HA N D -

B OOK

O PT I C I A N S

A T R EAT I SE O N T HE O P T I C A L T R AD E AN D , I TS
M EC HAN I C AL M AN I P UL AT I O N S .

W .

BQ H N E ,

OPTI CIAN .

WI T H IL L U S T R A TIO N S .

HUK
L
GI / 7
D
F DI T IO N .

31 1,

PUB LI SHED B Y T HE AUTHOR ,

( Wth A B GR ISWOL D
i . .

No . 7 0 1 CAN AL STR EET NEWOR L EANS

, , LA .

189 5 .
 13 49 7 7 1
1

HHS
L1 M iam i “

En t ere d acco rd in g t o Act of Co n gres s . in t h e y ear 1895, b y

THE AUTHO R .

I n th e Ofiice of tir Lib

e rarian of Co n gr ess , at Wa hi gt
s n on , D C
. .

G EO . Mi
iLL En, PR I NTER , 610 13 mm “: an , N . o .
J OS
. Z ENT M AY ER .
R . B . T O LLES .

C HA S. A. N
SP E C ER .

J . M . J OH N ST O N .
C F . PR E N TIC E .

WIL LI AI I ‘
B OH NE
.
 3 7 7
0
17
3

PR E F ACE TO T HIR D E DIT ION .

Th e great p rogress o u r trade h as ade withi n th e l astm

fi ve yea r s i s due to th e abl e teach i ngs of Optical S chools ,

and al s o to the i n creased study o f th e va rious books of

i nstructio n late ly p ub li sh ed wh ich h ave e n abl ed th e
, ,

wo rk m e n to fol l ow that pa rt o f thei r vocati on wh ich ,

co m p r i ses th e sel ectio n o f spectacl es i n a mo re scientifi c

way th a n fo r m e r ly wh e n each Optici an h ad to co m
,

me nce f o r hi m self at t he bottom o f hi s trade an d o nly ,

by i ncessant e xertio n gradual ly r each ed t he r equi red p ro

fic ie n cy .Th e study o f such b oo ks has th e advantage
that th e st ruggl i ng b egi n ner soo n l earns to avoid e rro rs ,

th is f r uitfu l cause o f d isgust w ith h i s occupatio n an d ,

that h e o n the co ntrary takes a l iking to h is trade in

, ,

the sa m e p ropo rt io n as he step by step overcom es

, ,

fo r m e r di ffic ulties But to b uy such books and m e rely

.

l oo k at th e il l ust ration s o r r ead th em h u rriedly as we

,

do a n ov el i s n ot w hat i s m eant by studyi ng them

, .

Thi s m eans that we r ead them ca reful ly an d r epeatedly

, ,

with p e nci l i n h and to tak e note s and m ak e ext racts ,

wh ich in a co n de n sed form w il l b e th e r eal b enefit of

our readi ng and w il l beco m e forev er o u r p rope rty
,
.

NO boo k contai n s everyth ing a n Opt ician ought to

kno w W e th erefo r e sho ul d not l i m it o u r study to
.
, ,

only o n e o r two o f the m any goo d books o f i nstructio n ,

becau se each o n e h as its p eculi ar m e rits e ith er i n th e ,

popul a r expl anatio n o f difficult subj ects o r in th e ,

g reat e r v ariety of its co nte nts Most o f th ese books

.

are w r itte n to assi st the ocul ist an d o nly sec ondarily

,

the Opti cian i n th e s election an d adaptatio n o f spectacl es

, ,

but o nl y a fe w t r eat o f th e tech ni cal requi re m ents of

4 PR EF AC E
o ur t rade of wh i ch th e Hand Boo k i s t he m ost co m pl ete
,
-

o n e up to d ate . I t doe s n o t p r ete n d t o do away with

boo ks l ik e those w ritte n by G u stav u s Ha r t ridge F ran cis ,

V alk J Milton Joh n sto n F l av e l B Ti ffany etc b ecause

, .
,
.
, .
,

th e l 6 t h and 17 th ch apters are o nly w ritte n as an i ntro

d u ction to th e study o f th e e r ro rs o f r efraction Those .

chapte rs shoul d b e co n side red a n i nd u ce m e nt to study

mo re scie n tifi c wo r ks o n t he sam e subj ects ; th ey m erely
tak e th e pl ace o f a p ri m e r of th e scie nce o f refracti on .

Th e great advantage o f th e Ha nd Boo k f o r th e -

p ractical wo r k m a n o v e r al l oth er publ icatio ns i s its con ,

sp i cu o u s dea l ing with th e tech ni calities o f the t rade .

I t co m bi n es al l th e r equ i rem ents of a p racti cal an d ih

tel l i ib l e i nst r ucto r a nd th i s i s th e reaso n th at it has
g ,

gai n ed th e favo r o f th e p rofessio n i n su ch a degree ,

th at th e S eco nd E dition was ex hau sted b efo re the

p rese nt o n e was r eady f o r p ri nt .

I co rdially th an k m y fel low l abo rers fo r th ei r ki nd

-

suppo rt A careful pe rusal o f th i s Th i rd E ditio n wil l

.

co nvi nce the m of its furth er i m prov em e nt .

NEW OR L EANS , 1895 .

W . B OHNE .
E X T R ACT F R OM PR E F ACE OF F IR ST E DIT ION .

My obj ect is t o i nst r uct the ri sing ge ne ration of ou r

t rade and el evate the m to th e position of the g reat
,

p rog ress o pti cal sci ence h as m ade withi n the last qua r
t e r of th e ce ntu ry I am w el l awa re that th e p resent
.

wo rk i s not as com p lete as it o ught to b e becau se every ,

chapte r i s com posed an d w r itten as s o me thing n ew .

The re i s noth i ng p r ev iously p u bli shed abo ut th ese sub

j e c t s , a nd my boo k m ay b e the pio n ee r to open th e road
f o r oth e r w r ite rs A l m ost ev e ry t rade has its l ite ratu re
.

or hand book o f th e sec rets p ec u l ia r to its b usi ness ;

-

but th e optical t rade as r egards the m echani cal pa rt o f

,

it has non e wh ateve r

What I offe r h e re i s the r es u lt o f a life long e x p e r
, .

’
-

ie n c e an d o f n u m ero us i nv estigations VVo rk me n who

.

find any e r ro r o r who k no w bette r m ethods are co r

, ,

di al l y i nv ited to co m m u ni cate thei r i n fo rmation to the

autho r w ho wi l l ackno w ledge h i s obl igatio n i n a
,

fut u re editio n .

Let u s re m ov e th e c urse o f al l p rog ress th e keep —

in o f o u r se c r ets a n d l ittle t ri cks to o urselves Let

g .

eve ry wo rkm a n w ithd raw th e rest r i ction pl aced u po n

h is fel lo w l abo re rs fo rbiddi ng th e m to ente r h is shop
-
, ,

i n o rde r to p rev e nt the m f ro m p rofiti ng by h i s skil l .

This i s th e prope r w ay to el evate o u r t rad e to a co m

mandi ng position s o that w e m ay no lo nger b e co n
,

founded w ith st reet fak i rs a nd m e re spectacl e vendo rs -

.

My boo k w i l l furnish to any you ng man a so lid

fou ndat io n o f what h e o ught to k now and wil l enabl e ,

hi m to m aste r al l diffic ulti es h e may en cou nte r i n th e

pu rsu it o f his occupatio n A s th e re is n o tel li ng what
.
6 PREFACE .

dem and wi l l b e laid o n h i s abi l ity i n th e i m m ediate

future h e sho u l d t ry to u nd e rstan d t ho ro u g hl y t he
'

fun dam ental l aws o f h is t r ade an d b eco m e a co m p etent

wo r k m an
Chapte r V ex pl ai ns all abo ut th e op tical l in e and
cen ter i n l enses ,
and ch apte r VI I o f th e sett i ng o f com
,

p o u n d l e n ses; both p r oved f o r m any y ea rs t o b e the

stu mbl i n g block of o u r e ffi ci en cy and abi l ity Ch apter
.

III treats o f p ebbl es b u t di ffe r s fro m anyth ing h e reto

,

fore p ubl ish ed I hop e th at m y ex p eri m e nt wil l b e re

.

p e at e d by Optici an s a nd sci en t i sts i n orde r to fi n al ly set

“
tl e th e v e xatiou s qu esti o n : S h al l p ebbl e s b e u sed or
”
n ot ? I am anxio us t o h ear w h at oth e rs h av e t o s ay
about them .

“
Th e h i sto r y o f th e I nvention an d I nt rod uctio n o f
”
S pectacl es , i s th e fi r st attem pt at col l ecti ng th e s canty
m aterial s abo ut t hi s i m portant s u bj ect an d i s fa r fro m
,

b eing what its titl e i n di cates Those o f m y r e ade rs who

.
,

ar e i n possession o f facts co n ce r n in g thi s m atte r wi l l ,

ki ndly co m m u n i cate th e m to m e f o r fut u re use .

NEW OR L EAN S, 1888

W . B OHNE .
 PR E F ACE TO SE COND E DIT ION .

S i n ce th e “
Ha nd Book fo r Optician s m ade its fi rst
-

appearance I have to my greatest satisfaction ob serv ed

, , ,

a gen e ral sti r amo ng th e Optician s m an i festing itse l f ,

by sev eral n ew pub l ication s i n th e sam e l i ne ; by the

i ncreased atte ndance o f you ng Optici ans at the di ffe rent
Ophthal m ic Col leges and by th e i ssue o f a m onth ly
,

Journal i n our i nterest Thi s w as m y reaso n f o r taking

.

anothe r step i n th e fu rth e r i nst r uctio n o f my com

panion s Th e fi r st editio n was m erely a feel er to as
.

certai n if a b o o k so di ffere nt f ro m other i nst r uction

,

books was w ant ed o r r ath er n e eded Th e favo rabl e re

,
.

o n accorded it
ce p t i eve n outside the t rade i nduced m e
, ,

to exte nd its u seful n ess by addi ng so m e i nformation

wh ich I pu rposely om itted b efore j udging that th e ,

m edica l fac ulty woul d p rope r ly attend t o th e theoretical

part o f o u r occupation B ut th ei r w riti ngs dem and a
.

parti al ly sci e n tifi c ed ucation wh ich m ost opticia n s h av e

not receiv ed My expl anatio ns m ay not be co n sidered
.

pro fessio n al ; b ut a di ligent reade r w i ll readily u nde r

stan d th em an d that is i n my opinio n th e p ri ncipal
,
—
, ,

obj ect o f al l i nst r uctio n s .

Th e t r eatise o n the Deve lopm ent o f th e Opti cal

Trade (C hap X X VI ) although e nla rged is sti ll in su f
.
, ,

fic ie n t i n its p r ese nt state ; and to co m pen sate f o r its

sho rt —co m i ngs I hav e added th e n ext ch apte r i n wh ich
, ,

th e g rad ual p rog r ess of the optical sci e nce i s i ndivi dual
iz e d by a b ri ef h isto ry o f th e l i ves o f th ose m en w ho ,

attrib uted to th e advance m e nt o f o u r t rade a nd science

i n ge ne ral .

Th e l a rge space I devoted to th e m em o ry o f th e l ate

8 PREFACE .

Ch a rles A S pe ncer m ay b e a su rp ri se
. m any optician s
to
w ho p e rhap s hav e n eve r h ea r d of h i m ; h e i s b ette r
k now n i n m edical ci rcl es than am o ng h i s o w n trade
co m pani o n s ; bett e r i n E u rop e th an i n A m e r ica Eve n .

the cycl opedists h ave n egl e cted h i m ; h e w e nt t o th e

g rav e al most u n k now n to hi s n eighbo rs S pe nce r was .

the fi r st Opti ci an wh o p roduced obj ectives o f w ide

angles and i n spi red the st u di es o f sci entifi c m e n i n al l
,

pa rts o f th e wo r ld Without h i s ge ni us m a ny o f th e
.
,

m a r velo us discov e r ies acco m pl i s h ed by th e m i croscope

co ul d n eve r h av e b een m ad e Ou r co u nt ry d id h erself
.

a g r eat wrong i n n o t m aki ng m o re of h er gifted so n ,

an d it i s th e sacred duty o f th e A m erican o pti ci an s t o

p revent his nam e fro m b ei ng fo rgott en .

I t i s with g reat p l easure that I ack nowl edge my l n

d e b t e d n ess to Dr H D B r u n s
. . .Mr H G i n de r Mr
, . . r , .

C h as F P re ntice Mr J M Joh n ston an d Mr G C

. .
, . . . . . .

R idgway fo r th ei r val uabl e assi stance and ki n d advi ce

,

i n th e p repa ratio n o f thi s wo r k .

NEW OR L EANS , 1892 .

I V B OHNE . .
 C HAPT ER I .

I N CH A ND ME T RIC SY S T E M S .

S p ectacle l en ses m ad e o f gl ass o r pebbl es g roun d ar e

to a sphe r ical fo rm eithe r co nve x o r co ncave by m eans , ,

of tools wh ich are segm ents of a bal l o r sphe r e .

O
. .
.
a Q n

Th e dotted l i nes rep resent th e whol e s ph e res of which

but segm e nts in fo r m of s h el ls o r cu ps are e mployed fo r
the grind ing o f l e nses I f w e use th e i nside o r hol lo w .

pa rt o f th e shell we p rod uce a convex l en s while th e

, ,

outside o r ro u nd ed pa rt i s em ploy ed fo r co ncav e l e nses .

. o n
. . .
a Q
.
0

a
o O
.
“‘
.
0 - 0 1 0 0 0 a

S o m e l en ses are c u rved o nly o n o ne Side whi l e th e

,
10 HAN D -
B OO K F O R O PTI C I A N S .

oth er side is flat ; th ey ar e cal led pl a n e co nv ex o r pl a n e

-

co ncave .

P e r iscopi c l en ses are grou n d by sph eres of diffe rent

sizes as show n i n th e above cuts
,
.

We h av e th e r efore th ree k i nd s o f e x an d th r ee
, , ,

k i nds o f c o l en ses Cx l en ses coll ect b eh i n d th e m by

.
,

refractio n the g r eatest po rtio n o f the ray s fal li ng o n

,
“
th ei r su r face at o n e co m m o n poi nt cal l ed the positi v e ,
”
focus wh ich is neare r to o r fu rth e r fro m th e l en s ac
, , ,

cordi ng to its focal po w e r A con cav e l en s o n th e c o n

.
,

t rary disp erses o r scatters th e rays and h a s a “ negative

, ,

focus because w e ca n o nly n eut ral iz e it by a pl u s o r

,
“ ”
positive fo cus l en s Th e te r m n egativ e l e n s do es not
.

exactly co ve r th e n atu r e o f a con cav e l en s ; w e ca n

m easu r e its focus al so by r eflection wh i ch giv es in ,

fr on t of it a positiv e fo cus j ust as a co nve x l e n s w i l l do

,

b ehin d it whe n m easu r ed by refract io n F o r i nstan ce .

,

faste n a w hite card at th e en d o f a foot r u l e go to a ,

gl ass doo r o r w i ndow hol d th e r u l e r so th at th e ca r d i s

-
,

b etwee n th e wi ndo w an d th e l e n s appro ach th e co n cav e ,

l en s unt il yo u get a sharp i m age o f th e w i ndo w o n th e

card ; th e n see o n th e r ul e r h ow m a ny i nche s th e l e n s i s
fro m the card an d i f it is a do ubl e co nca ve m ulti ply
, ,

by two if pl an e con cave by fo u r an d y o u h av e th e

,
-
, ,

foca l l ength o f th e l en s i n i nches P e ri scop ic l e n ses .

ca n not b e m easured this way A lthough th e l atte r are

high ly r ecom me nded by th ei r i n ve nto r W
.

o l l as to n an d , ,

by other cel eb r ated a u tho riti es I f o r m y pa rt fin d , , ,

that th e stro nge r n u mb e rs a re ex t re m ely u npl easant t o

the eye esp eci ally wh e n th ey are u sed fo r cataract s
, ,

A l l that i s cl ai med fo r th ei r su pe rio rity m ay b e granted

 INCH AND M E T RIC SY S T E M S . 11

to th e weake r n u m be rs f rom o ne to fou r d iop ters but ,

not fo r st ronge r o nes .

*

He r e a rises th e q uestio n wh ich o f th e th r ee wo rds i s ,

r ight an d sho u ld be used : D iop tric D i0p try o r Diop ter ? ,

These th r e e scientific term s are d e rived f rom the Greek

v e rb d iop to mai (d ia through op tomai I s ee ) I see , , , ,

th ro u gh I see compl etely I n modern G r ee k (l iop tr es

, .

m eans sp ectacl es D iopt riq u e (E nglish diopt ric )

”
.
“ ”

has b ee n adopted by th e F r ench i n con nectio n with o p

tical m easurem ents as a substit u te f o r the ter m meter
, ,

which l atte r although d enoti ng m easu r e i n ge n eral has

, ,

n o specific appl i catio n t o optica l m easu r em ents .

Th e F r en ch wo rd diopt ri que both by de r ivatio n ,

an d co m m on use does n o t i ncl u de any i dea of measu re

,

o r m easu rem e nt wh atso ever it only r efe r s to th e re f rac ,

tio n o f light I t i s si mply an ol d wo rd with a n ew tech

.

ni c al m ea n ing co nt ra ry to th e logical r ules of l anguage

, ,

l ike m a ny ot he r wo rds of fo reign extracti on D iop .

t ri q u e n o t b eing a no un but a n adj ectiv e and not sanc ,

ti o n e d by sci e n ti fic u sage at l east not yet i n the E ngli sh ,

speaki ng world w e should excl u de it h encefo rth f ro m

,

o u r opti cal te r m i n ol ogy in r egard to m eas u rem ent .

Lik ewise o bj ectio nab l e i s th e nou n Diopt ry as a te r m

“ ”

for exp ressi ng o ptical m eas u res .

Th e wo rd d iop ter conside red as a co nt ractio n f ro m

,

“d i ”
opto m ete r is evide ntly th e most suitabl e f o r o u r
,

pu rpo s e and i s st rictly a n alogo u s to wo rds l ike bar

,

om e t e r th ermo m ete r etc

, al s o em ployed f o r diffe rent
, .
,

m eas u rem e n ts Th e wo rd “ diopte r al so de notes a

.
”

geo m et ri ca l i nst ru m ent u sed for l evel ing p u rposes .

Th e s ubstitution of th e wo rd diopte r fo r m eter has

b ee n adopted by ocul ists and al l firs t class opticians -

sin ce 187 5 i n o rde r to i nt roduce a un ifo r m m easure

,

m ent i nstead o f th e o l d i n ch m easu re wh i ch con side ra ,

bly d i ffers i n l ength i n th e di ffere nt count ries S o is .

1 P aris i nch mm .

1 E ngli sh i n ch
1 A ust r i an i n ch
1 P ru ssian o r R h eni sh i n ch .

“
Pe ris cop ic S p e ct acl e s
d cid dly give m o imp f ct v i io n th an e e re er e s
commo n p ct acl b c a th y in c a both th ab atio n of fi g
s e es, e u se e re se e e rr u re

an d of colo rT ati n Optic by Si D avid B w t Ch ap X X X VII I

.
”
re se o s, r re s er, . .
12 H A ND -
B OO K FOR O PT I C I A N S .

and o n e m ete r co ntai ns 37 . P a ri s i n ch es ,

cc E ngl ish In ch es ,

38 . A ust ri a n i nch es ,

P r u s s ia n i n ch es .

Thi s expl ai n s why i m po rted l en ses n eve r co rre spo nd

with o u r n um be rs an d h ave to b e re m easu r ed Wh e n .

w e o rde r N o 2 O(7 w e fin d the m ge n e ral ly to b e 2 2 ;

1—
.
0

and it is o n ly by k eepi ng i n stock th e h al f n um b ers as ,

6 5 etc
, an d odd n umb ers l i ke 1 7 19 etc
.
,
th at w e , ,
.
,

are abl e to fil l th e o rde rs of o cul ists Th e t ro u bl e i s in .

creased by so m e o culists h avi ng thei r test l e nses m eas -

u re d by th e F r ench i nch es som e by th e R h e n i sh m eas

,

u re , othe r s by th e E ngli sh o r A m e r i can an d as th e ,

sam e d iffe ren ces occur i n th e m easu r e m ent Of l en ses o f

f e r e d by diffe r e nt m anufactu r e rs th e co n fusio n i s a ,

ge n eral o n e .

Th e t ro ubl e is d efi n itely ov e r co m e by th e i nt rod u cti on

Of th e metr ic sys tem as th e m ete r i s i ndep en den t Of th e
,

special m easu r em ents O f di ffe rent co unt ri es Th e i nch .

syste m has al so th e great i nco nv e n ie n ce th at th e u nit

r ep r esents a l en s Of 1 i nch focus a nd th at w e h av e to ,

exp r es s th e st rength of al l l e nses w eak e r th a n N o 1 i n .

f ractions A le ns w h ich w e cal l NO 10 is r eally One

. .
,

te nth as st ro ng as NO 1 an d h as to be w r itte n .
, and 1
1 5 ,
t w o l e n ses Of thi s st rength co m bi n ed ar e 1 o r NO 5
2
—
0 . .

But th is w as not the o n ly d isad v antage o f th e i n ch sys

tem ; we we r e al so obliged to ca r ry a n u n n ecessa ry as
so rtm ent Of n u m be r s i n stock w h ich w e r e utt erly u sel ess .

I on ly m e ntion h e r e th e n u mbe r o f l en ses fo un d i n th e

catalogues o f i m po rters f ro m 4 0 goi ng u p i n e ve n n u m
b e r s to 6 0 S uch nu mbe r s as 4 2 4 4 4 6 etc a re o f
.
, , , .
,

no ea rthly u s e as w i ll b e see n by th e fol lo w i ng table

, ,

showi ng th e difference i n st rengt h b etwe e n tho se n u m

be r s w h ic h th e bette r i nfo r m ed Opti ci an s ke pt i n sto c k .

The d iffe ren ce betwee n

5 and b i i n i nches i s 31 i n di opte rs 5 ,

5g . cc
6 cc 6 6

6 6% —
8

as 7
7 7a
7s e
8
 IN CH AND M E T RIC S Y S T E MS . 13

8 and 9 i n i nch es diopters

9 u
10 cc
fi ,

10 11 T ia ,

11 12
12 13 T bfi a
13 14 i ts ,

14 15 2T
7
H ,

15 16 5 s, ,

16 18 T IT ,

18 20 i ts ,

20 24 its ,

24 30 T IO
1
9

30 "
Y EW ,

36 3
3 56
-

40 ETC ,

48 (1 1 7
60 72 1
3 75 6 ,

72 90 g sfi ,

I n o rde r to hav e a f u l l u nde rstanding the a bove Of

tabl e l et u s take a pati e nt who c om plai ns O f his spec

,

tael es b ei ng too weak IVe fi nd the m by m easu ring to be .

NO 10
. I f w e co mbi n e with the m 0 111 weake s t i n ch
.

num ber in stock NO 90 we i ncrease th ei r focal st rengt h

, .
,
t
to No 9 A noth e r patient i s wea ri ng NO
. .
-
12 ; he .

fi nds th e m too st rong b u t I s wel l pl eased afte r we h ave

,

added diopte r A cco r ding to the above table we

.

fi nd that we have dec reased th e st rength o f h is sp ec

tael es f ro m 12 to + 13 Th e diffe r en ce bet w een two
.

n umbe rs from No 13 up i s not m uch mo re than i

, .
,

diopte r (0 2 5 D ) i n so m e cases l ess than 2; diopter and

.
, ,

th e diffe ren ces o f al l th e inte r m ediate n um be rs not ,

m e ntion ed i n this li st are so l ittle that they a mou nt to

,

al most n oth i ng an d should be o m it t ed i n o u r stock O f

,

l enses as u n n ecessa ry .

S pectacl e l en ses are m an ufactu r ed i n such q uant ity

and s o cheap th at we can n ot expect th em to b e m ath e
,

mat ical l y co r rect l i ke th e l en ses Of scient ific in st rum ents ,

el se th ey wo ul d b e co nsiderab ly dea r er The ca reless .

w ay in w hi ch m a ny peopl e put o n the ir gl asses I s n e en

.

co u ra e m m anuf ctu re pe rfect and h igh p riced

'

g ent t o a -

l e nses ; they woul d o nly p rov e t o be a waste of l abo r

 14 HAND -
B OO K FOR O PTI C I A N S .

an d mo n ey Most peopl e h av e n o m o r e u se f o r such

pe rfect spectacles tha n an I ndian h as f o r c l as s w mn SI c
.

But the r e i s o ne essenti al r eq u i rem e nt w itho ut wh ich a

l e ns is total ly wo rthl ess i 6 th ey Sho u l d b e w el l cen
, . .

ter ed. Th e center o f a l en s is th e h igh est o r l o west

po i nt o f its s urface (acco rdi n g as it i s co nv e x o r c o n
cave ) ; and as each side is fi nish ed separately th ese ,

cente rs Sho uld b e exactly Opposite each oth e r so that a ,

l i n e d rawn th rough th e m i s at a right ang l e wi th the

pl a ne Of th e l en s f ro m edge to edge t h rough its m iddle .

Th e t est fo r a w el l centered le ns i s to get i n su nlight a

sha rply defi ned sm al l ci r cl e an d th e s m all er th i s ci rcle ,

th e m ore perfectly th e l en s is centered A l l common .

sp ectacl es are badly fi ni s h ed i n t his r esp ect a nd s hould ,

n ot b e sol d by any con scie ntio u s opti cian I f p eop le .

are w ill i ng to i nj u r e thei r eyesight f o r th e sake o f a few

di m es l et th e m do so ; but w e sho u l d rath er lose th e sal e
,

o f a good a rticl e than be parti es t o s u ch reprehe n sibl e

“ ”
deal i ngs Th e t raffic in ey e ki l l ers Sho u ld b e p ro
.
-

hib it e d by law as druggists are forb idde n t o sel l p o iso n

,

w ithout disc ri m i nation .

Th e fi r st qualificatio n o f a n O pticia n i s h i s ab il ity to

m easu re l en ses i n i nch es as w el l as i n d io pte rs Th e .

i nch system is not so si m p l e as m any Opti cia n s con sider

it to be ; i t i ncl udes som e sci enti fic poi nts wh ich are
based o n the refractiv e p ow e r Of th e diff e re nt so rts o f
gla s s (C hap X II I ) Th e sam e curve o r radiu s Of c u rv
. .

atu r e d oes not al ways p roduce the sam e f ocal powe r

I f the g ri nde r takes fo r i nstan ce slab s Of fli nt crow n
, , ,

glass a nd pebbl e and fi nish e s th e m with th e v e ry sam e

,

m o u ld o r s egm e nt Of a ball h e wi l l fi n d that h i s l e n ses,

are O f d iffe rent strength because th e i nde x o f refractio n

,

Of those th re e ki nds Of m ate ri al i s o f different pow er .

But th is s cienti fic d isti n ctio n b etw e en th e “ ra di us Of

” “
curvatu re an d th e actual foc al powe r o f a l e n s is
o f l ittl e i mpo rt an ce to the av erage Opti ci an w ho h as ,

o nly to d o w ith its fo cal di sta n ce i n di cate d eith er i n ,

i nch es o r diopte rs L et u s th e refo re t u r n o u r atte n

.
, ,

tion to t he p ract ical m eth od o f m easu ri ng l e n se s by the

focal d is tan ce i n i nch es a nd igno re e nti re ly by w h at
,

curve the l e ns was grou nd Th ere i s a si m p l e w ay t o .

16 HA N D -
B OO K F O R O PT I CIANS .

l ittl e r eflection wi l l co nv i n ce u s Of th e absu rdi ty o f

m aki ng c ataract l en ses i n th i s fo rm Th e e x t re me c o n .

v ex i ty Of o n e side w il l ca u se su ch an ab e r ratio n o f l ight ,

th at o n ly the sma ll e s t cente r pa r t o f t he l e n s Wil l be -

u seful an d pl easa nt t o th e eye .

Th e un it O f th e metr ic sys tem i s b ased o n th e l ength

o f a m ete r wh i ch i s,
A m e ri can i nch es an d i s ex ,

p ressed by th e sig n 1 D Th e r efo re t wo dio pte rs will .

,

be 2 and 3 D But t o sim pl ify 2

th ei r calcul ation s and to avoid th e co m p l i cated fractio ns ,

w e may take th e m ete r at 4 0 i n ch e s an d w e wil l be ,

n ear eno u gh f o r al l p racti cal p u rposes Th e a nn exed .

t abl e w il l Sho w th e n ea rest app roxi m atio n Of both sys

tem s ; th e sm al l nu m bers giv e th e exact val u e Of diopters
i n A m e r ican i nch es :
Dio p te r s :
I n c he s : 16 0 80 53 40 32 26 23 20 18 16
7 8 74 26 2 4 22 4 9 19 6 8 17 4 9 15 74

Dio p te r s :
I n ch e s 14 g 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6% 6
8 75 6 56 6 05

Di o p te r s : 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 20 40
I n ch e s 5; 5 44 4 3A 3 2 1, 2} 2 1
4 92 3 57 3 28 2 81 2 18 1 96

Ofth ese nu mb e r s th e r e are o nly 53 2 3 a n d 14 4 not ,

co m m on to t he O l d i n ch system b ut th e n ext n u m bers ,

i n i n ch es may b e substituted ti l l w e ca n p rov ide for

th ei r equival ents i n diopte r s I do n ot re co m m e nd to .

fil l th e o rder of o culi st s i n a n i naccu r at e w ay but we ,

hav e seen b efo r e that th e d i ffe r en ce b etwe en t wo n um

,

be rs o r h alf n u mb e rs a mo u nts t o v e ry l ittl e an d i s of ,

n o consequen ce to th e w ea r e r .

The g reat advant age Of th i s n e w m easu re m e nt i s that

it enabl es u s to m ak e cal c u lation s an d co m bi n ati on s of
len ses w ith out th e l east troubl e w h il e th e Ol d way in ,

i n ch es is m o r e or less difficult S u ppose so m eb ody is .

w ea ri n g 1
6 b ut can not se e w el l an d w e add a noth er
2 , ,

l e ns by whi ch combi natio n h e s ees p erfectly ;

th e n we h av e t o calcul ate i n thi s way
1 _ 1 2 6 4 0 5g
l o an
— —
4 0 28 :
1 1 0 4 0 TO
“

O
I n d iopters qu ite s im pl e :
. 0 0

it I s -
1
—
2
4 0
D a nd both togeth er
, D z
16
 I NCH AND M ET R I C SY ST E M S . 17

TO give anoth er i l l ust ration o f th e d ifficu lty i n

m aking correct co mbi nation s by the i nch syste m w e ,

w il l take an ach ro mati c Obj ective l ens co mp osed of a ,

c row n glass Of 4 % i nches and a fli nt gl ass of 7 55 i nch es

, .

These two l enses co m b in ed giv e a l ens o f 10 focus

”
,

and th e reg u l ar way o f m aki ng D

th e cal culation is th is
+ 4 ii I a 1 J_a a_
+
—
+
— -
_ _
a l s
7g 2 2 3 .

1 : 2 a 4
3
.

3 32 3

by ie d u c ing th ese f ractio n s to a com mo n denomi nato r ,

which is 2 99 w e get f o i
,
i
and f m —
l
31
2 3
1 9
added togethe r gives
2 9 9 , o
9 OI i nch focus 9 9
1
1 0 .

A ll this t rouble I s av o id e d by t urning th e abov e l enses

i nto diopte rs :
42; equal s v e iy n ea rly 9 D
7g 5 D
add ed togeth er eq u als 4 D or , 1 0
—

Th e word d iopte r i s si m ply th e s u bstitute fo r a m ete r ,

wh ich h as i n A m e r ica an d i n P ari s 3 7 On ly

th e i nch es are Of differe nt l ength not the m ete r and t o , ,

fi nd th e differen ce b etween an A m e r ican and a F r en ch

foot w e h av e to m ulti ply th e nu mber of l i nes i n o n e
,

f eet by 3 7 a nd divi de th e p rod uct by

,

the quoti e nt w i l l b e which i s the l ength Of an

A m eri can foot i n F ren ch l i nes Th e F ren ch foot is .
,

the refo re ,
l o nge r than th e A m e r ica n foot To r e .

d uce i n ch e s to diopte rs w e di vide th em i nto

, (o r
and th e p roduct wi l l b e diopte r s ; we div ide t he
diopte rs i nto 4 0 th e n th e product wil l b e i nches
,
.
 C HAPTER II .

DIFFEREN T QUA L ITI ES OF LEN SES .

S o m e opti cia ns m ak e a m i stake abo ut th e com p arative

h a rd n ess O f fli nt glass an d c r o w n gl ass an d eve n noted ,

w r ite rs fal l into th i s erro r Dr Do nde rs f o r i n stance

. .
, ,

says : “ F l i nt gl ass an d ro ck c rysta l ar e ha rd e r t han

”
c row n glass I d o not u n d erstand ho w h is m i stake
.

co u l d sli p i nto SO m a ny m edi cal book s as th e sim ple ,

t est Of scratchi ng the o n e w ith th e oth e r wi l l Sho w at

o n ce that cro w n glass i s h a rd er th a n fl i nt gl ass Dr . .

Do n de r s i s not so m uch to b e b lam ed for h is i ncor rect

state m ent as those w ho h ave rep rod u ced h i s e r ror with
o u t any i nv estigatio n I read l ately i n a val uabl e geo
.

graphical wo rk O f Dr H Be rghaus t hat G eo Washi ng

. .
, .

ton served h is cou nt ry tw el ve yea r s as P re side nt I do .

not thi n k l ess of Dr B f o r m ak i ng th i s e r ro n eo us state

. .

m ent b ut I cen su re eve ry w rite r who q uot es h i m as an

,

authority o n th e subj ect .

We fi n d anoth e r e rro r i n regard to p ebbl es repeated ,

i n boo ks w ritte n by careless co m pil ers w ith o ut e x amin

i ng th e facts ; and as th e fi rst w rite r was m i stake n al l ,

the rest l abo r equ al ly u n der th e sam e g ro ss mis re p re s e n

t at io n . I wi l l co rrect i n th e n e x t ch apte r th i s e rror
whi ch has f o r years caused a n ope n co ntest b etween
, ,

o cul ists and Optician s Th e o cul ists bas ed the i r Ob j ec

.

t io n o n book s o f high autho rity an d th e o pt icia n s y i el ded

,

to th ei r argu m ent f r o m Sh ee r w ant o f co rrect in f o r

m ation I warm ly urge bot h to devot e so m e o f th ei r
.

l eisu re ti m e to i nvestigate thi s qu estio n th oro ugh ly and ,

t ry to settl e it defi n itely .

Quartz is th e p ri n cipa l i ng r ed ient i n t he m a n ufactu re

Of glass wh ich IS the m ost t ran spa re nt Of al l so l i d sub
,

s tan ces p rodu ced by m an an d al so th e b est i m itatio n Of

,
 D IFFE R EN T QUA L ITI ES OF LENSE S . 19

that v al u abl e p ro d u ct O f n at u r e te r m ed ro ck c rystal , ,

“ ”
pebb l e o r c ryst al lized q ua rtz Th e scientific n am e
, .

for it is s ilecc b ut wh e n it is co m bi n ed w ith an al kal i o r

,

anoth er m i ne r al it passes u nde r the n am e Of s il ica fo rm

,
,

i ng w ith the m th e SO cal led s ilicates ; so glass i s a si l i -

,

cate o f potash and l im e Q u a rtz i s co mposed Of fifty .

pe r cent Of oxyge n w ith about an eq u al p ropo rtion of its

.

base s iliciu m w hi ch i s supposed to be a met al l ike

, ,
'

potass iu m an d sodi u m ; but ch em ists canno t yet r educe

it to its m etal l ic state I n th e yea r 182 7 the base of .
,

cl a
y was ext racted i n th e fo r m o f t h at ext rem ely light
m e t al al u min iu m(gen e ra lly w ritten al u min u m altho ugh
, ,

the l atte r i s b u t th e Lati n n am e f o r clay an d n o t f o r its ,

m etal li c b as e ) ; but th e m etal si l ici um i s still waiting

for it s discov e r e r ? “

To m a nufact u re gl ass we m ust tak e q u a rtz o r sand , ,

—
th e l atter i s o n ly po w d ered o r c rush ed si lex and —

m elt it togeth e r w ith eith e r potash or soda with th e ad

di t io n O f l i me bo rax l ead an d othe r i ng redie nts wh ich
, ,

faci litate its fusio n Qua rtz o r sa n d by itself wi l l n ever .

m elt b e ing pe rfectly i n f u sibl e but it acqui r es t he prop

, ,

e rt y Of fusibil ity to a g r eate r o r l esse r degre e according

to the q uantity O f th e abo ve m etall ic oxides w ith wh ich

it i s m ix ed befo r e u nde rgoi ng th e m elti ng p rocess .

Th e r e are m any fo r m ul ae publis hed fo r th e manufacture

Of gl ass b ut as w e sh a l l see not eve ry ki nd i s fit f o r
, ,

Opti cal pu r po ses .

“
Th e w o d gl ass de r i ves f ro m the S axo n v e rb g l is
r

ni an (the Germ an g l eisse n ) t o shi n e to be bright and , , ,

was by Ol d w rite r s frequently appl ied to shi ni ng o r glit

te ri ng s ubstan ces w ithout r efe r en ce to co lo r o r t rans ,

A comm en c e m e n t in
th is di ction ha b n m ad in l ct opl atin g re s ee e e e r
wi t h S il ici m obt ain e d di ctl f om q a tz by m an Of hyd ofl o ic an d
u ,
re y r u r e s r u r
hyd ochlo ric ac id Th e m tal il ici m i n v ibly
r s . p n d d in th e s u s 1 is su s e e e
s ol tio n in w h ich th a ticl to b pl at d i imm e d an d i t f e by
u e r e e e s rs e , s se r e

t he actio n Of a g alv an ic c nt I n thi w ay w O bt ain a th in film f th e

u rre . s e o
r al m e t all ic b as
e o f q a tz An in c an d s c n t l amp has l at ely app ea e d
e u r . e e r
in E n gl an d in w h ich t h fil am n t i co at d w ith a l ay of S lici m an d
e e s e er i u

th e deg of v ac m r q i d in sid th b lb it i cl aim d an b

ree uu e u re e e u , s e ,
c e
l e en d
ss Wh n w con id h w t d o s w
e .
— e e t h fi t e xp im n t s
s er o e i u ere e rs er e
Wth A l m in i m an d in w h at q an t ity an d w ith w h at f a hty th i m e t al
i u u u CI s
i n o w p od u c d w may al o e xp ct to e Sil ic i m in t od c d s oo n
,

s r e , e s e s e u r u e er o r
l at e in to th m a k e t a a n w m e tal f o n am en t al o in d u st rial p
r e r s e or r r ur
po s es .
20 H AND B O OK FO R O PTI C I A N S
- .

p are n cy Th e co mbi natio n o f sand w ith an al kali

.

potash o r soda ) m elted toge t he r yi eld s o nl y th e so

( , ,

call ed w ater gl ass sol u b le i n boi li n g w ate r to a fine

-
, ,

t r an sparent s e m i el astic va r n i s h u sed f o r th e ad u ltera

,
-
,

tio n O f soap ; al so fo r h a rde ni ng m o rtar ce m e nts etc , , .

,

so as to re n d e r th em i mp e r v io u s t o wate r A n appl i ca .

tion Of it to w ood r ende r s th e sam e al m os t in co mb u st

ibl e But to p ro d u ce a glass not t o b e affected by water
.

and acids it i s n ecessa ry to add o n e o r m ore Of the

,

m et al lic salts su ch as b a r iu m st r onti u m calci u m m ag

, , , ,

nesi u m al u m i n u m m angan ese

,
a r sen ic o r l ead S ome, , , .

of th ese faci l itate th e m elti ng process a nd are cal led ,

flu xes o r so lvents oth e rs se rve as decolo ri ng agents , .

Th e p ropo rtio n i n whi ch th e ab ov e s u b sta n ces are used ,

an d th e diffe r ent com positi o n s m ad e by the m i n addi

tio n to th e p r in ci pal i ng red ients (qua rtz and potash )
co n stitute th e di ffe rent ki nds o f glass A lthough there .

is n o secrecy o f th e m ost i m p ro ved fo r m ul a) Of m ak ing

al l ki nd s of g l ass it i s neve rth el ess a w e l l establ ished
,

fact that o n e factory Offe rs a b ette r a rticl e f o r sal e than

oth e r s b ecau se th ey tak e b ette r m ateri al s an d their
, ,

workm en are m o r e careful an d co m pet ent as is th e case ,

i n al l oth e r t rades I t i s al m ost i m possi bl e to obtai n or

.

eve n p repa re th e i ngredients i n a state o f ch em ical pur

ity p r evio us to fusing the m togeth e r .

S AND is al ways m o r e o r l ess i m p u re a n d m ust be ,

carefully wash ed an d clean ed Many v a ri eti es o f this .

material are not fit f o r th e m anu fact u re Of gl ass Only .

rock crystal an d qua r tz a re ch emi cal ly p u r e especial ly ,

th e fi rst b ut they requi r e the e xtra ex pe n se o f being

,

pulverized F o rm e rly fl i nt (sil ex ) cal ci n ed an d gro und

.
, ,

was u sed as th e so urce Of th e si l ic a f o r th e m a n ufacture

Of fi n e glass ; h e nce th e n am e O f fl in t gl ass .

*
P O T AS H a nd S ODA are u sed i n a p u r ifi ed state o nly
f o r the b est qual iti es o f g l ass b ut c rud e potash and ,

soda ash ar e em ploy ed f o r th e m ediu m q ual ity w hile

-

com m o n wood ash es and r efuse soda wi l l d o fo r bottl e

-

gl ass The potash u sed f o r thi s p u rpose i s th e car

.

b on ate of p otas l t (S alt o f Tarta r ) an d req ui r es a p ro ,

T h y a o f t combi d
e re en th m ixtne , as e ir u re c mo ap idly an d
a ts re r
at a con d s i e ra bly lo w er t mp at th an ith
e er u re e er O f th e m w ill S p a at ly e r e .
 DIFFEREN T QUA L ITI ES OF L EN SE S . 21

cess o f wash i ng p revio us to use The stat e to wh ich i t .

is b ro ught by the p rocess O f clean i ng is that of fi ne

white g rai ns diffe r i ng b ut l ittle to a n unp ractised eye
, , ,

f ro m t he p repa red s and Ot he r com bi nation s of p o t as

.

SI u m such as n itr ate of p o tas h saltpete and s u l hate

, ( r
) p
of p o tas h
( al u m ) cou nte
, ract the t ende n cy to colo r b e ,

fo re the gla s s e n t ers i nto pe rfect fusio n .

L I M E (calci u m ) fo rm s an i m po rta nt pa rt in th e man

u f ac t u re O f glass a nd m ay b e i nt rod u ced eith e r sl aked
, ,

b u rned o r as a ca rbo nate (ch al k ) Li mestone ho w eve r .

, ,

that co ntai ns i ro n must b e e xcl uded f ro m the m ixtu re

,

fo r m aki ng white glass Th e actio n O f l im e is to pro

.

mote th e f u s io n o f the m ixtu re and to make the gla s s ,

ha rd.

LEAD i s th e di s ti ngu ishi ng i ng redie nt i n crystal co m ,

mo n fl int glass optical glass and st rass I t i s used i n

,
.

th e fo r m O f red lead or l itha rge an d remo ves m any im ,

p u r iti es as f o r in stance charcoal by oxidatio n A n ex

, ,
.

cess Of l ead i n d uces too g reat soft n ess in th e glass an d ,

gives a yel lo w ti nge .

“
BAR YT A (ba ri u m ) in th e fo rm know n as heavy
,

spar i s so met i m es added to t he co n stit uents of co m

,
”

mo n bottl e gl ass to r ende r it mo re easy o f fus io n .

AL U M IN U M (clay ) though seldo m p u rposely i nt ro

,

d u c ed i n to glass i s always accidental ly p re s e n t b ro u ght

, ,

the re by th e action of th e m ate r ials upo n the clay of the

pots in wh ich they are m elted I f p rese n t i n any q u an .

tity it spo i ls th e pe rfect c rystallization O f the gl ass .

I R O N is anoth e r un w el com e ele m ent wh i ch is almost ,

al ways p resent i n th e s and i n th e soda an d in th e chal k , ,

and p roduces a g ree nish colo r i n th e gl ass whe n not r e

m oved
A RSENIC in l ittl e qua ntiti es prom otes th e d e co mp o
.

, ,

sitio u of th e oth e r i n gredients and ten ds to d issipate ,

i m pu iti es n ot otherwi se disposed of b ut

ca rbo naceous r ,

i s the n vo latil ized I n excess it p roduce s a m i l k i ness

. ,

i n th e gl as s whi ch ti m e wi l l i nc rease
,
.

MAN G ANESE i s em ploy ed to n eut ralize th e g reenish

ti nt p roduced by th e p rese nce O f i ron and to cou nte ract ,

the i m p u ri ties o f ca rbo n I f p a rticles O f ca rbo n o r soot

.

fro m the fire o r flam e beco m e m i xed an d s urrou nded

22 H AND B O O K FOR O PT I C I A N S
- .

w ith the m elted gl ass the se by th e ir excl u sio n fro m the ,

access o f air are prev ented f ro m b u rn ing a n d a b ro wn or

, ,

smo ky col o r i s p rod u ced wh i ch is r e moved by th e con ,

ve rsio n O f th e ca rbon i nto ca rbon i c oxid e th ro ugh the

ox idizi ng i nfl u e nce O f m angan ese (A rse n i c a n d n it rate
Of potash ar e al so u s ed fo r th e sam e p u rpose ) F ro m
.

th e cl ea n si ng actio n o f th i s m ate r i al i t i s gen erally ,

”
“
term ed the gl ass m ak ers soap I t m ust h owever -
’
.
, ,

b e u sed spa r i ngly f o r an e xcess o f it giv e s an ame t hy s ,

ti n e ti nt to th e glass S uch co lo r ed l en ses are i ntroduced .

“ ”
i nto the m a r ket u nde r th e n am e o f A r u nd el .

B O RAX i s so m eti m es e m pl oyed as a flu x but it m ust be ,

u sed al ways w ith g r eat caut io n a s an excess l eads to ,

exfo l iati o n o f th e glass .

Th ere are fou r r ar ities o f g l ass m an u factu re d besides ,

th e above m ention ed w ater glass .

1 F l in t g l ass al so call ed C r ys tal Str ass o r P as te

.
, , .

Th i s is a v e ry p ure and b eauti ful k in d o f glass o f g reat ,

density and high ref racti v e po wer I t is p roperly termed .

l ead glass -
si n ce i t i s th e p rese n ce o f th i s m etal
,
‘

whi ch di sti nguish es it fro m al l oth e r va ri eti es O f glass .

I t i s chi efly m an ufactu red i nto a rticl es O f do m estic use

a
and o rnam e nt and i s an E ngli sh in v e n t io n , Th e best .
i
e

fo r m ul a of fli n t glass m an ufact u r ed fo r Optical

p u r poses is :
p arts o f si li ca o r sa nd ,

ox ide O f l ead ,

carbo nate o f pota s h ,

n itrate o f pota sh
,

5 ch al k .

F l in t gl a
k n o w n ov th h n d d y a ag
ss w as T h w as er r ee u re e rs o e re
as a ly a 1557 a facto y of it in L o n do n an d E n gl h fl in t l a
.

r s r
e
g wa , is ss s
con id d t h b t n th e m a k t B t th y n v co ld m ak p i c of
s e re e es I r e . u e e er u e e es
mo th an a f w in ch in d am t
re e it abl f o a t o n om ic al p
es po i e er, su e r s r ur s es,
till F a n hof a ton h d th w o ld W th a l n O f almo t a foot in diam
r u er s is e e r i e s s
eter, w h ch w a t aft w a d in to a
i sf acto f th e O b s v ato y at
se er r s re r r or er r
Do p at I t SS a an d is y t in e Th d ffic lty i th at th e g at q an tity
r , u I ,
e us . e i u s re u
O f l ad n fl n t gl a c an n ot b
e i i q ally d t ib t d th o gho t t h l n s
ss e e u is r u e r u u e e
w itho t co n t an t t i in g f t h m t al d
u s in g th e m elt n g an d f sin g
s rr o e e ur
It i u s
m an u factu is th efo mo e a m ch an ic al th an ch m c al p oc
re er re r e e i r ess .
24 HAND BOO K F O R OPT ICIANS
- .

Wh ite san d
C a r bonate o f potash .

C a r bo nate of soda .

C hal k o r sl aked l i m e .

A rse n ic

parts 196 .

Th e re are 55 parts o f al kal ies i n 196 w h i ch is equal ,

to against 12 % i n fl i n t glass Th e additio n of .

chal k is v ery essenti al ; it co u nte racts th e e ff ect Of the

excess of al kal ies wh i ch woul d p r od uce i n th e len ses a
t e nden cy to tarni sh by th e d eposit o f a fil m o f aq ueous
,

vapo r an d woul d cause th e mi n the space o f a few years

, .

to lose th ei r poli sh .

The n am e o f P l ate Gl ass o r as it shou l d be termed , ,

cas t
g l ass m ight b e ,appl ied t o any k i nd Of gl ass in

sh eets This beauti ful kin d o f glass is fo rm ed b y b e

.

i ng cast upo n a s mooth m arbl e tab l e w h i l e i n a l iquid

state an d is totally i nd epen de nt o f th e process o f b low
,

i ng The pri ncipal consum ptio n o f pl ate glass i s for

.

m ir rors
Wind ow Gl ass i s al so a c ro w n gl ass o f i n fe rior qual
.

ity whi ch is fi rst b lown at th e e n d o f th e p ip e i nto a

,

l a rge globe then co nve rted by a r ap id rota ry m otion

,

i nto a cyl in de r whi ch i s c ut u p i n th e d i rectio n parallel

,

to it s axi s a n d fl atte ned i nto a b r oad sh eet Th e ma .

t e rial s em ploy ed f o r th e m a nufactu re o f th i s gl ass are

ch i efly silica soda and l i m e ; n o potash i s u sed
, .

3 . B o hemian o r C r ys tal Gl as s Th e co arser q uali .

ties Of th is ki nd of gl ass are a n alogo us i n co mposition

to bottl e glass But th e fin e r k in ds a re disti ngui shed
.

by thei r co mparative freedo m fro m col o r by g r eat light ,

n ess an d t hei r v e ry ref ractiv e n atu re wh i ch renders ,

t he m capabl e o f resi sti ng n o t on ly h igh h eats b ut sud ,

de n ch anges O f tem p e ratu re He n ce th e v al u e o f this .

gl ass for ch em ical p urposes such as reto rts t ub es etc , , ,

.

I ts lightn ess a nd th e total abse nce o f co lor cau se it t o be

h ighly v al u e d as tabl e wa r e f o r co st ly w i n do ws cover -
,
,

i ng 0 f engravi ngs an d al so f o r sp ectacl e l e n ses I n the

, .

fin er qualities o f Boh e mi an glass potash i s sub sti tute d ,

f o r soda I ts form ul a is
.
 DIFFEREN T QU A L I T IES OF L EN SES . 25

Q u a rtz i n powder 10 0 pa rts .

Ca rbo n ate o f potash 60

Carbo nate of l i m e 20 .

4. B o ttl e Gl as s Th e mate r ial s fo r co m mo n g l ass

.

bottles are co a rs e r than f o r any othe r ki nd of glass an d ,

co nsi st o f sil ica l i m e soda o xides of i ro n and m anga

, , ,

n es e E conom y is th e ch ief obj ect colo r and appear

.
,

an ce be ing of no mo m ent The co lo red sands are eve n .

prefe rabl e to wh ite sands because th e o xide o f i ro n , ,

wh ich colo rs them pe rfo r m s th e pa rt of a fl ux They

, .

do no t requi re any wa s h ing o r other p repa r ation a nd ,

i nstead o f soda co m mo n wood ash es Obtain ed f rom do

,

mest ic fi res w i ll d o afte r th ey are sifted an d d ri ed b e

,

fo re u s i ng Th is glass i s th e ha rdest of al l but is the

.
,

m ost i m pu re a nd th erefo re useless f o r opti cal p u rposes

We see f ro m th is l ist that th e dea re r potas h is used
.

o nly f o r the better q u al i t ies o f g l a s s an d the cheaper ,

soda fo r the i nfe rio r ki nds I f eithe r of them i s e m .

ployed too f reely it spo ils th e glass Yo u h av e p e r

,
.

haps m ade the o b s e rvat ion afte r havi ng ca reful ly clea ned ,

a m i r ro r o r w i ndo w that soo n the r e was a sc u m ,

agai n cove ri ng t he j u st b righten ed su rfaces A r epeated .

r u b bi ng readily rem oved it o n ly to r e appea r as s oo n ,

as y o u ce as ed yo u r e ffo rt s Th e excess o f potash o r .

soda att racts t he m oi s tu re of the air and b afl l e s yo u r ,

e xe rtio n s D o n t la u gh any mo re at peopl e comp l ai n

.
’

i ng that th ey ca n neve r clean th ei r spectacles ; th e

l e n s e s m ay b e m an ufactu red o f s u ch defective glass .

The re is anothe r se r io us evi l atte ndi ng th e excess o f

alkal i es i n glass ; th ey g rad ua lly oxidize by th e actio n
o f the atm osph e r e causi ng the appea ran ce o f rai n bow
,
-

colo rs B ut wh e n afte r a length of ti m e the potash and

.

so da are m o re an d m o r e abso rbed from th e s u rface ,

t he re is l eft o n ly a th i n fi l m Of o xidized Sil ica of a m i l ky

'

appea ra nce s uch as yo u fi nd 0 11 spoiled l enses especial ly

, ,

on watch glas s es wh ich are mostly

,
m ade of gl ass c o n

tai ni ng too m uch soda S uch l en ses cannot b e cleaned .

by a ny acids o r by any am ount o f rubbi ng with wate r

,
.

Th e on ly way to cl ea n th e m i s a ge ntl e r ubb i ng with

C osm ol i n e p rov ided th ey are not too f ar go ne
,
.

I th i nk it p rope r h e re to di rect yo ur attention to th e

26 HAN D B OO K FOR OPT ICIANS
- .

m any se call ed in ven tions

-
u n sc p ul ou s p a r t e
i s 111 of ru ,

t ro d u c in g th ei r wonde rf u l discov e ri e s as so m eth in g of

g reat i m po rtance i e f o r th ei r o w n po ck ets n o t f o r
, . . ,

th e p u bli c Th e on ly i n ven tio n th ey h av e r eal ly m ad e

.

is th e high s ou n d ing n ame wh i ch th ey fl o arl s h o sten

-

t at io u s l y b efo r e th e eyes o f th e am azed p u b l l c p t he n

w aiti ng eage rly f o r th e r u sh of del u ded b u ye r s as th e ,

picado r es i n th e aren a w ait f o r the h eadl o ng adva nce of

the b u l l e n raged by th e wa iving o f th e red cloth S u ch
,
.

n am es as P eiy ected I mp r o v ed B r il l ian t Ar u n d el Dia

‘
, , , ,

mon d , M ed icated , D iaman ta , C rys tal , P ar ab o l ic ,

etc ar e sti l l f r esh i n o u r m em o ri e s an d th e l ist wil l
.
, ,

i ncrease as long as th e r e are eno u gh d upe s l iv i ng to

m ak e su ch a h u m b ug p ay *
I h ope nobody w i l l mis —

co n st r ue t h ese r e m a r k s as if I w e r e agai n st lawful

advertisem ents o f a good arti cl e Th ere i s a way o f .

i nt roduci ng goods w h ich i s p erfectly ho no rab l e p rov ided ,

su ch parti es use th ei r o w n n ame as a r ecom m enda tio n

f o r th e supe r io r ity o f th ei r spectacl es I f Di c k Harry .

are co m pete n t opti cia n s an d ke ep n oth in g b ut first cl ass ,

-

goods n obody ca n bl am e th e m f o r d raw i n g p u b l ic

,

attentio n t o th e fi n e b rand s o f Dick Har ry s Opti cal

“ ’

”
Goods Th eir su ccess i s d ue to th ei r exp e rt sel ection s
.

an d s u perio r j udgm ent an d n ot to fal se p r et en sio ns , .

I t is the refo r e ve ry i m po rta nt that ev e ry Opti cian b e

, ,

wel l i n fo r m ed abo ut th e d if er en t q u al iti es of l en ses ; h e

sh oul d b e abl e to disti ngui sh thei r v a ri o u s g rad es as read
i ly as a j e w el e r i s abl e to asce rtai n t he q ual ity o f goo d s
h e i s b uy i n g Le nses of th e firs t q
. u al ity a l w ay s co n t ai n
mo re o r l ess l ead t he la rge r its q u antity (to a l m ost h alf
,

its vo l um e ) th e fi ne r its l u ste r an d beauti f u l sparkli ng

, .

This kind is k now n to th e t r ade a s ex tr a w hite fl i nt glass ,

an d can not b e distingui sh ed f r o m p ebb l e by s i m ply

com pa ri n g th em toge t h e r by look I t is p r i n ci pal ly .

used f o r o pe r a gl asses an d oth e r opti cal i n st r u m e nts .

Th e b est m ethod of com pa ring d iffe r e n t l e n s e s i s to

p l ace th em ho rizo n tal ly o r fl at betwee n yo u r fi nge r s ; by
Th e a e s l t tf k
a e is a So u t h el n r p od ct c all d C y tal l d L n
u e i s iz c e
as as mu
, s es
th kin , t h e S u o h ch ght to h mb g p opl a t h N o th
.

I t h
W
ri u u e e s e r an d
E t
as o f t h e U S h o Wl l l b e t he
. p io n D th XV t ? T h
e er 1 e eg ere is a
g ld m d
e n er a e an f o r s u l u v c n tl o n sch .
 DIFFERE N T QU A L I T IES OF L ENSES . 27

h ol d ing th e h and towa rds th e l ight yo u can see i n the ,

n ar r ow op en spaces b etwee n yo u r da r k fi n ers the dif

g
f e r e n t deg r ee s o f th e colo r o f th ese l enses bette r th an
by placin g th e m o n wh ite pape r But m ost l e n ses sol d.

fo r fi rst qual ity are n ot th e extr a w hite an d can not stand ,

com pa r iso n with pebb les ; the si mpl e hand test shows a -

grayi s h tint wh en co mpa r ed with them .

Len ses o f th e secon d q u al ity are eithe r o f c row n gl ass

o r th e refu se of fl i nt glass an d are of co u r se l ess co s tly
, .

I f they a re m ade o f a clear w el l fi ni sh ed c r ow n g l ass

, ,

they are preferab l e to any fli nt gl ass because th ey are ,

harde r take a h igh er polish an d ar e for th i s r easo n

, ,

m o re su itabl e f o r cata ract l enses Th e i nfe r io r ki nds.

o f cro wn glass are al so used f o r spectacl es o f lower

grades b ut the l enses h av e a g reeni sh ti nge whe n
,

exami ned edgewi se an d are ful l o f i mpe rfection s pl ai nly

,

see n wh e n loo ked th ro ugh at th e sky S uch l enses see m .

to b e fi l l ed w ith h al f t ran spa r e nt littl e pa rti cl es o f dust ,

d ue t o th e i n co m pl ete p rocess of m elting th e s and .

Th e thir d q u al ity is not al way s m ade o f poo r er glass ,

beca u se m any l e nses from the better q u al ities are selected

to b e used as th ey w e re cast W e fi nd th e refo re am ong
.
, ,

the m v e ry ofte n wh ite l en ses but they are n ever g round

, ,

an d sel dom poli sh ed Th ei r ch eap n ess i s du e m o re to

.

sav ed l abo r tha n l ess costly mate rial I co uld exte n d .

—

th e list of th e diffe r ent qual iti es t o fou rth and fift h

g rades wh e n I look a ro u n d a m ong th e stock i n trade o f
,
”
ped d le rs an d street optici an s but I hop e n o n e o f my
“
,

r eaders w il l b e c aught sel li ng s u c h t rash I t i s t rue the .

,

ey e c an sta n d a great deal of abuse b ut th e wea re r of ,

such s p ectacl es w i l l at last sh are th e fate of a spe n dth rift

th e o n e l o ses his fo rt u n e th e oth e r al as h is sight
, , ,
.

To d et ect oth e r i m pe r fecti o n s w e hav e to hol d th e

l e ns at an a ngle of 3 5 in goo d l ight Th e r eflected l ight
o
.

w i l l sho w th e s m al l est b ubbl e o r sc ratch i n o r u po n th e

glass A noth e r a nd b ette r m ethod i s to hold th e l e n s
.

b efo re th e eye a nd l oo k thro u gh it at a w i n do w (Thi s

,
.

test re fe rs o n ly to e x l e n s e s ) We w i ll see th e obj ect

.

b eh in d it d i m ly and i n l engtheni n g th e di stan ce g rad

,

u al l y
,
it w i l l appea r stil l di m m e r ti l l at o nce w e s e e ,

noth i ng but th e gla ry l e ns it i s j u s t at its focal di s

,
—
28 H AND BO O K FOR O PT I C IAN S
- .

t an ee . I f we rem ov e th e l e ns beyo n d thi s poi nt , t he

obj ect i s th en cl ea rly s een b ut rev e rs ed b ecause the ,

ray s have cro ssed i n th e focus ; th e upp e r rays a re n ow

the lowe r o nes an d v ice v er s a Th is po i nt w h e re w e
,
.

see noth i n g b ehind the l en s i s th e m o st p ro pe r for

,

detecti ng al l i m pe r fectio n s in th e l e n s .

I concl ude this chapte r w ith som e suggesti on s o f r efo rm

to m y asso ci ates i n th e o p t ical t rad e Ev e ry me r ch ant t ries
.

to b uy as ch eap as possibl e i n o rd e r t o m eet co m petition

o n a n equal footi n g Ou r co nstant d em a n d f o r lo wer
.

pri ces co m pel s the i m porte r s an d j obb ers t o m ak e a

sim ila r r eq uest t o th e m an u factu r ers w ho o f course , , ,

w i ll p roduce i nferio r goods t o satisfy th e ge neral pr

u re . Th e co nseq ue n ce is a gradual d e cl i n e i n the
“
qual ity o f goods Wh at w e cal l t o day fi r st quality ”
-
.
,

b ut pay o nly o n e qu a rte r o f wh at we p aid th i rty y ears

ag o for it i s n o t th e sam e arti cl e
, I stil l h av e fro m .

th at tim e le nses o n han d o f No s 2 1 2 3 2 5 3 3 4 5 50 .

, , , , , ,

etc (b eca use I thought the m n e cessary to be wel l

.

asso rted ) whi ch are yet as b right as n e w l e nses S i nce

, .

they h av e fal le n i n p ri ce I a m co m pel l ed ev ery yea r to

,

th r ow m any l e nses away ev e n a mo ng tho se j ust received

,

fro m a n im po rti ng ho u se because so m e show al ready

,

t races o f r ai n b o w col o r s oth e rs e ven are co rr oded I n

-
, .

form e r yea r s th e g r i nde rs al way s h ad great t ro ubl e to

,

fi n d th e r ight quality o f glass f o r o ptical le nses b ut ,

si nce th ey can di spose o f al l ki nds o f t rash th ey wo rk

u p any stuff wh i ch n eve r was m an ufactu red f o r that pu r

pose Gla s s barely goo d eno ugh f o r tab l e w are or

.
,
-

Wi ndow gl ass i s t u r ne d in t o spectacl e l en ses b ecause

, ,

they can b e readi ly sold t o o n e o r th e oth e r pa rty I f .

o u r i m po rte r s th e m sel ves w e r e sci e ntific opti ci a n s o r ,

had o n e i n thei r em ploy to supe ri nte nd th i s b ranch o f

th ei r busin ess th e gene r al decli n e i n th e q ua l ity o f
,

l en ses would have b ee n p reve nted Th ey wo ul d h ave .

fou nd it to th ei r i nterest t o always keep a stock o f good

l enses o n h a nd eve n if th ey had t o p rov id e th e m selves
,

fo r th e t rad e at l a rge f o r j ew el e r s a n d p edd l e rs w ith

,
,

im it atio n s A t p res e nt it is d iffic u lt to fi n d l e n s e s m ade

.

of real optical glass I d o n o t bl am e t he im port e rs

.
 DIFFEREN T QU A L I T IES O F L EN SES . 29

alo ne b ut co n fess that thi s state Of affai r s i s mo stly

We m ade th e g reat m i stake o f
,

o ur own fault
.

altogeth e r d i s regardi ng o u r r espon sibl e positio n to

assist m an k i n d i n th e p res e rv ation of thei r p recio u s
ey esight w ith fa u ltless glasses ; w e deg raded o u rselves
to m e rcen ary t rade rs f o r t he sake o f gai n .

I r e m a r ked b efo r e th at w e shou ld be abl e to cl assify

,

th e diffe rent g rades o f l e n ses as r eadily as the j ewele r

asce rtai n s th e k arats Of h is gol d I mysel f experim ented
.

f o r years i n an alyzi ng th e diffe r e nt q ual ities o f Spectacl e

l en se s as t o th e quantity o f l ead a rs enic cl ay potash
, , , ,

soda an d oth e r m aterial s used i n thei r m an u factu r e but ,

I s ucceeded o nly pa rti al ly by tedio u s ch em ical p rocesses ,

wh ich are n ot yet O f any practi cal val ue to th e c r aft .

I wish othe rs wo ul d di r ect th ei r attention to thi s highly

im po rta nt subj ect an d bei ng m o r e successful wi ll ea r n
, ,

a deserved rep utatio n by publi shi ng thei r discove ry .

 C H AP T E R III .

M ER I T s AND DEFEC T S OF P E BBL E S .

F or m o r e tha n a h u n d red y ea rs afte r cotto n b egan to

b e c u lti vated i n A m e r i ca its se eds were co ns id
,

e r ed wo rthl ess an d o n eve ry pl a ntatio n l a rge h eaps of

,

thi s co nte m n ed stuff accu m ul ated i n th e co u r se o f ti m e ,

w h i ch th e pl a n ter would h av e gi v e n f o r noth i ng i f any ,

bo dy had b ee n k i n d e no u gh to cart it aw ay TO day the .

-
,

seed yi elds m o re p rofit t o hi m than th e cotto n P ebbl es .

m et with th e sam e t r eat m ent N eith er th e b ui l ders had

.

any u s e f o r the m n o r street pave r s ; o nly m i ne ralogists

,

n oti ced them a n d occasionally col lected so m e sp eci m ens

,

as cabi n et pi eces A few m a n ufactu rers o f gl ass al so

-
.

used them f o r m ak i ng an extra qu ality Of fli nt gl ass but ,

m il l io n s Of to n s o f thi s p recio u s m i n eral w ere l eft n u

n oti ced by those w ho are n o w eage rly se ar ch i ng f o r it .

S i n ce 17 83 wh e n A l ex is R ocho n th e fi rst w riter o n

, ,

peb b l es gave a n u n fav o r ab l e acco u nt o f th e m an d co n

, ,

d e mn e d the m as us el ess f o r spectacl e l e nses al l w riters ,

o n th e subj ect a re agai n st the m Li ste n t o what a .

Docto r says
“
Th e o nly practi cal advantage Of p eb b l es ov e r gl ass is ,

th at they en ab l e u s with al l h o n esty t o g r ati fy p e rsons

w ho do n o t know wh at th ey want b ut si m ply w ish t o pay ,

m ore than th e u sual p r ice o r m ore th an th ei r fri e n ds did

,

for th ei r spectacl es .

A noth er says :
“
R ock c rystal o r B razi l ian quartz i s al so u s ed and
, , ,

i s co m m only k no w n as p eb bl es I t h as n o advantage .

ov er gl ass ex cept i n ha rd ness ; i n fact th e o pti cians

, ,

fin d it difficu lt o r i m possibl e t o di sti nguish b etw e e n th em

w ithout a pol ariscope o r a fi l e Many p eop l e h o w ev er
.

, ,

are n o t sati sfie d u nl ess th ey h av e p ebbl es o r th i n k th ey ,

h av e th em f o r gl ass i s v e ry Ofte n sold i n stead ” Th is

, .
32 H AND BO OK FOR
-
O PT I C I AN s .

tacl e l en ses to wa s te anoth e r wo rd i n th ei r d ef en se i f it

'

,
,

w e r e not my Obj ect h ere to settle th e di sp ut e defi n itely and ,

f u rn ish al l th e po ints n ecessa ry to j u sti fy m y h on est ,

favo rab l e Opi nio n about them Th e m ai n Obj e c t Of my .

i nvestigatio n was to a s certai n i f th e eye s w ere fatigued

soon e r with pebbl es tha n with gl asse s I di rected my .

attentio n esp ecial ly to th e gene ral c au s e O f o u r getting

w ea ry an d I fo u n d th at it i s th e effe c t o f heat wh ich
,
-

r el ax es th e m u scles and p roduces th e se n sati o n o f fatigue .

C on seq u e n tly t he s e l e n ses wh i ch w ill t r ansm i t th e most

,

l ight and at th e sam e ti m e th e l east h eat to th e eye

, , ,

sho uld b e u sed f o r s p ectacles Th e te st wh i ch I m ade .

i n th is respect by m ea ns of th ermo m eters fi rst i n 187 1 , ,

I rep eated befo r e w riti ng th i s chapte r I n orde r

to m ake th i s t est si m ultan eo u sly with diffe r ent l en ses I ,

sel ected si x t h e r m o m ete r s w hich wo rk ed accu r ately

togeth e r ; th e n I took an ax is p eb bl e a n on axis p ebbl e ,
-

a f l in t gl ass a cr o w n gl ass a l ight s mok ed a nd an Ar u n

, ,

d el l en s al l Of
, 8 I m ade a sl end e r f rame wo rk to hold
.
-

th e l en ses a nd th e th e r m om eter s ; th e n re m oving t he

th e r m o m ete rs f rom th ei r casings I pl aced th em one , ,

each i n th e foci o f th e d iffere n t l en ses TO gu ard

, .

agai nst any i nequal ity in th is test I too k a straight piece ,

Of sheet i ro n an d h ad si x h ol e s p u n ched o u t al l o f the

-
, ,

size o f a silv e r qua rte r dol la r an d fast e n ed th e l enses ,

behi nd each hol e s o th at th e opti cal ce n t er Of th e l ens

was i n th e cente r of th e hol e .

I took altogethe r th irty t w o Ob s e r vatio n s with the -

,

fol lo wi ng res u lt
Th e s mo ked l ens sho we d 7 8 o n th e a ve rage °
.

c ro w n gl as s 81
°

non axis pebbl e -

815
°

ax is pebb l e 82
°

fli n t gl ass 83
°

A run del le n s 84
°

Th e l esso n we may draw f r o m th es e Obs ervatio ns is

th at w e shoul d di sp en se w ith fli nt glass and al l co lo red
l en ses ex cept sm oked C r o w n gl ass and pebb le s are
, .

th en l eft as th e on ly r ival s f o r sp ectacl e l e n s es .

T O tho rough ly v enti lat e th e q uestio n : “ S h al l peb bles

b e used o r n o t i t is n ecessa ry fi rst t o h av e a ful l u n
,
 M ERI T S AND DEFEC T S O F PE BBL E S . 33

d e rs t an d ingOf th e p rope rties o f crystal s i n gen e r al and ,

th e n to con side r t he di ffe ren ce betwee n axi s an d non axi s -

pebbl es Cy rs tal s are divided i nto

.
-
s in l e r ef racting
g
crystal s su ch as r ock sa l t al um etc
, an d d ou bl e , , .
,

refracti n g cry stal s Of wh ich w e h ave t w o ki nds :

,

1. those w ith a si ngl e opti c axi s as I cel and spa r , ,

rock c rystal to u rm al i n e b eryl etc an d

, , , .
,

2. those wh ich possess two Opti c axes as feldspa r , ,

m ica topaz etc

, , .

Whe n w e tak e a plate o r slab Of a doubl e ref racting

crystal w ith the singl e Opt ic axi s fo r i nstan ce I celand , ,

spar w e see the Obj ect th rough its ax i s si ngl e ; but when
,

w e hol d it ob l iquely th e Obj ect appears double We see

, .

the n t w o d i sti nct pi ctures o n e produced by th e or d in ary

,

ray w h ich sho w s th e Obj ect s ingle wh en we l ook thro u g h

its ax is anothe r Obj ect by the extr ao r d in ary ray sepa l
, ,
s

ati ng itse lf fro m th e fi rst o n e th e m ore so wh en g rad u ,

ally w e i n cli ne th e su rface O f th e crystal towa rds its

equato r o r perpen dicularly t o its axi s Thi s i s cal l ed
, .

th e d o u bl e r efr actio n o f a crys t a l Th e t wo Obj ects .

separate f ro m o r app roach to each oth er according t o ,

the positio n Of o u r eye to w ards th e equato r o r tow ard s ,

the ax is o f th e c rystal But whe n w e tu rn th e incli ned

.

crystal a ro un d its eq uato r f ro m right to l eft o r fro m , ,

l eft to right k eepi ng th e positio n o f its pol es un ch anged

, ,

th e n th e extrao rdi nary i mage O f th e Obj ect r otate s

arou nd th e o rdi n a ry o n e without al t eri ng th e re lati ve dis
tance to each othe r A s p eb bl es b elong to th is class o f
.

crystals w e make a m e m o rand um Of thei r fi rst p roperty

A p ebb l e has no d ou b l e frac tio n
re in its axis .

L et us determ i n e what i s an axis and wh at is a

no w ,

n o n ax i
-
s pebbl e R o ck crystal s ar e si x sided p ris ms
.

te rm i n ated by si x sided pyram ids Th e dotted l in e from .

apex to b as e O f th e pyram id pa ral lel to th e sides of th e ,

p rism i nd icate s th e p r in cip al axis of th e crystal I t I s

,
.

evide nt that thi s axi s i s not alway s i n th e m i ddl e b u t ,

very ofte n to o n e sid e of th e c rystal acco rdi n g to th e

positio n Of th e apex L en ses c u t at right a ngl e t o t he
.

ax is f ro m c rystals w her e the p rincip al ax is is in the

,

ce n ter of the c o l u mn wi l l sho w i n th e,

pola r izer (to u rm a
34 H AND B O OK FO R OPT ICIANS
- .

l i ne p l ates ) perfectly sh ape d col o re d rings whose center

i s i n the m iddle o f the l e n s But wh e n th e ape x i s at
.

o ne side , all l e nses cut i n th e sam e m an ne r Of such

crystal s w il l show th e p ri sm ati c co lors o nly at o ne sid e
Of the l e n s an d gen eral ly v e ry fai nt a n d i m perfect .

L enses cut at right angles t o the pri ncipal ax is are cal le d

axis p ebbl es I n cas e th e l en ses are cut i n any othe r
.

d irectio n s uch l en ses are cal l e d n o n axis p ebbl es an d d o

,
-
,

not sho w b etw ee n th e t o urm al i n e pl ates t h e rain b o w -

colo rs I f any o n e Of my rea d ers wi l l exam i ne his

.

stock o f axi s pebbl es h e wi l l b e asto n i sh e d ho w few

,

pe rfect l enses th ere a re a mo ng th e m p e rhaps not o ne in ,

a h u ndred Al l tal k about th e prefe ren ce O f axi s pebble s

.

i s th erefo re i m positio n b ecau se th ey a re n ot in the

, , ,

m arket But suppo se th ey w ere m an ufact u red accord

.

i ng to sci e nt ific p r i n ci pl es an d coul d b e bo u ght ev e n at a

,

great in c r ease Of price o n accou nt o f th e f e w perfect

crystal s fou nd wo uld it b e worth w h il e to b oth e r o u r
,

selves abo ut th e m ? L et as see wh at doub l e refractio n

i n p eb bl es am o unts to Th e greatest po we r i n th is res
.

p eet i s i n I cel an d spar an d plates O f it f o r exp eri m ental

,

p urposes are gen eral ly o n e i nc h th i ck i n o rd e r t o show ,

thei r actio n to som e advantage The th i n n e r th e Sl abs .

,

th e l e ss wi l l b e thei r action A pl ate o f o ne l i n e (o r the

.

t w el fth p a rt of a n i nch ) wi ll h av e b ut v ery l ittle e ff ect .

To p rod uce t he sam e effect as su ch a th i n p l at e o f I ce

l a nd spar wi l l h av e w e m u st ta ke o n e O f ro c k cry stal 115
,

ti m es as h eavy wh ich w oul d b e a l e n s O f 10 i n ch es thi ck

, .

I s it not r id iculo us to warn p eopl e o f do ubl e re fraction

 M ERI T S AN D D EFEC T S O F PE BB L ES . 35

i n p ebbl es ? W e co u ld w ith eq ual ri ght warn th e m n o t

to breathe b ecaus e th e re i s ca rbo ni c aci d i n the ai r
, .

( O ne m olecul e o f ai r co ntai n s 7 9 n itrogen 2 1 oxyge n .

, .

and 00 0 4 carbo n ic aci d )

. .

A nd s o w e m ak e anoth e r m emo randu m to the c redit

of ro ck c ry stal s : Dou b l e r efr action in p ebbl es is p er
p tibl e
ce on ly in v er y heavy p l ates .

It re m ai ns to co mpa re pebbl es w ith crown glass

no w

a nd se e in who se favo r th e scal es w i ll tu r n C rown glass .

,

as w e h ave see n in th e preceding chapter is a h ard gl ass , ,

suffi cie ntly clear f o r optical pu rposes b ut it shows edge ,

wise a gree n i sh ti nt S om e m anufactu r e rs p roduce a

.

c ro w n glass w ithout th i s ti nt by addi ng d u ring the m elt ,

i ng p ro cess arseni c a nd m anga nese i n greate r proportio n s

,

tha n usual w h ich do no t i nte r fere with the ha rdness Of

,

the gl ass as l ead woul d d o b ut favo r its early co r rosio n

, , .

