RA H A M A R M A N
. A M ES
A Ke t o t h e A b ov e .
y A . ARM A N
’
W EA L E S SC I ENTIF IC A N D TEC H N I C AL SERI ES . 13
M a t h em a t i c a l In st r u m en t s
T h ei r C ons tru ct i on , A dj u s t me n t , T es t i ng, a n d U se c on ci se l y e xp la i ne d
J
.
By F H E A T H E R , M A , of t h e R oy a l M i l i t a ry A ca de my , W ool wi ch
. . . . .
F ou rt ee n t h Ed i t i o n , R e v i se d, wi t h A dd i t i o n s , by A T W A L M I S L EY , . .
Ori g i n a l Edi t i on , i n I v ol , I ll u st ra t e d 2 10 .
“
In orde r i ng t h e a bov e, be ca r e u f l t o say Ori gi n a l E d i t i on , or g i v e t he
n u m ber in t h e S ee i es to di sti ngu i sh i t r an: t he E n l a rg e d E d i t i on i n
3 vol s .
(N os . 1 68- 9
D ra wi n g an d M e a s u r i n g In s t r u m en t s .
In c l u di n g— I I n st ru me n t s e mp l o y e d i n Ge o me t ri ca l a n d M ec ha n i c a l D ra w
.
i n g, a n d i n t h e C o n st ru c t i on , C op y i n g , an d M ea su re me n t of M a ps a n d
P la n s II Inst ru me n ts u sed for t h e p urp ose s o f A c c u ra t e M ea su re me n t ,
. .
an d for A ri t h m e t i ca l C o mp u t a t i on s B y J F H E A T H E R, M A 1 16 . . . . .
Op t i ca l In st r u m en ts .
In cl u d i n g (more e sr ci a ll y ) T el e sc ope s, M i crosc op e s, an d A pp a ra t u s for

p rodu c i n cop i es of
M A . I l u s t ra t e d
.
fi aps a n d P l a n s b y P h o t og ra p h y . By J . F H EA T H E R ,
.
1 16
S u rv ey i n g an d A s t r on om i ca l i n st r u m en t s .
In cl u d i n g— I In st ru m en ts u se d for D e t e rmi n i n t h e G e o m e t ri ca l F ea t u res

.
o f a p ort i on o f G ro u n d I I In st ru men t s e mp oy ed i n A st ro n o mi ca l O h
J
. .
serva t i on s By F H E A T H E R, M A
. I ll u st ra t e d
. .
1 16 . .
h
T e a b ov e t h ree vol u me fo
s r m a n en l a rg e m en t of the A a t h a r s or i g i n a l work ,
)
M a t hem a t i ca l I n s t r u m en t s p ri ce as (S ee N o 3 2 i n t he S eri es ) . . .
M a t h e m a t i ca l In s t r u m en t s
T h e i r C o ns t ru c t i on , A dj u st men t , Tes t i n g a n d Use C o mp ri s i n g D ra wi n ,
g
.
M e asu ri n g, Op t i ca l , S u rv e y i n g, a n d A s t ro n om i ca l In s t ru me n ts By J l . .
H E A T H E R, M A E n l a rge d E di t i on , fo r t h e most p a rt e n t i re l y re wri t t e n

. . .
T h e T h re e P a rts as a bo v e , i n O n e t h i ck Vol u me 4 16
Th e S l i de R u l e, an d H ow t o U se It .
C on t a i n i n g fu ll , ea sy , a nd s i mp le In s t ru c t i on s t o p erform a l l Bu s i n ess C a l
c u l a t i o n s wi t h u ne xa m ed rap i di t y an d ac c u rac y m
By C H A R L E S H OA R E ,
W i t h a S l i de R u l e , i n t u ck of cov e r F i ft h Ed i t i on
.
C E
. .
2 16 .
L o ga r i t h m s .
W i t h M a t h e ma t i ca l T a bl e s for T ri gon om e tri ca l , A st rono mi ca l , an d N a u t i ca l

