. .

-
I S

*T i
F-494
v.2
C .I

N A S A T E C H N I C A L N A S A TT F - 5 1 9
T R A N S L A T I O N

HELICOPTERS - CALCULATION A N D DESIGN

Volume 11. Vibrations and Dynamic Stability

by M . L. M Z , et dZ.

“Mashinostroyeniye” Press
Moscow, 1967

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS A N D S P A C E ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON:‘; a:

 TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

llllll11IllIllI1
Illll110068972 l
NASA TT F-519

HELICOPTERS - CALCULATION AND DESIGN

Volume II. Vibrations and Dynamic Stability

By M. L. Mil', et al.

Translation of "Vertolety . Raschet i proyekt irovaniye.

2. Kolebaniya i dinamicheskaya prochnost' ."
"Mashinostroyeniye" Press, Moscow, 1967.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

~~
- ~ - _ -~ _ ~
For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information
Springfield, Virginia 22151- CFSTI price $3.00
I I I l111lI 1ll11ll1l1111l1111l1l1lIl I I

M O T AT ION

The work "Helicopters, Calculation and Design11 i s published i n t h r e e

volumes :
Vol.1 Aerodynamics; -
VoLII -
Vibrations and Dynamic Strength;
Vol.111- Design.
The second volume gives a n account of c e r t a i n problems of t h e t h e o r y of
v i b r a t i o n s and methods of c a l c u l a t i n g stresses set up during such v i b r a t i o n s i n
h e l i c o p t e r s i n f l i g h t , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , i n t h e r o t o r blade.

Methods are presented f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e and

f o r c a l c u l a t i n g h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s which permit determining t h e amplitudes
of t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s and comparing them w i t h t h e noms of comfort. For t h e
f i r s t t i m e i n Soviet literature, t h e problem of coupled v i b r a t i o n s of r o t o r and
f u s e l a g e i s examined.

The theory of s e l f - e x c i t e d o s c i l h t i o n s of a s p e c i a l type known as '!ground

resonance" i s discussed i n d e t a i l . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e occurrence of
such v i b r a t i o n s i n a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground, during t a k e o f f and landing run,
and under f l i g h t conditions are examined.

S p e c i a l cases, l i t t l e e l u c i d a t e d i n t h e g e n e r a l Literature, of c a l c u l a t i n g
bearings t h a t operate under s p e c i f i c conditions of r o l l i n g a r e examined i n a
s e p a r a t e chapter. The same chapter g i v e s a n account of t h e theory and method of
c a l c u l a t i n g a new t y p e of thrust bearing of high load c a p a c i t y and bearings
under compound loads.

The book i s intended f o r engineers of design o f f i c e s , s c i e n t i f i c workers,

graduate students, and t e a c h e r s of higher i n s t i t u t e s of learning. It might be
u s e f u l t o engineers of h e l i c o p t e r manufacturers and t o s t u d e n t s f o r f u r t h e r i n g
t h e i r knowledge of t h e v i b r a t i o n s and d y d c s t r e n g t h of h e l i c o p t e r s . C e r t a i n
s e c t i o n s of t h e book w i l l be u s e f u l a k o t o f l i g h t and t e c h n i c a l staffs of heli­
copter f l i g h t units.

There are 35 tables, i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and 47 r e f e r e n c e s .

Cand. Tech. Sci. R.A.Mikheyev, Reviewer

%- Numbers i n t h e margin i n d i c a t e p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e f o r e i g n text.

ii
 PREFACE L2

The f i r s t volume of t h e work "Helicopters, Calculation and Designl, pub­

l i s h e d i n 1966, w a s devoted t o aerodynamics: t h e o r y and methods of c a l c u l a t i n g
t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r s and a n aerodynamic c a l c u l a t i o n of
h e l i c o p t e r s of various configurations.

T h a t volume included a n account of t h e t h e o r y of r o t o r f l u t t e r which usual­

l y belongs t o t h e category of a e r o e l a s t i c i t y - a n area between aerodynamics and
mechanical s t r e n g t h .

The p r e s e n t , second volume i s a l o g i c a l c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e f i r s t and i s

devoted t o v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h s of h e l i c o p t e r s .

The problems of t h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of h e l i c o p t e r s con-prise no fundamental­

l y new a s p e c t s i n comparison G t h what i s known i n a i r c r a f t construction. With
r e s p e c t t o v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h , h e l i c o p t e r s e x h i b i t a number of pe­
c u l i a r i t i e s which were recognized when t h e y f i r s t appeared as a new type of f l y ­
i n g machine. These p e c u l i a r i t i e s loomed l a r g e during - i f one may use t h e ex­
p r e s s i o n - t h e " s t r u g g l e f o r existence11 of this new type of c r a f t i n t h e o v e r a l l
system of a i r t r a n s p o r t m e a n s not r e q u i r i n g a i r f i e l d s .

The r e c i t a l of t h e problems of v i b r a t i o n and dynaxdc s t r e n g t h of t h e heli­

c o p t e r begins w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of a method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e l a s t i c v i b r a ­
t i o n s of i t s r o t o r blade, which are similar i n fundamental equations and methods
of s o l u t i o n t o t h o s e used i n t h e t h e o r y of f l u t t e r but have a d i f f e r e n t t r e n d
s i n c e u l t i m a t e l y t h e c a l c u l a t i o n reduces mainly t o a s o l u t i o n of t h e p u r e l y me­
c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h problem, namely t o a determination of variable s t r e s s e s a c t i n g
i n t h e blade, and then, w i t h t h e use of d a t a on t h e f a t i g u e limits of a s p e c i f i c
s t r u c t u r e , t o a determination of s e r v i c e l i f e , i.e., blade l i f e .

Problems of v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h are important not only from t h e

viewpoint of r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e c r a f t . Also t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of machines, and
hence t h e i r economy, depends on t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e s e problems.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , this volume examines current methods of c a l c u l a t i n g e l a s t i c

v i b r a t i o n s of a blade, performed on high-speed e l e c t r o n i c computers which per­
mits determining t h e variable s t r e s s e s set up i n t h e blade.

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e Itground resonancelt mode of #bration, j u s t as a study

of t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a s t r u c t u r e , c o n s t i t u t e t h e p r i n c i p a l theme of t h e theory
of h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s .

Elimination of Ifground resonance" Vibrations which, i f they arise and de­

velop f u r t h e r , lead t o d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e c r a f t on t h e ground and, i n t h e case
of m u l t i r o t o r configurations, a l s o i n t h e air, has always been one of t h e main
problems confronting t h e designer. The p,roblem of Vibrations of h e l i c o p t e r
p a r t s , examined from t h e viewpoint of crew and passenger comfort, i s a l s o quite
i n p o r t a n t . It i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o estimate t h e acuteness of this problem when
iii
t h i n k i n g of t h e power of t h e constant source of such v i b r a t i o n s - a huge r o t o r
operating i n a highly variable v e l o c i t y f i e l d .

The last chapter of this volume i s devoted t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of s p e c i a l

bearings, a n e c e s s i t y i n designing many of t h e h e l i c o p t e r components and t h u s
representing a t r a n s i t i o n a l chapter t o t h e t h i r d volume on IIHelicopter Designrv.

The volume "Design11 w i l l g i v e a brief s t u d y of t h e main problems i n layout

of h e l i c o p t e r s , s e l e c t i o n of t h e b a s i c parameters of h e l i c o p t e r s including
winged types, and auxiliary propulsion units such as t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r s o r sup­
plementary j e t engines. Economic considerations of a v i a t i o n engineering, of im­
portance i n designing, w i l l also be presented.

T h i s volume a l s o p r e s e n t s a d i s c u s s i o n of problems of balancing, c o n t r o l l a ­

b i l i t y , and s t a b i E t y from t h e viewpoint of s e l e c t i n g parameters f o r t h e c o n t r o l
system, a s w e l l as problems of designing i n d i v i d u a l components of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

The second volume W i b r a t i o n s and Dynamic Strength11 was w r i t t e n by:

Introduction, M.L.Mil, ; Chapter I, A.V.Nekrasov, Chaipters I1 and 111, L.N.
Grodko; Chapter IV, M.A.Leykand. S e c t i o n ll of Chapter I w a s w r i t t e n by A.V.
w i t h engineer Z.Ye .Shnurov.
Nekrasov i n c o ~ b o r a t i o n

I n preparing t h e manuscript t h e authors were a s s i s t e d by engineers F.L.

Zarzhevskaya, V.M .Kostromin, and I .V.Kurov.

I n this volume, we made use of t h e r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n s performed by

engineers Yu .A .Myagkov, 0 . P .Bakhov, V .F. Khvostov, S. A. Gohbtsov, V.M .Pchelkin,
S.Ye .Sno, V.G.Pashkin, N.F.Shevnyakova, N.M.Kiseleva, L.V.Artamonova, V.F.Semina,
N.A.Matske#ch, V. I.Kiryushkina, and A.G .Orlova.

.
The reviewer, R A.Mikheyev, o f f e r e d many valuable coment s .
Engineer L.G.Rudnitskiy w a s i n charge of t h e f i n a l p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e manu­
s c r i p t f o r publication.

The authors express t h e i r s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o t h e s e coworkers.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Preface .......................................................... iii

Introduction ..................................................... 1
CHAPTER I ELASTIC VIBRATIONS AND BLADE STRBGTH ................. 11

Section 1. Problems of Calculation, Basic Assumptions, and

Derivation of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of Blade
Bending Deformations ..............................
1. Ultimate Purpose of Calculating E l a s t i c
12
Blade Vibrations ...............................
2. Calculation of Blade S t r e n g t h .................. 12
13
3 . F l i g h t Regimes Detrimental t o t h e Fatigue
...................... ..
S t r e n g t h of t h e S t r u c t u r e
4. Assumption of a Uniform Induced Velocity F i e l d
u,
15
5. Assumptions i n Calculating Aerodynamic b a d s
...........................
on t h e Blade P r o f i l e
6. Relation of Deformations due t o Bending i n
15
Two Mutually Perpendicular Directions and

7. Consideration of Torsional Deformation of a

......
Corresponding A s s q t i o n s f o r C a l c u l a t i o n 16
B l a d e i n Calculations of F l e x u r a l Vibrations
8. Two C a l c u l a t i o n Steps i n Blade Design:
... 17
Calculation of Natural Vibration f i e quency
and Calculation of S t r e s s e s .................... .....
9. Idealized Blade Models Used i n Calculation
18
18
10. Derivation of t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of
Blade Bending i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force F i e l d
a t Vibrations i n t h e Flapping Plane ............
11. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Blade Bending i n t h e
x)

Rotor Plane of Rotation ........................

S e c t i o n 2. Free Vibrations of t h e Blade of a Nonrotating
22

Rotor .............................................
1. Method of Calculation f o r S o l u t i o n of t h e
22

I n t e g r a l Equation of Blade Vibrations ..........

2. Calculation of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and
22

Frequencies of a Blade Model w i t h D i s c r e t e l y

.........................
D i s t r i b u t e d Parameters 24
3. Condition of Orthogonality and Calculation of
- Successive Natural Vibration Harmonics .........
4.. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Calculation of Natural
26
Vibration Frequencies ami Modes of a E n g e d
Blade ..........................................
5. Calculation of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and
27

Frequencies of a Blade as a Simply Supported

Beam ...........................................
S e c t i o n 3 . Approximate Method of Determining t h e Natural Blade
28

V
 Page

Vibration Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force

Field ............................................ 29
.......
1. Use of B.G.GalerkinTs Method f o r Determining
t h e N a t u r a l Blade Vibration Frequencies
2. Resonance Diagram of Blade Vibrations ......
3. S e l e c t i o n of Blade Parameters t o Eliminate
... 29
31
Resonance during Vibration i n t h e Flapping
Plane .........................................
4. S e l e c t i o n of Blade Parameters t o Eliminate
32
Resonances i n t h e Plane of Rotation
Section 4. Calculation of Natural Blade VibrationModes
........... 34
and Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force Field
1. Purpose and Problems of Calculation
.....
........... 36
36
2. k n i t s of A p p l i c a b i l i t y of C a l c u l a t i o n
Methods Reducing t o a S o l u t i o n of t h e
I n t e g r a l Equation of Blade Vibrations
3. Possible Methods of Calculating Free Blade
...... .. 37
Vibrations i n a C e n t r i f u g a l Force f i e l d
4. Three-Moment Method f o r Calculating Natural
....... 39
Blade Vibration Modes and Frequencies i n a
.......................
C e n t r i f u g a l Force f i e l d
5 . Determination of Bending Moments on t h e
39
Basis of Known Forces .........................
6 . Determination of Displacements from Known
k6
Bending Moments ............................... .. 48
7 . Case of a Blade Rigidly Attached a t t h e Root 50
8 . Possible S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n Calculating
t h e Coefficients ..............................
9 . Certain Results of Calculating t h e N a t u r a l
50

Blade Vibration Modes and Frequencies

Section 5. Torsional Vibrations of a Blade
.........
.................. 51
57
1. Problems Solved i n Calculating Torsional
Vibrations ....................................
2. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of T o r s i o n a l Blade
57
Vibrations ....................................
3. Determination of t h e Natural Torsional
58
Blade Vibration Modes and Frequencies .........
4. Determination of t h e Natural V i b r a t i o n Modes
60
and Frequencies of a Rotor as a Whole
Section 6. Combined F l e x u r a l and Torsional Blade Vibrations
.........
... 64
1. Coupling of F l e x u r a l and Torsional Vibrations
2. Method of Calculating Binary Vibrations
.
....... .
65
65
66
3. E f f e c t of Coup%ng between Bending and
Torsion a t Natural Vibration Frequency ... .... 71
Section 7 . Forced Blade Vibrations ..........................
1. Use of B.G.GalerkinTs Method f o r Calculating
77
Blade Defomnations. Determination of S t a t i c
Deformations of a Blade .......................
2. Determination of Blade Deformations w i t h P e r i o d i c
77
Application of a n ESrternal Load ............... 79
 Page

3. Simplified Approach t o Calculation of

Forced Blade 'Vibrations
4. Amplitude Diagram of Blade Vibrations
.......................
......... 81
83
5. C a l c u l a t i o n of Vibrations a t Application
Phase of M e r n a l b a d Variable over t h e
Blade Length ..................................
6. Aerodynamic Load on a Rigid Blade .,........... 84
85
7. Determination of t h e Blade Flapping
Coefficients .................................
8. Simplified Calculation of E l a s t i c Blade
89
Vibrations .....................................
Section 8. Calculation of Bending Stresses i n a Blade
93
a t Low and Moderate Flying Speeds
1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Distinguishing Flying
.... .......... 97
Regimes a t Low and Moderate Speeds
2. Method of Calculating Stresses
...........
............... 97
97
3. A s s q t i o n s i n Determining Induced
Velocities ...................................
4. Mathematical Formulas f o r Induced
98
Velocity F i e l d Determtnation
5. Transformations of Mathematical Formulas
................. 100

i n P a r t i c u l a r Cases ..........................
6. Numerical Determination of t h e Irrtegrals
102
J(F,) and J(F,) ..............................
7. Assumptions Adopted i n Aerodynamic
103
Force Determinations
8. Mat hematical Formulas
.........................
.........................
........... 107
107
9. Conversion t o an Equivalent Rotor 111
10. Basic Assumptions Used i n Calculation
of Bending Stresses ...........6.............. 111
and i t s S o l u t i o n .............................
EL. Differerrtial Equation of Blade Vibrations

12. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e
112
Left-Hand Side of t h e Equations i n Table 1.8
13. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e
..
Right-Hand Side of t h e Equation of
Table 1.8 ....................................
14.. S y s t e m of Equations a f t e r S u b s t i t u t i o n of
116
Eqs,(8.34) and (8.38)
15. General Computational Scheme
........................
.....,............ 117
118
17. Computational Program ..........................
16. Determination of Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s
18. Comparison of Calculation w i t h Ekperiment
.. 118
120
a t Low F l y i n g Speed ..........................
19. Comparison of Calculation w i t h Ekperiment
122
a t Moderate-Speed Mode .......................
20. P o s s i b i l i t i e s of Further Refinement
of Calculation Results .......................
Section 9. Calculation of B l a d e B e n d i n g Stresses, w i t h
125
Consideration of t h e Nonlinear Dependence of
 I I I I 1111111111Il 1 Illl lIl l lI

Page

1. F l i g h t Regimes
........................
Aerodynamic C o e f f i c i e n t s on P r o f i l e Angle
of Attack an3 Mach Nmber
................................ 127
127
2. Determination of Aerodynamic Loads
3 . Method of Blade Calculation as a System
............ 127
whose Motion i s Coupled by Prescribed
Vibration Modes
4. Mathematical Formulas f o r a Blade Model
............................... 129
w i t h D i s c r e t e Parameters
5. Consideration of a Variable Induced
...................... 133
Velocity f i e l d ................................
6. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n
134
of D i f f e r e n t i a l Equations of E l a s t i c
Blade Vibrations ..............................
7. Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n Method Proposed by
135
L.N.GrodJso and O.P.E!akhov
8 . Sequence of Operations i n Recalculation
..................... uc3
and P r a c t i c a l Evaluation of Different
I n t e g r a t i o n Steps
9 . Comparison of Results by Numerical
.............................
I n t e g r a t i o n M e t hods w i t h C a l c u l a t i o n
of Harmonics ..................................
...................... uc7
10.some C a I c u k t i o n ResuIt.s v18
Section 10. Calculation of F l e x u r a l Vibrations w i t h Direct
Determination of t h e Paths of Motion of P o i n t s
of t h e Blade ..........................................
1. P r i n c i p l e of t h e Method of C a l c u l a t i o n
2. Determination of E l a s t i c Forces Applied
t o a Point of t h e Blade by Adjacent
Segments .....................................
3 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n
153
of Eqs.(m.l)
4. Equations of Motion f o r a Multihinge
................................ 156
A r t i c u l a t e d Blade Model
5. Sequence of Operations i n Calculating
...................... 158
E l a s t i c Vibrations by t h e Numerical
I n t e g r a t i o n Met hod
6. Method of Calculation w i t h Inverse Order
........................... 161
of Determining Variables i n Numerical
Integration
7. Comparative Evaluation of Various Methods
.................................. 163
of Calculating F l e x u r a l Blade Vibrations
Section 11. Fatigue S t r e n g t h and Blade Ufe
.....
................. 165
16%
1. Testing a S t r u c t u r e t o Determine i t s
Service Life .................................
2. Dispersion of t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
16%
M u r a n c e i n Fatigue Tests
3. Basic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Fatigue
................... 169
S t r e n g t h of S t r u c t u r e
4. Stresses Set Up i n t h e Blade S t r u c t u r e
........................ 170

v i ii
i n Flight .................................... 173
 Page

5. m o t h e s i s of E n e a r Summation of Damage
P o t e n t i a l a& Average Equivalent Amplitude
of A l t e r n a t i n g Stresses ......................
6. Dispersion of t h e Amplitudes of A l t e r n a t i n g
175
Stresses i n a n Assigned F l i g h t Regime
7. Method of Calculating Service E f e w i t h t h e
........ 179
Use of R e l i a b i l i t y Coefficients ..............
8 . Method of A.F.Selikhov f o r Calculating t h e
180

Number of Cycles llN ..........................

Required S a f e t y Factor w i t h Respect t o t h e

9. Determination of S l o g a t Given F i d u c i a l
u3
Probability ..................................
10. Dispersion i n t h e S t r e s s Levels f o r Various
187
S t r u c t u r a l Specimens and Reliability Margin
w i t h Respect t o t h e Amplitude of Alternating
Stresses vo ..................................
ll. Method of Determining t h e R e l i a b i l i t y
189

Margin I , ,
Proposed by A.F.Selikhov
12. Example of Calculation of Service Life
...........
....... 194
198
13. Possible Ways of Detemnining t h e M i n i m u m

a.
Endurance L i m i t of a S t r u c t u r e
Advantages and Disadvantages of Various
............... 202

Approaches i n Determining t h e Necessary

R e l i a b i l i t y Margins, and Estimation of
t h e i r Accuracy .............................. 20 5
15. Blade S t r e n g t h Requirements i n Design
Selection .................................... 206
16. S t r e n g t h of a Blade w i t h Tubular S t e e l
Spar ...............................................
17. S t r e n g t h of a Blade w i t h Duralumin Spar
207
211
18. Effect of Service Conditions on Fatigue
S t r e n g t h of Spars ............................ 212

CHAPTER I1 HELICOPTEE VIBRATIONS ............................. 2vc

Section 1. Forces Causing Helicopter Vibrations
1. E x c i t a t i o n Frequencies
.............
........................ 2%
2vc
2. Dependence of t h e Frequency Spectrum of
of Blade Vibrations ...........................
Exciting Forces on t h e Harmonic Content

Section 2. F l e x u r a l Vibrations of t h e Fuselage as an

217
E l a s t i c Beam .....................................
1. Calculation of Forced Vibrations of a n
227
E l a s t i c Beam by t h e Method of m a n s i o n i n
Natural Modes .................................
2. Dynamic R i g i d i t y of a Beam. Resonance and
228
Antiresonance .................................
3. Application of t h e Method of Dynamic R i g i d i t y
234

Helicopters ...................................
t o t h e Vibration Analysis of Side-by-Side
237
ix
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Page

4..
Method of A u x i l i a r y Mass
5.
U f e c t of Damping Forces. Vibrations at
...................... &l
Resonance .....................................
Section 3. V i b r a t i o n Analysis w i t h Consideration of
Fuselage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
1. Fuselage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Lateral and
.........................
V e r t i c a l Vibrations
2. Calculation of Fuselage Vibrations i n t h e
...........................
Plane of Symmetry by t h e Method of Residues ..* 25 1
3. Consideration of t h e EXfect of Shearing
Deformation ................................... ..
Section 4. Combined Vibrations of t h e System Fuselage-Rotor
258

1. Vibrations of t h e System Fuselage-Rotor

2. Calculation of t h e Natural Rotor Blade
....... 259
259

Vibrations i n t h e Plane of Rotation, w i t h

Consideration of E l a s t i c i t y of t h e Rotor
Shaft and Attachment t o t h e Fuselage . ......... 263

S e c t i o n 1. S t a b i l i t y of Rotor on an E l a s t i c Base
1. Statement of Problem and Equations of
............ 27 5

Motion ..........................................
2. S t a b i l i t y Analysis and Basic Results .......... 27 5
281
3. Physical P i c t u r e of Rotor Behav5or i n t h e
Presence of Ground Resonance
4. Rotor on an I s o t r o p i c Elastic Base
..................
............ 292

.......................... ..
298
S e c t i o n 2. Lateral Vibrations of a Single-Rotor Helicopter 299
1. Preliminary Comments 299
2. Lateral and Angular S t i f f n e s s of Landing Gear.
F l e x u r a l Center ............................... ....
3. Natural L a t e r a l Vibrations of a Helicopter
300
304
4. Determination of Damping C o e f f i c i e n t s ......... 308
5. Combined Action of t h e System Shock
Strut-Pneumatic Tire ..........................
6. Reduction of t h e Problem t o C a l c u l a t i o n of a
Rotor on a n E l a s t i c Base
7. Analysis of t h e Results of Ground Resonance
...................... 31 2
Calculations ....................................
S e c t i o n 3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Damping of k d i n g Gear and
3uc
Blade. Influence on Ground Resonance
1. Determination of t h e Damping C o e f f i c i e n t
........... 315
of t h e Landing Gear Shock Absorber
2. E f f e c t of Locking of t h e Shock Absorber as a
............ 315
Consequence of F r i c t i o n a l Resistance of t h e
Gland and Self-Excited Vibrations of t h e
Helicopter ....................................
t h e i r Analysis ......................................
3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade Dampers and
322

X
 I I I I

Page

4.
Ground Resonance ..............................
E f f e c t of Flapping Motion of Rotor on

S e c t i o n 4. Ground Resonance of a Helicopter during

325
Ground Run ....................~....................
1. S t i f f n e s s and Damping of a Wobbling T i r e ...... 330
330
2. Calculation of Ground Resonance and Results
3. Ground Resonance on Breaking Contact of t h e
... 335
Tires w i t h t h e Ground .........................
S e c t i o n 5. Ground Resonance of Helicopters of Other
337
Configurations
1. General Comments
...................................
.............................. 339
339
2. Calculation of L a t e r a l Natural Vibrations
w i t h Consideration of Three Degrees of
Freedom .......................................
3. Calculation of Natural Helicopter Vibrations
340
i n t h e Plane of Symmetry ( b n g i t u d i n a l
Vibrations) ...................................
4 . Reduction of t h e Problem t o Calculation of a
347
Rotor on a n E l a s t i c Base ......................
5 . Self-Excited Vibrations i n F l i g h t of a
352
Helicopter w i t h a n E l a s t i c Fuselage
Section 6 . S e l e c t i o n of Basic Parameters of Landing Gear
........... 354
and Blade Dampers. Design Recommendations .......
.....
1. S e l e c t i o n of Blade Damper C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
356
357
2. Rotor w i t h I n t e r b l a d e a s t i c Elements
and Dampers ................................... 361
3 . S e l e c t i o n of S t i f f n e s s and Damping
4. C e r t a i n Recommendations f o r Landing
.............
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r landing Gears 364.
Gear Design ................................... 367
CHAPTER IV THEX)RETICAL PRINCIPLES OF CAEULATING BEXRIJTGS
OF MAIN KELICOPTER COMPONENTS . . . ... 369
Section 1. Equations of S t a t i c Equilibrium of R a d i a l and
Radial-Thrust Ball Bearings under Combined Load
Section 2. Calculation of R a d i a l and Radial-Thrust B a l l
.. 370

1. Pressure on B a l l s
...... .................
Bearings under Combined Loads, f o r Absence of
M i s a l i g m e n t of t h e Races
............................. 377
2. Reduced Loads .................................
3 . S t a t i s t i c a l Theory of Dynamic had-Carrying
377
384
Capacity ......................................
4. E f f e c t of Axial b a d . on Bearing Performance ...
385
393
5 . Approximate Solutions of Equations (2.1)
and (2.2) .....................................
6 . Relative Displacements of Races ............... 397
403
S e c t i o n 3. C e r t a i n Problems i n Calculating Radial-Thrust

of t h e i r Races under h a d ........................

B a l l Bearings w i t h Consideration of Misalignment
405
xi
 I I 1 I ll11111lllIl

Page
1. Basic Relationships
2. Case of !!Pure!* Moment
...........................
................ ........ 4Q5
409
3. Simultaneous Action of Moment and Axial
Force .........................................
4. Limit Dependences on Small Loads ..............
4-13
4.5
5 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of h a d between Rows of E!a&
6 . Exanples of Calculation .......................
of Double-Row Radial-Thrust Ball Bearings ..... 421
424
Section 4. Calculation of Tapered R o l l e r Bearings under
Combined Loads ................................... 426
.......................................
1. Calculation of Single-Row Tapered R o l l e r
Bearings
Remarks on Calculation of Bearing Assemblies
2.
426
of Two Tapered R o l l e r Bearings
Section 5 . Calculation of Vibrating Bearings
................
....... ......... 431
433
1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Mechanism of Wear of
Conditions ....................................
A n t i f r i c t i o n Bearings under Vibration

2. Lubrication of Highly Loaded Vibrating

434
Bearings i n t h e Presence of Small Vibration
Amplitudes .................................... 435
Rotors ... .. . ..
3. Calculation of Hub Bearings i n Main
. .......... .. ...
4. Calculation of Bearings f o r t h e P i t c h Control
.
and Tail
........... .. 441
and Control Mechanisms
Section 6 . Theory
........................ 450
and
Bearings w i t h llSlewed!l R o l l e r s
1. Determination of t h e Time T,
..................
....... ............
S e l e c t i o n of Basic Parameters of Thrust
453
454­
S e l e c t i o n of Angles of Slope of Cage Seats
2.
...............................
3. F r i c t i o n Losses
.... 459
463
4. Additional Considerations of Optimal Thrust
.........
Bearing Design w i t h !lSlewedll R o l l e r s
5 . Example of Calculating a Thrust Bearing
46 5

References
.........................
.....................................................
w i t h !lSlewedl! R o l l e r s

xii
 INTFDDUCTION Lz
A s soon as a n a i r c r a f t engine of s u f f i c i e n t power and l i g h t i n weight had
been created and t h e first h e l i c o p t e r took o f f from t h e ground, problems of
balancing, c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y , and s t a b i l i t y of this c r a f t arose. These were main­
l y aerodynamic problems. If we consider t h e f i r s t f l i g h t of de l a Cierva,ts
a u t o g i r o s i n 1925-1926 t o be t h e s t a r t of f l i g h t of rotary-wing a i r c r a f t , t h e n
we can say t h a t t h e s t a t e d problems w e r e mainly solved i n t h e f i r s t decade
(1926-1936) of t h e i r development. The new t y p e of f l y i n g machine w a s t h u s cured
of i t s 1lchildhood diseases11 .
However, as soon as t h e f i r s t series-produced machines appeared and t h e y
w e r e placed i n s e r v i c e , more s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c i e s of h e l i c o p t e r s became apparent
such as, f o r example, f a t i g u e due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t dynamic s t r e n g t h of c e r t a i n
s t r u c t u r a l members.

New dynamic problems a r o s e with t h e wider p r a c t i c a l use of autogiros and

e s p e c i a l l y of h e l i c o p t e r s , which entered t h e scene a t t h e end of t h e T h i r t i e s
and beginning of t h e F o r t i e s on a new improved t e c h n i c a l basis. These probhms
p e r t a i n e d p r i m a r i l y t o o s c i l l a t i o n s and v i b r a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l ele­
ments and of t h e h e l i c o p t e r as a whole, which are harmful owing t o t h e stresses
set up i n t h i s case, o r are impermissible from t h e viewpoint of necessary crew
and passenger comfort, and a l s o i n c l u d e t h e problem of s e r v i c e l i f e of s t r u c ­
t u r a l elements operating under high v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s . The l a t t e r problem,
namely t h e i n c r e a s e i n s e r v i c e l i f e , i s c o n s t a n t l y gaining in importance
s i n c e t h e amortization and o v e r a l l l i f e of a h e l i c o p t e r , determined by t h e l i f e ­
times of i t s components, has an e f f e c t on t h e cost-effectiveness i n i t s use as
a means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . The s e r v i c e l i f e , i n t u r n , i s determined mainly by
t h e l e v e l of t h e v a r i a b l e stresses set up i n t h e s t r u c t u r e ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e accu­
racy w i t h which t h e s e are c a l c u l a t e d i s one of t h e b a s i c problems of a dynamic
s t r e n g t h analysis of h e l i c o p t e r s .

A t r a c t o r p r o p e l l e r of a conventional a i r c r a f t operates p r a c t i c a l l y i n a n
axial flow and, l i k e an engine, sets up no noticeable v a r i a b l e stresses i n t h e
s t r u c t u r a l members. Only t a k e o f f , landing, and f l i g h t under conditions of atmo­
s p h e r i c turbulence (and, on m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t , maneuvers) c r e a t e appreciable
dynamic loads on t h e a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e , 'but a t r e l a t i v e l y f e w load cycles (of
t h e order of t e n s and hundreds of thousands of c y c l e s ) during t h e l i f e t i m e of
t h e a i r c r a f t . I n this case, one can speak about repeated s t a t i c loads.

The loads on t h e h e l i c o p t e r are @ t e d i f f e r e n t . Its main s t r u c t u r a l

members are loaded dynamically, t h e number of loadings o f t e n exceeding t e n s of
m i l l i o n s of c y c l e s during i t s lifetime. T h i s i s due p r i m a r i l y t o t h e asymmetric
flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , which r o t a t e s and simultaneously advances. I n s o doing, /6
t h e blade i s s u b j e c t t o variable aerodynamic loads as a consequence of t h e change
i n relative flow v e l o c i t y and angles of a t t a c k of i t s s e c t i o n s . A l l f o r c e s and
moments a c t i n g on t h e blade are t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e hub and r o t o r controls. The
f o r c e s and moments a r r i v i n g from d i f f e r e n t blades are mutually compensated, w i t h
t h e exception of loads a c t i n g w i t h frequencies whose r a t i o t o t h e r o t o r rpm i s
1

- ~~

1i
I IIIIIIIIII
 a m u l t i p l e of t h e blade number. These loads are t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e f u s e l a g e
and t o t h e nonrotating p a r t of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system and t h e r e set up notice­
able variable stresses *

Thus, t h e problem of v i b r a t i o n s and dynamic s t r e n g t h s i n h e l i c o p t e r con­

s t r u c t i o n i s not only much broader t h a n i n a i r c r a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n but, i n many
cases, has no d i r e c t analogy i n t h e latter.

Recognition of t h e importance of t h e problems of dynamic s t r e n g t h was not

immediately obvious. Thus, even t h e causes of t h e first a c c i d e n t s of a u t o g i r o s
i n 1936-1937, during which t h e s e c r a f t overturned i n t h e a i r , were a t t r i b u t e d
f o r long t o i n s u f f i c i e n t dynamic s t a b i l i t y . In tkis r e s p e c t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , in­
v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e d y d c s of a r o t o r w i t h hinged b l a d e s a t c u r v i l i n e a r motion
o f t h e c r a f t w e r e undertaken ( s e e Sect.2, Chapt.11 of Vol.1). T h i s theory later
found wide a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n of problems of dynamic s t a b i l i t y and
c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of h e l i c o p t e r s . However, i t never uncovered t h e t r u e cause of
t h e above-mentioned a c c i d e n t s . A s was subsequently r e a l i z e d , t h e cause w a s in­
s u f f i c i e n t dynamic s t r e n g t h of t h e r o t o r blades.

These problems w e r e recognized l i t e r a l l y by hit and miss. The f i r s t experi­

mental a u t o g i r o s and h e l i c o p t e r s w e r e small and t h u s had a r a t h e r high s t r u c t u r a l
r i g i d i t y . However, t h e first i n c r e a s e i n s i z e immediately encountered consider­
able d i f f i c u l t i e s . For i n s t a n c e , on t h e A-4 autogiro, which had a diameter
somewhat l a r g e r t h a n i t s predecessor t h e 2EA autogiro, s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s arose
owing t o i n s u f f i c i e n t t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade. The blade angle, i n t h e
first f l i g h t , increased so much due t o t o r s i o n a l deformation t h a t a u t o r o t a t i o n
was impossible and t h e f l i g h t a h o s t ended i n crackup.
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of this phenomenon was completed w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of
a paper on t h e dynamic t w i s t i n g of a r o t o r blade i n f l i g h t [see (Ref .2) 1, i n
which t h e first suggestions were made as t o t h e n e c e s s i t y of matching t h e c e n t e r
of g r a v i t y and t h e c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e , and i n which considerations of t h e e f f e c t
of blade p r o f i l e on s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of t h e c r a f t were ex­
amined. T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n a s y m e t r i c p r o f i l e s , ensuring a l a r g e
r e s e r v e of a u t o r o t a t i o n , which were adopted i n t h e engineering p r a c t i c e of Soviet
h e l i c o p t e r construction. A set of d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e s was used f o r t h e blade
arrangement. The recommendations i n t h e above paper were s u f f i c i e n t t o prevent
f l u t t e r i n t h e f i r s t Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s which had a r o t o r span of about I-!+ m.