I f it i s m ade acco rdi ng t o th e b est form ula th e i ndex Of ,

refractio n is and the i ndex Of dispe rsion

whil e fli nt gl ass has an i ndex o f refractio n o f and
of dispers io n Wh e n we take i nto co nsideration
that a greate r i ndex o f ref r action dazzl es the eye m o re
than a lowe r o n e a nd a greate r i ndex o f d ispersion an
,

n oys an d fatigues th e ey e w e u nde rstand at o nce why ,

cro w n glass i s su pe rio r to fl i nt glass f o r spectacl e l e nses ,

AS rega rds p ebbl es we have to notice thei r sl ightly,

greate r i nd ex of ref ractio n which accounts fo r

the h ighe r stand of th e th ermom ete r in th e tri al test Th e -
.

d iffe re n ce i n the r efractio n of cro wn gl ass and pebbl es

is ve ry s m al l a nd i s ful ly balanced by the lo we r i ndex of
d isp ersio n wh ich i s on ly
,
i n p ebbl es Th e d iffer .

ence Of the th e r m om eter b etwee n axi s and n o n axis -

p ebb l es puzz led m e at fi rst con side rably ; b u t I thin k i t

can b e ful ly explai n ed by th e p resence of the p ris m at ic
colors i n axi s pebbl es The re d ray is v e ry p re d o mi
.

n ant i n s uch l en ses an d as th e r ed i s th e calo ri c ray

,

“ ar e xcel l en ce ” it exp l ai ns th e greate r h eat i n co m par

p ,

i so n to no n axi s p ebb l es I bel ieve thi s al so cove r s the

- .

case in regard to A ru ndel l en ses wh ich are based ,

altogeth e r upo n a w rong th eo ry Wh e n w e reso lve the .

l ight by a p ris m i nto its s ev en colors a nd exam in e th e

36 H AND B O OK F OR OPT ICIANS
- .

calo r ic o f th e viol e t ray w e fi nd it O f m uch l o w e r te m per

,

atu re than that o f th e red ray .

*

But wh e n w e p roduce a v io l et l en s a n d l et th e l ight

pass th rough it th e red ray recei ves a n add itional fo rce
,

fro m th e reddish ti nt of th e l en s wh ich se n ds a w armer ,

l ight to th e ey e than wh ite gl ass does I n th e spectrum .

,

th e v io l et ray i s isol ated from th e oth e r rays a nd i s ,

th erefo re cool er ; b ut a v iol et l en s d o e s n ot ex cl ude the

,

oth er six colo rs Hen ce w e can n ot expect th e sa m e loss

.
,

o f tem peratu r e wh i ch depe nds upo n th e isol ation o f the

,

ray an d no t upo n th e co l o r Of th e l en s .

Th e p rej ud i ces agai n st t he u se o f pebbl es f o r spectacle

l en ses are of such lo ng standi ng and are so deeply rooted
i n the m in ds o f m any o cul ists and opti cia n s that I do not ,

e xpect t o h ave re mov ed a l l Obj ectio n s rai sed agai nst

thei r us ef u l n ess I a m far f r om r eprese nti ng m y Opi nion
.

t o th e craft as i nfall ib le ; I co ntent mys el f w ith th e con

vi ct io n Of h av ing do n e my d uty i n d i se n ch anti ng the
“ sl eeping b eauty a nd i n defe ndi ng th e rights o f a
“ ”
n egl ected C i nderel la My a rg u m ents a re l i ke a wet
.

sponge cl ea r i ng th is nat u ral gen ui n e gl ass fro m the

, ,

dust o f a ce ntury and e nabl i ng i t t o pro secute its o w n

,

case with th e p ro spect o f gai ni ng it befo re a n u nbiased

cou rt o f i nv estigation I ts h ardn ess an d cl earn ess su r
.

passes any gl ass eve r offered i n its pl ace ; its dis

p er s iv e power i s th e low est o f al l l en ses m an ufactured
f o r Opti cal pu rpos es an d its doub l e refractio n i s p rac t i
,

cally harm l ess ; w ho d a r es t o th ro w a sto n e at m y h u m ble

suppl icant f o r r ecognitio n "
P ebbl es a re pa rticul a rly fitted to correct case s o f pres
b y o p ia and hyp erm et ropi a b ecause th e ey es subj ected ,

to these defici e nci es are r ath e r b e nefited by th e sl ightly

i ncreased i ndex o f ref ractio n wh i l e th e l ess refractin g ,

cro wn gl ass i s prefe rabl e f o r myopi a an d cataract .

P ebb les are too glary f o r a n ea r sighted ey e an d m ay -

sho w t races o f do ub l e ref raction i n th ick h eavy cataract ,

H ch l fo
e rs e un d th follo w in g d g
e e r ee s o f h eath in th d iff e
e ren t colo rs
of t he sp ct u m :
e r

V iol t
e 54 ° Ye llo w
Bl
.

ue 56 ° R ed .

G reeen 58 3 B yo d R
e n ed
 M ERI T S AND DEFEC T S OF PE BBL ES . 37

l enses E yes sensitiv e to light shou l d al s o abstai n

.
, ,

f rom u si n g pe b bl es ; o nly l igh t s mok ed l e n ses and i n , ,

special cases l ight bl ue o nes can be used with s atisfactio n

, .

The l igh t bl ue ti nt h as no di s ag reeabl e effect an d i s ,

al most i ndiffe re n t to t he feeb l e eye .

I n closi ng this chapte r I ex p r es s th e hope that othe r

,

writers m ay i nv e s tigate the subj ect and at l ast f ree thi s

“ ”
out cast fro m th e odi u m o f b ei ng a di sgui sed e n emy
-

to the eye A s far as I hav e i nv estigated t he m atter I

.
,

find that al l th e ig no ran ce o f though t less writers hereto

fore h as not be en abl e to ro b t hese c rystal s of thei r hard
ness n or to Obscu re th ei r b ri l lia ncy an d clearness A l l
, .

insi nuation s abo ut th ei r do ubl e ref r action hav e bee n

u nabl e to doub l e th e fi n est test l i n e o r d o t i n spectacl e -

lenses of thi s m in e ral o r to produce th e g reat t roubl e i n

,

the eyes o f th e weare r which th ey s o earn estly p redicte d .

P ebbl es are used t o day and w il l b e u sed i n th e future

-

as long as ro ck crystals ca n b e fo u nd I advi se all .

optici ans to sel l t h e m without the l ea s t h esitation b ut t o ,

dispose o nly o f t he s e l en ses whi ch ar e faultless as to their

crystal l izatio n Th e r e are m any peb bles i n th e m a rket
.

“ ”
ful l O f i m p e rfection s s o cal l ed water m arks ; th ey
,
-

s hould not b e used b ut th row n asi de ,

.

Lenses Of ro ck crystal we r e fi rst i ntroduced i n E ngl an d

under th e n am e o f S cotc h pebbl es and afte r wards as ,

Brazi l ia n peb bl es wh i ch d esignation o nly i ndicates th e

,

country fro m wh e r e they are i m po rted and not a diffe r e n ce

in the qual ity C rystals a re fo u nd al l ov er th e wo rl d but
.
,

not ev e ry whe r e in la rge pi eces suitab l e fo r our p u rpose .

R ocho n d iscove red i n Madagascar a fi ne q u a l ity o f c rys

tal s a n d eve r si nce l a rge q u antiti es of them are b rought
,

to F rance wh e r e th e Opti cian Cau c ho ix at P ari s 183 1

,
‘
, ,

man ufactured tel escopes with l e nse s Of a com bi nation of

rock c ry s tal s an d glass wh ich cam e i nto fav orabl e noti ce
,
.

But t he d ifficulty i n Obtai ning c rystal s of proper shape

and s ize has b een a great Obs t acl e to th ei r ge ne ral m an u
factu re
M any peasants of th e Val l ey of C hamo u n ix S w itze r
.

land m a ke it th ei r ch i ef o cc u patio n to hu nt f o r rock

,

crystal s I n th e h o pe of gai n i ng s u dde n w ealth by finding

.
38 H AND B O O K F O R OPT I CIANS
- .

a cav e fu l l o f bea u ti ful r ock c rystal s th ey pe ri l l i fe and

l im b i n scali ng dange r o us p re c ip ic e s o r h angi ng s uspe nded
ov e r frightf u l abysses sea rch ing wh e rev e r th ey may
,

catch a gli m pse o f th e s ilv e r w hit e v e i n i n th e gran ite ~

ro ck th e sign that n ear by i s a d eposit of th i s p reci ous

,

m in e r al A S wi s s peasant som e y ea rs ago re al ized h is

.
, ,

hope ; he fou n d a g ra n i t e cav e f ro m wh i ch h e too k over

o ne h und red c rystals th e fi rst weighi n g abo u t 12 0 po unds
, .

Thi s was b ro u ght to A m e r i ca an d is at p resen t i n P h i la ,

de l phia ; anoth e r o n e of 2 6 5 po und s wa s k ept at Be rne ,

th e C apital o f S w itze rl and b ut i s n o t as fi n e a c ry stal as

,

th e o n e fi rst m ention ed Th e la rgest gro up O f rock

.

cry stal s w eighing n ea r ly 1000 po u nds i s i n th e m useu m

, ,

O f th e Un ive r si t y at N apl e s A t M il an i s a si ngl e crystal

.

Of 31 } ft long a nd 5} ft i n ci r cum fe r en ce e sti m ated to

.
7 .
,

w eigh 87 0 pou nds .

I n th e Un ited S tat es som e ri ch depo sits h av e b een

m et with at Lak e Geo rge an d at T r ento n F all s N Y , . .
,

i n Moose Mo untai n N H i n Wat e r b u ry an d Wi ndh am

, . .
, ,

Vt i n Hot S p ri ngs Ar k and in oth e r places

.
, , .
, .
40 H AND BO OK F OR O PT ICIANS
- .

tak e th rough the sl ab A t e it w i l l agai n e nte r th e ai r

.

paral l el to l i b ut not i n its exact p olon gatio n

,
r w h ich
woul d b e at m; it i s no w by th e r ef r actio n o f th e sl ab
s l ightly shi fted o r displ aced i n th e directio n o f e k .

I f w e cut th e abov e Sl ab i n th e di r ectio n fro m b t o c ,

w e Obtain t w o t r iang u la r w edge Shap ed pi eces Of gl ass -

,

cal led P RIS M S I n di recti ng th e side o f o n e o f these

.

p ri sm s say a b c pe rpen di cularly t o th e i n cident ray

,
,

this ray wil l ente r th e gl ass i n a st rai g ht l i n e ti l l it

r each es th e obl i que side b 0 wh en it w i l l b e b en
,
t i n th e
sam e man n er as th e obl ique ray was refracted i n the
Sl ab I n a slab it i s t he Ob l iqu e r ay th at p rodu ces the
.

effect whi ch i n a p ris m i s du e to its Obl i qu e s id e .

Th e ray l e nters an d pe n et rate s th e p ri s mi n a straight

l ine u nti l it to uch es i wh e re w e e re ct th e p erpe n di cul ar
,

p q upon b c th e n we di v ide th e distan ce b etwe e n th e

,

I nc ident ray and th e p erpen di cula r at 9 i nto t w o equal

.

parts w h en th r ee parts Of th e m fro m p dow n ward

,

( tow ard t he base

) wi l l show th e di re ctio n th e ray h as
take n outside the p ri sm I f w e pl ace o u r eye at c th e
.
,

Obj ect l appears at k as if it was r e moved fro m i to d

, .

Wh e n w e ho ld t he p ris m i n s uch a po sitio n that th e

ine l d e n t ray fall s o n it obl iq uely th e ray is fi rst b rok en
,

I n th e pri s m itsel f a nd the n by th e seco n d i n cl i n ed sur

face The obj ect at l appears n ow to b e d isplace d o utsid e

.

th e pri sm .

P rism s h ave no focal po we r l ike sph e r ical l e n ses an d ,

cannot b e m easured by i n ch es ; th e i r stre ngt h i s Si m ply

 PRI SM S SP H ERICA L AND C YL INDRICA L L EN SES
, . 41

determ i ned by th e angl e at b i n degrees I ts open ing at

.

b confers upo n th e p ris m its strength and n am e \Ve .

have p ri sm s o f etc Th e follo wi ng figu re re p re

.

sents a p ris m o f o r th e eighth p art Of a ci rcl e .

“ r
With a t ial box co ntai ni ng t est p r ism s the
-
, ,

strength o f a prism m ay b e dete rm i ned by n eut ral izing

it by anoth e r ; b ut to asce rtai n also th e co rrectness Of
our test p ris m s it is n ecessary to con st r uct a tool m ade
-
,

of a r o tr acto r l i ke the foll owi ng

p .
42 H AN D B O O K FOR OPT ICIAN S
- .

Th e j oi nt B m u st b e exactly i n th e ce nt e r o f th e sem i
c i rcle D A E Th at si d e o f th e riv eted o r statio n a ry
.

bar A B wh i ch is n ea rest E i s p r eci sely 90 fro m eithe r ,

°

D o r E Th e arm B C i s m o vabl e an d i n d icates t h

.
,

nu mbe r of deg r ee s o f a p ri sm pl aced in th e ope ni ng A

BC .I p re s e n t also a nothe r easy w ay o f testi ng p r i sms
*

by th e u se of a si m pl e ru l e r .

Tak e a r ul e r o f A m e rican m eas u r e ; c ut a n otch

i n th e edge at 6 % i n ch e s la rge eno u gh f o r th e r e ception ,

o f th e ba s e O f th e p rism P l ace t he l o ngest pa rt o f th e .

r ul e r o n th e l in e A B an d l ay th e bas e o f th e p ri s m i n
'

th e notch so that th e l in e A B i s not b ro ke n i n the

,

p ri sm ; th en see h o w far to w a r ds th e right th e l i n e C D

is d ispl aced an d y o u w i l l fi n d th at each d eg r e e r e p re
,

sents of an i nc h ; a prism of 16 d ispl aces th e l i ne C

1
1 6
°

D th e refor e exactly o n e i nch

, I t i s q uite i m m ate rial
, .

I n 1891, t h e G v a Opt ic al Co mp an y in t od c d a n e w d evic e f

en e r u e or
c nt
e erin gl
e n se s an d m a n g th d g
e su ri f p rim
e I t is b ase d on th
e re e s o s .
e

p ricipl e o f th abov p ta t b t i mo p act ic al an d a ily h an dl e d

n e e ro c or, u s re r e s
T h e y al o n t od c d an ov l l n m ea w hich i b a d n t h f activ e
s i r u e e e s s u re s se o e re r
.

po w e of flin t gl a
r I t acc at ly m a ss n t o n ly co n v x an d co n
. ur
a e e s u re s o e c v
l n e b t al o cyl in d c al l n
e s s, u s an d n abl t riad ly fi n d t h e ex
e s es , e es u s o re i
o f th cyl in d e
e T hi l ittl e in t m en t W l l b com v e y pop l a amon g
r . s s ru l e e r u r
 P R IS MS SPH ERICA L AND C YL INDRICA L L ENSES
, . 43

ho w n ear o r f ar w e place o u r eye as th e deflectio n of ,

the p r is m is not alte r ed by it .

*

4 8 12 16 20

The fol lowi ng di ag ram r ep resents a p ris m of th e

dotted l i ne sho ws the di splacem ent o f th e obj ect looked
at th ro ugh th e p ris m o f that st r ength held si x i nch es ,

an d a h al f f ro m th e test l in e -

Th e thicke r e n d of th e p rism is cal led th e bas e ; an d

“ base i n ”
m ea n s to p lace thi s e n d towa rds th e no s e
T hi ch m
sm o t k illf lly b o ght in to a ci n tifi c y t m by
s e e is s s u r u s e s s e
t he n v n t io n f Ch
i e F P n tic H p i momt i an in g n io n
o as. . re e . l s r s c er s e us l
t m n t ; it do
s ru e y w ith th h tofo c d e m thod of n mb in g
es aw a e ere re ru e u er
p ism by th an g l a d v ation f th i fac in m ak in g e onl y of
r s e u r e i o e r su r es, us
th ei ref activ p op tie by n mb in g an d m a u in g th m in th e
r r e r er s u er e s r e
m etric y t m W th g at acc acy an d n ifo m ity
s s e i re ur u r .
44 H AND B O O K FOR O PT ICIANS
- .

piece o f fram e I n setting s u ch glas ses care sho ul d be

. ,

take n th at a straight li n e i s n o t b rok e n i n e ith e r o f the

l e nses.

I f we take two p rism s th e sa m e st rength a n d l ay

of ,

th em togeth er so th at th e thi ck part o f o n e covers t he

thi n part o f the oth e r w e sh al l hav e a p l an e gl ass ; o ne
,

n eutralizes th e actio n o f th e oth er Th e pe c uliar action

.

o f a p r is m co nsists sim ply i n th e d i s l ace m t of a n ob

p e n

j e ct see n th rough it Th e obj ect n ev er app ea rs wh ere it

.

r eal ly is ; it i s seen h igh er o r l ower o r m o re t o th e right

,

o r l eft tha n it should b e . Thi s i s d ue t o th e d i f fe rent

positio n s i n whi ch th e p ri s m i s h el d Th e dotted l in es
.

show th e defectiv e setting o f o n e p ri sm .

 PRIS M S SPH ERICA L AND C YL INDRICA L L EN SES
, . 45

S PH ERICA L l en ses as w e h ave see n i n Chapter I a re , ,

grou nd by a segm e nt of a sph ere (glob e o r bal l ) im ,

parting t o th e l e ns th e sa m e curve so that th e fi ni shed ,

l ens itself is but a s eg me n t o f a b al l and subj ect t o th e

.
,

general laws o f ref ractio n A ny transparent sph e re h as .

its focal poi nt j ust at th at pa rt of its pe riphery wh ich is

*

opposite th e e nt rance o f the ray and if we substitute f o r ,

the bal l o ne o f its segm ents whi ch wil l be here a p l ane ,

co nve x l e ns th e foca l di stance i s not changed I f t hi s

, .

”
bal l i s o f 2 di am eter th en th e segm ent is o f a 2 ine h ,
-

focus o r as w e write it to express the ref ractive po w e r

, , ,

+5 . But i f w e do ubl e thi s segme nt the n the fo cal ,

poi nt l i es i n th e cente r o f th e bal l and its strengt h is o ne ,

i nch focus o r , equal to the u n it o f refractio n i n th e

i nch syste m o f n u m be ri ng .

Thi s rul e i s goo d fo r l e n ses o f any oth er n umbe r b e ,

cause th e r el at iv e st re ngth o f a le ns i s co n stituted by the

curv e alon e an d n o t by th e th ickness o r thi n ness of
,

the m ate rial o f wh i ch i t is co m posed Th e two opposite .

curves can b e w iden ed by seve ral plan e gl asses p ut ,

betwee n th em without alte ri ng th e focu s p rovided we do

, ,

no t ch ange th e p lace o r position o f th e l e ns nea rest the

fo cus an d o nly wid en th e outside h al f of th e do ubl e

,

lens F o r i nsta nce tak e t w o 8 i n ch p e r iscopic lenses

. ,
-
,

put th e ho llo w Sid es togeth er a nd m easu re th is doubl e ,

“ Th i i s t ric tl v s p ak n g on ly t
e i ru e w h en th e f ct v e n d x i
re r a i i e s

(C HAS F PRE N I CE )
s s V

. . T .
46 H AN D BOO K F O R O PT I C IAN S
- .

l ens ; y o u th e n hav e a l en s o f focus 4 i n ch Hol d th e -

.

i nside l ens steady and re m ov e th e outside l e n s 1} inch

and th e focus is n o t vi si bly altered .

Wh e n w e h ol d a sph e rical l e n s v ertical ly i n o u r l eft

hand and with o u r right fi ngers tu rn it arou n d its cen
, , ,

t e r without m ov ing o u r l eft hand w e se e n o ch ange i n

, ,

the obj ect we are looki ng at Th e m ov e m ent arou n d its .

ce nte r h as no actio n o n th e o bj ect seen th ro ugh th e l e ns ;

it i s th e sam e as i f th e l e ns we re h el d steady and no t ,

moved at al l Th i s sho u ld b e re m em b ered b ecause it is

.
,

essenti al ly di ffe re nt fro mth e actio n o f p ri s m s an d cy l in

d ric al l en ses .

Man ufactu rers o f optical i nstrum e nt s m ake u se o f this

p ecul iarity i n testing th e co rrectne ss o f l en ses They .

gl ue the mu po n a ch uck o f th e tu rn i ng l ath e an d place a ,

light at so m e d i stan c e i n front I f th e l e n s i s we l l cen .

t e re d th e light wi ll appear i n th e l e n s p erfectly stea d y

,

wh e n th e lathe i s set i n m otion ; oth erwi se a gla ry ci rcle

w i ll b e v isibl e i n th e l e n s Th e larger th e ci rcl e i s the
.
,

m o re th e l e n s is d ecentered ; an d it i s o n ly after its true

cente r has b een correctly determ i n e d that th e work m an ,

fi nishes th e edges A l l l en ses o f o pe ra gl asses tele

.
,

scopes etc r ece iv e the i r fini sh ing to uch i n th i s w ay o n

, .
,

the l ath e .

We h av e al ready l earn ed th at p ri sm s h av e th e power

of di spl acing an obj ect w ithout alte ri ng its siz e a nd that ,

t hei r strength correspo nds exactly w ith th e degree o f

disp lacem e nt o f th e obj ect With sph e ri cal l e n se s it i s .
’

q uit e diffe r e nt ; th ey en la rge t he obj ect wh e n th ey are

co nve x and di m ini sh it w h e n co n cave b ut l eave th e posi
, ,

tio n of th e obj ect u n altere d ex cept i n speci al cases to ,

b e expl ai ned i n th e n ext chapte r .

I f we con s id er a sphe r i cal l en s to b e b ut a con centra

tion of i n nu m e abl e m i n ute p rism s with eith e r b ase i n
r “ ”
,

w hen convex o r “ base o u t w he n co ncav e an d also b ear

,
,

i n mi nd that i n p ri s m s th e i ncid e nt ray i s refracted t o

w a rd s the base ; the n w e shal l at o nce u nd e rstan d why
conv ex l e nses u nite o r co nv e rge th e ray s t o a p l us o r
os itive fo cu s an d co ncav e l en ses d i ve rge th e m t o a
p ,

m i nu s o r n egative fo cu s .

CYL IN D RICA L l e n ses a re gro u n d an d fi ni sh ed w ith a

48 H AND B O OK F O R OP T ICIANS
- .

l e l o g ram v e rti cal Th i s expl ai n s why a co n v e x an d con

.

cav e cyl i ndrical l e n s o f th e sam e po w e r l a id togeth er ,

axi s upo n axis w il l cou nte r act each oth e r an d restore

, ,

th e parall e logra m to a pe rfect sq u are Wh en w e take .

t w o cyli ndrical l en se s o f th e sam e strength and place ,

th e ax is o f o n e ver tical l y an d o f th e oth er hor iz on tal ly

, ,

w e destroy al l cy l i n d r i cal actio n a nd retai n o n ly the

,

strength o f a sim pl e sp he r ical l e n s o f th e sam e num

b er o r po wer as that o f th e cyl i nd ri cal l en ses Take .
,

f o r i nst ance tw o l en ses o f

,
2 c lay th ei r axe s crosswi se
, ,

and y o u hav e 2 s whi ch i s n eutralized by

,
28 But .
,

i f w e l ay th e t w o l e nses ax is upo n ax is w e d ou bl e ,

th eir pow e r i n getti ng a l en s o f 40 My fi rst ex pe r .

—

ie n c e w ith th ese l en ses was abo ut tw e nty fiv e years ago ; -

th ey w ere th e plan e cyl i nd ri c al an d thei r ax i s was set

-
,

eith er i n th e v ertical o r ho ri zontal m e rid ia n I soon t rie d .

t o co m b i n e th e cyl in d ri cal w ith a sph e r i cal l e n s gl uei ng ,

th em togeth er with Can ad a bal sam til l I w as advise d ,

f r om Be r li n an d P a ri s that both co rrection s w ere ground

,

upon th e sam e l e ns Of co u r se A m e ri ca n opti cians

.
,

w ere p rom ptly u p to th ei r p rofessio n an d si n ce several ,

years al l com b in ation s are g rou n d h ere M any b lu n de rs .

were m ade f ro m al l sides and it see m ed al m o st as if this

,

n ew depa rtu r e w as a fail ure til l Nac he t an d afterwards

, ,

oth e r opti ci ans i m p rov ed t h e t ri al fram e Y et th ere -

.
,

was o nly a l i mited n u mb e r o f optician s w ho wo r k ed with

th e ful l u nde rs tandi ng an d w ere abl e t o co nv ert o ne
,

co mbin atio n into anoth e r AS t o m y o w n research es I

.
,

m ust say th at it too k m e a goo d whi l e b efo re I fou n d the

p racti cal m ethod o f m aki ng th is con v e rsio n w ith certainty .

My sim pl e p roce s s i s based upo n th e abo v e t hre e f u nd

amen tal l aw s ; let u s b r i ng the m into s uch a shap e that
they wil l be rem em be red fo rev e r w h e n on ce th o rough ly
 PRIS M S SPH ERICA L AND C YL INDRICA L L EN SE S
, . 49

understood By m eans o f th e se rule s w e can turn c ross

.

cylin de rs i n to sp he rical s and com pou nds an d agai n i nto ,

cross cyl i nders without a ny t ro ub l e o r erro r

-
.

1. P l us an d m i n us cy li nde rs o f equal strength and at ,

sam e angles n eu tr al iz e ,

l o axi s 90 C l o axis 90 a pl ane

° °
2
.

II T w o cyl i nders o f eq u al strength a nd de no m i nation

.
,

at sam e angles d ou b l e ,
A
10 axi s 180 1c axi s 180 2 c axi s
° °

111 C rossed cy li nde r s o f eq ual valu e p rod uce sp her ical s

.
,

1c ax i s 90 C l c axi s 180
° °
ls .

Th e fi rst two l aws co i n cide w ith th e p rope rties of

sphe r ical l en ses a nd need n o f u rthe r explan atio n b u t the ,

thi rd l aw th row s a n ew l ight u pon s p he ric al s ; it demo n

strates the fact th at Sph eres are o nly cro ssed cy l i nde rs of ,

whi ch th e p roof i s easily m ade We k no w that 2 s is

.

neutral ized b y QS ; we also k now th at th e crossed cyl i nder

—

2 c axi s 90 C 2 0 axi s 23
°
,

a nd th at eithe r th e co n cav e sph e r e o r th e abo v e

co ncav e cyl inde rs co m bi ned w il l tu rn 2 s i nto a plane o r ,

sl ab No w i nstead o f p lacing both cyl i nde r s at on ce upo n

.
,

th e co nv e x l ens w e m ay take th e fi rst on e at 90 and lay it

,
°

on th e sph e ri cal l en s I wi sh th e r eade r woul d m a k e

.
,

h ere th i s exp eri me nt f o r h i m sel f as it is o f th e g reatest ,

i nte rest to n oti ce p r actically th e ch anges g radually b ro u ght

abo ut in th e sph e ri cal l ens by th e additio n fi r st o f o n e ,

and the n o f the othe r cy l inde r A s t he l en s 2 0 axi s

.
—

90 rep r ese n ts o nly o n e h al f o f th e po we r n ecessa ry t o

°

neut rali ze th e test l en s its appl i catio n to the sphe rical,

len s i s quite si ngular as it total l y alte rs th e n at u re of th e

, O

sph ere by turn ing its non co rr ected h alf into a d is t in c t -

wh i ch i s ful ly n eutral ize d o nly

.

con vex cyl i nde r ax is

by the additio n o f the seco n d concave cyl ind e r at th e
sam e a n gl e
Th e re are two com bi nation s o f crossed cyl inde rs
1.
Both cyl i nders h ave equal signs b ut o ne i s stronge r ,
°

tha n th e othe r F o r i n sta nce : l 2 0 ax i s 90

A
—
.

10 ax i s thi s c rossed cyl i nde r can b e co nve rted

i nto the fo l lo w i ng co mpo u n d s

+ 23 C l o axis o r 1s C l o ax 1 s 9 0
0
50 H AND BO O K FOR O PT ICIAN S
- .

2 .
The cy li nde rs h av e m i xed si gns n o m att er ho w ,

st r ong e ach cy li nde r .

A 2 c axi s thei r e qu ival e nts

2 c ax i s 90
°

are : 2s 4 c axi s or 2s 4 0 axis A

To co m e to th e ab ov e an swe rs we h av e t o t u rn o n e o f
,

t he cyl i nde rs i nto a sph e r i ca l l e n s m ak i ng u se o f th e

,

thi rd law F or i nstance :

. 2 c ax i s r equi res the

cyli nde r 2 0 a xi s 180 to tu rn it i nto 2 8 ; b ut then

°

we hav e to ne u tral ize thi s fi rst addi tio n by 2 c a xis

i n o rde r not to al ter th e origi n al stre ngth o f t h e cro ssed
cyli n der al though w e hav e ch an ged e nti rely its form
,
.

Th us
+ 2 c axis 90 C + l o axi s by addi ng
°

w hi ch i s a p l an e w e r eceive
°
+ 2c 180 C 2c —
,

l c axis th e fi rst a n swe r

A
—

We tak e th e sa m e crossed cy l i nd e r an d t u rn the

.

'

s eco nd o ne i nto a sph e re .

1c axi s 180 C 2 0 ax i s w e ad d
°

A
10 90
°
l o pl an e a n d w e get ,

ls l o ax i s th e s eco n d an swe r .

R e m emb e r that each ti m e w e added so m eth i ng t o the

c rossed cyl i n de r i n th e p rob l e m thi s s o mething re p re
,

sented o n ly a plan e o r sl ab acco rdi ng t o th e fi rst l aw

, ,

although it was really a cro ssed cyl in de r i n di sgui se ; b ut

i t co m pletely ch a n ged th e natu r e o f th e test l e n s wh i ch -
,

a pl an e gl ass can not do .

L et us n o w s ee abo ut th e se co n d co mb i n at ion w ith

m ixed S igns by m ak ing u se o f th e sa m e p r o cess
, .

2 0 axi s 90
°
2 c axis W e agai n add
2c 180 A °
2c a pl a n e an d get
2
,

2s C 4 c axi s th e fi r st a n s we r .

We n o w tu r n th e seco n d cyl i nde r i nt o a sph e re :

2 c axi s 180 C 2 0 ax i s add ing
°

°
20 90 C 20 0 we co m e t o2
,

23 C 4 c axi s th e seco nd a n sw er .

To t urn a c o m pou nd l e ns i nto a crosse d cyl i n d e r w e ,

m ake u se of th e sam e experi m e nt o f wh i c h I spo ke at the

b egi n n ing of th is a rti cl e L et us tak e th e l ast an sw e r :
.
 PR I S MS SP H ERICA L AND CYL INDRICA L L EN SES
, . 51

2s 3 and add
4 0 axi s
20axis 90 °
20 C 0 w e get 2
,

2 c axis 180
°
2 c axi s
C a c rossed cy l i nde r .

Th e fi rst cy li n der of thi s an sw e r 2 0 axis —

may p uzzl e th e i n exp e rt b ut Law III expl ai ns it qui ckly

, .

l Ve can n e u tral ize 2 s eith er by—

2 3 o r as w e did in , ,

the p robl em by t he c rossed cyl i nders :

,

2 c axi s 90 C 2 0 axis
°

By l ayi ng 2 c ax 90 o n th e test l en s th e r em ainde r o f

.
°
-
,

it o ught to be a cylind e r wh ich i s n e utralized by 2c

axis acco rdi ng to L aw I .

A s I u sed i n th e fo rego ing p robl e ms th e m ost si mpl e

val u es a nd al ways th e sam e n u mb e rs l et us n o w select a ,

p robl e m w ith va ri ed n u m e rals as a fu rth e r i l l u st ration .

F o r i n stance :
A
axi s 90 °
axi s To tu r n th e fi rst
cyl i nd er i nto a sphe rical we m ust co mb i n e it
with axi s th e n w e hav e to add
a xis in o rde r to n eut ralize th e fi rst
additi o n th u s
,

axi s 9D axi s 180

° A °

1SO A
° °
1 80
ax is or

axi s 90 axi s 180

°

°
90 90
axi s 90 C 2 50 s
°
. .

I w i l l di r ect yo u r atte n tio n n o w to the i mpo rta nt

q u e s tio n : “ I s t h e r e any e s se n ti al diffe ren ce b et w een a
c rossed cy li nde r a nd its eq u i val ent com po u nd ? ”
Ap
a r e n t l y th e r e i s a g r eat di ffe r e n ce and y et the r e is none
p ,

whatev e r ; ev e ry co m po u nd le n s i s a c rossed cyl in de r ,

and ev e ry c rosse d cy l i nder i s a co mpoun d l ens L et u s .

t u rn fo r a rgum e nt sak e th e fol lowi n g c rossed c v l in d e r

, ,

i nto a co m po u nd l e n s
ax is 90 C 20
°
ax i s by addi ng
0 w e get
°
180
°
180 C 2
,

0 ax is 180
°

C 3 5 0 . .

No w l et us tu r n th e compo und l en s agai n i nto a

,

c ross e d cyl i nde r I n o rd er to do thi s acco rdi ng to p re

.

v i c u s rul es w e substit ute for th e sph eri cal pa rt of that

,
 52 H AND BO OK FO R OPT ICIANS
-
.

90
° A
l e ns its equi val e nt v iz , . ax is
axi s th u s
1 50 0 ax. .180 ax ° A
.

Th i s fo r m ul a as it sta nds i s n on se n sical b ecau se w e h ave

, , ,

o nly t w o su r face s o n a l en s f o r cyl i n d rical co rre ctions ;

b ut by looki ng at it criti cal ly w e ob se rv e th at 1500 ,
A
ax is 180 °
a xis i s o n ly o n e cyl i n d er of
2 0 axi s and th e actu al form ul a o f th at triple
cyl i nde r th e r efo r e i s ax i s 90 C 2 0 ax i s
°
, ,

wh ich is th e cro ssed cy l i nde r w e fi r st tu rn ed i nto a com

pou nd l en s an d th e n agai n i nto its fi rst fo rm
, .

Th is p ractical test ev idently dem o n strates the fact that

t wo fa ulty m e ri dian s i n th e eye w h e n 90 apart are cor ,
°
,

re c t e d as w e ll by a co m po u nd l en s as by c ro ssed cyl inders .

B ut as c ros s cyli nde rs r equi re g r e at er care i n gri ndi ng

-

and fitti ng al l com p etent ocu lists and opti ci an s prefer

,

to substit u te co mpou nds as bei n g l ess l iabl e t o m istakes , ,

a nd accom plishi ng th e sa m e v i sual co rrection .

A bo ut th e y e ar 1850 a F r e n ch Optici an Gallan d de , ,

Ch ev ro ux i ntroduced cro ssed cy l i nd e r s i n st ead o f spher

,

ic al s cl ai m i ng that th ey n o t on ly co r r ecte d p r e sbyopi a

, ,

b ut also th e sm al l d eg r ee o f astigm ati s m w ith whi ch

n ea rly ev e ry ey e i s afil ict e d A careful co m pa ri so n of .

th em with Sph e ri cal l e n ses w il l Show th e fal l acy o f his

clai m Th i s an d th ei r h igh p r i ce h av e b rought them
.
, ,

i nto dis use “

I n fact i t h as b ee n de mo n strated bot h
.
, ,

by exh au stiv e m ath em ati cal cal culation a n d ex p e r i m ents ,

th at al l c rossed cyl inders f o r al l d evi atio ns o f th ei r axes , ,

m ay be r ep laced by Sphe r o cy l i n drical -

Th e use o f cy l i n dri cal gl asse s h as i n c reased l ately to

such a n extent th at no optical estab l i sh m e nt co m es u p to
th e r equi re m e nts o f th e t rad e w i thout b ei ng abl e to fil l
co rrectly th e o r de rs o f oc u li sts On e tenth o f al l eyes .
-

are mo r e o r l ess astigm ati c ; an d si n ce oc ul ists h av e taken

th e sel ectio n o f spectacl es i n h a nd th e d e m an d for ,

cyl ind ri cal gl asses i s v e ry great .

“
W f th eareur to p ct o in
er su s t im atio n f the
e err r ou r es o f ction
r e ra
o f an e ye s e e in to m g d e m an d cyl n d comb in e d n d ac t e i ers u er u or obt u se
l
an tg e s i ri F D opt c o m l ae f Cyl in d ic al L n s b y Cha F
r u or r e se s Pl e n tl ce,
N
.

ei
,
v Y Oik , 1888 .
 C H A P T ER V .

O PT ICA L LIN E AND C EN rEi '

A bo ut t w e n ty -
yea rs ago a t ravel e r fo r a N ew
fiv e ,

Yo rk m a n ufactu ring ho use offe red spectacles for sal e,

w hich h e cal led “

P e rfected ”
“h e n I ask ed w hat h e
7 .

m eant by it h e sai d th at th e l e n se s we re co r rectly set

, ,

the f ram es wel l te m pe red and the who le specta cl e p erfect .

To my great s u rprise o n e l e n s of the fi rs t pai r I exam i ned

,

was badly ce nte red He e xcused h im self by sayi n g that

.

he was not a n opticia n h e o n ly r epresented the goods

,

accordi ng to i nst ructions give n h i m by h i s e mploye rs an d ,

p romi sed that al l goods I m ight o rde r th ro u gh h i m

sho u l d b e w it ho u t fault H e admitted f u rthe r that no
.

me mb e r O f h is fi rm w as a p ractical w o rk ma n b ut that th e ,

facto ry was s u pe ri ntended by a co m petent optician N ow .

,

if this fo re m an really u nderstood th e m eani ng of an

optical ce nte r in a l e n s why di d h e not i nst ruct th e glass
,

sette rs ho w to be exact i n the fitting o f l en ses to th e

“ ”
fram es esp ecially o f th ose P e r fected S p ectacl es f o r
, ,

which they ch a rged a dozen m o r e tha n f o r othe r

good s n o t sta m ped b ut O f t he sam e styl e and qual ity ? I
.

kno w n ot w hethe r thi s n a m e w as i nvented on ly f o r th e

sake of e xto rtio n o r w h eth e r th ey cha rged so m u ch m o re
,

for th e sta m pi ng of th e te m p l es wh ich w as i n deed , , ,

n icely do n e i n go l d l ette rs a nd w as som ethi n g n e w at

,

that t i m e .

To b e abl e to readily d eterm i n e th e Op tical l ine o f a

l en s is m o re i m po rtant fo r a n Optici a n t han any oth e r
,

acq ui re m ent of h i s t rade I t i s th e e s se ntial r equisite

.

f o r th e co r r ect m a n u factu re of al l optical i n s t r u m ents ,

spe ctacl e s Ope ra gl asses te l esc o p es o r mi c roscopes ;

, , ,

the op t ica l c e nte r m u s t h av e its right pl ace and posi t ion ,

or th e i n st ru m e n t w i l l be i nco r rect and wo rth less .

Th e b est way to fin d thi s cen ter i s to l oo k t h roug h th e

lens at a wel l m arked v e rtical l i n e d rawn w ith p e n a nd ,
54 H AND B O OK F O R OP T ICIAN S
-
.

i n k an d a r u l e r o n a sh eet of pap er Han “ th i s .

p ape r

ou ; t e
agai n st th e wall so m e fou r o r m o re feet f o m y
r h n
tak e th e l en s b etwee n th e th u mb an d fi r st fi nger extend ,

yo u r arm sh ut o ne ey e an d l oo k th ro gh u th e l en s at
,

that l i ne Y o u w il l Ob serv e th at th e l i n e i s b rok e n in

.

th e l en s an d th e m o r e so th e n eare r y m ov e th e l e s
,
o u
,
n

towa r ds its bo rde r F igu r e s .

a or I) rep r ese nt thi s phe
n e m eno u i n con cav e l en ses an d k o r Z as se e n i n convex
,

l en ses .

Ne w , m ov e th e l e n s Sl o w ly to wa r d s th e c e nte r ti l l you
fi nd th e l in e u nb ro k en as in figu r e 0 ; m a r k th i s l i n e with
,

i n k and it w il l i nd icate th e Opti c l in e o f th e l en s i n one

,

di rectio n Th e n t urn th e l e n s
. s o th at th e l i n e on

th e pape r and th e m a r k o n th e l e n s fo r m right angl es .

P roceed i n th e sa m e w ay a s b efo re an d y o u w il l fi nd , ,

v e ry ofte n th at th e opti c ce nte r i s no t a l way s i n the

,

m i ddl e o f th e l e n s as w e se e i n figu re d
, .

Th e two l ine s sh oul d cro ss each oth e r i n th e m iddl e of

th e l en s as th ey d o i n figu r e 0 Thi s t e st w i l l d o for
,
.
5G H AND B O O K F O R OPT ICIANS
- .

th em to act l ike w eak p r i sm s To fil l su ch a n o rde r cor .

re c t l y it is n ecessa ry t o fi rst l ocate th e opti c cente r o f

,

th e l en s th en p ut th e zi n c patte r n (C h apt e r VI ) a s m u ch
,
-

as possibl e to o n e bo rder o f th e l e n s a nd m ak e a m ark ,

a rou nd th e patte r n .

I n co nvex l e nses th e bo rd e r n ea rest th e o pti c ce nter is

th e b ase ; an d any p resc riptio n o f b ase in o r ou t i s co r
r e c t l y fi ll ed i f w e pl ace thi s part (f) tow ard s th e nose
,

o r tem ple accordi n g to o r de r I n co n cav e l e nses th e .

base is at g o r j ust th e o pposite fro m th at Of co nvex

,

l en ses Th e base a nd cente r o f a co n ve x l e n s al ways

.

fal l togeth er i n con cave l e nses th ey are separated ; the

,

base i s at th e border o f a l e n s a nd th e Opti c ce nter o f , ,

co u rse i n its m iddl e I f the r efo r e w e h ave to d ece nte r

,
.
, ,

a co ncave l en s b ase in th e Optic li n e w il l appear b eyo nd

, ,

th e m iddl e n eare r th e te mpl e b ut n o t towa rds th e nose

, , ,

as i s th e case w ith dece ntered co n ve x l en s es .

I n o rde r to explai n th e obj ect o f d ecente ri ng l en ses ,

I draw yo ur atte ntio n to th e fact that th e eyeball m oves

i n any d i rectio n about a co m m on ce nte r o f r otati on by
th e actio n of Six m uscl es fo u r st r aight o n es th e o t he i t w o , ,

obl i que The fi rst are cal l ed sup e r io r r ectu s i n fe rior

.
,

rectus exte r n al rect us an d i n te r na l r ect u s ; th ey m ov e

,

th e eyeb al l e ith er u p wa rd do w n w a rd o u twa r d o r i nward , , ,

whi l e th e t w o O bl iqu e m uscl es w ith th e a s si sta n ce o f the

fou r r e cti r otate th e b al l i n eve ry oth e r d i rectio n
, .

Most m o v em e nts o f th e eyes are i n th e h o rizo n tal m eri

dian a nd are alte r nate l y p rodu ce d by th e co nt ract ion Of
,

t he i nte r nal an d exte r n al recti Th ese t w o m uscl e s are .

con stantly taxed a nd i t i s n o wo nde r w h e n o n e o r th e

,

othe r fai ls to pe r form its d uty sati sfacto ri ly I n .

d istant vi sio n th e m uscl es o f th e ey ebal l ar e al most at

rest b ut c lose wo r k co m p el s th e recti i nte rn i to co nv erge
,

i n order to di rect t he v isual a n gl e o f both ey e s to a n ear

poi nt Th is i s the reaso n wh y th e i nterna l m u scl es
.

so m eti m es weake n an d n eed b raci ng u p wh i ch i s do n e ,

eith e r by p ri sm s o r i n v e ry slight deg re es o f i n suffici en cy

,

by dece nte red l e ns es A s soon a s a p ri s m w ith base .

i n w ard i s pl aced b efo r e the eye th e r ay s w il l stri ke it; i n ,

a mo re pa ral lel di rectio n as i f th ey w e re c o min fro m a , g

C
d ist ant obj ect th us allo w i ng th e rect i i nte rn i t o ie l ax
,
'

.
 C H AP T E R VI .

S E TT IN G OF S P H ERI C A L LENSES .

We wo rk b l indfo lded wh e n w e are u nabl e to find the

ce nte r o f a l e n and it wi l l b e by m e r e cha nce if o u r
s
, ,

wo r k i s co rr ect R o ugh l e n ses a re not al ways w el l cen

.

t e re d ; i f th ey w e r e w e wo uld hav e si m ply to cut the

,

size w e n eed fro m th ei r m iddle an d the re would be no ,

mistake Many of t he m w il l be fo und so m uch d e ce n

.

t ere d as to be u sel e s s fo r siz es 0 a nd 1 and are fit only ,

for sizes 3 and 4 o r th ey may be altogether worthless

, ,

except f o r l en s es to be decente red .

W e m ay take n otice h e re o f th e l e nse cal l ed th e “ ih

Th ey r ange f ro m NO 3 th e o rdi nary .
,

Size of spectacl es (altho u gh sm al le r n u m be rs are used

for ch ild re n s p ectacles ) to NO 2 th e size of eyegl asses
, .
, ,

up to NO 1 an d 0 ; e ve n to coq u i lle sizes NO 0 0 a nd 000

.
, . .

Most m an ufactu re rs o f pectacle s adopted these s tan d ar d

s

sizes of l ens e s to e nabl e t he r etai l e r to exchange th e

,

lenses f ro m o n e f ram e to a n othe r with o u t alte ri ng th e m .

A l en s o f N o 2 s pect acl e s fits exactly th e o r di n a ry size

.

o f eyegl ass e s I f y o u o rd e r 1 eye s p ectacl e s and eye

.
-

glasse s y o u ca n excha n ge th e le nse s f ro m t he spec tacles

,

to th e eyeglas s es o r v ice v e rs a as yo u l i ke th ey al ways

, , ,

I n a we ll ce n t e red l en s th e edges th i ck are u al l y

g e
-

o n th ei r oppos it e bo rde rs a nd a l ittle p racti ce wi ll e nabl e

,

fi t mp l
Th e rs i th d ct o
u s e in g
is ir e i n w as i v e n e , w ho a en ed , by N o l p t t
f m
J an 11th 1859, a ra e w i tho t c u l
s re w s t he e n s e s b e s ru n in i e to p g lk
A lb t L o ch t od c d th
.
,

wa tchgl as s e s er rs in r u e e se s e a e an d e e as s p ct cl y gl
th fi h d l
.

f m
ra es s i c tog th
n e 186 9, e er w i n is e en s es o f a e r a in si e, a u c t z bo t
e ye 2 , wh ch fi tt d th f m
i e ei e r h ch
r a e , an d w i he a e “
e n s es f o r th e c ll d L
t t A ccomm od t g p ct cl
Pa e n a in Gl
S e a e an d Eye as s B u t t h e er inter . t m
chan geabl e Iens es i l t d t
s o f a a er c ma e an d a e in . en era u s e s i n e th e to g l c
L omb
B au s e h dc cc pt d t d d
Op t C o a e e t he s an ar s i e s o f t h e eri an Op t z Am c
to th O ld z t ll
. .
.

Co , al
. tho gh o h m f ct
u t er t ll cl g
an u a u re rs s i un eir S i e s , i at
p t th
res e n h dly
ere i s ar m f cto y h ch
an y an u a r w i Wi n o t a e , an d rr e ll t k co ctly
fi ll o
, a
n t ch g bl z
rd er f o r al l in er an e a e s i es .
58 H AN n —n o o x FO R O l T I C l AN S
’
.

th e ey e to see at a gl ance an d w itho u t l oo k i ng t h ro ugh

,

it wh eth e r th e l e n s i s d ece nte re d o r n ot Thi s s av es us

,
.

a goo d deal o f ti m e as th e p r i ncipa l test is th e n q ui ckly

,

dete r m i ned B u t we s h o u l d n o t r ely altogeth e r o n the

.

j udgm e nt of o u r eye in thi s r ega rd as i t r equ i res a go o d ,

deal of p racti ce to detect sm al l di ffe ren ce s in w eak l ense

A ny w o r k m a n w ith go od to ol s ca n pe r fo r m i n a sho rt
ti m e m o r e an d bet t e r w o rk tha n oth e rs wh o s hu fll e about
th e w ho l e day l o ng wasti n g ti m e an d mate ri al f o r w ant
, ,

o f p rope r i m p l em e nts Th e m ost u s ef u l too l i n setti ng

.

glass es is th e mo d el o r p atter n m a de o f th i n zi nc I f .

y o u h av e n ot yet m ad e u s e o f i t p r epare a set o f the ,

diffe r e nt siz es and sh ape s o f sp e ctacl es as th ey come ,

i nto yo u r h ands fo r repai rs an d m a r k th e m acco rding to ,

th e diffe re n t size s of th e ey e Mak e a hol e ex actly i n the .

m iddl e partly fo r p u r po se s to b e spok e n of i n th e next

,

ch apter a n d pa rtly to s usp en d th e m on th e w al l within

,

co nv e n i ent reach w el l —asso rt ed acco r di ng t o siz e and

,

patter n A bo ut th ree doz e n w i l l f u lly as s e rt yo u and

.
,

w i ll sav e yo u in th e co u rs e o f y e ar s a n i m m ense
, ,

am o u nt o f t ro u b le a nd ti me .

A noth e r i m po rta nt tool i s th e mark er a n i n st r u m ent ,

l i ke a l e ad pe n ci l m o u nted at o n e e n d with a sm al l dia

-
,

m o nd Th e m arker i s u sed to m a ke a s cratch a round

.

you r patt e rn after it i s p l ace d co r r ect ly o n th e l e n s I t

, .

wil l not cut th e glass as a gl azi e r s d i am o nd b ecause it ’

i s i nten ded o nly f o r sc ratch i ng p u rpos e s an d i s th e r efore , , ,

ve ry ch eap On h eavy le n se s i t i s b e s t to m a r k both

.

sides to p rev ent th e b reak i ng o f th e l en s i n side the

,

m a rk .

Th e n ext to o l fo r o u r p u rpo se i s th e s l id ing to ngs an -

,

i n strum ent e m ployed b y watch m ak e r s an d j e w el e r s who ,

“ ”
cal l it th e dog n ose s l id i n g to n gs ; i t i s al so used by
—

optician s to chi p th e l en ses .

I hav e fo un d t l re darg e s t
S iz e th e b e s t f o r al m o st al l
l en ses ; but v e ry th in gla s s e s fo r in stan ce fo r lo c k et s o r , ,
 SE TT IN G o r SPH ERICA L L ENSES . 59

watch es w h ich w e m ay o ccasio na l ly b e obl iged to g ri nd

,
,

ca n be ch ipp ed w ith co m m o n flat pl ie rs Th e app rentice .

sh ou ld p ractise thi s chip pi ng o n p iece s o f wi ndo w glass ,

befo re h e att em pts t o sh ape a l en s and spoi l it p e rhaps , ,

by in exp e r i e n ce i n ha ndl ing th e tool .

Th e p rope r to ol used i n facto ri es f o r doi ng quick ,

and goo d w o r k in th i s r espect i s rep rese nted by th e ,

following figu r e .

I fi rst h a n d led i t i n 186 0 . I t was sho wn to m e by a

“ ”
wo rk m a n who cal l ed it th e E n gl i s h S h ears As I .

ne ve r fo u n d th e m fo r sal e I retu rn ed to th e u s e o f th e
,
“ ”
dog n o s e sli d i ng to ngs wh i ch an s w e rs v e ry wel l th e
- -
,

pu rpo s e s o f a retai li ng o pti cian Th e p ieces a a nd b are .

do ve tai led i nto th e s hea rs and c an b e re ne w ed whe n u sed

-

"
o ut Th ey are 1 b re ad with st raight flat s u rface s
.
1 0 , , .

The r i v et at c i s rath e r l oose s o tha t th e re i s a m pl e pl ay

,

f o r th e s ha n k s to m ov e f re ely s id e w ay s Th ey are u s ed .

in a s i m il ar way as th e s lidi n g to ngs -

.

Th e p ro pe r w ay to h and l e th is too l is as fol lows .

Th e to ngs h el d by th e right han d should b e appl ied

, ,

loos ely to th e l e n s an d wo rked a s w e do a pai r o f scis

,

so rs w ith th e d iffe r e n ce that at th e s am e m o m ent w e

,

close th e m w e al so gi ve th e u ppe r pa rt o f th e to n gs a
,

s light i n cli natio n to t he o utside an d d own w a rd Th e .

lowe r nose is kept ri gh t o n th e m a r k by th e m iddl e fi nger

o f th e l e f t ha nd wh ich h o l d s th e l en s Thi s effectually .

p reve nts th e l e n s f ro m c racki ng i n s id e th e ma rk Th e .

outsid e m o v e m e n t o f th e to ngs t h ro ws th e chip s an d

gl ass —spl i n te rs f r o m us an d th us sav es th e ey es fro m
,

i nj u ry B u t a fin e gla s s d u t also r ise s f ro m the l e n s

.
-
s ,

t l l d i s v e ry p e rn i cio u s t o t h e l u ngs Hol d th e le ns .

,
60 H AND B O O K F OR O PT ICIAN S
- .

th e r efo re n early at a rm s l e ngth a n d bl o w th e d ust o ff

,
’
,

b efo r e y o u b r eath e .

A s a r ul e w e shoul d m o ve th e to ngs o ut w ard ; b ut we

,

m ay com e to a pl ace w h i ch w i l l n o t b rea k read ily even ,

by apply i n g g r eate r fo rc e I n thi s cas e w e can so m e .

ti m es acco m pli sh o u r task w ith e as e a nd w i tho ut the ,

r isk o f spo ili ng th e l e n s by m ov i ng th e tongs u p wa rd

, ,

u sing th e lo w e r no s e f o r th e b r eaki ng a n d th e upp er as ,

a g u ide Th is alte rn ate t urn i ng u p o r do wn o f the

.

tongs sho u l d b e w el l p racti sed by t h e appre nti ce I n .

r ega r d to th e fo r w a r d o r b ackw a r d m ov e m ent o f the

tongs it i s i m mate ria l whi ch way w e p roce ed w ith glass
, ,

b ut as to pebb l es it sho ul d b e al ways t he b ack wa rd

m ovem ent A s e ve ry c rystal h as a cl eavage pl a n e i n its
.
-

l ateral ax es the fo r w ard m ovem ent m ay acci d ental ly

,

cau se a spl itting i n th e di re ctio n o f th i s pl an e wh ich ,

ra r ely h appe n s w ith th e b ackwa r d m ov e men t of th e tool .

I t i s h a rdly n ecessa ry to m e ntio n th at th e sto n e h as to

b e t u r n e d f r omyo u wh e n gri ndi ng I h av e se e n o nly .

“ ”
on e j ewe l e r (an d h e t o o sty l ed hi m s el f Opti ci an ) who
, , ,

tu rn ed th e ston e to hi m as h e had s ee n do n e by a street

,

gri nde r I s i t to b e wo nd e red th at h e co mpl ai n e d after

.

wa rds o f not b ei n g ab l e to get a s mooth edge o n hi s

glasses o r that th ey l ooked as i f r ats h ad gi ve n th e m the
,

fi n ish i n g touch ?
I do not thi n k it o ut of p l ace to say h e r e a fe w words
in gen e r al about th e gri ndi n g o f l e n se s A l m ost all .

m a n u facto ri es g ri n d th e m i n to a sh a rp b ev el w h i ch is ,

i n my opi ni on an un necessa ry t r o ub l e a n d b e si des , , ,

shows ve ry l ittl e sou n d j udgm e nt Th e groov e s o f m ost .

f ram es are n o t poi n t ed but rou n de d o ff w h eth e r th ey are

, ,

m ade o f soft m ate rial o r m etal ; an d th e l en s to p ro pe r ly ,

fi ll su ch a g roove sh o ul d b e al so rou n ded o ff Th i s w i ll

, .

h av e the doubl e advantage o f b ei ng l ess l i abl e to c rack ,

and l e s s t ro u b l eso m e to fi n i sh S h arp po inted l e n ses .

-

easi ly spl it shel l o r r u bb e r fra m e s w h e n th e l atte r co n ,

t ract ia co ld w eath er ; o r th ey th em s el v es a re chi p ped

by m etal f ram es w h e n th ey are t ig htly fitted T o ov er
,

co m
.

e thi s d i fficu lty and to e s tabl i sh a p ra cti c al m

, e t h od o f
fitti ng l e nses to th e fram es I w il l d esc ri b e th e m ethod ,

w h i ch I h ave adopted A fte r th e l e n s h a s b e e n w e ll

.
 S ETT IN G or S PH ERICA L L ENSES . 61

shaped and su ffici e ntly red uced by th e Sl iding to ngs I -

,

gri nd o ff th e sh arp edge o n o n e s ide by passi ng it quickly

ove r th e revo lvi ng g ri nd i ng sto ne A fe w revolution s -
.

wil l acco mp l ish thi s a nd w il l gi ve i t a s mal l b ut disti nctly

,

visibl e b ev el The n I do the sam e wit h the oth er Side

.
,

by turni ng t he l en s alte rn ately edgewise to take away ,

its u neve n ness I n l ess tha n o n e m i n ute my l e ns h as a

.

fi n ished appearan ce an d n eed s no w o nly the fi nal adj u st

,

m ent Th e edges o f th e l en s hav e th e n a ro u nded fo rm

.
,

and whe n set i n fram es do n o t Sho w a ny ro ugh ness ,

b ecaus e the pol ish ed su rface o f the l ens to uch es th e

borde r o f th e m o u nti ng th u s r el ieving m e o f th e t ro u bl e
,

to pol ish the bev el wh i ch ho wever can not b e avoided

, , ,

wh e n th e le n s es are th icke r th an the f ram es o r whe n the ,

groo ves are v e ry Shal lo w

I n regard to th e p rese nt u n iversally adopted habit o f
po lishi ng th e edges o f l e n ses I m u st co nfess that I do ,

not app ro ve o f it f o r t h e good r easo n that th e refl ected

,

light f ro m s u ch b ev el ed su r faces i s an noying to th e

eyes a nd c an b e easily re mov ed by givi ng the m only a
,

fine gro u n d fi n i sh w h ich t he Germ an s an d F re nch cal l

,

“ matt ” E ven f r am el ess spectacl es could b e m ade i n

.

this way a nd wo ul d loo k equ al ly styl ish B ut this r e .

fo r mcan o n ly b e effect u ally i nt rod u ced by th e una ni mo u s

co operation o f th e ocu lists i n
- rej ecti ng i n future al l
glasses wi th pol ish ed edges .

Th e fitti ng o f b evel ed g l ass es i nto th e g roove of th e

fra m e i s q ui ckly do ne an d th ey are easi ly gro und an d
,

shap ed i f th ey a re o f an oval o r r o und patte r n Octago n .

glasses requi re mo re atte ntion especial ly whe n th e f ram es ,

are o l d a nd ofte n repai red Th e greatest ca re has to be .

taken with s k el eto n a nd g rooved glasses as th e edge ,

m ust b e fl at and th e b e v e l v e ry s ma ll Th e ston e s hould

,
.

b e used til l th e l en s i s rightly shaped an d t he edge

ro ughly fl atte n ed ; we sho u ld th en fin ish th e l en s o n
em e ry pape r No s 3 and 2 and l astly o n N o 1 a nd 0 f o r
.
,
.

polish i ng p u rpo ses I f the l en s h as to be grooved N o 3

. , .

is u sed o nly f o r th e edge b ut No s 2 an d 1 f o r th e bevel

,
. .

I t is bette r to fi n ish th e b evel b efo r e fil i ng the g roove as ,

a pol i sh ed s urface i s l ess li ab l e to chip i n case th e fi le

sho u ld to uch th e edges Th e groov ing i s always do ne
.
62 H AND B O OK F OR OPT ICIANS
- .

—
w ith a r o un d fi le n ev e r with a fo u r ,
th ree co r n ered or

o ne . Th e fi l e w il l soo n b e sm ooth i f u sed d ry ; it is

th erefo r e n ecessa ry t o wet i t co n sta n tly eith e r wi th w ater ,

t u r p e n ti n e b enzi n e o r d il u te s u lp hu r ic acid ; th e l atte r

, ,

is m ost e ff ect i v e But ev e n th ese wil l ge n e ral ly ruin

.

th e fi l e after th e fi n i sh o f o n e pai r o f l e n ses th u s co n ,

si d e r ab l y i n creasi ng th e cost an d l abo r The b est fluid .

f o r th e p e r s e r v at io n o f th e fi l e a n d d ri l l f o r o u r p u r poses
i s o n e that co ntai n s an access of cam pho r A ny m echa n ic .

k no ws that a n e w fi l e Sho ul d n ot b e u s ed at o n ce f o r
fi li ng h a rd i ro n o r steel w ithout p assi ng it fi r st s ev eral
,

t i m es ove r a so ft m ate rial ; as woo d b ra ss o r soft i ron to , ,

fi l l up th e deepe r parts o f th e fi l e gi v i ng st rength to the ,

expo sed Sharp poi nts o f it Cam pho r re n ders the same .

s e r vice to o u r fi le u sed f o r g roo vi ng gl asses Without ,

i nte r feri ng with its cutti ng qu al ities if th e fl u id e v apo ,

r ates q ui ckly e nough to a llo w th e cam pho r to cl og up

th e deep e r pa rts o f th e fi le To do th i s by passi ng it over .

l ead wo ul d cause it to sl ip witho ut cutti ng th e glass

, .

Th e fo rm ula f o r th is fl u id i s :
S pi rits of Tu rpenti ne 1 o u n ce .

C am pho r G u m 15
S u l ph u ri c E th e r 3 d rach m s .

Th e eth e r faci l itates th e sol utio n o f th e ca m pho r but ,

vol atilizes so qu i ckly th at th e fil e wo u l d b e d ry after a

few st rok es i f th e t u rpentin e di d n o t reta r d it s vo la
,

t ili z at io n f o r a wh i l e Keep t he fi l e th e refo r e con stantly

.
, ,

w e t wh i le u si n g it an d it w i l l do se rv i ce f o r a good
,

l ength o f t i m e .
*

Th e d r il l ing o r bo ri n g o f gl a s s e s f o r sk el eto n o r
f ram el ess s p e ctacl es is don e by a d ri l ling m ach i n e ; but
,

i f y o u h av e n o n e it c an b e don e w ith a ro u n d fi l e and

,

t he above flui d S ele ct a fi l e al m ost o f th e siz e o f the

.

h ol e yo u n eed ; b r eak o ff th e poi nt an d co m m e n ce the ,

hol e b y m ovi n g t o an d f ro t he sha r p edge o f th e file ,

p reviously dipped i nto th e ca m pho r p repa ratio n Make .

a m a r k on th e glass th e n rai se th e fi l e by d egre es per

,

p e n d ic u l arl y to the l en s a n d u s e it as a d ri l l by tu rni ng

,

it sl owly betwee n th e fi nge r s E ach tu r n o f t h e d ri ll .

A oth xc ll t fl id f th i p po w a l at ] i t o l n d l l d
n er e e en u or s ur se s e n r
“
D iamo d O l f d ill g a d fi l g D gl a po c lai i
n i ,
”
or r in n
aife
in
l i i
1 ss, r e n , er r ,
’

e
e
G4 H AND B O O K FOR O P T ICIAN S
-

w itho ut it . Th e fo ll owi ng r e m a r ks w e re k i ndly fur

ni s he d m e by D T R eed ; I thi n k th em o f p ract ical
. .

val ue and chee rfu lly gi v e th em a pl ace h ere f o r the

,

ben efit o f th e craft He say s : “ The su ccess o f a work

.

in g Opti ci an i s h i s ab il ity t o g r i nd th e edges o f l e n ses in

a tho r oughly wo r k m anl i ke m an n er a nd f o r th is pu rpos e ,

t he Crai g l eit h is th e b est sto n e f o r glass But i n o rder .

t o d o goo d wo r k th e sto ne m ust b e k ep t i n perfect circle

, ,

a nd to d o thi s a h eavy bar o f ste el Sho ul d b e h el d against

t he sto n e an d wh ite g l ass sa n d m oisten ed w ith wate r
,
-

should b e appl i ed A s th e s ton e r evo l ve s t h e san d will

.
,

cut away any acci de ntal u n ev en n e ss I co n si der thi s .

method p r efe rab l e t o an d ch eape r tha n th e t ruei ng

, ,

with a carbo n poi nt Th e Sto n e Sho ul d th e n b e mad e

.

perfectly sm ooth by p ressi ng agai n st it Wh i l e w et and ,

r evol vi ng , a pi ece o f bl ac k fl int st o n e Thi s requ i res an .

ho u r s w o r k o r m o r e b u t repays us i n th e e nd To keep
’
, .

th e sto n e i n pe r fect wo r k i n g o rd e r it w i l l b e n o w and ,

th e n n ecessa ry to slightly press th e fl i nt agai n st it to

r em ov e al l glaz e I t i s u nd erstood th at i n t rueing the
(
.

sto n e it has to b e t u r n ed to y o u ) Th e gri nd ing o f l enses.

is m uch faci l itated w he n a l ib eral supply o f w ate r is

furnish ed fro m th e sp igot ab ov e th e ston e I f the .

am o u nt o f b usi n ess w i ll wa rrant th e ex p en se el ect ric or ,

stea m pow e r Shoul d b e em ployed fro m th e o utset as ,

m u ch b ette r wo r k c an b e do n e especia l ly by th e C raig ,

leith at g reat speed Whe n foo t po we r i s used the .

,

g r in di ng sho ul d b e don e p ri ncipall y o n a sa nd stone -

.

( S uch sto n es for o u r p u r pose a re i n th e m ark et under

“
th e n am e o f fl int sto n es -
Th ey cut m ore rapidly at
a lowe r sp eed and o n ly th e fi n i shi n g Sh ou ld b e don e by
th e C raig l e it h Whi le u si n g th e coarse sto ne rubber
,

.
,

fi nger tips m ay b e wo r n t o p r ev e nt scratch i ng o f the

”
l en ses .
 C H AP T E R VI I .

MEAS U RIN G AND S E TT IN G OF C O M PO U N D LEN SES .

S i m pl e d efect s i n th e r ef raction of ey es be co r c an

re c t e d by Sph e r i ca l cx o r cc glasses and wh en th ei r

right n u mb er or st re n gth is sel ected fo r each eye sepa
rat e l
y an
, d afte r ward s co rr ectly set i n s u itable f r am es
,

such spe ctacl es w il l al ways giv e sati sfaction N i n e te nths .

-

of those i n n ee d of gl asses are w el l s u ited w ith Sim pl e

sph e rical l e n ses an d c an b e rightly se r ved by th e opt i
,

ci an as w el l as by th e ocul i s t who i f h e i s n ev e rth eless

, ,

co n s u lte d by ov e r a n xio u s peopl e can do no m o r e than

-
,

we do ; h e u s es h i s test types to fi nd th e extent Of the

-

e rro r O f r ef ract io n an d sel ects the spectacl es acco rdi ngly

,

But oth ers r e qui r e so meth i ng m o re th an an opti cia n i s

.

ab le to do ; they sho ul d b e se nt to an o c u li st who afte r , ,

ap r o f e s s io n al exam i n atio n w i l l give h i s o rde rs ge n e ral ly

, , ,

f o r co m po u n d l e n ses .

Com p o u n d l e n ses are com b i n ation s of sph e r i cal p ri s ,

mat ic al a nd cy li nd ri cal gl asses of wh ich t w o o r in s o me

, ,

cases al l th re e are g ro u n d o n o ne an d th e sam e lens

, .

Th e m o st s im pl e co m b i n atio n i s wh e n th e plane sides of

a p ri s m are g ro u n d i nto the sph e r ical sh ape o f eithe r e x
'

o r cc ,
w ith o ut alte r i n g th e actio n O f th e p ris m .

A n o rd e r fo r s u ch a l en s wil l r ead , 3 s C p r ism

or — 2 S C p r is m base i n o r o u t .

Th e co m b i n atio n s o f co mpoun d gl asses are so man i

fold th at th ey h av e to b e g rou n d al w ay s to o rde r as n o ,

Opti cia n ca n h ave th e m i n sto ck We Shoul d neve r r ely

.

o n th e faith ful ex ecutio n o f o u r orde r s by th e g ri nde r ;

fo r i n s ta n ce w e m ay h av e copi ed th e m i n d istin ctly etc

, , .

I t i s th e re fo re adv isabl e to r em easu re al l l en ses befo r e

66 H AND B O O K FOR OPT ICIANS
- .

w e fit th em to a f ram e Let u s ta k e th e fi rst le n s as a

test We h av e he r e a sph e r i cal l e n s co m b in ed With
.
.

p ris m O f I s u ppo se th at e ach o f m y r eade rs has a

tr ial b oa-
: w i t h al l th e d iffe r ent l e n ses ; i f h e h as n e t he ,
.

shoul d procure o n e as soon as po ssi b l e f o r n o opt ic ian

l Ve fi r st take fro m o u r bo x a p ris m
,

c an do witho ut i
le
tfi
Of 2 and p l ace th e t hic k e nd upo n th e th i n o n e o f o ur
0

l ens We w i l l see at o n ce th at th e Opti c l i n e w h ich was

. ,

b efore n ea r t he bo rder i s n o w i n th e ce nte r We then ,

.

tak e 3 s an d pl ace it o n th e oth er sid e o f th e lens ;

th ese th ree togeth er m u st n o w b e a p l an e o r th e lens is ,

n o t co r rect .

Th e n ex t c o mb in at io n i s a sp her e wi th a cyl in d er
'

O ne side o f th e l en s i s gro u nd sph eri cally th e oth er Side , ,

cyli nd ri cally S uch a n o rder reads : l

. s C l c — —
.

The t est is th e sam e a s b efo r e With c w e neu .

z e th e cyl i nd ri cal actio n i n th i s l en s by

t ral i layi ng the
t w o axes so as to cove r o n e anoth e r p e r fe ctly and by ,

add ing s w e m ust agai n h ave a pl an e l e ns The .

g ri nder al w ay s m a r ks th e axes by l ittl e sc ratch es upon

th e edges o f the l e n ses so th at w e m ay h av e no troubl e ,

in m eas u r i ng the m .

But h ow wh en th e g rinde r fo rgets to m ark th e l ens

, ,

o r wh e n we ar e com pel l ed to fin d th e fo rm u l a O f com

po u nd spectacles h avi ng no m ar k h an ded u s by a, ,

stranger to dupl icate th e m ?

Let u s fi rst see if they are dece nte red ; i f so w e will ,

fi nd o ne side Of the l en s th ick er than th e oth er o r that a ,

h orizontal l i ne i s elev ated o r l owered by tu rn ing t he l ens

b etwe en the finge r s to th e right o r l eft Wh e n this is .

the case th ey are co mb in ed with a p ri s m W e n eutral

, .

i ze th is p ri sm atic actio n by tryi ng d i ffe re nt degrees of

p rism s t ill w e get th e opt ica l l i n e i n th e m iddl e o r till ,

the re i s no m ore b reaki ng O f th e h o rizo nta l l i n e By .

t urn ing th e l en s n ow th e Optic l i n e wi l l n o t m ov e u p or

,

dow n as it did b efo re the p r i s m ati c acti on was n e utral

,

iz e d .

Keepi ng these t w o l en se s i n positi o n w e n ot ice wh ether ,

Th ye w ere
fi or merl y impo rt e d from E op
ur e,an d Nat ch e t ’ s T ial r
B ox es co n s d d the b s t ; b t at p
w ere ere e u re s en t we an u a u rem f ct th em
e qu ally as good an d ch eap r in Am ic a
,

e er .
 M EAS U RIN G AND SE TT IN G OF CO M PO U ND L ENSES . 67

th e sph e r i cal par t o f th e l en s i s e x or cc by t u r ni ng it,

sl ightl y a ro u n d its ce nt e r to th e r ight o r l eft i n f ront o f

a ve rti cal l i ne Wh e n th i s l i n e fo l lows o u r m otio n the
.
,

l e n s i s con cav e a n d h as to b e defin ed by a cx sph e r ical

,

l en s Th e rem ai n de r O f o u r l e n s i s th en a si m pl e cyl i nder

.
,

a nd easi ly m easu re d T o p rov e th e m easu r em ent and

.
,

espe ci al ly to dete rm i n e the r ight position Of th e a n gl e of

the cyl part w e fi r st n eut ral ize th e p rism an d th en the
.
, ,

sphe r e an d lastly fi nd th e axi s Of th e cyl pa rt by f o l

,
.

lowi ng ru l e giv e n i n C h apte r I V We n o w m a r k thi s

.

l ine w ith p e n an d i n k and pl ace o u r l ens o n t he fol low

,

i ng figu re .

Th e ce nte r o f th e l en s m ust b e exactly ov er th e center

o f th e ci rcl e an d th e ho rizonta l li n e m arked o n th e l en s
,

fro m n ose to te m pl e m ust cover th e horizontal l in e A B .

We n o w ob se rv e i n w h at di rection the i n k m ark points -

,

and w e h ave th e degree o f th e cyl axi s I n m aki ng

. .

thi s p roof w e m ust hol d al ways th e outside o f the l en s

up war d s n o t towards th e paper
,
.

A l l m easu rem e nts o f th e physici an refer to th e pos 1t io n

’

h e tak es toward th e p ati e nt h i s right is the pati ent s left

,
.
68 H AND B O O K FO R
-
O l ’ T I C I AN S .

I h ave m ade m y o wn us e th i s del i n eatio n o u strong

for
paste boa rd co ve red w ith w h it e pap e r a nd fi n d 1t ve ry
-
, ,

h andy an d mo re acc u rate th a n a nyth i ng I u s ed b efore .

Th e l ittl e l i n es are u sefu l gu ides f o r fi ndi ng th e r ight

po sitio n of th e z i n e patt e r n and di s p en se w ith th e labor
-
,

o f searchi ng f o r th e true ce nte r th ro ugh its h ol e .

I h av e t r ied to explai n th is m atte r i n as few w ords as

possibl e an d in th e most p r acti cal w ay ; b ut some
,

may thi n k it too co m pl i cated a task and l o se con fidence ,

i n th ei r abi l ity to ov e rco m e ce rtai n d ifficul ti es Just try .

it an d if i t takes a Whol e h o ur to m easu r e a co m pound

,
“
l en s ov e r and ove r agai n y o u wil l laug h at th i s S ph inx ,

afte rwa rds wh e n y o u wi l l b e ab l e to so l v e th e p roblem

,

i n fiv e m i n u tes .

I t is ab sol utely n ecessa ry to k no w w el l ho w to m e as

u r e com po u nd le nse s b efo re w e are abl e to set the m
co rr ectly I ad mit th at th e r e are di fficu lti es wh i ch wil l
.

puzzl e th e i n exp e rt an d w il l l u re h i m i nto a d i ffere nt

,

calcu latio n altogethe r I gi v e h e r e a f e w i l l u strations . .

We hav e f o r i nstance a l en s S C 1 c ax 90
0

, , ,

th e fo r m ul a o f w h ich w e do not k no w By looki ng .

th ro ugh the l en s w e s e e at o n ce th at th e co n cav ity i s in

excess o f th e co nvexity i f th e r e i s any at al l W ‘
e first , .

l ook at a ve rtical l i n e an d noti ce w h eth e r it w i l l follow ; ,

i f it does an d w e p u r su e o u r i n vestigatio n an d co rrect

,

th e cyl actio n by a s u itab l e cx cyl l e n s w e are o n the

. .
,

r ight t r ack But i f p e rcha n ce w e h ad tu rn ed th e l ens

.
, ,

of i ts c i rc um fe r e nce and h ad exa mi n ed i t i n thi s posi ,

t ion wh ich i s at r ight a n gl es to th e t rue cyl axis we

, .
,

fi nd that th e v e rti cal l i n e do es n ot foll o w b ut act s as a ,

cx cyl l ens an d w e h av e to m a k e th e co rrectio n i n this

.
,

c as e w ith a con cavo —cyl l en s Th e con s eq ue n ce w il l be . .

th at we m ak e cross —cyl i n ders a nd ad di ng 1 S to the ,

S w hich i s th e r eal am ou n t Of its sph e ri cal co n

,

cav ity th e fo rm u l a fo u n d w i l l b e
, s C 1c
ax whi ch i s th e p eriscopi c eq u ival e nt o f th e o riginal
bi co ncave l en s .

F o r a noth e r t est l et u s tak e s A l 2 c ax ~

The cyl axi s i s easily dete cted i n s u ch a l e ns by

.

l t
s
u
s hape
”
i

b ut f o r aig u me n t s sak e I su ppose w e h ave

l

, , ,

fal le n into th e sam e e rro r an d aga in p rod u ce d c ross ,

 M EASU RIN G AN D SE TT IN G O F C O MPOU ND L EN SE S . 69

cyl in d e rs th u s tu r n ing l 2 0 i nto 2 s The n we h av e

,
—
.

to add 2 s to s w h i ch w o u ld giv e 1
, s - ~

an d o u r fo rm ul a woul d b e s 2 c ax A

th e equ ivale nt o f th e test l en s -

.

We ta ke anothe r l e ns : l s C —
c ax
an d by th e sa m e p rocess w e w ill g e t l s '
—

c ax I n o rde r to fi nd the f o r mu l a t he axis , ,

should a lways b e m a r ked by s m al l sc ratch es at th e border

o f the l e n s o r by pe n an d i n k o n a l e ns al r eady fitted
, .

The fittin g of a co m p o u n d l e n s to a f ram e n ext lays

clai m to al l o u r attention i f w e wi l l do j ust ice to th e
,

general r u le i e to b ri ng th e Spheri cal center b efo r e

, . .

th e pupi l o f th e eye Wh e n we h ave ma rked the cyl

. .

axis in i n k ac r oss the whol e l e ns a nd h av e neut r alized ,

the cyl actio n by its Opposite w e mu st next Observe

.
,

whe re th e Optic l i ne c rosses th e l en s 90 f ro m the cyl °

.

axi s and m ark it l i kewi se i n i nk b ut in a m an ne r diffe r ,

e nt f ro m th e l i ne o f the cy l axis say by littl e dots

We n ow lay that po i nt o f the l ens w h e re the t wo l i nes
.
, .

c ross exactly ov e r th e ce nter o f t h e test fig u re t u r n the

,
-
,

axi s o f th e cyl to th e p resc r ibed angl e and m a rk by

. ,

l i ttle s c ratches at the edges of o u r l en s wh e re it touch es

the h o ri zo ntal l i n e A B Th ese m a rks are g u ides to
.

d i rect u s in r ega rd to th e n ose piece and tem ple We -

.

m ust t ak e care that t he h ol lo w side o f th e l e n s l ies upon

the pa pe r b ecaus e th at Side w il l b e towa rds th e eye
,
.

O u r zi n c patt e r n afte r wh i ch w e m ark th e l en s m u st

-
, ,

have a h o l e exactly i n the m iddl e an d a m arked l ine ,

f ro m th e nose p i ece to th e t e m pl e
- .

Th ro ugh th e hol e w e ca n see t he po i nt wh e re o u r ink

m ark s c ross ; w e p ut th e l i n e of th e p atte rn so that l ll S O

conti n uatio n st ri kes th e s c rat ch es m ad e befo re as a gu id e

fo r th e no s e a nd tem p l e a nd afte r asce rt ai ning o nce
m o re by ca re fu l ex am i n atio n th at ev e rything i s mg ht
,

’
. .

w e ru n o u r m a rke r aro un d th e patter n Before ch ipp ing .

70 H AND B O O K F O R OPT I CIANS
- .

O ff th e supe rfluo us pa rt o f th e l en s w e tak e a sm al l woode n

,

rul e r p lace it o n th e l e n s to uch i ng th e t w o m a r k s f o r

, ,

no se an d tem pl e an d m a ke two oth e r fi n e sc r atche s

,

i n side th e m a r k j u st m ade f o r th e si ze o f th e l e n s lo ng ,

en o u gh n o t to b e g rou n d away i n th e fi ni sh i n g p r ocess .