C al cu l a t i on s . By H EN R L A W , C E Y
R e v i se d E di t i on (Form i n g pa rt of
. . .
t h e a bo ve wo rk .
) 3 10
C o m p o u n d I n t e r e s t a n d A n n u i t i e s (T h e o r y o f )
Wi t h T a bl e s o f Lo ga ri t h msfor t h e more D i ffi c u l t C om u ta t i ons of In te rest ,
D i sc ou n t , A n n u i ti es , &c , i n A pp l i ca t i on s Use s for M e rcan t i l e
a n d S t a t e P u rp oses By FE .
.
D al l
OR
th e i r
T H O M A N , P a ri s .
an
F ou rth E di t i on 4 10
M a t h em a t i ca l T a b l e s ,
F or T ri gon ome t ri ca l , As t ron omi ca l , a n d N au t i ca l C a l c u l a t i on s ; t o whi ch i s
e fi x e d a T rea t i se on L oga ri t h ms By H L A W, C E T oge t h er wi t h a
g J
. . . .
ri e s o fT a bl es for N a v i ga t i on a n d N a u t i ca l As t ro n om y B y P ro fessor .
G
.
R YOU N
. N e w E di t i on.
4 10
M a t h em a t i cs ,
AS
Se con
ap l i e d t o t h e C on st ru ct i v e A rt s
E di t i on
. By F R A N C IS C A M P IN , C E
. .
, &c .
3 10
A st ron om y .
B y t h e l a t e R e v R O BE R T M A I N , F R S T h i rd E di t i on , re v i se d an d cor
Y
. . . .
rec t ed t o t h e P rese n t T i me By W T L . . . N N, F R A S. . . .
2 10
S t a t i cs an d Dyn am i cs,
T h e P ri n ci p l e s P rac t i ce o f E m bra ci n g a l so a
an d . c l e arde v e l op men t o f
H y drost a t i c s, H y drod y n a mi cs , a n d C e n t ra l Fo rce s . By T B A K E R, C E
. . .
F ourt h Ed i t i on 1 /6
’
14 WE AL E S S C IEN TIF IC AN D TEC H N IC A L S ER I ES .
B OOK S OF R EF E R E N CE A N D
M I S C E L LA N E O U S V OL U M E S .
A D i ct i o n a r y o f P a i n t e r s , and H a n d b o o k fo r P i c t u re
A m a t eu rs .
Be i n g a G u i de for Vi si t ors t o P u bli c a n d P ri va t e P ic t ure Ga l le ri e s , a n d for

A rt -S t u d en ts , i n cl ud i n g G l ossary of T erms , S k e t ch of P ri n ci p al Sc h ools of
.
P a i n t i n g, &c By P H I L I E D A Rv L , B A
. PP 2 16 . .
Pain ti n g P o arl E xp l a i n ed .
By T J . . U L L IC K , a i n t e r, an d
T I M ES , F S A I n cl u di n F resco,
O i l , M osa i c, W a t e r C ol our W a t e r-G l a ss , T e mp e ra , E n ca u st i c ,
J OHN
i n i atu re ,
. . .
P a i n t i n g on Ivo ry , Ve l l u m, Pot t ery , E n a me l , G lass, &c F i ft h E di t i on 5 10 .
A D i c t i on o f T e r m s u s e d i n A r c h i t ec t u r e , B u i l d
i n g, n i n e e r i n g, M i n i n g, M e t a l l u r gy , A r c h a
o l o gy , t e F i n e A r t s , &c
J
.
By O H N W E A LE S i x t h E di t i on E d i t e d by R O ET H U N T , F R S
. . . . . .
N u me ro us Il l us t ra t i ons 6 10
A R u di me n t ary a nd P ra ct i ca l T re a t i se Wi th n u merou s E xam p l es B