The development of t h e Soviet h e l i c o p t e r i n d u s t r y i s characterized by

l a r g e r s t e p s t h a n that of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n d u s t r y i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ( t h i s a l s o
enabled Soviet designers, who had s t a r t e d l a t e r t o build h e l i c o p t e r s , t o c r e a t e
machines v a s t l y s u p e r i o r t o modern f o r e i g n h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h r e s p e c t t o l i f t
capacity and s i z e ) . Whereas, a f t e r t h e first s u c c e s s f u l f l i g h t of t h e Sikorsky
S-5l w i t h a r o t o r span of I-!+ m b u i l t i n 1947, t h e Americans, i n 1950-1951, began
working on a c r a f t w i t h a r o t o r of 15.5 m diameter ( S - 5 5 ) , t h e Soviet designers,
a f t e r c r e a t i n g t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a &m r o t o r , constructed as e a r l y as
1952 t h e Mi-4 and Yak-& h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h 21-m r o t o r s . It i s not s u r p r i s i n g
that such a jump i n s i z e l e d t o a new p r e v i o u s l y unencountered phenomenon: I n
both c r a f t , t h e r o t o r began t o f l u t t e r during t h e first t a k e o f f . We r e a d i l y
coped w i t h this problem, but problems of t h e t h e o r y of f l u t t e r had t o w a i t a
long t i m e f o r s o l u t i o n .
2
Ib
B
i

We first encountered this new phenomenon i n A p r i l 1952 w i t h t h e Mi-4 he=-

copter, when it was ready f o r i t s maiden t a k e o f f . A t onset of overspeeding,
t h e blades began t o f l a p i n a random manner, bending t o a n ever i n c r e a s i n g ex­
t e n t and t h r e a t e n i n g t o s t r i k e t h e airframe. The test crew r e a l i z e d t h a t this
was a new phenomenon never before encountered. T h i s c o n s t i t u t e d so-called
f l u t t e r of t h e r o t o r blades. A t that t h e , no one thought of t h e f a c t t h a t this
w a s t h e very same t y p e of f l u t t e r under study by many s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e USSR and
o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . According t o t h e d a t a available a t that time, f l u t t e r was not
expected s i n c e it w a s thought t o arise at about 500 r p m r a t h e r t h a n a t a r o t o r
r p m of 100-110, as a c t u a l l y happened i n t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r . The d e c i s i v e
f a c t o r f o r t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r i n this case w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a r g e
f o r c e s generated on a r o t o r of such a diameter produced appreciable deformation
of t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h contro1,which i s equivalent t o a de­
crease i n t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blades, and also t h e f a c t that a l a r g e
value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator ( c l o s e t o u n i t y ) had been
s e l e c t e d f o r t h e s e machines; this p o i n t had been disregarded i n e a r l i e r i n v e s t i ­
g a t i o n s of f l u t t e r . A s a r e s u l t t h e r e was no reason t o t h i n k of h e l i c o p t e r
f l i g h t s , s i n c e f l u t t e r set i n appreciable before t h e operating r p m of t h e r o t o r
was reached,

It became c l e a r , i n studying t h e p a t t e r n of f l u t t e r (flapping, bending, and

t w i s t i n g of t h e blades) t h a t this phenomenon could be prevented only by u t i l i z ­
i n g t h e torques from t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s generated during displacement of t h e
blade s e c t i o n s on flapping. Without a s s o c i a t i n g r o t o r f l u t t e r w i t h wing f l u t t e r
where - as known f o r long -t h e mutual p o s i t i o n of c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , f l e x u r a l
axis, and c e n t e r of p r e s s u r e i s of prime importance, we simply attached counter­
weights t o s e v e r a l p o i n t s along t h e blade l e n g t h t o c r e a t e moments of i n e r t i a
of opposite s i g n during v i b r a t i o n s and t h e n repeated start-up of t h e r o t o r ; we
h e d i a t e l y understood t h a t we had i n hand a reliable means of stopping f l u t t e r .

Thus, w i t h i n a s h o r t t i m e this problem w a s p r a c t i c a l l y solved, and by May

1952 t h e first f l i g h t s w i t h t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r w e r e made.
A t t h e same time, f l u t t e r occurred a l s o on t h e Yak-& h e l i c o p t e r which had
t h e same hub and automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l a s d i d theMi-4 h e l i c o p t e r but t h e
b l a d e s w e r e of d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n (with l a r g e r flexural and t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y ) .
However, as a consequence of t h e f a c t that t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e automatic p i t c h
c o n t r o l and t h e parameters of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator were d e c i s i v e i n t h e oc­
currence of f l u t t e r , we a l s o encountered f l u t t e r of t h e very same form and a t
t h e same r p m on t h e blades of t h e Yak-& h e l i c o p t e r as w e l l as on t h e Mi-& h e l i ­
copter.

Thus, w i t h i n s e v e r a l weeks a p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n w a s found f o r preventing

flutter, which i s used even now. The s c i e n t i f i c theory, however, t o determine
whether f l u t t e r w i l l o r Will not occur and - i f it d i d OCCUT -
a t what rpm and
i n w h a t form, w a s developed by us during t h e subsequent f o u r years.

It should be s t a t e d tht, a f t e r completion of s t u d i e s of f l u t t e r on t h e

ground (by shifting t h e c e n t e r i n g of t h e blade forward it was p o s s i b l e t o tldrivef1
it beyond t h e M t s of t h e working r p m and even beyond t h e maxi” permissible
rpm of t h e engine on t h e ground), t h e r e s t i l l e x i s t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i t s
occurrence i n f l i g h t . T h i s l e d t o d e t r i m e n t a l happenings. I n January 1953,
3
 I I1 I I 1 I 1 1111111Il1lIllIll

c r a s h of a Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r took place, whose causes were not s a t i s f a c t o r i l y /8

defined f o r almost three years. Inspection revealed t r a c e s of impact of t h e
blades on t h e cockpit. T h i s had never been observed before. We should note
that, during normal f l a p p i n g motion, t h e blade does not come i n t o contact w i t h
t h e cabin unless t h e lower r e s t r i c t o r s of blade overhang o r coning s t o p s are
ruptured i n t h e air.

It i s obvious t h a t our s e a r c h f o r t h e cause of this accident was d i l i g e n t ,

when r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e c r a s h d i d not stop e i t h e r a c t u a l f l i g h t s o r series pro­
duction of this prototype.

During 1954, a number of p i l o t s observed a n unusual phenomenon i n f l i g h t ,

which came t o be known as IXalibernyy effect!! ( a f t e r t h e p i l o t who was t h e first
t o n o t i c e i t ) . Kaliberqyy e s t a b l i s h e d that i n a power descent a t a blade set­
t i n g angle of about 6 - yo, t h e blades began t o f l a p out of t h e i r coning angle.
T h i s stopped a f t e r r e s e t t i n g t h e blades t h a t had a somewhat d i f f e r e n t t r a n s v e r s e
centering. However, two y e a r s later, when f l i g h t - t e s t i n g a set of blades f o r
absence of t h e IlKalibernyy e f f e c t " , i.e., during a power descent w i t h a n angle
of p i t c h of 6 - 703', this phenomenon became s o predominant, a t such s t r o n g flap­
ping of t h e blades, t h a t it was d i f f i c u l t t o make a forced landing w i t h t h e
c r a f t . It should be mentioned here t h a t c l o s e t o t h e ground, upon changing t o
another regime, t h e blade f l a p p i n g stopped and t h e c r a f t behaved normally. A
v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a f t e r t h e f l i g h t revealed ruptured blade
f o o t i n g s (so-called movable s l o t t e d t r a i l i n g edge of t h e blade), which i n d i c a t e d
bending of t h e blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . Everything e l s e was i n good
working order. It was decided t o make a d e t a i l e d checkout of this h e l i c o p t e r
w i t h t h e same set of blades. F l i g h t tests were c a r r i e d out t o check and study
this phenomenon.

Measurements of t h e blades showed t h a t t h e c e n t e r i n g had s h i f t e d by about

l$ of t h e chord more rearward t h a n i t s p o s i t i o n a t t h e t h e of t h e blades leav­
i n g t h e manufacturer. T h i s can be explained as follows: The blades w e r e
sheathed w i t h plywood. The c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of plywood i s about a t 50% of t h e
chord. Therefore, as soon as t h e wood s w e l l s and i n c r e a s e s i n weight due t o t h e
absorbed moisture, t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e e n t i r e blade Will s h i f t toward
t h e t r a i l i n g edge. The above happening w i t h t h e h e l i c o p t e r occurred i n autumn
when t h e humidity was high.

During t h e s e tests it was a l s o conclusively e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r

of blade f l a p p i n g and t h e motions of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k during f l i g h t i n a
l%libernyy effect11 regime a r e completely analogous t o t h e f l a p p i n g and motion
of t h e s t i c k recorded i n ground t e s t s where blades are caused t o f l u t t e r by a n
a r t i f i c i a l l y created tail-heaviness. T h i s complex procedure made it p o s s i b l e t o
e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e phenomenon occurring i n f l i g h t was i d e n t i c a l with t h a t noted
on t h e ground. Thus it w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e IIKalibernyy e f f e c t " i s none
o t h e r t h a n t h e onset of f l u t t e r i n f l i g h t . On t h e basis of this conclusion it
was conjectured t h a t t h e e a r l i e r unexplained f l i g h t accident i n which t h e blades
s t r u c k t h e cockpit w a s a l s o nothing else t h a n f l u t t e r of t h e blades i n f l i g h t
a r i s i n g at a r o t o r rpm a t which it d i d not appear when o p e r a t i n g on t h e ground.

4; On t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r , f l u t t e r sets i n p r i m a r i l y i n t h i s regime.

4
I --

The v i b r a t i o n s of a hinged blade i n f l u t t e r , unlike t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a

conventional a i r c r a f t Wing, are capable of a f l a p p i n g motion whose amplitude
builds up u n t i l t h e blade impacts on t h e coning s t o p s and, a f t e r breaking these,
strikes t h e cabin.
That this phenomenon w a s not uncovered f o r a long time can be a t t r i b u t e d
t o t h e erroneous assumption based onmodel tests t h a t , if f l u t t e r on t h e ground
La
i s e l i m i n a t e d , i t cannot occur i n air during forward motion. However, p r a c t i c a l
experience and, la te r, more rigorous experiments w i t h h e l i c o p t e r s and, f i n a l l y ,
corresponding t h e o r i e s have shown t h a t t h e r e are f l i g h t regimes i n which f l u t t e r
a t t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r Will not occur on t h e ground but may occur i n
flight.

It should be s t a t e d t h a t , as e s t a b l i s h e d i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e phenomenon
of f l u t t e r a l s o had been observed e a r l i e r on h e l i c o p t e r s . Already i n 1949, t h e
Mi-1 h e l i c o p t e r was equipped with a r o t o r w i t h wider blades t o i n c r e a s e t h e
s a f e t y f a c t o r r e l a t i v e t o flow separation. I n f l i g h t , this r o t o r produced buf­
f e t i n g which could not be eliminated. After t h e t h e o r y of f l u t t e r had been
worked out and a l l a s p e c t s of this phenomenon had been c l a r i f i e d , it became pos­
s i b l e not only t o a t t r i b u t e t h e j o l t i n g of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r with wide blades
t o a n approach of t h e regime t o f l u t t e r but also,and without f u r t h e r d i f f i c u l t y ,
t o design and construct ( i n 1956) a 35-meter r o t o r f o r t h e Mi-6 and Mi-10 h e l i ­
copters. P e r f e c t i o n of this r o t o r w a s confirmed by t h e f a c t t h a t a week a f t e r
t h e i n i t i a l takeoff t h e new heavy Mi-6 h e l i c o p t e r w a s able t o complete t h e t r a i n ­
i n g f l i g h t f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e Air Parade on Aviation Day a t Tushino.
Neither t h e n nor l a t e r d i d anything detrimental, a s s o c i a t e d with f l u t t e r , occur
with t h e s e c r a f t . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l aspect of t h e f l u t t e r problem.

Of no less importance i s t h e problem of determining v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s i n

blades, which i s solved by studying t h e i r forced v i b r a t i o n s .

During t h e f i r s t decade of t h e i r development, h e l i c o p t e r rotors were a c t u a l ­

l y designed without p r e c a l c u l a t i o n of variable s t r e s s e s a r i s i n g i n f l i g h t . A t
t h a t t i m e , c a l c u l a t i o n was cumbersome and i n a c c u r a t e and o f t e n completed only
a f t e r t h e c r a f t w a s a t t h e a i r f i e l d . It was only t h e development of computa­
t i o n a l methods f o r v a r i a b l e stresses, allowing t h e use of high-speed d i g i t a l
computers, t h a t permitted designing blades w i t h d e l i b e r a t e s e l e c t i o n of r i g i d i t y
and mass d i s t r i b u t i o n s o as t o avoid harmful resonance, reduce t h e stress l e v e l ,
and t h u s ensure long s e r v i c e l i f e and blade r e l i a b i l i t y .

It should be noted t h a t refinement of stress a n a l y s i s f o r blades l e d t o

f u r t h e r development i n depth and e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e aerodynamic theory. As
s h m i n t h e first volume, refinement of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f l i g h t d a t a d i d not
make it necessary t o develop t h e c o q l e x and cumbersome v o r t e x t h e o r y of a r o t o r .
Nevertheless, it i s only t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y t h a t permits determining t h e nonuni­
formity of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , causing variable blade loading a t fre­
quencies that e x c i t e f l e x u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades of second, t h i r d , and
higher harmonics. Therefore, i n stress analysis, o n l y t h e v o r t e x theory can
give r e s u l t s c l o s e t o t h o s e observed i n reality.

Vibrations c o n s t i t u t e d another no less important problem. This problem has

always been one of t h e most d i f f i c u l t i n t h e development of r o t a r y wing a i r c r a f t .
5
 Dozens of Soviet and f o r e i g n designs, i n t e r e s t i n g from t h e Viewpoint of concep­
t i o n and f l i g h t data, never came t o completion owing t o t h e high level of vi­
bration.

I n conventional a i r c r a f t , t h e sources of v i b r a t i o n are not as powerful as

i n h e l i c o p t e r s . Furthermore, both engines and p r o p e l l e r s which are t h e main
v i b r a t i o n e x c i t e r s i n conventional a i r c r a f t can be adequately i s o l a t e d from t h e
s t r u c t u r e by means of s p e c i a l shock absorbers. High-frequency resonance /Ip
produced by such e x c i t e r s can be eliminated quite e a s i l y by comparatively minor
modifications of t h e s t r u c t u r e . I n a h e l i c o p t e r , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e p e r t u r b i n g f o r c e s produced by t h e r o t o r s are appreciably g r e a t e r t h a n i n a
conventional a i r c r a f t , t h e frequencies from t h e slowly r o t a t i n g r o t o r are r a t h e r
l o w and, i n combination w i t h t h e n a t u r a l o s c i l l a t i o n frequencies of t h e fuselage,
engine, wing, or t a i l u n i t , give rise t o resonance leading t o appreciable vibra­
t i o n s w i t h a n amplitude of displacement which, i n s t e a d y f l i g h t regimes, reaches
magnitudes of t h e o r d e r of 0.3 - 0.4 rmn and i n short-time regimes, p r i o r t o
-
landing of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , even 1 2 mm i n t h e crew cabin.

Resonance w i t h fundamental t o n e s of t h e natural f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s o f t e n

are p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o damp out by changing t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e
i n a n a l r e a d y b u i l t machine. Therefore, it i s w o r t a n t t o make a c o r r e c t esti­
mate of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e f u s e l a g e and t o c a l c u l a t e t h e
v i b r a t i o n amplitude i n designing t h e c r a f t .

I n overcoming v i b r a t i o n s , main emphasis m u s t be on reducing t h e magnitudes

of variable f o r c e s produced by t h e r o t o r and a c t i n g on t h e fuselage. These
f o r c e s are caused by blade v i b r a t i o n . 31 t u r n , such blade v i b r a t i o n s may be
l a r g e r or smaller depending on t h e closeness of t h e i r natural frequencies t o t h e
frequencies of t h e external e x c i t a t i o n sources.

I n a l l cases, closeness t o resonance w i l l l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e i n blade

stresses. However, i f t h e v i b r a t i o n s occur w i t h t h e harmonic frequency z b + 1
( o r z b - 1 for v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ) o r w i t h t h e
harmonic frequency zb f o r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e (where zb i s t h e
number of blades), t h e n t h e f o r c e s are s m e d and t r a n s m i t t e d over t h e hinges
t o t h e hub and t h r o u g h ' i t t o t h e fuselage, causing v i b r a t i o n .

V e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s , which are t h e t y p e most d i s a g r e e a b l y perceived by man,

are l a r g e l y caused by f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , s i n c e
t h e s e forces, applied high above t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e helicopter, c r e a t e
appreciable moments that e x c i t e flexural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e fuselage. I n this
case, it i s natural t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t Vibration amplitudes (antinodes) are
reached at t h e ends of t h e f u s e l a g e and hence i n t h e cockpit.

It w a s found that, i n determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of

h e l i c o p t e r blades, it must be considered t h a t t h e r o t o r hub does not remain
f i x e d during t h e v i b r a t i o n s i n c e i t i s a t t a c h e d t o a n e l a s t i c fuselage. Thus,
i n a n a n a l y s i s of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e c r a f t should be t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e dynamic
s y s t e m w i t h e l a s t i c blades hinged t o a hub a t t a c h e d t o a n e l a s t i c fuselage.

It i s obvious that it i s only l a t e l y that such a c a l c u l a t i o n scheme could

be developed and made available f o r study. A s f a r as we know, we are t h e first,

6
i n this book, t o present a method of c a l c u l a t i n g h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e
design s t a g e ,

Later i n this volume, we w i l l d i s c u s s s e l f - e x c i t e d o s c i l l a t i o n s of a heli­

copter, g e n e r a l l y known as Itground resonance"

Designers f i r s t encountered t h e phenomenon of ground resonance more than

30 years ago when one of t h e first Soviet autogiros, t h e A-6 (designed by V.A.
Kuznetsov), was equipped w i t h low-pressure t i r e s which w e r e new at that t i m e .
The o l e o s t r u t s were removed from this h e l i c o p t e r . An unexpected v i b r a t i o n oc­
curred i n t h e first t a k e o f f attempt. The h e l i c o p t e r rocked from wheel t o wheel
at c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g amplitude, f i n a l l y jumping upward so t h a t t h e wheels
broke contact w i t h t h e ground. The takeoff ended i n failure.

Since t h e tests w e r e recorded by a motion-picture camera, it was p o s s i b l e /11

t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e blades had executed i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r o n g e r v i b r a t i o n s about
t h e drag hinge. These v i b r a t i o n s , which occurred i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d ,
produced a p e r i o d i c displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e e n t i r e l i f t i n g
system r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub and t h u s e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s of t h e heli­
c o p t e r standing on t h e ground. It i s obvious that, if t h e frequency of d i s ­
placements of t h e r o t o r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y coincides w i t h t h e frequency of m t u ­
r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on pneumatic t i r e s , such v i b r a t i o n s a r e able
t o i n c r e a s e . It would seem t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l aspect of t h e phenomenon i s c l e a r .
The energy that f e d t h e s e i n c r e a s i n g v i b r a t i o r s w a s e i t h e r t h e energy of t h e
engine t u r n i n g t h e r o t o r or, w i t h t h e engine cut out, t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e
rotating rotor.

However, numerous i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , which are s t i l l i n progress, were needed

t o develop t h e t h e o r y of ground resonance and t o s t u d y i t s new manifestations,
p o s s i b l y i n new b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r i n g configurations and s t r u c t u r e s .

The f i r s t t h e o r e t i c a l work explaining t h e nature of s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n s of

t h e "ground resonancell t y p e was done as e a r l y as 1936 by 1.P.Bratukhin and B.Ya.
Zherebtsov. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e s u l t s of t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s made it p o s s i b l e
t o eliminate ground resonance i n t h e world's l a r g e s t autogiro, t h e A-15 w i t h a
r o t o r span of 18 m which was constructed i n 1936 from t h e design by V.A.Kuznetsov
and M.L.Milf. In t h e d e s i g n of t h e hub of this autogiro, s p r i n g s mounted t o t h e
b h d e - v i b r a t i o n r e s t r i c t o r around t h e drag hinge were used. The s p r i n g s were
given t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e blades i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ,
which eliminated Itground resonancelt.

There i s no doubt that, a t t h e t i m e , t h e phenomenon of ground resonance was

a l s o known i n t h e Western Countries and had undergone some study t h e r e , s i n c e
even t h e first s u c c e s s f u l de l a Cierva autogiros, f o r example t h e C-19, had
e l a s t i c couplings (shock absorbers) connected t o t h e blades over f r i c t i o n
dampers.

However, many designers continued f o r some time t o produce autogiros with­

out dampers i n t h e drag hinges. A model of such a machine was t h e A-7 a u t o g i r o
developed i n 1937 by N.I.Kamov. It made s u c c e s s f u l f l i g h t s without dampers on
t h e r o t o r hub. The s e c r e t of t h e success w a s t h e f a c t that this w a s t h e first
t i m e a t r i c y c l e landing g e a r was used, which ensured a p r a c t i c a l l y v e r t i c a l
 I 1 I l111l III

p o s i t i o n of t h e r o t o r a x i s during engine r e w i n g before t a k e o f f and a f t e r t h e

landing stop. This caused small i n i t i a l p e r t u r b a t i o n s due t o d e f l e c t i o n of t h e
blades i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , s i n c e t h e i n i t i a l d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e blades are
produced by t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y onto t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n .
Another important p o i n t was t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e i n t h e hinges (at t h a t tine,
bronze bushings were used i n t h e hinges), which cannot be disregarded i n t h e
presence of appreciable c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s ; i n this case t h e y produced suffi­
c i e n t l y l a r g e damping. On one occasion, t h e p i l o t S.A.Korzinshchikov after one
of t h e f l i g h t s f o r g o t t o push t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k immediately a f t e r landing and
t h u s d i d not change t h e c r a f t from a three-point landing ( t a i l s k i d and main
landing gear) t o a standard p o s i t i o n (with support on t h e f r o n t l e g ) ; ground
resonance occurred a f t e r subsequent decrease i n r o t o r rpm aJing t o t h e l a r g e
i n i t i a l disturbance i n blade d e f l e c t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n ( t h e a x i s of
r o t o r r o t a t i o n w a s i n c l i n e d a t an angle of 14." t o t h e ground), causing t h e
blades t o break and t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o be damaged.

Thus, t h e problem assumed c o n s t a n t l y newer a s p e c t s from one experimental

model t o another.

Since, a t t h a t time, no exact c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e required damping of blade

v i b r a t i o n s e x i s t e d ( i n t h e presence of ground resonance v i b r a t i o n s , t h e damping
of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e c r a f t by shock absorbers on t h e landing gear i s of equal /12
importance), designers attempted t o s e l e c t a minimum value of t h e f r i c t i o n
moment of t h e hub damper. T h i s w a s d i c t a t e d by t h e d e s i r e t o reduce v a r i a b l e
bending moments s e t up i n t h e presence of a damper during forced v i b r a t i o n s of
t h e blades i n f l i g h t .

A s i s known, f r i c t i o n dampers cause v i b r a t i o n s a t t h r e s h o l d e x c i t a t i o n .

If t h e e x c i t a t i o n i s small, %.e., t h e e x c i t a t o r y moment i s smaller t h a n t h e
f r i c t i o n mment, no v i b r a t i o n s Will appear. However, v i b r a t i o n s may suddenly
arise i n a h e l i c o p t e r which i s fail-proof w i t h r e s p e c t t o ground resonance and
had a l r e a d y been i n a c t u a l s e r v i c e . This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t ,
i n a given case, t h e i n i t i a l p e r t u r b a t i o n s may be g r e a t e r t h a n usual. This case
occurred i n t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r when t a x i i n g o b l i q u e l y a c r o s s deep r u t s made by
a t r u c k . I n t h i s case, a random disturbance of tilt s t r o n g l y rocked t h e c r a f t
on i t s pneumatic tires, causing it t o acquire such l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes
t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e damping i n t h e hub became inadequate and ground resonance
arose. The p i l o t G.A.Tinyakov remedied this i n a simple manner by t a k i n g o f f ;
this stopped t h e v i b r a t i o n s s i n c e t h e e l a s t i c coupling, i.e., t h e coupEng with
t h e ground, w a s broken.

This case suggested t h e need f o r making use of viscous f r i c t i o n , i.e., in­

s t a l l i n g hydraulic blade v i b r a t i o n dampers i n t h e hub, f o r which t h e moment of
f r i c t i o n does not remain constant but i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e vibration amplitude.

However, p r a c t i c e c o n s t a n t l y required improvement and development of t h e

t h e o r y i n this a r e a . One merely need r e c a l l t h e g e n e r a t i o n of ground resonance
when t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s attached t o i t s moorings, w i t h t h e engine operating.

Several c a s e s of ground resonance were observed a l s o when t h e wheels of t h e

helicopter, i n t d i n g during takeoff o r landing, had only s l i g h t ground contact,
so that t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e r o t o r cane c l o s e t o t h e weight of t h e c r a f t

8
and t h e shock s t r u t s w i t h t h e u s u a l p r e t i g M e n i n g w e r e f u l l y extended. The dif­
f e r e n c e between t h e weight and t h e propulsive f o r c e of t h e c r a f t was absorbed
only by t h e pneumatic t i r e s .

It i s obvious t h a t , i n this case, not only W i l l t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies

of t h e c r a f t change but t h e r e a l s o W i l l be no damping of t h e s t r u t s . Thus,
ground resonance occurred here which had never been observed i n a h e l i c o p t e r
t h a t w a s not moored o r w a s not taxiing, a t very small wheel loading.

To avoid such cases, we began using so-called two-chamber landing-gear

s t r u t s , which were shock s t r u t s provided w i t h a second low-pressure chamber f o r
absorbing t h e v i b r a t i o n energy of t h e c r a f t when it made only s l i g h t ground con­
t a c t with the pneumatic tires w h i l e t h e main s t r u t s were not operative.

Problems of t h e t h e o r y of ground resonance are e s p e c i a l l y important f o r

twin-rotor configurations when t h e e l a s t i c system coupling both r o t o r s , be it
t h e fuselage i n t h e fore-and-aft o r t h e Wing i n t h e side-by-side configuration,
has low natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies. In t h e presence of such v i b r a t i o n s , ap­
p r e c i a b l e displacements of t h e r o t o r hub may t a k e p l a c e , c r e a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
of energy t r a n s f e r between blade o s c i l l a t i o n s and o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e l i f t i n g
s t r u c t u r e . Vibrations of this type are p o s s i b l e not only on t h e ground but a l s o
i n flight.

A similar problem arises i n designing t a i l r o t o r s w i t h drag hinges mounted

t o a f l e x i b l e t a i l boom.

The development of harmonic and improved c r a f t i s p o s s i b l e only if t h e de­

s i g n e r i s s u f f i c i e n t l y competent not only i n g e n e r a l problems of design b u t a l s o
i n s p e c i a l problems having t o do w i t h t h e t h e o r y and c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n d i - &3,
v i d u a l elements.

A modern h e l i c o p t e r contains many e s s e n t i a l highly loaded mechanical com­

ponents whose r e l i a b i l i t y and s e r v i c e l i f e depend i n many r e s p e c t s on t h e per­
formance of t h e bearing assemblies. Consequently, h e l i c o p t e r designers should
be familiar w i t h t h e t h e o r y and c a l c u l a t i o n of roller bearings. This p e r t a i n s
s p e c i f i c a l l y t o cases of t h e work of r o l l e r bearings i n complex combinations of
e x t e r n a l loads and i n t h e presence of rocking motion of low amplitude.

For this reason, we included a chapter giving answer t o problems of t h e

t h e o r y and c a l c u l a t i o n of bearing assembPies of hubs, c y c l i c p i t c h control, and
o t h e r u n i t s . One of t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g problems described i n Chapter I V i s
t h e t h e o r y of s p e c i a l t h r u s t r o l l e r bearings i n which, owing t o the positioning
of t h e r o l l e r s a t a n angle t o t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , t h e cage - during t h e rock­
i n g motion - not only v i b r a t e s along w i t h t h e movable c o l l a r but a l s o continu­
o u s l y r o t a t e s i n one d i r e c t i o n . This prevents l o c a l wear of t h e raceways and
i n c r e a s e s t h e l i f e t i m e of t h e bearing.

It should be noted t h a t t h e use of such bearings i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge

of r o t o r hubs r e s u l t e d i n a n appreciable i n c r e a s e i n s e r v i c e Life.

Hellcopter engineering requires a high g e n e r a l l e v e l of t h e o r e t i c a l and

s c i e n t i f i c training of t h e d e s i g n engineer, s i n c e dynamic problems a r e of much
9
g r e a t e r importance f o r h e l i c o p t e r s ( r o t a r y wing a i r c r a f t ) t h a n f o r r e g u l a r air­
craft ( p r o t o t es w i t h f i x e d wing, although l a t e l y a l s o including tilt wings and
variable sweq?. T k i s i s confirmed by t h e fact t h a t t h e f e w designers who made
notable c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e development of h e l i c o p t e r engineering and especial­
l y t h o s e who had p r a c t i c a l success, were simultaneously outstanding s c i e n t i f i c
t h e o r i s t s . These i n c l u d e B.N.Yurtyev, Prof. A.M.Cheremukhin, and Prof. I.P.
b a t u k h i n who, i n t h e Thirties, w e r e t h e developers of t h e first Soviet h e l i ­
c o p t e r s from t h e lEA t o t h e I l E A prototypes; Prof. Focke, t h e designer of t h e
FW-61 and FA-223 h e l i c o p t e r s i n Germany; one of t h e p i o n e e r s of a v i a t i o n Louis
Breguet; Prof. Doran who c r e a t e d t h e first f i e n c h h e l i c o p t e r s ; and many o t h e r s .

It should be noted t h a t t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l of t h e o r e t i c a l t r a i n i n g of de­

s i g n e r s working for t h e foremost h e l i c o p t e r engineering firms of t h e world i s
very high, as far as can be judged from t h e l i t e r a t u r e . For this reason, n e i t h e r
t h e engineer-calculator nor t h e designer working i n h e l i c o p t e r engineering should
have any d i f f i c u l t y i n a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e material presented below.

The authors hope t h a t this second volume w i l l f i n d r e a d e r s and be found

useful.
+$ +$
K

The i n s e r t s show photographs of t h e main Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s i n series pro­

duction. These are t h e first Soviet series-produced h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h p i s t o n
engines M i - 1 and Mi-4, developed i n 1949 and 1952. Having been produced i n
l a r g e numbers, t h e s e prototypes range now among t h e most widespread v a r i a n t s of
helicopters.

Other photographs show t h e Mi-6 h e l i c o p t e r w i t h two turboprop engines /uc

developed i n 1957 and t h e Mi-10 h e l i c o p t e r (1962) which i s a f l y i n g crane w i t h
a high landing gear,adapted f o r l i f t i n g and t r a n s p o r t i n g heavy s t o r e s r i g i d l y
mounted on t h e underbelly. I n 1965, a world l i f t i n g record f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w a s
e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h this cargo c r a f t : 25 t o n s were l i f t e d t o a height of 2830 m.

The next p i c t u r e s g i v e t h e Mi-2 and Mi-$ h e l i c o p t e r s which are a second

generation of Soviet l i g h t and medium versions. The l i f t i n g systems of t h e
M i - 1 and Mi-4 were r e t a i n e d on these, but t h e s i n g l e p i s t o n engine w a s replaced
by two turboprop engines.

10
 CHAPTER I /15
ELASTIC VIBRATIONS AND BLADE STFENGTH

Calculation of e l a s t i c Vibrations i s a necessary element i n t h e process of

developing new blade designs. It forms an i n s e p a r a b l e p a r t of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
of blade s t r e n g t h .

To develop h e l i c o p t e r blades it i s necessary t o s o l v e many preserrtly quite

complex t e c h n o l o g i c a l and designproblems. I n t h e i r s o l u t i o n , account must be
t a k e n of t h e most d i v e r s e requirements and p r i m a r i l y of t h e requirement of high
f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e .

The work of designing blades u s u a l l y involves t h e following b a s i c s t e p s :

S e l e c t i o n of materials f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l members, determination
of optimal parameters, and design of t h e blade.
S e l e c t i o n of t h e best t e c h n o l o g i c a l processes ensuring highest f a t i g u e
s t r e n g t h of i t s main s t r e s s e d elements, and manufacture of t h e blade.
F l i g h t t e s t s w i t h a n a l y s i s of stresses set up i n f l i g h t .
Dynamic tests and e v a l u a t i o n of t h e blade s e r v i c e l i f e .
Performance of t h e complex of f i n a l i z i n g , including work on reduction
of a c t i v e s t r e s s e s and i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e .
Acceptance tests and start of series production.
Analysis of o p e r a t i o n of series-produced blades under various high-load
and endurance conditions and layout of f i n a l designs f o r blade s e r i e s
based on t h e a n a l y t i c a l d a t a .

Calculations of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s are required a t many s t a g e s of

this work, but p r i m a r i l y a t t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e which terminates with t h e a c t u a l
blade design.

I n s e l e c t i n g t h e blade parameters and i t s s t r u c t u r a l materials, one of t h e

main c r i t e r i a i s t h e magnitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses s e t q~ i n f l i g h t and t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e s e s t r e s s e s and o t h e r s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h
of t h e s t r u c t u r e . It i s only by c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e s e
s t r e s s e s can be determined and a n estimate made of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e
a t this s t a g e . To d e s i g n t h e blade w i t h i n t h e required - u s u a l l y r a t h e r s h o r t -
p e r i o d , t h e designer should have a v a i l a b l e modern methods and computational
means t o o b t a i n a r a p i d s o l u t i o n t o any number of p o s s i b l e problems.

O f similar importance i s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i n t h e f i n a l i z i n g s t a g e . A s a
r u l e , i n new blade designs t h e variable stresses are excessive, confronting t h e
designer w i t h t h e problem of t h e i r reduction. For this, t h e occurrence pat- /16
t e r n of s t r e s s e s measured i n f l i g h t must be confirmed by c a l c u l a t i o n , followed
by devising means f o r t h e i r r e d u c t i o n by varying sme of t h e parameters. To
attempt a s o l u t i o n of this problem without c a l c u l a t i o n g e n e r a l l y means excessive
l o s s of t i m e i n checking u n v e r i f i e d assumptions and w a s t e of considerable funds
i n manufacturing a blade that might be r e j e c t e d a f t e r f l i g h t t e s t i n g .

11

f
 I1 I 111111111llIlIII

A reduction of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i s extremely important and permits not

only a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e blade but a l s o a n
improvement i n m e c h a n i c a l and f l y i n g cpalities of a h e l i c o p t e r such as, f o r
example, f l y i n g speed and l i f t capacity, which i n modern h e l i c o p t e r s are o f t e n
l i m i t e d because of s t r e n g t h conditions.

Solution of a l l t h e s e problems would not be e x c e s s i v e l y d i f f i c u l t i f t h e

c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s would s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l coincide With t h o s e observed during
i n - f l i g h t stress a n a l y s i s . Unfortunately, this i s not always t h e case s i n c e
c a l c u l a t i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y give r e s u l t s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r p r a c t i c e .

Calculations f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies a r e most

reliable. Usually, a n accuracy of t h e order of *2% i s achieved. Therefore, a l l
c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e exclusion of resonance y i e l d high r e l i a b i l i t y . C a l c u l a
t i o n s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses a t c r u i s i n g and maxi" f l y i n g speeds are notice­
a b l y l e s s r e l i a b l e . The stress values obtained i n t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s u s u a l l y
a r e 15-25% lower t h a n stresses measured i n f l i g h t . Consequently, t h e s t r e s s
analyses i n t h e s e regimes do not always s a t i s f y t h e designer. Nevertheless, t h e
e r r o r can be compensated t o a c e r t a i n extent by i n t r o d u c i n g i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
a c o r r e c t i o n allowing f o r a constant divergence from experiment.

A s t i l l g r e a t e r e r r o r i s p o s s i b l e i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses
a t low flying speeds.
It i s obvious from t h e above that t h e c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r a l t e r n a t i n g
blade stresses require f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n . Nevertheless, p r a c t i c e has shown
t h a t parameter s e l e c t i o n and blade f i n i s h i n g without even t h e s e imperfect methods
i s r a t h e r i n e f f e c t i v e . Therefore, this Chapter W i l l g i v e a d e t a i l e d account of
various c a l c u l a t i o n methods. I n our opinion, this W i l l give t h e reader a n i d e a
of a l l f e a t u r e s of blade loading i n f l i g h t , sharing p o s s i b l e approaches f o r
c a l c u l a t i o n , f o r determining and estimating t h e advantages and shortcornings of
various methods and, f i n a l l y , providing engineers concerned with such problems
bases f o r extension of s t u d i e s and improvements of c a l c u l a t i o n methods.

Along w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of various methods of c a l c u l a t i n g e l a s t i c blade

v i b r a t i o n s , on which main emphasis i s placed, this Chapter a l s o p r e s e n t s t h e
b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of stress analysis f o r blades and of s e r v i c e l i f e determination
(Sect .1I.).

With r e s p e c t t o s p e c i f i c d a t a on t h e s e l e c t i o n of blade parameters, we

thought it p r e f e r a b l e t o i n c l u d e this problem i n t h e S e c t i o n :!Blade Design11
forming p a r t of t h e third volume of this book.

S e c t i o n 1. Problems of Calculation, Basic Assumptions, and

Derivation of D i f f e r e q t i a l Equations of Blade
BendinE Deformations

1. Ultimate Pumose of Calculating E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations

The c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s i s necessary i n solving a
number of problems c r e a t e d i n t h e designing and debugging of a h e l i c o p t e r . The

12
M i - 1 Helicopter.
 Mi-4 Helicopter.

!
r

Mi-6 Helicopter
M i - l O Helicopter Crane
 I
+--
Mi-$ Helicopter
 1111II I II II

most important of t h e s e i s t h e problem of determining a l t e r n a t i n g blade bending

stresses. Determination of t h e s e stresses forms t h e major p a r t of t h e s t r e n g t h
c a l c u l a t i o n . Therefore, t h e main problem i n this Chapter i s t o determine t h e /1-7
e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of a blade f o r c a l c u l a t i n g i t s s t r e n g t h .
A determination of blade v i b r a t i o n s i s necessary a l s o f o r solving many
o t h e r problems. Without c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s it i s impossible t o deter­
mine t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e h e l i c o p t e r , t h e hub, i t s c o n t r o l s , and on t h e
transmission of t h e engine d r i v e . A determination of alternate loads exerted
on t h e h e l i c o p t e r by t h e r o t o r blades l a r g e l y solves t h e problem of analyqing
helicopter vibrations.