A fte r th e chi ppi ng five h av e o n ly to pay atte nt io n that

,

o u r l en s r etain s a n i ce ov al sh ape an d t hat th e edges

,

are w e ll b ev el ed .

An y Opti ci an who fo l low s th ese i n st r u cti o n s cannot

fai l t o gi ve full sati sfactio n to th e m o st ex acti ng o culists ,

n o m atter at what angl e th e axi s O f th e l en s has to be

placed I bel ieve that so m e opti ci a n s a re ca r el ess in
.

m a r ki ng th e true c e nte r o f th e l en s an d i n orde r to find ,

th e angl e u se i ncorrect d esigns

,
.

“
I n th e Jewel e rs C i rcul ar a nd Ho rol ogica l R eview
’

o f N ov emb er , 1885 I fi n d o n p age 3 12 th e stra nge

, ,

com plaint o f a w el l k now n o cul ist say i ng :

- “ Y o u wil l
,

seldo m fi n d a wo rkm an w ho can exactly set a cy l i ndrical

l en s at th e ax is requi red u n less th e ax i s n am ed b e 180
,
°

or Y o u w il l p rob abl y h av e to tilt th e fram e a l ittle ,

eithe r up o r down to Obtai n th e e xact positio n r e q

, uired .

Th at th ey s et m o re l en ses w rong th an right h as bee n ,

”
m y exp e r ie n ce .
 72 H AND BO OK FO R -
OPT I OI AN S .

b ecause i f y o u Sh ift t he l i n e a b t o th e l eft s o that a is ,

v erti cal to a th e n 5 w i l l b e v e rti ca l t o b wh i ch are the

'
.
'

t rue cente r s o f th e fram e .

A noth e r i m po rtant poi nt i s th e s el ectio n o f a p roper

n os e
p iece -
P eop l e wi th a l o.w o r sh allo w b ridge Should

not o r rath er can not wear ey egl a ss es ; a n d ev e n spec

,

tael es o f the o rd inary s iz e a re n o t sati sfacto ry i f the ,

n os e piece i s not s hap ed SO a

-
s t o co rrect th e defo rm ity of

th e n ose F o r m e rly th e r e w e re o nly th re e n ose pi eces in

.
-

use t he C K an d X to whi ch l at ely h av e b ee n added

, , ,

th e s n ak e and s ad dl e nose p i eces -

.
*

“
Se c u ri
ng
p op e fit in th e b idg e u po n w h ich s o m u ch of th
a r r r , e
comfo t an d ffi n y o f p ct acl d ep en d w a a d ifli l t m atte ntil
r e CI e c s e es s, s cu
th in g n ity o f D Ch H T hom as
r u
e e u f P h il ad lph ia
r .
gg.

s t e d Wh at i
.

s
o e su e
k n o w n as th addl e b idg e
e w h ich s olv e d t h e p obl m
s T h is bridge
r
”
r
,

may b e v a ed to s it v e y po ibl c ase an d i al w ay s t o b p r f e ed

, e .

ri u e r ss e s e e rr
T h e K b idg
,

fo m ed f w s in th h ap e o f th l ette K i allo w abl e in

.

r e, r o 1re e s e r s
s om e c as The n a ly im il a X b idg e allo w s th gl a to s ee s aw
,
es e r s r r e
.

ss e s
Wth t h e motio n f t h h ad Th e l d f as h io n e d b ridg
-

ac o s t h e n o
r s s e, i s o e e o -
e
c ll ed the cu l o C n o i n obj ctio n abl e f c a s in w h ich the b ridge
.

“
a r r -
se, s u e or se
o f t h e n o s e is p om i n en t o f t he s p ct acl e
r
f old p e o p l e w h o l ik e to
,
r or e s o
s lip th i gl as do w n to w a d th e n d f the n o s e N o n e f t he fo m s
e r s es r e o .
i

o r
m en t io n e d ho w ev r h av an y adv an t ag e o v t h s addl e b idg f o r an}
, e , e er e r e
Sp e ct acl es an d E y egl as es by R J P h ill p M D Ph il ad el p hia:
13 33
—
(3 . s , . . i s, . .
,
 S EL EC TI O N O F SPEC T AC L E S . 73

Th e X a n d s nak e no se p ieces are th e best f o r low -

n oses an d st re et glasses ; th e l ast is especial ly usefu l i n

re movi ng the gl asses far e no ugh fro m the eye to save
th e ey el ash es f ro m com ing i n co ntact w ith th em Th e .

o nly obj ectio n to m o st o f the se n os e pieces i s that th ey -

ar e rath e r th i n an d con seque ntly c ut the n o se i f the

, ,

ski n is te nde r as i s t he cas e w ith chi ld re n and l adi es

, .

I nstead o f m aki ng th e nose —piece b roade r Dr Hubbel , .

i nve nted a n ose g u a rd a b road attach m e nt to the nose

-
,

pi ece wh ich o f co u rse p rev e nts th e cutti ng of th e nose

, , , ,

b ut at th e ex p en se of its looks .

A de cided i m p ro vem ent i n th is

espect w as int rod uced r
“
by th e E ggl esto n S ibl ey s ad j ustabl e co rk noses fo r ’
-

”
spectacl es Th ey ca n be easi ly appl ied loo k wel l
. , ,

p rotect th e n asa l crest a nd en abl e us to co rrect th e posi ,

tion o f spectacl es .

I f th e no s e pi eces w e re m ade s u ffici ent ly b road , well

-

sh ap ed and po l ish ed th ey wo u ld n o t need any l in ing of ,

t u rtl e sh el l o r co rk su ch as h av e bee n fo r m e rly m ade

-
,

at so m e additi on al e xpe n s e w hi l e th e b roade r n ose p ieces ,

-
,

a nswe ri ng the sam e pu rpose ca n b e m an u factured at ,

*
al m ost the sam e c ost as t h e thi n o n es now i n use .

R ead in g sp ec t ac l e s sho uld al way s b e i n su ch a pos 1t ion

as t o p e rm it u s to see th ro ugh th e m iddle of th e glasses ,

c the p blic atio n of t h fi s t dit io n om e m an f act

Sin e u
s of p c e r e ,
s u u r er s e

t a l e h av in t od c d th w ll d no e by w id n in g n d ly th e m iddl
e s e r u e e s e e s e u u e

p a t of th b ridg at t h exp en of th con n ct n g h an k W th th ey

,

e e i s s i e e
r e e e se

Wire .
N v h ave I en m an y b ok en n o p c a l at ly
e er se so r s e- ie es s e .
74 H AND BO OK
-
F OR OPT I CIANS .

w ithout b eing obl iged to b e n d o u r h ead do w n o r forwa rd .

We sho ul d b e ab l e to see at an a n gl e o f 4 5 th rough the

°

m iddl e o f th e glasses w ith o u r h ead st raight and by ,

m e r ely lo w e ri n g o u r eye s i n th at di r ectio n Th ese glasse s .

m u st b e pl aced con side rably l o we r th an th e st reet

glasses which o n th e co nt ra ry enabl e u s to se e t h ro ugh
, , ,

t he m i ddl e o f t he l e n s wh en loo ki n g st r aight ahea d .

Th e m il ita ry rul e fo r thi s po s itio n i s th at th e ey e s should

st ri ke th e g rou n d at fo rty step s f ro m u s wh i ch i s abo ut ,

o n e h und r ed feet N ear sighted p e r son s shou ld b e fitted

.
-

i n thi s way I t l ook s v e ry bad wh e n th e stre et glasses

.

sit too l ow and oblige th e w ea r er i n o rder to see

, ,

th r ough th e glasses to thre w his h ead back as i f h e we re

, ,

star gazi ng
-
.

I n rega r d to th e st e e p ing po sitio n f o r wo r ki ng p u r

poses I m ay m entio n h ere th e reaso n w hy peopl e should
,

n o t b en d t he i r he ad forward b ut k eep i t erect while ,

readi ng etc A ny m edi cal bo o k w ill i nform yo u that

, .

th e ar ter ies wh i ch ca r ry th e b lood fro m th e h eart to the

h ead a nd to oth e r parts o f th e body are sit u ated far ,

b en eath th e su r face an d that tho se b loo d v essel s which

,
-

y o u can see j u st b elo w th e ski n are v eins whi ch conduct

th e b lood b ack t o th e h eart No w fee l th e mu scl es of .

yo u r neck wh e n e rect and agai n wh e n st e e p ing ; they ,

are soft a nd p l i abl e i n th e fi rst positio n a n d h ard and ,

sti f f w h e n y o u b en d you r h ead fo rwa rd Th e arteries .

b ei ng situated b elow th e m u scl e s th ei r actio n i s not ,

i nfluen ced by th e ch a n ge s o f th e l atte r fro m th e rel axed

to th e co ntracted cond ition ; b ut th e ci rcul atio n i n the
v ei n s i s co n siderab l y i nterrupted by th ei r b eing com
pressed to a m uch sm all e r size th an b efore Wh at i s the .

co n sequence ? Th e pu mping o f th e b loo d i nto th e h ead

go es o n u ni nte r ru pted l y ; b u t th e flo w ing o ff t o the
h ea r t i s obst ruct ed an d w e soo n e r o r lat er su ffer from
,

h ead ach e get dizzy and h av e to stop wo r k Ho w m any

-
, , .

ti m es 18 a s pectacl e deal e r puzz led by such co m plai nts of

-

h is custo m e rs not k n owi ng h o w to co rr ect it ? A t last

,

th ese p eopl e by chan ce fin d am on g th e ch eap co m mon ,

spect acl es a b etter fil tin g fr ame and o f co u rse te mpo , , ,

r a ry rel i ef We not o n ly l o s e th i s il l p l eased cu s tom er

.
-
,

but d ri ve h i m t o the co nv ictio n that twe nty fiv e cent -

 S ELECTI O N OF SPEC T A CL ES . 75

sp ectacl es ar e j ust as goo d o r b ette r th a ntwo doll ar o nes -

.

l Ve are th e cause o f h is at l e ng th r ui n i ng hi s eyes by

th e u se o f co m mo n spect acles th ro u gh o u r igno ra nce
,

of th e nat u re o f h i s r easo nab l e com p lai nts D i rect .

,

th e refo re g reat atte ntio n to th e co r r ect fitt ing of f ram es

, .

Th e te m pl es o f th e spectacl es sho uld as a ru l e rest , ,

o n th e c ar s .I f on e ear of a custom er i s a l ittl e high e r th an

th e oth e r wh ich i s not so u nco m mo n a s peopl e thi nk
, ,

w e h av e to b en d o r ti lt the tem pl e f o r th e h igh e r c ar u p ,

a nd th e othe r o n e do wn e lse th e pupi l wi l l not b e oppo

,

site th e c ente r o f the l en s I n som e sp ecial cases w e

.

may b e co m pel led to i n cli n e both temp les i n o rde r to

b ri ng the gl ass es i nto s uch a posi t io n that th e lowe r pa rt
o f th e m i s al m o st to uch i ng th e ch eeks and th e wea r er is
,

abl e to hol d h is w ork n ea r th e body Thi s may b e ac

.

com p li sh ed al so by d i r ecti ng c u stom e r s to pl ace th e

tem p les o n e o r two i nch es above th e ears .

I t i s absol utely n ecessa ry to ex am i n e both eyes sepa

r at e l
y an d to co r r ect each e r ro r o f r ef raction by th e
,

p rop e r l e ns B ut the r e are cases b eyo nd th e sphere of

.

optician s i e wh e n it i s i mpossibl e to m ake t he r ight

, . .
,

diagn osi s w ith o u t p repari ng the eye f o r su ch an exam i na

tio n Th ese pat ients shoul d b e tu r n ed ove r to an oculist ;
.

“ ”
it wou ld b e an act o f ch a rl ata n ry o n o u r pa rt to
p rete n d to d o fu l l j usti ce to such cases Co n fin e .

yo ur s kil l to th e l i m its o f you r t rade an d you wi l l be

,

convi nced th at it r equ i res al l yo u r kno wl edge i ntel ligence ,

an d en e rgy to fi ll th e pl ace o f an expe rt optician Ove r .

am bitio us you n g m en may co m m it t he erro r o f t ry in g to

co m bi n e th e two b r an ches of an ocul ist a nd an Optici an
as fa r as spectacl es are con cerned ; b ut is it not th e
m istake o f a b ui lder wh o wo u l d be hi s o w n arch itect ,

th e apoth ecary h i s ow n do cto r ? Th e p ub li c in gen eral

fares bette r i f th es e b ranch es are d iv ided and ably r e p ,

r esented by co m pete nt s peci al ists ; o n o n e side th e

sci enti fi c ocul ist o n th e othe r si de th e s kil l fu l optician
, ,

both experts i n th ei r parti cula r b r an ch es I f we play .

ocul ist why sho ul d n ot th e ocu li st pl ay opti ci an a nd

, ,

keep a stock o f sp ectacl es o n h an d ? Th e refo r e my ad

Su amcaiq
”
v ice “ ue .
,
 C H AP T ER IX .

DO UBL E F o c u s SI N G L E AND S P L I T G L ASSES .

Th e fai ling o f o u r ey esight m a n ife sts itsel f by the

grad ual l ength en i ng o f th e foca l di sta nce A t fi rst we .

"
see w el l at 14 th e n w e are co m p ell ed to h o ld o u r book
o r paper at 15 afte rwa rd s at etc ; 1n d th e p ro .

gress o f th e l ength e ni ng o f o u r focal d istan ce s l ow at ,

fi rst s e e n take s a wo nde rful ly rapid stride if we hesitate

, ,

to s ubstitut e by sp ectacl e s that p art o f o u r power of

vi sion wh ich i s i r r evo cab ly l o st l Ve are r e m ind ed he re
.

“ ”
o f the co m m o n adage : On e stitch i n ti m e sav es n in e
i e
. .
, th e early u se o f spectacl es whe n th e i r as si stance
,

i s n ecessa ry sav es o u r eyesight fr o m its oth e r w ise r apid

,

fai lu re N i n e p e rso n s out o f ten w ho co m e for thei r

.
,

fi rst gl asses con fess that th ey h av e p u t o ff th e use of

,

th e m as l ong as possibl e but h av e to yi e l d at l ast They

,
.

are n o t aware o f th e g r eat b l u n d e r t he y m ade by taxing

'

th ei r di m i ni s h ed pow e r o f v isio n in th e sam e d egree as

th ey did wh e n th ei r ey es w e r e e nj oy ing th ei r full
st r ength .

A w el l kno w n fact f u r lo s i ng sight i s th e im

o o
“

p rovem ent o f dist ant v i sio n ; th e s ight i s going away

f ro m u s w e gai n at th e dista n ce w h at w e l os e near by
, .

L et us se e fi f tee n yea rs l ater w h at has b eco m e of o ur

custom e r s eyes an d h i s specta cl es Th e grad ual fai ling
’
.

o f h i s eyesight h as co m pel l ed hi m to i n crease th e st r ength

o f hi s r eadi n g gl as s es t i l l h e u s es n o w l
, Diopte rs —

( o r 1 6 i n ch fo
-
cus ) fo r n ea r v i sio n ; b ut h is far point
has al so rem ov ed an d h e fi nds i t i m po ssi bl e to di stin
,

g u ish th e featu res of th e m i n i s t e r o r th e faces of ,

peopl e i n th e s t reet 50 ft aw ay from h i m H e asks for

.
.

street gl asses A nd h e r e a r ises th e q u estio n I s it ad

.

s ab l e to c o m
,

vi b in e r ead in g w ith d is tan ce g l ass es ? The

m ost rational way i s t o ta ke sep ar ate gl as s e s fo r each
pu rpose S o m e peopl e w i l l fol lo w o u r a dv i ce a n d c han e
.
,
g

th ei r glasses acco rdi ngly b u t w e h av e to d ea l a lso w iIh

,
’

n ervou s qui ck t em pe red a n d i m pati e n t c u sto m e r s who

,
-

gru mb l e at t h e slo w n ess of steam an d w ant t o h av e every

,
 D O UBL E F O CUS S I N G L E AND S PLI T GL ASS ES . 77

th i ng go by l ightn i n g They i m agi n e th at they have no .

t im e to cha nge th ei r spectacles ; and i ndeed so m e people

h av e not ; th e re is th e acco u ntant w hose ent ri es i n th e ,

l edge r fro m th e j o u rnal fo rce hi m to loo k at ite ms about

2 ft f ro m hi m
.
He can not keep h i s seat and aecom
.

p l is h h is task co m fo rtably i f h e has to j u mp up and ,

ben d his body an d st r etch h i s n eck r ight o r l eft to

,
,

ch eck Off an d m a ke a co rr ect e n t ry Th ere i s th e payi ng .

tel l e r wh o m ust have a sharp ey e o n h is m on ey a nd the

,

pa rty r ecei vi ng it Th e re i s th e engi nee r watching his

.

engi ne an d l oo ki ng ev e ry no w a nd the n at th e stea m

,

ga u ge ; th e teache r th e m ini s te r the o rato r the cle rk

, , , ,

th e l a w y e r a n d m any oth e r perso n s who fin d it ab s o

, ,

l u t e l y n e ce s sa ry to b e en ab l ed to see well at a gla n ce f ar Off

an d nea r b y C a n w e acco m modate th e s e peo pl e with
.

o ut inj u ri ng th ei r eyes ? \Ve can to a ce rtai n exte n t

w ith do u bl e fo cu s s p ectacl e s each gl ass adapted to its ,

sp ecial pu r po e th e u ppe r pa rt f o r d ista n t th e lo we r

s , ,

f o r n e ar v i sio n Th ese s pectacl es are called “ F rankli n

.

”
gl a s ses b e ca u se Be nj am i n F ra n kl i n was th e i nve nto r
of t he mfi ",

Th e r e are two k ind s i n u s e ; the dou ble foc u s s ing l e o r

panto scop i c l e n s es wh e re th e u ppe r pa rt i s g ro u n d off to
,

a w eake r fo cus and th e sp l it gl ass es w he re th e distant

, ,

and n ea r l en se s are c u t th ro u gh th e m idd l e (o r opti c l i n e ) ,

“
5
T h o gh th k i d
r u of M F W M A I S ER
e n n es s r . . . C LL T Of B altimo re, I c am e
by T hom a
.
,

in po io n Of a photog aph of t h follo w i g l tt

s se s s r e n e e r, w ri tt en s
J ff
e o n to hi g at g an df ath :
ers ,
s re -
r er
I VASEI N G T ON , No v 12 , 180 6
me w i s e a e s , s o re u e in
. .

h v h tofo f
SI R z— Y o u a e e re h d th p ct cl
re u rn i s e d c d
z
S i e as to g v f c ty to
ie ai look ov th top tho t
li t he in g er ei r wi u mo v ing them
Th
.

g t co v
is is a r e a c n en i d ct o b
e n e ; b u t t he re u to
i n h as n o t een s u fficre n t
‘

do I t c om I th fo
p l e at l y d
er e r e s en y o u a d raw mg N O 1, SO
m ch d c d u re u e
en e c o m
. .

in b th
r ea to g v th co v
as i e c
is n en i l v fi ld
p l e atl y, an d y e t ea e e
en uo gh p po
f o r an y u r I l th k
se An d Wi l
. p p gf m
an y ou f o r a air Of S rin ra e s
m d cc t ly to
a e a u ra e d g g m to d
t h e raw in , an d a s e t o f l as s e s as en i n e in t h e
m p p
sa e a er
T ho
.

obl g d to
s e w h o are p ct cl k o
i e u se s eh t co v
a es c
n w w a a n en ie n e it

w uo ld to h v d
be a e iff er e n mag n ifie rs in t h e s ame ra e
t f m kl Dr F ran in . .

t d th by m c c l gl
rie is se i ir u arj o d ho zo t lly
as s e s in e pp lo
ri n a the u er and w er
me an s w ere
,

se m c cl
i i r d
e s Of t po
iff e r e n h ch told
w e rs , w i d p f ctly
he er e I
Wis h to th fo
t ry it , an d d
er e d
re s e n g No g bly to h ch
y o u a raw in 2 , a ree a w i
,

x ctly I l
.
,

e a oth p of p g f m to
w il as k an er air m d
s rin ra e scom be a e, an d a
Th
,

pl t
ea s c t of m c c l l
se i i m to d
r u ar g as s e s as p pen i n e ll of
I n th e a er es e W i
:
c ty g v
n e es s i p t
i e up i noth co v
ar t he c of look g ov th m
er n e n ie n e in er e
I ll p y Wi ra y o u t o s e n me a air g e s Wi
,

W th th
i l
e s e g as s e s d p of go gl th cl ea r
gl l ttl c of th r ee m po h tt g w e rs , S u in
‘

as s , an d a i e as e ag n ifiers o f d ifi e re n t u
p
78 H AN D B O OK FO R O PT ICIAN S - .

and fi nished SO th at th e spl it fo rm s a st raight l i n e i n the z

p

f ram e f io m t em pl e to tem pl e Th e Opti c l in e i n th ese .

glasses is t he ie f O1 e r ight o n th e spl it Th e w eare r of

, ,
. ,

co u r se is obl iged to loo k bel ow o r abov e th at v e ry line

,

w h e r e th e ey e i s m o st at ease an d w he ie it fe el s com ,

f e it ab l e acco rding to facts de mo nst r ated i n C hapter V

,
.

Th e doub l e focus s in g l e l en s has a s e r iou s d efect I t .

co nfuses th e w e aic i in ieg ard to th e t i u e position of

th i ngs I f w e lo o k at a st raight h o rizontal l i n e first
.

th ro ugh o n e part Of th e l en s and i n th e n ext m om ent , ,

by m ovi ng th e l e ns th rough th e oth e r p art w e Ob se rve , ,

that th e l in e i s con siderab ly displ aced I t i s el evated or .

l ow e red as w e loo k at it alternately t hio u g h th e u pp ei

a nd lo we r part Both pa rt s Of th e l en s act as p risms .
,

bases I n th e m iddl e .

I f th e dotted l i n e i n th e s in gl e l en s i s th e true posi

in a gl ho c as e T h ey are u se d ch iefly f or readin g off the fin e divi
sin e rn .

o of t o om ic al or g e om e t ical in s tru m en t s an d are common ly to b e

si n s as r n r

hop s I p res u m e th e s e articl es pl ac e d b etw een t w o p aste

,

h ad in th e s
bo a d s may com e s af ely by po s t The am o u n t s h all b e rem itte d yo u as
.

r .

s oo n as k n o w n A cc ep t my s al u tatio n s an d b e s t w is h es
. .

T H J E F F ER S ON
Mr J O HN
. .

. M CAL I S T ER ,

Ch e tn t St s u t 48
r ee , ,

Ph l ad lp hia
i e .

gl a s lon g diam et e é I
Eye s , r .

s ho t d iam e t er I r .

f om c n t r to c en t e of ye gl as s es at I
r e e r e .

compl at s t of gl asse f om
A e e s r th e yo un ges t to th e old s t e to fit
f am e Silv e f am es
r . r r .

gl a s lo n g diam te 4 I
Eve s , e r .

No . 2 .
ad i I r us .

f om c en ter to c n t r o f eye gl as 2 g I
r e e s .

E ach gl ass is compo s ed f 2 e m ici c l a l en se th e lo w er of a

e ye o s r u r s,
g eate m ag n ifyin g po w th an the u pp th at to s ay O f the n ext No
r r er er, is
to t he u pp n e er o .
, .

A compl eat t f h alf gl as t o b e s en t f om the m ag n ifi e ad p t d

se o s es
a e to r r
t h fi s t se o f p ct acl s t o th at sn itin g t h e O ld e St e es a
,

y l l fittmg e x actly
e r u s e e ,

t h f am es Silv f am es ,
e r . er r .
80 H AND B O O K FOR OP T ICIAN S
- .

co m it ab l
y typ
O id i e at
n ary th e n O im al d i sta n ce say ,

14 i nch es You wi l l fi nd th at th e r el ati o n o f di stant

.

an d r eadi ng glasses i s cal cul ate d by th e fol l owi ng i ule ,

i n th e i n ch m easure
Multi pl y by 3 f io m l 16 to 11 -

2 10 t o 6
l l —
l 5 do w n .

Wh e n peopl e wea r 16 , we m ay y l
t i — 4 8 o r —
l 60
11 j 30
_ _
36
cc cc ,
u

10 , 20 24
On e of th ese n u mb ers i s gen e ral ly co r r ect I n al l .

cases whe re peopl e i n si s t o n h avi ng doub l e fo cus gl asses ,

w e shoul d p e r s uade th e m to take spl it glasses .

On e o f my custo m e rs wh o at m y reco m m endation

co m m en ced w ith spl it glasses w as a n noyed by th e con ,

stant r e m ark s th at h i s gl asses w e re b rok en o rde r ed them ,

replaced b y do ub l e focus si n gl e l e n s es I n vai n I gave .

himal l the poi nts i n r ega r d to th ei r p ris m ati c actio n and ,

fi na l ly advi sed himto b e v e ry careful ti l l h e h ad accus ,

t o me d h i m sel f to th ei r u se .

A bo ut a m o nth afte r wa rds h e e nte r ed th e store i n ,

g reat excitem ent an d asked m e to r epl ace th e s plit

,

glasses He h ad j u st l eft th e st re et c ar an d by stepping

.
,

ove r th e gutte r h ad m i s sed t he opposite cu rb sto n e -

( wh i ch h e s aw th ro u gh th e l ow e r pa rt O f h i s gl asses to

b e n e aie i to h i m tha n it r eal ly w as ) H e wo ul d have

p i o b ab l y b roke n a l eg if h e h ad n o t l u cki ly g rasped a
,

l am p post j u st i n r each to p ie v e n t a se rio u s fal l

-
, , .

Th e p r i sm ati c actio n i n do u bl e fo cu s l e n se s can be e n

t ire l y o ve rco m e by tak i ng f o r di s tant v isio n a ful l l ens
Of the n eces s ary st r e ngth an d the n ce m e nt O n it a l ittle
, ,

below th e Opti cal l in e a sm al l l e n s w hi ch i n add ition to

,

the po w e r of th e dista nt gl ass w i l l p io d u c e th e reading

gl ass .
 D OUB LE F O CUS S IN G L E AND S PL IT GL ASS ES . 81

A n opt ician l ately d rew my attentio n th e abov e to

cal cu latio n o f doub l e focus spe ctacles He mai ntai ned
.

th at the r ul e I h ad give n was i n correct as th e p r esen ce

y p e rme t ro p ia co mb i n ed with p r esbyopia would r en der
,

of b

a n enti rely d iffe re nt r esult I was so m ewh at s u r p rised

.

at hi s m isi nte rp retation o f th e give n r u le as th e ch apter

,

has n ot th e sl ightest refe r en ce to hyperm et ropia but refe r s ,

si m ply t o th e decl i n e Of a n emmetrop ic eye beco m i ng

gradually presbyop ic But I was sti l l m ore su rp ri sed
.

when I co n s ulted Ha rtridge o n that subj ect an d foun d ,

o n page 182 th e fo l lo w i ng sente n ces : “ A s age advan ce s

th e ref r action o f th e ey e di m i nish es i n othe r wo rds th e

, ,

ey e i f e m m et r opi c b ecom es h y pe r m etropi c (call ed ac

qui red hyp e r m et rop i a ) Th e my o p ic ey e beco m
. es less
my O p ic so th at a rea l i m p rovem ent i n vision takes
,

pl ace Th e hy p e rmet rO p ic ey e becom es m o r e hy p e rme

.

tropi c Th is ch ange takes place at a reg u la r rate i n

.

al l eyes .

I at o nce excused m y f r ien d o f h is m istake ; I thought

wh en a cel eb rated autho r ity l ik e H a rt ridge co u ld fal l
, ,

i nto s uch er ro rs th e n a Si mpl e op ti ci a n m ay b e do u bly

,

excu sed .

I t i s a k no w n fact th at i n yo uth th e eyes are eith er

e m m et rop i c hyp e r m etropi c o r myopi c (I n o rde r to
,
.

si m pl i fy m y a rgu m e nt I o m it as t igm atis m an d othe r

,

i rregul a r iti es ) Th ese three p ri n cipal co nd itions of th e

.

ey e are du e t o p ecul iar fo rmatio ns o f the eye bal l -

,

w hich a re usual ly s tation ary du r ing l ife A l l change s .

i n th e powe r o f vi sio n afterwards are not p r od uced by

a n al terat io n o f th e fo r m O f th e eye ball b ut by th e
-
,

gra d ual h arde ni ng a nd subs eq ue nt fl atte ning o f th e crys

tal l in e l ens . Extrao rdi n ary casu alti es m ay so m eti m es
82 H AND —B O OK F O R O PT ICIANS .

ch ange th e fo rm o f th e ey e b all and alte r a n e m m et ropic -

,

eye i nto a myopic o r hyp e r m et ropi c b ut th is is pos

si bl e on ly i n th e early st age Of l ife wh en al l t h e ti ssues ,

o f the body ar e yet so ft an d easily alte r ed an d n ot at ,

th e t im e wh e n th e ey es are i n n eed Of F ra n kl i n glasses .

E m m et ro pi c eyes do not r equi re gl asses u nti l 4 0 o r 4 5

yea r s at wh i ch ti m e p resbyopi a has m ade its ap pear
,

a nce Hyp erm et ropic a nd myopi c ey es o n th e co nt ra ry

.
, ,

need gl asses f rom ea r ly chi l dh ood u p to Ol d age a nd as ,

thei r ey es at a c e rtai n p e r iod u n de rgo th e sam e ch anges

, ,

as th e e m m et ropi c i e th e l e n s flatten s a nd p roduces

, . .

p resbyopia th ei r Spectacl es h av e to b e changed f o r read

,

ing pu rposes to th e a m o unt o f thi s add itio n al defect to

,

thei r pe rman e n t defici en cy S up pose o n e party wears .

—
l 4 S a nothe r
, 4 S f o r n ea r a n d far th ey ce rt ai nly, ,

a re obl iged to change those gl asses as soon as p r esbyopia

s ets in but not soo n e r S i nce th e cem e nted b ifocal l en ses
, .
-

w ere i nt rod u ced w e m ay read ily co rrect th e spectacle s

,

o f those pa rti es by cem enti ng the l ittl e m oo n Shaped -

co nvex Slabs upo n th ei r spectacl es fo r cl ose wo rk and ,

l e av e the upper part o f th e l en s u n ch anged f o r distant

v i sion I f th ei r presbyopia ca n b e co rr ect ed by l
. s —

an d w e ce m ent th is s lab upo n th ei r spectacl es then ,

th e hype r m et rope h as l 4 s fo r di stant v isio n a nd —

s for reading wh i l e th e myop e h as ,4 s for dis

tant an d
, S fo r n ea r vi sio n .

We see th at the hyp e r m etrop e h as t o i n c rease th e

stre ngth of h i s Sp ectacl es acco rdi ng to th e a mo u nt Of
p r esbyopi a n o w affecti ng hi s v isio n wh i l e th e myope has ,

to dec rease th e st r ength O f h is f ar glasse s f o r reading

p u rposes o n acco u nt o f h is advanci ng p resbyo pia The
,

hyp e rme t ro p e has not b ecom e m o r e hype rm et rop ic and

.

th e myop e not l ess myo pi c n otw ith sta ndi ng t h e asser ,

tio n o f Mr Ha rt ridge to th e cont ra ry Th o se d e ficie n

.
.

ci es are no w si m ply co m b i n ed w ith presbyo pi a and ,

o ught to b e corrected by th e additio n o f suitab le co n vex

l en ses to th ei r fo r m e r glasses wh ich sti l l an s we r th e pur
pose f o r distant visio n .

A n e mme t io p ic ey e com m e n ci ng w ith spectacl es o n ly ,

at th e age o f 4 0 i s not i n n eed o f d ist ant glass e s b e fo re

,

5 5 or 6 0 yea r s a nd the abov e rul e i s app l i cab l e t o al l

.
,

cases i n thi s respect .

 C H AP T E R X .

C O L O R ED OR TIN T ED G L ASS ES .

Th e b l in d m
an is a p o o r an m
m
,

An d t h e p O O I a b l in d an is
T h e o n e o f c o u rs e c an s e e n o an m
m
, ,

The o ther n o an c ar e s to s e e
-

The te r m s b l in d men an d b egg ars are al most sy no ny

, ,

m o u s a n d i nd icat e the g reat m i s e ry atte n di n g th e l oss

,

o f sight F o rtun ate ly w e l ive i n a n ag e in wh ich Sci ence

.

“
h as i n ve stigated th e evi ls th at befal l m a n ki n d and we ,

can say w ith p r ide the bl in d man s hall s ee ; not by a

,

myste rio u s wo n d e r but by th e scientific sk il l of expe rts

, .

A m o ng th e modern app li a nces to r el ieve the s u ffe ri ng s

Of an afil ic t e d ey e P r o te ctio n Sp e ctacl es set with co l
, ,

o red l en ses tak e a p ro m ine nt pl ace Th ey soften th e

, .

exces s O f l ight oth e r w i se so a nnoying and hu rtf u l S ince

, .

spectacl es w e re i nve n ted p eopl e h ave expe ri mented with

,

d iffe re nt colo rs gi vi ng p r efe re nce at o n e ti m e to th is at

, ,

anoth e r ti m e to that col o r acco rding to fashio n e n ti rely

, ,

d is rega rd i n g opti ca l l aws ti l l th ey have settl ed f o r th e

,

p rese nt w ith scie ntifi c r easo n s upo n t he ti n t O f s mok e

, , .

To co m p r eh en d th i s q u estio n tho ro ugh ly w e m u st di rect ,

o u r atte n tio n fi rs t to the th eo ry O f colo rs i n ge ne ral and ,

“
s ee wh at w e u nd e rsta nd by th e te r m spect r u m .

Wh e n w e s p eak i n a n Opti cal se nse of colo rs we ex ,

clude ,
o f co u rs e th e pigm e n ts u s ed by pai nte rs who
, ,

i n cl ude am ong th e m even bl ack and w hite w h ich are no ,

colo rs at al l Black is th e absen ce o f l ight an d co n

. ,

s equ e ntly Of col o rs ; wh ite is th e u nd iv ided light con ,

tai n i ng al l col o rs so co m b i ned that th e diffe rent ti nts

total ly disappea r Wh it e light is th erefo re called
.
, ,

“ colo rl ess ” although i t n eeds o n ly to pass th ro u gh a

,

ce rtai n m ediu mto b e r esol ved into th e b rightest co lo rs ,

as i s s een in th e rai nbo w wh ere the fal ling d r ops act a s

,

th e d eco m po si ng age nt Th e rai nbow i s a fai r sp eci m e n

.
84 HAND B O OK FO R OPT ICIANS
- .

of th e Sol ar Sp ectru m showi ng th e sev e n spe ctral co lo rs

, ,

r ed o r an g e y e l l o w b l indi o a n d viol e t To
, , g r ee n
, ue g , ,
.

these can b e added b r ow n outside o f th e red an d gray , , ,

o utsid e o f th e v iol et By m ea n s o f a prism w e a re e nabled

.

to prod uce th is spect ru m to p e rfectio n an d to i n vesti ,

gate th e pecu liar p ro p e rti es O f each colo r separately .

We th us fin d that red i s l east r ef ract ed I t force s its .

way for w ard lik e a heavy b al l o r Shot wh i l e v io let i s ,

the m ost re f rac t e d y ie ld in g r eadily to th e Ob st r uction

,

it e nco unters i n passi ng th rough the p ri sm S cie ntists .

h av e fo u n d th at th e waves o f r e d are n ea rly twi ce as

l ong as those Of v iol et and thi s accounts f o r th e imp et
,

u o u s n e s s o f its r a y whi ch al m ost ov erco m es th e i nte r

,

fere nce o f th e p ris m Th e w aves o f th e oth e r colors

.

b eco m e gradually Sho rter u p to vio let ; a nd as th e sm al le r ,

wav es act m o r e gently upo n th e ten de r ti ss ues Of the

ret ina w e m ight guess w ith so m e p rob ab il ity that violet
,

wo ul d b e th e softest co lo r to the ey e Thi s w ou l d b e a .

g ross erro r Th ere i s a d e ci ded di ffe re n ce i n th e effects

.

Of colo rs o n th e ey e I t i s p leasant to loo k at th e dark

.

g r een of a m eado w o r th e fo l iage Of trees ; b ut it is v e ry

t ryi ng t o us e g r ee n sp ectacl es b ecau se o u r eye s are then ,

con sta ntly un der th e i nfl uen ce Of o n e particul ar colo r .

I n fact n o color i s h u rtfu l to th e ey e as a n Obj ect to look

,

at ; but if a speci al colo r i s used as th e m edi u m to look

th rough it al w ays acts m o re o r l ess i nj u r iou sly i n th e
,

propo rtio n as th e Sh ad e i s l ighte r o r da rk e r Th e r e is .

n o exceptio n to th is r ul e We m u st b ea r in m i n d that a .

h ealthy ey e i s abl e t o en dure t he ful l fo rce O f th e whol e

l ight an d th at any d iv i si o n an d exc l usio n o f it s essential
,

com pon ents wi l l act d et r i m e ntal ly a s w oul d b e th e case ,

i n b reathi ng on ly o xygen o r nitroge n separately wh en a ,

m ixtu re of both i n a ce rtai n p ropo rtio n i s th e v ital con

ditio n o f o u r existe n ce NO sep arate colo r i s th e r efore
.
, ,

a proper su bstitut e f o r white l ight f o r wh i ch o u r ey e i s ,

co n st r ucted and so wel l adapted as lo ng a s it i s i n a

,

heal thy con d itio n .

But wh e n th e ey e i s i m pai red an d ca n n ot sta n d th e ,

ful l strength o f l ight sho u l d w e n o t Sh ut o ff so m e o f t he

,

most h u rtful parts o f th e spectru m a n d al l o w o n ly th e ,

softer colo rs to ac t up o n th e te nder o rga n ? Do e s no t

 C O L O R ED OR T I NTED GL A SSES . 85

th e phy si ci an regulate th e diet Of h is pati ent by dep rivi ng

him Of ce rtai n food ? C e rtainly SO it seem s at fi rs t to ,

a ny sup e rfici al obse rve r b ut ev e n th e most rigoro us diet ,

does not d ep rive th e pati e nt o f a ny O f th e n ecessa ry

e le m e nts o f h i s n u t riin e nt ; o nly q u anti ty a nd fo r m are
m odified Of th e fi fte en el em e nta ry substan ces ou r
.

bo dy contai n s th e fou r m ost esse ntial are oxygen hyd ro

, ,

gen n it roge n an d ca rbo n To el i mi n ate f ro m the diet

, .

of a patient o n e o f th ese fo u r el em ents woul d not b e

m o r e i rrat io n al than to s u pp ress o n e colo r Of the spectrum
i n favo r of a noth e r N eith er green bl ue no r v iolet can
.
,

b e s ubst it ut ed f o r th e pec u lia r u n io n o f al l colors p ro

d uc ing whit e l ight A ny shifti ng Of th e fi nely balanced
.

i ng redients of w hite l ight w il l act fatiguingly o r eve n p er

ni cio u s l y u po n th e eye Th ose Of my r e ade rs wh o u n
.

d e rs t and ch e m ic al fo rm ul a e w i ll r eadi ly see th e po i nt i n

q uestio n The (Old sty l e ) fo rm ula o f s u gar is exp ressed
.

by C 2 H O 1
N o w tak e t wo atom s each Of hy
] 1 .
, ,

d roge n an d o xyge n f ro m t he m o l ec ul e an d we h ave ,

v in e ar
g C 1 2 H 0 By
9
a si m il
9
ar.p ro cess “ s weet ”
,

l ight m ay be m ad e disagreeabl e by s m oth eri ng o ne or

mo re colo r s o f th e sp ectru m o r rath er by i nc r easi ng t h e ,

effect o f o n e particular col or at th e expense o f the

oth e rs .

We h ave see n th at th e exclusio n O f partic u lar colors

o f th e spectru m does n o t an sw e r o u r purpo s e I t re .

m ai n s th e r efo r e to decide wh at c an b e do n e t o p rotect

, ,

th e s u fferi ng ey e fro m th e i nj uriou s effect of l ight with ,

o ut i nte rfe ri ng with th e essential co mbi natio n O f th e

’
therm i c electric an d m agnetic qual ities o f the su n s
,

rays wh ich pecul i ar com bi n atio n ag r ees exactly with

,

th e co n struction o f the eye as t he m i l k o f th e mothe r ,

agrees w ith th e healthy developm ent o f h er i nfant .

Th e mo st ratio nal m ethod i s to di m i n ish the whol e amo u nt

o f th e light by smoked gl asses Th ese do not alter the .

p roportio n O f the d iffe rent co lo rs and p roduce n o ,

cha nge i n th ei r v i b ratio ns Th ey only l esse n th e amount .

o f light witho ut d istu rb i ng th e propo rtio n o f its elem ents .

Th e wh ol e Spectru m i s thu s u ni fo rm ly red uced and ,

noth i ng i s ch anged by sm ok ed glasses b ut th e strength

o f th e excessive light .
86 H AND B O O K FO R OP T ICIANS
- .

To sho w th at no sp ecia l color by itsel f w i l l satisfy the

ey e I re m ind th e reade r h ere o f th e w el l k now n e x p e ri
,

m ent o f satu rati ng th e ey e with o n e colo r by e x cl uding

the oth e rs and obse rvi ng h o w eage r ly th e ey e ab so rbs
,

th e co m pl em e ntary colo r afte r th e test colo r i s s ud d enly -

rem oved Th e ea siest w ay to m ak e th is e xpe ri m e nt is to

.

cut from colo red pape r r o u nd p ieces o f t h e si z e o f a sil

v er dol l a r Lay o n e o f th ese ci rcl es u po n wh ite p ape r
.
,

an d lo o k fo r h a l f a m i n u te stead ily at i t th e eyes si x ,

i n ch es f ro m the colo red ci rcl e By rem ovi ng th i s q ui ckly .

,

a n d l ooki ng al way s at th e sa m e pl ace w e wi l l s ee dis ,

t in c t l y th e co mp lem e nta ry col o r I f th e ci rcle was re d .

we w il l see i n stead a g re e n o n e wh i ch col o r i s co m ple ,

m entary to red A y el lo w ci rcl e w i ll p rod uce v iol et ; .

bl ue p roduces o ra n ge ; an d g r ee n w i l l sho w re d The .

eye s eeks to b e r el i eved f ro m th e strai n a n d i s there , ,

fo re m uch i n n eed o f th e m i ssin g colo r s I t takes

,
.
,

i ndeed a good wh il e befo r e th e ey e r eco v ers f ro m th e

,

fatigue an d i s aga i n ab le to r eceiv e th e wh ite light with

,

o u t seei ng co lo rs Th i s expe r im ent b eco m e s v e ry i n .

t e re st ing w h en w e t ry it w i t h o n e e y e o n ly th e other ,

b ei ng s h a d ed Wh e n at th e m om e nt o f th e r em ov al of
.

t he te s t colo r t he ope n ey e is sh ad ed w e pe rcei v e with ,

th e oth e r th e com pl e m e n ta ry colo r as pl ai n ly as i f that

”
v e ry ey e h ad bee n di rectly ex po s ed to th e test This .
6

ex pe ri m ent w as k now n f o r m a n y y ea r s b u t no b o dy h ,

Th is xpl ain th
p e c u l iaiit y c all d “ H a m on y of of th e e ye e s e so- e r
Colo w hi ch do n t d p n d n th W ll
rs , c ap ic
es p on al t a t
o e e o e i 0 1 r e, or e rs s e
la B y ha
,

o f an n d v id al b t i b a d n
i i n ch an g abl
u w of n at
u s se o u e e s u re r
mo n y f l m
, .

nd
o eotan d col pl ac d d by id n
s u e u h a m an n
er s e is e si e s e i suc er
th at th ey do n t nJ th ff ct f ach oth an d b at atan g an d
o i u re e e e o e er, e s i
pl a an t to th y T h i accompl h d by add in g to n p a t c l a
e s e e e . is s is e o e r i u r
colo it compl m n t a y co l o in aj d icio p opo t o n
r s e e th at th y
r r u us r r i so e e e
ch a comb n at o n T ho w h a e f am il ia Wth
,

w ill s t w ithre a n c se o su i i se o r r i
th e e l aw an mak ch l ction in fi ttin g p ap a tm en t in d e in g
.

s s c e su se e s u r s, r ss
et c . th at w ith th g at t impl c ity th y a abl t p od c a m e
,
so e re es s i e re e o r u e or
f avo abl ff ct th an S po ibl w ith t h mo t x t magan t exp n d it
r e e e I ss e e s e r e u re
w itho t th i nu of h a mo n y of colo
s se L ad a p a t ic l arly n n d
se r rs . ie s re r u i ee
o f a tho o gh n d tan d in g f th e l aw f m o t f th m in t he l c
r u u ers o es s, or s o e se e
t o n f th i colo d d s bo n n t an d t mm in g p od u c e om etim
i o e r re re s es , e s ri s r s es
t he g at t d i co d n t h
re es n
p t n of colo
s l d an d
r i
n b lo n g e eo i o s1 io rs . e c
ree e
tog eth do bl an d o an g
e r, s o v iol t an d g n h y l l i
ue iv in d igo r e, or e ree is -
e o or
an d y llo w al o w h it an d bl ack
e , It ns f th colo a e el cte d f a
e . o e o es e rs r s e or
d e th compl m n t a y colo ho ld b
r ss, e d f t h t mm in g an d
e e r r s u e u se or e ri s,
o n ly the ight p opo tio n in w h ch th y w mploy d w ill ho w t he e
r r r i e e e e s r
fi n ed tas te f t he w a o e re r .
88 H AND BOO K F O R O PT I C IAN S
- .

f ro m woo d a k i nd o f co qui l l e spectacl e s w ith a sl it i n .

th e m iddl e to al l ow only a l i m ited q uant ity o f l ight to

,

e nter th e eyes an d p rotect th e m fro m th e dange rous ,

effect of th e strongly reflected su nl i ght w h i ch oth erw ise

m ay ca use s n ow b l in d n ess .

S mo ked l en ses are ab sol utely n ecessa r y wh e n the eye

is i nflam ed afte r m ost O pe r atio n s an d i n oth er cases
, ,
a
decided upo n by o cu l is t s .
i
e

Th e s u t dy colo s an d th ei comb in ation i v y

Of the n a u re t of r r s er

in t t n g an d ho ld n t b n gl ct ed by t h a p i n g optic al s t den t
ere s i s u o e e e e s ri u
f l s ch k n o w l dg may p ov e s om tim es is s ho w n by th f ollow
.
,

Hwo u se u u e e r e e

in g an e cdot : e
“
I n a l a ge f acto y o n e w o k m an in w iel din g his h amm e c a el
r r ly r r, r ess
I t fl w h alf w ay ac o s s the oom an d
,

allo w e d it to lip fr om his h an d s e r r

Th e man w as giv en in ch a g e of
.
,

s t u ck a f e llo w w o km an i
r n t he l eft eye r . r

an m in en t oc lis t w h o afte a c a fu l e x am i
e u n ation s tated th at t h eye r re e

w a n ot i
s nj u e d altho gh t h e man av e rre d th at hi
r , y e w as bl in d e d by the
u s e
blo w He b ou ght a su it in th co t s f o com p n s ation f t h lo s of
. r e ur r e or e s
h al f o f hi y ight an d f d al l off e f comp om is Un d e t h l aw
s e es , re u s e rs o r e . r e
pon ibl f o an inj y es ltin g f om an
,

t h e o w n e o f t h e f acto y w a
r r s res s e r ur r u r

acc id n t o f thi k in d Th d ay f t h t rial a n d an d in op en co t t he

’

e s . e o e r ve , ur
oc li t w ho w as mmon e d by t he d efen a w it n es gave hi opinion
u s ,
su se s s, s
th at the l ft eye w as as good as t he right on e Upon th pl ain tiff p o
e . e
’
s r
tes t of hi in ab ility to se w ith his l eft ey e the oc u l is t s atis fi d t he cou rt
s e , e
an d j u ry f the f al s ity o f his cl aim
o An d h w d o y ou su p p o e h d id it ? . o s e
Why simply by kn ow in g th at g e n look d at th ou gh a ed gl ass app ears
, r e e r r
bl ack H had p p a e d a bl ack c a d n w h ich a f w w o d s w re w ritten
. e re r r o e r e
w ith g n i nkre e T h n the pl ain tiff w a h an d d a p ai f s p ctacl es w ith
. e s e r o e
d ff n t gl as
i ere th o n e f t h e ight ye b e n g e d an d t he n f or the
s es , e or r e i r o e
l eft y gr en Th c a d w as h an d ed t o him an d h w as o d ed to ead
e e e . e r , e r er r
th e w rit n g o n it i This he d id w itho t h es tation an d the ch eat w as at
. u i ,

o n c xpo s d The o n d ight eye fitt d w ith t he ed gl a s w as u n abl e

e e e . s u r , e r s ,

to di tin g is h th g n w tin g n th bl ack f ac e o f the c a d w hil e

s u e ree ri o e su r r ,

t h l eft ye w h ich h e p ten d e d to b e sightl e s s w a t h e n e w ith w h ich

‘
e e , re , s o
t h e read i n g h ad to b e do n e .
 C H AP T E R XI .

R nn an s SiNG or S PEC T AC L E F RA M ES .

Good Spectacl es r eq ui re not o nly faultless l en ses but

also prope r ly fitted f ra mes to r e nde r al l the s e rvi ces w e
,

exp ect from the m The fra m es especi al ly sho ul d b e of

.

th e right size n eith e r too n ar ro w n o r too wide and the

,
,

nose pi eces so shap ed that i n st reet glasses th e p upi l

-

, ,

is exactly Oppo site th e center o f th e len s R eadi ng .

glasses req ui re a l o w e r positio n in o rder to e nab le th e

weare r by si n ki ng h is eyes f o r clo se wo r k to see also
, ,

through th e m iddl e of th e l en s w itho u t b endi ng his h ead .

A ccide nts a nd ca r el ess han dli ng w il l b ri ng som eti m es

spectacles o ut o f sh ape and w e are daily r eq uested to
,

redress th e m Th e fi rst attem pt I m ade i n thi s r esp ect

.

was di rected o n ly to th e tem ples wh ich loo ked to b e ,

straight wh e n ope n b u t w ere poi nti ng i n different d ire c

,

tio ns wh e n c losed Often so m uch that I hardly could

,

place them i nto th e case I h ave foun d very f e w .

j ewel e rs who cou l d p rope r ly red ress spectacl es and I ,

thi nk it th e r efo re n ecessary to devote th e fol lowi ng

, ,

l in e s f o r th ei r i n structio n Th e whole m an ip u l ation .

looks to b e so si m pl e b ut I m ust say it took m e som e years

, ,

befo re I fo un d th e key f o r it .

I n o rde r t o sav e t im e and t rouble w e sho u ld i n variably ,

com m e nce wi th th e n ose p i ece i n conn ection with that-

eye wh i ch i s th e n earest correct We sho uld the n b e nd .

the oth e r eye s o that both fo rm a perfect plan e o r that ,

th ey stan d i n a s traight l i ne Begi nn e rs do wel l to .

p rovide th e m selves w ith a s mal l rul er abo ut f o u r i nch es

i n l engt h an d u se it as a test by placi ng i t fl atly o n o n e
,

eye obse rvi ng wh eth e r th e oth er o n e i s i n th e sam e pla ne

, .

Th e n put it edge wi se ov e r th e m i dd le o f o n e ey e fro m ,

templ e to n ose pi ece and s ee wh ether the oth e r glass is

-
,

not o ut o f l i ne Wh e n th e m iddl e part i s co rrected we

.

exam i n e th e tem pl es an d s t raighten them w itho ut pay

,

ing any atten ti on to th e posit io n th ey wi l l have i n relat io n

90 H AN D B O O K FO R O PT ICIAN S
- .

to th e cente r part I f o n e Of th e m exte nd s too f ar to

.

th e outside w e sh o ul d loo se n th e scre w o r bette r

, , ,

t ake o u t th e gl ass altogeth e r an d b en d th e j oi nt upwa rd , ,

th u s b ri ngi ng th e tem pl e to a r igh t angl e w ith th e cente r .

I t r em ai n s no w only to gi v e th e fi n i s hi ng to uch t o the

te mpl es I f on e of th e m stand s lo w e r th a n th e othe r
.
,

th e len s o n th at side w i l l b e rais ed t o th e g r eatest dis

t u rb an c e o f th e v i sion To co r r ect th i s w e clos e both
.
,

tem pl es an d s ee wh ich o n e poi nt s exactly to the opposite

,

j oi nt ; we t ak e thi s as th e m odel by w hi ch w e correct ,

th e othe r o n e We can not do th is by b e nding th e t emple

.

itsel f up o r do w n f o r thi s woul d u ndo a fo rm e r c o rrec

,

tion whi ch con si sted i n st raighteni ng th e t e m pl es with “

,

o u t payi ng atte ntio n t o th ei r pos itio n A l ittl e r efl ec .

tio n soo n co nv i n ces u s that th e fault i s n o t with the

tem pl e but w ith th e j oi nt I n o rd e r to be n d the j oint
, .
,

w e m ust tak e good hold o f it with so m e bl u n t cutting

pli e r s n ea rest th e ey e l eavi ng al m ost th e wh ol e l ength
,

o f th e j oi nt at ou r dispo sal an d by m ean s O f st rong flat ,

pl i ers we can b ri ng t he j oi nt to its p rope r po sition

w ithout th e ri sk o f b rea ki n g it A ny b endi ng O f spec .

tael es shoul d b e do ne w ith t w o pl i e rs o n e i n each h and , .

I n additio n to th e abov e w e al so n ee d ro u nd pliers ,

especi ally i n r edressi ng th e n ose pi ece To ascertain -

.

fi nally th e correctness o f o u r wo rk w e l ay th e m edgewise ,

upo n a flat surface fo r i nstan ce o n th e show case and

, ,
-
,

see if th e ends o f both te mpl es to uch th e gl ass ; if t hey

,

do not w e h av e to g o o n ce m o r e o v e r th e wh o l e o f the
,

afo resai d m anipul ation s I n cas e o n e te m pl e has the .

r ight posit i o n w he n s hu t b u t poi nt s si de w i se and i n a

,
-

d iffe rent d i r ection to th e oth e r t e m pl e w he n op en the ,

fau lt i s th en with t he j oi n t pi n wh ich i s n o t i n th e same -

pl an e w ith th e l en ses F i rs t r e m ov e th e j oi nt pi n but

. -
,

n ot th e tem p l e th e n i n s e rt a b r e ach an d y o u w il l find

, ,

that th e pl an es o f t he l en s a nd o f th e b re ach di ffe r a good

deal showi ng at th e sam e ti m e in w h at d i re ction you
,

hav e t o ope n th e h ol e til l b re ac h a n d l e n s a re l evel .

Befo r e y o u with d ra w th e b re ac h o pe n th e tem ple ,

an d y o u wi l l s e e that i t n o w po i nts i n th e right

d i rectio n an d w il l k eep i t afte r th e i ns e rt io n of a n ew
,

j oint pi n -
.
 C H AP T E R X II .

USE O F TES T— T YPES .

To test v i sio n w ith diffe r e nt ki nds o f pri nt as fo un d ,

i n n ew spape rs etc was p ract ice d by spectacl e deale r

, .
,
‘

s ,

opti cian s an d o cul i sts up to rece nt date and wo uld b e ,

t he sty l e t O day i f th e m edical professio n had not take n

-

t he m atte r i n h and and i n itiated a n ew e ra by i ntro

,

d u c in g a ratio n al syste m Th e fi rst noti ceabl e effo rt

.

was m ad e by P ro fesso r E Jaege r O f V ienn a A ust ri a

. , , ,

i n th e yea r 1854 in g rad uati ng typ es f ro m th e smal lest

,

to the siz e O f p o st e rs i n di ffe r ent l a nguages Th e .

adva ntage o f th e m o ve r th e Ol d sty l e was t he syste m atic

i ncrease of th e size of l ette rs B u t 110 di rectio n was .

give n ho w to use th e m at wh at dista n ce fro m th e e ye

,

each of th e m had to be r ead o r w hat p ropo rtio n o f o u r

,

ey esight was r ep r ese nted by th e m Th e on ly advantage .

o ve r th e O l d c r ud e m an n e r was that th e l ette rs we re

,

c lea r an d th e pape r wh ite an d th at th inking Optici an s

, ,

s o o n acq u i red b y p r actice what n u mb e r O f glasses they

had t o fu r nish th e i r cust om e rs who co u ld re ad a certai n

s ize of p ri nt at t he u sua l r eadi ng d ista n ce But after all .
,

it was n othi ng b u t gue s s w o rk th e re w as no l aw no

-
, ,

p ri ncipl e no s cie nce in it ; th ey se rved only to t est t he

,

eyes at clo se d i sta nce f o r readi ng sewi n g etc an d

, , , .
,

we re o f n o se r vice t o test th e eyes f o r di s ta n t visi on .

Th i s p rob l e m was so l ved b y Dr H S n el len of . .

,

Utrecht Holl and in 186 8 who dete r m i n ed the acute

, , ,

n ess o f vi sio n to th e vi sual angl e of o n e mi n ut e

i n stead of fo rty s eco nds (4 0 as was th e ge ne ral r ul e
“ ”
u p t o th at ti m e I n Chap X X III R ange o f Vi sio n
. .
, ,

I based th e calcul atio n upo n th e ol d r u l e that Obj ects ,

stil l coul d b e see n wh en th ei r v isual a n gl e was not s m al l e r

tha n fo rty seco nds ; th i s woul d e n abl e us t o di sti ng u ish
obj ects at a d ista n ce O f 5000 ti m es its d ia m ete r (o r more
92 HAND B O OK F O R O PT ICIANS
- .

’
co rrectly 5156 ti m es ) But I th i n k S n el l e n s s ugges
.

tio n i s m ore co r rect a s r ega rd s th e appl i catio n Of t hi s

r ul e t o practi cal use A n Obj e ct o f o n e foot i n di am eter
.

can the refo r e b e s ee n o nly at a di stan ce o f 3 4 3 7 feet

, , ,

i nstead o f as stated i n th at a rti cl e .

P e rhaps so m e reade r s do n ot fu l ly u n derstan d the

“ ”
m ea ni ng of a vi sual angl e o r a ngl e o f vi sio n an d d o ,

n o t k now ho w to find i n com m o n m eas ure t he length

, ,

o f th at part o f th e pe r iph ery wh i ch rep r es ents a given

angl e A Sho rt ex pl an ati on wi ll th e r efo r e n ot be out

.
, ,

o f p l ac e .We kn o w that each ci rcl e n o m atter how ,

l a rge o r s m al l i s divi ded int o each degre e i nto

,
"
a nd each m i nute i nto 6 0 (seco nds ) o r th e whol e ci rcle ,

i nto No w if w e tak e a ci rcl e o f th e dia

,

m eter o f o ne i n ch o r say o n e foot we h ave t o e mploy

, ,

th e m icro scop e to detect th e di m en sio n Of the vi sual

a n gl e Of o ne second ; but i f w e tak e a ci rcl e with a r adius
o f th e m oo n s dista n ce fro m th e earth the n each second
’
,

w i l l r epresent o n e m il e We m u st b ear i n m i nd that .

this m ath e m ati cal divisio n Of a ci rcl e i n degrees m i nutes ,

an d seco nds i s n o t a n exact m easu re i n i nch es feet or ,

m i les b ut o nly i nd i cates th e p r op o r tio nal part o f any

,

ci rcl e b e it sm al l o r l arge I t i s v e ry i mpo rtant to re

, .

m em b er th is as it facilitate s the cal culatio n regardi ng

,

the size o f each test l ette r fo r th e di ff ere nt di stance s

-
.

Let us take f o r i nstan ce th e l ette r o f C C I t should be

, , .

See n at 2 0 0 P arisi an feet fro m u s wh i ch i s th e radius of ,

a ci rcl e wh ose d iam eter i s 4 00 ft i n l ength an d t o find

, .
,

th e ci rc um fe re n ce Of th e ci rcl e w e h av e t o m u ltiply 4 00
by wh ich equal s 12 56 fe et Th is i s th e l ength of .

the ci rcum feren ce o f that i m agina ry ci rcl e d raw n aroun d

u s 2 0 0 feet fro m o u r ey e as th e ce nte r o f th i s ci rcle
, .

We hav e t o div ide these 12 56 feet by 3 6 0 t o fi nd the ,

l ength o f o n e d egre e wh i ch , ft o r i nches 2

.
,

a nd to fi n d th e l e ngth o f o n e m i nute w e div id e the m ,

agai n by 60 wh ich , i n ch es Thi s i s th e wi d th

2
.

q
o f each o f those tw en ty fiv e l ittl e s u ar es w e se e fai ntly
-

i ndi cated by dotted l i nes b en eath t hat test l ett e r -

.

S n el len sel e cted th e R o m a n b l ock l ette rs b ecause every -

l i n e is o f an equa l th ick ness S o m e o f th e m a re espe .

ci al l y adapted for a t est ; f o r in stan ce to di sti nguish ,

 USE O F T E ST TY PES-
. 93

0 fro m C o r C and B f ro m R o r K and P from F w e

, , ,

m ust b e abl e t o see plai nly th e space o f o n e o f these

little squa r es a s i t is the characte risti c disti nctio n o f o n e
,

l ette r fro mth e othe r A cco rding to th e diffe rent dis .

tances w e occupy b efo r e th e test typ es th ese squares -

,

alte r in S iz e an d li m it al so the thi ck ness an d h eight o f

,

the l ette rs as each st roke of th em is o f th e width of those

,

squa r es S nel le n foun d by n u m e ro us expe r i m e nts that

.

a normal eye j u st cou ld detect o n e Of th e m at th e give n

di s tan ce b ut in o r de r to reli ev e th e eye f ro m all st rai n
, ,

an d enab l e it t o se e th e obj ect distin ctly for a length of

ti m e h e e nla rged th e l etter i n each di rection five ti mes
, ,

a nd on ly i ndicated b e neath it th e size of o n e m i nute by

tho se dotted l i nes T he lette rs them selves r ep resent .
,

therefore a visual a ngl e o f five m i n u tes

, .

W e hav e s ee n b efo re that o n e m i n u te o f the fi rst test ,

l ette r w as e q u a l to i nch es th e r efore five m i nutes , ,

wi ll b e i n P a r isia n m easu re T O red u ce the .

P a ri s i nche s i nto A m e ri ca n w e m ulti ply them by ,

and divi de by 3 7 The fol lo wi ng tab l e i s cal c u lated thi s

.

way a nd Show s th e t rue A m e r ican m easu r e Of eve ry

l ette r at th e di ffe r e n t distances A lthough S nel l e n con .

fin ed h i s test typ es to the fol low i ng distances : 2 0 0 10 0

-
, ,

7 0 50 4 0 3 0 2 0 15 f t etc
, , ,
seve ral pa rti e s h ave rep ro
, , .
, .

d u c e d the m by addi ng i nterm ediate sizes wh ich I i nclude ,

i n thi s l ist to en ab l e Optici an s who m ake u se of such ,

types to m easu r e th e m an d see if th ey are cor rect

,
.

200
’
CC P a ris o r 3 5
3 A m e r ican i nch es .

CL X 3
'

10 0
cx x 2
'
12 0
10 0
'
c 1
80
’
L XXX :

70
'
Lxx ii -

60
’
Lx 14
L 87 it
'
50
X L 70
'
40
x xx 52
'

30
xx 35
'
20
xv 26
'
15
X 17
'
10
94 H AND B O O K F O R O P T ICIANS
- .

Th e sam e w ay w e h av e to r ed uce th e d ist an ce into

A m e r ican feet ; fo r i n stan ce 2 0 P a r i s fe et are ,

Am e r i can . S nel len s suggestio n th at th e r ay s fro ma

’
,

di stan ce of t we nty feet co u ld b e co n sid e red p aral lel can ,

o nly b e ad m itted fro m a p ractical v i ew and i s th e utmo st ,

l i m it i n thi s regard A ny sho rte r d ist an ce w il l tax the

.

acco m modatio n an d wi l l n o t gi v e a sati sfactory result .

I n usi ng th e te st type s w e Sho ul d h av e a room fully

-

twe nty feet long f ro m th e door o r w i ndow to th e opposite

Wal l w h ere w e sh o u ld faste n th e types abo ut fou r or five
,

feet f rom th e floo r Th e room m u st b e i n good weathe r

.
, ,

w ell i l l u m i nated an d th e type s cl ea rly seen We pl ace .

o u r c usto m e r 2 0 o r 2 1 feet b efo r e th e types I f he se es .

No XX hi s vi sual pow e r (V ) i s no r m al an d i s express ed

.

by th e fo r m u l a V 2 0 / XX ; b ut if h e sees o nly XXX ,

t he n h is v isio n 2 0 / XX X The n um e rato r is always

.

the distan c e an d th e de nom i n ato r i s th e type he can

,

read I f h e on l y reads CC th en V
. 2 0 / CC , S o me 2
.

eyes m ay b e ab l e to s ee X V o r ev e n X at t w e nty feet , ,

th e n th ei r form ul a is V 2 0/ X V o r 2 0/ X
1 :
We cann ot .

m ak e a m i stak e i n th e m a rki ng o f th e v isual power

w he n w e i m p ress o u r m em o ry W
,

ith th e gen eral fo rmu la ,

V d / t ; d st and s f o r di st an ce and t fo r ty pe , .

T O attai n a m o re exact fo r m ula w e can make use of ,

th e sign s and I f fo r i nstan ce a p ati ent can see

, ,

NO XXX a nd o n e o r t wo l ette r s o f X X hi s for mul a

.
, ,

ca n b e exp r es sed by 2 0 / XXX b u t i f h e m isses o ne

l ett e r Of XXX seei ng pe rfectly XL th e n h i s fo rmula is
, ,

V 2 0 / XXX S uch fo r m ul ae w h e n carefully ,

r eco r ded , can b e uti lized t w o fo ld : th ey serv e as refe r

-

e nce f o r futu r e m easu re m e nts o f th e ey e an d al so as a ,

guid e fo r th e sel ectio n o f suitab l e gl asses A s to the .

l atter pu rpose we o nly i nv ert th e fo rm u l a and substitute ,

“ diopte r ” f o r “ typ e ” v iz
,

20, /X X X or
2
3,
20/x n g
;
4

20/ L g
2 0 / Lx x 5
“
3,
“ 4
2 ,
96 H AND BOO K F O R OPT I C IAN S
-
.

w e m ultipl i ed fourt ee n by te n and div id e d th e p ro d uct

,

by th e differe n ce of th e two n u m b ers by fou r :

14 0
4
35 i nch es ; or

24 10
10
17 i nch e s .

Wh e n th e fo cal distance w as Sho rter than ten i nches ,

say eight o f six we m ade o u r calc u l atio n i n this w ay

,

80
10 8 2
40 n ch es ;
i or

15 i nch es .

Th e st rength o f those spectacl es w ere ge n e r ally near

eno ugh to co m m en ce w ith as a t r ial ; b ut as they rep
resented o nly t he av e rage sight o f both ey es com bined ,

any regul ar optician wi sely mad e th e n ecessary allo w ance

f or a casual diffe r en ce i n th e ey es . I t am u ses me now
to look b ack o n so m ething I o n ce co n sidered to b e strictly
scie ntifi c a n d wh ich i s at p resent th ro w n as ide as u nre
,

l iabl e an d obsol ete .

 CH A P T E R X III .

R EFRA CT IO N AND DISPER SI O N OF LI GHT .

T he an c ients s u pposed l ight t o be p roduced and v ision

e xcited by so m ethi ng em itted f ro m t he eye Th e mod .

c rn s hold vi sio n to b e e xcited by so m eth i ng that st ri kes

the ey e fro m w itho ut N ewto n suppo s ed light to co n

.

sist o f s m al l p articles Shot o u t with i n co ncei vabl e rapidity

by l um i nou s bo di es a nd fi n e e no u gh to pass th rough the
,

po r es o f tra nsp a r ent m edia C ro ssi ng th e h umo r s of

.

the eye and s t ri king th e Opti c n e rv e th ese pa rticl es

, ,

w e re sup posed to excite v i sio n Thi s was call ed th e .

em is s ion theo ry of l ig ht an d fo u n d many st ro ng sup

,

po rte r s am ong oth ers Lapl ace Malus and B rewste r

, , , .

Thi s theo ry was fi rst o ppo sed by th e ast ro nom er Huygh e n s

an d afte r w a rd s by th e cel eb rated m athe m atician E ul er ;
b ut it mai ntai n ed its g roun d u ntil it was fina l ly o ve r
thro wn by the labo r s of Thom as Young and of A ugusti n
F r es n el .

Th es e t wo e m i ne nt ph i lo soph e r s sepa rately succeed , ,

ed in estab li shi ng th e w ave o r u n d u l atory theo ry of l ight ,

by w h i ch al l O pti cal ph en o m en a can b e explai n ed Th ey .

co m pa red light with sou n d the m ai n differe nce bei n g

,

thei r relati v e v elocity of propagatio n The wav es of .

so u nd req u i r e a n e lasti c den se body l ike o u r at mo s

, ,

p h e r e
,
to m a ke an i m p ressio n upo n th e c ar so diffe r i ng ,

fro m light wh i ch t rans m its its w aves by a substan ce o f

,

ext re m e te nuity cal led ether ,

.

Eth e r i s m e r ely th e nam e o f som eth i ng w e k now not

w h at but we k no w th at without its presen ce we have to
, ,

d rop th e wav e th eo ry N ewto n s th eo ry di d not requ i re

-
.
’

s uch a v ehi cl e o f light b ecau se th e v elocity o f his l ight

m issi l es w e re no t ob st ructed by a vacu u m b ut r ath er ac ,

c e l e rat e d I t was fo rm erly supposed that th e space b e

.

t w ee n th e stars was perfectly vacant j u d gi ng fro m o u r ,

o w n at m o sph e re o f wh ich th e l ast trace d i sappears at a

,
98 H AND B O O K FO R OPT ICIAN S
- .

h eight o f about t wo h un d red m i l es fro m th e ea rth The .

p rom otion o f th e wave th eo ry com p el l ed its suppo rters

-

at once t o fil l th e Un i ve r se w ith so m e m ed iu m to carry

th e waves of l ight an d co nti n ue th ei r m otio n .

Th e wo rd u n d u l atio n i s fro m th e Lati n u n d a a wave , , ,

an d u nd u l a a l ittl e w ave The s e lectio n o f th i s word is

, .

n ot a good o n e as i t l eads th e stude nt to confo und the

,

vib r ation s of l ight w ith th e u p an d dow n m otion of

ag itated water witho u t i ndi cati ng ho w o n e mo l ecule im
,

pa rts a forwa rd m ov em e nt to oth e r m o l ecul es I would .

p ro pose to cal l it th e v ibr ato ry theo ry a n d woul d explain ,

its propagatio n by the p resen ce o f h eat as light an d heat ,

ar e i n separab l e Light is a h igh poten cy o f h eat and

.
,

as h eat expand s ev e rythi ng th e ato m s o f eth er sur ,

r o u nd ing an d pe n et r ati ng th e so u r ce o f light ought to be

expan ded But as the th eo ry of th e n atu r e o f ether ex

.

c l u d e s th e prese n ce o f pores the r e i s n o roo m for such

,

an expan sion ; th erefore i n its fra ntic eff o r t to obey an

,

O in n i p o t e n t l aw O f n atu re it o nly ca n p ush,th e nex t

ato m o r r ath er a co u nt l ess l i n e o f th em accord ing to the ,

po w e r o f the fi rst i m p u lse it rece i ve s I ts appa r ent ex .

a n s o n an d alte rn at e co nt racti o n w ith out ch angi ng its

i
p
p lace i s call ed vibr atio n a nd i s o f s uch a rap id succes
, ,

s io n that w e can fo rm n o t ru e con cepti o n Of it ; w e have

to exp ress th e v ib r at io n s by b il l ion s each s econd The .

e xt r em e te n ui ty o f th e eth e r faci litat e s th e rapi d p rop

ag at io n Of light an d th e co nti n uo u s i m p uls e s its steady
, ,

advan ce m i les a seco n d ) .

W e m ust b eware o f th e w ro ng i de a th at th e atoms of ,

ether are flying about wh ich i s an i m possibi l ity as the

, ,

whol e Uni ve r se i s equal ly fil led with it I t do es not im .

pede th e p rogress of a ny m ov i ng b ody b ut l ight sets it ,

to an osci ll ati ng a nd i n stead o f i m parti ng its i m pulses

,

pel l m el l to the su r ro undi ng eth e r it al w ay s takes the

-
,

sho rtest l in e t he straight o n e

, .

Vt n w e speak o f ether w e i magi n e it to b e th e fi nest

,

m atter i n exi sten ce whose ato m s a re i n div i si bl e ; itself

,

b ei n g w ithout m oti on al low s th e w o r l d to mo v e in it

,

without th e l east i m pedi m ent A n d st i l l th e r e m ust be .

so m eth i ng fi n e r to fil l th e space b etw e e n i ts atoms ,

because they are con side r ed t o b e o f a r ou n de d o r s p he ri

10 0 H AND B O OK
-
F O R O PT l C l AN S .

pa ral lel su rface s ; L i s th e i nci dent ray whi ch e nte rs the

pl ate at I wh e re we e rect th e pe rpendi cul a r P Q At
,
.

th e h eight abov e th e Sl ab eq u al to its th i ck n ess w e draw ,

the l i n e 0 P at right angl e and to P Q th u s fo r m i ng the

'

, ,

r ectang u la r t r i angle O I P Th e a n gl e at I is cal led the

'

an g l e of in cid e n ce an d O P i s cal led th e s in e of this

’

angl e A fte r th e ray ente rs th e pl ate it i s bent

.
,

towards th e pe rpe ndic u la r t il l i t r each es E fo r m ing ,

anoth e r t ria ngl e E R Q Th e a n gl e at R i s th e ang l e of

'

r efr act i and E Q th e s in e of th i s angl e

’

on , .

We see h e re pl ai nly that th e angl e o f i n cide nce i s

l arge r than th e angle o f ref raction ; i n glass f o r in st an ce , ,

i n the p ropo rtion o f th ree to t wo as see n i n t he i l l u stration , .

Th e r elatio n of th e an gl e of r efr ac tio n to th e ang l e of

in cid e n ce tho u gh th e sam e f o r each sub stance va r ies
, ,

with th e n atu r e of diffe r e nt m edi a each of w h ich h as a ,

di stinct powe r Th e r atio o r p ropo rti on b etw ee n th em

.

is cal led th e in d ex of ref r actio n F o r d iffe r e nt m edia .

,

it i s as fol lo w s :

Wate r
O il of Tu rpenti ne

R ock C rystal
F l i nt Glass .

S t rass e r P a s te
Di amond .

I n thi s tab l e ai r i s take n as the un it o f co m pari son

, .

Th e refractive po we r of cro w n glass an d p ebbl e is

almost the sam e ; fl int glass Sho w s a co n si derabl e ih
.

crease s trass eve n m o r e so Th e l atte r is al so a fli nt

, .

gl ass with a l a rge r propo rtio n of l ead an d i s k n ow n as ,

th e extr a w hite Th e h igh r ef ractiv e pow e r in d iamon ds

.

r “
causes that spa kling c l ea rn ess call ed fi r st w at e r and
”
,

i s m uch app r eciated by al l con noisseu rs o f p recious

stones S pectacl e l e nses m ad e o f di am o nd woul d b e
.

i nj urious to the eyes o n acco u nt o f this gla ri ng refractive

power .

Th e r efractio n o f th e ray s o f l ight passi ng fro m o ne

me dium to anoth e r al so cau ses th e se pa ratio n o f l ight
 R EF R AOT I O N AND DISPERSION O F L I GHT . 10 1

i nto its d iffe r e nt colo red ray s Thi s i s cal led th e d is

o f l ight We have see n t h at r ef ract ion r efe r s
.

rsi
p e o n .

to th e ch ange i n th e di r ectio n of th e r ays whi le d is p e r ,

sion r elates only to co lo rs produced by an u neq u a l ,

bending o f th e rays of l ight This i s b est show n by .

means o f a p rism Th e wav es of ethe r gen e rated by

.

lu mi nou s bodi es are n ot a l l of th e sam e l ength ; som e

are longe r than othe rs I n re f ract iiig sub stances the
.

s ho rt wav es are mo r e r e tar d e d than th e longe r o nes ;

h e nce the Sho rt waves are mo r e r ef racted than th e long
,

On es Th e l u m i nous i mage fo r m ed wh en a b eam o f

.
,

white l ight i s thus d eco mposed by a p r i s m i s cal l ed a ,

s ec tr u m I f th e light em pl oyed b e that of th e sun the

p .
,

i mage is call ed the solar spect ru m .

Th e color of l ight is dete r m i ned so lely by its w ave

length ; col or i s to l ight w hat p itch i s to sound The .

p itch o f a n ote depe nds o n th e n um ber o f aer ial waves

whi ch st rike th e c ar i n a seco nd ; the col o r o f l ight de
pend s o n th e n u m be r of ether eal waves which st ri ke the
eye i n a seco nd Th us th e se nsation of r ed is p roduced
.

by i mpa rting to th e O pti c n e rve a ce rtai n n umb e r of im

p u lses per seco nd ; whi l e th e sensatio n of v io l et is pro
d u c e d by i mpa rti n g to th e n e rve al most twi ce as m any
i mpul ses i n th e sam e ti m e Th e waves of the ext rem e
.

vio let are about half th e l ength Of those of the extrem e

red an d th ey s t r i ke the r eti n a with doubl e the rapidity
of the r e d W hi le the refo r e the mu s ical s cal e o r th e
,

.
, , ,

range of th e e ar i s k no w n to e mb race n early eleven

,

octav es th e op tical s cal e o r r a nge of the ey e is com

, , ,
'

p rised w ith i n a si ngle oct ave .

The d isp e r s ive powe r vari es in different bodies ; it is i n

R ock C rystal
Wate r
C ro wn Glass
O il of T u rpenti n e
F l i nt gl ass
Dia mo nd .