C H A R L E S C H IL D SP E NCER
. .
21
T h e A rt o f P l a y i n g t h e W i th n u me rou s E xerci se s B
C H A R L ES C H IL S P E N C E R D . an d Le ssons .
11 6
T h e H o u s e M a n a ge r .
Be i n g a G u i de t o H o use k ee pi ng , P rac t i ca l C ook e ry , P i ck l i n g a n d P rese rv

i n g , H ou se h ol d Wo rk , D e i r M an e me n t , C e l la rage of W i nes , H ome
b er w i n g a n d W i n e -
ma k i n g, ta bl e
.
g
co n omy , G a rde n i n g O pe ra t i ons, &c .
By A N O L D H ou sE R E ERE R 3 16
Man ual of D om e st i c M ed i c i n e
D
.
By R G OO I N
. M D G . . In t en de d as a F a mi l y G u i de i n a ll ca ses of
A cci d e n t a n d E me rge n cy T h i rd Edi t i on , ca re fu l l y re v i se d 2 10
M a n a ge m e n t of H ea l t h
J D
.
A M a nu a l of H ome a nd P e rsona l H y gi ene . By R ev . A M ES BA IR 1 10

N at ura l P h i l os o p h y ,
F or t h e U se of B e gi n n ers . By C H A R L ES T O M L IN S ON , F R S . . .
Th e E l e c t r i c T e l e gr a p h ,
It s H i s tory a n d P rogress W i t h D e scri p t i on s of . so me of t h e A pp a ra t u s .
By R S A EI N E , C E
. . .
, &c .
3 10
H a n d b oo k o f F i e l d F o r t i fl c a t i o n .
By M aj or W W K N OL L v s . Wi th .
, 1 63 W oodcu t s
L o gi c ,
P u re and A p pl i e d . By S H E M M E N S
. . . T h i rd E d i t i o n
L oc k e on the H u m an U n d e r s t a n d i n g,
S e l ec t i on s from . Wi t h N ot es by S H . . EM M EN S
T h e C om p e n di ou s C a l c u l a t or
(In t u i t i v e C a l cu l a t i on s ) Or E a sy a n d C on c i s e M e t h ods
. mi n g t h e
of P e rfor
v a ri ou s A ri t h m e t i c a l O p era t i on s re q u i re d i n C omm e rc i al a n d B u sme ss
T ra n sa c t i on s ; t oge t h e r wi t h U sefu l T a bl e s , &c
’
. B y D A N IEL O G O R M A N .
T we n t y sev e n t h E di t i on , ca re fu l l y rev i sed by C N OR R IS

-
.
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WORK S B Y TH E SA M E A UTH OR .

J u st P u bl i sh ed . Crown 8 m , 7s 6d . . cl ot h , wi th nu merous Ill u st rat i ons .

S econ d Edi t i on . C rown 8 vo, 99 . cl ot h .

TH E ART OF L E ATH E R M ANUF A C TURE Be i n g

A sou n d, comp reh en si ve tre a t i se on t an n i n an d i ts accessori es

Th e book i s an emi n en t l y val uabl e p rodu c ti on Ch m i ea l R evi ew

J u st P u bl i s h ed . T hi rd E di ti on , re v i sed an d much en l a rged . 000 p p .

Em i n en t l y a book for t h e p ra c t i cal work er i n el ec tr o -dep omt i on It .

con t ai n s mi n u te a n d p rac t i cal descr i p ti on s of m et h ods, p roc esses a n d ma

re com m en ds i t sel f 0 al l i n terested i n i ts su bj ects E n gi n eer. .

J u st P u b l i sh ed . N i n th E di ti on , en l arged a n d re vi sed , 1 2mo, 4s cl oth . .