Also of i n t e r e s t i s t h e problem of t h e e f f e c t of blade v i b r a t i o n s on t h e

handling qualities of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The l i m i t a t i o n s inposed on t h e f l y i n g
qualities by f l o w s e p a r a t i o n due t o t h e r o t o r blades are determined p r i m a r i l y
by t h e permissible amplitude of blade v i b r a t i o n s . With a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s e
amplitudes, t h e variable f o r c e s i n t h e c o n t r o l s and t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i ­
c o p t e r i n c r e a s e . Therefore, a c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s permits
t h e most a c c u r a t e estimate of t h e limits of h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes w i t h re­
s p e c t t o f low-separation conditions.

To some extent, blade v i b r a t i o n s -

and p r i m a r i l y t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s - af­
f e c t t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o t o r even when f a r removed from
regimes w i t h flow s e p a r a t i o n .

We w i l l d i s c u s s t h e f i r s t of t h e above problems i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

2. Calculation of Blade S t r e n g t h

Calculation of blade s t r e n g t h involves a determination of t h e constant and

variable stresses a t a l l p o i n t s of t h e blade s t r u c t u r e , under d i f f e r e n t loading
conditions. The most dangerous of t h e s e w i l l be s i n g l e d out as t y p i c a l cases
calculated f o r s t r u c t u r a l strength.

Usually, i n t h e development of new blades, when t h e time a l l o t e d f o r per­

forming and processing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i s limited, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o reduce
t h e number of c a l c u l a t e d cases t o a m i n i " . EXperience has shown t h a t it suf­
f i c e s t o examine a s i n g l e case of blade loading under ground operating conditions
of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and s e v e r a l cases i n f l i g h t a t d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes.

The first case n e c e s s i t a t e s c a l c u l a t i n g a blade supported on t h e v e r t i c a l

r e s t r i c t o r of t h e hub a f t e r f u l l o r p a r t i a l stoppage of t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e s . T h i s occurs when t h e r o t o r i s not r o t a t i n g or i s i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e
of overspeeding o r else i s stopped a f t e r t h e f l i g h t . I n t h e absence of c e n t r i ­
f u g a l f o r c e s , t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s o r i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r i s i n g upon hipact of
t h e blade a g a i n s t t h e coning s t o p set up appreciable bending s t r e s s e s . I n t h i s
case, compressive stresses are e s p e c i a l l y dangerous f o r blade s t r e n g t h . Experi­
ments show t h a t i n d i v i d u a l blade overloads, a t which considerable compressive
s t r e s s e s are s e t up, my a f f e c t t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e and hence
i t s s e r v i c e l i f e . Usually, s t a t i c stresses due t o bending of t h e blade under
t h e e f f e c t of i t s own weight are l i m i t e d t o values of crG = 25 - 28 k g / d f0r.a

13
 I1 I I I I l1111l11lIlIII III

blade w i t h a s t e e l s p a r and of oG = 7.0 - 7.5 kg/mm2 f o r a blade w i t h a duralumin

spar.

From t h e computational viewpoint, this case p r e s e n t s no d i f f i c u l t i e s ;

t h e r e f o r e , we w i l l not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s it here.

Other cases p e r t a i n t o d i f f e r e n t h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t regimes when constant

and v a r i a b l e stresses from blade bending are added t o t h e permanent stresses
due t o c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . T h i s combination of loads i s highly d e t r i m e n t a l t o
t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e blade s t r u c t u r e .

3. F l i g h t Regimes Detrimental t o t h e Fatigue S t r e n g t h /18

of t h e S t r u c t u r e

I n - f l i g h t stress analyses have shown t h a t h e l i c o p t e r blades are s u b j e c t t o

appreciable alternate loads having a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on t h e s t r u c t u r a l
s t r e n g t h i n two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f l i g h t regimes.

The first type of f l i g h t regime i n c l u d e s low-speed modes,when t h e f l y i n g

speed i s 3 -8% of t h e blade t i p speed (1-1 = 0.03 - 0.08). In t h e s e regimes
t h e r e i s a marked i n c r e a s e i n t h e flexural v i b r a t i o n amplitudes of t h e blades,
causing a corresponding i n c r e a s e i n t h e v a r i a b l e stresses.

The h e l i c o p t e r uses t h e above range of f l y i n g speeds i n a c c e l e r a t i o n , hori­

z o n t a l f l i g h t at s t e a d y low speed, and i n t h e braking regime. Usually t h e
g r e a t e s t v a r i a b l e s t r e s s e s arise i n t h e braking regime. Appreciable stresses
may arise a l s o i n a s t e e p descent at low h o r i z o n t a l speed.

With r e s p e c t t o t h e conditions of loading of t h e s t r u c t u r e , f l i g h t s a t low

speeds g e n e r a l l y are short-term regimes, a t least f o r h e l i c o p t e r s used f o r
t r a n s p o r t missions. However, because of t h e high stresses p r e s e n t , it i s pre­
c i s e l y t h e s e regimes t h a t o f t e n determine t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e blade w i t h
respect t o fatigue.

The second t y p e of regime d e t r i m e n t a l t o f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h has t o do w i t h

high-speed modes. These comprise p r i m a r i l y f l i g h t s at c r u i s i n g and maxi”
speeds. A f l i g h t a t c r u i s i n g speed i s u s u a l l y t h e longest f l i g h t mode and t h u s
imposes considerable f a t i g u e s t r e s s e s on t h e s t r u c t u r e .

A marked i n c r e a s e i n v a r i a b l e stresses a t low speeds can be a t t r i b u t e d

p r i m a r i l y t o t h e appreciable nonunifomkty of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d created,
during t h e s e regimes, i n t h e flow through t h e r o t o r . Moreover, i n a b s o l u t e
magnitude, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s here reach “um values i n comparison w i t h
a l l o t h e r f l i g h t modes. Therefore, t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e magnitude of stresses
i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y a t low speeds. The v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d l e a d s t o
v a r i a b l e aerodynamic blade loading. Urder t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e loads t h e blade
executes flexural Vibrations which set up considerable v a r i a b l e stresses.

A t high f l y i n g speeds, v a r i a b l e aerodynamic loads are generated mainly as a

consecpence of f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e relative flow v e l o c i t y and changes i n angles
of a t t a c k of t h e blade sec.tions w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r o t o r azimuth. The v a r i a b l e
I"

induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i n t h e s e regimes has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e magnitudes of

t h e aerodynamic load.

I n s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s sometimes necessary t o allow f o r r o t o r over-

speeding which might occur i n f l i g h t a t a s t e e p rise i n c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s .
T h i s W i l l a l s o cause a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e constant component of stresses i n t h e
blade.

4.. A s s w t i o n of a Uniform Induced Velocity Field

It i s obvious from t h e above that a c a l c u l a t i o n of v a r i a b l e aerodynamic

loads a t low speeds i s impossible without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e variable induced
velocity field.

On a n i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g speed, t h e a b s o l u t e magnitude of induced veloci­

t i e s decreases. The e f f e c t of t h e i r nonuniformity on t h e magnitudes of aerody­
namic loads a l s o diminishes. Therefore, beginning w i t h average f l y i n g speeds,
when p 2 0.2, it can be approximately assumed i n c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e blade
stresses that t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i s uniform, <.e., t h a t t h e induced ve­
l o c i t i e s are constant over t h e r o t o r d i s k area. T h i s assumption l e a d s t o /19
s i g n i f i c a n t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s of a l l computations and t o a marked decrease i n
c a l c u l a t i o n time. For this reason, it i s widely used i n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s .

However, t h e accuracy of t h e r e s u l t s , with c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this assump­

t i o n , o f t e n i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e designer. Thus, it i s o f t e n necessary t o
abandon this assumption when c a l c u l a t i n g moderate and high-speed modes.

5. A s s m t i o n s i n C a l c u l a t i w Aerod.vnamic Loads on t h e
Blade P r o f i l e

In a l l methods of c a l c u l a t i o n presented i n t h i s Chapter it i s assumed t h a t

aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade p r o f i l e can be determined by making use
of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r s t e a d y flow p a s t a n i n f i n i t e l y long wing i n a
p l a n e - p a r a l l e l stream. An unsteady state of t h e flow i s t a k e n i n t o account only
a t values of t h e p r o f i l e angles of a t t a c k at which downwash i s introduced.
Consequently, t o determine f o r c e s a c t i n g on a p r o f i l e member, it i s suffi­
c i e n t t o determine i t s angle of a t t a c k CY and t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y U of t h e flow

p a s t it. Then, knowing CY and M = -U

a80
(where a,, i s t h e v e l o c i t y of sound), we

c a n determine from t h e p r o f i l e p o l a r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy and c, and hence t h e

f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e p r o f i l e . If necessary, one can a l s o determine t h e c o e f f i ­
c i e n t m, .
If, i n t h e f l i g h t mode under study, t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k does not
exceed CY LJ 9' and i f t h e Mach number i s not higher t h a n M LJ 0.5, t h e n we can dis­
regard i t s i n f l u e n c e and assume t h a t
c,=c;a,

IlIllllIlIll I1 I
I I I1 11111111lIlI I I I I

where cy" i s t h e tangent of t h e angle of s l o p e f o r t h e r e l a t i o n cy = f ( a ) .

T h i s a s s q t i o n i s used i n c a l c u l a t i n g l o a d s i n f l i g h t m o d e s s u f f i c i e n t l y
f a r from s e p a r a t i o n i n which, furthermore, we can d i s r e g a r d t h e c o q r e s s i b i l i t y
e f f e c t of t h e flow

The p o s s i b i l i t y of using various assumptions i n t h e method of determining

aerodynamic f o r c e s i s of g r e a t value i n s e l e c t i n g t h e method of stress a n a l y s i s
t o be used i n t h e case i n question. As a consequence, it is suggested t o use
d i f f e r e n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t regimes. Below, we w i l l d i f f e r ­
e n t i a t e between three t y p e s Of regimes f o r each of which optimum r e s u l t s can be
obtained by d i f f e r e n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n . These are low-,moderate-, and
high-speed modes.

I n t h e low-speed mode, it i s unavoidable t o t a k e account of t h e v a r i a b l e

induced v e l o c i t y field but l i n e a r aerodynamics can be used a t average blade load­
ing. A t moderate f l y i n g speeds, t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y field need be
considered only i n solving s p e c i a l problems r a i s e d by t h e n e c e s s i t y of differ­
e n t i a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l high harmonics of t h e aerodynamic loads. It i s almost
always unnecessary a t t h e s e speeds t o consider nonlinear r e l a t i o n s i n determin­
i n g t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s . Finally, i n t h e high-speed mode which i s
c l o s e t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n limit, consideration of t h e s e n o n l i n e a r i t i e s becomes
mandatory, whereas t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d can be d i s r e ­
garded i n most cases.

The above considerations r e s u l t i n i n d i v i d u a l methods of c a l c u l a t i o n t i e d m

i n w i t h s p e c i f i c f l i g h t regimes.

6 . Relation of Deformations due t o Bending i n Two MutuaLly

P e wendicu l a r Directi o n s and Corresp onding A s s mpt ions
f o r Calculation

Usually, a h e l i c o p t e r blade i s designed such t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l e l a s t i c

moments of i n e r t i a of i t s s e c t i o n s d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n magnitude. Therefore,
t h e blade i s considered as a bar extended by c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , each p o r t i o n of
which has d i f f e r e n t r i g i d i t i e s i n two mutually perpendicular d i r e c t i o n s . To
c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s , l e t us lay p l a n e s through t h e axis of t h e bar
along t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l axes of t h e s e c t i o n which w i l l be desig­
nated as p l a n e s of ma,ximum and minimum r i g i d i t y (Fig.l.11.

Frequently, t o produce aerodynamic blade t w i s t not only t h e frame forming

i t s contour i s t w i s t e d but a l s o i t s spar. I n t h i s case, t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e
p r i n c i p a l e l a s t i c axes of t h e s e c t i o n vary over t h e l e n g t h of t h e blade, chang­
i n g it i n t o a geometrically t w i s t e d bar. I n o t h e r cases, aerodynamic t w i s t i s
obtained o n l y by t u r n i n g t h e frame of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e spar.

I n f l i g h t , external f o r c e s a c t on t h e blade p r o f i l e i n widely d i f f e r i n g

d i r e c t i o n s . T h i s changes t h e problem of blade bending i n t o a highly complex
three-dimensional problem.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e degree of geometric twist of h e l i c o p t e r blades i s only

16
P l a n e of
moderate (of t h e o r d e r of 6 - 1
2'
) and
chord
appreciably less than i s feasible i n
P l a n e of minimum a i r c r a f t p r o p e l l e r s o r i n compressor
rigidity
and t u r b i n e blades. A s shown by various
estimates, t h e e f f e c t of such twist on
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s i s only s l i g h t .
Therefore, i n a l l t h e methods of calcu­
l a t i o n presented here we w i l l d i s r e g a r d
P l a n e of t h e degree of twist of t h e e l a s t i c axes
rotation' , of t h e blade s p a r and w i l l a s s q e that
t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e of maximum
and m i n i " blade r i g i d i t y i s constant
over i t s length.
Fig.l.1 P o s i t i o n of t h e Spar a t
Geometric Twist Obtained by Turning T h i s assumption permits p r o j e c t i n g
t h e Frame R e l a t i v e t o t h e Spar a l l e x t e r n a l f o r c e s onto t h e s e p l a n e s
(cpb = const). and solving two e l a s t i c a l l y unrelated
two-dimensional problems of blade bend­
i n g i n two mutually perpendicular direc­
t i o n s . After performing t h e stress analyses f o r various p o i n t s of t h e blade
s e c t i o n , t h e r e s u l t s of both c a l c u l a t i o n s can be summed.

The blade s e c t i o n p r o f i l e permits i n c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e of t h e s p a r i n t h e

chord plane and limits t h e chords i n a perpendicular d i r e c t i o n . Thus, t h e plane
of maximum r i g i d i t y i s u s u a l l y c l o s e t o a plane passing through t h e blade chord.
T h i s circumstance, as w e l l as t h e f a c t t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic
f o r c e s i n t h e chord plane i s u s u a l l y smaller t h a n i n t h e plane perpendicular t o
it, causes t h e magnitude of t h e bending s t r e s s e s t o be g r e a t e r i n t h e plane of
m i n i m u m r i g i d i t y and lower i n t h e plane of maximum r i g i d i t y . A study of modern
blade designs, where t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s approximately i d e n t i c a l i n omnidi­
r e c t i o n a l bending, i n d i c a t e s t h a t bending i n t h e plane of minimum r i g i d i t y i s (21
considerably more dangerous. I n p r a c t i c e , a l l d i f f i c u l t i e s u s u a l l y have t o do
w i t h t h e need of ensuring adequate bending s t r e n g t h i n this plane. Therefore,
we w i l l here d i s c u s s methods of c a l c u l a t i n g blade v i b r a t i o n s only i n t h e plane
of m i n i m u m r i g i d i t y . For c a l c u l a t i o n s i n this plane, we can use t h e a d d i t i o n a l
assumptions t h a t t h e p l a n e of m i n i m u m r i g i d i t y coincides w i t h t h e plane going
through t h e r o t o r a x i s . Below, we will designate this p l a n e as t h e f l a p p i n g
plane.

7. m i d-e r a t i o n of Torsional Deforma3ion of a Blade

i n -Calculations
_ of _Flexural Vibrations

Torsional deformations change t h e angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade s e c t i o n s

and hence t h e a e r o d y d c f o r c e s a c t i n g on them. Therefore, t h e s e deformations
should be t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of aerodynamic loads and vibra­
t i o n s of a blade. However, t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s en­
t a i l s considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s and g r e a t l y complicates t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

A t t h e same time, this does by no means always l e a d t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y im­

proved r e s u l t s . Therefore, t o r s i o n a l deformation should be t a k e n i a t o account
only i n cases of a c t u a l need, f o r e x q l e whenever t h e f l e x u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s

17

I I I l lIl lIl I I I Il I1 I I I
I III I 111111l1111l111l1l1l1 l 1 1l

a r e amplified on approach t o bending f l u t t e r ; however, this i m p l i e s an inade­

quate margin of s a f e t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o f l u t t e r and m u s t be considered imper­
missible.

To allow f o r t o r s i o n a l deformations, a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of

bending-torsional blade v i b r a t i o n s m u s t be solved. Its s o l u t i o n i s obtained by
c a l c u l a t i o n of f l u t t e r . Such a method of c a l c u l a t i o n , known as t h e general
method of c a h d a t i o n of blade f l u t t e r and bending stress, has been given i n
t h e first volume of this book (Sect.7, Chapt.IV).

Here, we Will d e s c r i b e only methods of c a l c u l a t i n g f r e e t o r s i o n a l (Sect .5)

and bending-torsional v i b r a t i o n s (Sect .6).

8 . Two Calculation Steps i n Blade DesiKn: C a l c u l a t i o n of

Natural Vibration Frequency and Calculation of S t r e s s e s

If a newly designed h e l i c o p t e r blade does not d i f f e r excessively i n geo­

m e t r i c and mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from a n a l r e a d y manufactured and t e s t e d blade,
it can be a s s e r t e d t h a t i n i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t regimes t h e v a r i a b l e blade s t r e s s e s
w i l l be approximately t h e same as i n t h e prototype blade. However, this r u l e i s
v i o l a t e d when, as a consequence of some change i n i t s parameters, t h e blade i s
i n resonance w i t h some harmonic of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s .
Blade-design p r a c t i c e shows t h a t s u f f i c i e n t l y reliable blades can be de­
veloped only i f none of i t s n a t u r a l frequencies coincides w i t h t h e frequencies
of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and a c t u a l l y t h e s e are f a r a p a r t . This p e r t a i n s t o b h d e
v i b r a t i o n s both i n t h e p l a n e of minimum r i g i d i t y and i n t h a t of maximum r i g i d i t y .
Naturally, it i s obvious t h a t not a l l harmonics of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , but only
those whose magnitude i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s e t q~ high s t r e s s e s , a r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o
t h e s t r e n g t h of material. Usually, absence of resonance i s mandatory f o r
harmonics not higher t h a n t h e 8 t h r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r rpm. Higher harmonics
of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s have l i t t l e e f f e c t .

Thus, i f a rough e r r o r i n s e l e c t i n g t h e blade c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s impermis­

s i b l e , v a r i a b l e stresses can be kept w i t h i n p e r m i s s i b l e limits by preventing
t h e occurrence of resonance. I n this case, t h e r e i s no need t o c a l c u l a t e t h e
variable stress amplitudes. Thus, t h e experimental designer can o f t e n U t him­
self t o t h e f i r s t s t a g e of blade c a l c u l a t i o n : determination of i t s natural v i ­
b r a t i o n frequencies and p l o t t i n g of t h e resonance diagram.

It follows from t h e above t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of blade frequencies and

n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes i s not only an auxiliary s t e p i n stress a n a l y s i s but has
a n independent value as a preliminary s t e p i n blade s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t i o n s .

9 . Idealized Blade Models Used i n Calculation

In p e r f o d n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e blade must be represented as some ideal­
ized mechanical model f o r which a l l adopted i n i t i a l a s s q t i o n s would hold, s o
t h a t l a t e r - during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s- t h e r e would be no need t o use approximate
mathematical operations
 I 11111
I-'

With c a l c u l a t i o n on computers, t h e problem should be programmed such t h a t

i t s s o l u t i o n becomes p o s s i b l e w i t h any prescribed accuracy a t t a i n a b l e by t h e
computer

A s shown by p r a c t i c a l experience, c a l c u l a t i o n m e t hods u t i l i z i n g approximate

mathematical operations o f t e n l e a d t o o t h e r misconcepts. I n m a q y cases, it i s
impossible t o complete t h e c a l c u l a t i o n because of some inaccuracy i n t h e compu­
t a t i o n s . For example, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes by t h e method
of successive approximations a n e n t i r e s e r i e s of i n t e g r a l s must be calculated.
T h i s i s o f t e n done by t h e t r a p e z o i d a l method. A t a l i m i t e d number of i n t e g r a ­
t i o n i n t e r v a l s , this method r e s u l t s i n such a l a r g e e r r o r t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g
t h e v i b r a t i o n modes of higher harmonics whose o r d i n a t e s are c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e
form of small d i f f e r e n c e s of l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s , t h e method of successive approxi­
mations ceases t o converge.

This f a c t n e c e s s i t a t e s s p e c i a l c a u t i o n i n using approximate methods of

c a l c u l a t i o n . Consequently, i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o introduce a s i m p l i f i e d i d e a l i z e d
blade model which could be c a l c u l a t e d a t maximum permissible accuracy on t h e
computer.

Three d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of mechanical models a r e known, which a r e frequently

used i n c a l c u l a t i o n s .

Beam model w i t h continuously d i s t r i b u t e d Darameters. In this model, t h e

blade i s represented as a beam w i t h continuously d i s t r i b u t e d r i g i d i t i e s EI,
l i n e a r mass m, and parameters determining t h e magnitude of t h e l i n e a r aerody­
namic load.

Such a model i s highly convenient i n d e r i v i n g i n i t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equa­

t i o n s and i n applying known approximate s o l u t i o n methods t o them t u t i s unsuit­
able f o r performing numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s . Below, we w i l l f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r t o
such a model i n d e r i v i n g working formulas s o t h a t , i n t h e s t a g e of numerical
c a l c u l a t i o n , we can use formulas derived by analogy and p e r t a i n i n g t o a model
w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters. I n t h e s e formulas, a l l i n t e g r a l s of f u n c t i o n s depend­
i n g on t h e blade r a d i u s a r e replaced by t h e sums of d i s c r e t e q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n ­
i n g t o a series of f i x e d blade r a d i i .

Beam model w i t h concentrated weights. In this model, t h e blade i s repre­

__
sented as a system of coupled concentrated weights. The coupling between t h e s e
weights i s accomplished by small weightless beams having a l o n g i t u d i n a l constant
f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y e q u a l t o t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e corresponding blade elements.

I n determining t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s , it i s assumed t h a t t o each weight

i s attached a s e p a r a t e s m a l l Wing whose area i s e q u a l t o t h e area of t h e /23
corresponding blade element. Usually, i t i s assumed that t h e area i s

where tl-l,l and t l , i + l = l e n g t h s of adjacent segments i n t o which t h e blade i s

divided i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n ;
b i = blade chord i n t h e s e c t i o n between t h e s e segments.
 I I I 1
l 11111111Il I

T h i s model most a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of a r e a l blade. For

this reason, it w i l l be used i n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s i n almost a l l cases.

However, we should mention t h a t t h e beam model has t h e s e favorable proper­

t i e s only i f t h e number of p a r t s z i s e q u a l t o 25 - 30 o r more. A s soon as this
number decreases, t h e t y p e of deformations of t h e beam model begins d i f f e r i n g
g r e a t l y from t h a t of t h e deformations of t h e blade. T h i s will be i l l u s t r a t e d
i n more d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n 10, Subsection 3. Furthermore, t h e use of t h e beam
model o f t e n l e a d s t o a r a t h e r complicated system of equations and a t times even
i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . In such cases, t h e simpler hinge blade model
can be used.

f i n g e model of blade. In this model, t h e blaue i s represented as a multi­

hinge chain c o n s i s t i n g of a b s o l u t e l y r i g i d weightless l i n k s whose masses are
concentrated i n t h e hinges. The flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s simulated by
e l a s t i c members concentrated i n t h e hinges. Under t h e a c t i o n of external f o r c e s ,
t h e a x i s of this c h a i n t a k e s t h e form of a broken l i n e r a t h e r t h a n of a smooth
l i n e as i n t h e beam-type model. T h i s f a c t , j u s t as t h e t a s k of s e l e c t i n g t h e
r i g i d i t y of t h e e l a s t i c members, introduces a c e r t a i n e r r o r when changing from
a blade t o a mechanical model.

A t t h e same time, t h e use of t h e hinge model l e a d s t o such g r e a t s i r q l i f i ­

c a t i o n of t h e working formulas t h a t it o f t e n becomes p o s s i b l e t o use improved
methods of c a l c u l a t i o n which were not f e a s i b l e when using t h e beam model. T h i s
compensates t h e f a u l t s i n h e r e n t t o this model.

It should be mentioned t h a t , on a decrease i n t h e number of segments i n t o

which t h e blade i s separated i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e models
begin t o d i f f e r markedly from t h e p r o p e r t i e s of a r e a l blade. However, f o r t h e
hinge model t h e s e e r r o r s do not i n c r e a s e as r a p i d l y as f o r t h e beam model. A s
a consequence, t h e hinge model may be more suitable i n rough methods of calcula­
t i o n , when t h e blade i s divided i n t o a small number of segments, say of t h e
order of 10 - 12.

10. Derivation of th.e D i f f e r e n t i a l Eguation of-Blade Bending

in a C e n t r i f w a l Force Field a t Vibrations i n t h e
F l a m i n g Plane

Let us r e p r e s e n t t h e blade as a beam w i t h continuously d i s t r i b u t e d para­

meters. For our study, l e t us i s o l a t e a n element of t h e beam of l e n g t h d r . The
f o r c e s a c t i n g on this element are p l o t t e d i n Fig.l.2.

Let us t h e n c o n s t r u c t t h e equation of equilibrium of this element, l i m i t i n g

t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o values of t h e f i r s t order of smallness. Then, t h e sum of t h e
p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e f o r c e s onto t h e y-axis can be w r i t t e n as

YYdr +- clQ = 0, (1.3)

and t h e sum of t h e moments of a l l f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t A

20
 where
W = l i n e a r external load on t h e
blade ;
Q = shearing f o r c e i n t h e blade
section;
M = bending moment;
N = centrifugal force i n the
.L&
blade s e c t i o n .

*om eq.(1.3) we o b t a i n
W=-Q'. (1.5)
Here and below t h e prime denotes
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with respect t o t h e
blade r a d i u s .
Fig.l.2 Diagram of Forces Acting
on a Blade Element. After d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of eq.( l4),
we o b t a i n
Q' =-1M" $. [Ng'j'.
(1.6)
S e t t i n g M = EIy" and s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.( 1.6) i n t o eq.( 1.5), we o b t a i n t h e
known d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of bending deformations of a blade i n a c e n t r i f y g a l
force field:

Let us r e p r e s e n t t h e external load W, c o n s i s t i n g of aerodynamic and i n e r t i a

loads, i n t h e form

where
T = l i n e a r aerodynamic load;
m = l i n e a r mass of t h e blade.

Here, t h e two d o t s denote d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(1.8) i n t o eq,( 1 . 7 ) , we o b t a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l

equation of blade v i b r a t i o n s

l.Y!y'1'-!.4'y'&-mlj .... .'/I (1.9)

I n a vacuum, when t h e aerodynamic load T i s e q u a l t o zero, eq.(1.9) will

d e s c r i b e f r e e blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e field:

The s o l u t i o n of this equation o f f e r s c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s . For this reason,

I III I
 S e c t i o n 2 will first g i v e i t s s o l u t i o n f o r t h e case N = 0 p e r t a i n i n g t o a n o w
r o t a t i n g blade.

ll. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Blade Bending i n t h e

Rotor Plane of R o t a t i o n

On bending of t h e blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , owing t o c o n c e n t r i c i t y

of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d , t h e blade element W i l l be s u b j e c t t o an add.5­
t i o n a l f o r c e which d i d not e n t e r t h e equations i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane. With con­
s i d e r a t i o n of this, eq.(1.8) should be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

W = Q -!- dmx-mx, (1.U

where
Q = aerodynamic f o r c e i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ;
x = displacement of t h e blade elements i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(l.U.) i n t o a n equation analogous t o eq.(1.7) but /25

w r i t t e n f o r t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , we o b t a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of blade
bending i n t h i s p l a n e
+
[ E / s " ] "- [Nx']'-w2mx nix= Q . (1.12)

This equation d i f f e r s from eq.( 1.9) only by t h e a d d i t i o n a l term w'mx.

S e c t i o n 2. Free Vibrations of t h e Blade of a N o n r o t a t i w Rotor

1. Method of Calculation f o r Solution of t h e I n t e g r a l

Equation of Blade Vibrations

Calculation of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of t h e blade of

a nonrotating r o t o r has been e x t e n s i v e l y described i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e [see, f o r
example (Ref .1)]. I n this Section, we W i l l b r i e f l y r e p e a t c e r t a i n fundamental
premises and somewhat r e f i n e t h e formulas used f o r p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s .

Let us e x e n e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of Vibrations derived f o r t h e model

of a blade w i t h continuous* d i s t r i b u t e d parameters. If we s e t N = 0 i n
eq.(l.lO), it Will t a k e t h e form

Setting
-
y =y sin pf
(2.2)

and s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(2.1), we o b t a i n

I n our f u r t h e r computations, we W i l l omit t h e Vinculum over y. Let us

22
i n t e g r a t e eq.( 2.3) w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n Of t h e boundary conditions of t h e blade
attachment. For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t us take t h e case of a blade r i g i d l y a t t a c h e d
a t t h e r o o t , w i t h t h e folloWing boundary conditions:
a t r = 0 ; y = 0; y' = 0 ;
a t r = R; M = 0 ; Q = 0 .
By quadruple i n t e g r a t i o n , eq.( 2.3) i s transformed i n t o a n i n t e g r a l equation
of t h e form

5 (5
r r R R
y= p 2 mydr2.
J
0 0 r r

Equation (2.4) i s solved by t h e conventional method of successive approxi­

mations. Prescribing a n a r b i t r a r y form Of y, normalized i n some manner, f o r
examp l e

l e t us s u b s t i t u t e it i n t o t h e right-hand s i d e of eq.(2.4).

After i n t e g r a t i o n , we o b t a i n a f u n c t i o n
r r R R

such t h a t y = p2u.

From this, using t h e c o n d i t i o n ( 2 . 5 ) , we o b t a i n

p2"u 1
R

where uR i s t h e value of u a t r = R.

We t h e n r e p e a t t h e same operation, taking t h e new value

y = p2u. (2.8)
After c a r r y i n g out t h e above operations several t i m e s , it W i l l be found
t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n mode y and t h e frequency p converge t o d e f i n i t e values which
c o n s t i t u t e t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l equations (2.4).

The method of successive a p p r o ~ m a t i o n s , applied i n t h i s manner, yields a

determinable mode y converging t o t h e mode of t h e lower harmonic of t h e natural
blade v i b r a t i o n s .

To determine t h e subsequent harmonics, it i s necessary t o s a t i s f y t h e con­

d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n overtones. T h i s c o n d i t i o n w i l l
be discussed i n Subsection 3.

I n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method presented here, it i s

important t o s e l e c t a s u f f i c i e n t l y exact method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l
equation (2.6). If t h e blade parameters are given i n t h e form of continuous

23

I1 l1l 1 l l I I IIIII I
1111lIlI1

f u n c t i o n s , t h e n t h e simplest method of c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l s (2.6) i s t h e

t r a p e z o i d a l method g e n e r a l l y employed i n such cases. However, as a l r e a d y indi­
cated above, i n c a l c u l a t i n g higher v i b r a t i o n overtones t h e u n c e r t a i n t y introduced
by this o p e r a t i o n l e a d s t o such extensive e r r o r s t h a t t h e method becomes u s e l e s s
f o r p r a c t i c a l urposes. T h i s drawback i s eliminated i f , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e
i n t e g r a l s (2.67, we use t h e method obtained from a s t u d y of t h e mechanical model
of a blade w i t h d i s c r e t e l y d i s t r i b u t e d parameters.

2. Calculation of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and

Frequencies of a Blade Model w i t h D i s c r e t e l x
D i s t r i b u t e d Parameters

For t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , we w i l l use a beam-type model w i t h concentrated loads

( s e e Sect.1, Subsect.9). For this, l e t us d i v i d e t h e blade i n t o z segments.
The l e n g t h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l segments can be d i f f e r e n t . The weight of t h e blade
i s concentrated along t h e edges of t h e s e segments i n t h e form of i n d i v i d u a l d i s ­
c r e t e loads w i t h mass mi. The flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s represented by
a stepped curve, so that it remains constant over t h e l e n g t h of each segment
(Fig J.3).

J u s t as i n Subsection 1, we w i l l first examine t h e case of a blade f i x e d

a t t h e r o o t . The o p e r a t i o n defined by eq.(2.6) can be c a r r i e d out e x a c t l y here.

Actually, l e t us use a n a r b i t r a r y form of displacement of t h e loads of t h e

model yl . Here, t h e system of d i s c r e t e values of yl ( i = 0, 1 2, 3,
being t h e s eria l number o f t h e concenkrated loads of t h e model) W i l l be desig­
z ...
nated as t h e mode of displacement. As above [see eq.(2.5)], we set yz = 1. If
t h e displacements yi are known, we can deter.nine t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s of t h e loads
on t h e i r v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency p = 1. These are determined by t h e expres­
sion

Fi=miyi. (2-9)

Knowing t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s , we can d e t e h n e a l l bending moments by a system

of simple r e c u r s i v e formulas of t h e form

Mi= k, <+I [Fi+l-ui+lMi+l-6i+lM<+~], (2.10)

where h,l+l is t h e l e n g t h of t h e blade s e c t i o n between t h e i - t h and i + l - t h c o b
c e n t r a t e d mass.

The c o e f f i c i e n t s ai and bl are determined by t h e formulas La2

A c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e bending moments by eqs.(2.10) should start fron: t h e

end of t h e blade, f i r s t p u t t i n g i = z - 1 and t h e n equating t h e bending moments
.Mz and M,+l t o zero.

24
 I 1 11111 I 1 .111.11111111 11111 11111 I I

After d e f i n i n g t h e bending moments, it i s easy t o determine t h e blade de­

formations. A s above, t h e blade d e f o m t i o n s during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency
p = 1 w i l l be denoted by t h e symbol U .

Fig.l.3 Calculation Model of Blade.

r e c u r s i v e formulas of

(2.W

(2.12)
Here,
(2.13)

Calculation of t h e deformation ui should begin from t h e blade root, a f t e r

s e t t i n g uo = 0, i n conformity w i t h t h e boundary conditions adopted here. All
q u a n t i t i e s w i t h negative s u b s c r i p t should a l s o be equated t o zero.

Thus, carrying out t h e operations (2.10) and (2.11), a p p l i c a b l e t o a beam

model w i t h a d i s c r e t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of parameters, l e a d s t o c a l c u l a t i o n of exact
values of u i .
After determining p2 i n t h e same manner as before [see eq.(2.7)]
p2=- 1
uz
and using t h e new values

i.
 Ill I 111111Ill 1I1111

we repeat a l l operations u n t i l t h e method of successive approxjmations con- J28

verges. Usually, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s considered completed as soon as t h e d i f ­

.
ference i n t h e values of y i , i n two successive approximations, i s l e s s than t h e
prescribed accuracy e y

3. Condition of Orthogonality and Calculation of Successive

Natural Vibration Harmonics

The above method of successive approximations permits a d e t e r m i m t i o n of

t h e lower harmonic of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s . I n determining t h e higher harmonics,
it i s necessary t o s a t i s f y t h e conditions of independence of t h e v i b r a t i o n s with
respect t o d i f f e r e n t harmonics.

Iet us imagine that f r e e blade v i b r a t i o n s ' i n vacuum occur simultaneously

with respect t o two modes and dj) dm).
The v i b r a t i o n energy f o r each of t h e
modes can be determined s e p a r a t e l y from t h e amplitude values of t h e k i n e t i c
energy'? :

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t o t a l energy of t h e system v i b r a t i n g simultaneously

with respect t o two modes can be determined from t h e amplitude value of t h e
t o t a l k i n e t i c energy:

The system has this k i n e t i c energy at t h a t i n s t a n t of time when t h e blade,

during v i b r a t i o n , p a s s e s t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n simultaneously with respect t o t h e
two modes hJ) and dm). Owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e values of t h e n a t u r a l
v i b r a t i o n frequency, such a p o s i t i o n a r i s e s r e l a t i v e l y sekiom, but can be e a s i l y
created a r t i f i c i a l l y by p r e s c r i b i n g t h e appropriate v i b r a t i o n phases a t t h e
i n i t i a l instant.

If t h e amplitudes with respect t o each of t h e component modes of v i b r a t i o n

do not change i n time, then t h e i r energy, determined by eqs.(2.16), a l s o remains
constant.

The t o t a l v i b r a t i o n energy should always be equal t o t h e sum of t h e ener­

g i e s of t h e component motions, i.e.,

For s i m p l i c i t y , here and belm t h e constant 1/2 i s omitted i n t h e values of t h e

45
.
k i n e t i c and p o t e n t i a l energy of v i b r a t i o n s

26
 A s follows from eq.(2.17), this i s p o s s i b l e only i f
zm,
I
y p y p ) =0.

This condition i s known as t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e natural

v i b r a t i o n harmonics. A more rigorous d e r i v a t i o n of this condition will be given
i n Section 2 of Chapter 11.

I n c a l c u h t i n g any j-th harmonic, a l l previous harmonics t o which t h e sub­

s c r i p t m = 0, 1, 2, ..., - j 1 corresponds, should a l r e a d y have been calculated.
To s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y i n determining t h e mode of t h e /29
j - t h harmonic by t h e method of successive approximations, we w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e
unknown mode y $ j ) as

(2.20)

where y j m ) are p r e v i o u s l y determined natural v i b r a t i o n modes.