Th i s tabl e o f th e in d ex of d isp ers io n sho w s cl ea rly

th e s upe rio rity o f p ebbl es f e r spectacl es ov e r any gl ass ,

because th e ey e i s m ost be nefited i n th e l ength o f ti m e

10 2 H AND BO OK
-
F OR OPT I OI AN S .

by l enses of th e lo west powe r Of d isp ersio n Th e o pti .

cal glass o f telescope s and m icroscopes i s an ex ception

t o thi s rule ; such glass m ust b e o f th e po ssib l e h igh est
r efractive powe r b ut its dispe r sio n i s n eut ral i zed
,
by a
ce rtai n combi natio n o f l e nse s Th e li m ited u se o f
.

scientific i nst r u m ents and th ei r special Obj ect co n stitute

the p ri ncipal di ffe re nce betwe en the m and the co n stantly
em ploy ed spectacl es
'

I f spectac l es cou ld b e set w ith ach rom atic l en ses li ke ,

Obj ecti ves o f spy glasses they wo ul d b e sti l l b ette r than

,

cro w n glass for th e eye b u t n obody w il l carry suc h a

,

weight o n his n o s e ; besides th e high p r i ce of s u ch l enses

,

would pe r m it only a l i m ited sa l e an d th erefo re no

, ,

optici an coul d keep an asso rtm ent o f t he min sto ck '

.

Th e h igh dispe rsi ve po we r of dia mo nds causes th e

fasci nating d ispl ay o f b eauti fu l sp ect r al colo r s called ,
“ ” “ ”
first fire wh i ch co m bi n ed w ith th e fi rst w ater
,

“
m akes th is m i n e ral th e Q u een o f G e m s .
10 4 H AN D BOO K -
F O R O PT I OI AN S .

pheno meno n w e m ust rem e m ber that wh ite l ight co nsists

o f seve n differently colo red rays h avi ng d iffere nt degrees ,

o f ref r angibi l ity Th e v io l et an d b l ue rays u nit e first

.

i nto a focus then th e g reen yel low an d at l ast th e red

, , ,

an d o nly at th e m iddl e of th ese diffe r ent foci (at g reen ) ,

by the m ixtu r e o f al l th e col o rs th ey appear to u nite ,

i nto a co m mo n focus app arently without co lo r Befo re .

we reach thi s pri ncipal focu s o f th e le ns th e red ray ,

p roduces the l um i no u s d isk an d wh e n w e reach th e ,

special focus o f yel lo w th e b l ue ray m ak es its app ear ,

a nce at th e borde r o f th e disk anxi ous to j oi n th e form er ,

at th e focus o f gree n whi ch i s th e o nly co lo rl ess point ,

of th e sp ectrum But wh en w e r each th e Sho rte r focus

.

o f th e b l ue r ay wh i ch no w p r oduces th e l u m i no us disk
, ,

then t he red ray as th e p r edom i nant co l or o f the spec

,

t rum m akes i ts appea r an ce o n th e i nsid e borde r o f the

,

d isk Th is l ack o f po wer o n the p a r t o f a co nv ex l en s

.

to b ri ng the diffe r ently colo red co n stitu ents o f white

light to a com mon fo c u s i s call ed th e chr o matic ab err a ,

tio n of th e lens .

A weake r l en s say of thi rty i nch foc us do es n o t de

,
-
,

m o nst rate thi s phenom enon as w el l as a stro nge r o ne .

Thi s i s th e reason w hy telescopes b e fo re th e i n ventio n

, ,

o f ach ro m ati c l enses we re O f su ch a n e no r mou s size , ,

som eti m es O f sev e ral h u nd r ed feet i n l e n gth Th e c hro .

m ati c ab er ratio n is also seen i n cheap o pe r aan d Spy

glasses with singl e ocular an d Obj ective l e nses .

The i ngeni ous N ewto n by h is e xp eri m en t o f int e rp o s

i ng a p rism i n th e way o f a sol ar bea m ad m itt ed th ro ugh ,

a s mal l hole i nto a da r ken ed cha m be r m ade it p roduce ,

o n th e wal l not a white ci r cl e as it wo ul d h ave don e if

, ,

al lowed to pass o n witho ut i nte rr uptio n b ut an elo ngated

i mage o r sp ectr u m as h e cal led it d i spl ayi ng th e rai n
,

, , ,

bo w colo r s This ph eno m eno n p r o ved th e h ith e rto u n

.

suspected facts fi rst that wh ite o r co m m on l ight is in

, ,
,

real ity com posed o f seven diffe r e nt speci es o f rays ;

,

an d seco ndly that each o f th ese rays i s refra n gi b l e i n a

,

di ffere nt deg r ee f rom th e oth e r o n passi ng i nto a n e w

m ediu m tak i ng a separat e course o f its o w n s o th at th e
,
,

b eam spreads out i nto th e rese m bla nce o f a fan Th is .

i s cal l ed th e diverge nce o r d isp ers io n of th e rays o f light ; ,

 AC H RO MA T IC L EN SE S .
10 5

an d fro m so m e oth e r experim ents whi ch h e m ade h e

,
,

was i nduced t o bel i ev e that whateve r t ranspa r e nt s u b

stan ces o r m ed ia r efr acted a b ea m O f l ight i n the sam e
, ,

degree o r changed in th e sam e deg ree its ge neral d irec

,

t ion we re al so equal i n th eir dispe rsi ve powe rs o r m ade

,
,

th e di ffe r ent r ay s sepa rate f ro m o n e a nothe r to th e sa me

exte nt F ro m this fol lo wed a ve ry i mpo rtant con
.

seq uence Th e m agni fyi ng po w ers o f th e co m mo n

.

t elescope depended e nti rely upo n th e ref ractio n O f th e

l ight i n its passage t h ro ugh th e seve ral l en ses ; b ut i t
co u ld not u nd e rgo th is ope ration w ithout th e r ays b eing
at th e sa me tim e dispe rsed ; an d thi s n ecessa r ily th rew a
ce rtai n i nd isti nctn ess ove r th e i mage which s u ch tel
e s c o p e s presented to th e eye Here the r efore was ap .
, ,

pa re n t l y a defect i n the r ef racti ng telescope whi ch ad

mitt e d o f no c u re ; f o r th e d ispe rsion b ea ring the sam e

r elatio n i n al l s ubstances to th e r ef ractive powe r ,

we ca n not obt ai n th e r eq u isite r ef ractio n without its

i nseparable com pan ion th e sam e amount o f dispe rsio n , .

I t was th is co ns id e rat io n whi ch m ade Ne w ton give u p al l

thoughts o f i mp rov i ng th e ref racti ng tel esco pe an d ap ,

ply h i msel f as G rego ry had do n e to t he co n st iu c t io n of

, ,

on e wh ich sho u l d p rese nt its i m age not by ref racti ng , ,

but by r eflecti ng th e l ight f ro m the ob j ect H e th e r e ,

fo re const ructe d a mi rro r telescope a “ reflecto r o f

.

”
-
,
, ,

the m a g nify ing po wer o f fo rty d iam ete rs wh ich h e ,

afte r wa rd s p re s ented to th e R oyal S o cie t y of Lo ndo n .

By usi ng a m i rro r i n stead of ref racti ng l e n ses h e e ve r , ,

cam e th e an noyi ng ch rom ati c abe rratio n to a g reat exte n t .

Th e re nown ed E u le r o n th e co n t ra ry p ropo u n ded , ,

( 17 4 7 ) th e id ea o f th e possibility to ove rcom e ch rom ati c

abe rrati on by a co m bi nation o f sph e r i cal l e n ses o f d iffe r
ent d e nsity ; an d th e S w edish m athematician Kli n gen ,

sti e rn a de m on st rated th is idea sci entifical l y

, SO that ten ,

years l ate r th e E ngl ish Opticia n Joh n Do llon d m anu , ,

f ac t u r e d th e fi rst ach ro m ati c spy glass He m ade use -

.
*

A oth E gl i hm a Ch t M Hall i al o c dit d w ith h avi g

n er n s n, es er .
, s s re e n
m ad e ach om at c l n a a ly a 17 2 9 b t h i in v n tio n w a n t n ot c d
r i e s es s e r s u s e s o i e
H w a a w ealthy man an d
.
,

e s m to h av b en c a l f fam ; at l a t s ee s e e re e s s o e e s ,

h took n t o bl t comm n ic at hi in v n t io n to th w o ld
e o r u e B t aft
o u e s e e r . u er

t h e p at en t ight we g an t d to Dollon d oth in t m n t m ak

r s re r e , er s ru e -
e rs
d p te d hi o igin al claim to t h in v n t o n an d it w a l ft to th cou t
is u s r e e i s e e r
d e ci io n L o d M an fi ld w h t i d th c a e l d th at t w a n t
,
“
for s . r s e , o r e e s ,
ru e i s o

t h p e o n w ho l
e rs k d hi in v en t o n in hi c to i th at o ght to p ofit
oo e s i s s ru re u r
f om u ch in v n t io n b u t he w ho b o u ght it fo th f o the b n fi t o f man
,

r s e , r r r e e

k in d .
10 6 HAND BOO K F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

of Eul er s suggestio n that th e h um an ey e w as ac hro j

’
,

m ati c o n account o f th e diff e re nt d en siti es o f the

crystall i n e l en s and th e vitreo u s h u m o r H e sel ected .

t wo ki nds o f glasses w hich rep resent si m i lar differen ces

i n den sity viz ; f l in t and cr o w n gl ass an d gro u n d the
, .
,

den se r fli nt glass i nto a w eak co ncav e l en s an d th e ,

l ight e r c rown gl ass i nto a st ro ng conv ex l e n s wh ich ,

th us combi ned p roduce a co lo r less focus V he n w e V

.
—

tak e th e obj ectiv e l ens o f an Ope r a gl as s a n d m ake the ,

sam e exp e r i m e nt as w e m ad e b efo r e w ith th e si ngl e

sphe r i cal l en s w e w il l not s ee th e r e d o r b l u e border at
,

th e di ffe re n t di sta n ces o f th e l en s f ro m th e pape r b ut ,

wil l o bserv e o nly a wh it e d isk o r ci r cl e without col o r ‘

Th e expe r i m ent with th e si n gl e sph e r ica l l en s al so p r oves

that o u r ey e i s not p erfectly ach ro m atic as was beli ev ed ,

fo r m e rly by m any scie n ti sts al so by E u l er Th e eye , .

suffe r s f ro m ch rom atic abe r ratio n as w el l as from

sp he ri cal ab e rratio n ; the l atte r r elates to th e i mp e rfect
focu sing o f th e r ays fall i ng o n a sphe ri cal l e ns Th e r ay s .

nea r est to th e cente r of th e l en s p roduce th e p ri n cipal

foc u s whi ch i s always longe r tha n th e foci o f those rays
,

passing t h ro u gh th e l en s n ear its p e r iph e ry Th e effect s .

of th is sphe rical aberratio n i s obvi ated i n an i n stru m e nt

by m ean s o f a d iap hr agm wh i ch is a bl ac ken ed shi el d ,

w ith a sm al l openi ng i n th e m idd le p e rm itting o nl y th e ,

cente r r ays to pass the r eby sh utti ng o ff th e p eriph e ral

-
,

r ays , and p reventi ng sph e ri cal abe r ratio n ; b ut th e eb ro

matic ab e r ratio n i n i n st rum ents can b e obv i ated o n ly by
ach ro m ati c l en ses .

Ou r eye h as si m ila r co ntrivan ces to g u a rd to a ce rtai n

extent agai n st these i m pe r fectio n s ; th e i ri s p e r fo r m s th e
d uty of the d iaph ragm an d th e di ffe re nt de n siti e s of the
.
,

r ef racti ng m edi a produ ce th e ach ro m ati s m We can .

g reatly di m i ni sh th e sph e ri cal ab e rr atio n of o u r ey e by

looki ng th ro u g h a ho l e i n a ca rd m ad e by a pi n b ut w e ,

can not altogeth e r r e mov e i ts ch ro m at ic abe r ratio n Th e .

best expe rim ent to sho w th e co m pa rati vely h igh d eg r ee

o f ch ro mati c ab e rratio n in o u r ey e i s th at w ith a deep
bl u e glass I f w e loo k at th e fl a m e o f a ca nd l e th rough
.

s u ch a gl ass th e flam e look s bl u i sh v iol et at th e l e n t h

,
-
g

of di s ti n ct v isi o n fo c u s ) Wh e n w e app roach t o w afid s

.
10 8 H AND B O O K FOR O PT ICIANS
- .

by wh i ch m ethod it w as agai n p ossibl e to sh o rt e n t he

“
tubes o f t el escope s He cal l ed h is i nst r u m e nts d ialyti c
.

tel escopes o r sim ply D ial y tes

”
,
.

A mong t he m ost noted m an ufactu re r s o f fi n e ach ro

m atic i nst ru m e nts are V oigtl and er at Vi e n n a L e r e b o u rs ,

S ecretan (n o w E i ch e n s ) at P a r i s A R oss (n o w Dal l , .

m eyer ) an d Beck Bros at Lo ndon ; al so th e b roth ers

,
.

Geo rge an d A dol f R e p s o l d at Ham b urg w ho m o u nted , ,

th e g reat R u ssi an tel escop e at P u l k o w a a ref racto r of ,

th i rty i nch aperture w hose obj ective l en s w as g round

-
,

by A lva n C lark S ons Th e greatest achi ev e m e nt i n

.

th e li ne o f ast ro no m i cal tel escope s i s that at the Lick

Obse r vatory i n C al i fo rni a a t r i u m ph o f A m e rica n wo rk ,

m anship The n am es o f C lark S o n s an d o f Wa r n er

.
,

S w asey who m o u nted the i nst r um ent w il l always be

, ,

rem embered as p ro m inent A m e r i can O ptician s and

m echan ics I n fact th e U S do not com e sh ort i n the
.
, . .

gen e r al race for th e supe rio rity i n th e m an ufactu re of

optical i nst r u m ents Th ere i s Dav i d R itten house o f
.

P hiladel phia ; Ch as A S p en ce r o f C an astota N Y .

, . .
,

famo us fo r th e excel l en ce o f hi s m i croscop ic obj ecti ves

Hen ry F itz of N ew Yo rk ; W Wal es at F o rt L ee N J .
, . .
,

J . W G r u now o f N e w Y o rk Jam es W Quee n an d

. , .

Jos Z e n t may e r o f P h i ladel phi a ; Bau sch

. Lo m b o f
R ochester ; al l m aster o pti cians But th e m ost skil lfu l .

opti cian in th e wo rld was th e l ate R B Tol l es o f . .

Bosto n ; hi s ach rom ati c obj ectives are th e fi n est eve r

p rod uced and co m m and th e h ighest p r ices
, .

O nly sin ce th e i nventio n o f ac h ro m ati c l e nses w e are

able to m anufactu r e the various i nstrum ents f o r sci entific
i nvestigations ; but i n o rde r to p rodu ce a glass s uitabl e
for i n st r um ent s o f g r eat acc u r acy it was n ecessa ry that ,

th e gl ass i ndust ry clo sely alli ed itsel f w ith th e quee n o f

-

“ ”
al l sciences mathem ati cs by wh ich it was itsel f
, ,

e levated from th e fo r m e r l o w l y positio n to th at o f a

quee nly art S tep by step w e th u s ca n ref ract o r di s
.
,

perse l ight at o u r wi l l ; w e can p roduce eith e r a blazing

fi re or a b eautiful pictu re ; w e can e x plo re th e m i n ute s t
o rga n ic o r i no rgan ic substa n ce a nd so l ve th e m y ste rie s ,

o f en dl ess Space By m ean s o f glasse s w e ca n an a l yze

.

t he constituent pa rts o f the su n an d oth e r cel esti a l bodi es ,

and r ecord t hei r ever changing ph eno m en a .

 C H AP T ER X V .

A NA T O M Y OF TH E H UM AN EY E .

I nv e ntion s h av e o ccasio nally expl ai n ed th e wo rki ngs

of th e o rga ns o f o u r body ; f o r i nsta n ce the bellows ,

dem o nst rate th e actio n o f th e l u ngs the pu m p that o f ,

the h ea rt th e camer a ob s cu ra that o f the ey e etc Me n

, , .

u s ed thei r ey es f o r m any thousa n d yea rs w itho u t the

sl ightest i dea o f th e i r r eal m ech a n is m unti l the in v e n ,

tio n o f th e ca m e ra by an I tal ian Batti s ta P o rta abo ut

, , ,

th ree h u n d red y ea rs ago gave them a fai r explanatio n

,

of th e worki ngs o f this o rgan S ince th e n it has g rad u al ly

.

da w ned o n the m i nd s of s ci enti s t s that this i mpl em ent

,

explai n ed th e m echanical wo rkings of o u r eye bette r th an

any th eo ry y et p rom ulg ated P o rta h i m self compa red
.

h is i nstru m e nt with the eye b u t falsely att ributed to the

,

c rystal l i n e l en s th e d uty which i s pe rfo rm ed by th e

r eti na
. A bo ut th e year 16 11 th e Ge rm an ast ro nome r
, ,

Joh n Keple r ex plai ned th e r eal r elation s h ip o f the le n s

,

to th e r et in a and gav e a satisfacto ry explanatio n o f t he

,

action of co n vex and co ncave glasses N otwithsta n di ng .

th e most el aborate r esea rches of late r scie ntist s an d

an ato m ists to i nterpret th e enti re p rocess of th e act of
,

s ee ing th ey o nly succeeded t o t race th e con nectio n o f

,

th e eye with th e ce reb r um b ut th e mysterious pa rt

,

wh ich th e b rai n h as to pe rfo r m is yet a s eal ed book for

m any ce nt u ri es to co m e p e rhaps fo reve r
,
.

The t w o l arge s ockets o r o r b its o f th e eyes as see n in a

Scul l are fi ll ed i n a l iv ing being with m uscl es sm al l blood ,

v essel s and cush ion s o f fat l eaving o n ly room f o r th e

,

ey eball a nd th e l ids Th e di r ectio n o f th e axis o f the

.

eyebal l does n o t cor respon d w ith that o f the o rb it ; th e

ax es o f th e ey es are para l l el with o n e anothe r wh ile ,

those o f th e o rbits d ive rge co n siderab ly i n front and I f ,

‘
110 HAN D B O O K F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

p rolonged b ack wa r d wo uld i nte rsect at an ac ut e angl e

,

a l ittl e dista nce b efo re th e m i ddl e o f th e fo r eh ead and

occiput H ence as the optic n e rv es co i nci de i n thei r
.
,

di rectio n with that of th e a xes of th e O rb it s ea ch of them ,

e n te r s the glob e of th e co rrespo nd i ng ey e t o th e i n n er

si de of its ax is and co nseq u ently o f th e axi s o f v i sion
, , , .

Th e gl ob e of a no rm al ey e i s pe r fectly ro u nd with the ,

ex ceptio n o f th e cor n ea w hi ch fo r m s a sl ight el evation

Wh en w e sh ut the eye an d p res s o n e fi n ger ge ntly on
.
,
’
,

th e uppe r l id we can p l ai nly feel this el ev atio n by mov

,

i ng the ey e The co r nea exten ds to th e o utsid e borde r

.

of th e i ri s and is easily see n by loo ki ng at th e eye of

,

som ebody ob liquely or i n p rofile wh en th e i ri s appea rs ,

as a straight v erti cal l i n e and th e co r n ea as a n el evated ,

b ut t ran spa r ent sectio n o f a sm all er bal l l aid upo n a

l a rger o n e Th e ir is wh i ch p resent s th e colo r ed ci rcle
.
,

seen th ro u gh th e transpare nt co rnea rese m b les a parti ,

tio n placed vertically so as to di vide b ut ve ry u n equally , ,

the i nte rval b etween th e co r ne a an d th e l en s i nto two

pa rts Th i s i n te rv al i s fi lled by th e aq
. u eou s hu m or ,

w h ich enabl es th e i ri s to m ov e f r eely i n any d irectio n .

Th e space betwee n it an d th e co rnea i s call ed th e anterio r

chamb er that behi nd it i s th e poste r ior cha mb er ; the
,

fi r st is th e la rgest and both co m m u ni cate th rough t he

,

pupil The i ris has diffe rent fu nction s t o perfo r m ; it

.

acts li k e a diaph rag m i n a spy—glass as a s cree n o r o ur ,

tai n to p reve nt l ight f ro m fal ling On th e o ute r part of

,

th e c rystal l i n e l en s w hi ch ot h e r wise wo ul d ca u se an
,

annoyi n g sph e r ical ab e rrati o n I t al so r egul ates th e .

qua n tity of l ight ente ri ng th e eye by closi ng o r openi ng

th e p u pil whi ch is do n e by th e co nt ractio n o f its di ffe ren t
,

fib r es eithe r of th e ci rc u la r o r radiati ng o n es Wh en
, .

th e ci r c u la r fibres co nt ract th e p upi l gets s mal l er th e , ,

co nt ractio n o f th e radiati ng ope n s th e p u pi l Th e p up il .

is o nly a rou nd o p e n ing in the center o f th e i r i s th rough

w hich th e l ight e n ters th e eye Th e actio n o f th e i ris i s .

not cont rol led by o u r wi ll b ut i s r egul at ed by th e sy m ,

pathetic ne rv es Th e bl ac k colo r o f th e pu pil is p artly

.

due to th e pigm e n t cove r ing th e w ho l e i n sid e o f th e eye

bal l ex cept the reti n a an d l en s E yes witho ut thi s pi g
, .
*

See Ch apt er X V III ,

“
Th e Ophth almo cop e s .
1 12 H AND B O O K FOR OPT ICIAN S
- .

To co m e to a tho rough u n d e ist an d in g o f th e a natomy

o f th e eye ,
it i s n eces sa ry to dissect o n e o f a s l au g ht e ied
ani m al Th e nea r est to th e h um a n ey e i s that o f a hog
i n Size as wel l as i n th e w ho l e ariang e me nt o f
.

o r cal f ,

its co mpo n ent pa rts and wh i ch w e ca n r eadi ly p rocu re

,

f ro m our butch e r I n o rde r to facil itate su ch a d issec

.

t io n w e ought to h av e a pai r of fi n e poi nted scissors a

, ,

sha rp k n ife o r razo r a pai r o f poi nted and also fl at

,

fo r ceps o r p iiice r s and a few co m m o n pi n s b ent i nto

, ,

hooks with a th r ead attach ed to b e fastened around

, ,

so m e tags wh i ch w e h av e h am m e red h al f thei r l ength

- “
i nto th e s o cal led di ssecti ng boa rd A fte r h aving re.

cei v e d th e eye s w e exam i n e fi r st th e outside I n case

,
.

th e b utch e r h as left a pi ece of th e op tic n er ve o n it we ,

wi l l se e th at th e eyeball r e s e mbl es an apple w ith its stem ,

whi ch i s not exactly opposite th e p upi l b ut i s attached ,

a l ittl e to o n e Side We find al so th e rem n ants o f the

.

si ze m u s cl es whi ch mov ed th e eye an d wh ic h h ad to be

,

cut befo re ext racti ng th e bal l f ro m it s socket Th ey .

.

are attach ed to the s cl er o tica abo ut the m iddl e fro m t he

pup i l to th e opti c n e rv e N ext to wards th e fro nt pa rt
.
,

o f th e eye ,w e fi n d a loose m emb ran e seve r ed f r o m the

i nside o f th e eyelids with whi ch it was c o n n e ct e d c al l e d the ,

c o nj u n cti va . This m e mb ran e i s a fi n e t ra n sp a rent skin

cov e r i ng that pa rt o f th e ey e we s e e i n a l ivi ng b ei ng ,

an d wh ich fo r m s also th e i n sid e li ni ng o f th e eyel ids ,

th us p rotecti ng th e b ack part o f th e eyebal l f ro m enter

i ng of any fluids o r sol id obj ects W e detach th is m em .

b ra n e f ro m th e ball wh ich i s easily do n e as it adh eres

,

only l oosely to it We now di rect o u r atte nti o n to the

.

co r n ea a t ranspa r ent lam in a o r scal e

, the cu rved cover ,

ing ove r th e p u p i l and i ri s an d th e o nl y t r an sparen t

,

pa rt of th e sclerotica h av i ng th e Shap e o f a n ol d
,

fash ion ed watch gl ass With a Sh arp poi nted k n ife we

o
.

can cut a pa it o f it away witho ut touch ing th e iiis One .

O i two d rops of wate r w h ich fil led th e space b etween

,

th e c O ine a an d le ns w il l b e spil l ed an d in exa m i ning

, ,

no w the p up il w e fin d it to b e o nly a n op en ing i n the ir i s

, .

Befo re we go o n i n th i s d i rectio n an d ex plore th e iris

an d crystall in e l e ns w e wi l l tu r n o u r attention t o the
,

di fferent coat ings o f th e ey ebal l a n d t h u s e nte r its in

,
 ANA TO M Y O F TH E HUM AN E YE . 113

t e rio r sid e w ays Th e s cl er o tica covers th e whol e eye

.
,

a nd i s w ith th e exceptio n o f th e co r nea opaque I t i s a .

tough l eath e ry m em b ran e o f a bl uish o r yel lowish wh ite

,

co lo r capabl e o f end u r i ng many i nj u ri es without b reak

We find it a troubl esom e j ob to rem ove a piece o f
,

ing .

it without i nj uri ng th e n ext l aye r the chor oid wh ich is , ,

a rathe r tend e r m e mb ra ne as it co nsi sts al most enti rely

o f sm all blood v essel s covered with the s o cal led pigm ent ,
-
.

Any i nj u ry f ro m o u tside f o r i nstance a h eavy blo w , ,

may rupture som e of its a rte r ies and gi ve th e wh ite ,

scl erotica a redd ish o r b loodshot appea ran ce I n re .

m ovi ng th e cho ro id we tea r l i kewise the p ig men t wh ic h ,

loosely cove r s th e cho roid an d yi elds readi ly to th e ,

sc rapi ng o f a b l unt i n st r u m ent o r th e finger n ai l I t has .

th e appea rance o f a m ixture of p ot b l ac k and l ard .

P a rt icles o f th is pigme nt som eti m es lose thei r ho ld upo n

th e cho roid an d float i n th e vitreo us hu m o r causing th e
, ,

an noyi ng se n satio n o f seei ng flies (m u sc ae vo litantes )

appa rently befo r e th e ey e wh ich are general ly o f no ,

i m po rtan ce as eve ry eye i s m o re o r less s u bj ect to th i

,

occurre n ce an d i n most cases v isio n i s not affected by

,

the m Th e n ext pa rt o f th e eye is th e vitr eou s hu mo r

. ,

occupy i ng th ree fou rths of th e i n te rio r o f the ball I t

- »
.

wi l l ooze f ro m th e l ate ra l open i ng w e have m ade an d ,

l ie upo n th e dissecti ng boa rd as a quive ring pe rfectly ,

transpa r e nt m ass li ke j el ly We n o w cut th e em pty ,

.

s hel l i nto two h alv es fro nt a nd back an d exam i n e th e

, ,

bac k o ne l ve se e h ere th e r etin aexpanded i n a ci rcul ar

. ,

s phe rical form slightly i ndented w he re it ente r s t he eye

,
.

We sho ul d th i n k thi s spot the most sensitive to light ,

b ut st range to say w e can not see there at al l it i s the , ,

‘
.

so - cal led b l in d s p o t of th e r e t in afi Th e m ost sens itive

po rtio n of th e r e t i n a i s a s m al l space a l ittle o uts i de of ,

the bli n d spot an d exactly i n th e l i ne of d i r ect V I Sl o n

, ,

cal l ed th e yel l ow Sp ot (niac u l a l utea ) .

Th e r e i s no w l eft th e upp er hal f of the eyebal l f o r o u r

exa mi nation A fte r h avi ng it dipped i n wate r we hol d
.

it o v e r so m e p ri nt whe n w e obse rve th at every

,
l ette r is

m agnified Th i s i s d ue t o th e crys tal l in e l en s a struct u r e

. ,

T h p c lia ity w a fi t d t ct d by E
is e u r s rs e e e . Marie tte .

8
1 14 HAND -
B O O K FO R O PT ICIAN S .

m o r e co nsiste nt tha n the v itreo u s h um o r an d i s sur ,

ro unded by a t ra n sparent m e mb ra n e th e cap s u l e The ,

l en s exten d s belo w the i ri s ; thi s is a proj e ctio n of the

cho r oid clo sely con n ected with th e cil iary mu s cl e and
, ,

th e cil iar y p r o cess es A ny cont racti on o r rel axatio n of

.

th ese m uscl es change s th e size an d positio n o f th e l ens ,

“ ”
causi n g th e s o —cal l ed accom modatio n of th e eye
We u nderstan d by th i s th e faculty o f th e l en s o f adj ust
.

ing its focal distan ce fo r n ea r an d f ar obj ects p roduc ,

i ng th e sa m e effect as wh e n w e l ength e n o r sho rten an

op e ra glass by m ean s o f th e screw We n ow m ake a .

slight cut o v er t h e wh ol e l e n gth o f th e l en s ca r eful ly ,

seve ri ng o nly th e i n n e r s id e o f th e capsul e an d by a ,

gentle p ress u re cause the l en s to j um p o ut wh ich wil l ,

k eep its o rigi n al shape th at of a st rong co n vex l ens but

, ,

wil l yi el d r eadi ly to t he p re ss u r e of o u r fi nger I t con .

si sts of fi n e l ay e r s O f m i n ute tissues an d co ntai n s com

a ri t iv e l y b ut littl e fl uid I n case of cata r ac t it solidi
p .

fi es a nd after its ext ractio n f r o m th e eye c r umbles

,

b etwee n th e fi nge r s l i k e d ry ch eese We no w r emove .

th e em pty caps u l e and obse r v e th at th e ir is extends a

l itt l e fa rth e r below the scl e rotica than it appea rs f rom
the f ro nt Wh en w e di rect th e i ris to st ro ng light afte r
.
,

h avi ng wash ed off th e da rk p ig me n t w hic h covers th e ,

i nside an d p roduces its pa rti cular co lo r w e are abl e by ,

m ean s Of a m ic roscop e to detect th e two sets o f fibres ,

th e ci r cul ar and th e r adiatin g .

We n ow tak e th e secon d ey e wh i ch was k ept i n a gl ass ,

of w ate r to fin ish th i s chapter w ith so m e additional

,

rem a r ks not yet exp lai n ed We cut f rom th e b ack pa rt

.
,

exactly opposite th e p upi l asm al l p i ece o f the scl erotica

,

( th e size of a gold dol la r

) an d al so o f the cho roid w atch
, ,

i ng careful ly that th e r eti n a an d v it reo us h u m o r are l eft

u n inj ured I f w e n o w e nci r cl e th e eye by a pi ece of
.

sti ff pape r so that the pupi l can b e see n at o n e op eni ng

, ,

and th e retina at th e othe r a n d di rect th e p up i l to a,

w el l lighted obj ect w e se e upon th e t ran spa r ent retina

-
,

the sm al l picture o f that obj ect i n a n i nv erte d position .

I w ill n ot atte mpt to expl ai n h e re why w e s ee e veryth ing ,

e rect and not i nve rted as I di d not fi n d any wh e re a

,

sati sfacto ry expl an atio n o f thi s phen o m e no n But after .

 C H AP T ER X V I .

P RES BY OPIA H Y PER M E T RO PIA AND M Y OPIA

,
.

The general beli ef that th e n o r m al eye i s pe r fect is ,

not true . F o r i n stance th e c rys tal l in e l en s th e most

, ,

essentia l part of th e ref racting m edia i s f ar fro m being ,

faultl ess ; it i s n ot opti cally u nifo rm n eithe r i n Shape nor

,

in str u ctu r e ; its ante rio r su rface is e lli pti cal ly co nvex ,

and th e poste rio r su rface pa rabol ic ally co nvex Besi de s .

th e fib res are a r ranged aro u nd s ix di ve rgi ng axes s o that ,

t he r ay s wh ich w e Se e a r oun d stars an d othe r d istant

l ights are m e r e i m ages of th is radiated st r uctu re The .

statem ents of A lex v o n Hum bo ldt a nd Dr E Landolt

. . .
,

t hat th ey have k no wn pa rti es who co uld see th e sta rs as

l um i no us poi nts o nly Sho w that th ese e m i n e nt scienti sts
,

we r e si mply i m po sed upo n Th ere i s al so th e r etina; it

.

pe rform s its d uty o n ly o n a l i m ited spot th e “ mac u l a ,

”
l utea whi ch w e cal l d ir ect vis io n apply ing th e term ia
, ,

d ir ect to th at exerci sed by th e late ra l parts o f the reti na .

But al l th e defects wh i ch r esult f ro m th e i n ex actness

,

of v ision are co m pen sated for by the rapi dity with

,

wh ich w e can t u r n th e eye fro m poi nt to poi nt o f the

fiel d o f vi sion an d it is th is r api dity o f m ove m ent which
,

really co nstitutes th e ch i ef advantage o f th e ey e over

any optical i nst rum ent Hel m holtz w hi l e poi nti ng o u t
.
,

th ese an d other defects o f th e ey e r esign ed ly rem a r ks ,

I Sh al l b e o nly too gl ad to k eep th em as long I can d c —

”
feet s an d al l . I ndeed of al l th e m em be rs o f th e body
, ,

th e eye has al ways b een h el d to b e th e ch oicest gift of

n ature P o ets an d w r ite rs h av e s ung i ts p rai ses ; phi l
.

o s o p he rs h ave extol led it as a c r o wn i ng i nsta nce o f p er

f e ct io n i n an o rganism an d opti ci an s h av e i m it ated it as

,

an u nsu rpassed mod el Th e m o st enth u siasti c adm i ration

.

of th is wo nde rf u l o rgan i s o n ly n atu ral wh e n w e co nsider

th e fun ction s it pe r fo rm s : wh en w e d wel l o n its penc
 E M M E T R O PIA 1 17

t rat ing powe r on th e swiftn ess of su ccession of its b ri l

,

l iant pict u res and o n the riches which it sp reads b efo r e

,

o u r se n s e . I t i s by the eye alone t hat w e kno w th e

cou ntl ess shi ning wo rl ds that fi l l i m m ea s u rable space ,

t he d i s ta nt landsc ape s of o ur o w n ea rth with al l the v ar ,

ie t ie s of s u nl ight that r eve al the m th e w ealth o f fo r m,

a nd co lo r a mo ng flowe rs bi rd s a nd i n sect s N e xt to los s

, .

of life i t s el f that of eyesight i s the h eav iest B u t ev e n

m o re i mpo rtant tha n t he delight in bea uty and admi ra
.

tio n o f m aj esty i n th e c reation whi ch w e o w e to th e eye ,

i s the s ecu rity a nd exact ness wi t h which we c an j udge by

sight o f th e po s itio n distan ce and size o f th e obj ect s
,

wh ich su rro u n d u s F o r th is k no wl edge is th e n ecessa ry

.

fo u ndatio n f o r al l o u r actio n s f ro m th reading a n eedl e

,

to l eaping f ro m c l iff to cli ff wh e n l i f e itself depe nds o n

th e r ight m easu re m ent of the di s t ance W
,

e th erefo re
.
—
, ,

sho uld n ot fin d fault wit h th e few o rgan ic defects of the

ey e, as th ere a re m a ny ot he rs wh ich appea r to b e partly
th e r esult o f o u r a rtificial way o f l i f e pa rtly o f t he in ,

evitab l e changes of o ld age .

The ave rage good eye is cal led e mmetr op ic i e with , . .

i n m easu re a n d al l defective eyes are cal led ametr op ic

, ,

o ut of m easu r e Th e m ea n ing of in an d o u t of m easure

.

c an b e b e s t dem o nst rated by the followi ng expe r i ments .

Tak e a co nve x l e n s of th ree i nch focus -

fi) and a ,

w hite ca rd ; m ou n t each o n a littl e stand and direct th e ,

l e ns to a n obj ect t w enty feet o r m o re a w ay so that th e ,

r ays r each ing it ar e pa rall el Th en app roach th e ca rd

.

t o wa rd s th e l e ns ti ll y o u h ave a Sharp defi n ed pictu re ;

wh en yo u n o w m easu re t he d i s tance between the ca rd
and t he centre o f th e l ens yo u w i l l fi nd it to b e three
,

in ches o r exactly in m eas u r e (E m m etropia )

We no w pl ace th e ca rd at t w o i nch es f ro m the l en s ;
.
,

i n stead o f a n i mage o n th e ca rd we h ave a diff u sed patch ,

b ecause th e le ns i s o u t o f focus a nd o nly a t w o i nch l en s

,

5) w o uld re s to re th e pict u re But i nstead of ch ang

.

ing the le n s w e only add to it the diffe rence between

a nd ,5 which i
s th erefo re a convex l en s o f si x
,

i n ch focus h eld befo re th e te s t l e ns wi ll b ri ng it agai n

-

i nto m easu re (Hype rm et ropia ) .

l ve re m ove th e ca rd n o w to fou r i nch es from the len s ,

1 18 H AND B O OK F O R OPT ICIANS
- .

and we hav e th e sa m e t ro u b l e ; th e r e i s n o p ic t me but

o nly a b l u iie d patch th e fo cu s o f th e l en s i s too s he it
, ,

and w e hav e to l ength e n it by th e d iff e ie n c e o f 3; and

whi ch is 1 5 A s w e ca n w eaken a co nv ex l en s o nly by
—
.

the additio n o f concave le n ses w e aie ob liged to pla c e , o

—
i n f ro nt of th e test l e ns i n or d e r to b e aga in in
2
-
'

m easu re (Myopia ) .

Thi s Si m ple i ll ust ratio n sho ws why we h av e to co rrect

hype r m et ropia by convex an d myop ia by co ncav e l enses
We al so can m ak e use of th i s expe ri m e nt to explain
.
,

P r esbyo pi a an d its co r rectio n by co nv ex l en ses We put .

o u r appa ratus agai n i nto th e sam e po sitio n w e had in

e m m et ropia i e th e card i s placed th re e i n ch es f ro m the
, . .

l en s and w e l eav e it th e r e without fu rth e r distu rbance

, ,

o n ly alt e ri ng s u ccessiv ely th e st rength o f th e t est lens — .

We fi rst ex ch ange f oi l an d we fi nd by c al cu —

l atio n that the d iff e ie n ce betwee n th e m is 3 which —

9

we h av e to add to + 1/ 3 é to r esto re th e st rength of the o rig

i nal test len s i n o rde r to obtai n a cl e ar pi ct u r e “eaker
,
T
-
, .

l e n ses re qui i e s t ro n ei co r r ectio ns ; so i s

g cor rected

1/ 4 b y ll l / i y
4 ‘‘ b
—1
;
‘

1 5 1

+ etc
1
9 9

I f in th e fo re g oi ng cases we s ubstitute f er g l ass lens -

and card c ry tall ine l ens a nd r et i na we h av e a fai r ex

, s -
,

pla natio n o f th e te r ms E m m et ropi a Hy pe r m et rop ia My , ,

o pia and P r esbyopia r especti v ely , .

120 HAND B O OK FOR O PT I C IAN S
- .

of the eyes o n n ear wo rk is do n e with ease But as .

,

ye ar s go by the near poi nt recedes a nd th e eyes are

, ,

obl iged to cal l m ore and m o r e u po n th eir re serve power

to accom p l ish the wo r k they u sed to do easily A s l o ng .

as th e n ea r po i nt l ies wel l w ith i n th e wo r ki ng d ist ance ,

v i si on ca n b e used al most i ndefinitely b ut wh e n the near ,

poi n t h as r eceded to ni ne o r te n i n ch es o n e n eeds to get ,

al mo st as n ear as that to h i s wo r k th e acco m m o dation ,

i s tax ed to it s ut mo st an d th e st rai n an d fati gue are

,

v ery g reat for no m uscl e can wo r k at fu l l p owe r long

,

at a tim e .

S i nc e th e p rog ress o f h ardeni ng o f th e l en s and con

sequent recessio n o f th e n ear poi nt go es on v e ry g radually ,

there i s n o su dden cha n ge no m arked sy mptom to draw ,

on e s atte n tion I t wi l l depend th e r efo r e greatly on

’
.
, ,

th e c usto m ary le ngth o f ti m e th e ey es are k ept at wo rk

at cl ose range upon th e gen era l h ealth an d supply of
, ,

n e r vo us fo r ce not othe rwi se cal led u po n wh ether and ,

wh en th e eyes b egi n to s u ffer fro m ol d s ight This really .

b eg in s gu ite ear l y b ut do es n o t reach th e cond itio n of

,

n eedi ng assi sta nce u nti l th e near poi nt h as go n e o ff to

about te n i nch es ; it si m ply m ea n s o ve rtax i ng of the

m uscl es o f acco m m odatio n not o n acco u nt o f th e w ork ,
—

do ne but ch anges i n th e effo rt requi red to do th e wo rk ;

,

it m ean s i mp rope r w ear a nd tear to th e n e rvo us system ,

j ust i n p ropo rtio n to th e dem an d fo r n e ar wo rk .

A lthough th e us e o f glasses can b e defe r red fo r quit e a

long ti m e afte r they are r eal ly n eeded th e co st i s v ery ,

r eal an d has to be pai d i n so m e way Just as m achi n ery .

m ay b e ru n fo r som e t i m e after o il i s n eed ed and ac ,

compl i sh its w o rk w ell i t is w ith a w ast e o f p o we r and

,

dam age to its pa rts .

The m om e nt w e fi nd th at o u r u su a l wo rk fatigues the

eye especial ly at n ight it i s pro pe r to co m m e nce with
, ,

spectacles and , wil l rel i ev e us f ro m u n du e str ain .

But whe n w e do not l isten t o thi s fi rst app e al t o as si st

o u r fail i ng eyesight w e ar e com pel led t o r e m o v e ou r
,

wo rk fu rth er away a nd on ly , wi l l e nabl e u s to

see agai n disti nctly at th e p rop e r distan ce A further .

d el ay reveal s th e n eed o f m o re l ight w e hav e t o approach ,

th e w i ndo w o r door o r d raw th e l am p neare r t o se e well ;

,
 PRESBY OPIA . 12 1

i s no w the co r rect ing l e ns Up t o thi s state .

o f o u r eyes we sti ll can see altho ugh with so m e d itfi ,

c ulty th e fi n est p ri nt i n th e n e w spaper a nd o nly a few

, ,

peop le a re a w are o f havi ng al ready Sl ighted th re e ca l ls

fo r co rrectio n S oo n th ey w il l b e s urp ri se d that th ey
.

c an no lo nge r d isti ngui sh s m al l pri nt o r th read a n eedle , ,

and i f they n o w co m e f o r h elp we m ay r eliev e the m

w ith 1s ; b u t m any p eopl e wi l l stil l defer th e use of
gl asses h av i ng b ee n told to do w ithout th e m as l en g as
,

possible Th ey fool ish l y b egi n th e vai n st ruggl e agai nst

.

th e i n ev itabl e i nroads of advancing age and i nstead o f ,

“ ”
g row i n g ol d g racefu lly they r eso rt to i m pruden t ,

a r tifi cial m ea n s to r ej u v e nes ce n ce ; b ut as to thei r fai li ng

,

eyesight the r e i s n o oth e r r e m edy to reso rt to than th e

,
”
u s e o f th e “ d readed spectacl es I t i s u tte r ly useless .

“ ”
to fight age as f ar as o ur eyes a re conce r ned and
, ,

th e soone r we ca n co n vi n ce peopl e esp ec ially l ad ies of , ,

th e ab sol ute n ecessity now to co m m en ce with spectacl es ,

t h e b ette r f o r th e m A t thi s poi nt th e optici an can .

,

p rove that h e i s so m ethi ng b ette r tha n a si mp le m echani c ,

that h e i s also th e scie nt ific ad v i s e r i n eye t roubl es -

,

w h ich ca n b e co nt ro l led by a j u d iciou s s el ectio n of

glasses .

Th e longe r peopl e are opposed to s u bstit u ti ng by

c c t ac l e s th at pa r t O f th ei r po w e r of vi sio n w hich i s
p
fo reve r l ost th e m o re rapidly thei r eyesight wi l l fai l
, ,

a nd w e ar e s om eti m es co m pel led to h an d to s u ch inc o n

s ide rate pe rso n s glasses o f 2 s o r eve n ,

Th ey are f o r a whil e deceived by thei r spl e n did distant

sight b ut be co m e ala r m ed as soo n as th ey al o pe rceive
,
s

a fai l ing of th i s l ast defen se o f thei r fol ly .

I I Y P ER il I E TR OP I A
Th i s defect o f v isio n has its o r i i n i n a deformity of g

th e ey ebal l I n p r esb y opi a the bal l is p ractical ly a

.

Th i o d i d iv d f om th G k hyp b yo d mt o m a
s w r s er e r e re e er, e n ,
e r n, e s u re ,

c all it Hyp
,

op s i
s, vi io i vi io b yo d m a ; b t om
s n, e it s n e n e s u re u s e wr e rs er

T h i abb viat io i t i t d d
. .
,

opia ,
o mitt i g th w o d “ m t o
n e e n r n n n n e r .
”
s re s o e

to avoid th ig" nific an t im il a ity b t w n th abov lon g n am an d

e s e
“
s r e ee e e,
“ lo g t m
t he n i e it took t h m d ic al fac lty to expl ain a d f ctiv on e e u e e e c

s t ru ctio n of th ey b all w h ich

e ly i a l d a th“ h m an rac ; it i
e s u re s s o s e u e s

mply a v e b al t an l ation f th G m an w o d l b e icht g (ov

,
”
i er
si r r s o e er r i rs

si ghte d) an d has th e s am e m ean in g as H yp e m et rop ia

,
r .
12 2 H AND —B O OK FOR OPT ICIANS .

p e rfect sphe r e b ut its range o f acco m m odatio n i s im

,

paired ; in hyp e r m etropia th e accom m odat io n is

good up to a ce r t ai n pe riod b ut th e opti cal axi s i s too ,

sho rt so that pa ra l l e l rays are not un ited upo n the retina

, ,

whi ch by its p roj ected positio n i nte rcepts th e m befo re

th ey are focused and it the r efo re rece iv es o nly circles
, , ,

of d iff u sio n i n s tead of a cl ear i m age .

Un l ike p resbyopia wh ich dev elops s lowly and b e

,

co m es evide nt at m idd le age t hi s is a p er manent defect ,

i n th e sh ap e o f t he eyeb al l ; th e r eti n a i s too clo se to

the l en s a nd wi l l nat u rally cause al l its pi ctu res to be
,

m o re o r l ess i ndi sti nct B ut as al l eyes h ave th e m us

.

c u l ar po w e r o f i nc reasi ng the stre n g t h o f th e le ns s u ch ,

an eye ca n and does adj ust th e l e ns to the faulty pos i

tio n o f the r eti n a an d i n th at way sees p e r fe ctly well
, ,

b ut it h as to us e u p mo r e o r l es s o f its m uscul a r powe r .

to get what th e no rm al ey e se es n atu ral ly and at r est .

Th e n o r ma l eye i s li ke th e ro w e r o n s mooth w ater w ho ,

u ti l izes h is st r e ng th o nly f o r p rogress a n d rests at will .

The hype rmet ropic eye i s l i ke o n e r o wi ng u p stream -

,

who m u st spend m u ch o f h is fo rce in o verco m i ng the

ceasel ess c u r re nt an d has o n ly the bal ance f o r r eal p ro
,

g ress an d to him r est i s i m possibl e I t is th e refo re an

,
.
, ,

over w o rked eye n ot o n a c co unt o f what it does b ut on

-
, ,

acco u nt of it s shap e ; f o r i t has fi rst to ove rco m e its

eve r p re sent congeni t a l defect an d i n ad ditio n al l the ,

wo rk of a n o r m a l eye as w el l Th i s constant u navoi dable .

,

st rai n sho w s itself soo n e r o r l ate r i n som e fo r m s o f fatig ue

o r exha u sti o n The r e n eed n ot b e th e slightest i mpai r
.

m ent of v i s io n or pai n in the ey e b u t i n abi lity to e nj oy ,

.

co nti n ued vi sio n witho u t w ea r ine s s h ead ach e o r i nab ility ,

to fix th e atte ntion long at a t i m e ; o r t he re m ay b e

l ocal sym pto ms of bl u rring s ma r t i ng o r ti red feel i ng in
, ,

the eyes t ethe r o r not the hype r m etrop e e xp e rie nces

.

any of th ese sy m pto ms w il l d epe n d m u ch o n h is ge n e ral

h ealth an d the amo u nt of c l ose w o rk do n e He may e s
, .

cape th em al l h is l i fe if st rong and wel l ; h e may b e m ade

,

m iserab l e i n h ealt h by t he m eve n whi le i n school Ve ry .

o ften ho w eve r si nce th e hy pe r met ro p e n ev e r i s ab le to

, ,

co mpare his eyes with othe rs as t o ease o f seei ng he , ,

rem a in s in e nt ire igno ra n ce that h i s sight co sts himso

12 4 HAND -
B O OK F O R O PT ICIAN S .

li ng shoem aker who con sol es h is t rusti ng v icti m with

,

th e assu ran ce that i n a f e w days th e shoe wil l no t pinch

any m ore R em em b er that th e r ight glass wi l l soon re
.
,

li ev e and com fo rt th e ey e ; but i n case w e c an not fi nd this

glass w e sho u l d send the custo m e r to an o cu li st who will ,

ov erco m e al l late nt H by the appl icatio n o f a myd riatic . ,

wh ich e nabl es h i m to r eadily dete r mi n e th e st rength of

glasses which wil l co r rect th e enti re o r abso l u te H I t i s
,
.

ve ry tem pti ng f o r opti ci an s to t ry t he sam e thi ng but I ,

se r iously wa r n the m not to ove rstep th ei r l i mited sphe re ,

“ ”
an d fri vol ously i nvoke a sea o f t ro u bl es by the ap pl i
cation o f drugs wh i ch m ay f o r i nstan ce i n Gl auco ma
, , , ,

i n j u re th e ey e to such a n e xte nt as to i n vo l ve them in a

costly l aws uit E ve n those Optician s who are i n posses
.
,

sion o f a Diplo m a f rom an o ptical Col l ege are not p ro ,

t e ct e d by it f r om suits for dam ages i n case of an acci

dent .
*

Hyperm et ropi a has ofte n bee n co nfounded with myopia ;

l W kly
In t h e J e w e e rs ee ,
ch M ar H
11t h , 1834 M r th . A Hea , an in
. .

s t ru c t o r i f ct o p bl h d
n re ra i n , u is e folloth e bl m k bo t
wi n g s e n si e re ar s a u the
u se of t op by opt c
a r in e i ian s :Why do opt c b t f om
es th e i ian a s ain r t he
p ch of
ur ase a s et o f s u r i a in s ru en s ? His re as n is o b V io u s ; h e
gc l t m t o do es

n ot k o n w ho w to th m
use e ,
f th mo
an d ur er ght to th m
r e h as n o r i u se e .

I m t th t
ain ain a the opt c mo
i ian h as n o myd t c th
re u s e f o r ria i s an f o r t he
g o l c t
s u r e n s an e
’
of t op
T he u s e
. ar m ght in e m to
i k d
get hi in an aw w ar
p dc m t
re i a en t c p t t c ll
F o r in s an e, a a ien p gl
a s f o r a air o f ass e s , an d t he
opt c fi d
.

i ian n s 20 b t lt obt
L X X th e e s r es u h e c an ly o d
ain , b u t u n w is e r ers

art op in e to bed opp d to

r e in y th d y
t h e e e s f or r ee k a s , an d as s him
to re

t u rn f or a u rf th t t er es p t t
Th e . t op
a ien u s es t h e a r f l to in e b u t ai s re
t u rn to theO pt c y
i ian , as his e es w e rem d o by dv c
a e w rs e go
his a i e He es .

to oc l t
an u i ft c f l x m to
s , an d a er a are u e a i y fo d to
n a i n , t h e e es ar e un be
n ear ly mblyop c f om xc
a i r e tob cco
e s ses i n lcohol m
a or a told th t
is He is a
h lp m
.

no gl as s es Wl l l e hi , an dth t opt c
a the ght to o d d op
i ian h ad n o ri r er r s

p u t in to y h ch t
his e e s , w i is ru e T h p t t fo v b l v th t
is a ien. r e er e ie es a his
y
e es w ere p m er ty
an en l d by tho d op
inj u r e se r s , an d , i m
f h e is o f t he se i
c k k d
r an t d m g
in , a s u i f o r a a e s is a mo g p ob b l t
n t he r ght
a ii ie s — T he ri
th g do c
in t o q
in as es re u irin g myd t c to ri d
a i s is p t t to
s en t h e a ien his o w n
loc l phy c
a si i d t d
an , w h o u n ers an s h is phy q h th
s i u e , an d w e er o r n o t
myd t c ri f
a i s are s a e phy c
Th e . si i m po b l ty
an ass u es al l the re s n s i ii , an d
lg l
t h e act is e a h
B u t w en t he
. opt c o d t op pl c h m lf
i ian r e rs a r in e , h e a es i se
at t h e m cy of
er p t t d
t he a ie n , as h e h as n o re res s dvoc t c p oc ty
I a
.
-
a e re i r i
b te w e e n th e opt c i ian an d t h eoc l t u is xp t opt c
An e er ll tg
i ian w i n o t an a e
h gh cl m c l m
.

z
n i e th e m dc lp o
e i a o
r f es si n The i . as s gl d to h v
e di a
-
en are a ae
k ll d opt c
t he s i e i ianto l v th m f om m ch c l b ch of
r e ie e e r a e an i a ran the
c c h ch th y do
s i en e w i e d
n ot p ov d d
es i re , r opt c
i e the t ll g t
i ian is in e i en
en u o gh k o th t
to n w a he m t us pl y docto
n ot a m ddl th d g
r, o r e e v i ru s .

m
.

L et hi b e an a e d pt l lyz g
at en s an a d g f m
in , p r es Ciip tio n r e a in , ra e ad
f ct g
JUSt in g, and e ye re ra in in s i mpl c e oc l t ll
as e s , an d t h e fi t
u is wi b e t he rs
to d covis er hiq l fic t o
s u ai to m k
a i n s an d of k ll
a e u se his s i
”
.
 HY PER M E T R O PIA . 12 5

th is ge ne ral ly o ccu rs to pe rsons u n der twenty years o f age .

Th e rea s o n f o r th is mi stake is o b viou s ; yo ung hype r

iiie t ro e s h ol d th e book close to th e eyes to get t he l ar
p g
est r eti n al i m age w h i ch agai n causes th e pupils to c o n
,

t ract and cut o ff th e ci rcles o f d iffusion and also i nci t es ,

th e ci liary m uscl e to m ake spa s modic effo rts to i nc rease

t he co n vexity of th e le n s so that paral lel r ays m ay b e,

focu sed eve n in f ront of the r et i na thus si mulati ng ,

myo pia By thi s exe rtio n th e eye wil l i nc u r f req u ently

.

th e t roubl eso m e defect of seei ng obj ects dou b l e ((l ip l op ia

To avo id th is an noyance th e ch il d o fte n adopts th e h abit
,

o f i n cl i n i ng th e h ead so that o ne eye i s shaded by the

nose and o nly th e oth e r is employed The co nsequence

, .

i s th at the u ne m ploy ed ey e g radual ly co nv e rges and ,

prod u ces co n v e rge nt strabi s m u s o r s q u in t .

A fath e r b ring s h is hype rm et ropi c so n to u s stati ng ,

that h e i s n ear sighted becau s e h e ho lds the boo k ve ry

-
,

c lo se to th e ey e an d also co m plai ns that h is eyes

,

h u rt h i m o r are f u l l of tears I gno rant opticians m ay

,
.

ag re e w ith such an u np rofess ion al d iagnosis and give ,

h i m con cave s pectac l es at the sam e tim e i nst ructing the

,

pa r e nt to com pe l the ch ild to wea r them co n stantly ,

”
the ey es soo n wo ul d accom m odate them sel ves to thei r
use ; thus r e nderi n g this poo r chi ld a l am e ntabl e victi m
o f o u r igno ran ce But n ot only th e pa re n ts a nd in co m
.
,

pete nt o ptician s we re in e rro r abo ut the r eal nat ure of

t hi s pec ul ia r d eficiency also th e m edical faculty was
,

igno rant about it t ill Donde rs Hel mholtz and m a ny

, , ,

others afte rwa rds lifted th e vei l and explain ed the

,

whol e t ro uble The fact th at m any children r eq ui re

.

co nvex glasses as u rgently as their p resbyopi c pa re nts

o r g ran d pare nts has l ed l at ely to the prescr ipt io n of
-
,

glasses by th e phy si cia n i n stead o f th e optic ian .

Hype r m et ropia m ay b e easily detected by test ing ho w

far o ff o n e can read o rd i na ry p r int th ro ugh a l ens o f
k now n focal l ength ; f o r i n s tance i f o ne loo ks through ,

a t en i nch l e ns a nd can r ead cl early at a g reate r n u m ber

-

o f i nch es say t welv e fo u rtee n o r m o re then h e surely

, . , ,

is fa r s ighted o r hype r m et ropi c

- .

Th e way of deal i ng with such cases is v e ry S imple ; .

t he state m e nt o f b e ing u nabl e to see dist inctly at long

12 6 H AND B O OK FOR OPT ICIAN S
- .

distan ce is no t any lo nge r tak e n as a p ro of o f myopia

, ,

b ecause the n ext test to read sm al l p r i nt wi l l sho w that

, ,

we have b efo re us a clear case o f hyperm etropi a .

I t i s by no m ean s n ecessary fo r eve ry o n e who is

hyp erm et ropi c to wear gl asses f o r i f h e expe ri ences no , ,

signs of ne rvous t roubl e or o v er fatigu e it i s perfectly -

,

safe to l eav e the m atte r al on e altho ugh theoretical ly he ,

n eeds h elp But th e recogn itio n o f H s hou ld p u t one on

. .

h is g u ard an d wo uld supply a po sitiv e d iag nosis f o r

,

d iffe r e nt fo r m s of ne r vous difficu lty wh ich m ight a ri s e and ,

expl ai n m any fo r m s of fatigue and d ist u rb ance l iabl e to

b e l ai d to th e b rai n the sto m ach th e l ive r etc Glasses
, , , .

f o r th e hy pe r m et rope si m ply tak e off th e constant bu rden ,

at w i l l do th e ext ra wo r k f o r h im a nd give hi m as fai r a

, ,

chance as no r m al ey es h av e They save hi s aecom .

mo d at io n f o r its p rope r u s e and sho u l d be wo r n enough ,

to m ake h i s v ision com fo rtabl e .

L et m e fi n ally d raw th e attentio n of the reade r to the

f requent o cc u rre nce o f sty es o n th e l ids o f a hyp e rme
t ropi c eye Befo r e usi n g spectacl es an d also afterwa rds
.
,

w he n l atent H i s not f u lly co r rected th e excessive

.
,

effo rt of accom m odatio n d raws m o r e b lood to the eye

an d to th e n eighbo ri ng pa rts tha n i s n ecessa ry f o r thei r
n u t r itio n ; th e eyelids b ecom e swoll en a nd styes are the
fi n al r es u lt Dr So e l b e rg Wel ls (187 3 ) speaks of them
. .

as a di s ease of the co n n ecti v e tiss u es of the l ids f o r ,

w hich he r eco m m ends col d com p r esses a nd if th ey are ,

w itho u t effect h ot po u lti ces , He the n o rde rs a smal l .

in cisio n to b e m ade an d to p reve nt a r ecu r r ence of the

,

d isease to apply a w eak oi ntm e n t o f nitrate o f silve r

, .

But i f the patient i s feebl e and o u t o f h ea lth tonics ,

sho uld be gi ven and the digesti v e f u n ctio n s tho roughly

,

r egul ated .I bel ieve Dr Wel l s wi l l l a u gh to day at

—
, .
-

hi s anti quated tre atm e nt o f th i s d is ease an d wil l order ,

suitabl e sp ectacl es i nstead o f pou lti ce s an d p u rgatives

, .

iV Y OP I A .

Th is defici en cy i s desc r ibed by so m e w r iters as a

d is ease o f th e eye wh ich i n th ei r opi n io n gives ri se to
, , ,

posterior staphylo m a (an exten si ve b ulging o f the

back portio n o f the glob e ) o r t o spasm s o f th e ci liary ,
12 8 H AND BO OK FO R OPT ICIAN S
- .

brachy met ro p ia as Do n d e is p io p o s e s t o cal l it o r when

, ,

w e m entio n eve n th e ha r m less hype rm et ropia Ou r Eng .

l ish wo rd shor t s ighted n ess is fa r m o re exp ressi ve an d is

-
,

u nderstood by everybody .

The experi m e nts with the l e ns an d ca id at the begin

ni n g of thi s chapter i l l u st rates o nly o n e ki nd of myopia ,

( )M cal
,
l ed a x ia l M becau s e th e op t i c axis i s too long
.
, ,

wh ich is al w ays p r esent i n pronou n ced cases of M But .

t he re are ma ny m il d cases o f th is defici en cy where the ,

eyebal l i s o f a no rm al shape yet a n abno rm al con ,

v e xi ty of th e c ry s tall i n e l e ns cau s es sho rt sight to a ce r -

t ai n deg ree te rm ed r efr act ive M N ea rly al l ch ild ren

, .

are b o rn myopes o r hy p e rme t ro p e s ; b ut th ei r M i s only .

refractive thei r l e ns i s so con vex and o n acco unt o f it s

, ,

g r eat fl exib i lity so easily ro u nded and adj usted that the
, ,

focal distan ce o f th e ey e is j ust i n p ro po rtion to thei r

di m i n u tive size o f body and thei r sho rt arm s I re co l .

l ect that at th e age o f si x y ea r s I co ul d see distin ctly

,

at no se s l ength a l though my M was at th e age Of fif

’
, .

teen o nly
Du ri ng yo u th the i e f iact iv e M may beco m e axial
, .
,

wh en the re is a h eredita ry p re di sposition to it combined -

,

with so m e lo ca l causes as congestion o f the ci l iary mus

,

cles an d othe r ti ss u es whi ch so m eti m es l e ads to soften

,

i ng an d elo ngatio n of th e eyeb al l Thi s congestio n may .

b e p rod uced by ge n era l m al n ut ritio n o f th e body with -

a n ex cessive use o f th e eyes upo n fi n e obj ects by ,

i nsuffici e nt light o r w o rki ng i n a st e e p ing position The .

fo undatio n of axi al M i s al w ays l aid in ch i ldhoo d What

. .

i s said o f p rog r ess iv e M i s Ofte n d u e to th e great d itfi

.
,

culty i n te s t i ng t he eye o r to th e carele s s w ay i n which

,

th e ey es of myop ic ch ild ren are tested I f o n e n eeds .

1 and we han d hi m h e m ay be t e mp o raiily satis

1 0

fie d w ith th e pa rti al i m p rovem ent of hi s fo r m e i poo r d is

tant sight ; and whe n we give him afterwa rd s h e is
m o re p lea s ed ti ll w e r each th e ful l co r recti o n
, No w ,

w he n thi s loose m an n e r of co r recting M too k u s three .

y e ai s w e, can not w el l speak of p io ie s s i

g v e M as the
p rogress i n this case i s o nly o n o ur si d e in co i
.
,

re ct in
g
iad u al l y f o r m e r m istakes
g .

But ev en g ro w n p e is o n s may b e i ll s uited f o r years

'
-
 MY OPIA 12 9

w it ho ut th e sl ightest s uspi cio n th at th ei r eyesight coul d

b e co n sid e rabl y i m p roved by st ronge r glasses I had a .

l ady cu stom e r who asked al way s f o r

-
On e night I
m et h e r at th e th eat re with glasses Of a diffe rent patte r n
f ro m tho se sh e gen e ral ly bo ught of m e ; an d as I was wel l
acquai nted with h e r I was al lowed to exam in e them an d
, ,

fo un d the m t o b e Wh e n I asked h e r why sh e had ,

n e ve r befo re com plai n ed o f h er i nsuffici ent sight an d ,

h ad al w ay s cal l ed f o r w eake r gl as ses than sh e real ly

n eeded sh e r em a r ked th at an oc u li st h ad p r esc r ib ed
,

t hat n u m be r fo r h er b ut that sh e had l ately consulted

,

Dr P (a p eddli ng o c ul is t ) who h ad fu r n ished h er

. .
,

th ese sp le ndid glasses (by th e way a six dol lar gla s s )

,
-
,

f o r o n ly t we nty fiv e dolla rs -
S he was w el l pleased an d
.
,
“ ”
cou ld s e e now th e sho w b ette r th a n ever before .

S i m i la r case s m ay h ave led o u r autho rities t o exaggerate

the optical co nd itio n o f th e myopic eye especially wh e n ,

th ey fo u nd afte r a th oro ugh test that th e o l d glasses

, ,

w e re too weak a ltho u gh they n ever befo r e m ay h av e

,

suited th e cas e Hartridge say s .

“ Th e higher deg rees
of M w h ich i n crease steadily and co nstantly fro m an
.

early age reachi ng o fte n a h igh degree and carry ing i n

, ,

th ei r wak e destructi o n and dam age to i mpo rtant o cular

ti ssu es mu st be looked upo n as a se rio us d isease ; it i s
,
‘ ’

d esign ated by th e n am e mal ign an t o r p rogr ess ive myopi a ”

.

My l ady custom e r co u ld h ave b ee n cou nted among th e

-

p rogressi ve myope s as lo ng as sh e was wea r ing too w eak

gla s ses ; b ut s i n ce th ey w e re p ro pe rly co rrected he r M ,
.

i s n o m o re p rog ressiv e ; o n th e cont rary she is at p resent , ,

afte r th e l apse o f t w el ve y ea r s si n ce th at ep isode ) wel l

( ,

suited w ith N ea rly al l autho riti es are r e co m

—

m e ndi ng th e weakest co ncave l enses fo r myop es b ut th e ,

stro ngest co n ve x l e nses f o r hyp e r me t ro p e s ; w hy ? I do

n o t fi nd any reason abl e a nswe r i n al l th e ir arg u m
“
e nt s fi

I f th ey a re so particul ar i n co rrecti ng the absol ute hyp er

th h ch
T h e w e a es k t gl
xx cho
as s w i b c
w i V 20
/ is s n,
e e au s e th e

myo p d
e u noft
er p t
4 5 eccommod t o
n
“
u s look
o n a a i n on in
g at t he es t
t
type s, am k h m lf m m o
n d so a e s i ght d th
s e s e e r e n e a rs i e an a n d if w e

c f l to v
are n o t are u k t gl
g i e tt b ly g v g xx
h e w e a es a s s , j u s a r e i in 2 0/ ,
we
m k m t hyp m t op
a e hi in o a D e r Be r e Ol —
R H. D R.UN S , .N ew
.
r ean s .
13 0 H AND B O O K F OR OPT ICIANS
- .

me t ro p ia why sh al l w e not co r rect th e ab so l ut e myopia ,

th e m o r e so as th e pow e rful acco m m od atio n o f a my

,

op i e ey e i ndicates a n i m m e nse am o unt o f l ate nt M of .

,

whi ch no Optical w rite r see m s to k now anyth i ng .

I wi sh the fo r egoi ng not to b e co nst r u ed as i f I were

Oppo sed to that i mpo rtant an d wel l estab l i sh e d rule to ,

sel ect the weakest glasses with wh i ch a myope can see

th e t est typ e X X at t w enty feet O n th e co ntrary I
-
.
,

a m st ro ngly i n favor o f eve n m aking a ki nd of co rn

p rom ise betwee n d istant and n ea r glas s es as m ost myopes ,

h av e the habit o f w ea ri ng thei r gl asses f ro m morning

to n ight Hartri dge says :
“ I n yo u ng peopl e with good
.

acco m m odation an d w ith a low deg r ee of myopia the ,

fu ll cor r ection m ay b e w el l bo r ne th e pati e nt wearing ,

su ch glasses constantly ; an d it h as been ob se rved that ,

i n those who f ro m youth have wo rn th ei r f u l l co r rection

,

c o n s tan tl y for both near an d distant obj ects th e myopia

, ,
”
has usual ly r em ai n ed stati onary Thi s st atem ent i s not
.

f ar f ro m b ei ng co rrect b ut u nfo rtu nately h e fo rgot to

, , ,

m entio n th at the ey elids o f most o f those myopes are

o ften redde ned and swollen from the u ndue strain of
close work w ith spectacles o f ful l correctio n .

Th e mo st sensib l e w rite r o n th is s ubj ect i s Dr E . .

Landolt ; h e says :
“ Y o u wi l l fi n d i n n ea rly al l t reatises ,

o n ophthal mology m yopia d escri bed a s a s eriou s di sease

,

which is l iab le to b r i ng about cho ro idit is alte rations at

th e m acul a staphylom a posti cu m an d ev e n choroidal
, ,

he mor rhages and detach m e nt o f th e ret i na P roperly

, .

sp eaking myopia i s not a di sease it is on ly a sympto m

, ,

i n dicativ e o f a discrepan cy b et ween th e l ength of the eye

a nd t he fo cal distance o f its dioptri c apparatus I t is .

not th e m yopi a wh ich p roduces th e cho roiditis an d

staphylo ma posticum wh i ch i n its tu rn re mo ves the
,

r eti n a beyo nd th e focus o f th e d iopt ri c syste m Thus .

the defenders of the theory gen erally accept ed i n regard ,

to myopia wi l l b e m uch e mb a r rassed w h e n th ey are

,

show n a hyperm et rope with a cresce nt at th e edge o f the

Optic disc a papi l la obli qu ely placed an d ev e n w ith
, ,

staphy lo ma ; i n a word w ith al l th e co n d ition s at th e

,

fu ndus o f th e eye wh ich are theo retical ly ch aracte ri stic

13 2 H AND B O OK F OR OPT ICIAN S - .

p l o re d deficie n cy of al l ophthal m i c e r ror s b ut I h ope that ,

s cientific m en wil l make it a sp ecia l s t u dy and soon ,

benefit th e wo rld as D o nd e rs d id i n rega rd to H w ith a ,

.
,

m o r e co rr ect t r eatise on myopia We s u r ely have to .

take i n co n si de ratio n what we m ay te rm l ate n t M othe r .

,

w ise we are at a lo s s to expl ai n th e s m al l h and w r iting of

myopes wh o w ea r spectacl es I f th e r e is al so absol u te .
*

M l et us ful ly co rrect it as w e h av e se en it do ne in H
.
, , .

Th e futu r e i nvestigato r h as t o d rop at o nce th e e rroneous

opi nio n that a myopic ey e b ri ngi ng e verythi ng nea r to ,

th e eye i s m ore st rai ned as to its acco m modation than

,

th e em m et ropi c ey e i s by readi ng at a d istan ce twice or

th ree ti m es that length VVat chmak e rs who necessa rily .

use a st ro ng co nv ex le ns before o ne eye thu s m aking ,

th e m sel ves artifici ally near sighted an d work at the -

,

focal di stan ce o f th at l e ns are not li ab l e to become ,

myopic ; p rovi ng that close wo rk w itho u t co nvergen ce does

n o t tend to pro duce myo pia Th e p ro fessi onal m ic ros .

cop ist is a noth er i ll ust ration o f th i s fact A s long as a .

myop e i s not co m pel led t o hol d th e book neare r than si x

i n ch es the r ecti in ter n i are stil l abl e t o ce nte r both e yes
,

f o r n ear wo rk though w e m ust ad m it th e st rai n to be ,

co nsiderable ; b u t wh e n th e fo cus of th e ey e is shorte r

than si x i n ch es th e myope wi ll soon fo r m th e h abit of ,

usi n g o nly o ne eye and d ivergen t s q u in t wi ll be th e con ,

seque nce if h is M i s n ot co r rected f o r n ear vision This

, . .

i s especial ly th e case w ith myopes u nd e r twe nty years .

The phe nom e no n that so m e p e rso n s are presbyopic

an d myopi c i n t he sam e ey e n eeds a sho rt e x p l anat io n i ,

Myop w rit m all b ec a s w h n yo n g the w ritin g h ld at the

es e s u e e u e
foc al d i t an c o f th i ey look t th m u ffici n tly l a g
s e t he h abit
e r es s o e s e r e,
fo m d w h n l a n in g t w it i n v ab an don e d B sid es th
r e e e r f a o r e s e er . e e u se o
co ct (n t t t on g) gl as do n t m at e ially dim ini h th ize f th
rre o oo s r s es o r s e s o e
obj ct Th at m ain ly d p n d n th d s tan c e f the l n s f om the c een
e e e s o e i o e r s r
D H D B uns
.

( e tin a)
r .
—
r . . . r .

I An eye an o n ly b myop ic an d p byo p ic w h en the myop iai l e s

c e re s s s
th an 2 o D (i t he foc
r lon g th an 16 18 in ch ) an d thee us er or es

p em
. .

I
,

p ati n t 4 0e at el y l d an d f bl in accom mod ativ e po w e

,
or r ur o ee e r .

h av ou ght in v ain f
e s vid n c e f n egativ accommod at io n (i 6 or e e o
“
e
po w t flatten the l n s) I n v e h av e s en amyop w h co ld by eff o t
. .

er o e . e r e e o u r
re d c e hi t e myop ia o a hyp e m t op w h co ld in c ea e his d efect
u s ru , r r e r e o u r s .

I n t h c a e abov m n tio n d a p r byop e w h h ad M

e s e 2 D w h h av e
e e , es o r:
, o
to u se a co n v x n a gl a hold hi adin g ff t he ridic u lo u s d is tan c
e e r ss, o r s re o e
o f h alf a m t (20 in ch e ) Of co ue er he w o ld n e d 2 D f o good s rse , u e r
d is tan t i w n D H D B n
.

—
v s . r . . . ru s .
 MY OPIA 13 3

Th e t ext book s call th is state o f v i s io n “ Myopi a i n

-

D i s tan s o r sho rt s ight at dista nce but they do not ex

,
-
,

plai n wh at changes in t he eye h ave taken p lace to p ro

d u ce this phe no m e n o n D onde rs thi nks t hat it i s ofte n
.

d u e to ab no rma l di latation o f the p upi l and Vo n G raefe ,

att ri b u tes it to a pecul ia r spas m o f th e ci liary m uscle

'

d u ri ng th e atte m pt o f r elaxatio n i n adj u st i ng th e eye fo r

d istant obj ect s b u t both explanatio ns do not u nvei l the
,

cau s e o f th e d ilatation o r o f th e spasm which ,

s urely m ust be d ue to ce rtai n defects i n the m echan ism

o f th e ey e . Befo re I offe r my o w n theo ry o n thi s i nte r
est i ng defici e ncy l et m e co r rect th e ge ne ral e rro r th at
,

th e n o rm al eye i s i n a state o f abs ol u te res t wh en it i s

adj usted t o b ri ng pa ral le l rays to a focus upon th e ret ina .

Th e fa r poi nt as wel l as th e n ea r on e n ecessitates a n

-

e ff o rt o f th e a cco m modation a nd th e p o in t of abs ol u te

,

r es t li es conseque n tly between th e two A cco m m odatio n .

i s p rod uced by th e actio n of the cili ary m u s cl e which , ,

si m i l a r to the ci l ia ry p rocesses (th e i ri s ) co nsist s of t w o ,

diffe rent sets o f fi b res th e ci rcul ar and th e radiati ng

, .

Th e co nt ract io n of th e ci rcula r fibres adj ust the l en s f o r

n e ar v i sion and the contractio n o f th e radi ating for
,

d i s tant vi s io n Thei r actio n i s antagonistic ; the con

.

t ract io n o f o n e set o f m uscl es relaxes the oth er an d o nly ,

wh e n both sets are i n a state of absol u te rest d is tin ct ,

vi si o n ceas es we are gazi ng i nto vacancy an d feel the

, ,

change o f th e te nsio n i n th e eye th e m om ent w e t ry to

focus fo r a n obj ect eithe r n ea r o r far The re a re two .

ways to expl ai n th e above d efi cie n cy : eith e r th e cilia ry

m u scl e has lo st so m e o f its powe r to p ro pe rly shape o r
adj ust the l e n s fo r diffe re nt d i stan ces though the l en s ,

m ay b e sti ll i n i ts no rm a l state ; o r i f the m u scl e has ,

retai n ed its ful l po w e r th e l ens m ay have l ost som e o f

,

its flexi bi lity i n gett i ng h a rd er a nd mo re rigid th us o ffer ,

i ng g reate r resi sta n ce to th e ac t l o n of th e m uscle ; o r

t he re may b e a co m bi natio n of both d e fic ie n me s I n al l .

c as e s
,
n eith e r the co nt ractio n no r t he relaxatio n wi l l be
co m pl etely pe rfo rm ed ; th e m uscl e cannot r each
its
fo r m e r ext re m e poi nts o f acc o mmo d at l o n
.

it s act io n ,

rese mb le s th e sho rte n ed vib ratio ns o f t he hai r spri ng o f -

a watch whose m ai n sp ri ng i s al most ru n do wn F o r

- .
13 4 H AND BO O K F O R O PT ICIANS
- .

n ear vi sio n th e l en s is not enough rou nd ed u p t o d ispense

with convex glasses an d f o i di stant v i sio n i t i s no t suf
,

fic ie n t l y flatten ed t o do with out co ncav e gl asses .

I t i s i m m ate r ial f o r opti ci an s to fu r ther i nve s tigate

the q uestio n wh i ch of the t w o d efici en ci es i n th e aecom
,

mo d at io n o f th e ey e i s m o re freq u e nt th e l es s of m us
,

c ala r powe r o r th e h ard e ni ng of th e l e n s ; although a

l ittl e r eflectio n m ay l ead u s to th e co nvi ctio n that the
m uscula r debil ity occu rs mo re f req ue ntly i n ea rl ie r life ,

and that th e h a rde ni ng o f th e l en s i s m ostly co nfined to

“ ”
o l d age, especially wh e n se co nd sight fo re sh adows-

g reate r tro ubl e .

13 6 H AND BOO K F OR O PT ICIANS
- .

ri
d ian To A i ry b el ongs th e m erit o f fi rst h av i ng applied
.

c l in d r i a l l e n ses f o r th e co r r ectio n o f astigm ati sm I n

y c .

Yo ung s case th e astigmatis m o rigi n ated i n an irre gu

’

l arity o f c u rvatu r e o r positio n of th e crystall i n e l ens .

,
’
th e r efo r e call ed l en ticu l ar astigm ati s m w hi l e A i ry s
, ,

deficiency was due to an i m p erfection i n th e cu rvature of

th e corn ea cal led co r n eal astigm ati sm Wh en Donders
,
.
,

i n 186 2 published his wo r k o n astigm ati sm on ly el even

, ,

cases o f this Optical defect had b ee n recorded b ut h e states

th at astigm atism i s a v e ry com m o n dist urbi ng cause Of
vi sion and that m any cases h ith e rto but i m perfectly co r
,

ri i b l e by sphe ri cal l e nses are al mo st com pletely so by

g ,

cy l ind ri cal o n es either alo n e o r co mbi ned with spherical

,

on es — To day w e m ay cou nt th e cases wh ich are suc

.
-

c e s s f u l l y co rrected by cyl i nd r ical l enses by th e m il lion , .