Ten th Edi ti on , En l arged a n d R e vi se d , wi th A ddi t i on al M a t t er a n d

From th i s book both a ma te u r a n d ar ti san ma y l earn e very t h i n g n eces

C R OS BY L OC K WOOD S ON , 7, S t ati on ers H al l Court, L on don , E C

THE M ANU FA C TURE OF H ARD A N D S OFT SOA P S,

IN c o mpi lin g thi s book t h e A u thor h as en deavou re d to

ﬁ l l a void i n En glish t ec h n ical lit e ratu re Whil e al m ost

e v e ry art is r epr e sen t ed by tre atis e s or h an d books of a

m ore or le ss pra ctic a l chara c te r S oap m aki n g so far as

th e A u thor is awar e has n ot u n til t h e pre s en t ti m e b een

fu rn ish e d with a sp ecial book of re fer en c e for t h e con

h o we ve r sev eral elaborat e tr eatise s of for eign origi n have

appeared an d to th e se th e au thor has b een i n debted

for m u ch val u able i n form ation e sp e cially as re gards t h e

C on tin en tal m ethods of m akin g ordi n ary so aps an d toil et

A n i mportan t featu re i n t h e pre s en t vol u m e i s t h e

i n which m an y proc e ss es for r e cov e ri n g this val u abl e

A l t hou gh it wo u ld n ot h ave b een possibl e n or ev en

a great n u mb e r Of proc e sses i n an abridg e d fo rm are given ,

To wri t e an origin al work u pon an art wh i c h h as been

bu i lt u p SO to sp eak by th e i n gen u i ty of th e great h ost

that i n his en deavo u r to produ ce a work which wou ld be

P UB LISH ERS N OTE TO TH E F I F TH ED ITI ON

presen t edition of this work i s su bstan tially a

M r Watt i n M S an d n ew ﬁ rst prin ted ) on th e su bj ect of

CA N DL E M A K I N G which with its ill u stration s it is

believed wi ll be foun d a very u se fu l an d acceptable

after th e preparation of t h e l ast edition t h e work h as n ot ,

opportu n ity has been taken of m aki n g a few correctio n s

H J osh u a P hil l ips F I C

an d large d em a n d for t h e work i t is ab u n dan tly e vid en t ,

that as revised an d en larged by th e A u th or t h e vol u m e

a mply fu lﬁls th e p u rpose with which it was design ed .

Ch e vreu l s Th eory —Li ebi g s Re search es on Sapon i ﬁ cati on

S oaps— C on ti n en tal M eth od— D unn

M A N UFA C T UR E OF H A R D S OA P S— Con t i nued .

Treatmen t of Ni gers — An derson ’s P rocess— Cocoa-n u t Oi l Soaps

H awes s S y st em— M ak i n g small Qu an ti t i es of S oap—To preps re

W hi te Soap—L ard Soap by th e Col d P rocess

OL EI O A CI D — S OA P FR 0 11! R E OO VER ED GREA S E .

m ki — O l i A i d S — K ott u l a s S oa s—I n stan tan eou s

Dr Norman dy P rocess— Sil i cated Soaps : Sh eri dan s Process

G ossage s P rocesses— Preparati on of Si l i cate of Soda—Prepara

t i on of Si l i cat e of P otassa— M i xi n g S i l i cate of S oda wi th S oaps 96

CH E A PE NED S OA PS Con t i n ued .

m ts F ul l er s Eart h Soap—D a vi s s P rocess

Ben n ett an d Gi bbs s P rocess—M r G W R ogers P rocess— N e w

P rocess of Sapon i ﬁ cati on — G l u ten i n Soap

K ur ten s P rocess— L u mbert on s P rocess— Mr Sy mon s s D i si n fect i n g

V i l l art s P rocess— C re rel s P roc e ss — V il l acrose s P roc ess — C u t

Preparati on of th e P otash Ley —Th e F atty M ater i al s empl oy ed

M A N UF A CT URE OF S OF T S OAP S Conti n ued .

Be l gi an Soap- Russi an S oft S oap— G en t cl e s P rocess— J a cobson s