The constants C, are determined from t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y (2.19)

by t h e formulas

(2.21)

The value of t h e frequency of t h e j-th harmonic i s c a l c u l a t e d from

1
':P ,,1-j-1 *

ug- 3 c, (2.22)
m-0

Knowing p2, we can determine t h e v i b r a t i o n mode from eq.( 2 . x ) ) .

4. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Calculation of Natural Vibration

-F_recruencies and Modes of a Hlwed Blade
A l l above-presented computations p e r t a i n i n g t o a r i g i d l y f i x e d blade c a n
e a s i l y be extended t o a blade w i t h hinge attachment a t t h e r o o t .

For this case, t h e i n t e g r a l equation (2.4) t a k e s t h e following form:

27
where t h e constant C, i s determined from t h e c o n d i t i o n of equating t o zero t h e
sum of t h e moments of a l l i n e r t i a f o r c e s relative t o t h e hinge. For a model
w i t h a d i s c r e t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e parameters, this c o n d i t i o n can be w r i t t e n as

It i s obvious t h a t this c o n d i t i o n satisfies t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y

t o t h e v i b r a t i o n mode, which we W i l l tentatively c a l l t h e fundamental v i b r a t i o n
mode. If this mode i s normalized i n conformity w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n ( 2 . 5 ) , t h e n
i t can be w r i t t e n as

Thus, i n c a l c u l a t i n g a hinged blade it must be t a k e n i n t o account t h a t t h e

mode of i t s fundamental i s known beforehand and i s p r e s c r i b e d by means of
eq.(2.25) and, i n c a l c u l a t i n g a l l subsequent harmonics beginning w i t h t h e first,
it i s a l s o necessary t o s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y t o t h e funda­
mental (2.a). Here, we can determine t h e f u n c t i o n s ui by t h e same formulas as
t h o s e given i n Subsection 2.

5. C a l c u k t i o n of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and Frequencies

of a Blade as a Simply Surmorted Beam

It f r e q u e n t l y i s necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e frequency of synchronous vi­

b r a t i o n s of t h e blade and h e l i c o p t e r fuselage. I n this case t h e r o t o r hub it­
self, being t h e p o i n t of attachment of t h e blade, may be displaced t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e . The c a l c u l a t i o n s of such v i b r a t i o n s are very easy t o
perform when using a blade model representing a simply supported beam. Then,
i n d e t e d d n g t h e synchronous v i b r a t i o n s of r o t o r and fuselage, it s u f f i c e s t o
c a l c u l a t e t h e mass of t h e fuselage m, reduced t o t h e r o t o r ( s e e f i g . l . 3 ) and
t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade.

Calculation of t h e blade as a simply supported beam can be performed by t h e

formulas given i n Subsection 2, except t h a t a l l n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes should
be a d d i t i o n a l l y orthogonalized t o t h e mode of t h e second fundamental:

y p = 1r c o l - s t , (2.26)

which i s equivalent t o s a t i s f y i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n of equating t o z r o t h e sum of

a l l i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g during t h e v i b r a t i o n s .

T h i s method of c a l c u l a t i o n , w i t h s l i g h t refinements, can be used a l s o f o r

c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of t h e fuselage, which
will be taken up i n Chapter 11.
S e c t i o n 3. Approximate Method of Determining t h e
Natural Blade Vibration Frequencies i n
a
- CGjtirifwal Force Field

1. Use of B..G,GalerUnfs-Method f o r Determining t h e

Natural-Blade Vibration Freauencies

The method of B.G.Galerkin i s widely used f o r solving various problems of

e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s .

The i d e a of G a l e r k i n f s method and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e s o l u t i o n of d i f ­

ferential equations i s r a t h e r thoroughly covered i n t h e literature [seej f o r
example, t h e manual Washinostroyeniyel1 (Mechanical Engineering), Vol.1, Book 1,
Mashgiz, 19473.

Here, we will not r e p e a t conclusions t h a t can be found i n o t h e r sources

b u t will i l l u s t r a t e t h e use of this method on a number of simple examples.

I n Subsection 10 of Section 1 i n this Chapter, we derived a d i f f e r e n t i a l

equation of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . On s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o
it t h e q u a n t i t y y i n t h e form of eq.(2.2), t h e n this equation t a k e s t h e following
form (we have omitted here t h e vinculum of y) :

[E/yf’]”-[Ny’]‘-p2my = 0. (3.1)

Let us assume t h a t t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e

f i e l d do not d i f f e r from t h e corresponding modes c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e case N = 0.
Then, t a k i n g i n t o account that t h e v i b r a t i o n modes y‘j) are known, l e t us s u b
s t i t u t e some mode y‘j) (3.1) and, a f t e r multiplying a l l terms of t h e
equation by this same m:z:oy‘Js’, i n t e g r a t e t h e obtained expressions over t h e
blade length.

The obtained equation, a f t e r c e r t a i n transformations, can be represented

i n t h e form

The i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g this equation L11

have a well-defined p h y s i c a l meaning, namely:

CEI = e l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade as soon as,
during flexural v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h

29
 harmonic, t h e blade shows extreme d e f l e c t i o n s from t h e equilibrium
positiorr:+;
CN = p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade w h i l e bending i n a
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . Here, j u s t as i n eq.(3.3), d i f f e r e n t
harmorjlcs of t h e natural Vibrations can be studied.

The t o t a l p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade w h i l e bending i n a

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d according t o t h e formula of y‘j) can be w r i t t e n as

cz = c,, -+CN. (3.5)

In f l e x u r a l v i b r a t i o n s when t h e blade p a s s e s through t h e equilibrium posi­

t i o n , t h e rate of displacement of i t s p o i n t s reach maxi” values:
=p y ( j ) .
( 3 06)
I n this case, t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e blade can be determined by t h e
formula
R
K,=p2 J 171 [ y ( j ) I 2 d r . (3.7)
0

I n free v i b r a t i o n s , t h e p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e blade w h i l e

bending w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode y‘J) i s converted i n t o k i n e t i c energy when t h e
blade p a s s e s t h e equilibrium p o s i t i o n . The e q u a l i t y of t h e amplitude values of
t h e p o t e n t i a l and k i n e t i c energy of t h e blade i s expressed by eq.(3.2).

From eq.(3.2), t h e freqgency of t h e j - t h harmonic of natural blade vibra­

t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d can be obtained. T h i s frequency i s d e t e r ­
mined by t h e formula

where
p o j = n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e blade without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of
centrifugal forces;
k, = a c o e f f i c i e n t allowing f o r t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s .

Here,

36This holds w i t h a n accuracy t o w i t h i n a constant equal t o 1/2, which i s

omitted i n e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 3 1(So&).,
, ani (3.7).

30
 I n eq.(3.lO), ,,N i s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i n t h e blade s e c t i o n a t u) = 1. ,&

Equation (3.9) f o r t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency without consideration of

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s can be obtained i f t h e method of B.G.Galerkin i s applied t o
eq.(2.3) i n t h e same manner.

The expressions derived here f o r t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n frequency i n

a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d are approximate. However, c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t , i n
many cases, t h e s e expressions g i v e a n accuracy completely s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r
p r a c t i c a l purposes. A more thorough e v a l u a t i o n of t h e accuracy of t h e r e s u l t s
of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l be given i n Section 4..

2. ~.
Resonance_Dia-q%i&
.~ of Blade Vibrations

As mentioned above, i n blade designing c a l c u l a t i o n s are required t o pre­

clude p o s s i b l e resonances of natural blade v i b r a t i o n frequencies w i t h t h e
harmonics of external f o r c e s , which might s e t up appreciable variable stresses.
A s s t a t e d before, t h e harmonic components of aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on a
blade i n f l i g h t a r e of s u b s t a n t i a l magnitude, up t o harmonics not exceeding t h e
8th. Higher harmonics of aerodynamic f o r c e s are s o small i n magnitude t h a t they
can be disregarded.

The frequencies of forced v i b r a t i o n s , which are a source of concern i n

blade c a l c u l a t i o n s , can be determined by means of t h e formula

where n = 1, 2, 3, ..., 8.
Equation (3.8) permits c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e dependence of natural v i b r a t i o n
frequencies of various harmonics on t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e
r o t o r . Equations (3.8) and (3.11), p l o t t e d j o i n t l y on one graph, are u s u a l l y
c a l l e d t h e blade resonance diagram. Figures 1.4 and 1.5 g i v e resonance diagrams
constructed f o r blades w i t h d i f f e r e n t parameters encountered i n p r a c t i c e . These
diagrams are p l o t t e d i n relative values. Both t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency p
and t h e r o t o r r p m refer t o a c e r t a i n operating value of t h e rpm,q,, .
The resonance diagram p e r m i t s t r a c i n g , i n graphic form, t h e d i r e c t i o n
toward which t h e blade parameters should be changed s o as t o eliminate resonance
i n t h e e n t i r e range of operating r o t o r rpm.
3. S e l e c t i o n of Blade Parameters t o Eliminate Resonance
during V i s r a t i o n i n t h e Flapping P l a n e

A s c r u t i n y of t h e resonance diagrams, constructed f o r t h e d i v e r s e blades,

shows that t h e y do not d i f f e r g r e a t l y , The e x i s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e can mostly be
a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e f l e m a l b l a d e r i g i d i t y . Less o f t e n and t o
a lesser degree, t h e cause i s a d e v i a t i o n i n t h e blade mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h i s can be explained i n a simple manner. Actually, t h e designer m u s t be guided
by a l a r g e number of various requirements, which l i m i t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of vary­
i n g t h e blade parameters and ultimately 1-d t o t h e c r e a t i o n of blades w i t h
c l o s e l y adjacent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

The following conditions p l a c e t h e main r e s t r i c t i o n on extensive v a r i a t i o n s

i n blade parameters:

1. The height of t h e s p a r i s l i m i t e d by t h e blade p r o f i l e and cannot be

increased much, s i n c e a n i n c r e a s e i n r e l a t i v e p r o f i l e t h i c k n e s s will automatical­
l y d e t e r i o r a t e t h e L/D r a t i o of t h e r o t o r . T h i s p l a c e s an upper limit on t h e
magnitude of flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade. L22
2. The bending d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade under i t s own weight should not be
excessive, s i n c e it w i l l lead
t o d i f f i c u l t i e s i n laying out
t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Bending
stresses i n t h e spar, set up
by dead weight, should not
exceed known magnitudes which
are s e l e c t e d from s t r e n g t h
conditions w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n

ings .
of p o s s i b l e dynamic overload­
These considerations
limit t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
reduction i n blade r i g i d i t y .

Fig.l.4 Resonance Diagrams of Various Types
of Blades i n t h e Flapping Plane.
3. The weight of t h e
blade i s confined w i t h i n even
c l o s e r limits. The endeavor
t o i n c r e a s e t h e weight f a c t o r
of a h e l i c o p t e r f o r c e s t h e
d e s i g n e r t o reduce t h e blade
weight t o a migimum. However,
this l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n
v a r i a b l e stresses due t o bend­
ing, a c t i n g i n t h e blade during
f l i g h t and hence leading t o a
decrease i n i t s s e r v i c e Life.
Therefore, t h e blade weight
u s u a l l y i s decreased u n t i l t h e
s p a r starts being s u b j e c t t o
i n c r e a s i n g variable stresses.
A s a r e s u l t , blade weight i s
s t r i c t l y dependent on r o t o r

32
c

s i z e and on t h e s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e material from which t h e r o t o r

spar i s fabricated.

As a consequence, t h e resonance diagrams of d i f f e r e n t blades vary i n

p r a c t i c e w i t h i n limits that are bounded on one hand by t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a
highly r i g i d blade and on t h e o t h e r by t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of. a n adequate s e r v i c e
life of low-rigidity blades.

For a given t o t a l s t r u c t u r a l weight, a blade of " a 1 r i g i d i t y i s ob- &

t a i n e d i f t h e spar material i s arranged along t h e contour of t h e p r o f i l e , i.e.,
i f t h e spar i s i n s c r i b e d i n t h e blade p r o f i l e . I n this case a l a r g e percentage
of t h e blade weight can be p u t i n t o i t s power member, t h e spar. Such blades
u s u a l l y are most advantageous from t h e aspect of magnitude of e f f e c t i v e stresses,
b u t t h e y are d i f f i c u l t t o manufacture. Blades w i t h a free form of t h e spar
c r o s s s e c t i o n ( f o r exanple, of t u b u l a r shape) which are not i n s c r i b e d i n t h e
blade p r o f i l e are simpler t o manufacture. However, such blades have l i t t l e
r e s i s t a n c e t o bending and provide t h e least f a v o r a b l e resonance diagram during
v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane.

The following blade t y p e s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d w i t h respect t o dynamic

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane:

Blades-of- low r i a i d i t s i n t h e flaming plane. Such blades are u s u a l l y em­

p l o y e d i n a s t r u c t u r e made of t u b u l a r s t e e l s p a r s , w i t h a frame not s u b j e c t t o
bending. In Fig.l.4 t h e broken l i n e shows t h e resonance diagrams f o r a blade
whose r i g i d i t y i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane i s a t t h e lower Emit of r i g i d i t y encount­
ered i n p r a c t i c e . With such parameters, t h e blade e n t e r s i n t o resonance of t h e
second tone w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic and of t h e t h i r d tone w i t h t h e s i x t h har­
monic of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s , which i s t h e reason f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of appreciable
s t r e s s e s of t h e same frequencies ( s e e a l s o Fig.1.66). These resonances are
e s p e c i a l l y manifest a t low speeds where t h e s t r e s s e s of a blade of this type are
even higher t h a n a t maximum speed (Fig.l.64). Therefore t h e i r s e r v i c e l i f e , as
a r u l e , i s l i m i t e d by t h e l e n g t h of t h e i r s t a y i n low-speed modes.

Blades of low r i g i d i t y are u s u a l l y unfavorable w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t r e n g t h and

s e r v i c e l i f e b u t are o f t e n used s i n c e t h e y a r e t h e e a s i e s t t o manufacture.

Blades of moderate r i a i d i t s i n t h e flaming plane. With a n i n c r e a s e i n

r i g i d i t y , t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade move away from t h e s e
resonances. T h i s permits t h e designing of r a t h e r s u c c e s s f u l blades. I n Fig.l.4
t h e resonance diagram of this blade i s shown as a s o l i d l i n e . A s follows from
t h e diagram, t h e second t o n e of v i b r a t i o n s of such a blade has s t i l l not ap­
proached t h e f i f t h harmonic, w h i l e t h e t h i r d t o n e w a s somewhere between t h e
seventh and e i g h t h harmonics. Designwise, t h e s e are u s u a l l y blades w i t h a con­
t o u r ( o r c l o s e t o this shape) spar i n s c r i b e d i n t h e p r o f i l e . The s p a r can be
e i t h e r s t e e l o r duralumin.

It i s impossible t o o b t a i n a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n r i g i d i t y without i n c r e a s i n g
t h e blade weight. Moreover, even a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n r i g i d i t y may l e a d t o
resonance of t h e second t o n e w i t h t h e f i f t h harmonic of t h e external f o r c e s .
Therefore, only heavy blades of g r e a t l y increased r i g i d i t y can be t h e next pos­
s i b l e type i n t h e sequence of i n c r e a s i n g r i g i d i t y .

33

. IIIIII I1 I1 I 1
 Heaw blades of high r i a i d i t s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane. I n i n c r e a s i n g t h e
weight of a given blade, p u t t i n g this weight i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e spar, t h e
r i g i d i t y can be increased s o much that t h e frequency of t h e second tone w i l l be
above t h e f i f t h harmonic. In this case, t h e resoriance diagram shown i n Fig.l.4
by t h e dot-dash l i n e is p o s s i b l e . Lower variable stresses w i l l a c t i n t h e spar
of a blade w i t h this resonance diagram, but t h e blades w i l l be somewhat heavier
i n comparison w i t h blades of moderate r i g i d i t y . However, f o r small h e l i c o p t e r s
i n which t h e r e l a t i v e r o t o r weight i s low, such a n i n c r e a s e i n blade weight i s
feasible .
It should be noted t h a t , i n evaluating t h e dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of vari­
ous blades i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e first tone of blade vibra­
t i o n has been completely disregarded. Usually t h e first tone l i e s between.the
second and t h i r d harmonics and i t s l o c a t i o n can be changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y only &
i n s t r u c t u r e s d i f f e r i n g by some s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s , f o r example, j e t r o t o r s w i t h
engines on t h e blade t i p o r r o t o r s w i t h nonhinged blades. The n e g l i g i b l e d i s ­
placement i n n a t u r a l frequency of t h e first t o n e observed f o r ordinary r o t o r s
g e n e r a l l y does not g r e a t l y a f f e c t t h e magnitudes of t h e e f f e c t i v e variable
stresses.

4.. S e l e c t i o n
of B~kde.Par.a!neters_ to-El&n$+&e- =Reso.w.nces
..
i n t h e Plane. o f . Rotati-on

In designing a blade, absence of resonance must be ensured a l s o i n t h e

plane of maximum blade r i g i d i t y , which can be approximately considered t o coin­
c i d e w i t h t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . The p l a n e of maximum blade r i g i d i ­
t y u s u a l l y coincides w i t h t h e plane of t h e chord. Therefore, t h e r i g i d i t y char­
a c t e r i s t i c s of a blade i n this plane may vary i n wider limits t h a n i n t h e f l a p ­
ping plane. Beginning w i t h a c i r c u l a r tube, t h e cross s e c t i o n of t h e s p a r can
i n c r e a s e t o a s i z e occupying p r a c t i c a l l y t h e e n t i r e p r o f i l e from t h e leading t o
t h e t r a i l i n g edge. However, t h e r e are c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s a l s o i n this plane.
Thus, a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e width of t h e s p a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e chord i s c e r t a i n
t o lead t o a shift i n blade centering toward t h e t r a i l i n g edge, which i s u s u a l l y
impermissible from t h e viewpoint of requirements f o r t h e prevention of f l u t t e r .
Furthermore, a n i n c r e a s e i n width of t h e s p a r may be accompanied by a n i n c r e a s e
i n variable stresses. A decrease i n r i g i d i t y of t h e s p a r by reduction of i t s
width automatically leads t o a decrease i n t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade.
T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s one of t h e f a c t o r s preventing t h e c r e a t i o n of blades of low
r i g i d i t y i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n .

I n evaluating t h e resonance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n it i s
mainly necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e first and sometimes a l s o t h e second har­
monic of blade v i b r a t i o n . The e x c i t a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s by higher harmonics i s
not as l i k e l y .

Blades can be subdivided i n t o t h e following types, based on t h e i r dynamic

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e p l a n e of maximum r i g i d i t y :

Blades of m i n i , ” r i g i d i t s i n t h e p-lane. of r o t a t i o n . T h i s type of blade

u s u a l l y includes t h o s e w i t h a tubular spar and a frame not s u b j e c t t o bending.
The natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t M s t y p e of blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n

34
are approximately t h e same as i n t h e t h r u s t plane or even somewhat lower, due t o
t h e f a c t that t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k j [see eq.(3.8)] i n t h e p l a n e i n
question i s somewhat lower ( t h i s w i l l be t a k e n up i n Sect .4, Subsect .4). The
first harmonic v i b r a t i o n s i n this case i s g e n e r a l l y somewhat higher t h a n t h e
second harmonic of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s s o that m s e r i o u s t r o u b l e i s c r e a t e d by this
resonance. The s i t u a t i o n becomes worse f o r t h e second harmonic. T h i s might
e n t e r i n t o resonance w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic of external f o r c e s . Generally,
this l e a d s t o a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n stresses of this p a r t i c u l a r frequency
i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . In Fig.l.5 t h e dashed l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e resonance
diagram f o r a blade whose r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n l i e s a t t h e lower
l i m i t of r i g i d i t y encountered i n p r a c t i c e . T h i s blade i s c l o s e t o resonance of
t h e second harmonic w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic of external f o r c e s .

- -
Blades
~~ of lo? r-i-gidLt.y-int h e p-l+ne of r o t a t i o n . If t h e r i g i d i t y of a
blade i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n i s somewhat increased, s o t h a t i t s f i r s t tone re­
mains between t h e second and t h i r d harmonics and t h e second tone g e t s out of
resonance w i t h t h e f o u r t h harmonic., t h e n t h e blade w i l l be adequate w i t h respect
t o s t r e s s e s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . It should be noted t h a t , w i t h a n i n c r e a s e
i n r i g i d i t y , resonance of t h e second tone w i t h t h e f i f t h harmonic t o t h e r o t o r ,&
rpm must be prevented.
PI" P r a c t i c e has shown t h a t , a t
this resonance, t h e s t r e s s e s
i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n in­
c r e a s e r a t h e r strongly,
which might even a f f e c t t h e i r
s e r v i c e l i f e . The resonance
diagram of blades of low
r i g i d i t y i n t h e plane of ro­
t a t i o n , for which t h e second
t o n e i s between t h e f i f t h
and s i x t h harmonics, i s
shown i n Fig.l.5 by s o l i d
lines.

Blades of low r i g i d i t y
i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n are
widely used i n p r a c t i c e , and
as a r u l e , cause no t r o u b l e s
associated with vibrations
i n this plane. However,
t h e i r rigidity characteristics
i n t h e p l a n e of f l a p p i n g are
often close t o those f o r
blades of law r i g i d i t y i n t h e
f l a p p i n g plane, which are
d i s t i n g u i s h e d by high
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 n/nq stresses a t low f l y i n g
speeds. On i n c r e a s i n g t h e
Fig.l.5 Resonance Diagrams of Various Types of blade r i g i d i t y i n t h e flap-
Blades i n t h e Plane of Rotation. p i n g plane, t h e r i g i d i t y i n
t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n o f t e n
i s simultaneously increased.

35
 This makes it necessary t o use blades of even g r e a t e r r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of
r o t a t i on.

Blades of moderate and high r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . Blades of

moderate r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n u s u a l l y i n c l u d e t h o s e whose funda­
mental l i e s between t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h harmonics of external forces, w h i l e t h e
second t o n e i s l o c a t e d i n a frequency range w i t h such weak e x c i t a t i o n s that it
can be disregarded. I n Fig.l.5, t h e frequency of t h e fundamental of t h e s e blades
is shown by a double l i n e .

Blades of high r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i n c l u d e those whose LXz

frequency i n t h e fundamental l i e s above t h e f o u r t h harmonic of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s
(dot-dash l i n e i n Fig.l.5).

Blades of moderate and high r i g i d i t y i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n can be fabri­

cated w i t h moderate stresses. However, i n t h e p r a c t i c a l use of such blades dif­
f i c u l t i e s o f t e n arise, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a decrease i n blade frequency as a conse­
quence of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment p o i n t t o t h e fuselage. T h i s must
d e f i n i t e l y be t a k e n i n t o account i n designing blades of t h i s type.

Section 4. Calculation of Natural Blade V i b r a t i o n Modes

and Frequencies i n a C e n t r i f w a l . Force- _Field

1. P m o s e and Problems. of C a l c u l a t i o n
A s mentioned i n S e c t i o n 1, Subsection 8, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes and
frequencies of t h e blade must be determined i n s o l v i n g two types of t e c h n i c a l
problems that impose d i f f e r e n t demands on t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n .

The first t y p e i n c l u d e s problems i n which t h e c a l c u l a t i m of modes and fre­

quencies i s c a r r i e d out t o s e l e c t blade parameters that w i l l prevent t h e appear­
ance of resonance. I n t h i s case, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s cumpleted by c o n s t r u c t i o n
of t h e resonance diagrams, and t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes p l a y only t h e r o l e of
intermediate r e s u l t s and are not used later. Therefore, i n c u r r e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s
of this type, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of a given blade i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e
f i e l d i s assumed t o coincide w i t h t h e mode of a nonrotating blade. The e f f e c t
of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i s t a k e n i n t o account only i n t h e values of frequencies
computed from energy r e l a t i o n s h i p s determined by eq.(3.8). Such a r a t h e r s h p l e
method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s f u l l y adequate f o r t h e purposes involved.

The second t y p e i n c l u d e s problems i n which t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes and

frequencies are used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g forced v i b r a t i o n s , w i t h a determination of
variable s t r e s s e s set uy, i n t h e blade s t r u c t u r e . To o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e
r e s u l t s here, it i s important t o allow f o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t introduce t e n s i l e
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e v i b r a t i o n mode.

It will be shown i n this Section t h a t c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y

change t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e blade. The e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e s i s e s p e c i a l l y manifest i n t h e form of curvature d i s t r i b u t i o n of a n e l a s t i c
l i n e over t h e blade l e n g t h and, t o a lesser extent, i n t h e mode of displacement
of i t s elements. A change i n t h e form of curvature d i s t r i b u t i o n n a t u r a l l y l e a d s

36
t o a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending s t r e s s e s over t h e blade. The e f f e c t of c e n t r i ­
f u g a l forces on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s over t h e blade length i s f e l t most
a t s i t e s of a marked drop i n f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y and a t sites of concentrated
loadings.

It should be noted that, i n determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes with

consideration of c e n t r i f u g a l forces, c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e encountered that
must be examined i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

2. -Emits of A p p l i c a b i l i t y of _CalculationMethods Reducing

-&&ion of t h e Intenral-Equation of Blade Vibrations

To c a l c u l a t e t h e f r e e v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d ,
i t i s convenient t o use t h e same method as f o r t h e blades of a nonrotating r o t o r .
However, the method of successive approldmations ( s e e Sect .2), which involves
solVing t h e i n t e g r a l equation (2.1), cannot be applied i n a l l cases t o t h e sol­
t i o n of eq.(3.1) describing natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e &
field.

It was shown i n Section 2, Subsection 1 that, with a fourfold i n t e g r a t i o n

of eq.(2.1), t h e problem reduces t o solving t h e i n t e g r a l equation (2.4). This
equation can be w r i t t e n i n a somewhat differerrt form

RR
where M i n e r t= JJ mydr2 i s t h e bending moment due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r i s i n g upon
rr
blade v i b r a t i o n s with a frequency p = 1.

In t h e same manner, on i n t e g r a t i n g e ~ ~ ( 3 . 1t h
) e problem reduces t o solving
an equation of t h e f o l l a J i n g form:

where M C a f i s t h e bending moment due t o c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a t an angular v e l o c i t y

of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r w = 1:

s - y s mrdr;
R P
M ,.. = myrdr
r r

02
y=-.
P2

The method of successive a p p r o a t i o n s applied t o eq.(k.l) y i e l d s s a t i s ­

f a c t o r y convergence i n a l l cases of r o t o r c a l c u l a t i o n but, applied t o eq.(4.3),
it w i l l converge o n l y i n a c e r t a i n range of values of t h e parameter y .
37
I 1111I IlIl

--
Figure 1.6 gives t h e resonance diagram f o r a conventional h e l i c o p t e r 'Dlade--­
w i t h hinged attachment t o t h e hub. I n this graph, t h e r o t o r r p m i s l a i d off on
t h e a b s c i s s a and t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies on t h e o r d i n a t e .

The values f o r t h e natural frequencies, obtained by solving eq.(4.3) w i t h

t h e method of successive approximations, are shown i n Fig.l.6 by d o t s . Opposite
each dot, we entered t h e corresponding value of t h e parameter y and t h e number
of approximations s necessary f o r achieving t h e required accuracy of 0.001. The
graph i n d i c a t e s that, at d e r t a i n values of y, t h e value of s begins t o i n c r e a s e
r a p i d l y and t h e method of successive approximations ceases t o converge.

Fig.l.6 Resonance Diagram of Helicopter Blade i n t h e Thrust

Plane, Constructed by t h e Method of Successive Approximations.

If follows from F'ig.l.6 that, i n t h e o p e r a t i n g r p m range f o r h e l i c o p t e r

blades, this method permits a determination of natural frequencies of t h e t h i r d
and higher harmonics but only i f a l l harmonics of t h e v i b r a t i o n s are determined
f o r a constant value of t h e parameter y, which only approximately corresponds t o
conditions of t h e formulated p h y s i c a l problem. If, i n t h e process of successive
approximations, t h e parameter y 53 r e f i n e d f o r a given value of angular v e l o c i t y
w, t h e n t h e method w i l l converge only i n a n rpm range appreciably smaller t h a n
t h e operating rpm.
38
 -
T h i s requires t h e use of o t h e r methods t h a t a f f o r d a more reliable r e s u l t
i n t h e e n t i r e rpm range of t h e r o t o r .

3 . Possible Methods of Calculating Fr-e. Blade Vibrations

..

-
i n a Cegtrifmal Force F i e l d

Various methods can be used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequen­

c i e s and modes i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . Of Soviet work, published on this
s u b j e c t matter, we should mention three a p e r s (Ref.4, 8, 10). Papers w e r e a l s o
published i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s (Ref .33, 347. I n these, a r a t h e r cumbersome method
i s presented which, moreover, does n o t y i e l d a high accuracy of t h e f i n a l
r e s u l t s des i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n should be c a r r i e d out t o not l e s s
!
t h a n t h e 10 h t o 1 2 t h s i g n i f i c a n t figure.

Here, we will p r e s e n t a method which, i n our opinion, i s t h e most convenient

f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade i n a c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e f i e l d . The process i s based.on t h e three-moment method used by T.Morris
and W.Tye (Ref.32) i n c a l c u l a t i n g bending s t r e s s e s i n a blade extended by cen­
t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . The Morris and Tye method i s a l s o presented elsewhere
(Ref. 12) .
The three-moment method,applied t o c a l c u l a t i o n of a blade extended by
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , has a number of s i g n i f i c a n t advantages, t h e main one being
t h a t i t does not r e q u i r e a high accuracy i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n process. The calcu­
l a t i o n s can even be c a r r i e d out w i t h a n ordinary s l i d e r u l e .

The three-moment method has long been i n use f o r c a l c u l a t i n g n a t u r a l

frequencies, and has been programmed on t h e e l e c t r o n i c computers IlStrela11 and
m
M-20. Calculation of t h e first e i g h t harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n s t a k e s o n l y
about 3 minutes on t h e IlStrelaIt
computer. A l a r g e number of t h e
1Qrz most d i v e r s e c a l c u l a t i o n s have
been performed. The re,sults indi­
c a t e t h e extreme convenience and
g r e a t r e l i a b i l i t y of this method.

It should be noted t h a t , when

using a computer program f o r such
a c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e r e i s no need �or
any s i m p l i f i e d methods of calcula­
t i o n , f o r example, t h o s e mentioned
i n Section 3 .
2 Yo
0 -
Yo
4. Three-Moment Method f o r Calcu­
l a k i n g Natural Blade Vibration
Fig.l.7 Polygon of Forces Acting on Two Modes and Frequencies i n a
Adjacent. Blade Elements. C e n t r i f u g a l Force F i e l d

To d e r i v e t h e computational
formulas, we used t h e blade beam m o d e l w i t h concentrated loads, discussed
39
IIIIIII

a l r e a d y i n Section 2, Subsection 2. As before, we p r e s e n t t h e flexural r i g i d i t y

-
of t h e blade as a stepped curve, s o that it remains constant over t h e length of
each segment (see Fcig.l.3). We will assume t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e t o be applied
only t o t h e loads. Therefore, this value W i l l be constant over t h e length of
each segment. We w i l l a l s o assume t h a t t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i s absorbed by a
s p e c i a l attachment of zero weight, free t o move v e r t i c a l l y .

It i s obvious t h a t such an i d e a l i z e d c a l c u l a t i o n scheme w i l l be reliable

i f t h e number of segments z i s taken as s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e . Usually t h e blade
i s divided i n t o no less t h a n 25 - 30 segments (elements)

The method proposed later c o n s i s t s i n determining t h e natural o s c i l l a t i o n

modes and f r e q e n c i e s of such an i d e a l i z e d scheme, without a d d i t i o n a l assump­
tions.

Let us examine.two adjacent blade segments, d e f l e c t e d under t h e e f f e c t of

i n e r t i a f o r c e s from t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r (Fig.l.7). As usual, we
w i l l examine only small d e f l e c t i o n s .
The equation of equilibrium of each of t h e segments under t h e e f f e c t of
f o r c e s e x t e r n a l t o t h e given segment can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form of zero-equality
of t h e sum of t h e moments of a l l t h e s e f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o some p o i n t . In this
case, we must include i n t h e sum of t h e moments of t h e s e f o r c e s t h e shearing
f o r c e Q and t h e bending moment M a c t i n g i n t h e cross s e c t i o n .

Then, t h e sum of t h e moments of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade segment 0 - 1 &

r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t 0 can be written a s

MI-Mo--No~ (~i-yo) + Qoilol=O. (4.6)

The sum of t h e moments of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e segments 1 - 2 relative to

t h e p o i n t 1 reads

Mz-MI-N~z (~2-yi) + Q 1 2 l i 2 = 0 . (4.7)

Here,

After dividing e q ~ ~ ( 4 . 6and ) (k.7), r e s p e c t i v e l y , by t o l N o , and t12N12 and

adding them, we o b t a i n t h e f o l l d n g equation of equilibrium:
 I n t h e same manner as eq.(4.8), we can write t h e equations of equilibrium
f o r a l l o t h e r blade segments.

Esra"g, as usual, o n l y small displacements of t h e blade elements, we

-
first determine t h e deformations of t h e segment 1 2. The equation of deforma­
-
t i o n s of t h e element 1 2 can be w r i t t e n , as conventional [see eq.(3.1)1,

The i n e r t i a term is absent here, s i n c e i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r e applied only at

t h e boundaries of t h e segment. Taldng i n t o consideration that E1 =. const and
N = const over t h e l e n g t h of t h e segment and a l s o that EIy" = M, we o b t a i n

where

The s o l u t i o n of eq.(4.9) can be w r i t t e n i n terms of hyperbolic functions,

i n t h e following manner:

The c o e f f i c i e n t s A and B are found from t h e f o l h w i n g boundary conditions:

f o r x = 0 Mx = Ml;
f o r x = t,,M, = M,.
From this, it follows that
A = M2 -* L M.
sinha1 tanha, '
B=M,,

where cy, = p1 I,, .

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t o eq.(k.lo), we o b t a i n

Twice i n t e g r a t i n g eq.(k.ll), assuming y' .= PI, y = y, at x = 0 and y' = $,

y = y, a t x = tl,, we o b t a i n e i t h e r

or

The equation of deformations f o r t h e segment 0 - 1 can be w r i t t e n by analogy

41
 .- .
w i t h t h e second equation of t h e system (4.12):

After changing a l l s i g n s i n e ~ ~ ( 4 . 1 3t o
) t h e opposite and adding t o t h e
first equation of t h e system (4.12), we o b t a i n
+
b~Yo+alYl blY~.zdoMo+ciM1 +diM2. (4.14)
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e left-hand s i d e of eq.(k.&) f o r t h e bending moments i n t o
t h e equation of equilibrium of t h e elements [eq.(4.8)], we o b t a i n t h e following
e quation:

Repeating t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r o t h e r segments of t h e blade, we o b t a i n a

system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e unknown f u n c t i o n s of t i m e
yi and Mi, which i s w r i t t e n out below.

T h i s system, expressed i n t h e form of tables, c o n s i s t s of two systems of

equations (4.16) and (4.17), e a c h of which comprises z + 1 equations.

AnJr of t h e equations occupying one row i n Table 1.1 r e p r e s e n t s a polynomial

whose c o e f f i c i e n t s are e n t e r e d i n t h e squar'es. All terms of t h e polynomial re­
p r e s e n t t h e products of some c o e f f i c i e n t determined by eqs.(&.l8), (4.21),
-
(4.23) and (koa) (4.27) as w e l l as t h e unknown functions Mi and yl o r t h e
second d e r i v a t i v e of yi w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e .

Only t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are errtered i n t h e squares of

Table 1.1 w h i l e t h e f u n c t i o n s themselves, simultaneously e n t e r i n g s e v e r a l equa­
t i o n s , a r e given i n a s e p a r a t e row above t h e tables.

The described system of equations a l s o i n c l u d e s equations of t h e type of

eq.(&.U), p e r t a i n i n g only t o t h e r o o t and t i p segments of t h e blade and CO­
t a i n i n g t h e boundary values Bo and $, OThese equations are needed f o r c a l c u l a t ­
i n g t h e boundary value problems.

The obtained system of equations has t h e f o l k n c h g form:

Table 1. 1

42
 The following notations were adopted i n constructing t h e above equations:

a,=O. 1

e, =0. J
c, =e,;
Cl =e*-1 f e,;
c, =e,,, . (4.23)

43

I
 I llllIlIllll I I I I 11l1l1l1111l1l1l1l1l11ll1I I I I

-m,;

I
h, =do
hi=di -mi;
(4.W
h,=O.

go=co -no;
g,=c, -n1;
g, =c, -n,. I
I n eqs.(4.26) and (4.27), given below, mi i s t h e mass of t h e i - t h load

Here, t h e s u b s c r i p t k denotes t h e number of t h e row i n Table 1.1.