Befo r e w e go i nto detai ls it m ay b e p r o pe r t o r emi nd ,

the reade r o f som e p ecul iariti es p resent m o r e o r l ess i n ,

ev ery eye Th e ave r age ey ebal l is co nsi dered to

.

b e a p erfect sph e r e b ut this is n o t m ath em ati ca l ly t rue

, ,

O n accou nt of the co r n ea Wh at w e se e o f th e eyeball

.
,

wh e n the l ids are open i s no t a ci rcl e but an ell ipse ; ,

th is is th e r easo n why o u r field o f v isio n is l ate ral ly fully

and ve rtically o nly Th e l arge l ateral scope
of v isio n m ay b e th e ca u se of th e co rn ea b ei ng some
what fl attened i n th e h o rizo ntal m e ridian by th e con stant ,

p r essu r e of th e edges o f th e ey elids whi l e i n th e v e rtical ,

di re ctio n th is p ressu re i s v e ry sl ight I f w e tak e a n egg .

,

o r th e bowl o f a spoo n a nd d raw a l in e f ro m po i nt to

,

poi nt it wi l l r ep rese n t th e h o rizo ntal m e ridian o f th e eye

, ,

an d th e l in e ac ro ss th e m iddl e w il l b e the v e rtical

me ridian Of co u rse each o f th ese m e ridian s h as a
.
,

d ifferent l ength o f focu s ; th e ve rti cal i s m o re co nvex

an d wil l co n cent rate th e rays to a sho rter fo cu s th an the
ho rizo ntal ; an d to co r rect thi s d efici en cy w e h ave eith er
to l engthe n th e focus o f t he v e rtical m eri di an o r sho rten ,

that o f th e ho r izon t al o ne S ph e r i cal l e nses can n ot do .

th i s b ecause any sho rten i ng o r l e ngth en i ng w o ul d b e

,

eq ual i n both m e rid ian s ; o nly i n cyl i ndri ca l l e n ses have

w e th e m eans of pe r fo r m i ng this feat A ccord ing t o .
.

C hap I V the cyl i nd ri cal l en s i s a plan e i n i ts axi s an d

.
, ,

only at right angl e o r n i n ety deg rees fro m th e ax is

, ,
 AS T I G MA T IS M . 13 7

does it act as a spheric al l en s of th e sam e deno mi nation .

P rof A i ry f o r i nstance had to l ength en th e focus of

.
, ,

his ve rtical m e ridian by a concav e cyl i nde r axis ,

a nd i f w e s uppose that h i s right ey e had a focal distan ce

o f te n i nches h e then h ad to co m bi ne the cyl i nde r w ith
,

th e p ro pe r sph e rica l co ncave l en s to eq u alize th e foc u s

o f th e l eft and right ey e .

A co m mon caus e o f astigmatis mis that the co r nea and

th e c ry sta ll i n e l e ns are not sym m etrically placed with
regard to thei r c o m mo n axis they are not accu rately ,

ce nte red Th i s d efect i s fo u nd i n m ost h um an eyes but

.
,

i s p e rh ap s co rrected i n m i ld cases by an i rregul a r con

, ,

t ract io n of th e ci l ia ry m uscl e i n th e sam e w ay that we ,

i nvo l u nta rily adj u s t th e ce nte r of g rav ity of o u r body by

s te e p in
g fo rwa r d wh en w e carry a heavy load on o u r back .

A stigm at ism i s som etim es conge nital ; b ut in most

cases it i s m echa nically p rod u ced by i n j u ri es wounds , ,

ul ce rs etc o r i s d u e to the p ressu re O f s w ol len lids upo n

, .
,

th e co r n ea o r to sty es wh i ch are o fte n m et w ith i n hyper

,

m et rop ie eyes ; w h e refore th ese t w o defici encies are

'

f requ e ntly co m bi n ed i n th e sa m e eye cal l ed hyp er ,

metr op ie as tigmatis m I f a my Op ic eye i s th us affected

. ,

w e cal l it myop ic as tigmatis m A f ruitf u l so u rce of.

co rn eal ast igm atis m was pate n ted in by Dr E B . . .

“
F o ot e o f N ew Yo rk call ed th e Ey e S ha rpe n e r Thi s .
, ,

physi ci an e nti rely igno red th e o rga n ic changes w hi ch

ta ke p l ac e i n th e ey e by ag e as we see by the fi rst li nes ,

in h i s ci rcula r : “ I t i s p retty general ly unde rstood that

t he reason why peop le adva ncing i n ag e are compel led
to h o ld the wo rk o r n ewspape r fa rthe r f ro m the eye
t han th ey w e re accusto m ed to do in yo uth i s becaus e ,

the ey ebal l h as b ecom e flatten ed ”

He th erefo re in .
, ,
“
v e nted a su ck ing contriva nce in th e shape Of a cup to
-
,
”
k eep up t he full ness o f th e co rn ea a nd attached to it a ,

d epressi ng d evi ce to flatte n the co rn ea o f myopes S om e .

o f my custo m e rs we re l u red i nto th e m esh e s of thi s

igno ram us to t h ei r g reat so r row ; let m e giv e he re an
i n stan ce A p ro m i n e nt l awyer i n N ew Orl ean s w as n ea r
.

sighted to th e extent o f gs o r 5 D s ; these g l asses gave

fu l l satisfactio n fo r m a ny years O ne day h e asked f o r .

th e n f l ti l l h e cal led fo r i s al l in —
5
—
3
,
or 1 0 g j ,
13 8 H AND B O OK FOR O PT ICIANS
- .

o n e week ; but h e soo n ret u rn ed to al m o st th e sam e

n u m be r h e sta rted fro m ; h i s appa r e nt i m p rov em ent
was n oth i n g b u t a g rave i ll u s i o n F o r sev e ral y ea rs afte r .

thi s I lost sight of h i m pe rh aps b e co n sulte d anothe r

, ,

opti cia n ; til l l ately h e h a n ded m e a n o rd e r from an ocu

l i st f o r 5s C 2 c ax i s wh i ch was th e fi nal result
of h is p r evious e x p e ri m e nt s wi th t h e Ey e S ha rpen e r .

A stigm atism i s divi ded i n to th r e e v a rieti es :

1 S i m pl e hyp er metr op ic an d my op ic astigm atism
. .

2 C om pound
.

3 Mixed astigm atis m

. .

A l l th ese fo r m s are call ed r egu lar wh il e th e existe nce ,

o f di fferent degrees of r ef r actio n i n o n e and th e sam e

m e ridian i s term ed irr egu l ar astigm ati sm I t i s not

. .

n ecessa ry f o r a practitio n e r to b e tho r ough ly acq u ai nted

with th e m a n y tech n i cal te r m s u sed i n th i s respect .

La ndolt says : “ I n th e v ast m aj o r ity of cases f o rt u ,

n at e l y it suffices to k no w th e total astigm atism o f

, the
eye without questio n ing o u rsel ves as to wh at pa rt i s
,
”
d u e to th e cor n ea and what part to th e crystal l i n e .

Al l boo ks treati n g o f astigmatis m are w r it t e n by physi

ei a u s f o r physi cian s ; thei r w riti ng i s th e refo re too , ,

m uch inte rl arded with Lati n and G reek that it i s al l Greek ,

to th e p lai n opti ci an who has not h ad th e b e nefit Of a

,

sci entifi c edu cation B u t such te r m s are so m eti m es v e ry

.

h andy in t e c hn ic al expl anatio n s p a rtly for b revity p artly , ,

f o r exactness of expressio n Th e wo r d astigmatism is .

on e o f th em ; s tigma m ean s a poi n t an d as tigma n o , ,

p oi n t ,
i e th e rays
. O f light
.
, a r e not u n iform ly u nited
on th e r eti n a to on e poi nt o r focu s .

To discov er astigm ati sm sev e ral devices s u ch as a , ,

f an o r a dial h av e bee n i nt roduced ; b ut I foun d Dr

, .

P ray s striped l ette rs m ost co nv en i e nt f o r i ndicati ng the

’

fau lty m e ridian Th ey ca n b e u sed by ev e ry o n e

.
,

wh eth er h e can r ead o r not becau se i t i s o n l y n ecessary ,

f o r the pati ent t o state wh ich l ette r i s t he b l acke st Dr . .

Joh n S O w e n i mp rov ed u po n P ray s d e sign by p ubl ish

.
’

i ng a ca rd com p ri si ng two sets of l ette r s each o n e 2 5 ,

i nch squa re fo rm ed o f l i n es w hi ch r adiate to w a rds ev e ry

,

t en deg rees i n o rde r to fi nd readi ly any fa u l ty m e r i dian

,

fro m 10 to °
With th e as s i stan c e o f t h e i m p ro v ed
14 0 H AND B O O K FOR O PT ICIANS
- .

S om eti m es th e faulty m e ridian ey e i s at right o f o ne

angle to that o f th e othe r ey e wh en i n bi nocu la r v ision ,

they wi ll co r rect each othe r ; it i s th erefo re absol utely , ,

n ecessa ry to test each eye s epa rately Thi s ki nd o f .

astigm atism i s call ed s imp l e hyp er metr op ic or myop ic

as tigmatis m acco r di n g to th e n at u r e of t he co r recti ng
,

cyli n der whi ch w ill be e ith e r pla no con vex o r pl ano

,
-

concave I f th e astigmati sm b e hyperm et ropic th e axis

.
,

o f cor r e cti on wi l l b e t he sam e f o r both far a nd n ea r but ,

i f th e astigm ati s m be myopi c th e axi s o f th e co r recting

,

cy li nde r sh ould b e f o r n ea 1 v i sio n at right angl e to the

on e r equi red fo r th e di stan ce Wh e n p r esbyo pi a i s com
.

b in e d with myop ic astigm ati sm a nd r equi res f o r distant ,

v ision a co ncave cyli nde r ax is th en th e glass f o r r ead

i ng should be a convex cyl i nde r axi s th u s co rrecting
o nly th e m eridi an th at i s n o t myopi c F o r n e a r vi sio n .

the my o p ic m e ridian eit her r e qui r es n o glass at al l o r ,

o n e th at i s w eaker b ecause i ts n ear poi nt i s Of a

,

sho rte r di s tance than th e em m et rop i c m e ridi an .

Th e s eco n d vari ety o f astigmatis m i s th e combination

o f astigm atis m w ith hyperm et ropi a o r myop ia I ts cor .

r ectio n depends e nti rely upo n th e r elati ve p ro portio n O f

each deficien cy P rof A i ry f o r i nstan ce h ad to co rrect

. .
, ,

hi s astigmatism befo re h e cou ld eq ualiz e the focal dista n ce

o f h is eyes by th e addition Of con cav e sph e r ical lenses .

But i f hyperm et ropia o r myopi a i s i n excess o f the

astigm atism we bette r co rrect th e m fi rst i n th e usu al way
, ,

a nd fi nish o ff by adding the co rrecti ng cyl i n de r I t .

h appens som eti m es afte r we h av e ev ide ntly corrected

,

th e ful l amo unt o f hype r m et ropia o r myopia an d added ,

th e cyl i nde r w ith axi s at r ight ang l e to th e di recti on of

,

the black est l ine that w e h ave t o tu rn the cyl i nde r ni nety
,

deg rees i n o rde r to get clea r visio n Thi s st range

, .

i ncident could b e cal led a p p ar en t as tig matis m although ,

there i s no such thi ng because th e doubl e n at u re o f

,

spheri cal l e nses bei ng crossed cyl in de rs as w el l as seg

,

m ents o f sph e res w ill easily expl ai n it Let m e refe r

, .

to my o w n myopi c astigm atic eye w h ich sees th e h ori

-
,

z o nt al l i nes th e blackest ; th e faulty m e r idi an th erefo r e , ,

i s at and th e l en s wh ich i s to m e mo s t sati sfacto ry

 AS T I G M AT IS M . 14 1

and pl ea s ant i s
,
2s
A
l o ax i s But it w ould b e
a n e xcel lent i l l u stratio n fo r th e theo ry o f appa r ent
astigmatis m had I cor rected my myopia b y 3 s an d —
,

th en th e appa rently fa u lty m e ridian by l o axi s 180

°

Wh e n we loo k at the two co m bi natio ns

1c axis and
A
28
3s A
1c
we w i ll fi nd th em to b e equival e nts only my eye p refe rs
,

th e b ico ncave to th e pe riscopic fo rm I f the refo re th e .

, ,

ax is o f th e cyl i nd e r has to be placed i n the di rectio n of

the appare ntly faulty m e ridian i nstead o f n i nety degrees
f ro m it w e h av e si m ply ove r co rrected th e hyp e rme
,
-

tro pia o r myopi a of th e eye and hav e made an e r ro r in

,

th e sel ectio n of th e sp he ri cal l ens — The l e nses which

.

co rrect hype rm et ropi c and myopic astig matis mare called

’

co m po u nd l e nses .

Th e thir d vari ety o f astigmati s m ca n not b e wel l co r

r ooted w itho ut th e appl i catio n Of a myd ri atic and i s , ,

th e refo r e b eyo nd o u r reach

,
.

Th e ir regu l ar as tigmatis m eve n eludes th e greatest

effo rts o f the expe rt ocul ists because w e optician s can
,

n o t p rod uce th e suitabl e l e ns f o r its co r rection .

 C H A P T ER X VI I I .

THE OPHTH A L M OSCOPE .

P rio r to th e i nventio n th e Ophthal m oscope it was

of

i mpossibl e to explo re the i nte r io r of a l iv ing ey e Sc ie n .

t ific m en t ri ed i n vai n to i nterp r et th is st range fact f o r ,

appa rently th i s shoul d h ave b ee n easi ly accom pl ished

si n ce the depth o f th e eye i s shal lo w an d al l th e struct
u r es situated i n f ront of th e r eti n a are t ran spa ren t ; yet
it p r oved to b e a conu n drum u nti l Hel m holtz expl ained
,

th e whol e myste ry .

Th e optical law that the an gl e of r eflection is eq u al to

t he an gl e of in cid en c e had bee n kno w n t w o thousa n d

y ears .P olish ed surfaces a nd th e botto m o f shi ning
v essel s w ith wid e Openings w e r e used to de monst rate
it s co rrectn ess ; b ut whe n the angl e o f i nciden ce becam e
so sm al l as to be al most o r com pl etely p aral l e d to the
, ,

a ngl e o f reflecti on as i s th e case wh e n l ight e nte rs the

,

eye and should be vi sibly reflected th rough the p upil ,

thi s l aw was enti rely ov e r loo ked and m any th eo ri es we re

,

fo r mulated to expl ai n the black app ea ran ce Of th e pupil .

A fai nt l u m i n osity o f th e eye especially i n th e tapet u m

,

o f dogs an d cats had b een obse r ved fro m th e earl ie s t

,

ti mes and gav e rise to the gen e ral be l i eve th at the h um a n

W
,

e y e was al so lum i no us u nde r ce rtai n co nditio n s Vit h a .

ki nd of popula r supe rstiti on it was r ega rded as ev idence

o f a vo l u nta ry n e rvous i r ritatio n o n th e
pa r t o f th e ani
m al altho ugh n othi n g Of th e k ind co ul d be p erceiv ed in
,

t he h um an eye .

Th e fi rst who opposed th is gen e ral e rro r was the A ra

b ian A lhazen and afte r w ards th e I tal i an Batti sta P o rt a
, , , ,

b u t th ei r protest w as not noti ced ; o n th e contrary wh en ,

M ery 17 0 4 Observed th e r etinal v ess el s o f a cat u nder

, ,

w ater th e Ol d superstitio n w as stro ngly rev iv ed til l i n

, ,

1810 Gruithuise n and P revo st repeated th e very e x e ri

,
p
14 4 H AN D B O OK FO R O PT ICIANS
- .

an he retofo re ch aotic da rkness an d o f h avi ng co m p l etely ,

r evol utio n ized al l preco nceived notio ns o f th e diseases o f

th e deeper st ructures o f the ey e I t is a st r i ki ng fact . ,

i ndeed that the a lm ost u n paral l el ed st ri des Ophthalm i c

,

s u 1 e ry has m ade withi n l ate yea r s date by a re ma rk

g , ,

able coi ncidence with Hel m ho ltz s i m m o rtal d iscove ry

,
’
.

The fi rst i m p rove m ent i n th e ophthal mosco pe was m ade

by Theodo re R u ete o f Leipsi c i n 1852 b y int rod uci ng , ,

a co ncav e m i rro r as r eflecto r whi ch h ad a sm al l o pe ni ng

,

i n the ce nte r f o r th e Obse r ver s ey e S in ce th en m i rro rs

’
. .

o f diffe r ent s hapes h av e co m pletely supe rseded th e pl ates

of poli s hed glass Li eb reich i ntro d uce d a m o st h andy

.

and usef u l i nst rum ent He used a co ncave m etal m i rro r

.
,

abo ut 13; i n ch in di a mete r a nd o f eight i n ch es focal

,

l ength . Th e b ack o f th e cent ra l s m al l ape rtu re i s

bev e l ed off to w ards th e edge i n o rd er that th e peripheral
,

r ays of th e co ne o f light whi ch passes th ro ugh it may

, ,

n o t be cut Off by a thi ck b road edge whi ch wo ul d m ake

, ,

th e Op en i ng a sho rt tube Beh ind t he m i r ro r which i s

.
,

fixed u po n a sho rt hand l e i s a sm al l cl ip f o r ho lding a con

,

v ex o r concave l e ns Oth er i m p r ove m ents we r e m ade by

.

Co cc iu s who i nt rod u ced a pl ane m i rro r whi l e Z eh ende r

, ,

m ade use o f a co nve x o n e i n o rde r t o co n centrate th e

,

light upo n o n e poi nt A fu rth e r step t o perfectio n was

made (187 0 ) by E G Lo ri ng a phys ici an o f Ne w
. .
,

Yo rk ; hi s i n strum ent avo ids th e co n stan t changing of

len ses behi nd th e m i rro r as it co ntai n s the di fferent
,

co nv ex an d co n cav e glas s es i n th ree r otati ng cyl i nders ,

alte rnately attach ed b eh i nd th e m i rro r I n 187 3 Dr .

, .

H Knapp did away with Lo ri ng s cyl in d e r s by p re

.
’

senti ng an ophth al moscope with t w o u nd etachab l e but

r evolving discs o ne o f whi ch co ntai n in g con cave
, ,

th e othe r co nv ex l en s es Th ese are a r ranged i n such a

.

m ann er that th ey rotate past each othe r so that the focal ,

val ue of each l en s ca n b e l esse ned t o a g reate r o r less

d egre e by addi ng t o it t h e va rio us n e ut r al izing l e n ses Of
th e othe r di sc Th e gl asses are co vered by a statio nary
.

m etal plat e t o p r eve nt so il i ng I n 187 4 Lo r i n g si m pli

.
,

fie d the fo rego ing i nst r u m ent a n d by adding a f e w im ,

ro v em e nt s p rod uced a com parati vely ch eap an d h a ndy

p
o phthal moscope wh ich soo n took th e fa ncy o f m o st
,

ocu lists .
 THE O P HTH A LM O SC O PE . 14 5

A l l the s e in st rum e nts m o nocular ; Dr Gi raudare .

Te ulo n o f P a ris and Dr J Z La u ren ce O f Lo n do n

, , . . .
, ,

i nve nted b i nocul ar o ph thal mo scope s by co mbi ning Helm

ho ltz s i nve nt io n with Wheatstone s stereoscope ; b ut
’ ’

they soon w ere d ropped th e mo r e h andy m o nocula r ,

i nst ru ments provi ng p referabl e .

Th e ophthal mo sco pe fi nd s its g reatest useful n ess i n

th e ha nds o f expe rt oc uli ts who h ave al l Oppo rtun iti es
s ,

of l ea r n ing ho w to u se it My fi rst expe ri me n t w ith it

.

was abo ut 187 0 I h ad an i nstrum e nt o f L ie b re ic h s

.
’

and my wo r km a n and som e t ru s ting f ri e n ds we r e

th e i n no cent v ict i ms o f my i nv estigati ng p ro c l iv
ity ; b ut they soo n we r e f righten ed by th e '

flashes o f l ight wh ich al mo st bl i nded th e m as they ,

we re di rected to loo k st raight i n to th e m i rro r i nstead o f ,

look i ng a l ittl e sid eways S i nce th en th e r e h ave bee n

.
,

p ubl ish ed sev e ral exhaustive t reatises o n t he use of th e

ophthal mo scope wh ich sho ul d be carefully studied befo re
,

attem pti ng to e m ploy it I t i s not my i ntentio n h e re to

.

speci fy the m a ny va riatio n s and th e i r co r rectio n i n th e

O b se rve r s and th e observed eye as th is t reati se i s written
’
,

f o r opti cian s who pe rhaps , n eve r wi l l p rofession al ly

,

h a ndle a n ophthal moscope I th e r efo re close thi s .

, ,

chapte r with so m e ge ne ralities wh ich m ay give the r eade r

a n idea o f th e g reat i mpo rtance of He lmho ltz s i nventio n ’
.

Th e ophthal m oscope r eveals t wo i mpo rtant conditio ns

o f th e eye ; th e p athol og ical by th e i nd i rect m ethod , ,

w h e re w e o btai n b y placi ng a bicon vex l en s O f about

,

th re e i n ch foc u s i n f ro nt O f the o b s e rved eye a n inve rted ,

i mage Of the di c ; an d th e op tical by th e di rect m ethod

s ,

not u sing th e co n vex l ens w h en we Obtai n an u p right ,

i mage Th e in d ir ect m ethod is m ostly employed to as

.

certai n th e h ealthy o r i m p ai red co nditio n o f the i nside

s t r uct u res of th e eye ; th e st ro n g co nvex len s b efo r e the
eye g reatly faci l it ates such a n exami nat io n : By m e an s
o f th is m ethod ex perts discover th e beg inn ing of ce rta in
,

s e rio u s diseases as for i nstance Bright s Di sease befo re

, ,
’
,

a ny oth e r sy m ptom s o f it sho w them selves The d ir ect .

m etho d o n th e cont rary reveals the Optical co nd it ion of

th e ey e with great certai nty and sh ows th e my Op ic
, ,

, ,

10
14 6 H AND B O OK F O R O PT ICIANS
- .

hype r m et ropi c o r astigm ati c e r ro rs o f th e ey e W e may .

say the refo r e th at ophthal m ol ogy i s a n exact sc ien ce ;

, ,

i n n o othe r b ranch o f p rac t i cal m ed ici n e o r s u rge ry can

a n equal ly ce r tai n diagnosi s be m ade S o m e y ea r s ag o .

I was i nt rod u ced to o n e who p rete nde d to k no w al l about

a pe rso n s ge ne ral state o f h ealth a nd m i n d by l ooking
’

at h i m witho u t aski ng a si ngl e q u esti o n ; b ut as rid ic ,

u l o u s as we r e his p r eten sio n s w e h ave to b o w to th e

,

expe rt o culist who acco mpl ishes th is feat by loo ki ng i nto

the eye with th e ophthal m oscope .

To m ak e a p rofessio nal exa m i nati on we fi r st hav e to

adj u st o u r o w n eyes to th e fo cal di sta nce o f s ix or eight
i nches by m eans of th e con vex o r con cav e l enses in th e
,

revo lvi ng di scs attach ed to th e o phth al m o scope ; th en ,

wh en w e pl ace o u r ey e at th e gi ve n di st ance an d we ,

fi nd th e reti na sharply focused th e ey e obse rved wi l l be,

e mm e t ropic B ut wh en th e i m age i s i ndi sti nct an d we

.
,

o nly can gai n a c lea r vi e w O f it b y changi ng o u r own

co r recti n g l e ns to a st ronge r o n e the re is hype r m et ropia,

prese nt in th e obs e rved eye an d the diffe re nce between

,

th e t w o le ns es i s th e a mo unt o f its am et ropia A gai n .

,

wh e n w e have to reduce the po w e r o f ou r co rr ecti ng l en s

to a w eake r o n e th en th e ey e Ob se rved i s myopic and
, ,

the d iffe r e nce b etwee n the two l en ses rep r ese nts the
amou nt of m yopi a .

Thi s r es u lt is o nly app roxi m ati ve as th e Ob served ey e ,

r em ai n s i n f u l l po ssessio n o f its acco mmod atio n whi ch ,

greatly i nterfe r es with th e exact m easu rem ent o f its

refracti ve er ro r I n m any cases it i s n ecessary to sus
.

p en d the power O f acco m m odatio n by th e u s e o f a

myd riatic b efo re we can m easu re the exact am o unt o f
r efr acti on as this is not affected by th e app l ication of
,

the myd riatic S om e o f my r eade r s m ay not b e posted

.
—

about the differen ce b etwee n the acco m modati o n and the

r efraction O f th e eye ; i t w ill the re f o re not b e o u t o f
, ,

place to defin e i n a few wo rds th ei r m ean in g When .

the c rystal l in e le ns is in a state o f re st it st il l h as a cer

tai n am o unt of refracti ve powe r wh i ch i s a s th e m ath e , ,

mat ic ian wou ld say co n sta n t ; b ut as l on g as th e l ens

“ ”
,

i s u nder the co nt ro l o f th e ci l ia ry m uscl e its power of ,

refraction is changed by th e alte ratio n o f its co nv exity ,

 C H A P T ER X IX .

S ECON D S I GHT .

Th e eye i s by no m eans a p e r fect optica l i n strument .

I ts d efects are u nd e r o rdi n a ry ci rcum stan ces supp ress ed

, ,

by th e b righte r an d mo r e pe r fectly fo rm ed ce ntra l p o r

tio n of th e reti n al i mage so th at th e defects w h en not
, ,

o f too h igh a d eg r ee are u nob se r ved an d can o nly be

,

detected by ca r eful exp e ri m ent s Hel m holtz o nce re

.

m a rked : I f an opti cian w anted to sel l m e an in s t ru

m ent which has al l these defects I s ho u ld thi nk myself
,

quite j ustifi ed i n bl am i ng hi s ca rel essn ess i n th e s t rongest

term s an d give hi m back h is i n stru m ent
, An d yet
.
,

no body can dev i s e a bett e r pla n for th e co nst r u ctio n of

this o rgan to acco m plish al l its d u ti es with s uch simple
m eans I t i s th e m ost wo nde r fu l m achi ne ry eve r de
.

signed although it i s not pe rfectly ach ro m atic and b e

, , ,

sides suffe r s fro m sph e r ical aberration Yet w e h ave

, .
,

no reaso n to g r umb l e at t rifli n g i m p e r fectio n s ; we ought

to accept th i s p r eci o us gift o f n atu r e with rev erential
gratitude and take p rope r care not to ha s t e n u nn ece s
,

s ari l y its n atu ral decli ne by an in co nside rate r eckless ,

u se . B u t th e m o st ca r eful use o f o u r ey es can not defer

the seni l e changes whi ch tak e place i n al l eyes i n myopic
and hype r met ropi c as w el l as i n em m et rop ic eyes on ao
,

cou nt O f the n atu ral d evelo p me nt o f th e c rystal l i ne l ens .

I n childhood th e n ucl e u s of th e l e ns i s firm wh il e the ,

density di m i n ish es to ward its p eri ph e ry ; th i s arrange

m ent al most e nti rely ove rco m es th e sph e ri cal ab erration ,

as th e p eriphe ral rays are l ess refracted than th ey would

b e i f al l parts o f th e l en s w ere o f a un i fo rm density
, .

He n ce th e ci rcu mfere ntial ray s are u n ited at n ea r ly the

,

sam e po i nt as th e cent ral rays ; co n seque ntly th e child ,

c an hav e a v ery l a rge p upi l ,

an d th e p e ri ph e ral rays
sti ll be u nited i n th e focu s o f th e ce nt r al o n es With .
 S EC O ND SI GHT . 14 9

the advan ce o f age the oute r laye rs i nc r ease i n fi rm ness ;

,

th ey grad ual ly app roach th e co nsi s te ncy o f th e n ucleus .

Th e g reater fi rm n e s s and m o re u ni fo r m co nsistency o f

the l e ns causes it to beco m e flatte r thus di m i ni shing th e ,

r ef ractive powe r o f th e le ns a nd i nc reasi ng its spherica l

,

aberratio n Th e pe riphe ral rays are b rought soo n e r to

.

a focu s tha n th e ce nt ral th us co mpe ll i ng t he pupil to

,

r educe i n size ; th e i ris acti ng n o w as a diaph rag m i n a

telescop e .

Th e ti m e fo r th e use of spectacles h as ar rived and ,

shoul d n o t b e ove r looked by those who w ish to p reserve

thei r ey esight Th e i nc rease in th e strength of s p e ct a
.

cles w ill keep step wit h the g rad ual hardeni ng and con
seq ue nt flatte ni ng o f th e len s We can not di rectly .
, ,

weake n t he le ns no matte r ho w long it i s used ; b ut

, ,

i ndi rectly it i s i mpai red by th e oth e r parts o f the eye

,

wh ich w e abu se o r h11rt as th e f r uit is prematurely

,
—

ri pen ed by th e sti ng o f an i nsect Whe n we unduly .

postpo n e the u se O f spectacles and wh e n we ove r w o r k ,

t he eye it i s not th e le ns that s u ffe r s

, b ut the r eti na , .

By an inflam m atio n of th e co rnea o r i ris the l ens i s o nly ,

seco ndari ly a ffected ; cho roid itis and reti nitis h ave the
s a m e effect E ach s u fferi ng pa rt acts sym pathetical ly
.

u p o n th e oth e rs by reflex actio n .

On e o f th e most d readed afll ic t io n O f th e eye i s whe n

the l e ns com m e nce s to l os e its t ra n spa rency when signs ,

o f cata ract m a ke thei r appea ra nce and people anti cipate ,

bl ind ness an d m i s e ry C ata ract is ge nerally a disease

.
, ,

of old age ; th e lo s s O f th e tra nspa rency of the l ens i s

chi efly d ue to its deficie nt n u t ritio n depende nt upo n a n ,

i nsufficie nt b lood s upply and co nseq u ent di m i n utio n o f

,

th e w ate ry co nstitue nts O f the crysta l li ne l ens I nfl am .

mation of th e i n ner t u n ies o f th e eye especially o f the ,

i ris cho roid and vitreous h umo r m ay a l s o give rise to

, , ,

cataract no t by a n i mpai rm e nt o f th e n ut ritio n o f th e

,

l e ns b ut by th e i nflam m ato ry changes i mpl icating th e

, ,

i n ne r capsu le and eve n th e l ens itsel f

,
I t is ve ry .

d ifficult to d etect th e rea l cause o f cata ract A mong th e .

m ost i m po rta nt o f these ca uses i s exposu r e to light and

h eat ; fo r i nstance th e a rti san at hi s wo rk bench facing
,
-
,

w ith hi s u nprotected ey es a wi ndo w o r gas j et for m any -

150 HAN D B O O K FOR O PT ICIANS
- .

hou rs eve ry day ; th e cook b e nd i ng o ve r th e h eated ,

r ange ; gl ass blowe rs bake rs blacksm ith s p uddle rs

-
, , , ,

stokers an d engi n ee r s are th u s affected A ful ly fo rm ed .

,

m atu r e cata ract m ay b e easily r ecogniz ed ev e n w i th th e

naked ey e ; th e p upil is no lo nge r da r k an d cl ea r b ut is ,

occ u pi ed by a wh itish opal escent body wh i ch l i es close

b eh i n d it Ho wever wh en cata ract i s in cip ien t an d but
.
, ,

sl ightly advanced m o r e esp ecially w h e n th e opacity

,

com m ences at th e edge of th e le n s it m ay b e ov e r looked , ,

except whe n the eye i s caref u lly ex am i n ed w ith t he

ophth al m oscope .

C a r e m ust b e take n not to m i st ak e th e phy sio logical

changes whi c h occu r i n th e l en s i n O l d age fo r c o mme n c
i ng c ataract Th ese ch anges co n si st i n a thi ck e ni n g and
.

co nsol idatio n o f th e l en s sub stan ce e s pecial ly o f t he ,

n uc l e u s which assum es a yellowi sh ti nt Th e ch ief dis

, .

t in c t iv e features b etwee n this an d i ncipi en t cata ract

are that i n the fo r m e r case th e sight i s perfect w h en
, ,

assi sted by suitabl e glasses ; th e opacity rem ai n s ab so

l u t e l y o r al most e nt i r ely station a ry f o r a l o n g p er iod ,

and th e cl o udi ness i s not obse rvab l e w ith th e o p hthal

mo s co p e ex cept with ob liq u e i llum i natio n We have
, .

h ere a clea r case Of seco n d s ig ht .

S ince th e issue o f my fi r st book I m ade d iligent in ,

qui ry of seve ral c as e s an d l ea r n ed that th e ir develop

,

m ent i s not o f such sho rt d u ratio n as I i m agin ed A .

fo rm e r l ady cu sto m e r l aid aside h e r spectacles at th e age

-

o f 6 6 yea r s and i s n o w afte r 1 7 y ears stil l doi ng fine

, , ,

n eedl e w o rk as w el l a s eve r Of cou r se h e r distant .

,

v ision is poo r and o u ght to be co rrected by co ncave

,

gl asses ; but sh e h ates to com m ence agai n with spectacles .

Othe r cases of a shorter sta n di ng k no w n to m e show

, , ,

that second sight i s n o t al ways a gift o f Da nau s w hich ,

*

ends i n m i sery b ut that i t i s so m eti m es a bl essi ng and

,
,

a sou rce o f great rej oici ng f o r those peopl e w ho p e rceive

that o n e faculty after an othe r gradually w ith e rs and
van i sh es except th ei r eyesight
, .

I n th e devel opm e nt o f r eal cataract w e meet w ith a

D an a us w as th e in k g of
the s r in en rmo t p om
in e in an ient p ov c c t
Qree ce . It is told g ft
t hat his i s w e re en d is as r u s Oft t o to
t he re ei er A c v
gif t, th erefo gv t to c ll d ft m
’ .

re , i en vvith b ad in en i n , is a e a e r hi .
 C H AP T ER X X .

R E L IEF To I N J U RED EY E S .

Thi s chapter i s pa rtly co m pil ed fro m diffe r e nt sou r ces .

I t wou ld not h ave fo u nd a plac e h ere if it w ere n o t for

th e g reat usefuln ess o f these si m p l e d i rectio n s i n case of
em ergen cy .

Though th e eyes are w el l p rotected a nd shi el ded by

th e fo reh ead the nose b r idge an d the ch ee k bo n es they
,
- -
,

are n everth el ess exposed to accide nts caused by sm al l fl y

i ng obj ects ; an d alt hough th e eyel ids are reliab l e safe
gu ards t o k eep o ff any foreign i nt r ude rs th ey may be ,

o ut e n e ral e d occasionall y wh en th ey a re the l east aware

g
-

o f any danger . S om e i nj u ries do not al low o f any delay ,

and as m edical assi stan ce i s not al ways to b e had wh en

m ostly n eeded I tho ught it p r ope r to add thi s t reati se
,

not o nly f o r th e pe rso nal benefit o f my reade rs b ut also ,

for th at o f thei r f rie nds and c u stom ers who m ay i n th eir ,

troubl e com e ru nni ng to th e Optic ian to give th em r el ief .

I was seve ral ti m es successf u l i n this r espect an d m ay ,

say that I sav ed mo re th an o n e ey e f ro m g reat an noyance

an d dange r .

A ve ry co mm on accident is th e fl yi ng o f mu d d u s t o r ,

insects i nto the ey e wh i ch by th e closi ng o f th e eye e n

, , ,

t e r b etwee n th e l id and the eye bal l P eopl e th us af

-
.

f e c t e d gen e rally keep thei r eyes closed as th e Opening ,

o f the lids causes such an i rritatio n that th e eye bal l is -

soon i nflam ed and b loodshot Th e quick est way t o re .

l i eve these su ff e r ers i s t o wash th e di rt o u t w ith clean water

by m eans of a cam el hai r brush o r a feath er Thi s i s do ne
-
.

i n th e fol lowi ng man ner : with o u r l eft han d w e take

hold o f th e eye lash es o f th e uppe r l id d raw ing it f o r
-
,

ward s u fficie nt l y to al lo w th e b rush o r feath e r p r e vi o usly ,

dipped i n wate r t o ente r bet w ee n th e ey ebal l a n d l id

,
,

til l we reach th e i n ne r fol d s We di rect th e pati e nt to

.
 R E L IEF To IN J U RED E Y ES . 153

loo k dow nwa rd an d m ov e th e b rush to w ards the nose

, ,

not to th e outside We h av e to repeat thi s several ti m es

.

w ith p lenty of wate r Then we depress th e lowe r l id .

,

d i recting t o pati ent to look upward an d wash ca refully ,

a s befo re clean i ng th e b rush afte r each application I n

, .

som e tri fli ng cases when an i nsect o r a few g rain s o f dust

,

h ave entered th e eye d raw the uppe r l id as far down as ,

po s sible a l ittle outwa rd a nd push th e lowe r o ne as f ar

, ,

up as you can Th en l et th e uppe r l id fl y back to its

.

nat ural positio n whe n th e eye lash es of the l o wer o n e

,
-

wi l l act as a b r ush detach i ng any l ight substances and , ,

rel ievi ng the ey e i n s tantly Make it a r ul e neve r to rub .

the eye wh en i nj u red as th e i rritation wi ll be i n c reased ,

largely by it a nd soon will cause i nflam m ation When

, .

h ard pi eces a re i mbedded i n th e te n d e r pa rts of th e co n

j u n c t iv a w hich ca n not be remo ved b y th e b rush it i s not
, ,

difficult to r emo ve th em i f th ey are lodged i n th e lowe r ,

li d by m eans o f a k and k e rchie f o r so m e sm al l pi ncer s ;

,

b ut it req ui res s om e ski l l to r emov e th em f ro m behi n d the

upper l id I n o rd e r to accomp l ish thi s
. w e h ave to ,

evert th e s am e which is do n e b y taking a good hold of

,

the eye lash es a nd the edge of the l id with t he l eft h and

-
,

the n applyi n g w it h the r ight hand a th i n pe ncil o r any

othe r rounded ob j ect to th e m iddle of th e l id and by de ,

p res s i ng the pe n cil at th e sam e ti m e s w i ngi n g th e l eft

,

hand upwa rd th e lid is eve rted and t he i n si de exposed

,

fo r exa m i natio n Th e pati e nt is n o w di rected to look

.

d o w n wa rd w hi ch b ri ngs i n to vi e w the whol e i n n e r s u rface

,

o f the u ppe r l id an d e n ab les u s to rem ove any fo reign

,

bodies as grai n s of sand o r bit s o f coal yet sti cking i n

, ,

th e soft pa rt of th e te nde r tissues .

A so m ewhat si ngula r advi ce ho w to remov e g rit f ro m ,

th e ey e w as l ately co m m u n i cated by a r ai l road m an He

,
.

say s : “ Most pe rson s w ith grit o r any fo reign substance

i n th e ey e wil l i nstantly begi n to ru b the o rgan with one
hand wh il e h unti ng for th ei r h andke rch ief with th e othe r
,
.

They m ay and so m eti m es do rem ove the o ffe ndi ng sub

, ,

stan ce ; but m o re freq ue ntly they rub until th e eye b e

com es i nflam ed th e n bi nd a hand kerchief aro u n d the
,

h ead and go to b e d This is al l w ro ng Th e bette r w ay .

.

i s not to rub th e ey e w ith grit i n at all but rub the o ther ,

 N

154 H AND B O OK FO R O PT I C IANS

- .

ey e as vigo rously as possi ble cau si ng th e offe nd ed eye t o ,

p rofusely shed tea r s b y wh i ch th e bit O f sa nd o r d u st is

”
washed out .

Mechan ics ar e ve ry ofte n h u rt by flyi ng p ar ticl es of

metal w hi l e h a mm e ri ng o r t u rni n g a n d chi p s m ay s t rike ,

and pe n e t rate to som e extent th e f ro n t pa rt o f th e eye .

I f th ese are of i ron o r steel and n o t i m b edded too d eep , ,

we m ay r e move th e m by th e us e of a st rong m agn et I n .

case these chips h ave p en et rated so d eeply th at th e con

v a has closed over th e ent r an ce o f th e wo und
u n ct i it is
j ,

necessa ry to cons u lt a physician S uch wo u nds a re not .

ve ry pai n f u l at fi rst an d th e app l icat io n O f wate r o r oi l

,

m ay b e s u flic ie nt to al low u s to wait eve n u nti l th e n ext

day to look fo r relief A ny l o nge r d el ay m ay prove .

fatal as a n egl ect wi l l surely r e sult i n a v i o l ent infl am

,

mat io n if these pa rticles are n ot rem oved i n d ue tim e

,
‘

A noth er d ange r to the ey es i s th e spl ash ing o f q ui ck

l ime into th em causi n g so m eti m es th e com plete lo ss of

,

sight I mysel f was a v i cti m o f s uch an accident at the

.

age o f fou r years S o m e work m e n were slacki ng lime .

,

an d I w as wonde ring ho w sto n es cov ered with wate r

co uld boi l Whol ly abso rbed by thi s ph en om e non one
.
,

m ischi evous boy gav e m e a p ush an d I fel l h eadlong ,

i nto th e hot l i me wate r b ut was i m m edi at ely r escued , ,

wash ed a nd b ro u ght t o b ed I soo n fel t th at so m ethi ng .

sooth i ng was appli ed to m y eyes w h ich r eli ev ed th e mof ,

th e b u r n i ng sen satio n I t was th re e w ee ks b efo r e I .

coul d open my eye s agai n and I r e m e mb e r quite w el l the ,

m any anxio u s i nqui ries of my pa r e nts w h eth er I coul d ,

se e th em I n s u ch acci de nts th e l i m e sh ould b e i nstantly

.
,

wash ed o u t with la rge qua n titi es o f w eak v i negar and

wate r as tho roughly as possi bl e an d a r ag satu rat ed with ,

sweet oi l appl i ed till a physici an can be co nsul t ed

-
,

I f co rros ive p igmen ts an d acid s ente r th e ey e th e who le

.

face eyes Open should b e r epeated ly dipped i n w ate r i n

, ,

o rde r t o dil ute a nd wash O ff th e acid o r pai nt ; th e n apply

mi l k f reely and af t e r wa r d pl enty of o il til l m edi cal as
, ,

si s t an c e can b e p rocu r ed Whatev e r i s do n e m ust be .

do ne q u ickly as it is o f th e g r eatest i m po rt an ce to re
,

l ieve th e ey e insta ntly f ro m th e r avage s o f such co rro s ive

substances .
 C H AP T ER X XI .

A R T IFICIA L H U M AN EY E S .

Long before th e Ch r isti an e ra a rtifi ci al eyes were

,

used i n statues an d b usts ; th ey we re m ad e o f colored

sto n es o r m etal and i nse rte d i nto th e cavity exp ressly
,

co n st r ucted f o r thei r receptio n Th e deep so ckets found

.

i n som e statues w itho u t ey es are an evi de n ce o f this ;

l ike that o f A nti nous i n P a r is an d oth e rs i n different
,

arch aeologic m useu m s I n so m e an ci ent statues th e eyes

.

w e r e o utlin ed by th e chi sel an d th e n pai nted We have .

n o r ecord that gl ass eyes w e r e ev er u sed f o r th is pu rpose

-
,

altho ugh colo red gl ass was al r eady k nown at th at period ,

and th e story th at mu m m ies with artifici al ey es were

exhu m ed i s probably w ithout foundatio n I t was ab so .

l ately u n necessary to o rn am e nt a body wh i ch was enveloped

al l ov e r seve ral i nch es th i ck w ith bandages and then
, ,

covered h e rm eti cal ly with a ki nd o f plast er o r cem ent .

This outside coating w as m ade t o represe nt a h u man l ike -

figure studded w ith glass beads an d oth er o rn am ents ;

,

b ut no m um m i es h av e yet b een fou n d w ith a r tificial

eyes except those l ately di scove red i n S o uth A m erica
, ,

wh ich are o f m odern date o n l y fou r o r fiv e h u ndred

,

y ea r s o l d o f th e ti m e o f th e an ci ent I n c as o f P eru
, .

Th e custom o f em bal m ing was v ery co m m o n am o ng the

I ncas an d was m ade un usual ly easy by th e w arm d ry
, ,

cl im ate Of P eru I t is stated th at th e em b al m ed were

.

often si m ply pl aced i n a sitti ng po stu r e o n th e v ast n itre

beds and l eft exposed t o th e open ai r F o r years after
, .

death they w e re v isited by f r i en ds an d relativ es an d ,

it was con sequently i m po rta nt that th e se m bl an ce Of life

sho ul d be m ai ntai ned as pe rfectly as possibl e Th ey .

r em ov ed th erefore the p e ri sh ab l e n atu ral ey eb al l s o f

, ,

th e dead and substitut ed th e d ri ed eyes o f th e cuttle

,

fi sh wh ich are al m ost in dest ru cti bl e an d possess s u fli

, ,

ci ent warmth and fi re to pa rtially si m ul ate l ife .

 AR T IFICIA L HU M AN E Y ES . 157

Th e s ubstitute f o r a l ive h um an eye is not older than

th ree h u nd red yea rs “e find the fi rst authentic record T

o f the m i n th e C hi ru rgical Wo rk of Parré e 1582 with

.

, ,

d rawi ngs o f two ki nds o f ey e s o n e to rep rese n t the eye ,

an d th e l ids i n ca s e both we re r e moved th e othe r to be

, ,

u sed w he n th e l i ds we re sti l l p rese nt and to be i nse rted ,

behi nd th e m Both k inds we re made of flat or sl ightly

.

c u rved go ld si lve r o r coppe r plate s e nam el ed a nd

, ,

pai nted to i m itate the othe r eye as near as possibl e .

\Vh e n the eyebal l an d l ids w ere total ly r emoved b y th e

op e rato r as w as do n e v e ry Ofte n at th at ti me the plate
, ,

had to b e la rge e n o ug h to rep resent also the eye lid s -

,

la s hes and ca ru ncl e To th is plate w as attached a sp ri n g

.

cove r ed with leathe r which enci rcled th ree q u a rte rs of ,

the h ead th us p ressing th e plate to wards the hol lo w

,

o rbit Th is w as i ndeed a ve ry poo r com menceme nt o f

.

that g reat b enefactio n of to day Po rcelain and afte r -

.
,

wa rds gl ass soo n too k th e place o f m etal as F ab rici u s

, ,

s tates i n 16 2 3 F ro m th at ti m e th e ma n u facture o f
,
.

eyes has slo wly b u t co nstantly i mp roved D r Mauc hard . .

,

1 7 4 9 rel ates of a lady who had bee n fu rnished by him

,

with a n a rtificial ey e th at she o n ly wo nde red why sh e ,

coul d n ot se e with such a b ea u tif u l i mit atio n .

S i nce 177 0 th e eyes h ave been m ade of enamel ih

,

stead o f glass mostly i n F rance and f o r ma ny yea rs

, , ,

up to r ecent date th e best eyes have co m e f rom P a ris

,
.

S om e of th e cel eb rated m an ufactu rers we re Haza rd

Mi rault N o el Desj a rdins B o is s o ne au etc
, ,
B u t at , , .

p resent good eyes are mad e eve rywh e re even i n A m e rica ,

.

Th e best eyes I ever ha ndled w e r e m ade by Ludwig M ulle r

Uri in G erm any w ho l ately died
, ,
.

An a rtificial ey e i s a shel l of e n am el representing the ,

front o f th e eyebal l the lo ss o f which it is i ntended t o

,

co n ceal Th ey ar e so p e rfected that n obody can disti n

.

guish th e m f ro m th e natu ra l eye an d they are used by ,

eve rybody who ca n possibly affo rd to pay fo r them '

.

A n a rtificial eye is by no m ean s a l uxu ry as in fo rm e r

years wh e n on ly rich peopl e co u ld affo rd to pay it s
,

pri ce b u t it i s n o w altogethe r a n ecess ity for everyo ne

,

who i s u n fo rtunately d isfigu red by th e loss of it The .

seve ra l fun ctio n s it has to pe rfo rm are ,

158 H AND B O O K F O R O PT ICIANS
- .

Z The ar ti
ficial ey e s er v es fi
as a beau ti er .
I t r estores
the natu r al app ea ran ce of th e face an d p r e serv e s the
r egul ar ity o f th e featu r es I f f o r i n sta n ce th e greate r
.
, ,

pa rt O f th e ey e b al l i s lost th e l i ds h av e n o support and

-
, ,

co n se q u e ntly sh ri n k an d sh o rten Wh e n th is loss

,
.

h appe ns i n th e ea r l ie r stage of l ife th e de vel op m e nt of ,

th at side o f the f ace beco m es r eta r ded a nd w i l l present

a stra n ge appearan ce E v e n in ad ults th i s sh ri nk age .

t akes pl ace afte r th e l apse o f a f e w y ears I t i s th e re .

,

fo r e w r ong to postpo n e th e u s e o f a n a rti fici al eye

, ,

especial ly with ch i ld re n who se t i s su es ch a n ge so rapidly ,

th e m o re so as eve n a chi ld o f fi ve y e ar s c an w ea r an
,

a rti ficial ey e w itho ut any i nco n ven ien ce .

The ar ti cial e e s er ves as a r em d I t e nables

2 .
f i y e y .

th e eyel ids to m o ve f r e ely th ey ca n b e clos ed an d open ed ,

as b efo r e an d also r esto r es th e fu n ction s o f th e tear

,

passage s A fte r th e re mov al of th e ey e bal l th e r e i s an

.
-

em pty space l eft b eh in d t he l i ds ; th e tea rs accu m ulate

in thi s cav ity an d i r ritate th e edge o f th e lo wer lid
, ,

an d f r eq u e n t l y give r i se to u l ce ration By m ean s o f an .

a r tifi cial ey e howev e r th e tea rs are d i rected t o th ei r

, ,

n atu r al ch an n el an d are r e m ov ed i n t he u s ual way

,

th ro u gh th e nose I t a lso p r ev ents th e eyel ash es f rom

.

t u r n i ng i n w a r ds ca u s i ng i nflam m ati o n a nd suppu r ation

,

by thei r co n stant f riction u pon th e st r uct u res l eft behi nd

i n th e so ck et I t p rotects th e l atter f ro m al l o utside
.

i rr itatio n such as w ind d ust sm oke etc wh i ch othe r

, , , , .
,

wi se m ight sym pathetic al ly e xe rt a p e r n i cious i n fl u en ce

u p on th e rem ai ni ng so un d eye
’

3 .The ar ti fi al ey e is a r eal b en efactio n

ci It i s a .

bl essi ng to ev e rybody f o r th e r i ch as w e l l as f o r th e,

poo r ; b ut whi l e i t serv es th e fo r m e r m o st l y as a b eauti

fie r it v e ry ofte n p r ote cts th e l atter agai nst w ant an d
,

m i se ry I t i s r eally a q uestio n o f ex ist en ce f o r them

.

as som e e mploy e rs wi l l hesitate to eng age a pe r so n th us

,

disfigu r ed ; o r t r ust h i m wi th wo r k th at r equ i res good

sight eve n if it cou ld be we ll perfo r m ed w ith o nl y o ne
,

eye By th e u se o f an a rtificial ey e h ow ev e r s u ch o h
.
, ,

e ct i
j o n s are rem ov ed a n d h e m ay readily fi n d e m p lo
y
ment .
16 0 H AND B O O K FOR O PT IC IANS
- .

m otion i s of course littl e an d i n su ffici ent ; th e m o r e so

, , ,

i f the pati ent i n sists o n h avi ng th e a rtifici al ey e m atched

“
exactly i n size w ith th e oth e r th u s p rodu ci ng a staring ,

look .

T o in tr od u ce an a rtifici al ey e it i s n ecessa ry t o raise ,

t he upp e r ey el id an d sl ide t he eye p rev io usly d ipped in ,

wate r up b eh ind it by th e e nd wh i ch i s t o co r respond

,

to th e tem po ral angl e Th e n tu r ni ng th e nasal pa rt u p .

wa rd and l etti ng th e u pp er eye lid fal l d ep r ess th e lowe r

, ,

fo rci bly a nd m ake t he lo wer edge o f th e a rtificial eye

,

slip i nto t he lo w e r pal peb r al cavity Th i s b ei ng done

.

.
,

an d th e low e r li d al low ed to ris e th e i nt rod uction of the ,

ey e is acco m pli sh ed .

Th e r emoval of a n a rti fici al ey e i s do n e i n th e fol low

i ng m an ne r I t i s w ithd raw n by an oppo site p rocedure
.
,

by dep ressi ng th e l owe r l id an d i n se rti ng the cu rved end ,

Of a hai r pi n o r ev en th e th u m b nai l between th e eyelid

-
,
-
,

and th e l ower edge o f th e a rtifi cia l ey e th us hooking it ,

o u t f ro m the l ower pal peb ral cav ity w hen i t wil l glide ,

do wn f rom behi nd th e uppe r ey el id and fa ll i nto the ,

h and r eady to r eceiv e it I n doi ng thi s hi m self the .

,

patient shoul d l ean h i s face ov e r a soft cush ion o r the ,

l ike i n o rde r th at i f th e ey e sho u l d sli p o u t o f hi s fi ngers

, , ,

it m ay not be b rok en i n th e fal l .

Th e a rtificial ey e i s withdraw n ev e ry night an d is to ,

be cl ean ed with water (whi ch sho ul d b e tepi d i n w i nte r )

of th e m u cus whi ch m ay adh e re to it Befo r e p utting .

i n th e a rtifi ci al eye and afte r w ithd rawi ng it th e patient ,

sho uld bath e th e cavity o r th e o rb i t a n d th e stu m p of

his eye with wate r A tho rough clean i n g of th e a rti ficial
.

eye eve ry wee k with s o ap w at e r a nd a so ft sponge is ,

al so r eco m m ended in o r de r to re m ov e al l fatty m atte r

f ro m it But altogeth e r obj ecti onab l e i s th e h abit of
.

so m e peopl e to oi l thei r a rtificial ey e b efo re i n serting it ,

b ecau se th e m u cou s m em b ran es o f th e o rb it d o not re

qui re such additi onal l u b ricatio n as long as th e ey e h as ,

not lost its pol ish I h th e cou rse of t i m e it b ecom es

.
—

rough f ro m th e s l o w co r rosi ve actio n o f th e h u m ors which

com e i n co ntact with it a nd requi r es to b e ex ch ange d ,

f o r a n ew o n e I n cas e the re sho ul d b e so m e difficulty

.

i n p rocuring a new ey e th e o l d o ne m ay b e r ep ol ished ,

 AR T IFICIA L HU MAN EYES . 16 1

and d o servi ce f o r a few mo nth s lo nger Y o u tak e a

.

ra o f cotton , fo r m it i nto a sm all ball and fasten the eye

g
ov er it with soft b ee s wax Th e i n side o f the eye shoul d
’
.

b e wel l fil l ed up to p r ev ent a ny accident Th en put i n

.

yo u r han d a l ittl e al coho l o r wate r and fin e pulverized

E nglish r ouge an d afte r wa r d P ari sian ro uge to fi n ish
, ,

an d shi ne th e ey e as you woul d sh i ne a b r ass button .

A wo r n out ey e causes congestio n of the l ids a s w el l

-
,

i ng o f th e co nj un ctiva and a g radual fill ing up of th e

o rbit. Many u nfo rt unate suffe re r s h av e i n this w ay
d ep rived them selve s enti rely o f th e g reat bl e s si ng o f
co rr ecti ng th ei r di sfigu r em ent by a suitabl e substitute .

A s an a rtificial eye is l iabl e to be b ro ke n by accident ,

a pe rso n m ak i ng use o f it sho ul d al ways hav e seve ral o n

hand A n eye wil l last n o l o nger than two yea rs o n an
.

a v erage F ro m th e i rr itatio n ex cited by the a rtificial eye

.
,

wh e n it i s eith e r a bad fit o r wo rn too long th e palpebral

,

co nj un ctiva are apt t o becom e m uch congested and ,

beset with po lypus lik e exc r escences I n this case th e

-
.

use of th e artificial ey e sho ul d b e disconti nued for so m e

ti me an d it i s n ecessa ry f o r the pati ent to seek m edical
,

assistance .
 C H AP T ER X XII .

CA L ORIC R A Y S IN D IFFEREN T LI GHT S .

A ccord ing th e o l d e m i ssio n th eo ry l ight i s a com

to ,

poun d matter ; but acco r di ng to th e n e w u nd ulatory

th eory it i s a com poun d for ce I t i s a m ixtu re o f l u
, .

m inous an d calo ri c waves an d i s al so a com bi nation of

,

th e different colo rs T o r eso lv e l ight i nto its colors has

.

b ee n a co m pa ratively easy task si n ce th e p rop erties of

th e p ris m h av e b een kn o w n ; b ut th e co m p l ete sepa ration
Of l u m i nous fro m th e cal o ri c rays i s yet a m atte r o f inv es
ti g at i
on E m i n
. e nt sci enti sts h ave l abored l ong t o i solate

one f ro m th e othe r b ut on ly w ith pa rti al s uccess

, .

Light p assi n g th rough a n ice b lock o r th ro ugh pl ates of

, ,

m ica is n ot dep rived Of its calo ri c r ays altho ugh they

, ,

are abso r b ed to a certai n extent by r eflectio n ; b ut by

m ean s o f a strong bu rn ing glas s w e detect e nough of -

th em to b e aware o f th ei r p resen ce S o m e explo rers .

h av e succeeded i n com pl etely abso rb i ng th e l u mi nous

rays and showi ng th e p resen ce o f o nly th e calori c rays
,

i n thei r ful l strength .

Th e followi ng expe rim ent was co m m un icated to m e by

P rofesso r P epper Of Eng l and i n 187 2 wh e n h e o n his
, , , ,

l ectu re tour passed th rough N e w O rl ea n s I repeat it

, .

h ere as h e explai n ed it to m e I h ave n ev er tri ed this .

exp erim ent myself I re m e m ber w ith great pl e asu re hi s

.

“ ”
abl e lecture o n Light an d Heat il l ustrate d p rofusely ,

by no vel an d h ighly i nteresti ng e xpe ri m e n t s .

Th e candl e b sta nds b etwe en the glass j ar c an d the -

concav e m irro r a Th e ray s o f th e can dle a re th rown

.

by th e mi rro r o n th e flat j ar fil l ed w ith a sol utio n o f s u l

,

p hu r et o
f ca r b o n an d io d i ne wh i ch co m pl ete ly ab sorbs
,

the l um i nou s rays Y o u can not d et ect th ro ugh th e j a r

.

th e least t race o f light ; but i f y o u ho l d yo u r finge r at th e

po i nt d y o u w i l l fi nd th at th e calori c part O f th e l ight is
,
 H AND BO OK FO R o r TI C I AN s
'

16 4 - .

We p ut it i nto op eratio n A s l o n g a s w e can fo ll ow its

movem ents with th e ey e w e h ave co mmo n mo tio n We
.

.
,

can follo w with o u r ey es a sto n e th ro w n t o so m e d is

tan ce Thi s al so i s co m mo n motio n L et u s no w in
.
.

c rease the sp eed of o u r m achi ne th i r ty th r e e revol ut ions -

a second Th e eye can n o l onge r fol lo w it b u t th e ear

. ,

disce rn s a low h um whi ch b ecom es l o ude r an d highe r as

,

th e m ach in e grad u al ly m oves qui cke r W e h av e s ou n d . .

A rifl e b al l i s not see n b ut w e h ea r its wh i s t l ing noise

-
,
.

When th e to n e has r each ed its h igh est p itch vi

b rat io n s i n a seco nd ) o u r e ar i s u n ab l e to p erceiv e any
,

fu rthe r i nc rease ; w e fe el th e n th e effect o f heat and ,

soo n see a v iol et gl i mm e r th e n a t r an sition th rough bl u e, ,

yel lo w and re d i nto whi te We n o w h av e l ight The . .

vib ratio n s h av e i n c reased to m any tho usan d bil lions a

second I f o u r m achi n e i s n o t m elted by th i s ti m e and
. ,

i s sti l l r un n i ng w ith i n c reasing sp eed w e h ad better ,

k eep at a safe di stan ce f o r the next actio n w i l l be the

,

e m ission of el ectr ic s pa rks an d l ightn i ng in al l d i r ections :

H e r e sci e n ce en d s a nd h e r e i s t he li m it o f al l powe r
,

and fo rce w e can expl ai n o r com p reh end But i f we .

al low o u r i m agin atio n its wid est ran ge an d l oo k u pon ,

th i s experi m ent o n ly as th e sym bo l o f th e u nive rsal ,

subli m e powe r does it n ot gi ve u s a fai nt i dea of the

,

p rope r m ode o f attai ni ng t o th e k no wl edge o f the u l tima

r ati o th e i nco m preh en si bl e
, o m nipote nce ?

Light an d h eat are al ways co m bi n ed ; th e re i s no light

w ithout h e at f o r pho sph o r esce n ce can n ot be regarded as
,

light Of al l th e l ights i n e xi sten ce th e natu ral o r s u n

.
,

l ig ht i s th e m ost pl easant ; i t h as 7 0 70 Of cal o r ic an d 30 70

o f l um i no us rays Th e g reat p r epon d e r an c e o f th e ca
.

lo ri c ove r the l u m i no u s r ay s i s n ecessa ry to m ake o ur

ea rth h ab itabl e as its n atu ral h eat at about o n e h und red
,

fe et belo w th e s u r face an d n o t i nte r fered with by at mos

,

p he ric ch anges is on ly 50 F ah r en h eit A lthough the °

, .

tempe ratu re i n c rea ses 1 f o r ev e ry 6 5 feet o f d epth so

°

that at t w o m i l es b elo w th e su rfac e w ate r w il l b oi l and ,

at thi rty fou r m il es i ron wil l m el t sti l l th e i n n e r heat

-
, , ,

esti m ated at m o re tha n i s n ot ab l e to w arm the

co m pa ratively thi n c r ust of o u r ea rth m u ch ab ov e the
 CA LO RIC RA Y S IN DIFFEREN T L I GHT S . 16 5

freezi ng po i nt Besi des i f the s u n wou ld n o t co me to o u r

.
,

assi s ta n ce w e w oul d no t be abl e to e nd u re th e l o w tem

,

p aratu re of th e Un i ve rse w h ich is calculated to be 20 0 0 ,

°

below ze ro B u t th e su n w ith h e r
. of h eat o n
he r s u rface o ve rco mes al l th e s e obstac le s and s e nds u s
, ,

ffic ic n t l ight a nd h eat to make o u r ea rth th e m ost

plea s ant q uarte rs to l ive i n
We m ust not fo rm th e w rong idea th at th e i m m e nse
.

radiating h eat o f th e s u n does exte n d th ro u gh th e w ho le

sol a r sy s te m and reach the last pla net N eptun e ; i n fact , ,

it do es not reach eve n the n ea rest pl a net Me 1 c 11ry ,

*
.
*

Th e real s ize o f th e su n ca n be b est d emon st rated by

s u ppo s ing th e s u n to be a hol lo w shel l with o u r ea rth in ,

its ce nte r a nd th e m oo n m o ving a ro u nd it N ow if w e .

,

i magine o u rs el ve s to be prese nt o n th e s u rface o f the

s hel l an d look i ng at th e moo n th ro u gh a h ole it wo uld
, ,

i n it s nea rest po s itio n to us appea r o nly of th e same size

as w he n vi e w ed f ro m the ea rt h J u s t th i nk th e s u n to .
,

be a so l id body w ith a d ia m ete r of fou r ti m es th e dis

t a n ce o f th e moo n f ro m th e ea rth and y o u h ave a n id ea ,

of it s e n o rm o u s size An d fu rthe r i magi n e this im

.
, ,

me n s e bal l to be in a s tate O f co m bustion I N ot cal mly

glo w i ng as it appea rs to us fro m a d i s ta n ce of 95 m i ll ion
m ile s b u t i n a s tate of fu rio u s u p roa r and th unde ri ng
,

co nvulsio n s Just look at a l a rge h o u se 0 11 fi re and

. ,

noti ce th e c rackl i ng and h issi ng of the flam es ; watch

w ith aw e th e fea rf u l roa ri n g and thu n de r i n g of a b u r ni n g
city ; pi ctu re to y o u rs elf i f yo u c an the te rrific repo rts , ,

an d u nea rthly glare wh e n a st ream of l ava bu rsts th ro u gh

th e side s o f a vol ca no ; th e vast fla m es l eap i n g h u n d red s
o f feet i nto th e ai r a m id s t the fea rf u l i nte rnal r u m
,

bli ngs ; multiply al l the s e a m i ll io n ti m es an d w e m ay ,

get a fai nt i dea o f th e sun s p rese nt co ndit io n Th e ’

.

t e rri b le roa ri ng wo uld be h ea rd m il l ion s o f m i le s a w ay ;

t re m e ndou s sh eets o f flam e c all ed p rotube rances are , ,

th ro w n h u n d red tho u s a nd m iles i nto space ; th e consta nt

ex p losion s tea ri ng hol es in the su rface o f the s u n
,
,

c au s m th e su n s pots wh i ch o u r ea rth would n ot fi ll ;

g
-
,

r eal ly a battle o f e le m e nt s of th e subli m est gra nde ur

,
.

W k o too littl of th pl a t V lc a o l at ly di cov d to

e n w e e ne ,
u n ,
e s e re ,
use

it h e re as an i ll u t at o n
s r i .
16 6 H AND BOO K FOR O PT I C IAN S
- .

Th e atm o sph e re o f th e sun i s c al cul ated t o extend

abo ut fiv e m i l l ion m il es b u t its radi ating h eat Wil l not ,

r each th us f ar so that th e pla net Me r c u ry who se m e an

, ,

di stan ce from th e su n i s 3 7 mi l lio n m i les m u st h av e at ,

l east th i rty m il lio n m i les of th at extre m e l o w tem p e ratu re

of th e Un iv e r se an d o u r ea rth f u l ly 90 m i ll io n m i les of
,

it I t i s th e r efo r e i m po ssibl e th at th e ray s o f sunl ight

.
, ,

act u al ly ca rry pa rti cl es o f its r a diati ng h eat w i t h them .

I n fact th e vi b rati on s o f e t h e r ca u sed b y th e su n are by

,

th em se lves n eith e r l ight n o r h eat u nti l th ey ar e d e com ,

posed u nd e r ce rtai n co n diti on s as i n pa s si n g thro ugh ,

o u r atmo sph e r e ; b ut how thi s is p e rfo r m ed I m ust l eave

to p ro fessio n al sci entists t o ex pl ai n .

Th e su nlight i s pe rfectly wh it e o r co l o rl ess and ,

i s th e m ost agreeabl e to th e ey e Th e caloric .

pa r t o f it i s greatly modifi ed by th e m oi st atm osph ere it

h as t o p en et rate an d by repeated reflectio n s The
, .

h ealthy ey e i s wel l abl e t o b ear i ts effect th e who le d ay

lo n g witho ut fatigu e .

N ext to su n light i s th e st ro ngest ; i t has

, el ect r ic l ig ht
a b l ui s h vi olet t i nge a nd co ntai n s 80 70 o f caloric and
-
,

2 0 7 o f l um i no u s r ay s
0 Th e el ectri c l ight i s n o t p ro
.

d u ce d by co mb u stio n a s we hav e seen i n su n l ight b u t

, ,

by th e inten s e h eati ng and vol atil izatio n o f po nderable

m atte r b ec ause th e el ect ri c spark can n ot pass th ro ugh
,

a vacu u m I t i s v e ry i nten se so th at th e ey e i s dazzled

.
, ,

and vis io n b eco m es m uch mo re i nd i sti n ct t ha n with a

light o f th e s am e powe r gi ve n o ff f rom a lam p with a
la rge ci rcul ar w i ck Th e fi rst ex p e ri m ents w ith large
.

Voltaic pi l es to p rod u ce a n el ectri c s pa rk w e re ma d e ,

m e r ely f o r cu riosity s sake ti l l in 1813 S i r Hu m phrey

’

, ,

Davy (17 7 8 a cel eb rat ed Engl i sh ch e m i st at ,

t ac he d to the wi r es o f th e d iffe r ent p ol es p e n cils o f ,

cha r coal an d produ ced a co n sta nt are l ight o f co n sider

, -

abl e stre ngth But h i s exp e r im e n t was n ot fol l ow e d up

.

a s ard uously at th e ti m e as it has b e e n d u ri ng th e l ast

tw e n ty fiv e y ea rs Th e sci e nti sts exp e ri m e nte d w it h
-
.

th e Dru m m ond o r cal ci um light a n d late r w ith Bu n sen s ,

’

m agn esium l ight w itho ut fol lowi ng up Davy s te m po r ary

,
’

success I n fact it was m erely an e xp e ri m en t an d o f

.
,
16 8 H AND BOO K F O R O PT ICIANS
- .

a rtificial l ights Lam ps w e re k no w n i n v e ry an c ient

—

ti m es and are already m entioned i n G e n 15 17 a nd Ex

,
.
, , .

2 7 20,
Th e lam ps o f th e J ews Gree k s an d R o mans
. , ,

w e re o f a p ri m itive co nstructi o n ; a h o llo w op e n v essel

f o r the receptio n Of o il en d ing i n a spo ut t o carry a ,

coarse wi ck was th e whol e a r range m ent tho ugh the ex

, ,

t e rio r was ofte n artistically scul ptu r ed .

Th e r eal im p ro ve m ent i n l am ps b ega n o nly i n 1550 ,

wh e n Hi e ro n y m us C a rdan us con st r ucte d a lam p with a

sepa rate r eceptac le f o r o il wh i ch w as attach ed to the ,

s i de o f th e l am p an d wh i ch p rod uced a co m paratively

,

steady l ight S oo n the additio n o f a l a m p sh ad e fol lowed

.
-
.

Th e n ext i mpo rta n t i m p r ove m e nt w as mad e by the

F re n ch m an L ege r w ho i nv ented 1 7 6 5 th e fl at w ick
, , , , ,

w hi ch w as i n 17 82 i m p rov ed i nto t h e ci rcu la r fo r m by

A rgan d who also add ed th e glass chi m n ey t o th e lamp
,
.

Th e g reat t roubl e with all l am ps was that a b right ,

light n eeded m o r e o il th an th e w ic k w as abl e t o cond u ct

to th e flam e thu s ca u si ng the w i ck to coa l a n d compel
,

f r eq u e nt cl ippi ng F o r th i s r easo n C a rce l (180 0 ) com

.
,

b in e d a clo ckwo rk w ith th e lam p to feed th e fl am e suf

fic ie n t l y with oil “
I n 180 9 th e s o cal l ed A stral l am p
.
- -
,

w as i ntrod u ced whi ch r ecei ved its n am e f r o m th e ro u nd

,

oi -
l r eceptacl e p laced b el o w t he flam e ; a ll la m ps he reto ,

fo re h ad th ei r O il ve s sels eith e r si de way s o r abov e the

,
-

fl am e .

A co m pl ete change i n th e co n st r u ctio n o f l am ps was

caused by th e i n t rod u cti o n o f p etr o l eu m o r coal Oil , ,

( whi ch w as fi rs t discov e red i n as a l igh t p ro ducing

agent w h ich gen e rates co m b u stibl e v apo r s at a m uch
,

l owe r tem peratu re an d bei ng a th i n n e r fl ui d th a n othe r

,

oi ls i n use i t m oisten s th e wi ck q u i cke r an d fol lows it to a

,

g reate r h eight But su ch a fl am e re qu i res a go od v en

.

t ilat i on w hich s e r ves al so t o cool th e b u r ne r ; at th e same

,

tim e the o il fo unt has to b e pl aced fa r b e n eath th e flame

,
-

to p rev e nt the h eati ng o f th e o il Wh e n th e w i ck is .

fl at the b u rn e r is i n n eed o f a sem i sph e rical m etal cap

,
—

with a sl it a littl e la rge r th an th e o p en i ng i n the

,

wi ck guide t o al lo w a free pa ssage o f th e fl a m e an d

-
,
,

where it s vapors un ite with th e oxyge n o f th e ai r wh ich ,

favors a bette r com b ustio n a nd prev e nt s th e flam e from

 C A L ORI C RA Y S IN DIFFEREN T L I GHT S . 16 9

s mok i ng Wh e n the w i ck i s ci rc ula r th e m etal cap i s

.

r eplaced by a c hi m ney whe re th e wide r lo wer part is

,

s u ddenly r ed uced i nto a sm al l e r cyl i nde r w hil e th e chi m ,

n ey o f the flat wick i s bel lied .

A nothe r so u rce of l ight i s th e h ich h as n ea rly can d l e , w

th e sam e p ropo rtio n o f calo ri c a nd l u mi nous rays as the
l amp Can dle s we re n ot k now n befo r e the seco nd ce n
.

tu ry afte r Ch ri s t although lam ps w ere used f o r ove r two

,

tho usan d yea rs befo re anybody con ce ived th e idea that

,

s o lid fatty m atte r l i ke ta llo w a nd wax wou ld answe r the

, ,

sa me pu rpose C andles h ave the advantage that t hey d o

'

n o t s moke as m u ch as th e oi l lamps b u t are mo r e e x p e n

-
,

s ive, especial ly th e wax candles F or ma ny hun d red

-
.

yea rs th ey w e re used o nly i n ch u rch es o n ce rtai n solem n

occasions a nd b y th e r ich and r eigning househo lds as a
,

sign o f l ux u ry A bout the yea r 17 00 the spe r mace t i

.
—
,

ca ndl es we r e i nt roduced ; thei r light w as ext rem ely white ,

but the p rice w as co nside rably h igh e r than eve n wax can -

dl e s The s pe rm aceti is a fatty s u bsta n ce f ro m the head

.

of th e c ac he l o t (p o t fis h o r white whale ) ; so meti m es o n e

s i ngl e fis h p rod u ce t w e lve ba rrel s S u ch ca n d le s we re
s .

m ostly u sed to co mpa re an d m e as u re t he i nte n sity of

d iffe re nt light s but w e re too costly f o r eve ry day u s e
,
.

S i n ce 17 2 5 th e cheape r stea ri ne ca n dle s h ave b ee n g reat

,
-

r i val s of th e still c r ude l am p s of th at t i m e especial ly ,

si nce th e i n ventio n o f b raidi ng the w i ck altho u gh th e ,

i mp roved la m p s g rad u al ly s u pe rs e d ed the cand les aecom ,

p l s he d fi nal ly by the i nt rod u ctio n of co al oi l

i I n 183 1 -
.
,

D e Mil ly i nve n ted a si mpl e and che ap m ethod of p ro

d u cing stea ri n e ; th e m an u factu re o f ca n dles w as agai n
g reatly r evi ved b ut thei r m ost succes s ful ri val is n o w
,

t he gas . Th e po o re s t light of al l i s th e al cohol lam p -

,

which h as o nly $70 of l u m ino us rays and i s absol utely ,

u n fit f o r see ing purposes -

.

I t now rem ai ns to d ra w attentio n to th e actio n th e Of

di ffe rent l ight s u po n the eye and to sho w the i mpo r ,

tance o f k nowi ng th e p roportio n o f the l um i nous a nd

ca lo ri c ray s i n eith e r o f the m I Ve h ave s ee n in a pre .
’

v io ns chapter th at th e size o f th e pupi l i s go ve rned by the

17 0 H AN D BOO K FO R O PT I C IAN S
- .

action of th e i r is and as th e i r i s i s affected o nly by

,

l um i nous rays i t i s evi d ent that light whi ch co ntai n s the

,

l a rgest p ropo rtio n o f the m wi l l cont ract th e p upi l m ore

tha n anothe r l ight w ith less l u m i no us ray s Th e 30 70 .

l um in ous r ays o f the s u n light wi l l th erefo r e cont ract

, ,

th e pupi l m ost a nd wi l l al lo w b ut a l i m ited a mo unt of

,

caloric r ays to e nte r th e eyes A ny l igh t w ith a l ess p ro

.

po rtio n o f l u mi nous r ays ca u ses th e pu pi l to dilate and ,

favo r s the e nt r a n ce of a greater am o unt o f calo r ic r ays

without i m p roving sight Th e refo re th e l arge q uantity
.
,

o f cal o r ic r ays i n al l a r tifici al l ights w i l l soon er fatigue

the ey e th an th e com pa r atively co o l s un l ight I f we visit

.

f o r i nstance a w el l light ed theat r e d u ri ng a

-
“ m ati nee
, ,

an d there are expo sed f o r h ours t o th e dazzl i ng gasl ight ,

w e feel greatly rel iev ed wh e n su nlight agai n strikes our

eyes .
17 2 HAN D -
B OO K FO R o rr re mn s .

h ad be e n passed i n al m ost hop el ess ci

so l i t at i
o 11 ,
.
a m1d st
pov erty n egl ect an d ridicul e ; th e p ri m e o f il l s
,
had hf e
b een wasted i n th e str u ggl e and wh e n h1s pe r sev e ran ce , ,

was fi nally c ro wn ed with success (Oct 12 th he . ,

was abo ut 56 y ears o f ag e .

S i n ce th e real sh ap e a nd size o f o u r ea rth 1s k nown ,

w e a re ab le to esti m at e the longest distan ce at wh ich we

can see a n obj ect eith e r with th e n ak ed ey e o r w 1t h the
,

as s istan ce o f a spy glass o r tel esco pe ; b e cau se th e range

-

of vi sio n i s n ot depe nde nt on ly o n t he ac ute n es s o f vi s 1on ,

o r o n th e opti cal st r engt h o f a n i n st ru m ent but i s lim ,

it e d also by th e cu rvat u re of th e su rface o f th e ea rth .

I t i s wel l know n to al l e n gin e e rs th at o n a n ev e n plane , ,

o n ly th e h ead o f a m a n i s see n th rough a fiel d

gla s s at a distan ce of th re e m i les a nd th at i n o rde r to , ,

se e at a lo nge r d istan ce eith e r w e h ave to tak e a h ighe r

,

stan d o r the o bj ect m u st b e raised t o a greater h eight

, .

Lighthouses are e rected o n thi s pri n cip l e ; th e farthe r

thei r l ight i s to b e see n th e h ig he r t h ey m u st be bu ilt
, ,

as ships h av e on ly a l i m ited h eight Th e fol lo wi ng table .

shows both t he d i sta n ce an d th e h eight at wh ich a light

,

can b e seen .

A t 5 m i l es th e l ight m u st b e
, 15 feet high .

ca
10 6 6 u
60
15 14 0
20 2 50
30 50 0
42 10 0 0
Th e r ul e f o r cal culatio n s of thi s ki nd i s : “ Th e cu r
v at u r e o f th e ea rth is tak en to b e e i ht in ches fo r the
g
fi rst m i l e an d i nc r eas es acco rd ing t o t he sq uare o f the
,
”
distance . F o r i n stan ce :
2 m i les , 4 X 8 in ch es 3 2 o r 2 § feet 2

"
.