To solve t h e system of equations i n Table 1.1, it i s convenient t o use t h e

method of successive approximations. With r e s p e c t t o this system of equations,
this involves t h e following: The functions of time yi (t), M i(t), and pi ( t )
e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e systems (4.16) and (4.17) are represented in t h e following
form:
Y l ( 4 =iii sin p t ;
M,(t)=M,sinpt;
Pr (4=PI sin p t ,

,
where t h e l e t t e r s yi Mi, and pi now denote only amplitude values of t h e s e
functions.

Then, bearing i n m i n d that yi ( t ) = -p2yi s i n p t and canceling f o r s i n p t ,

we o b t a i n a system of a l g e b r a i c equations analogous t o t h e system (4.16) and
(4.17). O n l y t h e values of p2 w i l l appear on t h e right-hand s i d e s of t h e system
of equations analogous t o eq.(4.16).
Let us begin t h e method of successive approximations a f t e r assigning some ,/&
f u n c t i o n yl as t h e zeroth approximation. The second s u b s c r i p t here denotes t h e
nqnber of t%e approximation. The f u n c t i o n ylo t a k e n as t h e zeroth approximation
should somehow be normed, f o r example

4-4
 tJz= 1.

If t h e f u n c t i o n yi i s known, then t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s e n t e r i n g t h e right-

.
hand s i d z of eqs.(4.16) can be determined w i t h an accuracy t o w i t h i n a constant
factor p

For t h e t i m e being, we Will assume p” = 1. Then, eqs.(4.16) Will y i e l d t h e

values of t h e bending moments Mi and t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade a t t h e
r o o t Bo. N e x t , from t h e known values of M i and Bo we can determine, over
eqs.(&.l7), t h e displacements of t h e blade axis during deformation which, f o r
t h e case p” = 1, we Will denote by ui such that

yi=p2U<. (4.29)
After determining t h e displacements ut. we can d e f i n e t h e natural v i b r a t i o n
frequency p. Its value i s obtained on t h e basis of eqs.(4.2�?) and (4.29) i n t h e
following manner :

Then, i n conformity w i t h eq.(4.29) we determine t h e r e f i n e d ( a f t e r t h e

first a p p r o ~ m a t i o n )f u n c t i o n

The e n t i r e process i s repeateu u n t i l t h e required accuracy i s achieved.

T h i s method of successive approximations results i n t h e determined mode yi

being reduced t o t h e mode of t h e lower harmonic of t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n s .
In determining successive harmonics, t h e c o n d i t i o n of orthogonality must be
s a t i s f i e d . The operations required when obeying t h e condition of o r t h o g o n a l i t y
are t h e same as f o r a blade of a nonrotating r o t o r (se.e Subsect.3 of Sect.2).

The above equations are e q u a l l y suitable f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l d b r a ­

t i o n frequencies i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e and i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .
When c a l c u l a t i n g i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n , t h e above values of t h e frequencies
should be corrected by t h e formula

- w2,

where w i s t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .

The method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes remains t h e same, ir­

r e s p e c t i v e of t h e p l a n e i n which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed.

L e t us make a more d e t a i l e d study of c e r t a i n operations i n performing one

approximation

45
 I 11111111111Il111Il

5. Determination of Bending Moments on t h e Basis of

Known Forces

kt us begin w i t h a determination of t h e bending moments on t h e basis of

known i n e r t i a f o r c e s e n t e r i n g t h e right-hand s i d e of eq.(4.16), which we d e t e r ­
mine i n each approximation, assigning a t f i r s t t h e value p2 = 1.

After p r e s c r i b i n g some v i b r a t i o n mode yi , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r i g h t -

hand s i d e of eqs.(l+..l6) can be determined which will be denoted here by Fk .
The c o e f f i c i e n t s Fk can be determined from t h e formulas L&
(4.33)

o r , s t i l l better, from

7.

where Q3r-l,k =?miyi.

Then, t h e system of equations (4.16) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e f o l l a J i n g
form ( Table 1.2) :
1. 2

To s o l v e this system, we must know two a d d i t i o n a l equations which t a k e t h e

boundary c o n d i t i o n i n t o consideration. These equations can be t h e following:
a t r i g i d attachment of t h e blade r o o t

Po=();

a t r i g i d attachment of t h e blade t i p

pz=0.

A t hinged attachment of t h e blade t i p s o r w i t h completely free t i p s , we-

have Mo = 0 and M, = 0.
 .

Below, we will d i s c u s s only t h e two most common cases where t h e blade t i p

i s free (M, = 0) w h i l e t h e r o o t e i t h e r has a hinged support (M, = 0) o r a r i g i d
attachment (po = 0 )

L e t us examine t h e first case i n which t h e blade i s hinged, i.e., Mo = 0.

Here, t o determine t h e bending moments we use o n l y t h e equations encased by a
s o l i d l i n e i n t h e system (4.35); from t h e f i r s t equation we can t h e n determine
t h e value of t h e angle of blade r o t a t i o n i n t h e hinge Bo. From t h e l a s t equa­
t i o n of t h e system (4.35) we could a l s o determine t h e value of B, .
However, we
do not need this value f o r f u r t h e r s o l u t i o n . The equation i t s e l f i s used only
i f pz = 0, a case r a r e l y encountered i n p r a c t i c e .

I n solving t h e system (4.35), it may e a s i l y happen t h a t t h e wrong p a t h i s

s e l e c t e d , leading t o t h e appearance, during s o l u t i o n , of s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s of
l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s , which might completely r u i n t h e r e s u l t even when using a com­
p u t e r providing an accuracy t o 10 decimal p l a c e s .

We propose here a r e p e a t e d l y verifzed procedure, which permits performing ,&

t h e c a l c u l a t i o n on a n ordinary s l i d e r u l e .

We d i v i d e t h e first equation of t h e system (4.35), w r i t t e n f o r a hinged

blade, by g l and t h e second equation by hl:

Subtracting eq.(4.36) from eq.(4.37) and introducing t h e following notations:

we o b t a i n a n equation analogous t o eq.(4.36):

I n combination w i t h t h e next equation of t h e system (4.35), this equation

forms a system of two equations analogous t o eqs.(4.36) and (4.37). Repeating
t h e described operations a c e r t a i n n m b e r of t i m e s , we u l t i m a t e l y o b t a i n one
equation of t h e following form:

(4.39)

47

I
 I 1
1
I1
1
11
1II I Il

After determining t h e moment M,,1, we determine t h e moment M,-a, and s o on

up t o t h e moment MI. I n o t h e r words, t h e moment M, i s determined each t i m e
when t h e moment i s a l r e a d y determined. The formula f o r determining t h e
moment M i can be w r i t t e n on t h e basis of eqs.(&.36) and (4.3e) i n t h e following
manner :

After obtaining t h e bending moments, t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n

t h e r o o t hinge Bo i s determined by means of t h e formula

The second s t e p i n t h e method of successive approximations involves d e t e r ­

mining t h e blade deformations from known values of t h e bending moments Mi and
t h e angle of blade r o t a t i o n i n t h e hinge Bo

6. Determination of Displacements from Known Bendinn Moments

Displacements of t h e blade i n deformation which - i n conformity w i t h t h e
above - are denoted by u l can be determined from t h e system (4.17). However,
it can be demonstrated that t h e equations of t h e system (4.17) are inadequate
f o r determining a l l values of u,.

Actually, f o r determining t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e curve a t a known curvature &

d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e length, when given t h e values of Mi, and a t a known value
of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n a t one p o i n t Bo, one more c o n d i t i o n imposed on t h e
values of displacements i s necessary. I n this case, t h e last equation of t h e
system (4.17), which i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e value of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n a t another
p o i n t B,, i s a c t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e f i r s t equation s o t h a t it can be
w r i t t e n out e x c l u s i v e l y by analogy w i t h t h e system (4.16).

Thus, t h e a d l i a r y condition e i t h e r Will be t h e condition

uo =0,

if t h e r e i s a support a t t h e blade r o o t , o r e l s e t h e c o n d i t i o n

i f t h e blade i s regarded as free on two s i d e s of t h e beam. The condition (4.43)

coincides w i t h t h e expression obtained from t h e c o n d i t i o n of orthogonality w i t h
t h e fundamental of t h e v i b r a t i o n s

ylo) = 1=const.
 Calculating t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t comprise t h e a l r e a d y determined values
of M i and &, and leaving only t h e first of t h e two i d e n t i c a l equations, we ob­
t a i n t h e following system of equations which, i n combination w i t h eqs.(4.42)
and (4.43), permits determining a l l values of ul (see Table 1.3)
Table 1.3

(4.44)

Here, we have introduced t h e following notations:

I n this formula, a t i = -1, it i s necessary t o s u b s t i t u t e Bo f o r t h e values of

E, and t o consider t h e value of d,, as e q u a l t o u n i t y (ct, = 1).

With t h e condition (4.42), t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e system (4.44.) reduces t o

determining t h e values of u1 from simple recurrence r e l a t i o n s of t h e type of
1
u I = - 61-1 [ D ~ ~ l - b I ~ ~ u I ~ ~ - a I ~ ~ u I ~ l ] . (4-46)

On solving t h e system (4.44.) w i t h t h e condition (4.43), t h e values of ul &

?,
can be represented as

ui =uo+ Ei, (4.47)

where Yo = 0, and we can determine Ui from eqs.(4.46), a f t e r which t h e value of

uo can be determined by means of t h e formula

uo= -- Ii- - z0
2 m i
i-0

The f u r t h e r course of successive approximations has been described above.

49
 I I I l l l I I 1l11111111l1ll l lIl l I I I I I

I n t h e examined case of hinged blade attachment at t h e r o o t , t h e method of

successive a p p r o h a t i o n s leads a t first t o a determination of t h e mode of t h e
fundamental, which, when t h e blade hinge coincides w i t h t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of
t h e r o t o r , w i l l coincide w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e . It i s natural t h a t , i n this
p a r t i c u l a r case, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s should begin d i r e c t l y w i t h determination of
t h e f i r s t harmonic, c a r r y i n g out i n each approximation orthogonalization t o t h e
fundamental which W i l l be assumed as coinciding w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e .

I n most designs, t h e r o o t hinge of a h e l i c o p t e r blade i s s e t o f f from t h e

a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r by some amount ro, which may be as much as 3 - 10%
of t h e blade r a d i u s . The presence of this o f f s e t causes t h e mode of t h e funda­
mental of a hinge-suspended blade t o d e v i a t e s l i g h t l y from a s t r a i g h t l i n e and
t h e n a t u r a l frequency t o d i f f e r noticeably from a n amount equal t o t h e rpm of
t h e r o t o r . To i l l u s t r a t e this e f f e c t , we will p r e s e n t (see M g . 1 . a ) a graph
of t h e mode of t h e fundamental, f o r a l a r g e o f f s e t of t h e axis of r o t o r r o t a t i o n
from t h e root hinge.

7. Case of a Blade R i a i d l y Attached a t t h e Root

The c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode f o r a blade r i g i d l y f i x e d a t
t h e r o o t d i f f e r s l i t t l e from t h e above case of hinged attachment.

The first s t a g e of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , involving a determination o f t h e bend­

i n g moments Mi, i s c a r r i e d out i n t h e same manner as described above, except
t h a t we now s o l v e t h e system o u t l i n e d by a broken l i n e i n t h e table of eq.(4.35).
T h i s system i n c o r p o r a t e s one more equation i n which, by v i r t u e of t h e boundary
conditions, we set p = 0.

T h i s condition i s used a l s o i n solving t h e system (4.44.),i n which t h e co­

e f f i c i e n t Do i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e formula

8 . Possible S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n C a l c u l a t i w t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s

We would l i k e t o emphasize t h a t , i n cases i n which t h e blade i s divided

i n t o a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of segments s o t h a t t h e value of t h e c o e f f i ­
c i e n t s ai i n eqs.(k.X)) i s l e s s t h a n 0.05 - 0.08, it i s p o s s i b l e t o s i m p l i f y
eqs.(4.21) and (4.22) on replacing t h e i r hyperbolic functions by t h e f i r s t terms
of t h e i r expansion i n series.

Actually, i n eqs.(4.21) and (4.22) we s e t

sinha=a+-+-+.
a3
31
a5
51
. a3

a3 2a5 ru a3
tanha=a-- +15-...=a-­
3

and neglect t h e values a2 w i t h respect t o unity. Then t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s di m

and e, can be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e approximate formulas

These s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s render t h e c a l c u l a t i o n somewhat l e s s laborious, which

i s important when using manual means.

9 . C e r t a i n - e s u l t g of CalculatinE t h e Natural Blade

Vibration- Modes and &e auencies
--

Here w e d i s t i n g u i s h two problems which a r e of prime i n t e r e s t from our p o i n t

of v i e w .

Harmonic o f Frequei I
rence of-sharp bends i n t h e blade under
V i brations
Approximate Exact t h e e f f e c t of l o c a l phenomena of t h e
Method Method d i s t r i b u t i o n of r i g i d i t y and mass para-
meters over t h e blade length. The oc-
Hinged s u s p e n s ion currence of such f l e x u r e s i s charac-
a t b lad e r o o t t e r i s t i c f o r beams extended by c e n t r i -
f u g a l f o r c e s and i s never observed i n
First 405.3 404.3
t h e absence of extension by c e n t r i f u g a l
Second
’Ihi rd
708.5
1069.7
705.9
1069.0
forces .
R i g i d attachment bt us begin w i t h t h e first prob­
a t blade root
l e m : We a l r e a d y noted i n Subsection 1
First 212.1 194.7 of Section 3 t h a t t h e approfimate
Second 463.7 461.9 method of c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l blade
’h ir d 821.5 817.5 frequencies i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e
f i e l d , which i s based on t h e assumption
t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes do not
d i f f e r i n t h e Dresence o r absence of
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , y i e l d s completely s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u i t s a t t h e s e frequency
values.

To confirm this assumption, l e t us p r e s e n t t h e values of t h e natural vibra­

t i o n frequencies of t h e f i r s t three harmonics of hinged and r i g i d h e l i c o p t e r
blades i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d . The values of t h e frequencies c a l c u l a t e d
by t h e approximate energy method (see Sect .3) are shown i n t h e second column of
Table 1.4. For comparison, t h e t h i r d column contains t h e exact values of fre­
quencies c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method presented i n this Section.
 A comparison of t h e frequency values presented i n Table 1.4 shows t h a t , a t
hinged suspension of t h e blade, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r values i s q u i t e small.
A t r i g i d attachment, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s somewhat g r e a t e r but s t i l l moderate.
Therefore, as pointed out above, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h t h e purpose of preventing
t h e p o s s i b l e occurrence of resonance, t h e approximate method g i v e s s a t i s f a c t o r y
results.

Centrifugal f o r c e s have a s t r o n g e r e f f e c t on t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes ,&

and e s p e c i a l l y on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending moments and curvature of t h e
e l a s t i c l i n e over t h e blade length.
Yl
1.0 figure 1.8 shows hinged modes of t h e
0.6 first five harmonics (excluding t h e funda­
82
mental) f o r t h e same blade as i n
3 Table 1.4, w h i l e Fig.l.9 g i v e s t h e d i s t r i ­
-0.2 b u t i o n of bending moments corresponding
YZ
t o t h e s e modes. The s o l i d l i n e s i n
f i g s . l . 8 and 1.9 ( j u s t as i n Figs.l.10,
1.11, and 1.12) r e p r e s e n t t h e n a t u r a l v i ­
b r a t i o n modes i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d ,
and t h e broken l i n e s i n d i c a t e t h e same
modes f o r a nonrotating blade.

Figure 1.10 shows t h e natural vibra­

t i o n modes and t h e corresponding bending
moments f o r t h e first two harmonics of. a
blade f i x e d a t t h e r o o t .

A s i n d i c a t e d by a l l t h e s e graphs,
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of c e n t r i f u g a l forces, i n
c e r t a i n blade s e c t i o n s , has a noticeable
e f f e c t on t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode, a
p o i n t e s p e c i a l l y manifest i n bending
moment diagrams and hence i n t h e d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n of bending stresses over t h e blade
length. T h i s e f f e c t i s stronger, t h e
lower t h e harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n .
Fig.l.8 Modes of . t h e First Five The d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending moments
Harmonics of a Blade i n a Centri­ over t h e blade l e n g t h during i t s v i b r a t i o n
f u g a l Force Field and at n = 0. i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d i s character­
i z e d by a n i n c r e a s e i n bending moments i n
c e r t a i n blade segments due t o t h e i r de­
crease i n adjacent segments. We w i l l c a l l this l o c a l i n c r e a s e i n bending moments
a llconcentration of bending momentsll. The occurrence of such concentrated bend­
ing moments i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e presence of l a r g e concentrated loads and
marked decreases i n flexural r i g i d i t y i n t h e blade s t r u c t u r e .

Concentrated bending moments lead t o an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of bending stresses

a t various blade segments, caused by sharp f l e x u r e s of t h e b h d e a t t h e s e
segments.

52
 T h i s i s of considerable i n t e r e s t f o r p r a c t i c e and t h u s should be s t u d i e d
i n greater detail.

The nature of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d i s l a r g e l y de­

termined by t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e magnitudes of e l a s t i c and c e n t r i f u g a l
forces. If t h e flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e
blade i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t (as i s o f t e n
F i r s t overtone t h e case, e s p e c i a l 1 in t h e p l a n e of ro­
t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r 7 and i f t h e c e n t r i ­
fuga1 f o r c e s are i n s i g n i f i c a n t (low rpm of
r o t o r ) , t h e n t h e v i b r a t i o n mode Will d i f ­
f e r l i t t l e from that of a nonrotating
blade.

If, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e flexural

r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s low and t h e
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a r e appreciable, t h e n
t h e form of blade deformation i s deter- ,&
mined mainly by i n e r t i a and c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e s and depends l i t t l e on t h e e l a s t i c
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e blade. I n t h i s case,
t h e form of blade deformation during Vi­
b r a t i o n d i f f e r s l i t t l e from t h e form of
deformation of a n i d e a l f l e s b l e heavy
s t r i n g s t r e t c h e d by c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s .
T h i s phenomenon i s g e n e r a l l y observed
during v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e thrust p l a n e of
blades i n modern h e l i c o p t e r s .

Quantitatively, t h e r e l a t i o n between
e l a s t i c and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s can be
estimated from t h e c o e f f i c i e n t CY which
r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t h e e l a s t i c po­
t e n t i a l energy t o t h e p o t e n t i a l energy
accumulated by t h e blade due t o bending
i n the centrifugal force field:

a=cEr_.
chf
Fig.l.9 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Bending
Moments over a Blade Vibrating The values of CEI and CN are described
w i t h Respect t o t h e Modes of t h e i n e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 3and
) (3.4).
First Five Harmonics i n a Cen­
t r i f u g a l Force F i e l d and when When CY > 1, t h e e f f e c t of t h e e l a s t i c
n = 0. p r o p e r t i e s of t h e blade i s g r e a t e r t h a n
t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . When
cy < 1, t h e opposite i s observed.

Table 1.5 g i v e s t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy f o r a hinged blade whose

modes of o p e r a t i o n are shown i n F'igs.1.8 and 1.9. T h i s blade can be regarded
as a t y p i c a l h e l i c o p t e r blade.

53

- ..
l l l l l I1 l l lIl Il I l l Ill
 The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s cy given i n Table 1.5 confirm t h e a s s u p t i o n
t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r blade, w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e f l a p p i n g
plane, a p p r o h a t e s a n i d e a l flexible heavy s t r i n g extended by c e n t r i f u g a l
forces, for which Q = 0.

The p r o p e r t i e s of a blade and of an e l a s t i c s t r i n g draw c l o s e r t o g e t h e r ,

t h e lower t h e overtone of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s .

A b a s i c feature of a n extended i d e a l e l a s t i c s t r i m i s t h a t i t s a x i s under-

goes sharp-bends a t t h e p o i n t s of
a p p l i c a t i o n of concentrated l a t e r a l
MI f o r c e s and a t s i t e s where t h e
;loo0 s t r i n g makes contact w t t h r i g i d
elements. Such a sharp f l e x u r e
g e n e r a l l y occurs a t t h e s i t e where
YI t h e s t r i n g i s embedded o r clamped.
2000 to If a r i g i d segment i s i n s e r t e d i n t o
t h e s t r i n g , sharp bends w i l l form
along t h e edges of this segment.
Therefore, i n cases when t h e prop­
ioao 0.5 e r t i e s of t h e blade and t h o s e of
t h e s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g approach more
closely, t h e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
become manifest a l s o i n deforma­
t i o n s of t h e blade. O f course, a n
e l a s t i c blade, no matter how low
woo 0.5 i t s flexural r i g i d i t y might be,
cannot undergo such sharp bends.
0 U
Nevertheless, sharp bends inherent
-1000 t o a n i d e a l e l a s t i c s t r i n g are
-2000
t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e blade and &
cause sharp a l t e r n a t i n g bendings
-3000 of i t s a x i s . These bends are ac­
companied by concentrations of
-4000 bending moments and a n i n c r e a s e i n
-5000
flexure .
bending stresses a t t h e p o i n t s of

Fig.l.10 Modes of First and Second

Overtones of Natural Vibrations of a L e t us examine s e v e r a l examples
Rigid Blade. that confirm this assumption.

Figure 1.11 shows t h e d i s t r i b u ­

t i o n of bending moments over t h e blade length, corresponding t o t h e n a t u r a l v i ­
b r a t i o n modes of t h e first and second harmonics w i t h a load almost equal t o t h e
weight of t h e blade and l o c a t e d a t a relattve r a d i u s F = 0.48.

A t t h e p o i n t of attachment of t h e load, t h e r e i s a marked concentration of

bending moments leading t o a n i n c r e a s e i n stresses by a f a c t o r of almost 2 i n
comparison w i t h a nonrotating blade. The i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e b h d e of a seg­
ment of high r i g i d i t y l e a d s t o a concentration of bending moments i n t h e area
of this segment (Eg.1.12). However, s i n c e a n i n c r e a s e i n flexural r i g i d i t y
l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e moment of r e s i s t a n c e over t h e l e n g t h of t h e r i g i d
 TABLE 1.5 segment, t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s e s w i l l
arise along t h e edges of t h e segment, &
i.e., where t h e i d e a l r i g i d s t r i n g
Harmonic o f would undergo sharp bends.
Vib r ation s
of Rotation The occurrence of t h e same proper-
t i e s of a n i d e a l e l a s t i c s t r e t c h e d
First 0.083 2.2
s t r i n g explains t h e occurrence of sharp
0.332
concentrations of bending moments i n
Second 3.7
t h e case of r i g i d blade attachment,
'Ihird 0.629 7.7
- s i n c e a flexible s t r i n g would have, a t
Fourth 1.116 t h e s i t e of attachment, t h e same sharp
I
bend as a hinged blade.

The bending moment corresponding

t o t h e first harmonic i n t h e case of a r i g i d blade r i s e s by a f a c t o r of almost 6
( s e e Fig.l.10) i n comparison w i t h t h e nloment of a nonrotating blade. Such a
sharp concentration of bending moments has a noticeable e f f e c t even on t h e
values of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n f r e ­
quencies (see Table 1.4). T h i s
MI g r e a t l y reduces t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a n
900
approfimate method ( s e e Sect .3) , as
800 a p p l i e d t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of a blade
700 w i t h r i g i d attachment a t t h e r o o t .
600 I n p r a c t i c e it i s o f t e n necessary
SOD t o introduce a d d i t i o n a l hinges i n t o
4 00
t h e r o t o r blade o r t o shift t h e posi­
t i o n of t h e hinges a l r e a d y present i n
300 t h e hub design. The n e c e s s i t y of
200 providing a d d i t i o n a l hinges has t o
do w i t h t h e need t o reduce t h e bend­
IGO
i n g s t r e s s e s a t some blade segment
0 o r w i t h t h e change i n i t s n a t u r a l
ML v i b r a t i o n frequency.
1000

Let us now i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
manner i n which bending deformations
0 of a blade a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e i n t r o ­
d u c t i o n of a n a d d i t i o n a l hinge. It
w a s mentioned earlier t h a t t h e blade
- 1000 of a h e l i c o p t e r i s c l o s e i n i t s
characteristics t o a stretched e l a s t i c
string. A s t r e t c h e d chain, with
hinges continuously d i s t r i b u t e d over
Fig.l.11 Bending Moment during Vibra­ i t s length, behaves l i k e a n e l a s t i c
t i o n s w i t h Respect t o t h e First and s t r i n g . Therefore, we can assume
-
Second Overtone, f o r a Load a t Radius
r = 0.48 Close i n WeigM t o t h e Weight
t h a t a h e l i c o p t e r blade t a k e s ap­
proximately t h e same shape as an ex­
of t h e Blade. tended multihinged chain during de­
formation. Thus, it i s l o g i c a l that
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a n a d d i t i o n a l
55

i i
11111l1lIll

M
kg-n

600

400

200

0
Fig.l.12 Mode of Bending Moment w i t h Respec% t o t h e First
Harmonic, f o r a Blade w i t h a Segment of High R i g i d i t y .

Fig.l.13 Mode of First Harmonic of Natural Vibrations of

a Blade w i t h and without Additional Hinge.
a and b - Modes of first harmonic i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d
without hinge ( a ) and w i t h hinge ( b ) ; c - Mode of first harmonic
of nonrotating blades w i t h hinge; d and e -Modes of bending
moment w i t h r e s p e c t t o first harmonic i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e
f i e l d without hinge ( d ) and w i t h hinge ( e ) .
hinge i n t o t h e blade cannot s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t t h e mode of i t s deformation.
T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.l.13 which g i v e s t h e mode of t h e f i r s t harmonic of
natural Vibrations of a blade w i t h and without a n a d d i t i o n a l hinge. It i s a l s o
seen from Fig.l.13 t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of an auxiliary hinge has a n o t i c e a b l e
effect on t h e mode of t h e bendim Y

moment only i n a small segment

c l o s e t o t h e hinge. Its i n f l u e n c e
i s n e g l i g i b l e i n segments remote
from t h e hinge.

Fig.l.l.4 Modes of h e r Harmonic of
Natural Vibrations of a Blade w i t h Hinge
Set O f f from t h e Axis of Rotation and t h e
Bending Moment Corresponding t o this
Mode ( o n Vibration i n t h e Flapping Plane
po/n = 1.35, on Vibration i n t h e Plane
of Rotation po /n = 0.91).
It i s e s p e c i a l l y necessary
t o note that, i n t h e case i n
question i n which t h e blade has
two hinges, i t s v i b r a t i o n modes &
i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e field
d i f f e r g r e a t l y from t h e o s c i l l a ­
t i o n modes of a nonrotating blade.
The nonrotating blade i s not de-
formed a t a l l i n first-harmonic
v i b r a t i o n s . Therefore, i n t h e
given case t h e a p p r o h a t e energy
method of frequency c a l c u l a t i o n ,
i n t h e form i n which it i s pre­
s e n t e d i n Section 3, i s not appli­
cable.

Nor can we d i s r e g a r d t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d i n studying t h e blade de­

formations i n a Dorscbidt-type r o t o r w i t h a hinge f a r removed from t h e axis of
r o t a t i o n . The v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e laver harmonic of t h e blade of this r o t o r
and t h e corresponding bending mment are shown i n F i g . 1 . z . Without considera­
t i o n of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s t h e mode of t h e blade would coincide w i t h a s t r a i g h t
l i n e and it would be impossible t o f i n d t h e magnitude of t h e bending moment
p l o t t e d i n F i g . l . u , which i s very g r e a t f o r this r o t o r and a c t u a l l y determines
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i t s use.

These examples show that, i n m a n y cases, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes i n a

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e field s u b s t a n t i a l l y differ f r o m t h e corresponding m o d e s of a
nonrotating blade. T h i s must be t a k e n i n t o account when designing a blade.
Therefore, i n t h e design o f f i c e , i f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are a l l c a r r i e d out on
e l e c t r o n i c computers and t h e degree of complexity of t h e method i s of no import,
t h e r e i s no sense i n r e s o r t i n g t o approximate methods.

S e c t i o n 5. Torsional Vibrations of a Blade

1. koblsms- Solved-in C a l c u l a t i n g Torsional Vibrations

It w a s noted above i n Sections 1 and 4 that t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e modes
and frequencies of natural flexural blade v i b r a t i o n s not o n l y has a secondary
value ( f o r stress analysis) but a l s o a n independent value as a method f o r s e l e c t ­
i n g blade parameters t h a t prevent t h e occurrence of bending resonance. T h i s
problem does not arise i n c a l c u l a t i n g free t o r s i o n a l Vibrations s i n c e v i b r a t i o n s

57
Ill

of noticeable amplitude caused by t o r s i o n a l resonance are never encountered i n

p r a c t i c e . A s a r u l e , appreciable t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s are set Q I only during
f l u t t e r o r during f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s under conditions c l o s e t o f l u t t e r . There­
f o r e , t h e magnitude of t h e frequency of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s i s of no
p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t i n i t s e l f ( i f we do not regard it as a parameter character­
i z i n g t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of a blade), and t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
of natural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies are o n l y of secondary s i g n i f i c a n c e
f o r c a l c u l a t i n g f l u t t e r o r f o r c a l c u l a t i n g bending stresses computed w i t h con­
s i d e r a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l blade deformations. The o t h e r problem does not arise
when c a l c u l a t i n g free t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s .

Two main problems are encountered i n c a l c u l a t i n g f o r c e d t o r s i o n a l vibra­

t i o n s . The f i r s t i s t h e determination of e l a s t i c blade deformations whose con­
s i d e r a t i o n i s necessary f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending stresses; t h e second i s
t h e determination of t h e magnitudes of t h e hinge moments necessary f o r calcu­
l a t i n g t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system.

2. D i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Torsional Blade Vibrations

Let us r e p r e s e n t a blade i n t h e form of a c a n t i l e v e r s t r a i g h t bar with a

t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y GT, v a r i a b l e over i t s length. The m a s s moment of i n e r t i a of
t h e bar s e c t i o n s relative t o i t s a x i s I, w i l l be assumed, j u s t as t h e t o r s i o n a l
r i g i d i t y , t o be a continuous f u n c t i o n v a r i a b l e over t h e l e n g t h of t h e bar, t h e
c e n t e r s of gravity of a l l s e c t i o n s of t h e bar t o l i e on i t s axis, and t h e mount­
i n g of t h e bar t o be t o r s i o n a l l y e l a s t i c .

It i s l o g i c a l t h a t reducing t h e problem of blade x i b r a t i o n s t o c a l c u l a t i o n

of such a model presupposes t h e use of numerous simplifying assumptions. L e t
us assume t h a t t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade i s r e c t i l i n e a r and coincides w i t h
t h e a x i s of t h e f e a t h e r i n g (axial) hinge of t h e r o t o r hub. Let us equate t h e
f l a p p i n g compensator N t o zero.

Allowance f o r displacement of t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y and determination of

t h e e f f e c t of: t h e f l a p p i n g compensator on t h e natural frequencies w i l l be ex­
amined i n Section 6.

Use of t h e above assumptions permits solving t h e problem of t o r s i o n a l blade

v i b r a t i o n s complet'ely independently, without r e l a t i n g them w i t h t h e flexural
blade v i b r a t i o n s .

kt us construct t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s .

The torque i n t h e blade s e c t i o n can be determined from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation:

[Mt l'==-m,

where i s t h e l i n e a r t o r q u e of external and i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g on a blade

element .
Under t h e e f f e c t of torque, each element of t h e blade i s t w i s t e d through
a n angle of
where cp i s t h e e l a s t i c angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade s e c t i o n .

The value of t h e torque, derived from eq.(5.2), i s s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o eq.(5.1).

Then, t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade can be
w r i t t e n i n t h e form
[GT, ?']'+!Dl =O.
( 5 03)
kt us examine t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r blade r o t a t i n g i n a
vacuum. The l i n e a r t o r q u e i n this case Will be e q u a l t o

xu= - /'?IT - w2 ( / y - 1-Jrq, ( 5 -4)

where I, and I, a r e t h e mass moments of i n e r t i a of t h e blade s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e
t o i t s p r i n c i p a l axes of i n e r t i a .

If t h e l e n g t h of t h e p r o f i l e along t h e x-axis i s appreciably g r e a t e r L5.B

t h a n along t h e y-axis (and this i s u s u a l l y t h e case), t h e n we can set approxi­
mately

lv-lx z Im, (5.5)

where I, i s t h e l i n e a r mass moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o

an a x i s going through i t s flexural a x i s .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(5.4), w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of eq.(5.5), i n t o eq.(5.3),

we o b t a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r blade
rotating i n a centrifugal force field:

The blade m o d e l discussed here has t h e following boundary conditions :

at r=O:

at r=R: ( 5 *7)

where
c,,, = r i g i d i t y of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system reduced t o t h e axial hinge
of t h e hub ( t h e c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y determines t h e magnitude of
r i g i d i t y of t h e e l a s t i c blade attachment at t h e r o o t ) ;
yo = r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e axial ( f e a t h e r i n g ) hinge as a conse­
quence of deformation of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system.

59
 3 . Determination of t h e Natural Torsional Blade
Vibration Modes and Frequencies

Here, we will use t h e method of s o l u t i o n presented i n Subsection 1 of Sec­

t i o n 2 f o r determining t h e flexural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies. Let us pose

~(t)=cpsin vt. (5.8)

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(5.8) i n t o eq.( 5.6), we obtain

It inmediately f o u o w s from this equation that t h e natural t o r s i o n a l vibra­

t i o n modes of a r o t a t i n g and nonrotating blade a r e i d e n t i c a l and t h a t t h e fre­
quencies a r e c o r r e l a t e d by a simple r e l a t i o n of t h e form

where
v = natural frequency i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d ;
v,, = natural frequency of blade of a nonrotating r o t o r .

I n t e g r a t i n g eqa( 5.9), w i t h consideration of t h e boundary conditions (5.7)

f o r t h e case u) = 0 w i l l yield

Here and below, we will omit t h e s u p e r s c r i p t of v, which denotes t h a t t h e

natural frequency i s determined f o r u) = 0.
Equation (5.11) i s solved by t h e method of successive approximations, j u s t
as had been done i n solving eq.(2.4.) i n Section 2.

L e t us p r e s c r i b e a n a r b i t r a r y v i b r a t i o n mode cp. T h i s mode should be LEL

normed i n some manner, f o r example

Ti?= 1, (5 =12)
where cpR i s t h e e l a s t i c angle of twist of t h e blade t i p .

Then, performing t h e operations prescribed by e q . ( 5 . l l ) , we determine t h e

function

We can determine t h e natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n frequency from t h e

60
noming c o n d i t i o n f o r eq.(5.12)

where 8, i s t h e value of t h e f u n c t i o n 9 at r = R.

After p r e s c r i b i n g a new value of t h e f u n c t i o n

'? =V2Q (5.15)
and performing t h e operations (5.13) and (5.a)as many times as necessary f o r
securing t h e required accuracy, we o b t a i n t h e final values of v and cp. As i n
t h e determination of t h e modes and frequencies of natural flexural v i b r a t i o n s ,
this method of successive approximations l e a d s t o determination of t h e lower
harmonic of natural t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s . When determining t h e next harmonics,
t h e condition of o r t h o g o n a l i t y

must be s a t i s f i e d .

Here t h e index j denotes t h e mode of t h e unknown harmonic of vibrations,

w h i l e t h e index m g i v e s t h e modes of a l r e a d y determined lower harmonics.
Putting
m-j-1
( 5 017)

we o b t a i n from t h e condition (5.16) t h e following expressions f o r t h e constant

c o e f f i c i e n t s c, :
R

The natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of subsequent harmonics are determined

i n each approximation from t h e formula

ni- 1

Upon completing t h e determination of a l l natural v i b r a t i o n modes and fre­

quencies needed f o r f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s necessary t o c o r r e c t t h e frequen­
c i e s by means of eq.(5.lO) which t a k e s i n t o account t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l
forces

61
 Calculations of t h e natural t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of a
blade i n a c t u a l h e l i c o p t e r s show that t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system
i s of d e c i s i v e importance i n determining t h e magnitudes of lower-harmonic
v i b r a t i o n frequencies. The t o r s i o n a l blade r i g i d i t y i s almost always much
m
higher t h a n t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l system. figure 1.15 shows t h e modes of
t h e first harmonic of natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t heli­
c o p t e r s i n mass s e r v i c e .

Based on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t o r s i o n a l deformations of t h e blade

and r o t o r c o n t r o l system i n first-harmonic v i b r a t i o n s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o esti­
mate t h e e x t e n t of t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i n comparison w i t h t h e
r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l system. The c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e s e r i g i d i t i e s i s
estimated by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t Q, ( s e e Fig.l.15). ThLs c o e f f i c i e n t determines t h e
p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade t i p due t o deformations of
only t h e blade.

Fig.l.15 Natural Torsional Blade Vibration Modes; f o r Various

Correlations of Blade and Control System R i g i d i t i e s .

The described c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between blade and c o n t r o l

r i g i d i t i e s permits
blade d e f o m t i o n s
making it p o s s i b l e
T h i s assmption is
V0l.I).
i n c e r t a i n c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e assumption t h a t t h e t o r s i o n a l
are small i n comparison w i t h t h e c o n t r o l deformations, thus
t o use only t h e blade twist due t o deformation of t h e c o n t r o l .
o f t e n used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of f l u t t e r ( s e e Chapt . I V of

The r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e above method permit a n estimate of

t h e t y p e of layout of t h e n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a blade
r e l a t i v e t o t h e harmonic components of aerodynamic f o r c e s . F g u r e 1.16 gives
t h e resonance diagram of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a blade constructed f o r one of
t h e e x i s t i n g h e l i c o p t e r s , w h i l e Fig.l.17 shows t h e modes of t h e f i r s t three
harmonics.

It was noted i n Subsection 1 of this S e c t i o n t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e external

f o r c e s producing b x d e twist are small s o that, even i n t h e presence of resonance,
t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n amplitudes do not become dangerous f o r t h e s t r e n g t h of

62
Fig.l.16 Resonance Diagram of Torsional Blade Vibrations.

Fig.1.17 Modes of First Three Harmonics of

Torsional Blade Vibrations.

63
t h e blade. I n v i e w of this, one u s u a l l y does not t r y t o avoid t o r s i o n a l reso­
nance, and t h e resonance diagram presented i n F’ig.l.l-6 i s given only f o r esti­
mating t h e a b s o l u t e nragnitude of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n ,frequencies.

It follows from fig.1.16 that even t h e second harmonic of t o r s i o n a l vibra­

t i o n s a t t h e operating r p m no, proves t o be higher t h a n t h e 1 5 t h harmonic of t h e
r o t o r rpm. The frequencies of subsequent overtones are even higher. Therefore,
probably only t h e frequency of t h e first harmonic of natural t o r s i o n a l b h d e
v i b r a t i o n s can be of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t .

A l l of t h e above considerations p e r t a i n t o t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r
blade t r e a t e d as a n i s o l a t e d blade, without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s /62
superimposed on t h e v i b r a t i o n s by t h e d e s i g n . o f blade attachment a t t h e hub.
It was found that t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l
r o t o r blades a c r o s s t h e c o n t r o l system may s u b s t a n t i a l l y change t h e e n t i r e pat­
t e r n of v i b r a t i o n s .

4. Determination of t h e Natural Vibration Modes and

Frequencies of a Rotor as a Whole

Figure 1.B gives t h e diagram of t h e blade-setting c o n t r o l system used on

most modern h e l i c o p t e r s . D e s i g d s e this system i s l a i d out s o t h a t loading of
one o r another c o n t r o l loop depends
on t h e combination of f o r c e s generated
at t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l
by t h e blades. The form of this c o w
b i n a t i o n depends on t h e v i b r a t i o n
mode of t h e r o t o r , i.e., on t h e d i s ­
t r i b u t i o n of v i b r a t i o n phases w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e blades. For example,
when a l l blades vibrate w i t h t h e same
phase, t h e c o n t r o l loop i s loaded only
by t h e t o t a l p i t c h . When opposite
blades vibrate i n opposite phase, t h e
l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l loops
are loaded. Finally, i f t h e number
of r o t o r blades i s more t h a n three,
v i b r a t i o n modes become p o s s i b l e a t
F’ig.l.18 Diagram a f P i t c h Control. which a l l f o r c e s a r r i v i n g from t h e
-
1 Blade t u r n i n g lever; 2 Flap­ - blades are locked on t h e swashplate
ping hinge; 3 - Drag hinge; of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l .
- -
4 Blade; 5 Swashplate of c o n t r o l ;
-
6 Slide. Variable f o r c e s during v i b r a t i o n s
cause deformations of t h e c o n t r o l
loops loaded by t h e s e f o r c e s . On
deformation of i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l loops, t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l i s
set i n o s c i l l a t i o n ; t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s impose d e f i n i t e phases on t h e blade vibra­
t i o n s . For example, during v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e swashplate generated by
deformation of t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l loop, r o t o r v i b r a t i o n s are e x c i t e d
having a mode i n which t h e phases of a l l blades are i d e n t i c a l .

64
 If t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l i s i n c l i n e d during vibration, oppo­
s i t e blades are e x c i t e d i n opposite phase. Thus, t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h
c o n t r o l couples t h e Vibrations of i n d i v i d u a l r o t o r blades. A s a r e s u l t , blade
v i b r a t i o n s can occur only w i t h well-defined v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e e n t i r e r o t o r
as a whole, and t h e number of such modes w i l l coincide w i t h t h e number of r o t o r
blades. Here, each Vibration mode corresponds t o i t s value of c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y
reduced t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e blade, which depends on t h e r i g i d i t y of
t h e control‘loop loaded a t this mode. Accordingly, each mode of r o t o r v i b r a t i o n
i s characterized by i t s own frequency value of t h e natural t o r s i o n a l blade vi­
brations.

Consequently, f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades z b t h e r e are zb d i f f e r e n t

n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies corresponding t o each harmonic of t o r s i o n a l /63
blade v i b r a t i o n . Each natural v i b r a t i o n frequency i s characterized by i t s own
s p e c i f i c mode of d i s t r i b u t i o n of angles of twist over t h e blade length, but
q u a l i t a t i v e l y a l l modes corresponding t o a s p e c i f i c harmonic of v i b r a t i o n s do
not d i f f e r ; f o r example, t h e y have a n i d e n t i c a l number of v i b r a t i o n nodes.

A s a t y p i c a l example we can c i t e t h e values of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n fre­

quencies of t h e first harmonic f o r t h e four-blade r o t o r of t h e Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r .

The laver frequency values a t s t r e s s i n g of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and lateral

c o n t r o l s , r e l a t i v e t o t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r , are -

*l
Q P
- 3.4 t o 3.5.

Upon loading t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l , this q u a n t i t y t a k e s t h e value

v’,”’p = 4.6 w h i l e , upon locking a l l f o r c e s from t h e r o t o r on t h e swashplate,
OP

we have V1a.p = 6.6,

no P
A very important circumstance i s t h a t only t h e f i r s t harmonic of natural
t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s l i e s w i t h i n t h e limits of t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies
corresponding t o harmonics of t h e r o t o r rpm, w i t h r e s p e c t t o which t h e e x t e r n a l
f o r c e s have a n o t i c e a b l e magnitude. A l l subsequent harmonics o f ‘v i b r a t i o n s l i e
higher and t h e r e f o r e a r e of no p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t .

S e c t i o n 6 . Combined F l e x u r a l and Torsional Blade Vibrations

1. Couplinp
.~.. of F l e x u r a l and Torsional Vibrations

Above, we discussed free flexural and t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s as two

unrelated, independent problems. I n a r e a l blade, t o r s i o n a l and flexural vibra­
t i o n s are always r e l a t e d . The i n t e n s i t y of such coupling will be demonstrated
below. W e W i l l examine blade v i b r a t i o n s i n vacuum,whenthe coupling between
t o r s i o n a l and flexural v i b r a t i o n s i s produced e x c l u s i v e l y by displacement of
t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e s e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e flexural a x i s of t h e
blade and as a consequence of t h e kinematic coupling over t h e f l a p p i n g campen­
s a t o r . We w i l l use t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n constructed on t h e basis of t h e
three-moment method described i n S e c t i o n 4, as applied t o c a l c u l a t i o n of flexural
vibrations.

65
 The p o s s i b i l i t y of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural flexural and t o r s i o n a l (binary)
v i b r a t i o n frequencies i s u s e f u l t o t h e designer i n s o l v i n g numerous s p e c i f i c
p r a c t i c a l problems.

For example, such a c a l c u l a t i o n becomes necessary i f it i s d e s i r e d t o p l a c e

o u t r i g g e r balancers on t h e blade t o prevent resonance. Here we have i n mind t h e
r e l a t i v e l y rare cases when t h e use of balancers i s proposed not t o eliminate
f l u t t e r but t o change t h e natural frequencies.

The designer may wish t o t a k e i n t o account t h e coupling between flexural

and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s a l s o when t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l blade frequencies
f o r some Teason does not coincide w i t h experiment. Here i t can be shown i n many
cases t h a t this d i f f e r e n c e i s due t o d i s r e g a r d of such coupling. We can hope
t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n results presented below w i n f a c i l i t a t e s e t t l i n g t h e s e
doubts.

We should note, however, t h a t c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l frequencies i n /64.

vacuum cannot g i v e t h e answer t o many questions i n p r a c t i c a l use having t o do
w i t h t h e appearance of high variable stresses of some frequency i n t h e blade,
which are evaluated as resonance s i n c e aerodynamic f o r c e s o f t e n introduce sub­
s t a n t i a l c o r r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e p i c t u r e of t h e phenomenon.

2. Method of C a l c u l a t i K H n a r y Vibrations

Calculation of natural binary v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies i s g r e a t l y

s i m p l i f i e d i f we only consider blades of a d e f i n i t e conventional type, f o r
whose c a l c u l a t i o n t h e following a s s q t i o n s can be used:

1. The flexural a x i s of t h e blade i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e coinciding w i t h t h e

a ~ ofs t h e f e a t h e r i n g ( a x i a l ) hinge.

graui t y

Fig J.19 Design Model of Blade.

66
 The method of c a l c u l a t i o n does not fundamentally change when t h e s e axes do
not coincide. It i s t h e n only necessary t o i n t r o d u c e , i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
formulas, a number of a d d i t i o n a l terms which take i n t o account t h e d i s t a n c e be­
tween t h e s e axes. For s i m p l i c i t y of computation, we w i l l assume t h a t t h e
flexural axis goes through t h e axis of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .
2. The plane of minimum blade r i g i d i t y i s considered t o coincide with t h e
f l a p p i n g plane.

3 . The blade performs t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s as a consequence of t o r s i o n a l

deformations of t h e blade i t s e l f , deformation of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l , and kine­
matic coupling over t h e f l a p p i n g compensator w i t h blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p ­
ping plane.

These assumptions p e n n i t representing t h e blade as a weightless f r e e beam

divided i n t o e segments, along whose edges l o a d s are placed of a mass mi a t
some s t a g g e r x C a g (fig.1.19). Each load, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a s s m, concen­
1
t r a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e corresponding blade element, has a
c e r t a i n moment of i n e r t i a r e l a t i v e t o a n axis going through t h e c e n t e r of
g r a v i t y of t h e load and p a r a l l e l t o t h e e l a s t i c a x i s of t h e blade.

Let us represent t h e flexural and t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t i e s i n t h e form of

stepped curves, such t h a t t h e y remain constant over t h e l e n g t h of each segment.

The presence of a f l a p p i n g compensator l e a d s t o a kinematic coupling /65

between t h e flexural and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s , which can be expressed by t h e
formula

where
(PO = angle of blade r o t a t i o n i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge;
Mb = twisting moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g Einge;
C C O n = rigidity of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l reduced t o t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge;
H = flapping compensator;
Bo = angle of blade r o t a t i o n relative t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.

Furthermore, t h e boundary conditions a t t h e r o o t of t h e hinged blade some­

w h a t change during i t s v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e t h r u s t plane. These conditions, i n
t h e presence of a f l a p p i n g compensator, can be w r i t t e n as

where Mo i s t h e bending moment and M b i s t h e t w i s t i n g moment a t t h e blade r o o t .

I n constructing t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flap­

p i n g plane, we w i l l use t h e three-moment method i n t h e form as presented i n
S e c t i o n 4. Application of this method t o t h e case examined here l e a d s t o t h e
following equation&

67
 Here ,

where
Qi-l.
i
..
= -2 miyi (wherei=O, 1 , 2 , . ..,z ) ;
I
f i = v e r t i c a l displacement of p o i n t s of t h e e l a s t i c blade a x i s ( s e e
fig 1 19 ;
yi = v e r t i c a l displacement of t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e loads mi.

The expressions f o r t h e c o n s t a n t s a,, b i , c,, hi, and g l are given i n

-
S e c t i o n 4; see e q ~ ~ ( 4 . 2 3 ) (4.25).

The displacements of t h e e l a s t i c a x i s f, and t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e

blade elements y1 are r e l a t e d by

where (pi is t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade elements about i t s e l a s t i c a x i s .

To determine t h e binary v i b r a t i o n modes and f r e q u e n c i e s of a blade,

eqs .( 6.3) must be supplemented by t h e equations of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s

The t w i s t i n g moment, i f it i s considered constant i n magnitude over t h e

l e n g t h of each blade segment, can be defined as

*om t h e magnitude of t h e t w i s t i n g moment, we can determine t h e t o r s i o n a l /66

deformations of t h e blade

where GTt i - l,i i s t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y of a blade segment having a l e n g t h equal

t o tl-l,i w h i l e (PO i s determined by eq.(6.1).

When using t h e three-moment method, t h e boundary conditions of t h e problem

are t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e equation of t h e system. Thus,
i n t h e case examined here, t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n (6.2) l e a d s t o a change of t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e first two equations of t h e system (6.3): For a blade w i t h
hinged attachment a t t h e r o o t t h e s e equations' can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following
manner :
68
 first equation of t h e system (6.3), from which t h e value Bo i s d e t e r ­
mined :

Po+rgoMto -hoMi=-; Qoi (6=8)

No1

second equation of t h e system (6.3) :

Thus, t h e system of equations that i n c l u d e s eqs.(6.3), (6.5), (6.6), and

(6.7) r e p r e s e n t s a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of b i n a r y blade Vibrations.
The s o l u t i o n of this system permits determining t h e modes and frequencies of
natural. binary blade Vibrations, which a l s o enters i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n problem.

If we assume that t h e v a r i a b l e s e n t e r i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations (6.3),

(6.5), (6.6), and (6.7) vary i n accordance w i t h a s i n e l a w of t h e type

t h e n t h e s e equations can be transformed i n t o a system of a l g e b r a i c equations

r e l a t i v e t o unknowns r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e amplitude values of t h e previous variables.

The parameters p” and y = - Will e n t e r as c o f a c t o r s

w2
only i n t o c e r t a i n c o e f f i ­
p2
c i e n t s of t h e s e equations. If we set p” = 1, t h e n t h e s e equations can be re­
w r i t t e n i n t h e form

1 (6 .lo)

(6.11)

vi =ui - XcagiBi,

where

i;l
 The q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g t h e s e equations obey t h e following r e l a t i o n s :

The system of equations (6.10), (6.111, (6.12), and (6.13) can be con­
v i e n t l y solved by t h e method of successive approximations. In s o doing, i n each
approximation we should r e f i n e t h e parameter y f o r t h e angular v e l o c i t y of ro­
t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r tu p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

The successive approximations are c a r r i e d out i n t h e following sequence:

Assign a c e r t a i n magnitude of t h e parameter y and a n a r b i t r a r y form of t h e

z e r o t h approximation of t h e f u n c t i o n s yl and cpio
0
.
Normalize t h e f u n c t i o n s taken as t h e z e r o t h approximation, f o r example

yr= 1.
After t h i s , d e r i v e t h e f u n c t i o n f i o from eq.(6.5). Then, from eq.(6.11),
determine t h e q u a n t i t y Et0 needed f o r solving t h e system of equations (6.10).
A t t h e same time Eti-l,l i s determined.

After solving t h e system of equations (6.10) and determining ui from t h e

first equation of this system, determine Bo:

Then, from eq.(6.12), determine and f r o m eq.(6.13) t h e values of v i ,

2

which, furthermore, should s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n z m,v, = 0.

0

Determine t h e n a t u r a l frequency from t h e c o n d i t i o n of normalization on t h e

basis of t h e first r e l a t i o n i n t h e system (6.&), t h u s :

After this, determine t h e f u n c t i o n s yl and (pi from eq.(6.l4) and use them
i n t h e next approximations which are performed i n t h e same sequence. A t t h e
same time, r e f i n e t h e parameter y .
 T h i s method of successive approximations leads t o a d e t e k n a t i o n of t h e /68
frequency and mode of t h e lower harmonic of natural v i b r a t i o n s . To determine
t h e next harmonic, we use t h e c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y which f o r binary vibra­
t i o n s has t h e following form:

Here, t h e index j denotes t h e mode of t h e sought harmonic and t h e index m

t h e modes of a l r e a d y determined lower harmonics.

The use of this method of c a l c u l a t i o n gives r e s u l t s t h a t a r e completely

s a t i s f a c t o r y for p r a c t i c e .

It should be mentioned that, i n cases i n which t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of

two successive harmonics have s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e values, this method of calcula­
t i o n does not give a converging s o l u t i o n . I n p r a c t i c e , however, this i s of no
g r e a t import s i n c e it can happen only when t h e coupling between t o r s i o n a l and
flexural v i b r a t i o n s i s very weak and t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n modes can be
determined s e p a r a t e l y without consideration of this coupling.

3 . E f f e c t of Cowling between Bendiw and Torsion

a t Natural Vibration Frequency

Here, we w i l l d e f i n e t h e e x t e n t of t h e dif9erence of n a t u r a l binary blade

v i b r a t i o n frequencies from corresponding p a r t i a l frequencies, i .e., frequencies
obtained without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of coupling between bending and t o r s i o n .

Calculations show t h a t t h e coupling between bending and t w i s t i n g has t h e

g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n regions i n which t h e p a r t i a l
frequencies of bending and t o r s i o n approach c l o s e l y . Therefore, we should in­
v e s t i g a t e only t h e s e regions. Outside t h e s e zones, t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of
t h e blade and t h e frequencies of t h e coupled b i n a r y v i b r a t i o n s p r a c t i c a l l y
coincide.

It i s known t h a t t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of natural v i b r a t i o n s of bending

of a hinged b h d e , f o r a l l modern h e l i c o p t e r s , l i e i n very narrow well-defined
zones whose p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e harmonics of e x t e r n a l e x c i t a t i o n cannot be
changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y . I n Fig.l.20, t h e s e zones are superposed on a resonance
diagram of t h e blade. This diagram i s constructed f o r t h e frequency range that
i n c l u d e s only a s e r i e s of f i r s t harmonics of r o t o r rpm, s i n c e external f o r c e s
a c t i n g on t h e blade w i t h higher harmonics are i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n magnitude and
cannot cause noticeable blade v i b r a t i o n s . Only t h e f i r s t three overtones of t h e
p a r t i a l frequencies of t h e blade i n bending f a l l w i t h i n this region. I n p r a c t i c e
o n l y t h e s e overtones are of i n t e r e s t i n blade design. The natural flexural v i ­
b r a t i o n frequencies can leave t h e i n d i c a t e d zones o n l y f o r r o t o r s w i t h a n unusual
method of blade attachment t o t h e hub, such as - f o r example - i n rotors with
r i g i d blade attachment or w i t h a gimbaled hub.

The p a r t i a l frequencies of natural t o r s i o n a l blade v i b r a t i o n s may vary

w i t h i n wider limits, mainly as a consequence of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r i g i d i t i e s
of t h e r o t o r c o n t r o l system whose designs may vary widely. Nevertheless, w i t h
respect t o t h e magnitudes of t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of natural t o r s i o n a l blade
v i b r a t i o n s a very important conclusion can be drawn, involving t h e following:
Only t h e first harmonic of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s can f a l l w i t h i n t h e frequency
range of i n t e r e s t here. The second harmonic of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s generally
w i l l be i n a region not belaw t h e 1 5 t h harmonic of t h e r o t o r r p m (see f i g . l . l 6 ) ,
i.e., beyond t h e limits of t h e region of i n t e r e s t t o t h e designer. Usually, /69
v i b r a t i o n s of r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e amplitude do not arise with such frequencies.
Therefore, only t h e first h a m n i c of n a t u r a l t o r s i o n a l . v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i s
of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t from t h e aspect of p o s s i b l e occurrence of resonance.

9th harmonic,

0- 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 7.0 nln,

fig.1.20 Fkgions on t h e Resonance Diagram of t h e Frequencies

of Natural Vibrations of t h e First, Second, and Third
Overtone of Bending and t h e First Overtone of Torsion
f o r Blades of Different Helicopters.

Here, it should be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r blade may have s e v e r a l

first overtones of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t frequencies, depending
on t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e r o t o r a s a whole and on w h a t c o n t r o l loop i s loaded
a t this mode. The d i f f e r e n c e i n n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e s e modes will
be determined exclusively by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r i g i d i t i e s of t h e c o n t r o l
loops being loaded.

72
 I n f l i g h t , each harmonic of external f o r c e s i s able t o e x c i t e only one
well-defined v i b r a t i o n mode. Therefore, i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e
occurrence of resonance it i s necessary t o check whether t h e c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y
adopted i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n corresponds t o this mode, w i t h which resonance i s
p o s s i b l e . I n this Section, we W i l l ciiscuss only natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e sys­
t e m . Therefore, we w i l l not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s this problem.

Figure 1.20 shows t h e r e g i o n which usual* comprises t h e frequencies of t h e

first harmonic of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a blade i n t o r s i o n , f o r a l l modes of
r o t o r Vibrations when both c y c l i c and c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h c o n t r o l loops are loaded.
For r o t o r s w i t h a blade number g r e a t e r t h a n three, a v i b r a t i o n mode i s p o s s i b l e
i n which a l l f o r c e s a r r i v i n g from
t h e blades lock on t h e swashplate
F1 e x u r a l a x i r of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l . The
c o n t r o l r i g i d i t y corresponding t o
m
this mode g e n e r a l l y i s very high.
I n Fig.l.20, t h e upper l i m i t of
t h e r e g i o n of t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s
f o r this case i s s h m by a dot-
dash l i n e .

Let us examine t h e most common

case i n which p a r t i a l frequencies
of t h e first harmonic of bending
and t h e first harmonic of t o r s i o n
coincide i n magnitude i n t h e zone
of operating rpm of t h e r o t o r .
ht us d i s c u s s two versions of t h e
blade center-of-gravity d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n over i t s length.
Fig.l.21 Stepped Centering of Blade
w i t h a Change of Sign at t h e Node of t h e I n both versions, we w i ’ l l
First Overtone of N a t u r a l F l e x u r a l assume - i n conformity w i t h t h e
Vibrations. above-adopted assumptions - t h a t
t h e flexural a x i s of t h e blade i s
r e c t i l i n e a r and coincides w i t h t h e
axis of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of t h e hub. The d i s t a n c e t o t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y
of t h e s e c t i o n s w i l l be reckoned from t h e flexural axis i n percentages of t h e
b h d e chord. A l l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s W i l l be conducted a p p l i c a b l e t o a h e l i c o p t e r
blade w i t h a pressed duralumin spar w i t h a chord constant over i t s length. Such
a blade has roughly a constant l i n e a r weigM over t h e length. Its chord com­
p r i s e s about 1/20 of t h e r o t o r r a d i u s e

So that t h e results of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s W i l l be more graphic, we w i l l as­

sume that, upon v a r i a t i o n s i n blade centering, t h e mass moments of i n e r t i a of
i t s s e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o a n a x i s going through t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y do not
change, i.e., that t h e p o s i t i o n

i s maintained.

73
 I I 1l1111l111111l Il I II Il I

first, l e t us examine t h e case i n which t h e c e n t e r i n g s of t h e blade sec­

t i o n s are constant over i t s length, i.e.,
-
x ~ -xcg-
. ~ ­ -const,

where b i s t h e blade chord.

T h i s v e r s i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c e n t e r i n g s i s considered quite wide­

spread i n p r a c t i c e . Furthermore, it permits t r a c i n g - i n a very graphic form -
t h e e f f e c t of c e n t e r i n g and evaluating i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e as a f a c t o r of t h e
coupling between flexural and t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s .

Figure 1.22 shows t h e resonance diagram of a blade f o r this case. The

s o l i d l i n e s represent t h e p a r t i a l frequencies of bending and t w i s t i n g of t h e
blade, and t h e dashed l i n e s give t h e frequencies of binary v i b r a t i o n s c a l c u l a t e d
f o r a displacement of t h e c e n t e r i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e flexural axis, equal t o 10%
of t h e blade chord. The c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed f o r t h e case of n = 0.
Therefore, t h e s i g n of t h e shift of c e n t e r i n g i s of no s i g n i f i c a n c e .

p cyqmin 6 t h harmonic

harmonic

harmonic

harmonic

harmonic

harnon i c

50 150 200 n r p m

Fig.1.22 Resonance Diagram of Blade a t Displacement of

Centering Constant over t h e Length and Amounting
t o 10% of t h e Chord.

Here and below, we will i n t e n t i o n a l l y examine a very wide range of varia­

t i o n i n centerings, so as t o t r a c e i t s i n f l u e n c e i n a more concise form. I n
p r a c t i c e , t h e d e s i g n c a p a b i l i t i e s and t h e c o n d i t i o n s imposed by f l u t t e r permit
r
. ,. I

changing of t h e c e n t e r i n g only w i t h i n very narrow limits. Usually, f o r r o t o r

b l a d e s t h e c e n t e r i n g varies w i t h i n limits from 20% t o 25% of t h e blade chord
(here, values reckoned from t h e leading edge of t h e blade are given), ?.e., t h e
e n t i r e range of v a r i a t i o n i n centering amounts t o only about 5% of t h e blade
chord. Thus, we can conclude from a study of Fig.1.22 t h a t a displacement of
centering, constant over t h e blade length, has only a n e g l i g i b l e e f f e c t on t h e
values of natural frequencies.

I n t h e second case examined here, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of centering i s s e l e c t e d

such that i t s i n f l u e n c e i s s t r o n g e s t during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency c l o s e
t o t h e p a r t i a l bending frequency of t h e first harmonic. The centering i s assumed
as constant over t h e blade length, but i t s s i g n changes a t t h e node of t h e first
harmonic of t h e p a r t i a l bending mode.

7 t h harmonir

SO 100 150 200 n rpm

Fig.l.23 Frequencies of Natural Binary Blade Vibrations w i t h

a Stepped Law of Change of Centering over t h e Blade Length,
a t 10 and 20% Displacement w i t h Respect t o t h e Chord
from t h e F l e x u r a l Axis.

An o f f s e t c e n t e r i n g can be c r e a t e d f o r a blade when t h e a n t i - f l u t t e r

balancer is introduced i n t o t h e d e s i g n not over t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h but only over
a small segment at t h e blade t i p . Results of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of this version
of c e n t e r i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n are given i n Fig.1.23. The e f f e c t of c e n t e r i n g i s

75

I
 r a t h e r s t r o n g i n this case. Therefore, at such a d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e length,
t h e coupling between bending and t o r s i o n m u s t be t a k e n i n t o account when calc­
l a t i n g t h e blade.

It i s a l s o necessary t o e d n e t h e e f f e c t of a concentrated load shift­

i n g over t h e chord. Let us t a k e t h e magnitude of t h e load as equal t o 8% of
t h e blade weight. T h i s probably i s t h e maxi" value of a load that can a c t u a l ­
l y be attached t o a blade. The most e f f e c t i v e s i t e of a t t a c h i n g such a load
from t h e Viewpoint of producing s t r o n g coupling f a c t o r s f o r f l e x u r a l and t o r ­
s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s i s t h e p o i n t of t h e blade where t h e displacements i n t h e
t h r u s t plane a r e maximum. Therefore, we Will d i s c u s s t h e case i n which t h e load
i s attached a t t h e blade t i p .
Figure 1.& shows t h e results of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r this case. The e f f e c t of
a concentrated load on t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency f o r l a r g e o f f s e t of t h e
load can be considered s u b s t a n t i a l ; however, t h e use of such a means f o r elimi­
nating resonance cannot be recommended t o t h e designer. Nevertheless, t h e at­
tachment of a load can be regarded as a temporary means f o r t r e a t i n g blades sub­
j e c t t o l a r g e variable s t r e s s e s due t o resonance.

0 50 100 750 200 nrpm

Fig.l.24 Effect of a 10 and 20% Displacement w i t h Respect t o

t h e Chord of a 10-kg Tip-Concentrated Load on t h e Magnitude of
t h e Natural Binary Blade Vibration F'requencies.

._.
 The l a s t parameter which should be regarded as a coupling f a c t o r between
bending and t o r s i o n i s t h e f l a p p i n g compensator. To e v a l u a t e i t s e f f e c t on t h e
magnitude of t h e natural binary v i b r a t i o n 'frequencies, we made c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h
a f l a p p i n g compensator H = 1.0. T h i s i s t h e maximum value of a f l a p p i n g com­
pensator of t h e type ever used i n p r a c t i c e . All t h e d a t a presented above were
obtained w i t h H = 0.

It follows from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s that t h e effect of t h e f l a p p i n g compensa-m

t o r i s n e g l i g i b l e . However, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e f l a p p i n g compensator can be
j u s t i f i e d t o some extent, s i n c e i t . i n t r o d u c e s some refinement i n t o t h e form of
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e bending moment at t h e blade r o o t .

Section 7. Forced
._ Blade Vibrations

1. Use of B.G.GalerkinTs Method f o r Calculating Blade Deformations.

Determination of S t a t i c Deformations of a Blade

The problem of t h e dete-nation of blade deformations reduces t o a solu­

t i o n of t h e above d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (1.9) whose d e r i v a t i o n i s given i n Sec­
t i o n 1:

where T i s a l i n e a r e x t e r n a l load on t h e blade, d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e r a d i u s and

varying i n time.

In Sections 2, 3, and 4, we discussed t h e s o l u t i o n of a similar equation

f o r T = 0 describing t h e free v i b r a t i o n s of a blade. Here, we W i l l examine
forced v i b r a t i o n s of a blade when T i s some p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n varying w i t h t h e
frequency v .

I n t h e p a r t i c u l a r case when v = 0, t h e problem reduces t o a determination

of t h e s t a t i c blade deformations due t o a load To constant i n t h e .

The simplest method of solving eq.(7.1) i s t h a t given by B.G.Galerkin. &

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of G a l e r k i n f s method t o t h e d e t e d n a t i o n of
blade deformations, l e t us examine t h e s t a t i c problem, when t h e external load i s
time-invariant. I n this case, 9 = 0 and eq.(7.1) can be w r i t t e n as

Let us r e p r e s e n t t h e blade deformations i n t h e form

where
yJ = natural v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h
harmonic;

77
 6 , = c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s which w i l l be c a l l e d c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade de­
formation. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation i n a l l f u r t h e r computa­
t i o n s i n which t h e Galerkin method i s used will p l a y t h e r o l e of
generalized coordinates of t h e system.

kt us s u b s t i t u t e e (7. ) i n t o eq.(7.2), m u l t i p l y a l l terms of t h e equa­

,
t i o n i n t u r n by y'") , y (1s. y?21 , e t c . and i n t e g r a t e them w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
blade r a d i u s .

By v i r t u e of t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e f u n c t i o n s y ( J ), t h e performed opera­
t i o n transforms t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (7.2) i n t o a s e r i e s of independent
equations of t h e form

CjSj = A j , (7.4)

where
CI = E 1 [y"]; dr f
0
jN [g ' ] ; dr;
0
R (7.5)
A, = Toy(i)dr.
0

We will designate t h e q u a n t i t y C , as t h e generalized r i g i d i t y of t h e blade

during deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h harmonic i n a c e n t r i f u ­
g a l f o r c e f i e l d . It follows from a n examination of eqs.(7.5) t h a t t h e general­
i z e d blade r i g i d i t y C, i s equal t o double t h e p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by
t h e blade during i t s e l a s t i c deformation i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d w i t h re­
spect t o t h e normalized mode of t h e j - t h harmonic. L e t us c a l l t h e q u a n t i t y A,
t h e generalized e x t e r n a l f o r c e deforming t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of
t h e j - t h harmonic. The magnitude of t h e generalized f o r c e A, i s equal t o double
t h e work done by t h e e x t e r n a l E n e a r f o r c e s To during deformation of t h e blade
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e normalized mode of t h e j - t h harmonic of i t s natural vibra­
tions.

*om eq.(7.4) we can determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation 6 , :

a f t e r which eq.(7.3) w i l l yield t h e mode of s t a t i c blade deformation.

The more n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes are used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e more ac­

c u r a t e can t h e mode of deformations be determined. However, f o r p r a c t i c a l pur­
poses i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o limit ourselves t o t h e f i r s t f o u r harmofics o f . b l a d e
vibrations.

If t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 , are known, t h e n it i s easy t o de­

termine t h e bending moments and t h e bending stresses i n t h e blade. These are
determined from t h e formulas

78
 Here, M ' j ) and o t s ) are t h e modes of d i s t r i b u t i o n of bending muments and
bending stresses i n normalized deformations of t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h
harmonic of i t s n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s .

The q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g eqs .( 7.7) are governed by t h e r e l a t i o n s :

G=­
M
w ; 1

where W i s t h e moment of r e s i s t a n c e of t h e blade s e c t i o n s .

2. Determination of Blade Deformations with Periodic b p l i c a t i o n

of a n ESrternal Load

L e t us here d i s c u s s t h e case i n which t h e e x t e r n a l load v a r i e s i n accord­

ance w i t h t h e l a w :
T = T, sin vt.
(7.9)
To s o l v e this problem, we w i l l a g a i n use Galerkin's method. Representing
t h e blade deformations i n t h e form of eq.(7.3), we f i r s t s u b s t i t u t e eqs.(7.3)
and (7.9) i n t o eq.(7.l), m u l t i p l y a l l terms of t h e obtained equations i n t u r n by
y'j) and i n t e g r a t e over t h e blade length. By v i r t u e of orthogonality of t h e
f u n c t i o n y ' j ) , we o b t a i n a series of independent d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e
form

mjij +Cj8j =A , sin vt, (7.10)

where

We will designate t h e q u a n t i t y m J as t h e equivalent mass of t h e blade during

i t s v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j-th harmonic. If t h e v i b r a t i o n
modes y'j) are normed s o t h a t y i J ) = 1, t h e n m J will be t h e equivalent mass of
t h e blade reduced t o i t s t i p . It a l s o follows from t h e first equation of t h e
system (7.11) that t h e equivalent blade mass is equal t o double i t s k i n e t i c en­
ergy and t h a t t h e blade elements are displaced at a rate of y'j' *

79

I
IIIIIIIII I1 I
 I m1
1
11
lIllIII Il1Il

To determine t h e s t e a d y motion, we pose

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o e ~ ~ ( 7 . U ) canceling a l l terms of t h e

and
equation by t h e q u a n t i t y s i n v t , we o b t a i n

according t o which t h e value of t h e amplitude of blade deformation i s equal t o

It i s not d i f f i c u l t t o note that t h e r a t i o CJ/mJ i s e q u a l t o t h e natural

v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e j - t h harmonic of t h e blade. Actually, i f we set A, =
= 0 i n eq.(7.12), t h e n t h e value of v i n this case w i l l dekermine t h e natural
frequency of t h e blade and can be obtained from eq.(7.U):

I n conformity w i t h eq.(7.6) t h e r a t i o A,/C, determines t h e magnitude of de­

formation i f t h e load T, were t o be applied s t a t i c a l l y .

Equation (7.13) is conveniently represented i n t h e form

yhere
6:;) = c o e f f i c i e n t determining t h e magnitude of deformation a t a stati­
c a l l y applied external load T y ; below, this c o e f f i c i e n t w i l l be
c a l l e d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of q u a s i - s t a t i c blade deformation;
h d y n = c o e f f i c i e n t of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude.

For t h e case i n question, we have

It follows from eq.(7.16) that during resonance, when t h e frequency of

forced v i b r a t i o n s v i s equal t o t h e frequency of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s p , , t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n amplitude becomes i n f i n i t e . T h i s r e s u l t i s
r e g u l a r f o r problems i n which forced v i b r a t i o n s without damping are examined.

I n r e a l i t y , a h e l i c o p t e r blade operating i n air undergoes appreciable aero-

 dynamic damping during v i b r a t i o n . Aerodynamic damping limits t h e amplitude of
blade v i b r a t i o n s i n resonance and must be t a k e n i n t o account i f a determination
of blade v i b r a t i o n s , under conditions of resonance, e n t e r s i n t o t h e problem of
t h e calculation.

I n determining t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r blade, when v i b r a t i o n s arise

under t h e e f f e c t of aerodynamic forces, i t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o make a s t r i c t
s e p a r a t i o n between f o r c e s of a e r o d y d c damping and aerodynamic f o r c e s causing
blade v i b r a t i o n s . Such a s e p a r a t i o n can be made only c o n d i t i o n a l l y . However,
a number of s i m p l i f i e d c a l c u l a t i o n methods do use such a d i v i s i o n . Therefore,
we w i l l d i s c u s s this approach i n some d e t a i l .

3 . g - ql i f i e d App=rEch t o Calculation of. Forced Blade Vibrations

Let us assume that t h e external aerodynamic loads a c t i n g on a n e l a s t i c
blade i n f l i g h t can be divided i n t o two p a r t s : external loads a c t i n g on t h e
blade and f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping. We w i l l s t i p u l a t e , i n f i r s t approxba­
t i o n , t h a t t h e external loads a c t i n g on a n e l a s t i c blade coincide w i t h loads act­
i n g on a n i d e a l f l e x u r a l l y r i g i d blade. Then, f o r performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i t
remains only t o determine t h e f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping.

Usually t h e f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping are determined f o r a regime

w i t h &a1 flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , whereqon it i s assumed t h a t , i n a l l o t h e r f l i g h t
m
regimes w i t h oblique flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic damp­
i n g do not change.