3 8 a 2 72 0 1 6-

4 16 8 10
5 25 x 8 16
10 10 0 8 66
15 225 x 8 150
20 4 00 8 2 00
Th e l ess h eight o f lighth ou se s as sho wn i n th e fi rst ,

tabl e i s du e to th e el ev ated stan d of th e c aptai n o n

,
 RAN G E O F VI SI O N . 17 3

board th e shi p wh i ch i s supposed t o be te n feet fro m th e,

waterl i ne thus al lowi ng th e light to be so m ewh at l owe r

, .
*

R ange of v is io n p racti cally m ean s “ the distan ce at , ,

”
wh ich w e are abl e to see O n a pl ane surface o u r .
,

v ision i s li m ited t o th ree m i l es f o r al l obj ects not highe r

than si x feet ; t r ees towers an d m o untai ns are see n at a ,

lo nge r d ista nce acco rdi ng to th ei r h eight B u t it i s not .

o nly th e height Of an Obj ect that m a kes it v isible al s o ,

its w id th m ust cove r a ce rtai n space ; bes ide s it m akes ,

a g reat d iff e ren ce i f th e at m osphe re is clear o r m isty ;

i f o u r ey e i s e m met ropic o r myopi c ; o r if o n e Obj ect is
mo re readily d isting u i shed f rom its su r roun di ngs tha n
a nothe r The Old rul e that th e w idth of an Obj ect m ust
.

cove r at l east a v i s u al angl e of fo rty seco nds is supe r

, , ,

s e d e d by S nel l e n s ex pe ri m ent with hi s test types ; an d

’
-

i nstead o f seei ng an obj ect w hi ch i s n o t fa rthe r away ,

tha n 50 0 0 its diam ete r w e hav e to sho rten th e range , ,

acco rd i ng to hi s ru l e to 3 4 3 7 ti m e s (S ee Chap X I I ) ,
. . .

Th us we ca n fin d app rox i mately th e d ista n ce o f any , ,

obj ect if we k now it s size ; o r its size if we kno w it s

, ,

d istan ce Th e b r eadth Of a man o n an ave rage is

.
, ,

eightee n i n ch es i f w e can ba rely see h im h e is ,

l fi away o r al most o n e m i le I f h e i s d ressed

’
34 3 7 ,
.

i n white an d th e su r rou ndings are d ark th e di sta nce

, ,

m ay be set at m i l e ; if d ressed i n bl ack it m ay b e ,

o nly hal f a m il e .

I f th e back gro u nd is da rk the i m pressio n of the dif ,

f e re n t colo r s u po n o u r eye range i n th e fol lowing o rde r

White yel lo w o range r e d g ree n bl u e v iol et and black
, , , , , , ,

i e
. . b l ac k‘ d is ap p e ars fi rst then viol et etc
,
Wh ite on , , .

black m akes th e s tro n gest i m p r es s ion and is seen the ,

farthest Upo n a light col o red backg round th e effect

.

i s th e r eve r se with t he exceptio n of v iol et which d is ap

, ,

p ea rs befo re red .

Th i a a alogy f th abov l i t h c alc l atio of th d a

ere s n n o e e ru e n e u n e e c re s

i g
n t gth f
s re n light h g ad ally mov d f
o om ; I t al o lo w en r u re e r us s s es I n

j t i p opo tio to th qa of th d ita c Th I t ty

,

po w er us n r r n e s u re e s n e . e n en s i ,

w h ich a l ight ha at n foot f om d im n h n t n gth fo t m e

.

s o e r u s, i is es I s re ur i s

at t w f t an d n in t im at th
o ee ,
e es re e f e t I t e q i th e fo n n e
e . r u r es , re r e, i

can dl th ee f e t ff to p od c the
es, r e o ,
r u e s am amo n t f l ight as n e c an dl e
e u o o

p od c at th d i t an c e f on foot f
r u es e s o e r om o y ur e e .
174 H AND BOO K FOR O PT I C I ANS
- .

I t i s a wel l k no w n fact that

-
an i m al s Of p r ey bear
al l
the colo r o f thei r h idi ng pl aces Th is e n ab l es th em to
.

su rp rise th ei r booty with o ut b ei ng se e n fro m so m e dis

ta nce Th e st rip ed tige r i n th e I n dia n swa m ps o r j un
gles rese m bles the env i ro n s s o p e rfectly th at h is v icti m
.

i s n o t aware o f its p r ese n ce ti l l it i s t o o l ate Th e yel l o w

.

stem s of th e re eds and th e da r k e r g ro u nd p roduce a

, ,

st riki ng resembl ance to th e ski n Of th i s v o racio us beast .

“ ”
Th i s curiou s pl ay o f natu re i s cal l ed m i m i cry and ,

ben efits not o nly those b easts b ut al so m any ani ma l s

,

which are p reyed upo n Th e h u nte r i s th u s sorely v exed

.
,

an d Ofte n can not m ake u se Of th e ab o v e r ul e But in .

m il itary l i fe th ere ar e m an y o ccasi o n s w h ere it i s o f an

i m m ense i m po rtan ce by furn ish i ng an esti m ate o f the
,

n umb er o f th e adva nci ng f o e an d givi ng t i m e to prepare

,

f o r th ei r r eceptio n .

The r e arises anoth e r q uestio n a nalogo u s to th e p revious

o ne . I r efer t o th e fact th at it i s not d i fficult t o j udge
w ith som e certai nty th e n u m b e r Of peopl e congregated
i n l arge asse mblages Th e easi est w ay o f th is ki nd of
.

cal culatio n i s t o m easure th e g ro un d i n squ are feet and ,

d iv ide th e n u mb e r by 4 as fo ur square feet i s ample

“e c an m easure a space
,

r oo m fo r a stan di n g p erso n
h
.

by wal ki ng ov e r it and co u nti ng th e steps A ful l step.

( not a st ride ) m easures o n an a ve rage S uppose at ,

a publi c m e eti n g w el l atten ded th e b u l k Of th e crowd

,

extends i n o n e di recti o n 6 0 paces in another ,

30 w e h av e th e n 150 X 7 5 s quare feet ,

divided by 4 gives 2 812 ; an d wi th th e st r ay p eople

c ou nted i n , w e m ay esti mate that abo ut 3 0 0 0 peopl e
we re atte nding t he m eeti ng .
17 G H AN D BO OK F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

go rged w ith blood Th e co nt ra ctio n O f t he m u sc l es s ur

.

ro u ndi ng th e ey e (co rrugato r sup erci l ii ) p rod u ce s the

t ra nsverse wri n kl es ac ro ss th e fo reh ead wh il st th e con ,

t r action O f th e p yramid al mu s cl e (py ra m id al i s n asi )

'

causes th e eyeb ro ws t o b e draw n dow nward a nd i n ward ,

p roduci ng a f ro wn Th e m uscl e s su r ro u nd i ng th e eyes

.
*

are so m ewhat con n ected with th ose O f th e u pp e r l ip ; if ,

th e r efo re th e fo rm e r are strongly co ntracted tho se of

, ,

th e u ppe r l ip like wise co nt ract an d raise th e l i p Even .

i n g ro w n p e rso ns it is obse rv ed that wh e n tears are re ,

st ra i n ed with d ifficulty as i n readi n g a path eti c story , ,

it i s al m ost i m po ssi bl e to p r eve nt th e v a rio us m uscles ,

whi ch with yo ung ch i ld re n are b ro ught i nto st ro ng action

du ri ng t h ei r screa m ing fit s fro m Sl ightly t w itchi ng or -
,

t r e mb li ng .

I nfants w h il e screa m i ng do n o t sh ed tears o r we ep

, ,

u nti l th ey h av e attai ned th e age o f th re e o r fo u r m onths .

Th i s fact i s m ost rem arkab l e as l ate r i n l ife no ex , , ,

p ressio n i s m ore gen e ral o r m ore stro ngly m arked than

w eepi ng Wh en th e h abit has o n c e b ee n acqui red by an
.

i n fant it ex p ress es i n th e cl ea re s t m an n e r su ff ering of

,

al l k i nds both bod ily pai n a nd m e ntal di stress even

, ,

though acco m pani ed by oth e r e m otio n s su ch as fear o r ,

r age . With adu lts especial ly o f th e m a le sex weeping

, ,

soo n ceases to b e caused by o r to exp ress bo d ily pain , , .

Th i s may be acco u nted f o r by it s b ei n g t hough t weak

an d u nm anl y by m en Th e i nsan e n oto riou sly give way .

to al l th ei r em otio n s with l ittl e o r n o rest rai nt ; and it is

Ob se rv ed that nothi ng i s m o r e ch ara cte ri sti c o f si mple
m el an ch olia than a te n den cy to w eep o n th e sl ightest
,

o c c as 1o n s .

Weepi n g s eem s to b e th e pri m a ry a n d n at u ral expres

sion Of suffe ri ng o f any ki nd B ut com m o n e xpe ri ence .

Shows that a f r equ ently rep eated e ffort to restrain

w eepi ng do es m uch i n ch ecking th e h ab it On th e other .

h and it appea rs that th e po w e r o f w eep i ng can b e ia

creased th ro u gh h ab it A si ngl e e ffo rt o f repressing .

tears i s mo stly i n effectiv e ; i nd eed i t see m s O ften to ,

The py ram id al m s cl u e is t h e fl e hy p a t at t h oot f t he n o

s r e r o s e, j ti
us n
t
t h e s r aig ht l in b et w n e ee th e e y s an d is th ch ief s ppo t f o
e , e u r r t he n o se
p c
ie e o f F ox s ey gl a e
’
e ss s .
 TE AR S . 17 7

lead t o an Opposite result A n Ol d phy sici an o nce re

-
.

m a rk e d th at th e o nly m ean s to ch eck th e occasio nal

bitter w eepi ng o f l adi es w ho co nsu lted h i m and who ,

the mselv es w ished to des ist was ea r nestly to beg th e m

,

not to try and to assu re th e mthat nothi ng wo ul d rel i ev e

,

th em so m uch as p ro lo nged a nd copious c ryi ng .

Th e p r i ncipal funct io n of th e s ecretio n o f tears i s to

l ub ricate th e s urface of th e eye ; al so to ke ep th e no st ri l
dam p so that th e i nhal ed air m ay b e mo ist and l ikewi se
, ,

t o favo r t he po wer of s m ell i ng But anothe r i mpo rtant .

fu nctio n O f tea rs is to wash out particl es O f dust o r

othe r m in u te obj ects whi ch m ay get i nto th e eye Th at .

this i s O f great i m po rtance i s clear f ro m th e cases in

which the co rnea has been r endered opaque th ro u gh in
fl ammat io n caused by pa rticles o f dust not being removed
, ,

i n co nsequ en ce of th e ey e an d eyeli d b ecomi ng i m mov

able Th e s ecretion o f tea rs f ro m th e i rritation O f any
.

fo reign body i n the ey e i s a reflex actio n ; th at i s th e ,

body i r ritates a pe ri ph eral n erv e wh i ch sends th e im

pression to th e lach ry m al gl ands *
Th ese gl ands ca u s e .

a relaxatio n o f th e m uscu lar coats Of th e smal le r arte ri es ,

-
which allo w s m ore b lood to perm eate th e glandular ti ssu e ,

thus induci n g a free secretio n o f tears Whe n th e sm al l .

arteries of th e face i ncl uding those of th e r eti na are

, ,

relaxed u nder v e ry different ci rcum stances for i nstan ce , ,

du ri ng an i nten se bl ush the l achry mal gl ands are som e

,

tim es affected ia a l ik e m an ne r f o r th e eyes beco m e ,

suff used with tears Col d w i nd smoke o r a blow o n

.
, ,

the eye al w ays causes a copio u s secretion o f tea rs Th e

, .

glands are also e xcited i nto actio n th ro ugh th e irritatio n

o f adj oi ni ng parts ; th us wh e n the nost r ils are i r ritated

by p unge nt vapo rs though th e eyel ids m ay b e k ept

,

c m
T h e l a hry al app aratu s co
gl d
n sis s th e t of
c t gt an f o r se re in ears an d
p g d g th m
th e as s a e s f o r rainin e gl d lodg d
off T he
. an d p is o e in a e re s s i n
oof
in t he r o b t bov
o f th e r i, a to o t
e a nd d of y b ll
t he u e r s i e t h e e e a , an d it s
c to
se re i n i po d po
s u re u b ll th o gh
n the a mb
r u m l d ct h ch
an u er of s al u s, w i
p th o gh
O en r u f fold
th e re e co j ct v A ft p
o f th e n un iag ov er as sin
. e r t he
f c t co d ct d to
s u r a e o f t h e e ye , t h e e ar s are n u o
e in t Ov
t he n s e Th e e ars . er
ld o y h
fl o w th e i s nl w en t h e gl d xc t d to xc v c t o by loc l
an is e i e e e ssi e s e re i n a
i t to by m t l mot o
rria i n o f t he e ye o r en a e l ghtly c
in d
As i . in reas e s ecre t1o n
m t ll c d to
ay s i b e ar rie in o t l xc t g
t h e n s ri s an d e i e t he h ch sni ff in , w i is
lly
u su a fi t tg
th e rs s a e o f a good “
E y ght by
cry (
“
. G
e si ,
Dr C Har . . .

h l d lph
l an , P ia e ia,
17 8 H AND B O O K F O R OPT ICIANS
- .

fi rmly closed tears a re se creted S trong l ight h as also

,
.

a t e n d e n c y t o cau se l ach ry m atio n e speci al ly wh e n the

,

eyes are diseased ; th e reti n a an d co rn ea b eco m e ex

c es s i v e l y sensiti ve to l ight a nd exposu re ev e n t o com mo n
,

dayl ight caus es fo rci bl e and s ustai ned cl osu re o f th e l I dS

an d a profuse fl o w o f tears Wh e n p erso n s w ho o ught
.

to b egi n th e u se o f co nvex gl ass es h ab itu al ly st ral n the

w an ing power Of accom modat io n a n u n d ue s e c re t l o n of
,

tears often fol low s Chi ld re n a n d Si l ly p erson s very

—

Ofte n c ry b ecause th ey set g r eat val ue o n tri fli ng obj ects ,

whose refusal m ak es the m ext r e m ely u nh appy

Weepi ng is n ot al w ays a sign Of w eak n ess o r an act ,

to b e ridicul ed Th e greatest m e n o n earth h ad m om ents

.

o f m ental agitatio n wh ich m ad e th e m w eep ; an d while

l i s te ni ng w ith awe t o th e sto ry o f th ei r a ff li ctio n we
. ,

u n con sciou sly reach f o r o u r h an d k e rch i efs to dry the

eyes We are o ve rcom e by a ce rt ai n feel i ng which is
.
,

a nothe r p r e rogativ e o f th e h u m an race sy m pathy The

— .

pow e r o f weepin g i s freq ue nt ly a great b l essing ; it

cal m s and cool s ou r ov e r—h eated b rai n an d m ay p revent
,

ev e n serio us i n cid e nts A s th e Op en i ng o f the valve

.

saves the bo i ler fro mexp los io n so tears grad ually melt
,

away the ro ck wh i ch rests upo n o u r b reast and th reatens ,

to s mother us by its i n supportab l e wei g ht .

180 H AND B O OK FO R O PT ICIANS
- .

1 th e changes o f its s u rro u n d l ngs a n d

. TO ,

2 th e positio n o f its ax 1s O f v 1s 1o n
. TO .

th e pa t pe fo rm d by th e l id th at o f t h e upper
O f r r e ey e s ,

l id i s th e m ost i m po rt ant because it i s l a rge r an d m o re ,

movabl e th an th e lowe r o n e Th e rai s e d el evated lid . ,

ad mits fre e ent ra n ce o f th e f u l l light wh i l e th e d rooping ,

l id sh ado ws a nd da rk e n s it .

Th e eyes are w ide o pe n w h e n w e l iste n to so m ething

of g r eat i nte rest w h i ch causes e ith e r s u r p ri s e o r alar m
,
.

Hal f closed ey es i nd icat e i n d iffe r en ce a n d i ndol e n ce and ,

prod u ce a d ul l an d d ro wsy loo k .

We r e his e y e s O p e n ? Y e s an d hi s mou t h too ,

.

S u rp r i s e h as t h i s e ff e c t to mak e o n e d u m b ; ,

Y e t l e ave t h e g ate w h ich elo q u e n ce s l ips t h r o u g h , ,

As w id e as if a lo n g sp e ech w e r e t o co m e .

“
Th e eyel ashes p lay a g reat pa rt i n th is r espect When
’
.

they are long an d fi ne th ey i m pa rt to th e ey ebal l a gentle ,

an d affectio n ate app ea an ce w h ich th e po ets cal l the

r
“
,
”
s w eet p e nsiv e sh ado w .

A n d eyes d is cl o s d w h at eyes alon e can t e ll ’

.

B ut wh en they are sho rt a nd spa ri ng th e look loses ,

its m ello wy app ea ra n ce i s rath e r u nsy m path etic and , ,

giv es the ey e a cu n ni ng and Sl y ai r .

Th e eyebr o w s are po we rful o rgan s o f exp ression ; we

can p rod uce a f row n by w ri nk li n g a n d d epressi ng the
brows wh i l e by el evati ng th e m w e ex p ress i n credul ity
, ,

s urprise o r co ntem pt al m ost as pl ai nly as by wo rds

D is d ai n an d sco r n r ide spa rkl i n g i n h er eyes .

Th e p os itio n o f t he ey e has anothe r great effect ; the “

“ ”
SO cal l ed
-
deep eye wh i ch i s sh ade d by th e p ro mi nent ,

fo rehead m ak es a diffe re nt i m pressio n f ro m th e “ shal

,
”
low o ne Th e deep ey e i s so m ewh at l ack i ng th e free
.

motio n o f th e upper lid an d as it i s ge n e rally o f a darker ,

ti nt b esides bei ng Shaded by the p roj ected fo re h ead and

,

eyeb ro w it prod uce s a dete rm i n ed grave o fte n m orose

, , ,

expression .

T h y diff
eom oth e h ai in b ein g th ic k e t in the m iddl e an d
er fr r rs , s
t ap e in g to w a d ach n d an d n d go a co n tan t r n w al ; e ach one
r r s e e , u er s e e
r ach s m at u ity in abo t fi
e e m orn th an d th en d op u
u t an d i c ve s, r s o s su

( E y e ight by D G O H a l an Ph l ad el p h a
,

d d by a f s h n e
“
c ee e re o . s , r . . . r 1 1
,

187 9)
 FA C IA L E X PR E SSI O NS . 181

Y et well t h at eye co u l d flash r ese n tm e n t s ra y s ’

.

O r p ro u d l y sco rn ful ch eck t h e boldes t g aze :

, ,

C hi l l b u rn i n g p assio n w i t h a cal m dis d ai n ,

A n d w ith o n e g l a n ce r e k in dl e it a g ai n .

The shal lo w eye m ostly light colo red shows to per ,

f ec t io n th e i n n um erabl e va riatio ns of the h uma n look .

The re is fi rst th e s tar in g l ook ; th e ey e i s not fixed upon

any d isti nct obj ect it is i m mo vab l e and i ndicates hope
,

“ ”
l essn ess pai n f right t erro r Th e hopeless sta re
, , , .
,

afte r the loss of al l e ne rgy i s cha racte rized by an i ndo

,
~

lent Si le nce ; th e d roopi ng o f the uppe r l id p roduces

the appeara nce o f a wea ry desponde ncy .

e g r ief O f year s I t r ace

“ I n t h ose s ad eyes t h
,

An d so rr ow see m s acq u ai n t e d wi t h t h at face .

I n cases o f v iol en t excite m ent th e stari ng loo k i s th e ,

result O f th e co nv u lsiv e exertion s o f th e o u tside m uscles

of the eyebal l whi ch by acting al l at O n ce push t he
, , ,

eye fo rwa rd .

Th e loo k o f th e o v er j oyfu l is j u st the Opposite ; hi s

-

eye is n ot stari ng in o n e di rection b ut is r estlessly ,

w anderi ng f rom o n e obj ect to anoth e r because no ne i s ,

abl e to attract h i s attentio n l ong e nough to counter

balan ce th e inn e r ex cite m ent By the q uic k changing o f
.

the positio n of h i s eyes the Obse rve r receives constantly

,

anothe r reflectio n Of the m ; such eyes sp arkl e w ith j oy .

T h e j o y of yo u t h and h eal t h h er e y e s displ aye d ,

An d ease of h ear t h e r eve ry loo k con veye d

“
Whil e pl easu r e l i g h t s t he j oyfu l l au g h i n g eyes .
”

Th e col or o f th e eye is o f littl e i m po rtance i n the dif

fere at exp ressions but plays a p ro m ine n t pa rt at the
,

ti m e o f cou rtshi p wh e n a love r goes i nto ecstasy over

,

the color o f th e ey es of h i s bel oved .

L e t oth e r m en b o w an d u t te r the v o w
,

O f devo t io n an d love w i t ho u t e n d ,

As t h e Sp a rk li n g b l ack e y e in t r i u mph d raws n i g h ,

I t s g l a n ces u po n t h e m t o be n d .

B u t g i ve m e t he eye t h r o w h ich I can Sp y

’

To t he dep t h of a h eart w ar m an d t ru e ;
Whose color may vi e w i t h the hu e o f t h" e sk y ;

T h e soft t h e sweet l ove b eam i n g bl u e

, ,
-
182 HAN D -
BO O K F O R O PT I C IAN S .

A l l th ese changes of the ey e are p rod uced by th e action

o f separate n erves S o m e m otio n s a re co ntro l l ed by our
.

w il l othe rs are acted upo n by th e s o cal le d sy m pathetic

,
-

n erv es wh ich fo r i nstan ce regul at e th e d il atation an d con

, ,

t raction o f th e p upi l an d prod uce oth er p h e n o mena,

b eyo nd ou r co ntro l But by m ean s o f a n i o n Wil l or

“ r ”
. ,
.

by lo ng m ental t r ain i ng ma n y e x p re s s 1o n s of the eye

,

can b e con cealed fro m th e ob serv atio n o f oth e rs S ki lled .

diplo m atists sh rewd l awye r s p r o fessio nal sw in dle rs

, , ,

hypocrites and m any m o r e o fte n d ecei v e oth ers with ,

sl eek wo rds and a tru sting loo k ; b u t th e i ntelligent

obse rv es i nsti n ctively sh r i n ks f ro m th ei r e nticem ents ,

an d i s not easily caught by th ei r deceitf u l sch e m es The .

wa r n ing i m p ressio n w e re ceiv e as to t he qu estion able

truthf u l ness o f thei r w o rds i s due t o ce rtai n m otion s and
po sition s o f th e eye not cont rol l abl e by th eir will
,
.

Th ei r wo rds do not tou ch th e co rre spon di ng cho rd of

o u r so ul they o nly cau se disso na n ce a nd aversio n o f
,

wh i ch w e can not give a cl ear accou nt but fee l i ndi ,

n ct i
sti ve l y

0 wh a t a ta n g l e d web w e w e av e
W h e n fi r st w e p r actice t o decei ve .

Th e r e are pe r son s who wi n o u r affectio n witho ut any

effo rt altho ugh th ei r exte r io r s are pl ai n th ei r featu res
, ,

pe rhap s i rregular th ei r di sco u rse lack i ng eloq u en ce an d

,

d epth o f k no w l edge an d y et w e a re fasci n ated by the m

, .

Thi s is th e w itch e ry o f an exp r ess ive eye th e r efle x o f an ,

ho n est si ncere m i nd
"
, .

I n o n e s oft look w h at l an g u ag e l ies

A clo se obse rv e r of th e faci a l exp r essi o n s o f different
i ndivid ual s w il l fi nd a g re at va ri ety i n th ei r d el i neation ,

based p ri n ci pal ly upo n th e d i rectio n o f th e ax is of v is io n .

I n chil d r e n this ax is i s al most co nstantly paral l el produc ,

i ng the i mp ressio n of tho u ghtl es s n ess o r th e ch ildish ,

i n nocent l ook With i ncreasi n g i ntel lige nce th e eyes lose

.

th e pa ral l el ism by bei ng fi xed upo n obj ects o f i nv esti g a

tion Al l affecti ons o f th e m i nd are n o w m an i fe sted b y
.

certai n m otio ns and positio ns o f th e ey e s wh i ch b e co me ,

m ore an d m o re conve rgent The l u r ki ng loo k o f th e .

co nv i ct o n tri al th e watchful scruti ny o f th e ov e r s u sp i

, -
 C H AP T ER XX VI .

HI STO R Y O F TH E I NVEN T I O N O F S PE CT AC L E S , AN D THE

GRAD U A L DEVELO PM EN T O F TH E OPT ICA L TRA D E .

i nventio n o f glass Th is natio n o ccupied a part Of the

.

coast of S y r ia b etwee n th e L eb a n on a n d th e Me d it er
’

ranca h S ea no rth west o f P alestin e an d was al ready

, ,

widely k no w n at the ti m e o f Jacob th e patriarch about , ,

1 7 50 years before Ch r ist But it s ee m s gl ass w as known

.

befo r e th at ti m e as th e re h as b ee n fo u n d (abo ut 1850 )

,

belo w th e rui ns o f o l d N i n eveh a l e n s ev id ently u sed f o r

Optical pu r poses A kno wl edge o f th e m an ufacture of
.

lass was ea rly acqui red by th e Egyptian s w ho i m p r oved

g ,

on it an d ev e n m ade col o red speci me n s A fter the

,
.

R om an s co nquered Egypt th i s art was i nt rod uced into ,

I taly wh ere th e p eople soo n l earn ed t o m a ke plate glass

,
-
,

a nd also p roduced a ki n d o f gl ass w h ich cou l d stand .

w ithout i nj ury th e effect o f h ot fl uids Th ey also .

cl ai m ed to h ave k now n a glass w h i ch w as m all eabl e an d ,

to a ce rtai n degree u n b reakabl e A good sto ry i n rela .

tio n to thi s states that a m a n o n ce d e m a n d ed t o be

brought b efore the E m pe ro r t o wh o m h e p resented a ,

gobl et o f gl ass Th e E mpero r w as high ly pl eased with

.

th e spl en did wo rk m an shi p o f i t b ut w h e n it passed fro m ,

h and to han d a mong th e courti e rs p rese nt it acci d ental ly ,

fel l to th e floor o r as it is al so re l ated th e a r tist h i m self

, , ,

threw it w il lful ly do w n I t d id n o t b reak b ut w as b ad ly

.
,

dented Th e man repaired it i m m ed iately w ith a smal l

.

h am m er h e had b ro ught alo ng w ith h i m I t i s a pity .

that thi s i m po rtant i nv e ntio n i s e nti rely lo st The .

R om an h i storian P l i ny repo rts that N ero co ul d n o t see

v ery wel l and th at h e m ade u se of a l a rge j e w el i n th e
,

shape o f a l en s to enj oy a b ette r sight o f th e fight s o f

,

h i s gl a d iato rs But thi s was not i mitated by oth e rs an d

.
,

i s narrated by th e historian o nly as o n e o f t h e many

 H I STO R Y O F TH E INVE N T I O N O F SPECT AOL ES . 185

strange extravaga nci es o f thi s m ost rem arkab l e m an o f

t he R om a n e n1p ire .
*

The h istory o f th e i nv entio n o f spectacl es i s cl osely

connected with the ge neral advan ce of scien ce especial ly ,

as rega rds l ight Light was a fa mil ia r phe no meno n t o .

the an cient s an d from th e ea rl iest ti m es we fi nd m an s

,
’

m i nd b usy w ith th e atte mpt to r e nde r some acco unt o f

it B u t without expe ri m ent whi ch belongs to a later
.
,

s t age o f sci e nti fic develo p m e nt l ittle prog ress co uld be ,

made in th is di rectio n Th ey satisfied the m sel ves that .

light mo ved i n st raig ht l i nes ; th ey k new al so that these

l i nes o r rays of l ight we re r eflecte d f ro m po lis hed su r
, ,

faces and that the a ngl e o f i ncide nce was equal to th e

,

angle o f reflection Th e fi rst on e who m easu r ed the .

r efr acti on o f glass and water at v ario us angl es was ,

P tolemy an E gyptia n abo u t th e y ear 150 A D ; he

, , . .

states that th e angle o f r efraction i s al w ays l e s s than the

angl e o f i nciden c e N i n e h und red yea rs late r the .
,

A rabia n m athe matician A l hazen w rote a val uable book , ,

o n the r eflection an d r ef ractio n o f l ight co ntai n i ng a l s o ,

a descriptio n o f the eye and a phi losophy of visio n , .

A lthough he gi ves d i rection s f o r m aki ng expe rim e ntal

m easures of r ef raction h e does n o t fu rn i s h any Tabl e of .

the results of such e xpe ri me nts Vit e l l io a Pol e about .

, ,

12 50 w rote a n exten si ve wo r k o n optics i n cl udi ng s uch

, ,

Tabl es and asserts th e m to b e de ri ved fro m his o w n o h

,

s e rv at i
o ns wh ich i s v e ry do ubtf u l , .

We see th at i n th e l o n g p e rio d o f el ev en h und red

N o hyp e m t opic b t n t myOp i a it i often
er w as , p h ap
er s, r e r u o c, s s
s tated Myop ia w a n t k n o w n in old n tim b c a e it d id n t exis t
. s o e es , e us o
T av ll h av n v fo n d amon g n w il i d n atio n c a e of myopia
.

r e e rs e e er u u c ze s 9 . s
do n t u th ey f e in g m all obj ct
.

P opl e w h do n t ead
e o o r , or o se eir es or s e s e s,
a e n t n a ight e d
r o I n A m ic a w h ich i mo tly an agric lt al co n t y
e r- s . er s s u ur u r
th e e a e on an av e ag t w en ty fi hyp e metr p t o n e myop (c iti s
, ,

r r r e -
ve r o es o e e

exc ept d ) w hi
el in G e m an y w h p rin tin g w a in v en t d th e a e
e r ere s e er r
t w en ty fi e myop ic to n e hyp m t Opic p e on Myopia i oft en he
, , ,

-
v o er e r rs . s r

e ditary b t d c ea in a f w g en e atio n
u e r w h n th cau e f
se s it i e r s e e s or s
mov ed I t i s imply a t empo a y ab n o m ity an d i s ally acqu i ed
,

re s r r r , s u u r

a th e res lt o f c rt ai
s n h ab it ; i
u t i w itho t do bt of mod e n d at
e s s u u r e .

Th c au s s o f hyp rm t op ia a n t at al l d p n d n t po n t h ab e
e e e e r re o e e e u e us s

o f th e ey by r ad n g r do n g fin e w o k M an y n at u al c a e p od c e
es e I o i r r us s r u

th i ab n o mal con d ition w h ich is c tain ly a l d as t he h m an rac e

.

s r ,
er s o u ,

altho gh it ha b en
u ally n d s tood an d expl ain d o n ly in t h p
s e re en t u er e e res

c n tu ry Th clo
e . e mbl an c b e t w ee n myop i
e c an d hyp m trop ic y
s e r es e er e e es ,

comp ell in g both of th em t u p ctacl f o r n ear an d f a h as w ron gly o se s e es r,

c au sed m an y w rite t o m ak e Ne o n ear s ight d rs r -

e .
186 H AN D B O O K F O R OPT I C IAN S
- .

years l ittl e p rogress wa s m ad e i n sci e n ce, b e cau se th e

h uma n m ind at th at ti m e took th e o ppo s ite co urse of
m ental t rain i ng I n ste ad of st u d yi ng th e fo rc es of
.

natu re a nd enj oyi ng th e bo untifu l gifts w h ich an ex

,

ce ed i n l y f ri end l y P ro vid e nce had put With in easy reach

g ,

peop le t urn ed th ei r eyes to th e clo u ds t il l th ey lost s ight

of th ei r bea u tiful su r ro u ndi n gs “ Th e m e n O f th e M idd l e .

A ges w ere so o cc u pied with th e co nce rn s o f a future

wo rl d that they loo ked with lofty s co rn o n al l th ings
p ertai n i ng to thi s on e N otwith sta n di ng i ts d e m o n st rated .

fai lu re du ri ng so m any yea rs o f t ri al th e r e are st il l m en ,

amo ng us who th i n k th e ri dd le of th e U n iv e rse i s to be

so lv ed by th ei r appeal to co nscio usn ess A nd li ke .
,

most peopl e who suppo rt a del usio n th ey m ai ntai n ,

thei rs w arm ly and Sho w scant respe ct f o r t hos e who

,

dissent f ro mthei r v i ews Th is i s th e reaso n why a .

m an l i ke R oge r Baco n was h ated a nd ho u nded to death ,

as happe ned to Gal ilei and oth e r m e n of ge n i us Bacon .

was a p rofessor at Oxford E ngla n d ; h e made m any ,

wo nderful discov eri es i n optics as wel l as i n che m ist ry

an d physics wh ich w ere rega rded by h i s igno rant con
,

tem po ra r i es especi ally by th e j ealo us m e m b e r s o f his

,

o w n r e l igio u s o rde r as th e wo rk o f th e d ev il an d caused , ,

hi s i m p riso nm e nt at di ffe r ent ti m es for al m ost t w enty

, ,

yea rs H e w as th e fi r st t o p r odu ce o r rath e r d escribe

.
, ,

a co nvex l ens but w e do n o t fi n d i n hi s wo rk s th e l east

,
*

hi nt that h e co m bi n ed th e se l e n ses i nto s p e ct ac l e s T

l en s w a dis cov d at P omp e in 1854 T h is c ity w as
A s p e ctacl e s ere ii
b i d by an e p tio n f V s viu s in the y ea 7 9 A D an d w as
.

ur e ru o e u ,
r . .
,

ag ain d is cov d in 174 8 ere .

T I n hi p i n cip a
sl w r k Op Maj h g s th e n ec s ity f a efo m
or ,
us u s,
'
e ur e e s o r r

in t h mod e f ph ilo oph izin g an d ho w

e o w hy k n o w l dg e h ad n o t m ad e
s s s e
I t co n t ain six p a t s :
,

g eat
r p oger r res s s r
I On th e fo c a s f h m an ign o an c
.

. ur u se o u r e .

1 A tho ity (th fo c e f n w o thy a th orities)

. u r e r o u r u .

2 C tom (th t aditio n a y h ab it)

. us e r r .

3 P op l a O p n io n (th imp e f ctio n o f t h e n d i c ipl in d sen e )

. u r i e r e u s e s s
P d f s ppo d k n o w l dg (th d i p mti n to co n c e al
.

4 ri e o u se e e e s o o our
I gn o an c e an d to m ak o t n t at o
.

r ho w f u k n o w l edg e s e i us s o o r e
II On t h o c of p f ct w i dom n th e ac d c ipt
, .

. e s ur e er e s i s re s r u re .

I II On t h
. f l n of g amm a ( g a d n g co e ct t an l at io n )
e u se u es s r r re r i rr r s s .

V I On t h e
. f ln f m ath m at c
u se u ess o e i s

V On p p ctiv
.

. er s e e .

1 O gan f v i io n
. r s o s
V io n in t aig ht l in
.

2 . is s r es .

3 Vi o n fl ct d an d f act d
. si re e e re r e .

"
l P op ag atio n o f th imp
. r io n f l ight h e at e t e re s s o , , c .
 H AND BO O K FOR OPT ICIAN S
-

o l d ch ronicl e o f N urem berg i n Ge m any th e ye ar ,

r ,
of

14 82 m ention s that th e r e we re s ev e ral

,
m an ufactu rers of
spectacl es i n that city .

S pectacl es w e r e f o r a l ong w h i le m e rely O b j ects of

cu riosity an d we r e m ade use o f as a co n sp icuo u s novelty
,
,
”
“
as som e ye ars ago ev e ry d u de m al e o r fe m al e had ,
,

to wea r bl u e
g l as s es f o r fashio n s sak e I n S pa in they ’
.

form ed a pa rt o f th e costu m e of ev e ry w el l b red p erson -

.

This absu r d u s e o f glasses was m eant t o inc r ease the

g ravity o f th e appea ra n ce and co n sequ e ntly th e v ene ra ,

tio n w ith w hich th e weare r o f th e m was rega rded The .

glasses we r e p ropo rtion a l i n siz e to th e ran k of the

wea r e r Thos e wo r n b y th e S pan ish n obl es w e r e so me
.

ti m es th r ee i n ch es in di a m ete r Th e Marq ui s o f A storga .

,

wh e n h av i ng h is b ust sculptu red i n m arbl e parti cula rly ,

enj oi ned upo n the artist n ot t o fo rget h i s b eautiful spec

taeles .

A fte r th is fi rst si lly i ntrod uctio n spectacl es they of ,

agai n fe ll i nto di suse f o r nearly th ree h u ndred y ears during ,

whi ch n o i mp rov em e nts d es ervi ng notice w ere m ade .

Ho w differe nt were th e peop l e o f th at ti m e fro m the

prese nt ge ne r ation I I n l ess th an no ti m e w e would have
p roduced al so a con cav e l e n s a nd p r e se nted the ,

worl d with a Sp y —glass Thi n k ho w qu i ckly so m e y ears .

ago th e Tel epho n e was fol low ed by th e P h on ograph ;

t h e o n e t ransm itti ng Speech th e oth e r rep ro du ci ng it ,
.

I have sea r ch ed i n vai n to fi n d th e nam e o f th e i nv entor

o f th e con cav e le n s ; it was not i n u s e l ong b efo re the

i nve ntio n o f spy glasses I thi n k -

, .

The credit for th e i nv e n tio n o f spy g l ass e s o r tele -

,

scop es h as b een cl ai med by th e fri e n d s o f th ree parties

,

Joh n Lipp e r sh ey Z acha ri as Jan se n b oth o f Hol l and

, , ,

an d Gali lei O f I t aly The re i s n o doubt th at G alilei

, .

fi rst appl ied th e t el escop e f o r O bs e rv i n g t h e sta rs ; b ut

Mr Ch ild an E n gl i hm an ha di cov ed l at ely in th Ob s rvatory
.
, s , s s er e e
at P k in Ch in a an l d a t o n om ic al t el s cop w hich w a m ad in 12 7 9
e , ,
o s r e e s e
ign f K bl aiKh an
,

und er t he re I t m o n tin g i c a t in b o n z
o u an d i
. s u s s r e, s
s till w ll p r v ed I t w as f o fo h n d d y a
e e s er . d as an o n am ent
r ur u re e rs u se r
u po n th t rrac e in f on t o f t h imp rial p al ac b t w as m ov e d in 1670
e e r e e e, u re
to t h e Ob erv ato ry by o d
s f th mp e o Kh an g A photo ap h of
r er o e e r r g r
th is an tiq e in t u m en t h a a iv d a f w y a ag in L o n do n
.
0
u s r s rr e e e rs o .
 H IS TO RY OF TH E INVEN T I O N O F SPE CT AC L E S . 189

he co nst ructed h is i nst rum e nt afte r h e h ad l ea r ned that

by a co mbi natio n O f co nv ex and co ncav e l en ses distant
o bj ects wo uld appear m uch n ea r e r Th e real i nve nto r .

of the telescope was witho ut doubt Joh n Lippe rshey a ,

spectacl e m aker at Middle b u rg Ho l l a nd But according , .

to Desca rtes th e i nv e nto r w as A d ri an Meti us who w rote

, ,

o n the 17 th o f Octobe r 10 0 8 to th e gove rn m e nt of , ,

Holland stating th at h e as wel l as the spectacl e m ake r

, ,

of Middlebu rg was m anu fact u ri ng the i nst ru me nt that “

,
”
b ri ngs d istant Obj ect s n ear A noth e r do c u m ent o f .

Oc t 2 d 16 0 8 l ately fo u n d i n the gove rnm e n t a rchi ves

.
, , ,

is the petition f ro m Li ppe rs hey p rayi ng f o r a th i rty ,

yea rs patent o n h i s i n ve ntio n Th i s w as r ef u sed hi m

’
.

b ecause th e i nst r um e n t co u ld n o t be used with both eyes

at o n ce ; an d afte r h e had m ade a do u b le on e th e patent ,

was agai n refused b ecause telescopes we re the n bei n g

,

made eve rywhe re B u t as a pa rtial com pe nsatio n f o r

.

hi s disappo i nt m ent h e recei ved a n o rder to construct

,

fo r th e gove r n m e nt two bi nocular i n strum ents th e ,

l enses O f wh ich sho uld b e o f rock c rystal and for wh ich ,

he was to be pai d 90 0 guilders about $3 00 a piece , .

The n ecessa ri ly co rrect fi ni sh of le nses for tel escopes

gave a n e w i m p ulse to th e m anufacture of spe ctacl es ,

although they were sti ll made i n l i m ited quantity by sol i

tary work m en an d by h and I t is rel ated of S pi noza
,
.
,

who d ied 16 7 7 an d w ho had l ea r n ed th e art of glass

,

g rinding to m ake a l iving wh il e w riti ng h is philosophical

works th at h e m ade a pai r o f spectacles for the cele
,

b rat e d Germ an ph i losopher Lei bnitz who had fo rm ed , ,

his acq u ai ntance at Th e Hague Ho l la nd ,

.

The h i sto rica l e ve nts wh ich favo red th e developm ent

of th is N e w Era o f S ci e nce we re
“ ”

Th e i nv entio n o f p r i nti ng 14 4 0 ; ,

Th e disco ve ry o f A m e ri ca 14 92 ; and ,

Th e g radual e m ancipatio n o f th e h um an m i nd from

m etaphysica l d ream s 1517 , .

The ast ro no m ers too k th e l ead i n th e m arch o f pro

gress a nd th e h i th e rto h u mbl e guild o r co rporatio n o f
, ,

glass gri nders and m an ufact u r ers o f spectacles h ad to

-
,

exten d th ei r fo rm e r li m ited sph ere to th at o f adroit m e

c han ics Th ey no t o nly b uilt telescopes and othe r c o m
.
190 H AND B O O K F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

pl icated i n strum e nts u sed f o r sci e ntifi c p u rpo ses but ,

also too k pe rso nally an act iv e pa r t i n th e p ro m ot ion of

sci en ce by i ndependent i nvestigatio n s a n d in v en t ion s .

Th e h e ro who m ade th e fi rst sci e nti fi c appl icat ion of

th e n e w d iscove ry w as G al i l ei b ut h i s te lescope w as ,

v e ry n ea rly th e sa m e as the m odern si ngl e O pe ra glass ,

b ei ng com posed o f o n e b i co nv ex ob j e ct iv e l e n s a nd one

-

b i con cave o cula r l en s

-
Th e th eo retical expla nation of
.

th is t e l e c s o p e was gi ve n by Kep l e r 16 11 who al so sug , ,

gested th e use o f a con v ea: o cu lar l e n s wh ich al lows a ,

la rge r fi eld o f Vi sio n but sh o w s Obj ects i n verted An

,
.

i n s trum e n t Of th is o rd e r was co n st r u cted by th e capuchin ,

A nto n D e R h eita 16 4 5 an d i s cal l ed th e as tr o n omical

, ,

tel es cop e ; h e afte r w a rds added to th e Singl e ocul ar l ens

four sepa rated conv ex l e nse s th e r eby resto ri ng th e up ,

r ight pi ct u re and cal led it ter r es tr ial tel es cop e This

, .

m on k also co n structed a bi no cu la r tel escop e wh ich was

r egarded rath e r as a th i ng o f cu riosity th an o f p r actical

ut i lity unti l i n m odern days hi s pl an h a s b e e n accepted

,

in op era gl asses m i c roscopes e t c

, The g reat d efect of, .

th ese i n st r um e nts was thei r chro m ati c ab e rration and to ,

ov erco m e thi s en o rm ously lo ng tel esco p es w ere m ade

, .

H uyghe n s fo r i nsta n ce u s ed a n in s tru m e nt o f h is own

, ,

m ake w ith a n obj ect le n s o f 12 3 ft i n fo cal l ength ;

, .

w hi ch i s sti l l i n th e l ibra ry o f th e R oyal S o ci ety of

Londo n I t i ncited the am b itio n o f oth e r s to co nstruct
.

eve n l o nge r t el esco p es ; as Divi ni at R o m e Cam p ani at ,

Bologna a nd A uzout at P a r i s I t i s stated that the

, .

l atte r m ade tel escopes o f f ro m 3 0 0 t o 6 0 0 feet focus ,

b ut th ey n eve r co ul d be used i n p racti cal ob se rvations .

I n th ese v ery l o ng tel escop es n o t ub e w as em ployed ,

and th ey w ere co nseq uently t e r m ed aer ial tel es cop es .

H uygh en s fin al ly co n st r u cted o n e o f 2 10 ft lo ng but .

,

such i nstr u m e nt s w e r e u n m anage abl e an d soo n w e nt o ut

of u se B esides th e i nc r ease o f th e ap e rture Of obj ect
.
,

gl asses co ul d not altogeth e r re m ov e th e col oratio n o f the

i m age p ro d uced .

N ewto n w ho d iscov ered th e p ri ncip l e O f th e c hrom atic

,

defect i n l e nses m a i ntai n ed th at th e ev i l w as irre med i

,

abl e a nd that any co m b i natio n o f l e n s es cou l d n o m ore

,

re f ract w it hout prod uci ng col o r th a n a si n gl e l e n s ; he , ,

192 H AND B O O K F O R O PT I C IANS
- .

l ength B y th i s arrange m ent afl at f iel d i s ga in e d and

. ,
,

the c hrom ati c a nd sph erical abe rrati o n s a re s o m uch re

d u c e d as t o b e p racti cal ly i m perceptibl e .

T he hO p e no w to const r uct i nst r um ents o f u n l im ited

,

size was f ru st rated by th e i m possibi l ity o f Obta in ing

la rge p i eces o f fl i nt gl ass an d th e re was n o mater ial
,

i m p rov em ent in th i s di r ectio n f o r sev e ral yea rs t ill ,

F rau n hofe r w ith th e assi sta n ce o f F ran go is Guinand

,

gav e a n e w i mp u l se to th i s b ra n ch o f th e optical b usi ness .

Joseph F raunh ofe r w as bo r n 1 7 87 at S t rau bi n g Bav a ria ; , ,

h e was th e so n o f a poo r glazi er an d w as i n his ea rli er ,

’
yea rs em pl oyed at th e sam e t r ade A fte r h is fathe r s .

death 17 99 h e ente red as a n app r entice th e establi sh

, ,

m ent of a mi rro r m ake r at Mu n i ch wh e r e h e h ad 180 1

-
, , ,

th e singular m isfo r tun e of bei ng b u r i ed al iv e by th e col

l apse o f hi s bo a rd ing hou se Hi s m i r aculo u s rescue at .

t r acted th e atte ntio n o f the ki ng who made h i m a p r esent ,

o f 18 d ucats about f o r w hi ch he bought a m achi ne

(
to g r in d spectacl e l en ses I n 180 6 h e accepted the
.
,

positio n as fo re m an i n Ut z sc hn e id e r s optical establi sh ’

m ent w here h e soo n b ecam e th e g rea t est Opti cian in

,

G erm a n y Hi s excell ent tel escope s an d m i croscopes are

.

kno w n th rougho ut Eu rop e F raunhofer w i l l al ways take.

a pro m i n ent place i n th e histo ry o f th e Opti cal t rade ; he

w as n o t o n l y a p racti c al an d m ost ski l l fu l wo r k m an but ,

al so a scientist o f great re no w n S til l a sh ado w darkens .

,

h i s fam e his selfis h ex cl u s iven ess wh ich restrai n ed hi m

, ,

fro m m aking kno wn f o r th e b e nefit o f sci e n ce th e t rue

, ,

p rocess of th e m an ufact ure o f hi s perfected fli nt gl ass i n

l arge pi eces I t was hop e d th at afte r h i s d eath som e
.

cl ue wo uld be foun d am ong h i s w riti ngs ; b ut st range to ,

say h is secret w en t w ith h i m i nto th e g r ave — Hi s tim e

, .

can b e consi de red as th e begi n n ing o f th e l ate st era i n th e

developm ent o f th e Opti cal t rad e Th e i n stru m ents for .

astro nom i cal obse rvation becam e an obj ect o f serio us

ca r e Extensiv e k no wl edge i nt ens e tho ught a n d great
.
, ,

ingen u ity w e re r equisite i n th e ast r ono m i cal i n st ru m ent

m ak er I n stead Of ran ki ng w ith art is ian s he b ecam e a
.
,

m an of scie n ce sh ari ng th e h o no r and d ign ity Of th e as

,

t ro n o m e r h i mself .
 G RA DU A L DEVEL OP iI ENT OF T HE O PT I CA L T RAD E . 193

We now tu rn our attentio n fro m th e tel escope t o its

powerfu l rival the micr oscop e , Th e tel escope had .

rudely dispel led o u r sel f co n ceited erro r that th e earth -

,

the p ivot o n wh ich th e whol e Un ivers e revolves by ,

r eveal ing my r iads o f n e w w o rl ds th us forcibly teach i ng ,

the mortifyi ng l esso n o f o ur o w n in s ig n ifican c e Th e .

m icroscope acti ng as an antidot e to the fo r m er agai n

, ,

restored o u r small n ess to a stat e o f gigantic g reatness ; it

reveal ed a wo rl d of hith e rto i nvi sibl e wonde r s of n ature
,

and cl early m ani fested th at ev erythi n g g reat o r sm al l i s , ,

equal ly m arvelo us Th ese two i nstrum ents have don e

.

mo re fo r th e e nl ighten m e nt o f m e n tha n any i nventio n

before o r sin ce Th e i nv entio n o f th e s imp l e micr os cop e
.

i s not clai m ed by any o n e ; w e do not know the i nve nto r .

The earli est m agnifyi ng l e ns k now n i f i ndeed it was used ,

for thi s p u rpo se i s th e r ude o n e foun d by the E ngl ish

,

man Layard i n th e palace o f N im rud (at N i n eve h ) ;

, ,

it i s m ade o f rock crystal and i s far fro m bei ng perfect , .

A ri stophanes tel l s us that bu r n ing sp heres were sold i n

the shops at A then s about 4 00 years B C Th ere i s n o
, . .

ev idence that l en se s w ere u sed at th is early date fo r

magnifyi ng p urpo ses b ut i n stead o f th em gla s s globe s
, , ,

fi lled with water wh i ch S e neca al l udes to we re employed

, , .

I t i s no t u nti l th e sev e nteenth centu ry that w e fin d

powerful niag n ifie rs o f gl ass actually em ployed for ,

scientifi c i nvestigation Mo st o f th e mag n ifiers used by .

th e early obse rve rs w ere mi nute Si ngl e l enses o f gl ass ,

Ofte n sm al l sph eres fo rm ed by m elti ng th read s o f gl ass .

Th e smal l singl e l e nses o f high powe r are usual ly plano

co nvex the pl an e side to w ar d th e Obj ect Upo n D avi d
, .

Brewste r s suggestion l en ses we re g ro u nd by P ete r Hi l l

’
, ,

a skil lful opti cia n Of E di nbu rgh and by P ritchard o f , ,

Londo n o f garnet sapph i re an d diamo nd

, , .

Som e y p c T co t Ob h
ag o t w o O ti ian s o f P aris ,
ear s l d
re u r an d e r au s e r, ai
b fo
e A c d my l
re th e P ari sian a e d mo d pph
e n s e s o f th e by
ia n , sa ire an d r u ,

h ch
w i d co ct o
w e re u s e i n th gl l
nne i n wi m c o cop th y
as s en s es in ir s es , b u t e
dv t g ov gl
had n o a an a e l tt f om D v d B
er as s A e er r t l t ly
. ai re w s er, ae pub
xpl
l ished , e c f l y
ain s t h e au s e o f the aiu r e He s a s o f his o w n e e ri en ,
xp m t .

abov m t o d
e en i n e : mo d b fo
“
Th e dia ok d
n , e re it w as w r e , h ad al l the ap

p e ara n t l b l cy
ce o f in e rn a ft b g pol h d p
ril ian ; b u t , a er eid n is e , it r ese n te as eries

t tfi d h
o f s ra i e s ah ch d d l q d p po I
d e s , w i ren ere it u se e s s f o r the re uire ur se .

t d l d th t l p d
af e rw ar s earn e cq t d th th pp
a a i arie s w ere a u ain e w i c is a earan e,
ll g t k k th m lv
an d w ere u n w i in t o a e the ris o n c tt g d mo d
e se es o f u in u p ia n s
194 H AND B O OK -
F OR O PT ICIANS .

Th e garnet l en s w as fo un d su pe ri o r to al l oth e rs b e ,

i ng fre e fro m doubl e r efractio n an d e ve n su p e rio r t o ,

gl ass Brewste r al so i nven ted a v e y

.
r po w e rfu l S ingl e
m icro scope k now n a s t he C o d d in g to n L en s wh ich con
,
,

sists o f a sph ere with a de ep co ncav e gro ov e p u t aroun d

it and blacken ed s o as to sh ut O ff th e m a rg in a l pencil s
,

of light th u s givi ng a w ide r fi el d an d a m o r e p e rfect

,

i m age o f th e obj ect I n th e Stan hop e L en s t he cu rva

. ,
.

t ures are u neq ual b ut its m agn i fyin g powe r is so stron g

,

that a drop o f wate r m ay b e ex am in ed by app ly i ng it to

the l ess co nv ex o r pl an e su rface
,
.

I n th e co n st r uctio n and use o f l en s es t w o great di th

c u l tie s present th em sel ves I t i s p racti cal ly al m ost im
.

possibl e to m ake sm al l l en ses w i th a ny oth er than

sph erical cu rv e s a nd u nfo rtu n ately Si m pl e sph erical
,

l en ses do not b r i n g the r ays to a p erfect a n d e xact focus .

I f it were possibl e to con struct l e n ses w ith el lipti cal or

hype rboli c curv es the sph e ri ca l abe rrat io n wo ul d be
,

avoi ded ; b ut eve n th e n si nc e th e d i ffere nt rays o f the ,

spect r u m are refracted d iffe re ntly th e focal l ength for ,

red l ight f o r i nstan ce woul d b e g r eater than f o r blue

, , ,

an d it wou ld b e i m possibl e t o obtai n a sh arp i m age free

f ro m ch ro m ati c ab e rrati o n I n o rd er t o ov erco m e these .

d ifficult ies d ou bl et a n d tr ip l et l e n ses w e re i nv ented and

,

i ntrod uced wh i ch l ed grad ually t o sti l l greater combi

,

natio n s ti l l th e s i m pl e m i croscope w as t ran sfo rm ed i nto

,

a comp ou n d o ne n o w th e o nly i n stru m e nt u sed f o r m i nute

,

researches Th e th eo reti cal a nd practi cal d iffi culties

.

that had to b e ove rco m e i n d ev el opi ng th e b est mo d ern

com pou n d m i croscope fro m its e m b ryo n i c co ndition
w ere so great that u nti l w ithi n th e last sev enty five
,
-

years the ve ry possibi lity o f s uccess w as do ubted by

,

th e h igh est autho rities i n Optical sci e n ce .

pt c l p po
f or O i a ur s es . m t x m to
On a in u e e a in a i n o f th ph om ois en en n , i t
pp
a eare d th t th
a e se d t h d occ
iff e ren s a e s u rred g l t t ch ct o
in re u ar s ra a, e a se i n
b g bo t
ein a u t h e o n e u n re h d dth p t
-
ch t t m
ar o f an in ch , an d e a s ra u haVI n g
d
a iff ere nt foc u s , an d ei n b g d
o f a iff eren td g h d
e re e o f p c fic
ar n e s s an d s e i
g v ty
ra i . f
The in eren es raw n r c d f om
th e a bov f ct
e th t
a s w ere : a t h e dia
mo dn vg t bl b t c
w as a e e a e s u s an e , an d th t p t m t h v b
a its ar s us h ld
a e e e n e in
sol t o
u i n an d s u bj e e ct d to d f
if ere n t d g
e r ees o fp t
re s s u re at t he d iff eren
g x t c
s ta e s o f e is en e I , on th e n rar , it w as o f in era rigin as is
.
f co t y m l o
g lly b l v d
en era e ie e , i t w u o ld
b e su j e b ct l c y t ll z t o n
t o the aw s o f r s a i ai an d
c y t l o ld
its r s a s w u c
n e es s ari bely homog o t t d
en e u s an d n o t s r a ifie
.
 196 H AN D B O OK FO R OP T I C IANS
- .

A lmo st ev e ry i nv e nto r an d sci e nti fic d i s co v e r er has

l ai d clai m o n o u r dexte r ity to ex e cute h i s id e a ; V\ Olla s
to n cam e with his camer a l u c id a Wh eatsto n e w ith his
cam
,

s ter eos c o e D ague rre w ith hi s p ho tog r a p h ic era

p , ,

F a raday with h i s el ectr ic machin es Mo rs e With his tele ,

g pr a hi c a
pp l ian ces Ki r ch hoff
,
an d Bu n se n W ith the ir

w it h it s p o l ar is cop e
. .

s e ctr os co e
p p th
,
e S ugar I n dustry -
,

Hel mho l tz with h i s op hthal mos cop e an d th e Oculists

with th ei r co mp ou n d l en s es I n deed w e h av e to mak e .
,

i n st r um e nt s fo r E l ectric ian s S u rv eyo rs N avigato rs , , ,

A strono m e r s Che m i sts P hysici s t s Meteo r ologi s ts ; etc ;

, , , .

but it i s o n ly w ith i n th e la st ce ntu ry th at o u r t rade has

rise n to that g reat p rom i n e n c e it o cc upi es t o day W e -
.

are n o w a n i n disp en sabl e facto r i n sci entifi c pursuit s ,

and fu r n ish i n stru m ents n o t o nly th e m o st s cientific

, ,

b ut al so th e m ost u seful ev e r o ffe r ed t o b en efit th e worl d .

We h av e r easo n t o b e p ro ud Of o u r achi eve m e nt but w e ,

m ust n o t fo rget that w e w e re m e rely th e tool s exe ,

euting th e o rde rs Of sci e nti sts w ho di d m ost o f th e brai n ,

work f o r u s an d th at w e h av e n o t m any Opti cians lik e

F r au n hofer an d C has A Sp en cer t o bo ast o f
. .
, .

Th e spectacl e bu si n ess advan ce d co n si de rably after the

ocul ists detected th e a sy m m etrical refracti o n of the
co rn ea cal l ed As tig matis m Th o s You n g o f Englan d
, . .
, ,

m ad e th e fi rst studi e s i n astigm at is m i n 17 93 b ut it w as ,

l ittl e noti ced by h i s co ntem pora r i e s I t w as o n ly after .

Do nde r s Hel m h oltz G r aefe Java ] Knapp a n d others

, , , , , ,

m o re tha n fifty years aft e r wa r ds i nv esti gat e d it and ex ,

plai n ed th e m ethod o f its co r r ectio n by m ean s o f cyl in

d r ical l ens es th at i t was gen e ral ly u n de rstoo d Th e manu
, .

factu r e o f s uch cyl l e n s es with al l th ei r co mb in ations

.
,

and especi al ly th ei r cor r ec t settin g w as a n e w dep arture ,

i n o u r trad e and m any Opti ci an s w e r e co n s i d erably

,

t roubled befo re th ey ful ly m aste re d th e d iflic u l ties in

con n ection with thi s m o st de l icate co rre cti ng m ed iu m in
t he s hap e o f s ectacl es
p A co m p eten t o pt i ci a n
fall ing asleep l ike R ip Van W
.
o f 186 0 ,
in k l e an d awak e n i n g
t o day , -
,
coul d not fil l th e si m pl e st o rd e r o f an o c ul i st b ut wo ul d ,
have to l earn h i s trade ov e r agai n .

A s long as th e sel e ctio n o f sp e ctacl e s was l eft t o the

optici an s th ey co nte nt e d th e m se l v e s w ith th e co rrection
’

,
 G RA DU A L D EVEL O PM ENT OF T H E OPT ICA L T RADE . 197

of a l im ited n u mbe r o f d efects an d d eclared th e rem ai n

,

der incurable Th ey d id n ot k now th e n atu re o f irre g u

.

l arit ie s s uch as Hyperm et ropia o r A stigmat ism

, and .

were the refo re total ly i n th e dark about th e i r corree

, ,

tion Oculists fo rm e rly co nsidered it b en eath th ei r dig

.

ni ty to con ce rn th em selve s w ith spectacl es and afte r ,

they had resto red th e i nj ured o r s uffe ri ng ey e to a

h ealthy state th ey tu rn ed the p ati ent ove r to an optician
,

for th e p rop e r selectio n o f glasses un co ncer n ed whether ,

his s electio n was a good o r bad one I t i s o n ly si nce .

p romine nt o cul ists i nvestigated such “ i ncu r abl e cases ,

that th ey ca n b e tho rough ly co rrected by spectacl es .

A ltho ugh they are m an ufactu red by opticians th e c redit ,

of thei r be neficial action b elongs to those em in ent ex

l o who grad ual ly w r e nched th eir s election f r o mthe
p re rs

hands of m ostly i nd iffe rent m echani cs who d estitute o f , ,

the necessa ry scientific education h ave to co ntent th em ,

se l ves at present with a seco nda ry position unde r the

leade rship of th e o cul ists The re i s no blam e attach ed
.
.

to o u r p resent position as it i s not at al l a step backward

, .

On the co nt rary th e s t anda rd of o u r t rade has advan ced

,

conside rably but it h as not kept step w ith th e gigant i c

,

p ro g re s s o f Ophthal mology whi ch has no equal i n m edical

,

histo ry I n th e l ast thi rty years Ophthal mology and

.

gene ral S u rgery have becom e exact sci en ces whi le th e ,

r est of m edici ne i s yet f o r th e m ost part em pi rical as was ,

the c ase with o ur m echan ical and h ap haza rd m an ne r -

of sel ecting spectacl es wh e n th e patie nt was the prin

,

ci p a l j udge o f thei r co rrect ness .

Th e selectio n o f spectacl es i n co m pl icated cases i s no w

extensively practiced b y o cul ists wh o are as physicians , , ,

qualified to p rep ar e the eye f o r a tho ro ugh exam i nation .

A ny optic ian tam pe ri ng with the eyes o f an easi ly

,

frightened custom e r m ay cause hi m self g reat trouble if

,

h e cann ot legally a t tach to h i s nam e an M D O nly . .

cases of si m pl e p re s byopi a m ani fest myopi a hy p e rme

, ,

t ropia and so m e cases o f astigm ati sm m ay b e p rope r ly

, ,

i nvestigated by a n opti cian b ecause th e oth e r an d m ore

,

compli cated e rro rs o f r ef ract io n req ui re that t he ci liary

m uscl e b e tem pora ri ly pa ralyzed b y a my d riatic an d
. ,

that i n thi s st ate o f th e ey e accu rate an d r epeate d

198 HAND -
B O OK F OR O PT ICIANS .

measurem ents b e m ad e w ith test typ e s an d t ria “l l enses -

Exam
.

S igns i n th e wi ndo ws o f opti cian s w hi ch rea d : i

natio n o f th e eyes m ade fre e o f ch arge , sm ack of

quackery and shoul d b e re m ov ed
,
.

If I al lude b r i efly t o th e p a r t A m e ri ca h as take n

no w , ,

i n th e general dev elop m ent o f th e Opti ca l t ra d e I hav e ,

to d ra w the attentio n o f th e read er t o th e w ell kno w n

fact that w e had d uri ng th e colo ni al ti m e n o i ndustry
wo rth m entio n i ng ; w e si m ply ex ch anged o u r natural
an d agricul tura l p rod ucts fo r E ngl i sh manufacture s )
. .

O ptica l good s w ere stil l i m po rted fro m E u rop e long afte r

th e establ i sh m e nt o f o u r poli tical i ndepen den cy f ro m
Englan d — Th e fi rst o n e m e ntion ed i n t hi s respect is
.

Godfrey w ho w as afte r al l n o opti cia n b ut a glaz ier ;

, , ,

h e i nv ented th e sextant He was o f P h ilad elphia (f o r .

m any y ears the headquarters o f o u r sl o wly d evelopin g

optical i nd ust ry ) ; s o w as R itten house McAl l ist er , ,

Queen S axto n Z e n t may e r etc Oth er state s soon fol

, , , .

lo wed in th e pat h P e n n syl van i a h ad so ab ly opene d ;

esp ecial ly N ew Yo r k w ith a fai r l i n e o f Optici an s and
,

i nv ento rs li ke F itz Wal es Grun o w S pe n ce r Drape r

, , , , , ,

P re ntice F as o l d t etc Massach usetts wa s co n spicuously

, , .

rep resented by To l l e s an d A l v an C l a r k ; eve n a S o uther n

state by R idd el l A t prese nt nea rl y ev e ry state can
.

boast o f so m e co mpete nt Opti ci an s S i n c e th e l ast t w enty .

years we m a nu factu re al l f ra m e s f o r s pectacl es an d eye

g lasse s a nd al so h av e com m en ced l ately to g ri nd o ur
,

o w n l en ses ; I m entio n i n thi s resp ect Bau sch Lo mb ,

in R och este r an d th e A m e r ica n Optical CO i n S outh

, .

bridge .

We m ust b ear i n m i nd that w h e n w e co m e t o a great

m a n who di scove rs o r l ays dow n n e w l aw s th ere has ,

al ways b een a n u m be r o f l ess k now n o b s erv e rs w ho hav e

col lected th e facts fro mwh ich h e h as fo rm ed h i s con
elu sio n s E v ery civi l ized co un try co ntri b utes its share
.

to th e developm e nt o f s ci en ce ; w e m ay th e r efo re say , ,

that sci en ce is i nte rnati o nal I ts ach i ev e m e nts a re Open .

t o th e wo rld at l arge and th e readi n ess w i th w h i ch any

,

natio n accepts and i ntrod uce s th e m sh o w s its av erage

i ntel ligen ce A sup erfici al co m pari son O f th e m o st pro m
.
2 00 H AN D BOO K F O R O PT I C I AN S
- .

t uri ng le nses f o r an i m m e n se va r i ety o f ap p l l cat l o n

for spectacl es mag nifie rs te lescop e a n d m ic ro scop e eye
, ,

pieces co nden sers m agic lante r n a nd ste reopt ico n l enses

, , ,

an d obj ectives f o r cam eras op e ra an d fi el d gl asses and ,

ast r onom i cal tel escop es ; f o r p ri s m s f o r spectro scopes ,

and oth e r appa r at us F o r al l th es e va r ied u ses it m ust

.

b e r eadi ly seen that a g reat quan tity o f gl ass is requ ired .

Mill io n s of spectacles ar e m ade ev e r y yea r Wh il e with , ,

th e sp r ead o f the am ateu r ph otog raph i c c raz e the man ,

u f ac t u re o f photograph ic Obj ectives h as assu m ed large

propo rtio ns I n v ie w o f th ese co n si de ra tion s it is

.
,

sca r cely su rpri si ng that th e total q uanti ty o f optical

gl ass an nual l y p r od uced i n th e wo rl d a mo u nts p robably
, ,

to sev e ra l tho usan d to ns ; a fai r p ropo rtion o f this is

used i n th e United S tates p e rhap s o ve r 50 0 to ns a year
—
.

Unti l recently no atte mpt w as m ade to m anufacture

opti cal glass i n th is co untry F o r thi s so m ewh at strange .

state o f affairs two r easo ns m ay b e assi gn ed : fi rst the ,

m anufacture r s o f gl ass i n th i s co u ntry di d not seem to

real iz e th e i m po rta nce o f th i s b ran ch o f i ndust ry ,

an d b ei n g d iscou raged by fail u r es i n a f e w exp e r i ments

,

m ade did not p ursue th e subj ect ; a nd s econ dly b ecause

, , ,

th e pro cesses i n E u rop e w ere la rgely se c r et .

Th e i n d ust ry o f optical gl ass m aki ng was fo u nded by

F G u in and who b egan by m aki ng so m e s m all discs f or
.
,

h i s own u se and afte r h e h ad j oi n ed F ra u n hofe r went

, , ,

i nto th e m an ufact u r e o n a la rger s ca l e Th e sec rets of .

h is p rocess h av e bee n h an ded dow n i n th e fam ily which ,

settl ed i n F ran ce abo ut 182 8 I n 184 8 th e glass making

, .
,

fi rm o f C han ce Co Bi rm i ngh a m E nglan d became

.
, , ,

p ossessed o f the secrets a nd si nc e th e n h av e carried on

,

th e m an ufacture o f optica l glass o n a l a rge s cal e i n ad

d itio n to th ei r oth er l i nes .

I n 1881 th e p rob l em was tak e n up i n Ge rm any by

,

Dr Otto S ch ott and Dr E A bb e

.
Dr S ch ott m ade
. . . .

exp e r im ental fusions o n a sm a l l scal e wh i l e Dr A bbe , .

m ade th e Optical exam i natio n o f th e r esults by m eans of

spectro m etri c m easurem ents Th e obj ect o f th is research .

w as to i n vestigate th e ch e mi cal p ri n cipl e s d ete rm i ning

the indices o f refractio n a nd d i spe rsio n Th e d i fferent .

ki nds of glass th e n p rod uced possessed n o g re at v ariety

 G RA DU A L D EV EL O PM EN T O F TH E O PT ICA L T RAD E . 20 1

of d ispersio n and refraction a nd the o riginal p u rpose , of

the German i nvestigati o n was m e r ely to el ucidate th e

p ri nciples by w hi ch a greater range i n these constants
m ight be secured I n l ess than a year results had been
.

obtained as to th e specific effect o f ce rtai n substances ,

which opened u p th e po s sibil ity o f obtai ni ng n ew ki nds

of glass possessi ng supe rior qual iti es fo r so m e p urposes
,

to those o f the o rdi nary c rown s and fiint s .

I n o rde r to p ut th ese r es ults o n a practi cal basis it ,

was d ecided to purs ue the expe r i ments o n a large r scal e ,

and f o r this pu rpose a l abo rato ry w as establ ish ed at Jena ,

Ge rmany wh e re expe ri m e nts we r e co nd u cted unti l th e

,

a u tum n O f 1883 wh e n th e th eo retical wo rk was at an

,

end th e r es ult desi red havi ng b ee n obtai ned by the

,

patient and labo rio us analytic and sy nthetic researches

o f th ese i nvestigato rs But at th e sol icitatio n o f seve ral
.

well kno w n optician s it was decided that they should go

-
,

o n and u nde rtake the ma n ufactu r e o n a co m m e r ci al basis .

A glass facto ry was acco rdi ngly b u ilt and i n 1885 put ,

i n ope ratio n I n th e e rection and m ai nte nance o f these

.

wo rks as wel l as in th e p rel i m ina ry i nvestigation i ndis

, ,

p e n s i
b l e assi stance was affo rd ed by r epeated and l ibe r al

gove rnm ent subsi dies .

S ince then th i s co ncern has b een fu rn ishi ng l a rge

q uantities o f optical glass to al l pa rts Of th e wo rld m uch ,

of it co mi ng to th i s cou nt ry By th e ca reful a nd seien .

ti fic m ethod em ployed it i s now po ssibl e to p roduce ,

glass o f any desi red Optical p rope rti es and with a great ,

variety of physi ca l p rope rties U n til rece ntly these .

three co ncerns i n F ran ce i n Englan d a nd i n Ge r m a n y

, , ,

h ave bee n th e p ri ncipal p rod u cers o f Optical glass But .

si nce 1892 sev e ra l parti es h ere have co m m enced to man

,

u f act u re opti cal gl ass u nde r what w e re co nsidered favo r

abl e co nditio ns One co nce r n of Lancaster Ohio who

. , ,

p retended to b e practi cal m en h avi ng b een con nected

~
,

with th e noted P a ris m anufactu re rs o f Opti cal stock ,

fail ed b efore anyth i ng desi rabl e was m a n ufactured .

A noth e r fi rm G eo A Macbeth ,
Co .Of P ittsbu rgh
.
.
, ,

Pa sta rted a facto ry at El lwood I nd

.
,
i n ch a rge of M r , .
,
.

F eil a d i stant relatio n of G uin and ; b ut th ey also fai led

,

to p roduce l e ns stock u p to date .

20 2 H AND BO OK F O R OPT ICIAN S
- .

I wo ul d suggest th at i n th e ev ent any furth e r e s of

,

t ab l is hme nt s bei ng thought o f th e proj e ctors sh o ul d turn ,

th ei r eyes to Germ any i n stead o f F ran ce f o r ass ista nce .

The r e can be n o do ubt b ut that th e pai n stak ing an al yt i

m
,

cal m ethods em pl oye d by Dr S chott are u ch mo re .

likely t o furni sh a bett er fo u ndatio n o n w h ich t o bu ild

up an art th an th e tradition al a nd l argely m an ual m ethod s
by oth er establ ish m e nts A m e ri ca h as al l th e m aterial
.

t o p ro duce th e b est opti ca l gl ass an d h as b esi des the ,

advantage o f n atu ra l gas f o r fu el so th at w e sho ul d not ,

o nly m an ufactu re f o r o u r o w n d em and b ut b e al so able ,

t o m ak e it f o r th e rest o f th e wo rld .

DI FFEREN T N AM ES F OR S PEC T AC L E S .

Th e E nglish word Sp ectacl es i s th e pl u ral form of

sp ectacl e which i s de r i ved fro m th e L ati n nou n Sp ecta
,

cu l u m , a sight a sho w a nd i s fo r m ed fro m the

, ,

ve r b sp ectar e to loo k at ; to b eh o ld
, .

Th e F r e n ch wo rd L u n ettes i s al so th e pl u ral Of l unette ,

“ ”
which m ean s a l ittle moon a m oo n l et refe rri ng t o , ,

th e rou nd shape o f spect acl e l e n se s .

Th e Ge rm an word B rill e l i k e th e Du tch B r il and the , ,

Dan i sh B r ill er i s d erived fro m Be ryl a t ran spa rent

, ,

green bl u ish m i n eral cal l ed by th e j e wele rs A qu a Marine

-
, .

I n fo rm er years peopl e i n Ge r m an y cal l ed al l colo red

glass B e ry l l e an d as a great m any sp ecta cl es e sp ecially
, ,

those wo r n f o r fash io n s sak e w e r e set with pl ai n co lored

’
,

gl asses th is o pti cal i n st r um e nt re ceiv ed i ts n am e

,

from that m i ne r al Th e Lati n n a m e for i t i s b er rill u s

.
,

t he f u n dam ental id ea o f wh i ch d e note s a sh i n i ng or

spa rkl ing m i ne ral s ubsta n ce a c rysta l o r cry stal like ,
-

glass Th e n ou n b r ill ian t n o w u sed o n ly i n referen ce

.
,

t o diam onds i s de rived th ro u gh th e m ed iu m o f the

,

F r en ch wo rd br ill er to sh i n e to glitte r to sparkl e

, , ,

(presen t pa rtici pl e b ril l iant

), .

I tal ians say Occhial i; o cchio ey e .

S pani ards say An te oj os an te b efore o j o ey e

,
’

, .

P o rtug u ese s ay Ocu l os ey e s , .

Mod e rn G reek s say D iop tr es .

 C H AP T E R X X VII

P RO M INEN T OPT ICIANS SC I EN T l ST S AND I NVEN TO R S

,
.

I t is comm d t o n o f
th e en a i a good h un s an t m to fin d
g m d ood
a e in a w i e w ,
b u t it is n o i mp tation u

c ght al l
if h e h as n o t au . PL AT O .

Airy Geo , . B .
,
a n Engl i sh astro nom er
(180 1— 92
) ,

fi rst at Cam b ridge a n d si n ce 183 5 at th e G reen ,

w ich Obse r vato ry He h ad th e reputatio n o f b ei ng o ne

.

o f th e m ost ab l e an d i n defati gab l e s cie nt ists H is im .

port ant contrib utio n s to astro no m y m agn eti sm m eteor , ,

o logy an d other sci en ces are contai n ed i n l eading cyclo

,

p edias and i n th e a nn al s o f l ea rn ed so ci eti es He i ntro .

d u c e d several n ew astronom i cal i n stru m ents am ong ,

th em th e w ate r tel escope th e tra nsit ci r cl e an d th e large

-
,
-
,

equ ato rial erected fro m h i s p lan s i n 1859 He publ ished .

,

1851 “ S i x L ect u r es o n A stro no my

, i n 186 6 “ Th e ,

Un dul ato ry Th eo ry o f Opti cs ; i n 86 1 9 “ On A tmo ,

sphe r ic Ch rom atic Di spe rsio n etc H e m ad e m any re

”
, .

search es in physics an d optics a nd i s th e i nventor o f ,

cyl i ndri cal l en ses fo r the correcti o n o f astigm ati sm .

Al haz en A b u A l i (d i ed
, at Cai ro Egypt ) was a
10 3 8 , ,

great m ath em ati ci an a nd th e fi rst n otab l e di scov ere r i n

,

optics afte r th e ti m e Of P to l e my T o hi m i s du e the .

expl an atio n o f t he appare nt i n creas e o f h eav e n ly bod ies

n ear th e h o rizo n ; h e al so t aught th at v i sio n doe s not
result f ro m th e e m issio n o f r ays fro m th e ey e wh ich ,

was th e fav or ite th eory f o r m any centu ri es b efore and

after hi m H e wrote a boo k o n th e ref r actio n o f l ight
.

especially o n at mosph eri c refractio n sh ow i ng th e cause

,

o f m o r ni ng an d e ven ing tw i l ight O nly t w o o f h i s works.

“ ”
h ave b een p ri nted h i s Treatise o n Twilight an d hi s
, ,
“ Th esaurus O t i ”
o r co ll ectio n o f opti ca l fa cts
p ca e , .
 O PT I C IAN S , S C IEN T I ST S AN D INVEN TO R S . 205

A mici G B (17 84
, . a cel eb rated Optici an an d
.

astrono m er at Moden a I taly ; co nstructed th e b est re

,

fl e ct o rs an d greatly i m prov ed ach ro m ati c m ic ro scopes .

He i nv ented an d pe rfected al so diffe r e nt ki n d s of cam era

l ucida f o r d rawi ng pu rposes .

A rago D F (17 86
, . cel eb rated F re nch physi
.

cist ; discovered th e colored ri ngs of crystallized pl ates

i n pol arized l ight Upo n thi s discovery i s b ased th e
.

“
pri ncipl e o f th e pol arize r f o r testi ng pebbl es .

Ar chimed es B (
th e m ost cel eb rated
2 87 2 12-
.

ancient m ath e m ati ci an ; i nv ented th e hol lo w Archim

“
”
edes S crew a m ach i n e f o r raisi ng water He d is co v
’
, .

ered the p rob l e mth at a so l id body i m me r sed i n water , ,

loses so m uch o f its weight as th e w ate r wo u ld weigh

wh ich i s re moved by th e body (speci fic g rav ity ) I n .

defendi ng hi s n ati ve city S y racuse (S icily ) agai nst the

, ,

Ro man fleet u nde r the co m ma nd o f Ma rcel lus h e i s said ,

to have m ade u se o f po w e rful bu rni ng m i rrors .

Argan d A (17 50, a S wi ss ch em ist ; i n ve nted

.
,

17 82 a l a mp cal led afte r h i m sel f

, Th e wick has th e .

form o f a hol lo w cy li nder th roug h wh ich a cu r rent Of ,

air asce nds s o that th e supply o f oxyge n i s i n c r eased

, .

This co ntri van ce preve nted th e w aste o f carbo n wh ich ,

i n the Ol d l amp s e scaped i n the fo rm o f sm oke and it ,

greatly i nc reased th e am o un t o f l ight He al so added .

th e gl ass chi m n ey by wh i ch a draft is created an d th e

,

flam e re ndere d mo re steady .