I n a regime w i t h axial flow p a s t t h e r o t o r , t h e f o r c e of aer0dynami.c damp­

i n g can be determined on t h e basis of t h e following:

During v i b r a t i o n , t h e blade elements move w i t h a v e l o c i t y JF. A s a conse­

quence, t h e angles of a t t a c k of a l l blade elements change by t h e quantity

Upon a change i n t h e angle of a t t a c k , t h e blade elements become s u b j e c t t o

t h e a c t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping

Let us assume t h a t t h e aerodynamic load T can be represented as c o n s i s t i n g

of two components :

where
T, ~ = aerodynamic load a c t i n g on a r i g i d blade;
T d a m p = a d d i t i o n a l load due t o aerodynamic damping produced during e l a s t i c

81

I
 I

blade v i b r a t i o n s .

Then, eq.(?.l) can be rewritten i n t h e following form:

[E/y”]”- [Nu‘]’
+my $-1 caebory=7&
**
(7 019 1
2 y

Let us examine blade v i b r a t i o n s due t o t h e s i n u s o i d a l component of t h e aero­

dynamic load, varying according t o t h e l a w

T . =T,sin v t ,
“9

If we represent blade deformations i n t h e form of eq.(7.3) and apply B.G.

G a l e r k i n f s method t o eq.(7.l9), t h e n we a r r i v e a t a system of ordinary d i f f e r e n ­
t i a l equations r e l a t i v e t o t.he c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 , . k d i v i d u a l equa­
t i o n s of this system w i l l be c o r r e l a t e d by terms i n t o which t h e following i n t e ­
g r a l enters:

where y ( j ) and y(m) are t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t

harmonics ( j # m).

In s i m p l i f i e d methods of c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e i n t e g r a l s D,, a r e u s u a l l y equated

t o zero although, i n many cases, such a n assumption i s impossible t o j u s t i f y .

If we nevertheless make use of this assumption, t h e n a p p l i c a t i o n of Galer­

kin’s method y i e l d s a series of independent d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e form

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t sJ determines t h e magnitude of aerodynamic darrpsing: L28

After d i v i d i n g a l l terms of eq.(7.20) by mj, we o b t a i n a n equation of t h e

form

‘6, +2ni8i+p3j=p3$ sin vt, (7.22)

where

:, 82
 Usually, f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e magnitude of damping we use t h e rela­
t i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t
- nj
nj=-.
Pj

Its magnitude, as applied t o aerodynamic damping of a blade, i s calculated

by m e a n s of t h e formula

The s o l u t i o n of eq.(7.22), performed i n t h e same manner as t h a t used above

i n solving eq.(7.lO), leads t o t h e formula
-1 8"'
'dyn- dySt

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e dynamic i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude i s

I
A -
dyn- [* - ($)I'
+ 4n; ($)2 *
(7.24)

Thus, t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e problem examined here c o n s i s t s i n determining t h e

q u a s i - s t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 : i' and t h e i r subsequent multiplica­
t i o n by t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n amplitude h d y n .

Such a n approach i s s u b j e c t t o c e r t a i n i n a c c u r a c i e s because of t h e arti­

f i c i a l s e p a r a t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s i n t o two components by eq.(7.18), t h e
inadequately founded assumption that D,, = 0, and t h e approximate determination
of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic damping f o r a regime w i t h axial flow p a s t t h e
r o t o r . Therefore, i n Sections 8 and 9 we W i l l p r e s e n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n i n
which t h e above assumptions are not used.

Nevertheless, a s i m p l i f i e d approach of this type f a i r l y w e l l d e s c r i b e s t h e

q u a l 5 t a t i v e aspect of phenomena observed during blade v i b r a t i o n s .

4. h l i t u d e Diagram of Blade Vibrations

-. . . .. .~

As i n d i c a t e d above i n S e c t i o n 3 , t h e resonance diagram of a blade i s widely

used i n evaluating t h e c h a r a c t e r of blade v i b r a t i o n s . The resonance diagram
permits estimating t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e
blade d i f f e r f r o m t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequencies and determining t h e p o s s i b l e hazard
of t h e occurrence of resonance v i b r a t i o n s . However, i n cases i n which t h e natu­

83
I I 1111l111l11lI I I Il

r a l frequencies and t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequencies do not d i f f e r g r e a t l y , it i s of

i n t e r e s t t o estimate t h e extent t o which blade v i b r a t i o n amplitudes can be re­
duced. Such a n estimate can be made by using t h e amplitude diagram of blade Vi­
b r a t i o n s . This diagram, Constructed f o r
a blade w i t h ordinary mass and r i g i d i t y
x c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i s given i n Fig.1.25.
*yn

I n t h i s diagram, t h e a b s c i s s a gives
5 ‘Second t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequency r e f e r r e d t o t h e
I o v e r tone angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e
4
?
w

First -v=-* V

0 (7.25)

The o r d i n a t e g i v e s t h e c o e f f f c i e n t s
of dynamic i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n ampli­
0 1 2 3 C 5 6 7 : tude. The diagram i s constructed only
f o r t h e first three harmonics of e l a s t i c
Fig.1.25 Amplitude Diagram of blade Vibrations, using t h e damping co-
Blade Vibrations. e f f i c i e n t s c a l c d a t e d from eq.(7.23).

5. Calculation of Vibrations a t b p _ l i c a t i o n Ph-asgof M e r n a l

Load Variable over t h e Blade Length

Jn Subsection 3 of this S e c t i o n we presented formulas f o r t h e case when t h e

e x t e r n a l load i s represented as
T . =T,sinvt..
“9

T h i s form of n o t a t i o n of t h e load i s p o s s i b l e only i f t h e phase of i t s ap­

p l i c a t i o n over t h e blade l e n g t h i s constant. A s a rule, this does not happen
during v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r blade. The phase of t h e external load varies
over t h e blade length, so that t h e l o a d ’ s h o u l d be represented i n t h e form

- -
where t h e components of t h e external load Tv and Tv vary over t h e blade l e n g t h
i n accordance w i t h d i f f e r e n t l a w s .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(7.26) i n t o eq.(7.19), using Galerkin’s method, and f�&

assuming that D,, = 0, we o b t a i n
-
lnjzj -/- Elij + -
CjEj =~j COS vt -+ 4 sin v t , (7.27)
 L e t us pose

Then,

where

are t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of c p a s i - s t a t i c blade d e f o r m t i o n .
Equations (7.29) permit determining t h e dynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade de­
formation i f t h e quasi-static c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation obtained f o r t h e aero­
- I

d y d c loads T, and T, are k n m .

6. Aerodynamic b a d on a Rinid Blade

In f l i g h t , a h e l i c o p t e r blade i s acted y o n by variable loads w i t h frequen­
c i e s t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n s . I n this case, as a l r e a d y men­
tioned, t h e g r e a t e s t variable stresses i n t h e blade are caused by t h e first six
t o e i g h t harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load relative t o t h e r o t o r r o t a t i o n s .
Higher harmonics u s u a l l y are s o small as t o cause no n o t i c e a b l e stresses i n t h e
blade, even i n resonance.

A c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e variable aerodynamic l o a d s on a blade encounters cer­

t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s . These have t o do p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e n e c e s s i t y of determining
t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y field, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of n o n l i n e a r i t y i n t h e de­
pendence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e p r o f i l e ,
t h e Mach number (M), and coupling of t h e loads w i t h t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of
t h e blade. The c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s discussed i n t h e re­
s p e c t i v e Sections. Here, we W i l l c o n s t r u c t formulas f o r determining variable
85

I
aerodynamic loads a c t i n g on a blade r i g i d i n flexure and t o r s i o n , under t h e f o l ­
lowing assumptions.

a) We assume t h a t t h e i n l e t angle t o t h e blade p r o f i l e @ (Fig.1.26) is

s m a l l s o t h a t we can set approximately:

where
+
= i n l e t angle;
U, and U, = mutually perpendicular components of t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y
l y i n g i n a p l a n e normal t o t h e blade a x i s ( s e e Fig.1.26). Here,
t h e v e l o c i t y U, i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e
rotor.

Assuming a l s o t h a t cos (P 1,
we will consider t h a t t h e unknown
P l a n e of load T a c t i n g i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e
rotation
does not d i f f e r from t h e load T,,,
perpendicular t o t h e i n l e t t o t h e
blade p r o f i l e (Fig.1.26).

b) W e assume t h a t t h e magni­
t u d e of r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e
flow (U) p a s t t h e p r o f i l e d i f f e r s
l i t t l e from t h e q u a n t i t y U,:
to 61 ade plane
axis L7z u,. ( 7 032)
c ) We assme t h a t , i n d e t e r ­
Fig.1.26 Diagram of Flaw P a s t a Blade mining t h e loads i n t h e f l a p p i n g
Rigid i n Flexure and Torsion. plane, t h e p r o f i l e drag can be
neglected and t h a t we can set c, =
= 0.

We s t i p u l a t e khat t h e p r o f i l e lift c o e f f i c i e n t c y depends l i n e a r l y on t h e

p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k a :
e, =ce. a.
U (7.33)
d ) We assume t h a t t h e induced v e l o c i t y of t h e flow v passing through t h e
r o t o r i s constant over t h e e n t i r e area swept by t h e r o t o r :

v=const. ( 7 -34)

With t h e s e assumptions, only t h e constant p o r t i o n s of t h e first two har­

monics of aerodynamic f o r c e s are of s u b s t a n t i a l magnitude, and t h e n only a t me­
dium and high f l y i n g speeds of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The high harmonics are small and
t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n under t h e above assumptions i s of no i n t e r e s t .

86
 Using t h e s e assumptions, t h e l i n e a r aerodynamic load on t h e blade can be
determined by t h e formula

We w i l l assume furthermore that t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k i s

where cpr i s t h e angle of blade p r o f i l e s e t t i n g i n a s e c t i o n a t d i s t a n c e r from

t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n .

Then, eq.(7.35) can be transformed i n t o t h e form /82

For a n i d e a l f l e x u r a l l y r i g i d blade, suspended a t the hub by a f l a p p i n g

hinge, t h e v e l o c i t i e s e n t e r i n g eq.(7.37) can be determined by means of t h e f o l ­
lowing formulas:

(7.38)

Here,
Bo = f l a p p i n g angle of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge;

bo = -
at
= time d e r i v a t i v e of t h e angle Bo ;

ho = r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow through t h e r o t o r ;

ho=ptana,,,,+v"o,
where
cyrot = r o t o r angle of a t t a c k a t t h e s h a f t axes;
To = induced v e l o c i t y of t h e flow r e f e r r e d t o wR, which i s constant
over t h e r o t o r d i s k .

The blade angle can be w r i t t e n as

where
0, = blade angle a t t h e relative r a d i u s F = 0.7 o r a t any o t h e r
r a d i u s adopted f o r reckoning 8, a t Bo = 0;
87

11l 1 1l l l l l I
 1
1
11
11III l1Il111

Acp = geometric twist of t h e blade;

�I1 and �I2 = angles of c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l of t h e blade prescribed by t h e
swashplate
If we represent t h e f l a p p i n g motion of t h e blade i n t h e form of a s e r i e s

&=ao- 2 (ancos n$+ bn sin n$)

n
( 7 040)

and r e t a i n t h e r e only t h e first two harmonic components, s i n c e t h e higher har­

monics a r e small at t h e adopted asswnptions, t h e n eq.(7.37) can be transformed
into

L n J (794-11
where

I n performing t h e s e transformations we used a s u b s t i t u t i o n t h a t permits /s3

changing over t o t h e s-called equivalent r o t o r .

An equivalent r o t o r i s a r o t o r whose s h a f t i s imagined a s turned r e l a t i v e

t o a real r o t o r through an angle such that t h e same angles of a t t a c k of t h e blade
s e c t i o n s a r e achieved without c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l . A l l formulas w r i t t e n out f o r
an equivalent r o t o r can be used without change f o r a r e a l r o t o r without an a u t +
matic p i t c h c o n t r o l . An equivalent r o t o r u s u a l l y i s a l s o given t h e p r o p e r t i e s
of a r o t o r without a flapping compensator. In this case, t h e formulas a r e
equivalent only t o an accuracy t o w i t h i n t h e f i r s t harmonic of flapping.

Transformation of t h e formulas f o r aerodynamic loads, a s applied t o t h e

equivalent r o t o r , was performed under a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e following s u b s t i t u t i o n s :

(7.43)

88

__.. ..
where
yreal = real blade angle w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e effect of a
f l a p p i n g compensator a t t h e r a d i u s adopted f o r reading
this angle;
,a: by and A: = f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s and relative v e l o c i t y of flow through
t h e blades f o r a n equivalent r o t o r .

Here, we V r i l l not d i s c u s s higher

harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load.

Figure 1.27 shows t h e constant

p o r t i o n and c o s i n u s o i d a l and sin&- /s4.
o i d a l components of t h e first two har­
monics of t h e aerodynamic load, f o r a
t y p i c a l h e l i c o p t e r blade derived from
eq.(7.42) f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t of a
h e l i c o p t e r a t IJ. = 0.28.

I n Figs A 2 8 and 1.a t h e s e loads

are summed; t h e diagram a l s o gives t h e
t o t a l r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load P
a c t i n g on a blade i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l
plane of t h e r o t o r at I) = 0' and I) =
= 1 80' (Fig.1.28) and i n t h e l a t e r a l
plane at JI = 90' and $ = 270' (see
Fig.l.3).

Fig.1.27 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Harmonic 7. Determination of t h e Blade

Components of Aerodynamic Load over F l a p p i x Coefficients
t h e Blade Radius, f o r p, = 0.28.
To determine aerodynamic l o a d s by
means of eq.(7.42), it i s necessary t o
know t h e f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s of a flexurally r i g i d blade.

The f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s can be determined from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation

(7.1) i f we represent t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e equation i n t h e form

Yt=PoY(0), (7.44)
where y(O) i s t h e mode of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e fundamental.

For a r i g i d blade, this v i b r a t i o n mode coincides w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e

If t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e axis of r o t a t i o n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l o r flapping hinge /85

i s equal t o zero ( l h . h = 0), t h e n
 Fig.128 Relative Aerodynamic h a d Acting on a Blade
i n t h e Longitudinal Plane of t h e Rotor.

which i s v a l i d both f o r r i g i d and e l a s t i c blades ( s e e Sect .4).

S e t t i n g t h S b = 0, l e t us s u b s t i t u t e eq.(7.45) i n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equa­
t i o n s (7.1) and apply G a l e r k i n t s method t o it. T h i s o p e r a t i o n leads t o a d i f ­
f e r e n t i a l equation of f l a p p i n g v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blade

where I i s t h e moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade ’ r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.

Equation (7.46) can a l s o be derived by equating t o zero t h e moment of a l l

f o r c e s relative t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.

S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(7.40) and (7.41) i n t o eq.(7.46) and e q u a t i x t h e coef­

f i c i e n t s of l i k e harmonic azimuthal functions, we o b t a i n a system of equations
from which we can determine a l l f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h i s system i s w r i t t e n
out as a table (see Table 1.6).

Each equation of t h e derived system r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products of /s6

c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s , entered i n t h e squares of Table 1.6, w h i l e t h e unknown
flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e blade simultaneously e n t e r i n g several equations are
set a p a r t v e r t i c a l l y i n a s e p a r a t e row above t h e t a b l e . The known c o e f f i c i e n t s
of each equation occupy one row i n Table 1.6. On t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e
table, a s p e c i a l column contains t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s @ making up t h e right-hand
s i d e of t h e equations. The empty squares of t h e table correspond t o c o e f f i c i e n t s
equal t o zero.

Fig.1.29 Relative Aerodynamic Load Acting on a Blade

i n t h e L a t e r a l Plane of t h e Rotor.

Table 1 . 6

J I'

91
 The following n o t a t i o n s were used i n compiling t h e table:

A = f br3dr;
bl - - - 1
(7.47)

C'+'
= bry,dr.
b f-- - I
The mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a r i g i d blade y i s determined by t h e expression

On s o l v i n g this system of equations, it i s found t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a 2

and bz are appreciably smaller t h a n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a8-' a?' and bi'. Thus, t h e y
can be neglected i n determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ao, bi, and a?. T h i s assump- /87
t i o n leads t o simple formulas f o r determining t h e f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e

a2=
18
Yx
2

+ 8A2y: [p (4A Bb:+ l'X

a;) -p2(2ACao Yz ;

2
b, = ',
18 + 8A2yZ YX

where

92

. .. ..... .
8. Simplified Calculation of E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations
Eased on t h e simplifying assumptions adopted i n this Section, we can con­
s t r u c t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s and bending stresses i n a blade for
h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t regimes of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Such a c a l c u l a t i o n , of course, can­
not give p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s when applied t o low f l y i n g speeds where a major r o l e
i s played by variable stresses having t o do w i t h t h e nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y
f i e l d ; t h e same i s t r u e f o r high speeds where it i s h i p o s s i b l e t o disregard t h e
n o n l i n e a r i t y of t h e dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t ­
t a c k and phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h flow compressibility.

I n conformity w i t h t h e above formulas, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s conveniently per­

formed along t h e axes of a n equivalent r o t o r .

The c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s i s c a r r i e d out i n t h e following

sequence :

1. First, determine t h e parameters of t h e f l i g h t regime a t which t h e cal­

c u l a t i o n of stresses i s t o be c a r r i e d out. These are t h e following parameters:
a) r o t o r angle of a t t a c k c y e q i
b) angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r w;
c ) a l t i t u d e and f l y i n g speed represented i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t s p and w.

2. Calculate t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of flow through t h e r o t o r from t h e

formula

where C, i s t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r .

3. N e x t , c a l c u l a t e t h e blade angle a t t h e c o n t r o l s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o which

t h e geometric twist of t h e blade i s prescribed.

Without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of f o r c e s r e l a t e d w i t h t h e second harmonic of f l a p - /88

ping, this angle can be determined by t h e formula

Here,

93
 t = c o e f f i c i e n t of t h r u s t ;
0 = s o l i d i t y r a t i o of t h e r o t o r .

4. By means of eqs.(7.50), determine t h e flapping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e blade,

and by means of eqs.(7.41) and (7.42) t h e external loads on t h e blade.

5. To determine t h e bending stresses, c a l c u l a t e t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes

and frequencies of t h e blade.

6. If such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed, eqs.(7.30) W i l l y i e l d t h e quasi-

s t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i f f e r e n t harmonics of blade
v i b r a t i o n from t h e constant c o q o n e n t of t h e f i r s t and second harmonics of t h e
aerodynamic load.

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(7.41) i n t o eq.(7.30), we o b t a i n t h e values of t h e quasi-

s t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h harmonic blade vibra­
tion

(7.54)

Here, t h e s u b s c r i p t s of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of q u a s i - s t a t i c blade deformation

correspond t o t h e order of t h e harmonic of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . 'The index j
denotes c o e f f i c i e n t s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e j-th overtone of blade v i b r a t i o n s ; y3 i s
t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade i n deformations w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h
overtone :

94
 The following n o t a t i o n s are adopted f o r t h e i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g eqs.(7.54):/89

where y ( J ) i s t h e mode of blade v5brations w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e j - t h overtone

normed such t h a t $ j ) = 1 f o r I; = 1.

7 . Then, write t h e blade deformations i n t h e following form:

y =[Co - C1 COS Q -d, sin 9 -c2cos 29 - d,sin 2b] ~ +
( 1 )

+[eo-el cos+- f l s i n ~ - e 2 c o s 2 ~ : , - f 2 s i n 2 ~p+

~~
(7.57)
+[go-gl COS 9 --hl sint;-g2 cos 2;- h, sin 2+]y(3)c . . .

Here, i n determining t h e blade deformation, t h e mode of t h e fundamental

which, i n t h e case of r, = 0, coincides with a s t r a i g h t l i n e , is replaced b
first t h r e e harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n of t h e blade y(’) , y(’) , and y( 3 7 the
normed such t h a t y C 9 ) = R a t r = R. Then, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation
e n t e r i n g eq.( 7.57) can be determined i n terms of t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t s
of deformation i n accordance w i t h eq.(7.29).

A s a t y p i c a l example, l e t us write out t h e formulas f o r determining t h e co­

e f f i c i e n t s of deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i r s t harmonic:
 If t h e dynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation are known, it i s easy t o d e t e r ­
mine any camponents of t h e s t r e s s e s s e t up i n t h e blade. T h i s w i l l be discussed
i n more d e t a i l i n Subsection 17 of Section 8 and i n Subsection 8 of Section 9.

I n t h e s i m p l i f i e d method of c a l c u l a t i o n presented here, a l a r g e number of

a d d i t i o n a l assumptions of a computational nature a p p l i c a b l e t o zlmost a l l s t a g e s
of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n are used i n p l a c e of t h e i n i t i a l assumptions p e r t a i n i n g t o
t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of a blade model adopted i n d e r i v i n g eq.(7.l) and i n cal­
c u l a t i n g t h e right-hand s i d e of this equation, which reduces t o eq.( 7.35). All
t h e s e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , although t h e y make t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n q u i t e suit­
able f o r manual computation, introduce numerous indeterminacies t h a t are poorly
amenable t o a q u a n t i t a t i v e evaluation. Despite this shortcoming, t h e described
siniplified method of c a l c u l a t i o n has one important advantage, namely i t s c l e a r
p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n p r i n c i p l e , a l l c a l c u l a t i o n results obtained by o t h e r more h­
proved methods are evaluated and analyzed on t h e basis of dependences presented
here i n a s i m p l i f i e d form.

However, even w i t h t h e use of a l l t h e s e assumptions, pencil-and-paper com­

p u t i n g by this method t a k e s one month of work f o r one c a l c u l a t o r . The c u r r e n t
f l a w of blade designing cannot be maintained when one c a l c u l a t i o n t a k e s t h a t
long. Therefore, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of a blade used f o r se­
l e c t i n g t h e blade d e s i g n parameters can be performed only on high-speed elec­
t r o n i c computers. Naturally, t h e r e i s no need t h e n t o use assumptions t h a t fa­
c i u t a t e t h e computational process.

Consequently, i n Section 8 we will p r e s e n t a method of c a l c u l a t i o n based on

t h e same i n i t i a l assumptions, provided we neglect a l l v a r i a b l e induced veloci­
t i e s ; t h e method uses no assumptions of a computational nature.

96
S e c t i o n 8. Calculation of B ~ d i n gStresses i n a Blade a t Low and Moderate
Flying Speeds

1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Dist-shiw F l i g h t Renimes a t Im
Moderate Speeds

Low and moderate speeds of a h e l i c o p t e r are regarded here as regimes suf­

f i c i e n t l y remote from flow s e p a r a t i o n i n which, furthermore, phenomena a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h flow compressibility can be neglected. On this basis, i n c a l c u l a t i n g aero­
dynamic loads it i s assumed approximately t h a t

T h i s assumption g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s necessary f o r construct­

i n g d e s i g n formulas.

On t h e o t h e r hand, low-speed modes can be regarded as regimes e s p e c i a l l y ,@

d e t r i m e n t a l t o f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h and o f t e n conducive t o t h e generation of "um
bending s t r e s s e s i n t h e blade.

These considerations j u s t i f y t h e use of a method of c a l c u l a t i o n s u i t a b l e

only f o r low and moderate f l y i n g speeds but not for high speeds nor f o r regimes
i n which phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e nonlinear c h a r a c t e r of t h e dependence cy =
= f ( a ) and w i t h f l o w c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y become determining f a c t o r s .

It should be noted t h a t t h e a s s m p t i o n (8.1) does not always hold f o r low-

speed modes. I n cases i n which t h e r o t o r blade accounts f o r a n extremely l a r g e
load, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n should be performed w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonlinear de­
pendence of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e p r o f i l e .
The method of such a c a l c u l a t i o n will be discussed i n S e c t i o n 9.

The blade overloading can be estimated f r o m t h e value of t h e t h r u s t coef­

f i c i e n t of t h e r o t o r t. Calculations show t h a t t h e assumption (8.1) can be used
f o r low-speed modes without i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s i n t o t h e r e s u l t s
a t t < 0.18.
I n regimes w i t h v e r t i c a l overloads such as, f o r exanple, t h e braking regime
of a h e l i c o p t e r before landing, an infringement of this i n e q u a l i t y might occur
i n r o t o r s which show such overloads i n steady f l i g h t . A l l this must be t a k e n in­
t o account i n s e l e c t i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method.

2. Me-thod of Calculating S t r e s s e s

T h i s Section p r e s e n t s t h e conventional method of c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e

s t r e s s e s , based on Galerkin's method w i t h expansion of t h e deformation c o e f f i ­
c i e n t i n a Fourier series in harmonics.

Because of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of using this method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g low-speed

modes, t h e harmonic components of t h e induced field are introduced i n t o a l l cal­
c u l a t i o n formulas, and t h e problem of blade deformation i s solved simultaneously
97
w i t h t h e problem of determining t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s .

However, such a n approach i s not a IlmustII f o r t h e method proposed here. I n

c a l c u l a t i n g stresses a t moderate f l y i n g speeds when t h e variable induced Veloci­
t i e s do not cause excessive refinements i n t h e results, it can be disregarded.
I n this case t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d .

If t h e assumption (8.1) i s used, t h e aerodynamic load w i l l be a l i n e a r

f u n c t i o n of t h e displacements of t h e blade element, and t h e problem of calcu­
l a t i n g t h e bending deformations w i l l reduce t o s o l v i n g t h e l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l
equation (1.9). To s o l v e this equation we use t h e B.G.Galerkin method. The
blade deformations are represented as a series w i t h r e s p e c t t o eigenfunctions,
w h i l e t h e time c o e f f i c i e r k s of this series are expanded i n a Fourier series. The
use of Galerkin's method transforms t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of blade v i b r a t i o n s
i n t o a system of a l g e b r a i c equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e
Fourier s e r i e s , and t h e determination of t h e blade bending deformations reduces
t o a c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e s e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s . Such a method of c a l c u l a t i o n
will be presented here.

3. A s s m t i o n s i n Deternrining Induced V e l o c i t i e s
When c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bending stresses a t low f l y i n g speeds when t h e i r value
i s determined mainly by t h e degree of nonuniformity of t h e induced v e l o c i t y &
f i e l d , t h e assumptions on whose basis this f i e l d i s determined become of g r e a t
importance.

I n t h e first volume (Chapt.11, Sect.5), i t w a s mentioned t h a t induced ve­

l o c i t i e s can be represented as t h e sum of t h e e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c induced
v e l o c i t i e s . T h i s subdivision i s somewhat a r b i t r a r y but proves u s e f u l s i n c e it
permits an e v a l u a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of i n d i v i d u a l induced v e l o c i t y components by
analogy w i t h t h e e v a l u a t i o n conventional f o r t h e wing of a r e g u l a r a i r c r a f t ; this
justifies t h e adoption of c e r t a i n assumptions important f o r f u r t h e r p r e s e n t a t i o n .

The flow p a s t a h e l i c o p t e r blade w i t h a nonuniform induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d

i s analogous t o t h e flow p a s t t h e wing of a r e g u l a r a i r c r a f t i n f l i g h t s i n turbu­
l e n t a i r , when t h e wing constarkly encounters airflows of d i f f e r i n g v e l o c i t y and
d i r e c t i o n . During r o t a t i o n of a r o t o r , t h e blade a l s o encounters i n i t s p a t h a
nonuniform v e l o c i t y field, except that this f i e l d i s not caused by atmospheric
turbulence but by t h e induced a c t i o n of t h e e n t i r e v o r t e x system of t h e r o t o r .
T h i s field, by analogy w i t h a Wing, i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e e x t r i n s i c induced ve­
l o c i t y f i e l d , u n l i k e t h e v e l o c i t y f i e l d induced i n t h e blade r e g i o n by t h e vor­
t i c e s shed by t h e blade due t o a change i n c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e and
blade radius. That t h e s e v o r t i c e s c r e a t e appreciable induced v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e
blade i s due e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e f a c t that t h e y are a t a very s h o r t d i s t a n c e from
it. Upon removing t h e v o r t i c e s a d i s t a n c e of 20 - 30' from t h e r o t o r azimuth,
t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e aerodynamic load on t h e blade W i l l decrease.

J u s t as i n c a l c u l a t i n g a w i n g , t h e Isteady-flow hypothesisll can be used i n

determining t h e aerodynamic loads on a blade. According t o this m o t h e s i s it
i s assumed t h a t , i n a nonsteady f l a w p a s t a p r o f i l e , t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e pro­
f i l e behave as though t h e flow p a t t e r n produced at; a given instant of t i m e would
98
 remain unchanged f o r a n a r b i t r a r y l e n g t h of t i m e . I n conformity w i t h this hy­
p o t h e s i s , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic loads on a wing allowance i s made only
f o r t h e change i n angle of a t t a c k produced by t h e e x t r i n s i c v e l o c i t y f i e l d , w h i l e
t h e e f f e c t of t h e i n t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s i s disregarded.

We w i l l use a n analogous approach f o r t h e case of a blade. I n determining

t h e aerodynamic loads, we w i l l t a k e i n t o account only t h e e x t r i n s i c induced ve­
l o c i t y field.

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of this field, c e r t a i n additional. assumptions r e l a t i v e

t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e v o r t e x system i n t h e low-speed mode can be used.

Figure 1.30 gives a planview of a system of free v o r t i c e s shed by t h e blade

t i p s of a five-blade r o t o r i n a f l i g h t
regime w i t h a speed corresponding t o
D i r e c t i o n of flight
p = 0.05. A t this speed, t h e variable
stresses i n t h e r o t o r blades reach a
"um.

The p i c t u r e conveyed by this

sketch i s incomplete, s i n c e only f r e e
v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade t i p s are
shown w h i l e t h e v o r t i c e s shed from a l l
o t h e r blade r a d i i are omitted. The
radial ( t r a n s v e r s e ) v o r t i c e s are a l s o
l e f t o f f . However, even this p a t t e r n
a l r e a d y gives a n i d e a on t h e c l o s e
spacing of v o r t i c e s i n low-speed
regimes. Due t o this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of t h e v o r t e x system, t h e induced
a c t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l v o r t i c e s W i l l
Fig.l.30 View of a Vortex S y s t e m merge and appear as t h e t o t a l nonuni­
Shed by t h e Blade Tip i n t h e p = formity of t h e e n t i r e v e l o c i t y f i e l d .
= 0.05 Regime. No sharp induced v e l o c i t y peaks, char­
a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e v o r t e x system, w i t h
widely spaced v o r t i c e s occur. There­
f o r e , a t low f l y i n g speeds and e s p e c i a l l y f o r r o t o r s with a l a r g e number of
blades, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s can be determined from t h e t h e o r y covering t h e
c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a r o t o r w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades.

With a n i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g speed, t h e free v o r t e x system starts extending &

and shows wider spacing. The v o r t e x system a l s o changes i n t h e same sense on a
decrease i n t h e number of r o t o r blades. T h i s reduces t h e accuracy of c a l c u l a t i o n
f o r a configuration w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades.

On changing from a given r o t o r t o a c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number

of blades, t h e l o c a l effect due t o t h e v o r t i c e s immediately adjacent t o t h e blade
i s reduced so g r e a t l y that, i n first approximation, it can be assumed that this
d e s i g n does not allow for t h e i n f l u e n c e of adjacent v o r t i c e s s o t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y
f i e l d determined on i t s basis will p r a c t i c a l l y coincide w i t h t h e e x t r i n s i c i n ­
duced v e l o c i t y f i e l d .

99

I
1
1
1I 11111111111-1111 I II I II 111 II 1111111111111 I I11111IIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIII 11111
 The considerations presented above l e a d t o t h e conclusion that, f o r calcu­
l a t i n g e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s a t low f l y i n g speeds, t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y based on
a scheme w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades can be used.
A t low f l y i n g speeds, one u s u a l l y measures variable stresses of which a
major p o r t i o n i s made up of high harmonics of t h e r o t o r rpm, g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d
between t h e f o u r t h and s i x t h harmonic. Therefore, s t i l l another important re­
quirement m u s t be imposed on t h e method of determining induced v e l o c i t i e s . Such
a method should determine t h e induced v e l o c i t y field w i t h a n accuracy of at
least t o t h e s i x t h harmonic, which is p o s s i b l e only i f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n values
are determined w i t h a n accuracy t o t h e same harmonic. Consequently, a l l methods
not s a t i s f y i n g this requirement are worthless and cannot be used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g
e l a s t i c vibrations

A s s t a t e d above, we will present a method of c a l c u l a t i n g stresses i n which

a l l variables are expanded i n Fourier series i n harmonics. Therefore, it i s
convenient t o use t h e method of determining t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d , i n which
t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s are determined a l s o i n t h e form of a n expansion i n harmonics.

These s t i p u l a t i o n s are best m e t by t h e t h e o r y developed by V.E.Baskin

[(Ref .3); see a l s o Sect.5, Chapt.11 of Vol.11. Therefore, this theory will be
used here f o r our stress a n a l y s i s .

4. Mat hematical Formulas f o r Induced Velocity Field Determination

Let us examine t h e system of formulas proposed by V.E.Baskin f o r c a l c u l a t i n g

t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of P r o t o r .

We will r e p r e s e n t t h e field of t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s as t h e sm of i t s harmonic

components. I n s o doing, both t h e t o t a l flow v e l o c i t y and t h e harmonic con- &
ponents of this v e l o c i t y are r e l a t e d t o t h e t i p speed of t h e r o t o r blades wR:

Here,
h = t o t a l v e l o c i t y of t h e flow passing through t h e r o t o r , r e l a t i v e
- t o wR;
- A, = constant induced v e l o c i t y component, a l s o relative t o wR;
h , and x, = harmonic induced v e l o c i t y components;
JI = azimuthal blade angle reckoned from a n a x i s coinciding i n di­
r e c t i o n w i t h t h e t a i l boom of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r ;

’= V cos a d
oR ’

where
V = f l y i n g speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ;
a F O t= r o t o r angle of a t t a c k a t t h e s h a f t axes.

100
 The l i n e a r aerodynamic load a c t i n g on t h e blade i s represented i n t h e form

where
c: angle of slope of t h e dependence c y = f ( a ) , which here i s taken
=
t o be l i n e a r i n t h e form of eq.(8.1);
p = a i r density;
bo.? = value of blade chord a t t h e relative radius F = 0.7.

Henceforth, t h e value of P e n t e r i n g this expression Will be designated as

"relative aerodynamic loadtl.

We represent t h e value of P i n t h e form

-
P=P,+ 2 (P, cos m++ Fmsin m;).
m (8.4)

The harmonic v e l o c i t y components A,, are represented as t h e sum of t h e so-

c a l l e d p a r t i a l induced v e l o c i t i e s , each of which i s induced only by one harmonic
of t h e aerodynamic load

I n t h e s e expressions, t h e sum t o t a l induced v e l o c i t y components have one

s u b s c r i p t n, w h i l e t h e p a r t i a l components have two s u b s c r i p t s n and m.

The values of t h e p a r t i a l harmonic induced v e l o c i t y Components are deter­

mined by t h e following expressions :

If t h e power t o which -r i s r a i s e d i s negative ( n - m < 0), we must s e t /95

= ( - ~ ) m - ~ i n eqs.(8.6).
The c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.6) have t h e following. values:

101
 *b '0.7
a=-,
ZR

where
a = s o l i d i t y r a t i o of t h e r o t o r ;
zb = number of blades of r o t o r .

The value of t h e d i s k flow r a t i o averaged over t h e blade r a d i u s A,,, i s de­

termined from t h e formula

k6,=ptana&2
/- --
A,rdr.

-
To determine t h e f u n c t i o n s J(Fm) and J(Fm) e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.6), t h e follow­
i n g formulas are obtained from V.E.BaskinTs theory:

where
J,(zr) and Jm(zF) = Bessel f u n c t i o n s of t h e first kind of order n and m,
r e s p e c t i v e l y;
z = i n t e g r a t i o n parameter.

Here, t o s p e c i f y t h e parameter over which i n t e g r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out, a new

n o t a t i o n i s introduced f o r t h e r e l a t i v e blade r a d i u s 'F;. T h i s n o t a t i o n w i l l be
used only i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l s (8.9).

5. Transformations of Mathematical Formulas i n P a r t i c u l a r Cases

Equations (8.6) are g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d i n p a r t i c u l a r cases. Thus, i n t h e
case of n = m = 0, we have

(8.10)

For f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e r e s u l t obtained f o r t h e case of n = m i s es­

p e c i a l l y important. It w i l l be found that t h e coinciding harmonics of t h e aero­
102
 -::1
dynamic load and induced v e l o c i t y are uniquely r e l a t e d by t h e expressions: L%
-A, =an =;

-
-
=Pn
(8.11)
-
An,,=an-=,

where

(8.12)

T h i s formulation makes i t expedient t o s e p a r a t e t h e induced v e l o c i t y con+

ponents i n t o two types: p r i n c i p a l induced v e l o c i t y components due t o t h e same
harmonic of t h e aerodynamic load as t h e harmonic of t h e induced velocity, and
secondary components due t o a l l o t h e r harmonics of t h e aerodynamic load.