B acon , R oge r stud ied at Ox ford an d P aris

(12 14 ,

where h e rece iv ed th e d egree o f Do cto r o f Th eology .

A fter h i s retu rn t o Eng l and h e accepted a p rofessorshi p

i n th e Un i versity o f Ox fo rd He re h e j oi ned the b roth .

e rho o d o f th e F ran ciscan s and was term ed by h is broth ,

”
er m o n ks Do cto r Mi rabi li s
“ His sci ence and phi .

l Os o p hy was a l m ost u niversal em b racing Math ematics , ,

Mechan ics Opti cs A stro n om y etc He m ade m any

, , , .

discoveri es o r h ad so m e k no wl edg e o f th e most rem ark

,

abl e i nv e n tio n s wh i ch w ere m ade k nown soo n

afterwar d s Hi s pri n ci pal wo rk Opu s Maj us was
.
“
, ,
206 H AND BO OK F O R
- O PT ICIANS .

add ressed to P op e C l em ent I V (12 6 5 w ho was

form erly Legate to E ngl and a n d who ad m ir ed th e tal ents ,

o f th e l ea r ned m on k an d piti ed himfo r th e p e rse cut ion

,

to wh ich h e w as exposed Th e i n fl ue n ce o f Baco n upon .

h is contem po r aries w as not great ; h e w as s uspecte d of

magic and w as pl aced sev e ral ti m es i n clo s e co n fi ne m ent
i n co n seq uen ce o f thi s ch arge o n ce fo r t e n co n sec utive ,

years (12 6 8
B ar l o w , E dwa r d (163 9 17 19 an Engli sh m e ch an ician , -

i nv ented , 16 7 6 , th e rep eati ng clo ck an d w atch .

B au mé , A ntoi n e (17 2 8 a F re n ch che m ist His .

areo m ete r al so cal led acco rdi ng to its app l icatio n s hydro
,

m eter saccharo m et er etc m ade h i m w idely k no wn It

, , .
, .

i s sti ll i n u se f o r m easurin g th e sp ecific grav ity o r de nsity

O f di fferent l i qui ds h eav i e r o r lighte r th a n w ate r .

B au s ch , J J bo r n 183 0 i n G ross S ussen Wu rt é mb erg

.
, ,

learn e d th e o ptical t r ade i n Ge rm any a nd e m igrated to ,

A m erica i n 184 9 H e ope n ed 1854 a retai l Optical

.
, ,

sto re i n R och este r N Y w h e n H Lo m b also a

, . .
, .
,

Germ an becam e as s o ci ate d with him al though h e was

, ,

not a n Optici an by t rade ; th ey no w bega n to manu f ac

t ure rubb er eyeglasses Wh e n th e war b ro ke o u t he .
,

en l isted i n th e federal army w h i l e Lo mb att e nd ed to ,

the b usi n ess I n 186 6 th e fi rm Ba usch Lom b was

.
,
“
change d to Vul can ite Opti ca l I n stru m e nt with
Bausch as superi nte ndent an d Lom b as b u si ness m anager , .

“ ”
Th e wel l k no w n Bausch ad j u st ib l e eyeglass h avi ng a
-

spri ng nose pi ece loose at o n e e nd was i nv e nted early in

-
,

the histo ry o f th e co n ce rn a n d co ntrib uted m u ch to the ,

gro wth o f th e b usi n ess I n 187 6 h e b ought up the .

,

i nte rest o f the I ndia R ubb e r Co i n th e b usi nes s and .

,

adopted th e present nam e o f th e firm “ Bau sch Lomb

,

”
Opti cal Co — I n th e m an ufactu re o f ey egl asses they
.

have b ee n p io n eers an d l ead ers A t th e ti m e th ey be gan .

to m ak e these goods th e r e w e re o nly t w o s m al l sh o ps in

,

the country p rod ucing ho rn ey egl as ses w i th b ig roun d ,

ey es B
. L not o nly i ntro d u ced th e rubb e r ey egl asses
. .

,
b ut al so changed the ro u nd fo rm i nto th e o v al ; they
208 H AND B O O K F O R O PT I CIAN S
- .

tention t o hi s tryi ng d uti es h e w as advi s e d to gi ve up ,

h is vo cation o n acco unt o f l ung t roub l e an d t o seek ,

reli ef i n a w arm e r cl i m at e He th erefo r e e m igrated .

, ,

to N ew Orlean s i n 1852 w h e re h e l ea rn e d th e watch ,

“V
mak e r s t rad e I n 1857 h e o p e n ed a sto re a s
’
Vatch
b ut si n ce 186 8 h as d evoted most
.
,

m ake r an d Opticia n
o f h is ti m e t o th e Opti cal b r an ch o f h i s busi n ess e specially ,

to th e study o f Opti cal sc i e nce I n 1888 h e v e ntu red to . ,

publi sh a “ Hand Book f o r Opti cia n s w hi ch w as so

-
,

ki n dly a nd favo r abl y r eceiv ed by t h e p ub l i c that in ,

1892 a se co n d an d en la rged editio n w as n e cessitated

,
.

These an d sub seq ue nt p ubl i catio ns i n d i ffe re nt trade

pap ers h av e en rol l ed th e a utho r s n a m e a m o ng th e pop a ’

l ar w rite rs o n Opti cal s ubj ects .

B ou l to n , Matth ew (17 2 8 a s k i l lful English

m ach i ni st ; i n h e rited fro m h i s fath e r a n e xt e n si ve steel
m a n ufactory wh i ch h e changed i nto a m an ufactory of
,

steam engi n es afte r h e h ad asso ci ate d hi m sel f with the

,
.

pen n il ess optician Ja m es Watt Th e i m p rove m e nts of

, .

stea m engi nes w ere th e j oi nt effo rts o f both although ,

th ey are now chiefly c redite d to th e g e n i us o f th e l atter .

B r ad l ey , Jam es (16 92 a n e m i n e nt English

astro no m e r was 17 2 1 appo i nted p rofe sso r o f astro nomy
,

at Ox ford I n 17 2 7 h e a n no u n ce d th e i mpo rtant dis

.
,

c ov e ry o f th e ab e rrati o n o f l ight w h ich se rve s to demo n ,

strate the e arth s m otion a r o u nd th e s u n I n 174 1 he

’
.
,

b ecam e th e s u ccessor o f Hal ley at th e Obse rvatory of

Green wich His g r eatest d isco ve ry was i n 184 7 he
.

fou nd that th e rel atio n Of th e earth s a xi s t o th e e clipti c ’

i s n o t con stant a fact wh ich e xplai n ed th e p r e cessio n of

,

th e equ i no xes a nd the n utatio n o f th e ea rth s a xi s Thi s ’

.

di scovery fo r m s an i m po rtant epo ch i n astro no my .

B r amah , Jo s a n Engl i sh m e chanic ;

.
(17 4 8
i nvented (17 95 ) th e hyd rostatic p re ss ; amac hin e f o r oh
tain i ng a n e norm ous p ressu re th ro ugh th e m e d i u m of
water .

B r an d t Ge o a S we d i (1
sh6 94
ch e m i st and
, :
m i neralog ist ; d isco ve red 17 3 3 th e metal C obalt no w so , ,
,
e xten sively u sed i n the m an ufactu re o f b l u e l e ns es .
 O PT I C IAN S , S C IEN T I ST S AN D INVEN TO R S . 2 09

B re
g u et , A L (17 4 7
. cel.eb rated F r en ch m ech

anic m ade m any i m po r t ant i nv e ntio ns i n watch m aki ng

,

as wel l as i n physi cs H e i nv e nted the m etal therm o .

m eter whi ch co n sists o f a thi n stri p o f m etal com posed ,

of th ree layers o f sil ve r gol d and pl ati n um Thi s

, , .

strip is cu rl ed up i nto a h el ix the si lve r b ei ng o ute r most , .

A s th e te mpe rat u r e r ises th e si l ve r expands mo r e than th e

gol d and the gol d m o re than the pl ati n u m and th e hel ix ,

coils i t self up ; in lo wer te m pe rat u re it acts th e opposite .

The end of th e h el i x ca rr ies an i ndex by wh ich i ts rota

tion is m ade m a ni fest .

B re ip
sir ofesso r at Danzig P r ussi a i nvented th e
g , , ,

pano ram a Th e fi rst publ ic exhibitio n was m ade 17 87

.
, ,

i n Edi nb u rgh by R ob e rt P a rke r

,
.

B r ew s ter , Sir cel eb r ated Engli sh

Davi d (17 81
physi cist ; m ade g reat di scove r i es i n th e polarization of
light and i n do u bl e ref raction O f c rystal s ; i nv ented 1816 , ,
”
the kal eidoscop e an d desc ribed th e C oddingto n l en s
“
, .

“ ”
I n 183 2 h e p ubl i sh ed h i s
,
Treati se o n Optics w rote ,

“
m any val uabl e a rticles f o r th e E n cyclop aedia B ritan
“
n ica and was o n e of th e last defe nde r s O the e m issio n
,
f
theo ry ”
He is cal led th e F ath e r o f Mode rn Ex p eri
.
“
”
m enta l Optics .

B u n sen , R . W
w as bo r n 1811 p rofesso r O f chem ist ry
.
, ,

i n Ge r m any ; i nv e nted a b u r n e r wh i ch b ears h is nam e .

I n 186 0 h e i nv ented th e m agnesi u m l ight which ha s

p roved so i mpo rtant i n photog raphy The g reatest dis .

co v e ry with whi ch hi s n am e i s asso ci ated i s that of th e ,

”
“ spect r u m a n alysi s made i n co nj u n ctio n w ith h is
,

friend Ki rch hoff whi ch h as b ee n th e m eans O f _wo rki ng

, ,

so m a ny wo nde r s i n ch e m istry and r ev eal ing so m uch to ,

a s t ronom e rs .

C el s iu s A C (17 0 1,
. a noted S wedish ast ro n o
.

me r ; d ivi de d th e scal e of th e th ermom ete r i nto o n e h un

d red equa l p arts f ro m th e freezing poi nt of water to its
,

b oil ing po i nt i n oppo sitio n to R eau m u r an d F ah r enh eit

,
.

C hev al ier , i nherited 1859 th e

A rthu r bo rn ,
1830 ; , ,

large Opti cal estab l ish m e nt at P ari s fro m hi s father ,

 2 10 H AND BO O K FOR O PT I C IANS
- .

C harl es Ch eval ie r He as w el l as h i s f at he r has m ad e

.
, ,

m any i mprove ments i n th e app li an ces f o r m ic ro scopes

.

and oth e r Opt ical i n st rum ents He pub l ish e d s everal .

” “
in st ru c t iv e b o o k s ; “ Th e Art o f a n Optici a n The ,

S tudent o f th e Mi croscope ” “ Th e S tud e nt o f P hoto ,

” “ ”
graphy Han d boo k o f th e Ocul ist S tude nt (Man uel
,
-
,

de l Et u d iant Ocu li ste ) etc

’
,
.

C l ark A l van (180 4 ,

of C a mb r idgepo rt near ,

Bosto n was the m ost e m i n e nt m an ufact u re r o f tel escopic

,

l e nses He w as a self m ade optici an h ad n ev e r s een a

.
-
,

l en s grou nd ; was fo r m e r l y an e ngrav e r a nd portrait

'

pai nter b ut began i n 184 4 to study tech n i cal optics and

, , ,

astro no my i n order t o assist h i s Ol de st so n G eo rge B , .

C la r k a student at A ndove r i n hi s studi es as e ngi n eer

, , .

Both fath e r and so n exp e r i m e nted i n m aki ng a r eflecting

, ,

t el escop e an d s ucceeded s o w el l th at th ey co ntin u ed

, ,

and gradually establ i s h ed a reputatio n h ere an d i n E ng

lan d A fte r h i s seco nd so n A l va n G Cl ark a p ractical
. , .
,

m ach i n i st j oi ned th e e stab lish m e nt th ey tri ed to con

, ,
“
struct refractors an d i nc reased thei r l e ns es to sizes
,

u nk no w n before I n 186 0 th ey co n st ructed a tel escope

.
,

w ith a l e n s o f eightee n i n ch diam eter an d so l d it to the ,

A stro nom ical S oci ety o f Ch i cago Up t o th at ti m e fif .

,

tee n i nch es h ad b ee n th e dia m et e r o f th e l argest l en s in

th e worl d — During th e war th ey we re k ept b u sy m aki ng
b i no cu l ar fi el d glasses f o r th e arm y b u t soo n resumed ,

th e m an ufacture o f tel escop e s I n 187 1 th ey co nstructed

a tel escop e f o r th e Nava l Ob se rv ato ry at Washi ngton
.
,

w ith a n obj ectiv e l en s o f tw enty six i n ch es i n d iam eter ; -

they al so m a d e a d u pl icate o f i t f o r th e L ee Un i versity

Of V i rgi n ia Th e n ext great tel esco p e w as m a d e f o r the
.

R ussia n Observato ry at F alkowa ; it h as a c le ar aperture

of th i rty i n ch es a fo cal dista nce o f 4 5 fe et an d a
, ,

m agn ifyi ng pow er o f 2 000 di am ete rs B ut th e greatest .

t ri um ph o f th ei r tech ni cal ski l l i s th e n e w tel escope o f

thi rty si x i nch diam ete r f o r th e L i ck Obs ervatory o f the
- -

Un i ve rsity o f Cali fo rn i a He m ad e sev e ra l di s co v e r ies ; —

h e i nv ented a do ub l e eyepi ece a nd dev i sed a v e ry accu ,

rat e m ethod o f m easuri ng s m a l l cel esti al arcs .

C od d in g to n H en ry (d ied an Engl ish mat he ma

,

t ic ian ; publ ish ed 182 9 a val uab l e bo o k i n t w o p arts

, ,
2 12 H AND B O O K FO R OPT I CIANS
- .

m ov ing a ro und it His th eo ry was re ce iv e d w rth the

.

sam e oppositio n as o n e h u n d r ed y ears l ate r H uyghen s ,

,

u nd ul ato ry th eo ry o f l ight Th e st ro ngest Oppon e nts we re .

th e ast ro no m e r Ty cho B rah e a nd th e C h u rch wh ich latter ,

persecuted al l p ro m i n e nt d efe nde r s o f th i s th eo ry (See .

Gal i lei ) .

C r o n s ted t A F (17 2 2 ,
a S w edi sh m i ne r alogist ;
. .

disco vered 17 51 th e m eta l N i c ke l

, ,
.

Dag u er r e L J M (17 89 , . a F re n ch pai nter

. .
,

kno w n as th e i n ve nto r o f th e p r ese nt p hotograp hy His .

p i ct u r es w e r e called “ D ague rr eotyp es afte r h i s nam e , ,

a n d w e re fi rst exh ib ited at th e P a r is A cad e my by A ra go ,

183 9 Th i s i nv enti on co m pe l l e d th e opti cal t rade to

.

m an ufact u re th e C a m e ra O b s c ura .

Dal to n Joh n (17 6 6 ,

cel eb rated Engl i sh physi
cist and fo u n d e r o f th e ato m i c th eo ry o f ch e mistry
, .

He w as th e fi r st wh o p ubl i sh ed facts abo ut co lo r blin d -

n ess call ed fool ishly afte r h i m Dalto n i s m

,
“ ”
.

Des car tes , k n o w n a l so by the

R e n e ( 1596
“ art e s i ”
L ati n nam e w as th e m ost r e markabl e
C us ;
phi losoph e r a nd greate st m ath e m ati ci an o f h i s age His .

“ Diopt r ique ” p u bl i s h ed i n 16 3 9 i s a n eve r lasti ng

, ,

m o n u m ent to h i s tal en t and acute n e ss o f m i nd He .

d em on st r ated th at th e ab e r ratio n o f a sph erical le ns

wo ul d b e con si de rab ly di m i ni shed by i n c reasi ng the con
v ex ity o f its axi s v iz by ch angi ng th e sph e r ical curv e
, .

i nto a pa rabol a He al s o p r o ve d (16 3 7 ) t hat th e im age

.

fo rm ed u po n th e reti n a i s i nv e rted H e i s th e father of .

m ode rn phi losophy a n d th e fo u n de r o f a n alyti c geometry

, .

Dol l o n d Joh n (17 0 6 , a n E ngl i sh o pti cian w ell ,

v ersed in m ath e m ati cs ; w as a si l k w eav e r i n h i s yout h -

,

and e m pl oyed hi s le is u re h o u r s i n th e stud y o f scienc e .

He i n ve nted th e ach ro m ati c tel escope f o r w h i ch he ,

re cei ved th e C opl ey m ed al f r o m th e R oy al S oci ety of

Lo ndon
Do ll o n d P ete r (1 7 3 1
, i m p rov e d u po n h i s f a
the r ’
e efforts , in c o n u ct i
j on w ith h is b roth e r in l aw - -
,
 O PT ICIAN S , Sc iEN T iST S AN D INVEN T ORS . 2 13

“
R am sden He publ i s h ed an A ccou nt of the di scove ry
.

”
of ref racti ng telescopes (Lo n do n ,

Don d ers F C (1818 , . a Du tch physici an stud ied

.
,

at the Un ive rs ity o f Ut recht ; p racticed fi rs t at Th e

Hague th en e s tabli sh ed at Ut recht an i n stitutio n fo r
,

t reati ng d i s ea s es of th e eye Hi s p ri n ci pal w o r ks are .

“ S tudy o f th e Mov e m e nts of the E ye ” 1 84 7 “ A stig

; ,
” “
matism ,
186 ; 2 A n om al ies o f A cco m modatio n and
R efractio n of th e E ye 186 5 H is r esea rche s rega rd
,
”
.

ing Hype r m et ropi a a nd A stigm ati sm c reated a n ew

epoch i n Ophth al mology an d altho ugh h e was ably as ,

sisted by i ndep e nde nt di scove ries i n thi s l i ne by , ,

diffe rent co l abo re rs his n am e wi l l fo r eve r b rightly

-
,

shine i n the an nals of optical s ci e n ce as a b en efacto r to

mankind an d as an o rigi nal sci entifi c i nv estigato r
,
.

Dr u mmon d Tho mas (1 7 97 a S cotti s h e n gi nee r ;

,
-
184 0)
i nvented 182 5 t he D ru m mo nd Light
,
“
,
”
also ca l l ed ,
“ l ime o r calc iu m light .

Eu l e r Leo na rd (17 0 7
,
an e m i ne nt S w iss m athe
mat ic ian I n 17 3 3 h e accepted th e p rofesso rshi p o f
.
,

math ematics at S t P ete rsb u rg ; i n 17 4 1 F rederick th e

.
,

G reat appoi nte d h im p rofesso r O f n atu ral sci e n ces in

the n ewly e rected A cademy O f S ci ence at Berl i n ; in
17 66 h e r et u r ned to S t P ete rsb u rg wh e r e h e rem ai ned
,
. ,

to th e e n d o f his l ife The l ast fi ftee n y ea rs o f h is .

life he was bli nd b ut that did not p r eve nt hi m f ro m stil l

,

publish i n g seve ral i mpo rtant wo rks H is val uab l e .

“ T reatise o n Di opt r i cs
(Dio p t ri
c a) i n th ree vol u m es ,

( 17 6 9 w as di ctated by h i m w he n bl i nd He was a .

great adm i re r o f N ewton w hose m arvel ou s achi eve m ents ,

h e i nvestigated most c ritical ly ; thi s l ed h i m som eti m es

to co rrect N ewto n as we see i n rega rd to ach ro m atism
,
.

F ahre nheit ,G D (16 86 H e was th e fi rst who

. .

used m ercu ry i n the r mo m ete rs i n s tead of colo r ed

alcohol He d ete rm i ne d th e z e ro poi nt by m ixi ng salt
.
-

w ith chopped i ce co ntrary to R eaum u r w ho p u t th e

, ,

zero at th e f reezi ng poi nt of water He al so i nvented- .

the fi rst p racti cal areom et er to m ea s u re the spec ific ,

gravity i n fluid s and th e fi rst th erm o barom ete r

,
- .
2 14 H AND B O O K F O R O PT ICIANS
- .

F ar ad ay , Mi ch ael (1 7 91 th e m o st d is o ne o f

ti
n ui
g s he d ch em ists an d n atu ra l p h ilosoph e rs o f th e p res
e nt century He w as bo r n n ear Lon do n a n d w as early ,

app r enticed to a bookb i n d er ; b e devot ed hi s l e is u re t ime

.

t o reading books an d m a ki ng exp eri m e nts w it h a n elec

tri c m achi n e o f h i s o w n co n st ru ction H u m ph rey Davy .
,

professo r of ch em i stry at th e R oyal I n stitut e e ng aged ,

hi m (1812 ) as h is assistant an d h e re h e fi r st showed ,

som e o f th at ext r ao r di na ry po w e r an d fe rt il ity which

h ave r ende r ed h i s nam e fam ili ar to ev e ryo n e acquai nted
with physi cs I n 182 7 h e w as appo int ed a regul ar p ro
.
,

f e ss o r of ch em i st ry Hi s g r eatest wo rk p ub l i sh ed is the
.

series of E xperi m e ntal R esea rch es i n El ectricity

“ ”
,

whi ch co mp ri se al l th e i n ve stigatio n s a n d d iscove ries

m ad e by him d u r i ng th e l ast fo rty y ea r s of h i s active
l ife . F ro m 182 5 2 9 i n conj u n cti o n w ith S i r John
-
,

He r sch el h e t r ied to i m p r ov e th e m an ufactu re O f gla ss

,

f o r Opti cal p urposes P r ac t i cal ly co n si dered this in

.
,
“ ”
o n w as a fai l u r e
v e s t i at i b ut th e h eavy glass they
g ,

p roduced l ed afte r w a rd to t w o o f h i s greatest d iscoveries :

“ ” “
th e m agnetizatio n o f l ight a n d th e dia m agnet ism , .

F as ol d t , Ch a rl es (1814 of A lb any N , . Y .
, w as
a ch rono m eter m ak e r by professio n b ut d evoted h im
-
,

s el f in hi s l ater yea r s to Opti ca l sci e n ce He was a .

m ech an i c o f m a rv elo us i ngen uity an d wo n de r ful exact

n ess a nd skil l ; h is g reate st i nv e nt io n i s a m ach i n e for
m i cro m et ric ru lings o f a peculi a r co n st r u cti o n His
, .

l atest ruli ngs w e re s o fi n e th at the st ron gest m ic ro scopes

cou ld not resol v e th e m ti l l h e i n ve nt ed th e “ vertical ,
”
i llu m i nato r by wh i ch so m e exp e r t m i cro scopi sts suc
,

c e e d e d i n th e reso l ution o f l i ne s to an i n ch : b ut his

m ach i n e i s capab le o f r u li ng o n e m i l l io n l i n es to an i nch .

Hi s rul ings are th e best test to dete rm i n e th e strength

o f m icroscop es .

F itz ,Hen ry (180 8 a skil l fu l tel e scop e m aker ; -

w as a p ri nter b ut afte r ward s l earn ed th e t r ad e o f l o ck

,

s m ith I n 183 5 he m ad e h i s fi rst te le scop e a n d in

.
,
,

184 5 h e e xh i bited a n i n stru m e nt th at b ro ught himi nto

,

favo r abl e notice o f em i n en t astrono me rs H e m ad e tele .

2 16 H AND BOO K F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

Gal ezo w sky X av ie r b o r n

,
i n P o l a n d , st u d ied
,
183 3 ,
m edici ne at S t P etersbu rg ; w e nt
.
to P ar is in 1858 ,

b ecam e th e assistant o f th e ce l eb rated o cu l i st Des m arres ,

a nd s ubseq u ently e rected a c li n i c fo r ey e p at ie nt s He - .

i nv ented the tri al fram e w ith th e h al f ci rc l e attached

-
,

d ivided i nto deg re es f o r th e determ i n ati o n o f th e faulty

,

m e ridian in astigm ati c eye s .

Gal il ei, Gal il eo (156 4 th e c r eato r Of e x p eri

m enta l scie nce w as bo rn at P i sa I taly ; st udied first
, ,

m edici ne and phi l o s ophy th e n m ath e m ati cs He util ,

.

iz e d t he pen dul um i n th e co n st r u ctio n Of a clock for

ast ro n o m i cal p u rposes a n d i n v e nted a hyd ro static bal
,

an ce by wh i ch th e sp ecific g r av ity o f sol i d b od ies might

b e asce rtai n ed with th e ni cest accu r acy H e also dis; .

covered th e l a w s Of m otion i e th at al l fall ing bodies , . .

o f th e sam e spe ci fic g r av ity g r eat o r s m all descend , ,

with eq ual v elocity A m o n g oth e r discove ri es may be

.

noti ced a ce rtai n species o f the rmo m et e r a p roportional ,

co m pass o r secto r al so th e co nst r uctio n o f a r efracting

,

tel escope f o r astro no m i cal i n vestigati on s a nd o f a m i cro

s cop e By m ean s Of h i s t el escop e h e co m m e nced his
.

astro no m i ca l r esea rch es ; h e fo u n d that th e m oon was

not self l u m i no us b ut o w ed h e r i ll u m i natio n to refl ec
-
,

tion a nd p ro no un ced th e m i l ky way a t ract o f cou ntless

,

s eparat e stars I n 16 10 h e di sco ve r ed t h e fo u r satellites

.
,

Of Jup ite r ; h e also was th e fi rst to n ote m ov ab l e spots

o n th e di sk of th e s u n f r o mw h i ch h e i nfe rred th e rota
,

t io n o f that o r b H e soo n ope n ly advo cated th e Cope r

.

n ica n sy stem a nd “as i n co nsequ en ce d eno u n ced as a

,

propou nde r O f h e reti cal v i ews a nd s u m m o n e d t o ap p ear ,

b efo r e th e I nqu isitio n Th e persecutio n s t o wh ich he .

“
was s ubj ected by thi s sacred cou rt ”
l asted with ,

sho rt i nte rvals al most t wenty years Th e w ea ri some .

t rial s a nd h is i ncarce ratio ns fro m ti m e t o ti m e o n ly cease d

wi th h i s retractatio n On J u n e 2 2 d 16 3 3 Gal i l e i at
.
, , ,

th e age o f seve nty y ears o n h i s k n ee s an d c l ad o nly in , ,

a sh irt o f sack cloth was fo rced (by to rt u re ? ) to p ro

,

no u nce i n th e p resenc e o f h i s j udges a nd a l arge assem

b ly o f pre lates a mo s t h u m i l iati ng fo rm ul a o f a bj u ration
,
‘

I t has bee n asse rted th at h e added in a wh is p e r “ E p ur

si m uov e (sti ll it does m o v e ) mea n i ng th e eart h
,
”
, , .
 O PT I C l AN S, SC IEN T I ST S AND INVEN T O R S . 2 17

Gal van i, Luigi (17 3 7 an I tal ia n phys ici st and

celeb rated anato m i st ; d iscov e r ed accide ntal ly t he el ectri c
cur rent p roduced by co n n ecting t w o m etal s of di ffe r en t
“
density call ed afte r hi m Galvani sm A ll el ectro ”
, .

plating i s based o n thi s di s cov e ry .

Gasco ig ne W (16 12 a n E ngl ish a stron om er and

, .

mechani c ; i mp roved th e g r i ndi ng of l e nses He was .

the o rigi nal i nv ento r o f th e wi re m ic rom ete r o f its ap ,

plication to th e te lescope and o f th e appl icatio n of th e ,

telescope to th e quad rant .

Godfr ey Tho m as bo r n i n P h i ladel ph ia ; wo rked as a

, ,

glazie r in hi s nativ e city and st u di ed m athem ati cs wi t h

,

g reat e n e rgy ; h e eve n l earn ed Lati n i n o rde r to r ead

mathemati cal wo rks i n that l ang u age I n 17 30 h e com .
,

mu nicat e d an i mp rovem ent h e had m ade in th e q uad rant ,

and the inve nti on w as l aid b efo r e th e R oyal S o ciety i n

London I n th e m eanti m e Joh n Hadl ey h ad m ad e a
.
,

ve ry si m ila r i nv e n tio n and each o f them was a w a rded

,

the prize of £ 2 0 0 Godf rey di ed i n Philadel phi a i n 17 4 9

. .

Gr aefe , A lb recht the m ost cel eb rated

von
(182 8
G e rma n oculist ; s tu di ed m ed ici n e at Be rli n V ien na and ,

P aris ; establi s hed 1850 at Be rl i n a cl i n i c f o r eye ,

patients a nd w as i n 1856 el ected p rofe s so r o f o p ht hal

,

mo l ogy He is th e fo unde r o f m ode r n Ophthal mology

. ,

g reatly as s isted b y th e i nv ention of H elm holtz s o p ht hal ’

mo sco p e whi ch received i n G rae fe s h a nds its highest

,
’

recognition .

Graham, G eo rge (16 7 5 an E ngl i sh watch

make r an d opticia n ; i nvented th e co m pensated m ercury
pendulu m also th e cyl i nde r escapem e nt an d the dead
, ,

beat escapem ent f o r clocks He co nst r u cted the s ext o r .

with wh ich Bradl ey at Oxford d etected th e aber r atio n

, ,

o f light and ex ecuted a g reat m u ra l arc fo r p rofesso r

,
-

Hal ley a celeb rated Engl ish ast ro nom er (16 56

,

at the Observato ry o f Gree nwi ch who calcul ated th e ,

course of twe nty fo u r co m ets ; o n e of the m b ears his

-

name .
2 18 H AND BOO K F O R O P T ICIAN S
- .

mat h mat ic m
Gregory , Jam es [ 16 3 8 a S cotch e n ,

i nve nted at th e age o f t w e nty fo r th e refl e ct ng tele

— u i
,

scope k no w n by h is na m e Wh e n h e w e nt t o Londo n
.

with th e Vie w to th e con st ru cti o n o f his te l esc o pe he

~
,

fo u nd th e Opti ci an s h e em p loye d wa n ti ng in th e sk ill

th e Ob j ect spe cul u m
.

n ecessa ry f o r g ri ndi ng the m etal o f —

i nto a co ni c secti on to co rr ect sph e r ica l ab errat ion ;

therefo re h e ab an do n ed th e m an u factu ri n g pl an and
,
,

devoted hi m sel f to th e study o f ast ro no m y [ S e e James .

S ho rt ]
.

Gr imal d i F M , [.1 6 13 a.n I tal i a n Jesuit and

great m ath e m ati ci an ; h is v al u ab l e wo r k o n light w as
pub li shed two yea r s afte r h i s d eath He w as th e fi rst .

wh o desc ribed th e “ ph eno m e n a Of di ffractio n o r the ,

b en ding Of wav es o f l ight a rou n d th e edge s o f Opaque

bodi es N ewton co ul d n ot e xp l ai n th e ph en o m e non by
.

h is e m issio n th eo ry b ut You ng an d F re sn el d e m on strated

,
“
its co r rec t ness by th e wav e th eo ry o n th e pri n ciple of
”
i nte rfe r en ce .

G u er ike , Otto v o n [ 16 0 2 t he i nge n io u s b u rg e

m aste r o f Magdeb u rg , i s r eno w n ed a s th e i n v entor of
the air p u m p and as th e o rigi n ato r of m a ny ex p eri m ents in
-

n atural ph ilo sophy He i nt rod uced h i s i nv e ntion by

.

con structi ng t w o ho l lo w h em isph e res o f b rass whi ch ,

fitted air tight upo n each oth e r an d w h i ch cou l d not be

-
,

pul l ed as u nde r after h e h ad exha usted th e ai r o u t of

,

the m ex cept by th e appl icatio n o f gre at fo rce They are

, .

cal l ed th e Magdeb u rg He m i sph e r es a nd are sti l l used ,

i n exp e ri m ental phy sics to Sho w th e i m me n s e at mo sp he r

ical p ressu re upo n a v acu u m .

Gu in an d , F ran go is [ 17 4 5
a S w i ss watch
m ak e r an d Opti ci an was th e so n of a ca rpe nte r and
,
,

fi rst e mpl oyed by th e cel eb rated m ech an i c Jaq u et Droz -

,

t o m ak e woode n cases f o r clo ck s an d l ate r o n m etal , ,

cases f o r watch es His em ploy e r h ad a fi n e English

.

refl ecto r wh ich G so p erfectly i m itate d th at i t w as di th

.

cult to d ecid e wh ich o f th e t w o w as b ette r Droz b ei n g .

aware o f th e talent o f h i s wo rk m a n i n st r u ct ed h i m i n ,

the sci e nce of optics i n th e m an ufactu re o f s pe ctacle

,
2 20 H AND B O O K FO R OPT ICIANS
- .

Gr aefe , e l mho l tz , D o n d er s , w ho i aise d Ophth almo

'

l ogy to a n ex act sci en ce Th ei r na m es Wil l b e reme m

.

b e red as lo n g as a g rateful po ste rity w i l l ch e ri sh the

ach i evem ents Of great m en .

Hers chel F Wi l lia m [ 17 3 8

, .
bo r n i n Han nover ,

educated a m u sici an e m igrated 1 7 5 7 to En gl and d evoted

, ,

most o f his ti m e to th e st u dy Of astro no m y ; b ut bei ng

too poo r to b u y a tel es cop e h e b u ilt 17 7 4 a reflector , , ,

five feet lo ng With th e assista nce o f his b roth e r w ho

.
'
,

was a ski l l ful m ech ani c b e co n st r u cted 17 85 a tele , , ,

scop e O f fo rty fe et i n l e ngth wh i ch was th e m o st power ,

ful i n st ru m e n t at that ti m e an d w ith whi ch h e made ,

m a n y di sco ve ri es H e d i sco v e red th e p l an et U ranus

.
,

and so m e Of its m oo ns al so t w o m oo ns o f S aturn , .

Her s chel Sir Joh n [ 17 92

,
fo l lo w ed i n th e foot
steps o f his cel eb rated fathe r wh o m b e greatly exceede d ,

in p r ofou nd m ath e m ati cal sci en ce as w el l as i n the long ,

l ist o f hi s ast ro nom i cal r esea r ch es a n d di sco ve r i es I n .

“ ”
183 0 h e publ ish ed a t reatise O n th e Th eo ry o f Light , ,

co m pri si ng h is i n vestigati on s in th e o pti cal depa rtm ent ,

wh i ch h e had m ad e i n co nj un ctio n w ith F a raday In .

183 8 Q u ee n V i ctoria c r eated h i m a b a r o n et

, He was .

a n i nd efatigab l e ex pl o re r a nd th e m o st s uccessfu l astron ,

o m e r Of thi s centu ry .

fl e u r tel o u
p , N i c [ 17 50
. c el eb rated s u rgeon in
th e F ren ch a r my ; i nv ented th e a rti fi ci al l eech .

Hip p archu s co n side r ed th e fo u nd e r o f th e s ci ence of

,

ast ro no my ; l ived abo ut 150 y ea r s b efo re Ch ri st an d was ,

bo r n at N ic aea Bithy ni a [ Mi n o r A si a ]
, O f h is l ife .

noth i ng is k nown a nd o f h is w riti ngs o n ly o n e boo k has

,

b ee n l eft to u s ; but P tol e my t ell s u s o f h is g re at d isco v

e ries an d r efe rs to him i n m a ny cases as a n autho rity
, .

Hooke R ob ert [ 16 3 5
, watch m ak e r at Lon d on ;
i nv ented 16 58 th e bal a nce spri n g [ h ai rs p r i ng ] al so the
, ,
,

ancho r pall ets f o r clo ck s a n d a s l idi ng w eight t o the

-
, -

pen d u l um to adj ust th e cente r Of g ravity w i th greater

,

p re mSio n .
 OPT ICIAN S SCIEN T I ST S AND INVEN TO R S
, 221

Hu yghe ns , Ch risti an
Th e Hague Hol [ 16 2 9 Of ,

land ; on e Of th e g reate s t di scov erers i n m athem atics ,

physics and ast rono my He di sco ve red t he l aw of .

double ref ractio n i n c rysta ls w ith o n e ax i s opposed the ,

”
“ emis s io n theo ry agai nst N ewton a nd fou nded the ,
“ undulato ry theo ry ” He i m p roved tel escopes g ro un d .
,

and polished th e l e n ses hi msel f and i nt rod u ced th e con ,

necti o n o f th e pend u l u mw it h clock wo rk H e al so dis -

.

covered th e ri ng an d th e fo u rth satellite of S atu rn [ S ee .

Galilei ] .

J aeger E dwa rd so n of th e cel eb rated F rede rick Jae

, ,

ger is p rofes s o r o f ophthalm ology at the Univ e rsity of

,

V ie n na A ust ria ,I n 1854 h e p u bl i shed h is test types

.
,
-
,

ra ngi ng f rom th e fi n e s t to ve ry la rge l ette r s i n diffe rent ,

la ng u ages A m o n g hi s ma n y ex cell e n t p u bli cations th e

.
,
“
most famous i s his A tla s of Ophthal mo logy the o rigi
nal d rawi ngs of whi ch we re afte rwa rds p u rchased by
Dr No rris o f P h iladel ph ia for abo ut $2 0 0 0
.
°

, , .

J M born 184 4 i n Weste r n Ne w Yo rk

J ohn s to n , . .
, ,

an abl e Optical w rite r ; w as ed u cated f o r the C h u rch ,

but ente red 1880 th e Joh n sto n Optical Company H e

, ,
.

issued 1886 th e “ E y e E cho

, th e fi rst j o u rn al i n
,
-
,

America devoted excl usively to optics and as a conti nu ,

“ ”
ation O f th e fo rm e r Si n ce 1891 th e Ey e —Light Ih , , .
~

“
1892 h e p u b lish ed a val u abl e wo rk
,
E ye S tudi es a , ,
”
se ries of lesson s o n v isio n an d v isual tests I n 1893 .
,

he p u blished th e Optical pe riodical “ Ou r Vi s io n an d in

1895 sta rted an optica l school w ith th r ee cou rses i ncl u d ,

ing a co u rse by co rr espo nd en ce .

If ep l er , Joh n [ 157 1 a Ge rm an m athematicia n

and ast ronom e r of g reat r ep u tation ; was o ne of th e
founde rs of m ode r n a s t ro nomy His th ree l aws [ R egu .

lae Ke p l e ri] of the el liptical o rb its o f the planets we r e

afte rwa rds accepted by Newton and ar e stil l i n use ,
.

He i nvented th e astro n o m i cal telescop e i n wh ich th e o b

j ect iv e an d ocul a r l en ses we r e both convex He was th e .

fi rst who explain ed t he t rue th eo ry o f v ision .

I f ir cher , A th anas ius [ 160 1 a v ery l ear ned Jesuit ;

was born i n Germ any , b ut liv ed m ostly i n F rance and
2 22 HAND BO OK F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

I tal y .He i nve nted th e Magic L ante rn a nd co n structed ,

a po w e rfu l burni ng rn irro r w ith w hi ch he ex p er im ented -

o n th e I sl and o f Malta ; i t is k nown by th e n a m e o f Mal

t e s ian Mi r ro r .

If irchhofi , G R [ 182 4
'

cel eb rat ed Ger m an phy

P russi a ; stud ied mathe ma
. .

si
cis t , born at Kon igsb e rg ,
ti cs and physi cs w e nt 184 7 to Be rl i n as p ro fessor of ,

p hy si cs 1850 to B r esl au 1854 to Heidelb e rg a n d 187 5 , ,

His sci enti fi c r esearch es w e r e mostly

, ‘

agai n t o Be r li n .

d i r ected to elect r icity galvan ism an d t o th e p e cul iar , ,

p r ope rti es o f bodi es an d gases Hi s i nv estigatio n s of .

the F r aunhofer s li n es wh ich h e m ad e i n conj u nctio n with

’

Bunsen l ed t h e m to th e di scov ery o

,
f “ sp ect ru m
analysi s .

Kn app H celeb rated ocu li st o f G e r m any a n d A m er

, .
,

i ca ; was born 183 2 i n N assau Ge rm any ; studi ed for ,

n i ne yea r s m edicin e at Mu ni ch Be r l i n L eipzig V i enna , , , ,

P ari s Lo ndo n an d oth e r cel eb r ated Uni ve rsiti es He

, .

was l ecturer an d afterwards p rofessor o f Oph th al mology

,

i n Heidelb e rg b ut r esigned i n 186 8 a n d settl ed i n N ew

, ,

York C ity H e r e h e publi sh ed th e A rch i v es o f Op ht hal

.

mo l o gy and Otol ogy an d fou n d ed th e N Y Ophthalmic , . .

an d A u ral I nstitute He w as for seve r al y ears professor .

o f ophth al m ology at th e Medi cal Coll ege o f th e Uni

versity o f N e w York an d i s at p re se nt professor of ,

ophth al m ol ogy at th e Col lege o f P hy s iol ogy an d S urgery

at N ew Yo r k H e i s rega rd ed as a n auth o ri ty i n m edi
.

cal ci r cl es in A m erica as w el l as i n Eu r op e I n 187 3

, .
,

h e i nt roduced so m e v e ry v al uab l e i m p rov em e nts i n the

Ophthal m oscop e .

N oel Jea n [ 17 6 1
L er eb ou r s , ce l eb rated F rench -

O pti cian ; cam e to P a ri s at th e age Of t wel v e an d l e ar ribd ,

the gri ndi ng o f spectacl e l en ses I n 17 7 9 h e e stab l ish ed .

,

hi m sel f an d soo n co m m en ced to m an ufactu re spy gl asses

, -

and oth er optical i n st ru m e nts I n 17 87 h e m ad e a .

,

tel escop e with an obj ect ive o f t h re e i n ch es i n d ia met er ,

w hich m ade hi m favo rably kn o wn am o n g th e as t ro n o

mers I n 180 4 Em pe ro r N apo l eo n I w a nted a p o wer
.
,

f u l fie l d glass a nd bet w ee n th e t w o show n h i m o n e o f

-
,
,
2 24 H AND BO OK FOR O PT ICIANS
- .

e rro rs I n 183 7 h e assi sted A R OSS i n th e co n strue

.
,
.

tio n of that cel ebrate d g i nch Obj ec t gla ss w h ich w as - -

,

afte r wa rds adopted b y th e oth e r p rin c ip ab L o nd o n

m akers Th e rest of h i s l ife b e d evoted to mic ro s co p
.

i cal i nv estigation s .

L ittr ow J J [ 17 81
,
. . studi ed at P rague w as ,

e ngaged at di ffe r ent u n i ve rsities a s p rofesso r o f m athe

maties an d ast ro no my u nti l i n 1819 h e b eca m e di r ecto r
, ,

o f th e O bse r vato ry at V i en n a S o m e o f hi s th eo retical

.

p u blicatio n s i n d u ce d th e opti cia n Pl o e s s l to co n st r u ct the

d ialyti c tel esco pe Hi s m o st pop u l a r publ icatio n s are
Th e Wo n de rs O f th e Heav e ns an d Map s o f the
.

” “
,

S tarred Heaven s ’

M alp ig hi Ma r cel lo [ 16 2 8
,
an I tal i an a natomist ;
w as th e fi rst to em ploy th e Si m p l e m ic ro scope to i nvesti
gate th e an atom ical st r uctu r e O f pl ants a nd livi ng
anim al s ; th u s h e discov e r ed th e capi l la ry ci rculation of
th e blood f rom th e a rte r i es to th e v ei ns V a rio us pa rt s .

o f th e epi de r mi s Sp l ee n an d kidn ey s sti l l b ea r h i s n ame

, .

M al u s E L [ 17 7 5
,
. . a F r e n ch physicist was ,

educated at th e schoo l of m i litary engi n eers ; was a g reat

m ath em atician but too k a fan cy to th e study of the
,

m athem ati cal th eo ry Of opt ics F o r th e g r eate r portion .

o f h i s sh o rt li fe h e was attach ed to th e F re nch a r my ,

an d took pa rt in th e adv entu r ous expediti on o f Bonapa rte

[ N apoleo n I ] to E gy p t I n 180 1 h e r et u r n ed to P aris
.
, ,

and altho u gh hi s h ealth w as b ro k en do wn h is Spi rit was ,

y et in th e p ri m e o f l i fe I n 180 8 th e F ren ch “ I nstit u te

.
,
”
o f S cie nces offe red a p rize f o r th e b est ess ay o n double
ref raction i n c ry s tal s Mal u s co m peted f o r the prize
.
,

and i n th e cou rse of h i s expe ri m e nts di s cov e red th e phe

no m e n o n kn ow n as th e
p o l ariz atio n of l ight He ad .

v an c e d th e theo ry
“
th at particl es of l ight h av e pol es ,

an d that o n e nteri ng a do ubly ref racti ng c rystal so me -

o f th e particles fo r m ing o n e o f th e r ays m ay b e so ar

r anged as to b e t r an sm itted th r o ug h it w h i l e th e p arti ,

cl es wh i ch sho ul d h ave fo r m ed th e ot he r ra y m ay b e so
a rranged as to p reve nt th e t ran s m iss io n i n certai n di rc e
 O PT I C IAN S , C IEN T IS T S AND
S iN VENT O R S . 225

tions . Th is di scove ry int r oduced a n ew dive rsion o f

“
physical Opti cs I n 1810 he publ ished h i s Treati se o n
.
,
” “
Optics ,and h is Th eory o f th e do ub l e refraction o f
”
l ight i n crystal s
M ar io tte E died , cel ebrated F re nch physi cist
.
, 16 84 , ,

was o n e of th e fi rst m emb e rs of th e A cade my o f S ci en ces ,

wh ich was fo unded at P ari s i n 16 6 6 He w rote s ev eral .

essays o n natural ph i losophy I n th e seco nd vo l um e o f .

his col lected works i s noted i n a sho rt pap er th e discovery

of th e bl in d sp o t i n th e eye .

M cAl l is ter Joh n [ 17 53 , bo rn i n S cotlan d em i ,

grated to A m e ri ca i n 17 7 4 an d sta rted 17 96 an optical , , ,

busi ness i n P h il adelphia Joh n McAl l ist e r Jr [ 17 86 . .

a graduate fro m th e Un ive rsity of P e n nsylvania ,

associated w ith h is fath er i n 1811 an d lai d th e f o u n d a ,

tion o f a n exten sive b u si ness Th e war o f 1812 stopped .

the i mpo rtatio n o f Sp e ctacl es an d com pel led th em to ,

man ufacture al l gol d an d si lv e r spectacl es them selves

I n 183 6 Walter B Dic k and Jas W Queen becam e
.

. . .
,

partn ers ti l l 1853 ; th e firm McAl l ist e r & Co was th e n

, , .
,

conti nu ed by hi m and h i s son W Y [ bo rn u nti l , . .

186 5 w h e n the fa th e r r eti red

,
I n 1882 W Y McAl .
, . .

l ister too k h i s son W M (bo r n as pa rtne r ; th e

, . .

present ow n e r o f that bu si nes s i s J C McAl l ist er . . .

A nother son F W [ bo rn ,
sta rted an optical b us
. .

ine s s i n Baltim o re 187 9 an d i s th e i nv e nto r of an im

, ,

proved nose p iece .

M erz (EM ahl er th e ski l lful su ccessors ,

of F raunho fer ,

at Mun ich ; t u rned o u t m any astro n o m ical telescopes ,

amo ng th e m th e fam o us ref racto r o f th e P u l k o w a Oh

s e r v at o ry i n R ussi a also that o f th e H a r vard Uni versity
,

i n th e U S ; bot h i n stru m ents contai n obj ect l en ses o f

. .

fiftee n i n che s ap erture .

M ad ge Thos (17 10,

an Engl ish m echani c ; was
.

an app re nti ce o f th e cel ebrate d Grah am an d b ecam e ,

th e m ost skil lful watch m ak e r i n Eu rop e Th e E ngli sh .

gove rn m e nt paid h i m f o r the superiority o f hi s chro no me

22 6 HAND B O O K
- F OR OPT ICIANS .

te r s th e priz e o f tw e n ty fiv e h u n d re d p ou nd s st
- e rling .

He i nv ent ed th e leve r escap em e nt .

N e w to n , S ir I saac (16 4 2 th e m ost re m arkable

m athem ati ci an an d natu r a l phi losoph e r o f h i s age w as ,

th e fo unde r of m ode r n math em ati cal phys ics an d phys i

cal astronomy I n 16 6 5 h e d i sco v ere d th e l aw o f u ni
.
,

v ersal g r avitation ; h e th e n studi ed th e nat u re of l ight .

,

and de tected by m e an s o f p r i sm s th e co m pos it ion of .

whi te l ight whi ch l ed h i m to th e g r i n d ing o f l e n ses and

, ,

to th e con st ru ctio n Of reflecti n g t el esco pes I n 17 0 4 he .

pub l i sh ed h i s “ Optics o r a t r eati se o n th e refl ections

, ,
”
r ef r actio ns i nflecti o ns an d co lo rs o f light ; an d i n 17 13
,

“
h i s P r in cipi a ” “
He was th e fo u n de r o f th e em issio n
.

”
th eo ry .

N ichol s on W (17 53 ,
En gl ish physi cian and
.

ch em i st ; i nv ented th e areo m ete r o r hydrostati c bal ance ,

that b ea r s h i s nam e H e pub l ish ed abo ut twenty sci

.

fic work s m ostly o n che m istry

e nt i .

N ico l W (17 6 8
, . a l api d ary at E di nb u rgh ;
i n ve nted th e pol arizing pri sm o f I cel an d Spar which ,

total ly r efl ects th e o rdi nary ray w hi l st t h e ext r ao rdi nary ,

passes th rough an d whi ch b ears h is n am e H is skil l as

, .

a work i n g l api dary w as v e ry great ; h e ex ecuted a n um

b e r o f l en ses o f p recious sto n es especial ly O f garnet , ,

whi ch l en ses h e p referred t o th e ach ro m ati c m icroscopes

o f h i s ti m e .

P or ta, Batti sta (154 0 an I tal ia n astrono mer ;

fo u nded a n a cade my i n N apl es t o wh i ch n o o ne w as ad
mitt e d u n l es s h e h ad m ade so m e d isco v e ry i n n atural
p h i lo sophy He was accused o f m agi c an d co m pel led
.

by th e pop e to disso l v e his acade my H e w rote many .

vol u m es o n n atu ral m agi c geo m etry opti cs e tc ; also , , ,

i nv e nted the camer a o bs cu r a an d d e m o n strated that

.

v i sual p erceptio n i s not effected by rays e m a n ati ng from

the ey e b ut by r ays r eflecte d fro m obj e cts
,
(S ee .

A lhazen ) .

P r e n tice Jam es (1812

, e mi ne nt A me ri ca n o pti
2 28 H AND BOO K F O R OPT ICIAN S
- .

dioptral syste m He si m ulta n eo usly i nv e nte d th e P ris

m
.

m to me e r w hi ch in 1,
89 1 w as suppl ant ed ,
by his ore ,

Si mple Pris mo me t ric S cale to d ete rm i n e th e re f ract l ve ,

p rope r ties o f prism s by th ei r d evi at io n ; a n e w , S impl e

and most i ngeniou s m ethod wh i ch e nabl es ocul ists and ,

optician s to m easu re p r i sm s i n a m ore s c re n t ific m anner

th an ev e r b efo re He enj oy s an i nte rn atio n al rep utation
. ,

h aving b een th e recipi e nt o f h o no rs an d disti nction s

fro m seve r al physi cal a nd sci enti fi c so cieti e s i n Europe
and A m erica .

P tol emy , C laud i usan E gyptia n astro nom e r flourishe d

, ,

at A l exand ri a i n th e m i dd le o f th e seco n d c entu ry after

“ ”
C hrist He w rote th e S y nt axi s Math e m ati ca which
.
,

i s a representatio n o f th e scien ce o f astro nomy of that

ti m e b ased partly o n h is o w n r e search es pa rtly o n those
, ,

o f Hippa r ch us A s it i s th e o nly auth ority w e h ave for

.

the vi e w s o f ast ro no my ente rtai n ed by th e anci ents and ,

as i t fo rm ed th e fou ndat io n of al l astro n om i cal science

do w n to t he ti m e of Cope rni cu s the boo k i s con seq uently ,

o f th e greatest interest .

Q u een ,Jam es W ( 1812 a n A m e rican o ptician

.
;
l earned h is t rade at th e estab l ish m ent o f Joh n McAl l ist er
at Ph iladelph ia i n wh ich h e aft erwa r ds b ecam e a partner
'
, .

I n 1853 h e com m en ced b usi n ess f o r h i m sel f and gr ad

,

u al l y b ui lt u p th e l argest sci e nt ific optic al ho use in

A m erica A t fi rst h e i m po rted th e l ead ing E uropean
.

opti cal i nstru m e nts b ut soo n m an ufactured th em h i mself

, ,

an d gai n ed a w e l l earn ed reputation f o r th e excel lent

q uality o f hi s i n strum ents fo r sci e nti s ts su rv eyo rs an d ,

che m ists I n 187 0 h e r eti r ed fro m b u si n ess wh i ch was

.
,

co nti nued u nde r th e Old firm o f “ Quee n Co by ”

.

S am uel L F o x a partn er si n ce 1859 a n d h i s son

.
, , ,

Ed w ard B F o x . .

R amag e , optici an at A b erdeen co n stru ct ed 182 0 a , , ,

N ewto ni an telesco p e at th e R oy al Obse rv ato ry o f G reen

w ich Th e sp ecu l u m h as a fo cal l en gth o f t w e n ty fiv e
. -

feet an d a di am eter O f fi fte en i n ch es I t w as at that

, .

tim e th e l argest i n stru m en t i n Eu rope .

 O PT ICIANS S C I EN T I STS AND INVEN T OR S
, . 229

R ams d en ,Jess ie (17 3 5 an E ngl ish optici an o f

rare ski ll ; was a d ry goods cl e r k ; l ea rn ed eng raving on -

copper ; h ad to eng rave m any i l l ustration s of opti cal in

st ru me nts wh i ch i nd uced h i m to l ea r n the t rade with
,

John Dol lond A l ready i n 17 6 3 h i s i nst r u m ents h ad a

. .

great reputatio n He made m any i m p rove m ents an d .

“
inventi o n s of which his di viding m achi n e i s th e m ost ”
,

impo rtant He co n st r ucted so m e mu ral ci rcl es o n e

.
“ ”
,

of five feet di am ete r for P al e rm o I taly and o ne o f , ,

eight feet fo r th e Observato ry at Dubl i n Th e error o f .

one of hi s q uadrants (at P adua ) was only t w o seconds .

R eau mu r , R ce l eb rated F ren ch

. A F . .
(1 6 83
physicist ; div ided th e scal e o f th e th ermo meter f r o m
the freezing to th e boi l i n g point of w ate r i nto eighty ,

degrees His th erm o m eters w e r e fill ed w ith colo red

.

alcohol whi c h i s p refe r abl e i n great cold as m ercury

, ,

will f reeze at a te m pe ratu re o f fo rty d egrees b el ow z ero ,

while the sev erest co ld has n ev er y et froze n p ure alcohol .

R eichen bach ,Geo (17 7 2 b eca me with F rau n .

hofe r th e o rna m e nt o f th e Mechan ical and Optical I n

“
”
t ut e of Bavari a
st i at M uni ch Hi s ast ro nom i cal inst ru .

ments m e ridi a n ci rcl es t ra nsit i nstru m ents equatorials

, , ,

“
heliom ete rs etc m ade an epoch i n ob s ervi ng astron
, .
,

o my .
”

J L (180 7
R id d ell , o f Ne w O rl ean s was pro
. .
,

f e sso r o f botany and ch em i stry at th e U niversity o f

Louisiana 183 6 6 5 H e w as th e i nve nto r of th e b ino c
,
-
.

ular m ic roscope 1851 wh ich was afte r wa rds ma nu , ,

f act u re d an d introduced by J W S teph e n son o f Lon . .

don He also co n stru cted an achro m ati c bi nocul ar m ag

.

ni fie r i n th e fo rm o f spectacl es leavi ng both h ands o f ,

the Operato r free for m a nipul atio n an d wh ich is stil l i n ,

possessio n o f th e w ell k now n ocul ist Dr C o rn eli us -

, .

Bea rd fo rm e rly o f Ne w O rl ea n s n o w i n Bosto n

, ,
.

B itte n /l o u se David , (1 7 3 2 an A me rican m ath e

mat ic ian ; m ade th e fi rst tel escope eve r co nstructed i n
Ameri ca .
He l earned clock m ak i ng -
, and establ ish ed
2 30 H AND BOO K FO R O PT ICIAN S
- .

h i m self 17 51 i n No rris t o n n ea r No r 1 1s to w n P a as a
, , ,
.

clo ck and m ath em atical i n st r am en t m ak e r Hi s days -

.

were spent i n fol lo wi ng his t rad e an d h i s n i ghts we re ,

g ive n to study Hi s o r re ry exh ibits al m o st ev e 1 y motio n

.

in th e as t ro n o mic al w o r l d ; i t w as b o ught by th e Un iv ei
o

si ty o f P en nsyl vani a f o r £ 4 0 0 I n 17 7 0 h e l e mov ed .

,

h is busi ness to P hi l adel ph i a Hi s sci enti fi c ms t ru me nts .

di splayed u n us u al m echan i cal an d m ath em ati cal genius

R o cho n , A l exis (1 7 4 1
a F r e n ch ast ro nome r ;
was fi rst abbot o f a conv e nt b ut q uitted th e ch u r ch and , ,

st udied optics and ast ron omy I n 17 7 7 b e co n structed .

,

a m i c r o m ete r o f r o ck c rysta l to m easu r e s m al l angles .

He m ade sev e r al sci entifi c expedit io n s t o F r en ch colonies

i n A frica an d E ast I ndi es an d fou n d i n Mad agascar t he ,

fin est ro ck crys t al w hich h e grou n d i nto l e n se s ; but de

c l are d th em after w a r ds to b e u nfit f o r spe ctacles o n
, ,

acco unt o f th ei r doub l e ref raction .

R oe mer , Ol an s (1 6 4 4 Da n is h astro no m e r ; dis

cov e red 16 7 5 the vel o city of l ight by th e e cli pses of
, ,

th e fi r st m oo n o f Jupiter Th e oth e r th r ee m oons we re .

n o t so favo r ab l e fo r th is observatio n as th ei r m utua l ,

att ractio n m ak es th ei r m oti o n m o r e com pl i cated and ,

p uzzled the ast ro nom e rs till Newto n publ i shed his ,

theo ry of u ni ve r sal g ravitat io n whi ch so l ved th e myste ry , .

R o ss e , L o id
W P (1800 . th e d i sti ngui sh ed con
.

0
s t ru ct o r of th e l at g e s t r efl ecti ng tel esco p e 111 184 5 he .
,

bui lt h is g reat 1 e fl e c t 0 1 whi ch up to the p 1 e s e n t day has

,

r em ain ed without a r iva l I t h as a fo cal l ength of fif ty

.

four feet and the tube 1s about sev e n feet i n di am eter

, .

Saxto n Jo seph ( 17 99
, a s ki l l ful A m e ri can me
chanie ; was app re nti ced to a watch m ak e r ; w e nt 1817 to
P h iladel ph i a w he ie h e wo rked at h is t 1 ad e b ut d e vote d
,
,

m uch ti m e to d rawi ng an d e ng 1av in g H e con st ructe d .

an ast ro nom ica l clock with a n escape m e nt o n a n e w plan .

I n 182 8 h e w e nt t o E ngla nd wh e r e h e m ad e m any ih

, ,

e nio u s m ech an i cal toys an d exh i bited 183 3 a m agneto

g ,

c mach i n e
, ,
e l ectl i with wh i ch he p 1 o d u c e d a b iill iant
,
2 32 H AND BOO K F O R O PT I C I AN S
- .

struction ; Only a few sm al l ach ro m ati c t e l escop es an d

m icroscopes w ere m e ntio n ed Th e i n stru m e nts O f “ 118
.

i m po rte d 0 13 6 8 and
character then i n th e cou nt ry were ,

prob ably the whol e n u mb e r o f ach ro m at c

’

i m 1c r o s c o p es
0

i n A m e r ica was l ess than a doze n Th e fa m e o f P owell . ,

R oss ,C h evali er an d A m ici i n stigated h i s am b it io n to

s urpass the m He co m m en ced to co n struct o b j e ct l v e s of

.

a con side rabl e large r angl e of ap erture t ha n 111 th e Euro

p ean i nst rum ents He fi rst u sed so m e o f G u 1nan d s 1m
’

p rov ed flint gl ass but after w ards made e xte n ded and
.

costly ex perim e nts i n the attem pt to p rodu ce a glass of

h igh er di sp ersiv e an d refractiv e power an d was t o a certain ,

e xtent successfu l ; although h i s ch i ef success w as h is skill

i n gi vi ng h is l en ses s uch c urves wh ich n i cely b al anced
th e aberration s Every mi croscop e w as acco m panied by
.

so m e fine Obj ect sl ides to Sho w its power an d which

- -
,

gradua l ly becam e so fi n e that t he E ngl ish m i croscopists

co uld n ot r eso lve th em w ith th ei r i nstru m ents The .

fi rst m icroscope th at attract ed atte ntio n w as m ad e for

Dr Gi lm an i n 184 7
. S pen ce r s nam e b ec a m e at once
.
’

famo us A g reat deal o f h i s succes s was d u e t o th e e n

.

co ura e m e n t h e h ad fro m A m erica n sci e nti sts su ch as

g ,

P rof J W Baily o f W est P oi nt ; Dr J oh n To rrey

. . .
, .
,

Dr Go r i ng Dr Gil man an d Dr Joh n F rey o f N Y

.
, . .
, . .
,

Dr C A Beck a nd P au l Goddard o f P h i lad elphia ;

. . .
,

Tho m as Co l e o f S al em Mass a nd oth e rs I t i s d elight

, , .
, .

ful to read to day th e fe w l ette r s wh ich re m ai n o f the

-

vol um i no u s cor r espo nde nce wh ich was carri ed o n b etween

those ea r ly m ic ro scopists w h en th e n e w po w e rs o f the ,

m i cro scope w ere j u st bei ng u n fold ed a nd a wh ol e wo rld ,

of o rigin al i nv estig atio n s ful l o f m arvel s an d wo nders , ,

was ope ned befo re th e m A n al m ost boyi sh e nthu sias m .

app ears t o have ani m ate d the m as i s appare nt in their ,

fa mil iar co rrespo nde n ce S pe nce r w as n o w fai rly a .

ri val o f t he b est foreign a rti sts an d w as ack n o w l edged ,

by th e m as such I nstead o f fo l low i ng u p th is sp ecial

.

b ran ch h e div erted h is attentio n to th e st u d y o f astron

,

om y wh ich was particula rly fascin ating t o h i m an d his ,

fondness fo r th e tel escope an d tel escopi c p u rs u its n ever

di m i nish ed tho ugh he fo u n d i n th e d ev elo p m e nt o f the
,

m icroscopi c obj ectiv e a m ore p r o m isi ng fiel d f o r his

 O PT I C IAN S S C IEN T IS T S AND INVEN TO RS
,
. 2 33

gen iu s — A bout th e yea r 1854 he fo rm ed a partn e r ,

shi p with A K E aton an d i n addition to the m i c ro

. .
,

sc o p ica l work th ey com pl eted v a r io us achrom ati c tel e

,

scopes a mo ng th em th e large E quato rial f o r Hami lto n

,

Col lege havi ng a n obj ect gl ass o f 13 % i nch es i n diam ete r

, ,

and a fo cal l ength of 16 feet Th is was th e n th e l argest .

telescope i n thi s co untry an d i n its perform ance i s com ,

pa red favorab ly with th e b est Muni ch i nstru m e nts ; its

price w as I n 1856 th ey entered i nto a co n ,

tract with the t rustees o f th e Dudley Ob servato ry at

A lbany to co nstruct a m agnifice nt h el io m eter f o r th e
, ,

sum of I t was agreed that S pence r Sho ul d

visit the p ri ncipal w o r kshop s of E urope an d th e cel eb rated
Ob servatories i n o rder that the i nstru m ent might sur
,

pass anythi ng hith e rto m ade Wh il e h e was absent . ,

his opti cal depa rt m ent was m anaged by R B Tol les . .

,

who had bee n f o r so me years hi s p upi l On S pence r s .

’

return afte r a n abse n ce o f si x mo nth s a bitte r con

, ,

t ro v e rsy aro se b et wee n som e o f the t rustees and Dr B . .

A Gould th e di re cto r o f th e Observato ry which sus

.
, ,

pended th e wo rk fo r years ; in fact th e h e lio m eter was

never b uilt Th e pa rtne rsh ip b etwee n S pence r an d
.

E ato n was d issol ved afte r a fe w y ea rs ; he with the aid ,

of h is sons stil l ca r ri ed o n th e b usi ness u nti l the year

, ,

187 3 I n th e fal l o f th i s y ear o ccu rred th e di sast rous

.

fire at C anastota wh ich d e s t royed n ea rly eve ry shop i n

,

the v illage and v e ry n early rui ned S pence r The fire

,
.

com m en ced at n ight i n a b uild i ng opposite h is shop and ,

lasted al l night S o rapi dly w as th e spread o f th e fire

. ,

that b e nearly lost al l hi s tool s an d m achi n e ry the ao ,

cum ulatio n o f m a ny years of to i l an d sk il l and a l a rge ,

amount o f fi nish ed a nd u nfi nish ed wo rk O nly th e build .

ing was i n su re d C rippl ed but not w hol ly dishea rten ed

.
, ,

h e and h is son s With wh at th ey had sav ed fro m dest ru o

,

tion com m enced a new i n a little ba r n f o r a wo r kshop

,
.

I n 187 5 t h ey m ov ed to Gen eva N Y

,
an d f o r t w o yea rs , . .
,

were co n n e cte d wi th th e Ge neva Optical Vl o rk s

'

F rom 187 7 th e b usi n ess was cond u cted unde r th e n am e

,

o f C A S pen ce r
. . S on s Du ring thi s period they .

received at the P a ri s E xpositio n th e h ig hest awa rd a

, , ,

beauti ful large gold m edal fo r excel len ce of t hei r m i cro ,

2 34 H AND B O O K FOR O PT ICIANS
- .

s c0 i al obj ectiv es I n 1 88 0 h i s so n He r b ert S pen cer ,

p c .
, ,

com m enced b u siness i n G e n ev a u nd e r h 1 s ow n n am e ,

wh i le h is fath e r r e mai ned i n th e o ld sh op A l r e ady the .

eviden ce of an ov e r tasked co n s t
- it u tio n an d a t o o long

co ntinu ed st rai n u po n h is m e ntal po wers h ad b ecome

pai nfully ev i dent to h i s f rie nds H e d id b u t l1t t l e work . ,

an d spent most o f h i s tim e i n r eadi ng o c c as 1o n a l l y ex ,

im t i with so m e n ew co m b 1n at 1o n b ut always
p e r e n n
g ,

ge nial and p l easant to such o f h is O l d f r l e n d s as f rom

ti m e t o ti m e v i sited h i m t o tal k ov er th e p ast an d d l s ,

cu ss th e futu r e o f m icro scopy an d sci e n ce ge n e r ally .

He di ed after a confin e m ent t o h i s roo m o f th re e w ee k s

,
,

o n S ept 2 8t h 1881 ,
S p en cer w as a geni u s i n th e full
.

se n se o f th e wo rd Life t o h i m w as n o t a co ntest f o r
.

the po ss essio n o f w ealth ; n o m a n w as ev e r m o re in d if

f e re n t to thi s th an h e ; if h e h ad b ee n a nyth i n g else he
would h ave acc u mu l ated a fortu n e H e n ev er w as satis .

fie d with hi s wo r k n o m atte r ho w p e r fect it w as for

,

that ti m e ; so it h appe n ed th at v e ry ofte n it co st hi m

m uch mo re to pro d u ce a giv e n p iec e o f work than the
p ay h e recei ved fo r it Large as w ere th e p ri ces wh ich
.

h i s ack no wledged ski l l e nab le d h i m to obtai n prices ,

which w ere o n ly t o o w i l l i ngly pai d so th e wo r k coul d ,

be had at al l y et h i s l ife fro m boyh oo d wh e n w ith

,
-
, ,

th e enthusi as m o f yo uth h e saw a n am e an d fam e open

i ng befo re hi m up t o th e ti m e wh e n e nfeeb led by age
, ,

an d disease h e e nte red th e ete r nal rest w as o n e long

, ,

struggl e w ith pov e rty No t fo r wa nt o f i ndu st ry ; no

.

man was ev e r m o r e i nd ust rio us b ut no t i n th e w ay Of ,

th e world Th e r e i s l ittl e m o n ey t o b e m ade i n th e

.

“ ”
tedio us testi ng an d to u ch i ng u p o f th at w h ich any
o n e el se wo uld h av e called pe r fect w o r k b ut wh ich th e ,

a rtist i s u n wi ll i ng to l et pass f ro m h i s h an ds except ,

wh en s tern n ece s sity co m pels so lo ng a s h e ca n i m agi ne

,

so meth i ng bette r ; al beit to accom pl i sh th i s b ette r m ay

b e th e wo rk o f days wee ks o r ev e n m o nth s of t rial an d
, ,

a rdent appli catio n .

To l l es ,Rob e rt B (182 3 was bo r n in VVin s t e d

.

Co nn . His fath e r E l i s ha Toll es a fa r m e r spe nt a good , ,

deal o f his ti m e wi t h m ech ani cal i n ve ntion s sev e r al of ,

2 36 H AND BOO K F OR O PT I C IAN S
- .

O pti cal Wro k s '

u nd e r
,
th e pat ron age o f seve ral p ro m
in e n t m ercha nts and m an u factu re rs .

Tolles l ik ed his occ u patio n fro m th e fi rst d ay ; it was

m ost truly a case Of lo v e at fi rst sight an d wa s v e ly r 1 a ,

love that g rew stro nge r a nd st ro nger as t l me w e nt o n and

the possibi l iti es i n th e fi el d o f Optics open ed u p b e f o re
h im u ntil it t oo k com p lete possessio n o f himt o th e e xcl u
sio n of eve ryth ing e lse A nd t o th e e n d th at h e ml ght
,

ach iev e th e best possibl e r es ults i n th e l in e of his wo rk ,

no m a n ev e r labo red m o re devotedly o r fo un d g ie at e r

satisfaction i n th e do ing o f h i s wo rk th an d id h e But .

th e sto ry o f his l ife has also its dark side and o nly a few ,

of th e m any w ho e nj oyed and p rofite d by th e fruit o f his

labo r w e r e awa r e o f it F o r m o re tha n tw e nty five
.
-

yea r s a nd wh ile he was do i ng h is b est w o r k h e labo red

, ,

co n stantly u nder th e great disadv a ntage o f v ery poor

health a nd m any a ti m e h e was at wo rk i n h is shOp when
,

m ost m e n wo uld h av e taken a r est I n h i s yo unge r days .

h e had a severe attack o f pl e urisy w h i ch l eft a pai nful

sensation i n hi s side aggravated a l w ay s by th e l east cold
,

o r i ndispositio n A dd to th is th e disadvantage w h ich m any

tim es pro ves quite as fatal to ge ni us o f bei ng poo r at ,
—

ti m es witho ut th e requ isite m ea ns w ith wh i ch to prosecute

h is wo r k unde r con dition s that woul d i nsu re th e best resu lts
from h is i nventio ns a n d di scove r i es an d w e m u st ad mit ,

that h e was a m artyr to h is t rade H e was poor al l his .

l ife an d whe n h e died i n th e h ospital h e h ad no dece nt

, ,

suit o f h i s o w n to b e bu ri ed i n Th e ca us e o f h is p ov
.

e rt y was pa rtly d ue t o h is poo r j udgm e nt i n m o ney

affai rs F o r i n stance o n e day h e rece i ved n i n e h u ndred
.
,

dol la rs fo r wor k d el i ve red an d as he ge n eral ly was in

,

debt h e p aid o ut eve ry cent n o t l eav i ng h i m sel f en o ug h

, ,

to pay fo r hi s di n n er th e next day

Th e relatio n betwee n S pen ce r an d Tol l es w as al w ays
a f r ien dly o n e ; eve n wh e n To l l e s was at th e h ead o f a
large shop h e too k h is wo rk t o h i s fo r m e r teach e r f o r
,

exam i natio n and suggestio n s as to its qua lity an d im

p rove m e nt S p e nce r h elp ed him i n va r io u s way s ; h e
.

aided h i m to get h i s pate nt o n th e b ino cu la r ey epiece a n d ,

assisted hi m enough o n h is s ol id ey epi ece to give S pe n ce r ,

th e right to u se it On l y g r eat men act in that w a

y
.
.
 O PT I C IAN S S C I ENT I STS , AND INVEN TO R S . 23 7

To lles w as a sci e ntific optici an l ike S pence r and

no t

Ze nt m ay e r ; h e was not acc usto m ed to figure o u t h is f o r

m ul ae w ith pe ncil and paper b ut h e got th e g reatest ,

r esults by experi m e nti ng an d by hi s un surpassed m e c han i

cal Ski ll His greatest achi ev e m e nts was the 7 5 obj ective
.
1
—
,

somewhe re abo ut 187 4 th e o nly o ne i n th e wo r ld and , ,

at p rese nt i n the possessio n o f Dr E Cutte r o f Ne w . .

,

Yo rk .

’
Tol les ed ucatio n was so m ewh at n eglected He the r e .

fore took to readi ng a nd soon acqui red a ge neral k now ,

ledge o f th e arts a nd scien ces as wel l as o f th e w riti ngs o f

the poets and sel ect w riters H e was ve ry rese rved and .

modest and no o ne co ul d v e x h i m more than to m ention

,

any o f h i s m e rits in hi s p r ese nce He abho r red noi sy .

company ; it di sg u sted him a nd h e did not h esitate for a ,

mo me nt t o Sho w h is d isl ike He was wel l k no w n i n .

London and P a ris and received the degree o f A B fro m

, . .

Co lby Un ive rsi ty o f Main e I n 187 2 h e h ad a l ively

, .
,

cont ro ve rsy with F H VVe n ham an optician of London . .

, ,

about th e m easure m ent of th e angl e o f m ic roscopic o b j e c

ti v e s wh i ch was pub lish ed i n T/ee M i cros co ical J o u r n al
, p ,

of London and i n The B os ton J ou r n al of C hemis try

, .

He di ed i n Bo sto n N ov em be r 17 1883 and was b u ried, , ,

i n Mo unt A ubu rn Ce m ete ry The sad news spread .

r apidly and th ree days l ate r Dr Geo E Blackham of

, . . .
,

Dun ki rk N Y w rote th e fo llowi ng b eauti ful eulogy to

, . .
,
“
an i ntim ate frie nd o f Tol l es : I hav e j ust hea rd i n a
lette r fro m M r Ed Bausch of R ochester of th e death
. .
, ,

of my good frien d Tol l es I n eed hardly say to you .

how m uch thi s sad n e w s has g ri ev ed m e The loss to .

microscopy th rougho ut th e civil ized wo r ld i s si mply i r re

parab le b ut to tho se w ho had th e happi ness to be counted
,

a mong his personal f rie nds th ere i s so m ethi ng mo re than ,

the m ere ecl ipse o f a great l ight i n opti cal sci en ce His .

lofty characte r h i s fra nk ness h i s honesty h is modesty

, , ,

an d disl ik e f o r anythi ng that savored i n the least of

boastful ness h i s pecu l ia r reserv e an d th e warmth o f h i s
,

f ri en d shi p whe n once th e ice was b roke n e ndea r ed him

, ,

to hi s fri e nds as m u ch as h i s m arv elous gen iu s and th e

unsu rp assed ski ll i n dev i si ng an d constructing new optical
2 38 H AND B O O K FOR OP T ICIAN S
- .

co mbi natio ns disti ngui shed himi n th e wo rl d o f appl ied

optics To the scientific wo rl d at la rge l ie Wil l l ive as
. ,

th e m a n who d a r ed to attem pt wh at th e accepte d au t ho ri

ti es h ad decla red to b e i mpo ss ibl e ; as th e m an w ho not 0
o nly dared to attempt b ut s u cceeded i n tu rn ing th e 180
,

co rn e r ; as the r are co m bi n atio n o f a rtisa n art ist and

’
,

sci entist whose wo rk was n o t m ade to sel l o nl y b ut who

, , ,

ever st riv ing to su rpass h i m self w rough t each n e w Ob j ec ,

ti ve as i f it we re h is o n ly on e p uttin g i nto each a po rt ion

,

o f h is own i ndi vidual ity and m aking a w o r k o f art ra t her

than an arti cle o f co mm erce But to u s wh o k n e w him

,

m o re i ntim ately h e w i l l l iv e a s th e shy r es e rv ed but

, , ,

warm h earted man of gen ius

-
S ta ndi ng at th e very .

pi nnacle o f h is p ro fess io n h is death l eav es a vacancy ,

not read ily fil led .

The Microscopical S o ci ety o f I l l i noi s al so p as sed reso

l utio ns o f sym pathy with h is fa m ily But th ese s lips of .

pap er form th e o n ly m o n u m ent t o h i s m e m o ry The .

A m erican optician s an d m i croscop ist s h av e t o th e present

d ay n eglected to m a r k f o r f u t u re gen e r atio n s th e spots
whe r e th e r e m ai ns o f th e greatest opti cia n s o f t he world
w e r e l ai d to r est ; n either To l l es n or Sp en cer s grave ’ ’

s how s an y k in d o f l as tin g re membr an ces .

To rr icel l i, E . a n I tal i a n p hi lo soph er and

(16 0 8
m ath ematician ; i nvented th e b aro m ete r 16 4 3 He was , .

al so a skil led optici an ; h i s si ngl e m i c ro scopes were of

great pe rfection al so h is l en ses f o r tel escop e s
, .

T schir n hau s e n , E W (16 5 1 . a Ge rm an m athe

mat ician , physicist a n d phil osoph e r ;
.

e r ected a l arge glass

fo u nd ry pri ncipal ly for th e gri ndi ng o f b u rn i ng glasses
, .

O n e of h is m ake i s stil l i n th e A cad e my o f S cie nces at

P aris wh ich i s th i rty th ree i n ch es in di a m et er and
,
-

,
w eigh s 16 0 pou nds b ut i s ful l o f i m pe r fectio n s
, .

Ty cho B r ahe celeb rated Dan i sh ast ro no

(154 6
me r ; e nr iched the s cie n ce o f ast ro no my v e ry m uch ,

partly by h is n um e ro u s obse rvatio n s partly by i n v e nting ,

n ew instru me nts f o r i n stance th e Mu ral C i r cl es He

, , .

r e e ct c d th e Co perni ca n syst e m wh ich i n h i s ti m e was

j ,
24 0 H AN D BOO K FOR O PT I C IAN S
- .

Wheats ton e C h arl es

, (180 2 an E ngl ish phy s ic ist ;
was fro m e arly youth a m u sical i n st ru m e nt m ak e r wh ich ,

l ed h i m t o i nv estigat e th e l aw s o f so u nd I n 183 4 he .
,

was appointed p r ofesso r o f exp e r i m e ntal p h ilo sophy in

King s Col lege o f Lon do n wh e n h e r ead an e ssay e n”
’
,

titl ed “ Co ntrib utio ns t o th e P hysio logy o f Vis ion .

Thi s l ed t o th e i nvention o f h i s stereoscop e w hi ch he ,

fi r st exh ibited i n 183 8 H e was also th e di scov erer of .

i m po rtant p racti cal appl icat ion s i n el e ct r i cal s ci e n ce :

Wil s on Jam es ; m ad e th e fi rst art ifici al gl ob es m anu
,

f act u re d i n th e U S He l ive d at Bradfo rd Vt about

. .
, .
,

1812 .

Wl l a o W H (17 6 6
s to n , . a n Engl i sh ch emist
.

and physi cist ; practi c ed m edi ci n e ti ll 180 0 th en w ent to ,

London and devoted h i m sel f to ch e m i st ry a n d physics .

H e discov ered i n p l ati n u m th e m etal s P a ll adiu m and

R hodiu m ; i m proved th e m i c ro scop e by i ntrod ucing
“ doubl ets ”
; i nv e nted 180 7 th e cam era l ucida and
, , ,
“
th e periscopi c l en ses “
He al so i nv e nted th e refl ect
.

”
i ng go n iom eter a v al uab l e i n st ru m ent t o m easure accu
,

r at e l y sm al l angl es o f crystal s Hi s i m p ro vem ents in .

th e co nst ru ct io n of gal v an i c b atteri es were afte r wa rds

greatly su r passed by th e ingen io u s i n ve ntio n s o f F ara
day .

Y ou n g ,Thom a s (17 7 3 th e m ost p rofo un d in

v e st i at o rsi n ce N ewton ; studi e d m edi ci n e i n Lo ndo n
g
and E di nb u rgh b ut d evoted h i m s el f greatly t o th e study
,

o f n atu r al p hilosophy t o m ath e m ati cs a n d opti cs

, AS .

“
early as 7 94 h e pu bl i sh ed an E ssay o n th e act o f see
1
i ng and o n th e pecu liariti es o f th e c ry st al l i n e l e ns in
,
”
,

wh i ch h e ex pl ai n ed hi s o w n case o f as tigmatis m n ot o h
served b efore by oth ers H e i s th e sci e nti fi c fo u nder of .

“ ”
th e un du lato ry theo ry o f l ight an d di sco v ered the ,
“
pri ncip l e o f i nterferen ce o f light ”
His m ai n work .

w as p ubl ished 180 7 in t w o vol um es “ Co u rse o f l ectures

, ,

o n n at ural ph il osophy and th e m e ch a n i cal ”

a rts His
conte m po rari es co nside r ed him a “ c r an k ” b u t s u b se
.

que nt di scov eries i n the sam e l in e by th e cel eb rate d

 OP I I C I AN S,
’ ‘
S C I EN T I STS AN D INVEN T OR S . 24 1

F rench m en F resne l an d A rago an d especial ly th e able

, ,

defense of the e m i nent Ge r m an sci entist Hel m holtz an d , ,

lately of Ty ndall have restored hi s fam e forev er

, .

Z en tmayer , Joseph (182 6 m ost sk i l lfu l optician

of Ph iladelphi a was bo r n i n Man nheim Germany He
, , .

received a good education an d l ea r n ed hi s t rade as a n

,

instrument m aker A fte r h avi ng m ade h i s “ maste r

.

”
piece as i s t he custo m a m o ng Ge r man m echan i cs h e
, ,

wo rked in di ff erent establ ish m ents i m p rovi ng hi m s el f i n ,

the kno wledge a nd u se o f s ci e ntific i nst ru me nts I n .

184 8 he cam e to A m e ri ca a nd wo r ked f o r th e be s t ih

, ,

st rument m ake rs i n Balti m ore Wash i ngto n and i n P hi l ,

adelphia w here b e pe rm an ently settled i n 1853 Th e

, .

high cha racter o f h is wo r k and th e boldn ess o f h is con ,

cep t i
o ns att racted th e att entio n of th e l eadi ng scientific
,

men A mo ng these th e late D r P au l B Godda rd w as

.
, . .

particula rly d rawn to h i m a nd it was Dr Goddard wh o , .

persuaded hi m t o m ake th e fi rst of h is l a rge co m pou nd

mic roscopes Th i s ea rly effo rt was so successfu l that
.

the A cademy o f N atural S ci ences an d m a ny of th e ,

leadi ng physicians p urchased those o f h is m ake and ,

discarded th e h eavy an d yet u n stabl e i nst ru m e n ts o f

E uropean manufactu re O nce ful ly emba rked in th i s
.

enterp ri se it seem ed to absorb h i s who l e atte ntion an d ,

many we re th e i m p rove m ents th at fo llo w ed e ach othe r

in rapid s uccessio n not o n ly i n the stand of t he mic ro
,

s cope b ut in its obj ect ives

, A t th e p resent ti m e th e r e .
,

is not a m ake r of m ic roscopes i n th e w o rld who does ,

not use so m e of h i s i nventio n s I n 186 5 h e i n ve nted .

,

his photog raph i c l ens whi ch estab li shed h is reputatio n

,

as a photog raphic Opti cia n o f th e fi rst rank S o radically .

original was the i nventio n e m bodi ed i n this l en s that ,

the desc riptio n s o f it were at fi rst r egarded by th e p rae

tical optician s o f E u rop e as i n credibl e and as A me rican
exaggeratio n s He also devi sed a nd const ructed a g reat
.

variety o f app aratus whi ch was used i n researches o r i n

,

the i l lust ratio n o f l ectures Th e success of th ese re .

searches and th e effecti ve i l l ustratio n o f th ese lectu r es

were l argel y d ue to hi s i nge nuity an d geni us and to h i s ,
 H AND BO O K
-
F OR OPT ICIAN S .

accuracy a n d deli cacy wo r k

ofm an s h ip H is interest .

a nd an xiety f o r th e success o f th e ex per im e nt seemed

fully e qual to those o f th e l e ctu re r h im s e lf Wh en in .

1869 ,
som e sci entists i n P h i l adel ph i a o rga n ize d a party
to m ake photograph i c ob se r v atio n s o f th e total solar
eclipse v isibl e i n I o wa (A ug 7 t h ) h e co n st r u cted the
.
,

"
special photog raphi c l e nses wh i ch repl aced th e ey e p ieces -
,

a nd al so the d rop sh utte r attach m ents f o r r e g ulat ing the

-

ti mes o f exposu r e u sed with th e equ ato ri a l t el escopes

,

e m ployed o n th at occasio n Du ri ng th e p r el i m i na ry re
.

he ar s al s a nd expe r i m ents i n West P h i la d elph i a i n m aking ,

photograph s o f th e sun an d m oo n h e w as i n defatigable ,

i n assi sti ng th e wo rk day a n d n ight He al s o j oi ne d

,
. ,

the party and went w ith th e m to Ot t u niw a I a wh e re his , .

,

k no w l edge and fe rti l ity i n resou r ces to m e et u n expected

difficu lti es co nt ri b uted l a rgely t o th e s ucc ess ach ieved
by that sectio n of th e pa rty Hi s store w as th e m eet .
—

i ng pl ace o f th e sci enti sts o f th e day The r e at all .

,

ti m es w hi le h e was wo rki ng p ro fesso rs phy sician s and

, , ,

m ech ani cal engin ee r s wo u ld m eet a n d d i scu ss problems ,

i n optics a nd i n m ech a ni sm a n d al l o f th e m l earned to

,

lo ve the m a n w ho w as so s i m p l e m i nded a n d so honest -

i n h is deal ings He w as free f ro m p etty j ealo usy ; no

.

o n e e v e r h eard h i m say a ha r sh wo r d abo ut r ival s in

t rade Those w ho v isited hi m i n h i s Sho p k now how
.
,

patie ntly h e l ist e n ed to wh at th ey h ad to say giving ,

freely fro m hi s great sto re o f k no w l edge showi ng his ,

m ethod s an d eve n supp ly i ng to tho se w ho w ish ed to ,

m ake a ny p i ece o f apparat us th e m selv es s u ch parts as ,

h e cou ld fi n d s u i ted t o th ei r p u rp ose He w as n ot wi lling .

to push h i m self fo rward b ut wh e n h e at last w as pu r

,

s u ad e d to l ect ure o n opti cs at th e F ra n kl i n I n stitute

.
,
“ ”
h i s L ectu re o n L en ses p rov ed t o b e as w el l worthy
o f th e m an as al l h i s m echan i cal wo rk I t stan ds to day .
-

as a n i m portant additio n to th e l ite ratu re o f Optics .

He n eve r would do any wo rk sl ighti ngly ; “ wh at was to

”
b e don e m u st b e don e w e ll Hi s co n st a n t e ffo rt b ein g
.

to i mp r ov e h i s m ethods as w e ll a s i m p ro v e th e co nstrue
tio n o f h is i n strum ents Th e i nv e ntio n s th at h av e car
.
,

ri ed h is nam e t o al l p arts o f th e ci v i l iz ed gl ob e were ,

not m ad e rapidly as a rul e ; h e po n de red o v e r al l his

,
 C H AP T E R X X VIII .

MISCE LL ANIE S .

“ IVhe r e
does th e provinc e
1 . Ocu l is t an d Op tician .

”
o f th e o cu l ist e nd an d th at o f th e opti ci an b egi n ? Thi s
q uestio n i s m ost essenti al i n o rd e r t o e stab l ish a Soun d
,

mo d u s v iven d i b etwee n th e pa rti es w hose vocation s are

so closely related a s th ose o f th e Opti cia n a n d o culist .

To an swe r s u ch a qu e s tio n w e mu s t b e gui ded by the

,

m o st sc r u pu lo u s sen se o f eq uity ev e n at th e risk of,

dam pe n ing th e am b itious a rdo r of so m e e nth u siasts on

eith e r side ; otherwi se w e m ay b e accu s ed o f p a rtial ity
and u nfai r ness Th e p r esent positio n o f oc ul ists vers us
.

optic ian s i s th at o f t w o co m p et ito rs each o f whom is ,

claim i ng th e l ion s sha re o f th e spe ctacl e t r ade ; l et us

’

se e by wh at r ight Optic ian s as th e m a nu fa cturers of

.
—
,

spectacl es hav e b ee n f o r m any y ea r s th e ex c lusive dis

,

e n e rs o f th e i r goods a n d a good m any o f th e m did ao

p s ,

qu i re great ski l l i n fitti ng al l case s o f p r esbyopia and ,

m ost cases o f myo p ia an d hyp e r m et rop ia although the ,

l atter w as not yet k no w n by th at n a m e ; but it was don e

afte r al l i n a h ap h aza rd way an d m any cases w e re aban
-
,

do u ed by th em as i n cu rab l e Th ere was n o Opti cia n to my

.
,
“ ”
k no wl edge w ho exp lo red s u ch i n c u rab l e cases and
, ,

t r ied to r el iev e tho se u nfortu n ate s uff e re r s u nti l so me ,

o cul ists and physi ci sts took th e m i n h an d a n d succeeded , ,

by th e appli cat io n o f myd ri at i cs a nd th e ai d o f the

ophthal moscop e (also an i n v e nti o n o f a phy si cia n ) to
ove rco me thei r tro ubl e by cy l i nd r i c glasse s ; th u s ih
,

c reasi ng g reatly th e fo r m e rly rest ri cted u se o f spectacles .

These facts co ul d not h ave p rev e nted u s fro m appro

p r i
a t in
g i nv e ntio n s wh ich n o w b elo ng t o th e w o rl d if it ,

w ere not fo r th e p rotectio n o f th e p ubl i c at l arge to ’

,
co nfi n e th e app li catio n o f d rugs t o th e m ed i cal d epart
 MI S C E LL ANIE S . 24 5

ment . I n my opinion th e refore th e l i ne o f th e pro

, ,

vince of ocul ists sho u ld be d rawn to s uch cases wh e r e a

mydriatic has to be emp l oyed This l eaves to us not .

only al l cases we fo rm erly se rved but add s to them ,

many new ones S el f i nte rest a nd i m prope r ambitio n

.
-

may ove rstep th is i nteg ra l l i m it of each l egiti mate p ro

vince but that can not b e avoided as long as h um an
,

natu re is so f rail .

The oc u lists m ay fi nd thi s l i ne d rawn a littl e too

narrow and m ay po i nt to th e m any spectacl e deal ers
,

w ho have ha rdly elevated th e m sel ves above the l evel of

si m ple m echanics But th e r e are poo r p ractitio ne r s as
.

well as experts i n eve ry occupatio n not on ly among ,

opticians .

I f we take in co nsi deratio n th e clos e rel ation ship of

the t w o b ranches o f p ractical optics fro m a b u sin ess
stan d oi
p nt we m ust ad m it th at th e effo rts of th e
,

oculists to p resc ribe glasses h ave o nly i ncreased ou r u se

fulness and have elevated o u r i nsignifica nt occ upatio n
,

as Simple spectacl e ve ndo r s to a scientific t rade wh ich ,

to day emb races n u me io u s i nv estigato rs and abl e w rite r s

-
'
.

We have the refo re no reaso n to be j ealous o f thei r suc

, ,

ces s which ben efits us m aterial ly as wel l as i ntel lectually

, .

2 . An Er r or ab ou t As tig matis m .
— N ot long ago we
could read i n E ngl ish text books o f natural ph ilosophy
that the weight o f a t ub o f wate r woul d not be i nc reased
by putti ng a l ive fish i n it O ne day an i n quisitive .

p io f e s s o r actually m ad e th e ex pe ri me nt and readi ly ,

detected and co r rected this obv ious m istake C o rrected .

fo reve r ? Oh n o such e rI O is gen eral ly take root i n th e

minds of the m asses an d cl ing the r e obsti nately I t is
,

.
,

b ut a few w eek s Si n ce a p ro m i nent N O pape r (1892 ) . .

“
defended th is ol d sto ry by usi ng te rm s s uch as the
th e mu s c u l ar ene rgy o f th e
c
”
buoyancy of th e w ate r '

fish
”“ ie d u c d th e weig ht to nothi ng etc ’

, e ,
.

I n some books treat i n g o f astigm ati sm w e fin d a si m

ila i mis app rehe nsio n ; they tell us t h rt astigmatic eyes
-

see obj ects di sto rted Befo re I w rote th e chapter o n

.

a stig mati sm f o r th e seco nd editi o n I m ade many e xp e r ,

im e nt s with my o wn myopi c astigm ati c ey e and of -

, ,
24 6 H AND B O O K FO R O PT I C IAN S
- .

co urse detected th e fal lacy o f th at th eo ry so ge n e rally

, ,

accep ted and so cl eve r l y i l lu st rated by el abo rate d ia

gram s They show th at a ci r cl e i s el on gated t o a n el lipse
. ,

and eve n to a li n e as i f o u r ey ebal l was m a d e o f rubber

, ,

an d that a li ttl e pul l i ng o r p res si ng at opposite point s

wo uld cause d isto rtion .

Th e g reat m i stak e w e mak e is th at w e pl ace th e focus

o f th e faulty m e r idian s id e w ays of th e p ri n ci p al fo cus ,

i nstead of p utti ng both o n e b ehin d th e oth e r o n the

, ,

sam e v i sual axis Th e t r o ub l e of a n astigm ati c eye is

.

n o t due to a distorted app ea r an ce o f th e o bj ects but to ,

th e bl u r o n e m eri dian th r o ws o v e r th e i m age o f the

oth er and th e co nstant attem pts o f su ch an ey e to make
,

u se eith er o f th e sho rt er o r l o nge r fo c us i rritate the ,

eye i n th e sam e way as o u r b o d y i s wh e n i t t r ie s to b alance

itsel f o n t he d ec k o f a sai l ing v essel .

Th e fi rst t w o w riters o n th i s d efi ci e ncy o f v i sio n were

no t deceived as to its t ru e n atu r e Th om as Yo ung .

( 1 7 93 ) says th at h i s ey e s wh e n i n a state o
, f relaxation ,

col l ected to a fo cu s 0 11 th e reti n athose ray s wh ich di

v e rged v erti cal ly f ro m a n obj ect at th e d i stan ce o f ten
in ches fro m th e co r n ea a n d th e ray s wh i ch d iv erged
,

h o rizo ntal ly at seve n in ches H e p lai n ly s tates th at the

, .

ray s we re fo cu sed eith e r at te n o r at sev e n i nch es o n the

retin a A p rofou n d i nv estigato r l i ke Th Yo ung would
.
.
,
“ ”
n o t hav e u sed th e w o rd focu s i n that co nn ectio n if
th e re had b ee n any v isual d i sto rtio n o f th e i m age .

P ro f e SSOr A i ry ( 182 7 ) states th at i n h i s l eft ey e the

furth est poi nt o f d is tin ct v is io n f o r v e rti ca l ray s was
thr ee an d a half in ches
- - -
a nd f o r ho ri z o nta l rays s ix
,

in ches ; h e i s th e se co nd w r ite r o n A stigm atism a nd is

,

b esi des th e i n ve nto r o f Cyl i nd ri cal L e n s es He m ade .

f “ ”
u se o th e expressio n d isti nct v isi o n i n o n e o r t he
oth er m eridi an ; th e r efo re he di d no t ob se rv e any dis
t o rt io n of th e obj ects loo ked at .

A fte r my fi rst co ncepti o n o f thi s ge ne ral e rro r I d ili ,

gently i n v estigated ev e ry p ro no u n ced cas e w h ich came
u nder my obse rvatio n an d m u st co n fe ss th at future
,

write rs o n A stigmati sm sh o ul d n ot rely t o o much o n

state m ents o f so cal led autho riti e s l e st th ey rep ro d uce
-
,
24 8 H AN D BOO K F O R O PT I C IAN S
- .

of no b en efit to th e m fo r st r e et u s e No w w h e n these . ,

ch i ld r en a re not hyperm et r opi c w h at are th ey ? The ,

authoriti es do n o t say th at th ey are p re sb y o p l c ; Stl l l ,

wh en w e loo k at it c r iti cal ly w e can n ot d e ny t hat the ir

,

near po int m u st h av e take n a co n si d e rab l e str ide and is ,

far i n adv ance o f th ei r age acco rd i ng t o Do n d ers teach ing

’
.

He r e is evide ntly an o m issio n i n o u r te xt boo k s wh ich -

h as cau sed a great d eal o f co n fu sio n Th ey say that .

hype r m et ropia is us ually due : 1s t t o sh orte n ing o f th e ax 1s ,

o f th e eye bal l and

-
2 d to di m i n utio n i n th e i n d ex o f re
f racti on o f th e l en s I f th ey h ad l i m ited hy p e rmet ro
, , ,

pi a to th e fi rst state m e nt a nd h ad tra n sferred th e second

,

o n e to p resbyopi a wh ere it real ly b el o ngs it would

, ,

h av e greatly Simp lifi ed th e d efi ni ti o n o f both d e ficie n

ci es a nd we woul d no t h ear anoth e r wo rd o f r efractive
,

hyp er metr op ia Dr F V al k i n h i s arti cl e Hyp erme

. . .
“
,
” “ F o r th e p urpo se o f
t ropia say s,
si m pl i fyi ng o u r
study o f thi s r efractive co ndi t io n w e wi l l o nly con sider ,
”
t hat variety i n w hi ch the opti c axi s i s too sh o rt I f the .

l ea r n ed Docto r r eal l y b el i ev es i n r efr active hyp er metr o

p ia h e wou ld no t di spo s e o f it i n s u ch a n ab r upt way
, ,

as h e does n o t tak e a ny f u rthe r n oti ce o f it i n his

“
sp len di d L ect u res o n th e E r ro rs o f R ef ractio n .

I th i n k it i s high t im e f o r al l sci entifi c w r ite rs no ,

m atte r i n wh at b ran ch t o s imp l ify th ei r th eo ries e s

, ,

p e c ial l y those whi ch are n o t yet s uffici e ntly i nv estigated ,

a nd are m e r ely p ro m ulgated t o say so m eth i ng n ew .

Otherwise th ey wa nton ly o ve rtax o u r m e m o ry and u n

du ly st rai n o u r ove rb u r de ned b rai n i n it s vai n atte mpt
to search f o r l ight I t is related o f S i r H u m ph rey Davy
.
,

wh o at o ne t i m e b eca m e s o i nten sely i nte rest ed i n his

el ectri ca l d iscov eries that h e coul d w ith great d ifficulty
,

com pose hi m sel f a nd th e m ental l abo r a n d e x cite ment

,

th rew h i m i nto a typho id co nditio n wh i ch th reat e n ed his

l ife.

I f ou r text boo k s w e re j ud i cio usl y co r re cte d a n d pu ri

-

fie d o f al l vague theo ries it wo ul d n o t ta k e a l ife ti m e

, -

to m aster al l th e difficulti es o f o n e sp eci fi c b ran ch but ,

would also a llo w the stud e nt to d evote part o f h i s t i m e

to th e study o f ge n eral sci e n c e b e side s b e i ng an e xpe rt
,

i n h is o w n parti cula r p ro fessio n .

 I E LL ANIES
M SC . 24 9

4 The M echan is m of
.
Accommod ation
Th e wo rd .
—

accommod atio n is such a fam i lia r o ne am o ng opticians ,

that it is al most dee m ed to b e a co n fessio n o f igno ran ce

“
to ask what is acco m modati o n an d ho w i s it produced ? ”

Lately I correspo nded w ith an opti cian i n Maine who ,

had taken offense at m y u si ng the exp ressio n that in

presbyopia the len s becam e g rad u ally flatter He o b .

e cte d to any othe r defi nit io n than t h e cu r r e nt o ne that

j “
,

presbyop ia was due to th e di m i ni sh ed accom m odat io n

”
of the eye without taki ng i n co nside r ation that the
,

failing powe r o f the cil ia ry m uscl e together with the ,

increasing rigidity of th e l e ns k eeps the sam e i n a fl atte r

,

state (when a n ea r o bj ect i s rega rded ) than b efore th e

appearance of p resbyo pia Th e re fo re i f the l ens can not
.
,

be s ufficie nt ly ro u nded o u t by som e cause o r other it ,

surely is flatte r ; o ne i s the cause t he oth er th e effect , .

To fo rm a correct i d ea o f th e ch anges wh ich take

place when th e eye acco m m odates itsel f to d iffere nt dis
tances we m ust co n side r its co nst ructio n u nde r the fol
,

lo w ing four si mpl e d ivi sio n

1 The scleroti c coat and th e co rn ea i s on e an d th e
.

sa me substance ; th e co r n ea i s t ra nspare nt th e othe r ,

Opaque .

2 The cho roid the ci lia ry m uscl e with its p rocesses

.
, ,

and the i ris b elo ng togethe r ; they are i n s u ch clos e con

ne ct io n besides bei ng of th e sa m e st ructu re i
,
n a m odified ,

fo rm that o ne o f the m can not be w el l considered sep

,

arate l y f rom th e othe r s without igno r i ng the l atest ana

to m ical resea rch es o n th e eye .

3 Th e reti na i s th e l east k no w n part o f th e eye ;

.

most text books li mit it to that po rtio n wh i ch contain s

the rods an d co nes and cal l its co ntin uatio n to the f ront
,

the hyal oid whi ch i s nothi ng el se than a red uced portio n

,

of the reti na Wh en th e hyaloi d (o r I m ay say th e

.

retina ) has reached th e ci l ia ry mu sc l e it i s call ed th e ,

s us ens or
p l
y g i am e n t an d clos ely fol
,
lo wi,
ng the folds of

the ciliary p rocesses (a pa rt of the c ili a ry m uscl e ) it ,

reaches the l ens I t n o w d i vi des ; o ne section fo rm s th e

.

lo w er or poste rio r pa rt of th e capsu l e o f the l en s the ,

other forms the upp e r o r front part o f th e capsu l e .

2 50 H AND B O O K F O R O PT I CIANS
- .

We th erefore h av e to co n si d e r th e hyaloi d th e s u s p e n
, , ,

so ry l igam ent and th e capsu l e o f th e l en s as m od ifie d

form s o f the r eti n a .

4 Th e th ree h um ors th e v itr eo u s th e cr ys tal l in e and

.
, ,

the aq u eo u s fo rm th e fo u rt h d iv i sio n in th e st ru ct ure of

,

th e eye .

I suppose that th e reader h as so m e bo o k w ith dia

g ram s o f the ey e sho wing pl ai nly i ts di ffe re n t p arts .

We fi rst loo k fo r th e cho ro id at th e i n sid e botto m o f the

eyeb al l and follo w its exte nsio n to th e f r o n t pa rt ti ll it
,

i s al most o n a l ev el w ith th e l en s H e r e it b egi ns to .

Swell i nto an i r regul ar body w ith n u m e r o u s fol d s call ed ,

th e ciliary processes wh i l e anoth e r pa r t r u n s alongside

,

the scl e roti c an d fo r m s the cili ary m uscl e w hi ch con . ,

ti nn es a l ittl e fu rth e r to th e f ro nt th an th e ci li a ry p ro
cesses b u t th e n suddenly b ra nch e s o f f al m o st at a right
, ,

a ngl e an d fo r m s th e i r is No w w e loo k f o r th e r etin a ;

, .
—

it is on ly m arked by a thi n l i n e a n d i s h a r dl y v isibl e i n

the d iag ram u nti l it b ran ch e s off f ro m th e ci l ia ry pro
,

cesses to t h e l ens wh e r e it fo rm s th e capsu l e Th e

, .

pa rt fol lo wing the folds o f th e ci li a ry p ro cesse s i s called

th e suspen sory l igam ent I t i s i n lo ose co n n ecti o n w ith
.

the ci liary processes u n l i ke the ci li a ry m u scl e wh ich is

,

fi rm ly attach ed to t h e scle roti c an d also t o it s p ro cesses .

Th erefo re wh en th e cil ia ry m uscl e co nt r act s it wil l

, ,

draw th e p ro cesses n ea r e r to th e scl eroti c an d w i l l so m e ,

what rel iev e th e p ull o f th e ci l ia ry p roc esse s o n th e sus

p e ns o r
y l igam ent and th e n o w sl ack e n ed l igam e nt w il l
,

al low the elasti c l e ns t o ass u m e a m o r e co nv e x shape ,

which i ncreases its refractive pow e r B ut w h e n the .

cili ary m uscle agai n r el ax es th e adh e re nt p ro ce sses w il l ,

expand and p ul l o n the ligam e nt w h i ch r esu mes its ,

form e r pressu re o n th e l en s and w i ll cau se its fl atte ni ng ,

and accom m odat ion fo r d istant v i sio n .

Th e o l d th eo ry of acco m m odation w h i ch w as fi rst ,

“
p rom ulgat ed by Hel mholtz teach e s th at th e ci r c u l ar ,

fibres o f th e ci l ia ry m uscl e ex e rt a p r essu re u po n the

edge of th e l e ns by m ea ns o f wh i ch th e l att e r b eco m es
,

thi cke r Ha rt ridge in his val uabl e boo k o n re f r actio n

.
,
,

l eans to both th eo ri es th e o l d a n d th e n e w o n e ; h e i s
,
2 52 H AND BOO K F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

p ressu re Ho w thi s i s do ne afte r th e su sp e n so ry l iga

m e nt i s fi rm ly lo cked b etwee n th e s u pposed p re ss mg
.

cilia ry processes and th e resi sti ng l en s h e fo rgot t o ex ,

p lai n 2 He also states th at th e l e n s ro u nd s o u t of it s

. .

o w n acco rd afte r the s uspe nso ry l iga m ent has sl acke n ed .

I ndeed a genial way to fo rce th e read er to u s e his o w n

,

j udgm ent .

N o w l et us see what happen s wh e n l ight st rike s th e

eye S uppos e th e l ight i s too gl a ri ng ; th e rod s and
.

con es wi l l b e v iol ently agitate d an d as th ey a re p a rtly ,

i mbedded i n th e choroid th is r ecei ves th e sa m e sho ck ,

’

and wi ll com m u ni cat e it by refle x actio n to i ts e n d , ,

m e mb ran e th e i ris wh i ch al m ost i m m edi ately red uces

, ,

th e size o f th e p upi l But i f th e l ight i s n o t st ro ng

.

e nough the choroid agai n wil l co rrect th e d efi ci e n cy by

,

e n la rging th e pupi l A nd if th e i m p ress ion o f r e fl ected

.

l ight f rom n ea r obj ects i s no t di sti n ct th e ch o r o i d wil l ,

en deavo r to ov e r com e th e di fficulty by s etti ng i n a cti on

th e ci li a ry m u scl e and accom m o date th e l e n s f o r n ear
,

v i sio n We see that the ch o roi d w ith its accesso r i es

.
, ,

i s th e mo st active p art i n th e m echani s m o f acco m m od a

tio n and it i s not at al l s u rpri si ng th at so m e rece nt ex
,

p l o re rs att r ibute to i t th e fun cti o n s wh ich are appa r e ntly

perform ed by sepa rate i ndep e nde nt pa rts o f t h e ey e , .

Th e retina o n the contrary plays a m o re passiv e part

, ,

i n th e act o f seei ng ; n eith er th e s uspe n so ry li gam e nt no r

th e capsul e o f th e l en s h ave any m uscul a r stru ctu re and ,

all ch anges i n thei r position an d co n ditio n ar e p rod u ced

by th e action of th e ci lia ry m u scl e an d p ro ce sses a nd ,

th e el asticity o f th e l en s m atter ; i t i s m e rely t he re -

cei v e r and faith fu l t ran sm itte r o f th e toi l s o f th e cho ro id .

5 . The N eu tral iz ation Th e fo rm e r vague o f L e n s es .

-

m easurem ent of l enses i n p rese nt s upers ed ed in ches i s at

by th e metr ic syste m wh ich u n do ubtedly i s d e sti n e d to
,

b ecom e th e u n ive rsal m easure o f sp ectacl e l e n se s t o th e

g reat reli ef o f optician s Th e m et ri c sy ste m i s b as ed .

o n th e standard l ength o f a F r e n ch m ete r w h i l e th e ,

i nch i s o f a variab l e length in d iffe r e nt co u n tri e s Op .

t ic ian s o f l arge citie s wh o we re se rv i ng sev e ral o cu li sts

,
,

w ere freq ue ntly an noy e d by co m m e nts a s to t h e l o o se

 M ISCE LL ANIES 2 53

man ne r in wh i ch o rde rs we re fil led I fo r i nsta nce re .

, ,

ce i v e d o rde r s i n R he ni sh A ust ria n F re n ch a nd E ngl i s h

, ,

i nches a nd as my t rial case was f ro m Be r li n o nly th e

'

-
, ,

fi rst ocul i s t was co rrectly se rved a n d to satisfy th e ,

othe rs I h a d t o stock mys el f wi th h alf an d o d d n u mbe rs

, ,

wh en eve r th ey co u ld be h ad at th at ti me But a good .

many optician s m ust h av e b ee n l ike wise e m ba r rassed as ,

those u nco m mo n n um be r s w e r e soo n i n th e m a r k et ,

besides m any o f the weake r n um be rs wh ich w e re ab s o

l u t e l y usel ess a nd Sh o w ed a lac k of good j udgm e nt by
,

thei r m an ufactu rers .

O u r t ro ubl e d id n ot altogeth e r cease afte r th e i ntro

ductio n o f th e m et ric sy stem though w e w e re pa rtly re ,

l ie v e d fro m car ryi ng a n e ndless sto ck o f l e nses But .

the re was an othe r i m po rtant p rob le m t o be so l ved I ,

mean t o p rov id e th e t rade opticia ns and o cul ists with

, ,

u nifo r m t ri al cases -
S o m e m an ufactu ring Opti cian s
.

were i nd uced by th e g reat dem a nd f o r s uch cases to ,

make th em co rrect o r i n correct Of co u rse th e b u yer

, .
,

r el ies o n th ei r co r r ect n es s an d as h e i s u n able to detect

,

any e rro r h e m ay co m e with al l h o n esty i n co n fli ct

, , ,

with an o c ul i st wh o has a t ri al case of anoth e r co ncern -

,

perhaps m o re fau lty Lately Mr C has F P r entic e

.
, . . .

exam i ned th e p ris m s o f several t r ial c ases wit h the fo l -

lowi ng resu l ts :
P ris ms m a r k ed
were actual ly i n case I ,

II ,

III ,

I pity th e optician s h av e to fi l l o rders accordi ng

w ho
to such test p rism s Las t sum mer I v isited som e p rom i
-
.

n ent m an ufacture rs o f t ri al cases an d fo u nd that most o f-

,

the m w ere taki ng th e ut m ost pai ns to p rod uce a n a rticl e

as perfect as it ca n be m ade Ho weve r th ere are so m e .

difficu lti es i n th e n eutral izatio n o f l en ses wh ich are al most

i mpossi bl e t o ov erco m e w ith th e l en ses co m monly used ,

wh i ch are eith e r b i o r pe ri scop i c co nv ex and co ncave ,

and as my attentio n w as d raw n to that fact I co ncl uded ,

to i nv estigate th e m atte r careful ly an d com m un icate th e

res ul t to th e c raft .
2 54 H AND BO OK -
F OR O PT I C IAN S .

S pectacl e l en ses are ei th er pe ri scopi c

p l an e, d o ub l e or

co nvex and co n cav e Th e p lan e co n vex an d co n cav e are

.
-

al most enti rely o u t o f u se b ecause th e do ubl e o n e s re

,

qu i re o n ly h al f th e cu rv e a nd are th e refo re l ighte r and

, , ,

n earer co rrect Th i s i s o n e reaso n w hy al l t ri al case s

.
-

are provided with doub le l en ses Th e p eri sco pi c l e nses .

are eve n wo rse than th e p l ane beca use th e cu rve o f o n e ,

side has not o nly to represen t th e actu al st re ngth o f th e

l ens b ut has to b e i ncreased e no ugh t o n eut ral iz e al so
,

th e opposite cu rve .

I n testi ng l en ses th e two c u rves sho ul d co m p l etely

to uch each oth e r a nd form a n eut ral slab wh i ch on ly wil l ,

b e achieved i n th e w eake r n u m b ers But fro m five .

d iopte rs u p to twenty w e wi l l p e rce i v e a n i m perfect

,

n eut ralizatio n ev en i n th e best t r i al cases e sp eci ally -

,

a mong the cataracts wh en w e hol d th e m eith e r at arm s

,

l ength fro m th e ey e o r i f w e a re i ndi ffe ren t as to the

,

place o f th e co n cave test l en s to wa rds th e ey e Th ere

-
.

i s a ma rked differen ce i n placi ng th e co n cav e l en s i n

front o r b ehin d the co n v ex l en s an d as lo ng as th e re are ,

n o estab l ish ed rul es f o r th e n e ut ralization o f l e nse s o u r ,

wo rk m ay be criti ci sed by ove r acted ocul i sts wh o m ay -

m ake the test at random I the r efo re suggest th e fol low

.

i ng facts to th e k i n d con sideration o f opti ci an s a nd

o culists .

1 A n absol ute neutral izatio n o f l e n s es ca n b e real ized

.

o nly with p l an e co n vex an d p l an o co n cave l en ses as th e

- -
,

t wo together p rod uce a pe rfect pla n e o r s lab Th u s th e .

i nside cu rves p racti cally d isapp ear an d as th e o utside ,

pl an es are pa ra l l el th e re i s n o wave ri ng o r o sci ll ati ng

,

w hatsoev e r .

2 B i co nvex an d b i con cave l e ns es o f eq ua l strength

.
- -

pro d uce in th e w eake r n u mb ers a plan e m e n i scus b ut i n ,

th e stronger n u mbers a coq uil l e ; i n bot h case s th e h ol low

side Should b e tu rn ed to wards th e ey e w h e n b e in g ex
amin e d By adopting th is rul e w e are n o t a n noy e d by
.
,

th e spheri cal abe rratio n as m uch as wo ul d b e th e ca se i f

th e co nvex side be di rected to wards th e eye .

3 A great m istake i s m ade i n d is regardi ng th e d i stan ce

.

at wh ich we hold th e l en se s Those n o t stro nger tha n

.

t w o d iopte rs m ay b e h el d at a rm s l e ngth b ut th e st ro n
’

,
2 56 H AND BO OK F O R O PT I C IAN S
- .

n ecessarily m u st exi st altho ugh so m e o f th e m loo k rather

,

do ubtful F o r i nstan ce that th e ato m s o f sol i d bo d ies

.
, ,

n o m atter ho w de nse d o n ot to uch each oth e r b ut are ,

su rrou nded by ethe r wh ich se rves a s th e adh esi v e m ed i u m

,

i n additio n t o th e i nh ere nt attractio n o f th e ato m s them

selv es i s o n e o f those do ubtful th eo r ies Th e astrono m er
,
.

Eul er calcul ated th at it i s 3 9 m i ll io n t im es ra re r an d 13 0 0 ,

ti m es mo re elasti c tha n o u r at mo sph ere ; an d n obody can

p rove tha t h e i s i n e rro r I o n l y w o nd e r ho w h e fo u nd
.

it o u t .

N ewto n was th e fi r st w ho a cco u nted f o r th e p ropagation

of light His th eo ry was th at sel f l u m i no us bodies
.
-

e mitted o r th rew o ff pa rti cl es in al l di rectio ns w hich , ,

wh en st r i ki ng th e ey e p rod uce th e se n sati o n o f sight

, .

Th ese light m i ssi les w e r e so s m al l that th ey readi ly p ene

-

t rat e d t r an sparent bodies b u t w ere eith e r th row n back or

,

s w al lo wed up by opaque bodi es N ewto n wa s st ro ngly .

oppo sed by Huygh en s hi s co nte mpo rary wh o p rom oted

, ,

th e u nd ulato ry th eory an d publ ish ed so m e p h e nom ena

,

o f light wh i ch coul d n o t b e expl ai n ed by th e e m ission

th eo ry N ewton i nstead o f adm itti ng th e e rror o f his

.
,

theory l ook ed fo r so m eth i ng wh ich woul d cove r s uch

,

“
cases and h e cam e fo r w a rd with h i s fits o f l ight as ”
, ,

h e call ed th e i rregu la rities wh i ch h e cou ld n o t account

f o r an d his autho rity was so w el l estab li sh ed th at th e
,

sci enti fic wo rl d s n ee red at H uyghe n s Eu l er an d oth ers ,

who st u ck to th ei r u nd ul ato ry theo ry B r e wste r o n e of .

,

th e l atest defe nde rs o f th e em issio n th eo ry say s : “ Ne w ,

t o n ( lo es not p reten d to ex plai n th e o rigi n o f th es e fits ,

o r th e cau se wh ich p rod uces t he m ; b ut we m ay form a

tol e rabl e i de a o f th e m b y supposing th at each pa rt icl e of

l ight af t e r it s disch a rge f ro ma l u m i n o u s body revo lves
, ,

r oun d an axi s pe rpen dic u la r t o the di r ectio n o f its m otion

,

p r esenti ng alte rnately to th e l i n e o f its m otio n a n attrae

ti ve an d a r epul si ve pol e i n vi rtu e o f wh i ch it w i l l be
,

r efracted i f th e attractive pol e i s n ea rest any r efracti ng

s u rf ace 0 11 wh ich it fal ls a n d refle cted if th e repu l sive

,
”
pol e i s nearest th at su rface .

He th en go es o n t o explai n s e v e ral fits b ut at l ast grace ,

f u l l y turn s aro u nd an d ad m its “E

ach o f th ese t wo
th eo ries o f light i s b es et w ith difficu lti es pe cu l i ar t o i tsel f ;
 M ISCE L L ANIES . 2 57

but th e theo ry o f u nd ulatio ns has m ad e great p rogre s s

in modern ti m es an d de r ives su ch powe rful suppo rt from
,

an exte nsiv e class o f ph e no mena that i t h as bee n r eceived ,

by many o f o u r most distinguish ed ph i losoph e r s F or

many years th e N ewto n ian s were defyi ng th ei r opponen t s
with great v igo r but grad ually th e fits becam e so n um e r
,

ous that o n e sci e ntist afte r anoth e r d ropped th e em i ssio n

,

theory ; especi al ly si n ce Thomas Yo ung cam e fo r w a rd

“
with the i nterfe ren ce o f light whi ch gave N e w to n s ” ’

theory the death blow .

The present th eo ry o f l ight i s based on th e supposed

nature of ethe r N ewto n had n o t th e adva nt age of such
.

an hypoth etical m edi u m his light —particl es we r e real

,

matter p roj ected f ro m th e sou rce of l ight flyi ng i n

, ,

straight li n es th rough space penetrati ng all t ranspa re nt ,

bodies till they re ach ed the reti na Th e th eo ry o f eth e r

, .
,

on the co nt ra ry sets som eth i ng i n v ib ratio n wh ich ca n

,

penetrate eve rythi ng opaqu e obj ects as w el l as tran s

,

parent o nes That m a ny obj ects are op aque s ee m i ngly

.

modifies th e i dea w e h av e o f th e p en et r abi lity o f ethe r

and its vibration s ; it s ure ly goes thro ugh a spo nge e asi er
than through a pan e o f glass a nd i f the i dea wo u ld n ot ,

be too stal e I sho uld n o t won de r if o ne of th ese d ays

, , ,

Somebody wo ul d also speak o f

“ fits o f eth e r But the .

undulation theo ry does n o t compel th e ethe r to p en etrate

the transparent obj ects i n o rder to co ntin ue the v ib ratio ns
beyo nd it S uppose it o n ly sets th e m i nto ce rtai n
.

vibratio ns wh ich opaq ue bodie s are u nab le to t ra n sm it

, ,

and th e vi bratio n s are readi ly accepted and di spatch ed at

the oppo site side o f the m we m ay t hus easi ly expl ai n ,

the transparen cy o f som e a nd th e op acity of oth e r ,

bodi es Our tel eph o n e giv es u s a good il l u stration

. .

Elect ric ity th e greatest fo rce o f n at ure i s po werl ess as

, ,

to glass ; i f w e f o r i nstance woul d exch a n ge the th in

, ,

plate o f sh eet i ron i n th e telepho n e f o r a thi n p l ate o f

glass it wou ld n o t work at all
,
.

Ethe r i n th e sen se o f m odern sci en ce h as l ost al l re

, ,

semblance to co m mo n m atter b ecause th e eth e r o f th e ,

whol e Un iv e rs e w il l n o t w eigh o n e g rai n I t i s i ntangibl e .

an d th e refore i mpon de rabl e We can w e igh the ra rest

, ,
.

17
2 58 H AND BOO K F O R O PT I C IAN S
- .

gas an d can co m pare i t with o u r atm os p h e re p ro v in g

, ,

that i t i s so and s o m any ti m es l igh te r th a n air ; w e al so

can i m agin e th e size of an ato m o f any m atte r b ut it ,

wo u ld be no n sen se to speak o f an ato m o f eth e r th e sa me ,

as if we would speak o f ato m s o f l ight o r elect r ic ity .

I must
“ Wel l what i s ”
o t he r i s it m atte r o r fo rce ?
,

say that it i s n eith e r m atte r n o r fo rce but i s t h e co n nect

,

ing li n k b etwee n th e m ; i t i s th e v ehi cl e o f fo rce and

the n ea rest ki n to matter E lectri city m agn eti s m h eat
.
, ,

and l ight are fo rces but 110 m atte r can b e affe cted by
th em w itho ut the age ncy o f eth er wh ich u n ite s th e mso
,

.
,

thorough l y that we can not co nceiv e eith er o f th e m separ

ately ; th ere i s n o m atte r w ithout fo rce an d no force ,

witho ut m atte r Th i s l ead s us agai n t o th e p re su m ptio n

.

that the whol e Un ive rse m u st b e fi l l ed w ith eth e r an d ,

th at it penetrates eve ryth i ng thu s faci l itati ng th e fo rces

,

o f nature t o produce changes i n the wo rld by a d i rect

action upo n th e ato ms .

No w my fri ends I hope y o u k no w by th is ti m e all

, ,

about eth e r ; if n ot do no t blam e m e b e caus e after

, , ,
—

all — ether i s stil l a myste ry to mysel f

, .
2 60 H AN D BOO K F O R O PT ICIANS
- .

Ap hakia (Gre ek , a, not p hakos l e n s ) A b se n ce of

, ,
.

th e c ry s talli n e le ns ; f o r i n stan ce afte r th e op e rat ion ,

fo r cata ract .

Agu eo u s hu mo r (Lati n aq ua wate r ) A f e w d rops , ,

.

of w atery col orl ess fl uid o ccu py i ng th e sp ac e bet w een

, ,

th e co r nea i ris a nd c rystal l i n e l en s

, .

Ar eo meter An i nst r um ent t o m e as u r e th e specific

.

g ravity o f l iq u ids .

Ar ter y (G reek aer air a nd ter eo t o k ee p ) A v essel

, , ,
.

conv ey i ng th e bl ood fro m th e h ea rt o utw a rd t o th e o r

gans ; so cal le d b eca u s e th e an ci ents th o ught th e s e v essel s
co ntain ed ai r as they are em pty afte r d e ath
, .

Asthen op ia (Greek a n o t s then os st r ength op s eye ) , , , , , , .

Th e ey e h as no stre ngth i n it s m u scl e s ; so m eti mes

w e ak s i
g ht e d ne s s

Asy mmetry (Greek w ith metr o n m eas , a, no t , s

yn , , ,

ure not i n m easu re ) Th is wo r d i s th e o ppo site o f sym

, .

metry whi ch m eans that th e s e veral parts o f a body or

, ,

th i ng ar e i n due p ropo rtion t o each oth e r ; wh i l e asym

,

metry m ean s that they a re o u t o f p r e portio n .

Atr op hy (Gree k tr ep hein to no u ri sh )

, , A wasting , .

away f ro m defect o f no u ri sh m ent .

Atr op in e (Greek atrop os b lack —th e na m e o f o ne o f

, , ,

th e F ates ) A v ery poi so no us v egetabl e a l kal o id ex

.
,

t racted f ro m th e plant At ro p a Bel lado n n a th e deadly i

,

n ightshade ; th e extract crystall iz es in l o n g white ,

n eedles .

Axis (Greek axo n a st r aight li n e real o r i m agi n ary

, , , ,

o n wh i ch a body revol ves o r m ay r evo lv e I n o ptics

) , .
,

a ray of l ight f r o m any obj ect wh ich fal l s p e rp e n d ic u ,

l arl y o n th e eye cal led th e opti c o r v i s ual a x i s

, .

B ar ometer ( G r eek b ar os w e ight metro n m eas u re )

, , , , .

A n i n stru m e nt f o r m ea s u ring th e w ei ght o r p ressu re o f

th e at mosphe re .

B ifo cal
-
A l e n s h avi ng t w o d i ff e re nt fo ci
.
.

B in o cu l ar (L ati n b in i t w o a n d t w o o cu l u s ey e
,
) , , , .

I t signifies an i nst ru m e nt us e d by both eye s at o nc e .

B in o cl e (F ren ch ) E y eglasses f o r both ey es

.
.

B r ain Th e m ass o f n e rvo u s s u bst an c e co ntai n e d i n

.

th e cavity o f th e sk u l l .
 G L O SSAR Y . 261

C al o r ic (Latin cal or h eat )

. Th e p r i n cipal o f h eat
, , .
,

the age nt o f h eat and co m bu stion .

Camera l u cid a A n o pti cal i n stru m e nt wh i ch by

.
, ,

mean s o f l e n ses giv es th e o utl in es o f external Obj ects

,

o n pape r so that th ey ca n b e sk etch ed

, .

Camer a o bs cu r a (da rk ch am ber ) A n appa ratu s rep .

resenti ng an artifici al ey e i n which th e i m age s o f e xte r ,

nal obj ects recei ved th rough a co nvex l en s are exhi b

, ,

it e d disti nctly at th e focus o f th e le ns w ithi n th e da rk

ened cha mb er .

Can thu s (G re ek can thos th e ri m of a wh ee l ) A ngle , , .

of the eye ; the i n n e r an d o ute r co rn e rs wh e re th e ey e ,

li d s join .

Cap ill ar ies (Lati n cap il l u s h ai r ) Th e s mal lest , , .

-

blood vesse ls betwee n th e a rteri es and th e v ei ns s o ,

called fro mth ei r m in ute o r hai r l i ke Size -

.

Car tilag e (Lati n car tilage ) A fi rm el astic sub , .

,

stance l i ke I n d i a rubbe r form i ng a part o f th e j oi nts

,
-
, ,

Wind pipe nostri ls an d ears

-
, .

Catap hor ia (Gree k kata do w n ) Th e t e nde ncy o f , , .

the right o r l eft vi s ua l lin e to pl ace itsel f belo w the l i n e

'

of no rmal visio n ; i nsu ffici e ncy o f th e s uperio r rectus

m uscl e (S e e Hype rpho ri a )
. .

Catar act [ Greek catar ass o t o th ro w do w n t o b reak , , ,

or disturb ] Opacity of the l ens o r its cap sul e

. .

Catop tr ic [ G reek c atop tr o n m i rro r ] That part o f , , .

optics whi ch explai n s th e p rope rtie s o f reflect ed l ight ,

an d particul arly that wh i ch i s reflected fro m m irro rs o r

polished s urfaces .

Cavity [ Lati n cavu s h o l lo w ] A ho l lo w i nclosed

, , .
,

S pace
Cerebell u m [ Lati n d i m i n utiv e o f cer eb r u m b rai n ]
.

, , .

Th e littl e b rai n Situated at th e back and lo w e r part o f

the head .

Cer ebr u m The b rai n p rop er o ccu pyi ng th e e nti re

. ,

uppe r a nd fro nt pa rt o f th e s k ul l I t i s n early d iv id ed .

i nto two eq ual pa rts cal l ed h e m i sph e res by a cl eft e x , ,

ten d ing back wa rd f ro m the f ro nt pa rt o f th e h ead .

C ho r o id [ G r e e k c hor io n Ski n e id os fo rm ] ,
A , , , .

bro wn i sh bl ack m e mb ra n e fo rm i ng the m idd le coat o f

-

th e ey ebal l .
262 H A ND BOO K F O R O PT ICIAN S
- .

C hor oid itis I n fla m m atio n of

. t h e cho roi d .

C ilia [ Lati n ] Eyel ash e s

. .

C on cave [ Lati n , co n cav u s , h ol lo w ] C u rv e d o r .

ro unded l ik e th e i n si de s u r fa ce o f a hol lo w gl ob e
,
.

C o n ges tion [ Lati n co n toge t h e r g er o t o b r i n g ] A n

, , , ,
.

u n n atural gath ering o f bl ood i n any pa rt o f th e body :

C on tr action [ Lati n tr aho to d raw ] Th e act ive
, ,
.

shorten ing o f a m uscl e o r m u scul ar fib r e .

C o n vex (Lati n con veho t o b ri ng togeth e r )

,
C u rv e d ,
.

o r ro und ed l ike th e o utsi de o f a glob e

,
.

C or n ea [ Lati n co r n u h o rn ] Th e t ra n spa r e nt horn

, ,
.
,

l ike s ubstance whi ch covers th e f ro nt pa rt o f th e eyeball ,

through w h ich th e l igh t pa s ses .

C rys tall ine L e ns [ Lati n cr ys tal l u m A t rans , ,

parent ci rcul ar body ro u n ded o u i ts fro n t an d b ack

, ,

s urfaces sit uated i n th e ey eb al l j ust b eh i n d th e pupi l

, ,

and i ris .

Deviation [ Lati n d e fro m v ia way ]

, A t u rn i ng
, , , .

aside from th e right w ay o r l i n e .

Dial y te (Greek d ia an d l y o t o loos e n t o separate ] A

, , , .

tel escope i n w hi ch th e fli nt and cro w n gl ass o f th e o h

j e c t i
v e l en s are n o t glu e d togeth er b u t m o unted s epa ,

rat e l y
, l eav i ng so m e space betw e e n th e m .

Diap hr agm [ G ree k d iap hragma partitio n ] A pl ate , , .

w ith aci rc ul ar o peni ng u se d i n i n st ru m e nts t o c u t o ff

, , ,

m argi nal portio n s o f a bea m o f l ight .

Dif r actio n [ Lati n d if r ing o t o b re ak i n pi eces ]

, A , .

ch ange wh i ch l ight u n d ergo es wh en by p assi n g n ear , ,

th e bo rder o f an opaq u e b ody it form s parall el b an d s ,

o r colo red fri nges .

Diop tr ic [ G reek d iop tomai I see th ro ugh ]

, Th at , .

b ran ch o f o pti cs wh ich t reats o f th e refractio n o f l ight

and th e properties o f l en ses .

Dip l op ia (Greek d ip l os doub l e op s ey e ]

, Do ubl e , , , .

v is io n
.

Disp ers ion (Lati n d isp argo to s catte r ] , Th e sepa , .

ratio n o f light i nto its d iffe r e nt colo re d ray s .

Diss ol v in g vie w s are p rod uced by t w o m agic l ante rn s

,

o f eq ual stre ngth whos e foci are ce nte re d o n th e sam e

,
2 64 H AN D BOO K-
F OR O PT ICIAN S .

F o cu s
(Lati n h
.
earth fi re pl ace )
,
A po i nt i n w h ich ,
-
.
‘

th e rays o f light m eet afte r bei n g refl ecte d o r refracte d,

.

G ma (G reek gl au cos sea g ree n ) A m o st se

l au co , ,
- .

rio n s diseas e o f th e eye n o t w ell u n d e rstoo d b u t ch a r, ,

ac t e ri
z ed b h ard ness o f th e glo be d il atat io n o f th e pup l
y i , ,

an d ofte n by a g re eni sh o p aq ue app ea ra nc e o f th e p up il .

Gogg l es (th i s wo rd i s o f Wel sh o rigi n g og el u t o sh u n

“

, , ,

t o sh elte r ; th e F ren ch coq u il l e i s o nl y a poo r su bst itute

fo r the s am e wo rd ) P rotectio n sp ecta cl e s o f c o lore d
.

glass i n th e sh ape o f a mu s e/t el o r a h o l lo w watchgl ass .

Go n io meter (G reek g o n ia angl e ) I n st rum e nt f o r

, ,
.

m eas uri ng th e a ngl es fo r med by th e face s o f crystal s .

Gr an u l atio n (Lati n g r an u m g rai n ) Th e p ro cess of

, , .

fo rmi ng s mal l grai n l ik e sw el li n gs o n th e te n d e r m uco us

-

m e mb ran e o f th e ey el i d a d i sease ; al so th e n atu ral p ro ,

cess by wh i ch th e surfaces o f ul ce rs a nd so res are co v

e red w ith n e w ti ssue gran u latio n ti ss ue o r gra n u l atio ns
, .

Hel io meter [ G ree k hel ios th e su n ] A k i n d o f m i

, , .

o ro m eter f o r m eas u ri ng with e x act n ess o f th e appare nt

d iam ete r o f th e s u n m oo n o r plan ets, .

Heter op hor ia [ Gree k heteros othe r p horein t o bear ] , , , ,

A te rm e m ploy ed t o signi fy th at co n dit io n o f th e ey e s

wh e re the re is a w ant o f bal an ce o f t h e e xt ri n s i c o cu l ar
m uscl es du e to i nsu ffici en cy o r p aresi s o f th ese m uscl e s ;
,

the oppo site o f Ortho phoria .

Homogen eo u s [ G reek homos th e sa m e gen os k in d ]

.
, , , , .

Of th e sam e ki nd o r n at u r e ; co n sisti ng o f si m i l ar parts ,

o r o f e l e m e nts o f th e l i ke n at u re .

Ho rd eo l u m Sty e . .

Hor op ter A n ob so l ete d en o m i n ati o n f o r R ange o f

.

Visio n .

Hu mor [ Lati n ] Mo istu re ; th e h u mo rs are t ran s par

.

en t conte nts o f th e ey eb al l .

Hy d r ometer A n i n stru m en t use d by d ea le rs i n w i n es

.
,

spi rits a nd al l com m erci al l iq ui d s f o r asce rt ai n i n g th ei r

,

com parat iv e stre ngth .

Hyp er aemia [ G reek hyp er o v er o r abov e haima , , ,

b loo d ] A n activ e su p erab u n da n ce o f bloo d i n an o rg a n

.

,
o r pa rt o f th e bo d y .
 GLO SSAR Y . 2 65

Hyp er esop lzor ia Te nde ncy O f the v isual l i n e up w ard

.

an d i nw ard ; i ns uffici en cy o f th e in fe rio r and e x te rnal

recti m uscl es .

Hyp er exop l t or ia Te nden cy of th e v is u al l in e upward

.

and out wa rd ; i nsu ffici en cy o f th e i nfe rio r and i nte rn al

recti m uscl es .

Hyp erp ho r ia Th e ten den cy Of th e r igh t o r l eft

.

visual l i ne to p lace itsel f i n a di rection above th e l i n e Of

norm al vi sio n ; i ns uffici en cy Of t he j nf e rio r r ectus m u scl e .

( S ee C atapho ria ) .

I l l us io n (Latin ) A deceptio n Of th e sen se (sight ) o r

.

brai n .

I n d en tation [ Latin in and d en s a tooth ] A notch

, , , .

in the m a rgi n o f anythi n g .

I nfl ectio n Th e sa m e as diffractio n

. .

I nf l ammatio n (Lati n fl ammo to flam e ) A p eculia r

, ,
.

dise ased con ditio n o f any part Of an an i m al b ody ch a r ,

act e ri z e d by red ness swel ling h eat pai n and feb ri le

, , ,

symptom s ; there is fi rst hyperae m ia an d t h e n co ngestion .

I ngr ed ien t (Lati n ing r ed i t o go i nto ) That wh ich

, , .

enters into a com po u nd as o n e o f its co nstituents .

I n terfer en ce denotes i n Optics ce rtai n phe no m e n a

,

which res ult fro m th e m utual action o f th e rays Of l ight

on each other .

I r is [ Latin th e rai nbo w ] , Th e th i n m u scular ri ng o r .

curtai n wh ich lies b etwee n th e co rn ea a nd crystal li ne

lens an d wh i ch gi ves the ey e its b ro w n bl u e o r other
, ,

color .

I r itis I nflam m at io n Of th e i ri s
. .

I r rad iatio n Th e ph e no m e no n by w h i ch a b ri l l iant

.

body [ especi ally o n a da r k groun d ] appears l arge r th an

it is by reason o f the sti m ulat io n Of th e l ight fo rce ex
, ,

tendi ng over a l arg er area o f th e reti na th an that o c c u

pied by th e i m age O f th e bo dy .

Kal eid os cop e (Greek kal os b eautiful eid os fo rm , , , , ,

skop eo to see ) ,
A n i n stru m e nt wh i ch by an arrange
. ,

m ent Of r efle cti ng s urfaces exh ibits a n i n fin it e va riety ,

of b eauti ful colors and sy m m etrical fo rm s Of its co nte nts .

Ker atitis I nflam m atio n Of th e co rn ea

.
.
2 66 H AN D BOO K F O R O P T ICIAN S
- .

L ap id ary . An art ific e r w ho c uts pol i sh e s an d

,
en

graves p recio us sto n es .

4 "
L aten t (Lati n tateo to l ie h id )
,
Co n ceal ed se cret ;
,
. ,

hid d e n ; not v isibl e o r appare nt .

L ens (Lat i n ) A pi ece Of t ransp are nt gl ass o r other

.
,

substan ce SO shap ed as eith er to b ri ng togeth e r o r d is

,

perse th e rays O f l ight .

L igamen t (Lati n l ig o t o b i n d ) ,
A fib r o u s b a n d or
, .

cord se rvi ng to attach t w o bo n es to o n e anoth e r

, .

M an ifes t [ Lati n ] C l ea r di sclosed app are nt evi d e nt

.
, , , .

M embr an e [ Lati n membr u m a li mb o r m e m be r ]

,
A ,
.

thi n l aye r O f tiss ue se rvi ng to co ve r so me p a rt Of t he body .

M en iscu s [ G re ek men iskos a l ittl e m oo n ]

, A l en s , .

co n v ex o n o n e sid e and co n cav e o n th e oth e r .

M ica [ Latin mico to Shi n e ]

, A t r an sp are nt m i n eral
, .

capabl e o f bei ng cleaved i nto elastic p l ates Of ext rem e

th i n n ess I t i s a poo r co nd u cto r Of h eat
. .

M icr ometer (G reek mikr os s m al l ) , A n i nst rum ent , .

fo r m easu r i ng sm all Obj ects o r spaces by th e h e lp o f ,

which the apparent m agni tud e O f O b j e c t s v ie w e d th ro ugh c

the m i cro scope o r tel escope i s m easu re d w ith great

exactn ess .

M icr os cop e [ Gree k mik r os s m al l skop eo t o loo k at ]

, , , ,

A n Optical i nst r u me nt wh ich m agn ifies Obj ects

.

M ir age [ Lati n mir er to adm i re ]

, A n o ptical il l usio n
, .

arisi ng fro m a n u nequ al refractio n in th e atm osph e re ,

a nd causi n g rem ote Obj ects to b e s e en do ub l e as if ,

reflected i n a m i r ro r o r t o app ear as i f suspe n d ed in th e

,

ai r l i ke the F ata Mo rgan a

,
“
.

M o n ocl e [ Lati n mon ocu l u s o ne eyed ]

, A si ngl e eye ,
-
.

gl ass .

M o tor (L at m mo uco mo tu m t o m o v e au si ng
,
) C, , .

m ot io n ; th e n am e Of those n erv e s w h i ch co n d uct t o the

m uscl es th e st im u l us wh ich causes the mt o co ntract .

M u r al C ir cl e A g rad uated ci rcl e u su al ly Of v ery

.

l arge S ize fix ed p erm a n ently in th e pl an e O f t h e me rl d l an

,
,

a nd attach ed fi rm ly to a p e rpe nd i c ul ar w al l ; u se d f o r
m easu ring arcs O f the m eridi an .

Il l u s coe v o l itan tes

(Lati n mu s ca a fly vo l ito t o fly , , , ,
268 H AN D B OO K F OR O PT I C IANS
- .

Ocu l u s d exter (Lati n , abb rev i ated O D

.
R ight eye . . .

Ocu l us sin is ter (Lati n , abb revi ated O L eft eye . .

Op hthal mia (Greek , op hthal mos , th e ey e ) I n fl am .

m atio n of the eye .

Op hthal mol ogy (G ree k l ogos a di scou rse ) Th e SC]

, ,
.

e n ce O f m e d ici n e and s u rge ry con ce rn i ng th e ey e .

Op hthal mo meter A n i n st r u m e nt f o r mea s u ri ng th e

.

a mount o f co rn eal astigm atis m .

Op hthal mos cop e (G r eek s kop eo t o exa m i n e ) The , ,

.

i nst r u m ent f o r explo ri ng th e i nte rio r Of th e ey e .

Op tic (Greek op to to se e ) P ertai n i n g t o th e se nse

, ,
.

o f sight .

Op ticu s (Lati n ) Op ti cian a pe rso n ski l l ed i n the.

,

sci e nce o f Optics .

Op tom eter
(Greek op s ey e m etr o n m easu re ) ,
E y e , , ,
.

m easure ; an i nstru m e nt f o r m eas uri ng th e l i m its Of

di r ect v i sio n .

Or b it .Th e cavity i n whi ch th e ey e i s situ ated .

Organ (G ree k o rg an o n an i n strum e nt ) , A ny part , .

Of th e b ody which i s adapted to p erfo rm a pa rti cular

serv ice s uch as th e ey e etc
, , .

Orr ery A n astron o m ical m ach i n e f o r ex h i b iti ng th e

.

seve ra l m otio n s Of th e h eav e nly bod i es I t i s al so ca l led .

P lan etari u m .

Or thop hor ia Th e co nd itio n Of t he eye s wh e re th ere

.

i s pe rfect b al ance an d c o o rdin ati o n Of al l th e e xt ri nsic -

ocular m uscl es (S ee Heterop ho r i a )

. .

Oxid e A co m po un d Of oxyge n a nd a base

. .

Oxyge n (G re ek oxys sharp g en n aein to b ri ng fo rth )

, , , , .

A gas fo rm i ng o n e fifth p art o f o u r at m osph e re and ,

essenti al t o respi r ati o n .

P an n u s . A11 i nfla m m ato ry a ffl ictio n O f th e co rn ea ,

caused by gran ul a r l id s .

P an or ama [ G ree k p an al l o r ama V i e w ] A pi ctu re , , , ,

p r esenti ng fro m a ce nt r al po i nt a Vi e w Of Obj ects i n

ev e ry di recti on I t i s l ighted fro m ab ov e an d v i ew ed
.
,

fro m a platfo rm in t he center . 1

P an toscop ic i s th e G ree k n am e f o r do ub l e foc us o r

,
-
,

s o called F ra n kli n glasses

-
.

P ap ill a [ Lati n ] Mi nute p roj e ct i ng fil am e n ts b ei n g

.
,
 GL O SSAR Y . 2 69

the ter mi natio n Of n erves as o n th e to ngue al so o n th e , ,

reti na.

P ar abol a A co n i c sectio n a ri sing f rom cutti ng a co n e

.

by a plane pa ral l el to o n e O f its sides

, .

P ar al ys is [ Greek p ar aly o t o l oo s e n di ssol ve o r

, , ,

weaken ] A n a b ol itio n o f the fu n ctio n O f m otion

. .

P er imeter [ G reek p er i abo ut metr o n m easu r e ] A n , , , , .

inst rument to m eas ure th e fi eld o f Visio n .

P eri p hery [ G reek p eri aro u nd p her o t o he ar ] , Th e , , , .

circumference Of a ci rcle .

P er iscop ic (Gree k p er i aroun d skop eo t o l ook ) , To , , , .

look about a term applied to co ncavo conv ex l en ses

,
-
.

P han tasmagor ia (Gree k ) A m agic Lante rn o r its .

,

representatio n s .

P hen omen o n (Greek ) A nyth i ng v isibl e being pres .

,

ent e d to th e eye by Observ atio n o r experi m en t ; a n a

p
p earanc e wh ose cau se i s n o t i m m ediately Obvio u s .

P hotop hob ia (Greek p hos l ight p hob eo t o d rea d ) , , , , .

I ntoleran ce O f l ight .

P igmen t (Lati n p ing o to pai nt ) Col ori ng m atte r

, , .
-
.

P in ce n ez (F re nch p in cer t o press n ez n ose )

-
,Pi n , , , .

cers eyeglasses
, .

P ol ar ization A change p rod uced upon l ight by th e

.

action of certai n m edi a by whi ch it exh ibits the appear ,

ance Of hav ing po larity o r pol es po ssessing d i ff e re nt ,

p roperties .

P ol y op s ia (Greek p olys m uch ) S eei ng m ore Obj ects

, , .

than are present .

P r es byop ia (Greek p r es bys Old ) Ol d Sight , , . .

P tos is . A partial o r co m pl ete i nabi lity t o l ift the

upper l id .

P u n ctu m p r oximu m (Lati n ) Th e n earest poi nt Of .

distin ct vi sio n .

P u n ctu mr emo tu m Th e di stant po i nt Of di sti nct v ision

. .

P up il (Lati n p up ill a) The ce ntral round Ope ni ng

, .
,

in t he i ri s th ro ugh wh i ch l ight passes i nto th e eye

,
.

R an g e f o Th e h o r izo ntal d i
Vis ion stance
. at wh ich
the ey e i s stil l abl e to di sce r n Obj ects .

R eflec tor (m i rro r ) A tel escope i n w hl c h th e rays O f

.

an Obj ect a re received b y a m i rro r and fro m it reflected ,

to th e m agni fy i ng o cul ar l en s .
2 70 HAND B O O K F O R O PT I CIAN S
- .

R flex
e actio n . A11 i nvol u ntary act io n o f th e n e rvo us
sy s te m by whi ch an exte n al i m p r ess io n co nd ucted by a r

se nso ry n e r v e is r eflected o r ch a nged i nto a m oto r 1mp uls e

,

R efracto r A tel escope in wh i ch th e ray s Of a n Ob j ect

.

are receiv ed and m agn ifi ed b y a set o r ro w o f re f ract l ng

l enses
Th e me m b ran o us e x p an
.

R etin a (Lati n r e te a n et ) , ,
.

sio n O f th e Opti c n e r v e i n th e i nte rio r O f th e ey eball ,

wh ich recei v es th e i m p r essio n res ulti ng i n th e se n se Of

v ision .

R etin itis I nfla m m atio n O f th e retin a

.
.

R etin os cop y Th e shado w test Of th e ey e

.
.

Scl er o tica (G r eek s k l er os ha rd ) Th e tough fib rous

, , . ,

o ute r coat Of th e ey eb al l ; th e V i si b l e portio n i s the

“ wh ite Of the ey e .

Scotomata L i m itatio n i n th e fi eld Of v i sio n d u e to

. ,

patches o f r etin al atrophy w h i ch app ea r i n th e fo rm Of

da r k i r reg u la r clo u ds o r spots be fo re th e ey e .

Se ns ation (Lati n sen su s sen se ) The c o n s c io u s p er

‘

.
, ,

cep ti o n Of an exte rn al i m p ressi o n by th e n ervo us sy stem ;

a fu nct io n Of th e b rai n .

Sk ias cop y S am e as R eti noscopy .

Sp asm (G r eek sp as mos c o nv u lsio n ), A s udde n v io ,

.

l ent and i nvo l u ntary co nt ractio n o f o n e o r mo re m u scles ,

o r m u scu lar fibres .

Sp ectr os cop e A11 in stru m e nt to d eco m po s e l ight by

.

m ean s Of pris m s wh ich i s u sed i n th e research e s o f

,

S pect r u mA n alysi s .

Sp ecu l u m (Lati n ) A m i rro r eith e r pl an e co n vex .

, ,

o r co n cav e .

Stap hyl oma (G ree k s tap hy l e a grap e ) A p roj ection , , .

Of som e pa rt O f th e ey ebal l e ith er Of th e co rn ea a nd ,

i ri s (S taph ante r io r ) o r Of th e scl eroti ca a nd choroid

.
,

( S taph poste
. rio r ) .

Sten op oeic Sl it A blac ke n ed m etal pl ate w ith a n arro w

,

Sl i t i n th e m iddl e to detect the fa ul ty m e ri di a n Of an

,

astigm ati c ey e .

Ster eos cop e (G reek s ter eos sol id s kop eo t o se e ) An

, , , , .

Optical i n st ru m ent fo r giv i ng t o pi ctu res t h e app e ara n ce

Of soli d fo rm s as i n n atu re .
 AB B R EV I A T I O N S .

d io p te r .

ax i s .

cyl i n d r ical .

co n cave .

co n vex .

m e te r .

ce n t i m ete r .

m i lli m e t e r .

s ph e r ical .

co n cav e .

co n ve x .

com bi n ed with .

de g r e e .

foot al so a m i n ute
,
.

i n ch al so a s e con d
,
.

l in e t he twelfth p ar t
,
Of a i n ch .

ER R AT A .

in li n e 4 f o r ei g ht Of s ix
,
read ei g ht orsix .

“
i n secon d n ote l i n e 4 fro m be l o w f o r , ,
who
h av e read w ou l d hav e .

“
in l ast l i n e for th e e xpre ssion i s d u e
,
read
t hi
s p hen o men on is d u e .

“
i n li n e 1 2 for Ob serve s re ad obs er v er
, .

“
i n l i n e 8 f o r appeal s to read app eal s in
,
“
i n l i n e 3 fro m be lo w for art isian s ,

ar t i
s an s .

“
i n li n e 1 2 fro m b elo w f o r , ad j u s t ib l e read
aa f bl
’
n s t a e .

i n l i n e 8 fro m b e l o w for “
, p his ic is t s
p hy s ic is t s .
 C O NT ENTS .

CH AP T ER I .
—
I n c h an d M e t r ic S yste m s .

II .
—
D i ff e r e n t Qu al i t ies Of L e n se s .

III .
—
M e r its an d D efects Of P ebbl es
IV .
—
Pr ism s S phe r ic al an d Cyli nd r ical
,

Len ses .

V .
—
O p t ica 1 Lin e an d C en te r .

VI .
—
S et t i n g Of S ph e r ical Len ses .

VII .
—
Meas u r i n g an d S e t ti n g Of C om pou n d
Len ses
V I II .
—
S elec t ion O f S pectacl es
IX .
—
D ou b l e F ocu s S i n g l e an d S pl it
G l asses
X .
-
C olore d o r Ti n ted G l asses .

XI .
—
R e d r essin g O f S pectacl e Fr am es .

XI I .
—
Us e Of T es t Types -

X ML —
R efr actio n an d D i spe r sion O f Li g h t .

XI V .
— A chr om atic Len ses
XV .
—
An atom y O f th e H u m a n Ey e .

XV I .
—
P resbyopi a H yp e r m e t ropi a an d
,

Myo p i a
XV II .
—
A s t i g m ati sm
XV I II .
—
O p h t h al moscope
X IX —
S econ d S i g ht .

XX .
—
R elief to I n j u r e d Eyes
X X L— Ar tifi cial H u m an Ey e .

XX I I .
—
C aloric R ays i n D i ff e r en t Li g h ts .

XX I I I .
—
R an g e O f V i sio n .

XX I V .
-
Tear s
XXV .
—
F aci al Exp r essio n s
XXV I .
-
H i sto ry Of th e I n ve n t io n Of Sp e c t a
cl e s an d G r ad u al D evelopm e n t O f
,

t h e O p t i cal T r a d e
XXV II .
— Prom i n e nt O ptici an s S cie n ti s t s an d
,

I n ve n tor s
XXV I I I .
—
M i scel l an i e s
XX IX .
—
G lossar y .

I nd e x
 I N D EX .

Ab erra i n , to
ch om atic 10 3 r
Compo u n d l en s e s ,
4 9, 6 5 .

m ea u rin g O f
.
,
65
ph eric al 106 s ,
.
s ,

u s e of , 14 0
A ccomm odatio n 114 120 14 6 , ,
.

Conj n ctiva 112

, ,

A ch om atic l n s 103 106

r e es, ,
.
u ,
.

A ch om ati m 10 3 115 191

r s , , ,
.
Co n v e sion of c o
r r s s- cyl in d e rs, 49 .

A c u t n e Of v i ion 17 2
e ss s , .
C oq ill 88
u e, .

A l u m in iu m 19 ,
.
Corn ea 110 24 0 , ,
.

A m e t opia 117
r .
Craigl eith , 64 .

An atomy o f the eye 109 ,

.
C o s cylin d
r s - ers , 4 9, 53 .

An gl Of in cid n c 100 14 2
e e e, ,
.
C ow n gl as s
r ,
23 , 3 3 , 36 .

efl ct i on 14 2r e
C ry s tall in e l en s, 112 , 13 6 , 14 5 .

c ap l
.
,

su e of ,
ef acti on 100 r r . .

vision 92 , . C ry t al
s gl e et a tin g 33
s , sin r r c ,
.

A qu eou s h mo 110 u r, . dou bl e 33 .

Artificial h m an eye 156 u , . Cyl in d ric al l en s es 4 7 13 6 , ,

.

A s tigm ati m 13 5 24 5 s , , .

D c n t e d L en s e 4 6 55
e e re s, ,
.

A xi in cyl in d e 4 7 6 8
s rs , , .

Dial yte s 10 8 224 .

in p e b bl e 3 3
, ,
s, .

D iam on d Oil 6 2
O f v i ion 180 183 s , , .

D iaph agm 10 6r
, ,

10 9, 110 .
, ,

D iff actio n 2 18
r
B a O f p i m 4 2 4 4 55
se r s , , ,
.

D iopt er 11
,
.

Bi oc l a o p hth alm o cop

n u r s e, 14 5 .

m
,
.

I iip l o‘ a, 124
B l i d pot 113 2 2 5
n s , ,
.

D is p rs io n Of light 10 1
e
.

B achym t opia 128

.
,
r e r ,
.

Dou bl e foc u s gl a e 7 6 ss s . .

C alom ay s 162 170

’

o r
Do bl e fr actio n 3 1 33
u re , ,
.

E l ec tric l ight 166

.
, ,

C am a ob c a 10 9
er s ur
,
.

C an dl e 16 9
,
.

E m is ion th o y 97 256
s e r , , .

C an th u s 159
, ,
E mm et o pia 117 r ,
.

E q iv al n t s 50 14 1
.
,
e
C a n cl e 159
ru
u , ,
.

E th e 97 255
.
,

C at a act 14 9
r
r, ,
.

E xp e s ive ye 18
.
,

Choroid 111 113 r s e ,

E y b all 109
.
, ,
e
Ch om atic ab atio n 104
r err 106 ,
.

E y eb ro w s 180
.
, ,

Cilia y m s cl e 114
r u
, .

Eye k ill ers 14

.
,

C oddin gton l n s 194 20 9

-
.
,
e
E y el a h s 180
.
, ,
s e
Colo s 84 10 1
r
,
.

h a mon y of 86
,
.

E y elid s 180 ,
.

Eye s h a p en e 13 7
r ,
.

r r,
Combin at io n s con v ertin g
.

, ,
49 .

Comm is u re 111 s , .
F acial e xp r sio n 17 9 es s, .

Com p l em en tary colors 86 ,

.
F ak es ,
26 .
 276 H AND BOO K F O R O P T ICIANS
- .

R fl cto
e e r, 105 . Ste n op a
e ic s l it ,
87 .

R f actio
e r gl e f 10 0
n, an o , . Stiab is mu s , 12 5 .

do b l 3 3 u e, . S ty e ,
12 6 .

in d ex o f 3 5 39 , , ,
T a 17 5
e rs ,
R eli f t o inj u ed eyes 152
.

e r , .

T l co p O ld t 188
e es e, es
Retin a 111 116
.
,

, , .

T m p at
e f U iv
er u re o n ers e, 165
R ock c ry s tal 19 3 1 189
.

s, , , .

T t typ 91
es -
e s,
R od s an d co n es 111
.

, .

Ti t d gl a
n e 83 s se s , .

S cl erotic a 112 T ial b

r ca 66 ox or se, .

Seco n d s ight 14 8
, .

.
T ial f am 4 8 2 11
r r e, 9 .

Se c e tio n o f t ea
r 177 rs , . Un d u l al o ry th e o y r Of l ight , 97 .

Sen il e ch an g s in ey e 150 e s,
Vel o m O f l ight
.

ty 98
Sh e ars E n gli h 59
.
,
s
Vib at o 98
.
, ,
i n,
Sho rt s ig h te d n es 12 8
r .

- s,
Vi io di ct 116
.

s n, re
Sil ic i m 19 , .

u
Vit o h mo 11
.
,

Sn o w bl in d n e
re us u r,
88 s s, .

Sp e ct m 3 6 83 10 1 10 3
ru , , , , .
W at e gl a s 20
r s .
,

Spl it gl as s 7 7 se , .
“av es aerial 101
f
, , .

Squ in t 12 5 13 2 , , .

e t h ereal 101 16 6 , , .

St an d a d iz es O f l en se 57
r s s, .

ho izon t al v ertical
r 139
St an ho p l n
, , .

194
e e s, .

St arin g look 160 181 , , . Ye llo w s p ot ,

113 .