This s e p a r a t i o n permits w r i t i n g eqs.(8.5) i n t h e form

where t h e p r i n c i p a l induced v e l o c i t y components a r e determined by eq.(8.11),

whereas t h e sum of a l l secondary induced veJocity _components i s introduced i n t o
t h e equation by means of t h e new n o t a t i o n s 1; and x:

Here, zh i s t h e number of harmonic induced v e l o c i t y components t a k e n i n t o

account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

A t n = 0, t h e f i r s t m e m b e r s of t h e s e e q r e s s i o n s should be equated t o zero,

and a t n = zb t h e same should be done w i t h t h e second members. I n c o n s t r u c t i n g
t h e equations f o r stress analysis, t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s Will be represented i n
t h e form of eq.(8.13).
-
6. Numerical Determination of t h e Integrals J(Fm)ard J(Fm)

A t m # n, a c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l s ( 8 . 9 ) encounters c e r t a i n d i f f i ­
c u l t i e s . To determine t h e values of t h e s e i n t e g r a l s , V.E.Baskin proposed a

103
method i n which t h e aerodynamic load components are approximated by trigono­
metric polynomials. For this, it i s necessary t o determine t h e values of P, a t
prescribed blade radii not coinciding w i t h t h o s e used i n t h e o v e r a l l calcula­
t i o n . This i s not t o o convenient f o r t h e method proposed here. Therefore, we
w i l l use another method more suitable f o r t h e given case, i n which c a l c u l a t i o n
-
of t h e i n t e g r a l s J(Fm) and J@,) i s c a r r i e d out appro-tely i n t h e same form
i n which t h e i n t e g r a l s are computed when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e blade s t r e s s e s . To
this end, t h e blade i s divided i n t o i n d i v i d u a l segments w i t h i n whose limits t h e
aerodynamic load i s represented i n a form s u i t a b l e f o r i n t e g r a t i o n . Here, it i s
l o g i c a l t o d i v i d e t h e blade i n t o t h e same segments i n a l l cases, both when cal­
c u l a t i n g t h e s t r e s s e s ard when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l s (8.9). We w i l l repre­
s e n t t h e load P,(p) such t h a t , a t each segment of i n t e g r a t i o n , this load w i l l
vary i n accordance with t h e l a w

Here, ­p = current values of r e l a t i v e blade radius; a f t e r i n t e g r a t i o n and sub­

s t i t u t i o n of t h e limits, t h e value of Will no longer be contained
i n formulas without an index;
ij;, = same value of r e l a t i v e r a d i u s but w i t h t h e s u b s c r i p t k, which means
that t h e r a d i u s i n question coincides w i t h t h e r a d i u s at which t h e
r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load P,(p,) i s c a l c u l a t e d .

Fig.l.31 Shape of t h e R e l a t i v e Aerodynamic b a d Adopted

f o r t h e Calculation of Induced V e l o c i t i e s .

Fk,
Henceforth, as a l r e a d y s t a t e d , l e t us d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e r e l a t i v e r a d i i
a t which t h e value of t h e aerodynamic load i s taken, from t h e r e l a t i v e radii Fi
 .

a t which t h e induced v e l o c i t y i s calculated. T h i s prevents p o s s i b l e confusion.

ht us assume t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load varies i n accordance w i t h

t h e l a w (8.15) over t h e l e n g t h of each segment bounded by t h e r e l a t i v e radii

I n Fig.l.31, t h e s o l i d stepped l i n e gives t h e shape of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of

t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynanric load over t h e blade length, represented f o r c a l c u l a t i n g
t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s from eq.(8.15) i n t h e case m = 0. Such a form of 'repre­
s e n t a t i o n of t h e aerodynamic load naturally may introduce c e r t a i n e r r o r s i n t o
t h e values of t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s . However, c a l c u l a t i o n s performed t o es­
timate t h e magnitude of this e r r o r demonstrated t h a t t h e e r r o r i s small and i s &
unable t o cause s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s .

On s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e value of t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load expressed i n t h e

form of eq.(8.15) i n t o t h e expression of t h e integrand of eq.(8.9), t h e n t h e
i n t e r i o r i n t e g r a l on t h e right-hand s i d e of this equation can be represented as
some sum of d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l s :

The d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l s e n t e r i n g this expression can be c a l c u l a t e d analyti­

c a l l y [see (Ref .11)1. S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n limits i n t o t h e obtained ex­
pressions, we can w r i t e :

where

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e r e s u l t a n t value of t h e i n t e r i o r i n t e g r a l i n t o eqs.(8.9),
we o b t a i n

O r , i f we w r i t e this i n a simpler form,

105

3I Il1l111111l11l
where

The i n t e g r a l (8.20) i s a discontinuous i n t e g r a l known as t h e Weber-Schaf­

h e i t l i n i n t e g r a l (Ref.11). Its a n a l y t i c expression, as a function of t h e rela­
t i o n between Ti and *(Fk + is;r+l), has t h e following form:

Here,
I?= gamma function with d i f f e r e n t arguments;
F = m e r g e o m e t r i c function of t h e argument CY, f3, y, Z.

These arguments, as indicated by eqs.(8.21) and (8.22), may have d i f f e r e n t

! + Gtl ). For exanple, i n
values depending upon t h e r e l a t i o n between F, and +&&
eq.(8.Z), we have

106
 When performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n on a d i g i t a l computer, t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are
easy t o program. Therefore, t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n p r e s e n t s no d i f f i c u l t i e s .

7 A s m t i o n s Adopted
- i n AerGd>-c Force _Determinations

In determining t h e aerodynamic loads, t h e assumption (8.1) i s supplemented

by t h e same assumptions used i n determining t h e r i g i d blade loadings (Sect.?,
Subsect .6), w i t h t h e exception of t h e a s s q t i o n (7.34)

1. let us assume that t h e i n f l o w angle t o t h e blade p r o f i l e 8 i s small and

t h a t we t h u s can assume a p p r o x i m t e l y :

where
Q = inflow angle;
U, and U, = mutually perpendicular components of t h e relative flow v e l o c i t y
i n a p l a n e normal t o t h e e l a s t i c blade a h (Fig.1.32); here,
t h e v e l o c i t y U, i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e

Y
rotor.

Pr ol atna et ioof
n *+& a f t I. o t o r
A x i s hof
2. let us assume that t h e
magnitude of t h e r e l a t i v e ve-
l o c i t y of c i r c u l a t i o n flow U

5 -1
around t h e p r o f i l e d i f f e r s lit­
w t l e from t h e magnitude of U,.
c Therefore, we can assume that
u s u,.
Ilv . 3. Let us assume t h a t , i n
/
Plane determining t h e loads i n t h e
p erp endi cu 1 ar
to elastic
blade a x i s c
" C~~apping
'plane
'c f l a p p i n g p l a n e (plane going
through t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of
t h e r o t o r ) , t h e p r o f i l e drag
can be neglected and it can be
Fig.1.32 Diagram of Flow P a s t a Blade, Used assumed t h a t c, = 0.
i n Stress Analysis at t h e LaJ-Speed Mode.
4. S t i p u l a t i n g that cos Q =
= 1, l e t us assume t h a t t h e /100
l o a d i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e does not differ from t h e load perpendicular t o t h e
i n f l o w t o t h e blade p r o f i l e (see fig.1.32).

8. Mathematical Formulas

When using t h e assumptions given i n Subsection 7, t h e v a l u e of t h e relative

aerodynamic load P e n t e r i n g e ~ ~ ( 8 . 3can
) be determined from t h e formula:

I
 I I I 1111111l111111l1lI Il Il1

where
b, = value of t h e blade chord at t h e r a d i u s i n question, r e l a t i v e
-U, and t,
t o t h e chord at a radius F = 0.7;
= same r e l a t i v e f l o w v e l o c i t y components as i n eq.(8.23) but
r e l a t i v e t o t h e t i p speed of t h e r o t o r blades wR:

Here,
A = r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow through t h e r o t o r ; this v e l o c i t y
i s determined from eq.(8.2);
y = displacements of t h e e l a s t i c blade axis in a p l a n e perpendicular
t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n from which t h e s e displacements are cal­
c u l a ted ;
B = y' = angle of s l o p e of t h e e l a s t i c blade axis.
Here t h e prime denotes d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o .%heblade r a d i u s and
t h e dot, w i t h respect t o time.

The blade s e t t i n g angle can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

9 =8, -+A? - 6, sin 9- 6, cos 9 - x$,. (8.26)

Here ,
eo = blade s e t t i n g angle a t a r e l a t i v e r a d i u s F = 0.7 o r a t some
o t h e r r a d i u s adopted f o r c a l c u l a t i n g eo, when t h e angle of rota­
t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e flapping hinge Bo i s equal t o zero;
Acp = geometric blade twist;
�I1 and e,= c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l angles p r e s c r i b e d by t h e automatic p i t c h
control;
w. = f l a p p i n g compensator;
Bo = angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade i n t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.
Let us represent blade deformations i n t h e form /101

where
6 , = c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation corresponding t o t h e j - t h
harmonic of i t s natural v i b r a t i o n s ; t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s are func­
t i o n s of time and t h e r e f o r e a r e a l s o c a l l e d time f a c t o r s ;
y ( j ) = natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes i n vacuum normed such t h a t
yR(j) = R.

Let us expand t h e time f a c t o r s 6, i n a Fourier s e r i e s i n harmonics* Then,

t h e blade deformations can be represented as

108
 (8.28)

+[ g o - x n 3
(gncosn.;,+/znsinn9) -g(3)+. ..

This form of n o t a t i o n of t h e s o l u t i o n i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e conventional

form of n o t a t i o n f o r t h e f l a p p i n g motion of a blade (7 .bo).

After d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eq.(8.28) w i t h r e s p e c t t o r a d i u s and t i m e and sub­

s t i t u t i n g y, t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s d e r i v a t i v e s and eqs.(8.2) and (8.26), i n t o
eq.(8.25), and t h e n s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e r e s u l t a n t formulas f o r Ex and v,, into
eq.(8.&), we f i n a l l y o b t a i n t h e expression from which a l l harmonic components
of t h e r e l a t i v e aerodynamic load P can be determined.

These components can be represented i n t h e form

-
Here, f, and Fn are c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s determining t h e value of this com­
ponent of t h e aerodynamic load, which does not depend on t h e magnitude of t h e
induced v e l o c i t i e s .

If now t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s h, and 7, are represented i n t h e form of t h e

sum of t h e main and secondary components and i f t h e main components are expressed
- -
i n terms of P, and Fn
w i t h r e s p e c t t o eqs.(8.ll), t h e n t h e values of Fn and Fn
w i l l appear both on t h e l e f t - and right-hand s i d e s of eqs.(8.29).
-
After determining from t h e s e equations t h e values of P, and P,, we ob- /102
t a i n t h e following e$ressions:

where

109

I
 -
Below, t h e values of g, and 5, W i l l be denoted as equivalent chords of t h e
blade since, i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e y p l a y t h e same r o l e as t h e a c t u a l chords
and, i n eqs.(f3.30), appear a t t h e same p l a c e a t which t h e values of Zr a r e lo-
Gated i n e q s . ( 8 . a ) .

Thus, t h e harmonic components of aerodynamic loads, w i t h consideration of

variable induced v e l o c i t i e s , should be determined by s u b s t i t u t i n g only secondary
induced v e l o c i t y components i n t o t h e formulas and r e p l a c i n g t h e real chords by
t h e equivalent blade chords. The values of t h e equivalent blade chords may d i f ­
f e r d%pending on t h e f l i g h t regime and on t h e o r d e r of t h e harmonic of aero­
dynamic load being determined. However, t h e y always prove t o be smaller t h a n
t h e real chords. Consequently, a l l harmonic aerodynamic load components are
smaller t h a n t h e values t h e y would have i f t h e main induced v e l o c i t y components
were equal t o zero and are a l s o smaller as many times as t h e equivalent chords
are smaller t h a n t h e r e a l chords. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of equivalent chords l e a d s
t o a decrease of a l l aerodynamic load components, b o t h e x c i t i n g and damping t h e
blade v i b r a t i o n s . Therefore, t h e r e W i l l a l s o be a decrease i n t h e values of t h e
relative c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic d a q i n g which determines t h e v i b r a t i o n
amplitudes i n resonance. T h i s causes a decrease i n t h e variable blade deforma­
t i o n s f a r from resonance, whereas t h o s e i n resonance remain approxjmately t h e
same as i n c a l c u l a t i o n s without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this e f f e c t .

E r e s s i o n s of t h e type of eq.(8.30), w r i t t e n f o r a l l harmonic components

of t h e aerodynamic load, are found t o be i n t e r r e l a t e d over t h e induced v e l o c i t y
components. Hence, t h e s e c o n s t i t u t e a c e r t a i n complex system of equations rela­
t i v e t o unknown loads, which can be solved only i f t h e values of f, and T , are
known. These values, however, depend on t h e magnitude of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of
blade deformation. Therefore, t o solve this system of equations i t i s necessary
t o construct equations f o r determining t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h i s W i l l
be c a r r i e d out below.
-
If t h e values of Fn and f, e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.30) are described i n d e t a i l , t h e
expressions f o r t h e harmonic a e r o d y d c load components can be represented i n
t h e form of Table 1.7.
-
The e q r e s s i o n f o r each harmonic component of t h e loads P,
and.% occupies
one row i n t h e table and r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products formed by t h e coef­
f i c i e n t s entered i n t h e squares of t h e table w i t h t h e unknown f a c t o r s simultane­
ously contained i n several expressions and entered v e r t i c a l l y i n a s p e c i a l row &
at the t u p of t h e table. These f a c t o r s , as a l r e a d y mentioned above, are c a l l e d
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation. -The right-hand s i d e of t h e table contains
a number of terms @, f,", q, and f
:
, not r e l a t e d w i t h t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s
o f deformation.

110
I

-
To determine t h e values of p, and F, it i s necessary t o multiply t h e sum
of t h e products of t h e terms of each row and t h e unknown c o e f f i c i e n t s of de­
formation, which sum i s added t o terms independent of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of defor­
-
mation, by t h e values of En and E,. These values are entered on t h e left-hand
s i d e of t h e table.
-
The number of terms e n t e r i n g t h e expressions f o r F, and F, depends on t h e
number of harmonics and overtones of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s being taken i n t o ac­
count i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . I n Table 1.7, t h e expressions are given f o r t h e case
where only two overtones and f o u r harmonics of t h e variable f o r c e s are t a k e n in­
t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

I n programs used f o r c a l c u l a t i o n on d i g i t a l computers, f o u r overtones of

n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s and six t o e i g h t harmonics of v a r i a b l e f o r c e s can u s u a l l y be
considered.

9. Convwsiofi t o an Equivalent Rotor

In order t o demonstrate t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of converting t o an equivalent
r o t o r , t h e following e q u a l i t y w a s used i n compiling Table 1.7:

which i s v a l i d only when t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n and t h e f l a p ­

ping o r h o r i z o n t a l hinge t,,.h i s equal t o zero.

If we now use t h e known formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of flapping and angles

of a t t a c k of a n equivalent r o t o r
a;=a,-~xb,+6,;
bf =61 tX U , - 02;

=tana,,fvb,
t~ana,~. - el,
-
t h e n t h e expressions f o r Fn and F,
can be somewhat s i m p l i f i e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g ,
i n t h e f i r s t row of t h e table, t h e values of a? and b? f o r a, and b,. T h i s will
cause t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s f ,0 t o become equal t o zero, and t h e values of t h e angles
and e 2 w i l l not e n t e r i n t o t h e equation. I n o t h e r words, t h e well-known p r i n ­
c i p l e t h a t blade loading does not depend on t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e automatic p i t c h
c o n t r o l a t t h a h = 0, i s completely observed i n t h e expressions of Table 1.7.

However, t h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s obtained on converting t o a n equivalent r o t o r

are s o i n s i g n i f i c a n t as not t o justify t h e assumption of t h a h = 0. Therefore,
we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e blade v i b r a t i o n s only i n t h e axes of t h e s h a f t and will not
use t h e concept of a n equivalent r o t o r .

10. Basic A s s m t i o n s Used i n Calculation

- of Bending S t r e s s e s

In t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending s t r e s s e s i n a blade, we W i l l use t h e assump­

111
I

/'
 .... __

-1 2
'r P- xo 1% i
I.... I

(-2 1 2;
0 tzP
-3+

2p F
.. 1 I

e . .
 4

1­ .

P?=X,
L

-_._ .
 c3 d4.
.

-$pZx,

~ .. - - ...

...
 ----- -
Terms, Independent of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t
o f Deformation
1

- $P””
IJ

t i o n s adopted i n d e r i v i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (1.9) of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n

t h e thrust plane. We w i l l represenb t h e blade as a n e l a s t i c beam extended by
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s N. The parameters of this beam - i t s l i n e a r mass m and t h e
flexural r i g i d i t y E1 - will be considered as continuously d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e
blade length.

Furthermore, we are adopting t h e following assumptions: /104.

1. We Will assume t h a t t h e p l a n e of minimum blade r i g i d i t y coincides w i t h
t h e f l a p p i n g plane, so t h a t t h e blade w i l l bend i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane only under
t h e e f f e c t of f o r c e s a c t i n g i n this plane.

2. In determining loads i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e we W i l l d i s r e g a r d t o r s i o n a l
blade deformations (see Sect .7 of Chapt .IV i n Vol.1, on c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t o r ­
s i o n a l deformation).

3. We w i l l assume t h e conventional type of r o t o r w i t h hinged blades and d i s ­

regard t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinge, i.e., we
W i l l pose l h , , , # 0 . We W i l l a l s o neglect t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s i n t h e blade
hinges.

i f f e r e n t i a l Equation of Blade Vibrations and i t s S o l u t i o n

11. D-

When using t h e s e assumptions, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending stresses reduces

t o s o l v i n g a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation whose d e r i v a t i o n has been given i n S e c t i o n 1
of this Chapter:
[E/y"l" - [ivy']' +my =T .

With t h e blade attachment i n question here, t h e boundary conditions can be

w r i t t e n as

The value of t h e l i n e a r aerodynamic load e n t e r i n g t h e right-hand s i d e of

eq.(8.32) i s determined from eqs.(8.3), (8.4.), and Table 1.7.

After s u b s t i t u t i n g , i n t o this equation, t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e form of equa­

t i o n (8.28) and applying Galerkints method, we o b t a i n a system o f a l g e b r a i c equa­
t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e unknown deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h i s system of equations
i s represented i n t h e form of Table 1.8.
Each equation of t h e obtained system r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products
formed by c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s entered i n t h e squares of t h e table w i t h t h e un­
known c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation simultaneously contained i n several equations
and entered v e r t i c a l l y i n a s p e c i a l row a t t h e t o p of t h e table. The known coef­
f i c i e n t s of each equation occupy one row i n t h e table. The right-hand s i d e of
-
' t h e table, i n a s p e c i a l column, contains t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s Fn and Fn representing

I
P TABLE 1.8
P
N
P
t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e equations.

J u s t as i n Tables 1.7 and 1.9 t h e r e are empty squares i n Table 1.8. T h i s

means t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e equations f o r which t h e s e squares are i n ­
tended are equal t o zero.

12. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on-the Left-Hand Side

of %he Equations i n Table 1.8

To determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations, a

s p e c i a l operator must be devised f o r t h e computational program. T h i s operator
should read out t h e values f o r a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of any equation of t h e system.
To render this operator as simple as p o s s i b l e , we w i l l d i v i d e t h e e n t i r e t a b l e of
c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t o a number of zones r e l a t i v e t o t h e number of harmonics of natu­
r a l v i b r a t i o n s used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . These zones a r e t h e n used f o r combining,
i n t o s e p a r a t e groups, a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t follow a s i m i l a r p a t h of formation
when using Galerkints method and can be roughly c a l c u l a t e d by t h e same formulas.

The transformation of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (8.32) by means of Galer­

k i n ' s method i n t o a system of a l g e b r a i c equations of Table 1.8 comprises t h e f o l ­
lowing operations:

1. I n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation (8.32), w e f i r s t s u b s t i t u t e t h e s o l u t i o n m
i n t h e form of eq.(8.28) containing various n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes. If t h e
modes e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e s o l u t i o n (8.28) a r e denoted by t h e s u b s c r i p t J, t h e n a l l
terms of t h e equation obtained as r e s u l t of this o p e r a t i o n can be divided i n t o
s e v e r a l groups, each of which i s characterized by a d e f i n i t e s u b s c r i p t J.

2. Next, a l l terms of t h e equations are m u l t i p l i e d i n t u r n by t h e same natu­

.
r a l v i b r a t i o n modes y ( I ) A s a r e s u l t of this operation, a system of equations
i s formed i n which each ecflation d i f f e r s from t h e o t h e r s by t h e harmonic of t h e
natural v i b r a t i o n mode y(' ty which a l l terms of t h e equations had been multi­
p l i e d . Therefore, t h e r e s u l t a n t equations were numbered i n accordance w i t h t h e
values of t h e index I.

3. I n t e g r a t i o n over t h e blade l e n g t h of a l l f u n c t i o n s obtained as a r e s u l t

of p r i o r operations i s t h e next s t e p i n G a l e r k i n t s method. A s a r e s u l t of this
operation, a l l terms of t h e equations which previously had been f u n c t i o n s of t h e
blade r a d i u s become constants.

4.. I n t h e next s t e p , each equation obtained i n this manner can be divided

i n t o numerous simpler equations i f a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of l i k e values of cos n$ and
s i n n$ are equated. A s a r e s u l t of this operation, each equation w i t h t h e nu-
meral I W i l l be transformed i n t o an e n t i r e family of equations. The i n d i v i d u a l
equations e n t e r i n g this family are coordinated by t h e index i i n Table 1.8.
Furthermore, each p a i r of equations p e r t a i n i n g t o l i k e harmonics i s marked by t h e
index n, e q u a l t o t h e order of t h e corresponding harmonic.

An a n a l y s i s of t h e r e s u l t a n t system of a l g e b r a i c equations shows t h a t a l l

l i k e c o e f f i c i e n t s of equations are arranged d i a g o n a l l y i n Table 1.8. T h i s ar­
rangement i s repeated i n a l l zones corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t indexes J and I.
It should be noted t h a t t h e r e are exceptions t o this r u l e , which becomes obvious
from a study of Table 1.8.

Using t h e above i n d i c e s i, n, J, and I, it i s p o s s i b l e t o construct general

formulas f o r a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations
of Table 1.8. I n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e s e formulas, we win use s p e c i a l functions
f l ( a ) and f,(a) which assume t h e following values, depending upon t h e p a r i t y and
magnitude of t h e i r argument :

1 at u even;
f 1 ( 4 =0j at U odd;

f 2 (4= j 01 at

at
a=O;
u-#O.

These formulas have t h e form

L =- p2x,c
A
f ; (8.34)
4

where
p$ J,= angle of r o t a t i o n i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l hinge during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h harmonic of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s
normed i n conformity w i t h eq.(8.27);
y I = mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h e i - t h harmonic;

I
 mq: = equivalent mass of blade during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
mode of t h e I - t h harmonic:

I n t h e p a r t i c u l a r case when I = 0 and when we can set T(O) = F, t h e expression

f o r y o w i l l coincide w i t h t h e conventional expression (7.49) f o r t h e mass char­
a c t e r i s t i c of a r i g i d blade [ eq.( 7.49) 1.

p J= frequency of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of

t h e j-th harmonic; i n performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e value of t h e
frequency i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e expression

w = angular ' v e l o c i t y ( o r r o t o r rpm, depending on t h e u n i t s i n which P J

i s determined); t h e r a t i o PJ/W should be dimensionless.

Other q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g eqs .( 8.34) have t h e following values :

/107

(8.37)
0
Here,
BCi) = equivalent blade chord determined by eqs.(8.31) and t h u s
having d i f f e r e n t values depending on t h e number of t h e equa­
tion:

TJ and = n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e blade whose harmonic i s de­

termined by t h e value of t h e i n d i c e s J and I.

The symbols of t h e s e modes are marked by a vinculum. T h i s means t h a t t h e y

are normed such t h a t FR = 1. A t t h e same time, t h e values of t h e first deriva­
t i v e of t h e s e modes, following d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n over t h e blade r a d i u s B J , are not
marked by a vinculum. T h i s means t h a t t h e s e d e r i v a t i v e s are t a k e n from t h e vi­
b r a t i o n modes yJ normed such t h a t yi = R.

Equations (8.34) permit determining t h e Vinculi of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s K, L,

M, N, R, Q, S, T, U, L, and K f o r any zone of Table 1.8, i f t h e coordinates of
this zone J and I and t h e number of t h e equation i n t h e zone i are p r e s c r i b e d .
Thus, assigning i n sequence t h e d i f f e r e n t values of J, I, and i and making use
of t h e operator which i n c l u d e s t h e o p e r a t i o n p r e s c r i b e d by eqs.(8.34), we can
determine a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e equations i n Table 1.8.

13. Determination of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e Right-Hand Side

of t h e Equation of Table 1.8
-
To determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e right-hand s i d e Fn and g,, it i s neces­
s a r y t o d e r i v e a s p e c i a l operator f o r t h e computational program, i n which t h e s e
c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined by t h e following formulas:

For harmonics above t h e t h i r d ( a t n 2 3), we have /108

 - - -
d+5:; q=&.
I n eqs.(8.38), t h e new n o t a t i o n s are used f o r a series of i n t e g r a l s :

Here,

where

cpp = constant component of blade s e t t i n g angle, c a l c u l a t e d from t h e

plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ; over t h e blade radius, this qua­
t i t y changes only due t o i t s geometric twist Acp.

The values of fi are e n t e r e d i n t h e extreme right-hand column of Table 1.7.

Thus, eqs.(8.38) permit determining a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e right-hand s i d e
of t h e equations i f t h e value of I i s p r e s c r i b e d .

a.System of Equati-ons a f t e r S u b s t i t u t i o n of Eqs.(8.34) and (8.38)

If t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s determined from eqs.(8.34) and (8.38) are

s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e equations of Table 1.8, t h e n this same system of equations
can be represented i n t h e form of Table 1.9.

For s i m p l i c i t y , we l i m i t e d ourselves here t o t h e case i n which t h e c a l c u l a ­

t i o n i s performed w i t h a n accuracy t o two overtones of v i b r a t i o n s and f o u r har­
monics of r o t o r rpm. However, t h e above-derived mathematical formulas (8.34)
and (8.38) are w r i t t e n i n a g e n e r a l form and permit c a l c u l a t i o n t o any d e s i r e d
accuracy.

After evaluating t h e p r a c t i c a l requirements, i t becomes p o s s i b l e , i n s e t t i n g

up t h e program, t o limit t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n of only f o u r overtones
of natural v i b r a t i o n s alYl t o six or e i g h t harmonics of t h e r o t o r rpm.

117
 TABLE 1.9

% tg = tan
 I I I 111111l1l11111111l I l l 1

15. General C o m u t a t i o n a l Scheme

The system of a l g e b r a i c equations entered i n Table 1.8, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
system of equations presented i n Table 1.7, r e p r e s e n t s a complex system of equa­
t i o n s p e r m i t t i n g a determination of a l l unknown q u a n t i t i e s e n t e r i n g i n t o it. A
determination of t h e s e unknowns and p r i m a r i l y of a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade de­
formation c o n s t i t u t e s t h e ultimate purpose of t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n pre­
sented here.

,
Above (Sect .7) i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bending stresses based on G a l e r k i n t s
method, we used various s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n d e r i v i n g t h e equations presented
here and i n s o l v i n g them. The use of d i g i t a l computers g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s solv­
i n g this system of equations without a d d i t i o n a l assumptions; this g r e a t l y i n ­
c r e a s e s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e results. I n any case, t h e computational e r r o r s
can be a s c r i b e d s o l e l y t o t h e i n i t i a l assumptions. Performance of a l l necessary
mathematical operations w i l l introduce no e r r o r s and can be c a r r i e d o u t at any
p r e s c r i b e d accuracy.

How does one s o l v e this r a t h e r complex system of equations? No doubt, t h e

sbiplest method here i s t h e method of successive approximations i n t h e form i n
which it will be presented below. T h i s method was used i n programming and has
been checked by numerous c a l c u l a t i o n s . The method converges r a p i d l y and a l r e a d y
three or f o u r approximations s u f f i c e f o r obtaining; t h e necessary accuracy.

I n applying t h e method of successive approximations, t h e unknown c o e f f i ­

c i e n t s of deformation are determined i n t h e sequence of ascending i n d i c e s char­
a c t e r i z i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e corresponding harmonic. Therefore, before pass­
i n g t o a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e sequence of operations i n t h e method of successive
approximations, a brief review of t h e determination of deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s
i s required.

16. Determination of Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s

In determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation, t h e same p r i n c i p l e i s used
i n a l l cases, involving t h e following. The deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s are deter­
mined i n p a i r s from two equations of t h e system of Table 1.8 p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e
c o s i n u s o i d a l and s i n u s o i d a l components of some harmonic. The equations are first
transformed
- i n t h e f o l l k n g manner: Determine t h e sum of t h e products of A$,
and A5,, c o e f f i c i e n t s i n Table 1.8 as w e l l as t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s de­
r i v e d before performing this operation, w i t h t h e exception of t h e products con­
t a i n i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o u t l i n e d by a broken l i n e i n Table 1.8. These sums of
t h e products are t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e right-hand s i d e of t h e equations. After
this. t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s p e r t a i n i n g t o l i k e harmonics (of course, only
i n t h e case of n > 1) and t o t h e deformation modes are determined from two alge­
b r a i c equations of t h e following form:
I'

The c o e f f i c i e n t s a, and b, here have a generalized c h a r a c t e r i n that such

a n o t a t i o n of t h e equatiQns i s p o s s i b l e a l s o w i t h t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c, and d,; e,
and f,; g, and h,.
-
The c o e f f i c i e n t s G, S, R, and 3 e n t e r i n g eqs.(8.M) are determined by
eqs.(8.34) f o r t h e case of J = I. The value of 5. i s even f o r t h e f i r s t equation
and odd f o r t h e second. Consequently, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s , i n this p a r t i c u l a r /1Lo
case, can be w r i t t e n i n accordance w i t h e q ~ ~ ( 8 . 3 4i )n t h e form

I n this case, a t J = I, we have

Neglecting t h e second term i n t h e f i r s t equation of t h e system (8.41) and

-
- -
approximately s e t t i n g E, = B, = b,, eqs.(8.40) can be transformed i n t o t h e form
used i n t h e s i m p l i f i e d methods of ca1cula;tion (see Sect .7) .
I n fact, when making t h e s e a s s q t i o n s , we m u l t i p l y a l l terms of eq.(8.40)

P:
Let us now introduce new n o t a t i o n s . The q u a n t i t y J.,; d e t e h n e d by t h e ex­

(8

Will be c a l l e d t h e relative c o e f f i c i e n t of aerodynamic damping

The q u a n t i t y v, = nw Will be c a l l e d t h e frequency of e x c i t a t i o n of forced
vibrations.

Then eq.(8.40) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form used i n Section 7:

 From t h e s e equations, t h e a q l i t u d e of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation cor­
responding t o t h e J-th harmonic of n a t u r a l Vibrations can be determined as

where
X d Y n = c o e f f i c i e n t of d y d c i n c r e a s e i n amplitude;
S',:) = d e f l e c t i o n of t h e blade with r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e J-th ,hr­
monic under s t a t i c a p p l i c a t i o n of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s :

Thus, t h e adopted form of determining t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s theo­

r e t i c a l l y coincides w i t h t h e form used i n problems of mechanics when determining
t h e Vibration q l i t u d e of a damped system, as described above i n Section 7.

It should be noted that, i n determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation, /1l1

t h e equations of t h e system (see Table 1.8) are transformed i n t o t h e form of
eq.(8.40) only a t n > 1. In determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e first
harmonic, c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l c o e f f i c i e n t s K, L, and U will e n t e r t h e left-hand
s i d e of eqs.(8.hO) which, however, changes nothing i n t h e e s s e n t i a l aspect of t h e
matter.

A determination of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a,, c,, e, and go which d e f i n e t h e con­

s t a n t component of t h e deformations proves t o d i f f e r somewhat. These c o e f f i ­
c i e n t s can be determined f o r one equation w i t h t h e number i = 0. However, so as
not t o d i s r u p t t h e g e n e r a l i t y of t h e approach, it i s p r e f e r a b l e t o determine them
a l s o i n a program of two equations with t h e numbers i = 0 and i = 1whose coef­
f i c i e n t s are determined by t h e same formulas [eqs.(8.34)1. I n s o doing, it i s
necessary t o put ??
= 0. Such a n approach y i e l d s a s l i g h t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of
t h e computational program.

17. Computational Program

I n programming t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e following sequence of performing t h e
necessary operations i s used:

1. The mtural v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies of a blade i n t h e t h r u s t

p l a n e a r e determined from a s e p a r a t e program which i s a b s o l u t e l y necessary i n de­
sigrdng blades and t h u s m u s t be formulated. The fol-laring q u a n t i t i e s should be

120
 defined f o r carrying out this c a l c u l a t i o n : y J , BJ, o J , and m"J9 .
Here, is
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f bending stresses over t h e blade r a d i u s during i t s v i b r a t i o n s
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e normed modes of t h e J-th harmonic.

2. The parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f l i g h t regime of t h e h e l i c o p t e r are

prescribed: p , p , w, a r o t , rqrasl, e,, �I2=Here, a r o t and cpreal can be deter­
mined from c a l c u l a t i o n i f t h e required propulsive f o r c e and thrust of t h e r o t o r
are prescribed. The c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l angles 8, and e 2 can be determined i f
t h e r e q u i r e d moments M, and M, due t o t h e r o t o r blades and a c t i n g on t h e hub are
determined from t h e conditions of h e l i c o p t e r balancing. These aperations are
u s u a l l y included i n t o t h e programming.

3. To arrive a t t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e system of equations entered here i n

Tables 1.7 and 1.8, it i s necessary t o determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s yJ and N. J.
T h i s system of equations i s solved by t h e method of successive approximations
I where, i n each approximation, a l l unknowns are determined i n t h e sequence given
I
i n Table 1.10. First, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e first r o w are determined, t h e n
t h o s e i n t h e second row, and so on.

4. After determining a l l q u a n t i t i e s given i n Table 1.10, t h e parameters of

t h e f l i g h t regime y r e a l ,a r O,t e,, e 2 can be refined and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a l l
c o e f f i c i e n t s can be c a r r i e d out i n t h e next approz&"aion i n t h e same sequence.

5. The sequenc of operations, i n d i c a t e d i n Table 1.10, i s repeated u n t i l

t h e d i f f e r e n c e of l i k e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s i n two successive approximations
i s l e s s t h a n t h e p r e s c r i b e d accuracy of c a l c u l a t i n g �8. The value of � 6 can be
t a k e n as equal t o 1/1000 o r somewhat smaller.

6. The magnitude of t h e bending stresses i n t h e blade a t each azimuth can

be determined from t h e formula

where t h e values of 6 , are determined from t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s ao, a,,

b,, coy c,, b,, etc., i n conformity w i t h eqs.(8.27) and (8.28).

T h i s sequence of operations c o n s t i t u t e s t h e p r i n c i p l e of +he method of cal­

c u l a t i o n presented here. Performance of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n p e ..dts obtaining:
bending stresses and form of blade deformation at eacn r o t o r azimuth,
w i t h simultaneous determination %f a l l harmonic components of t h e s e quan­
tities;
f i e l d of axial induced v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e p l a n e of t h e r o t o r and a l l har­
monic components of this f i e l d ;
angle of a t t a c k arid blade s e t t i n g angle i n f l i g h t regimes w i t h pre­
s c r i b e d values of propulsive f o r c e and t h r u s t ;
angles of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l swashplate, necessary f o r cre­
a t i n g t h e mamerrts M, and M, r e q u i r e d f o r h e l i c o p t e r balancing.

L
18. Gomarison of Calculation w i t h E b e r i m e n t at .bJlfi-ng Speed

A t low f l y i n g speeds, t h e variable stresses measured i n t h e blade are usu­

a u highly unstable.
During a s i n g l e f l i g h t regime flown by one p i l o t . t h e v i b r a t i o n a m l i t u d e
-
may f l u c t u a t e i n magnitude by a f a c t o r of 2 3 . This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
f a c t that t h e angle of a t t a c k
of t h e r o t o r and t h e f l y i n g
speed i n t h e s e regimes are ex­
tremely d i f f i c u l t t o keep con­
s t a n t . The f l i g h t mode changes
continuously. However, t h e
designer i s mainly i n t e r e s t e d
i n t h e m a x i " variable stress
amplitudes, s i n c e t h e s e gener­
a l l y carry t h e greatest r i s k
with respect t o fatigue i n t h e
structure.

Usually, t h e maximum vari­

able blade stresses arise i n
f l i g h t regimes w i t h t h e l a r g e s t
angles of a t t a c k of t h e r o t o r .
These regimes i n c l u d e braking
and s t e e p descent at high ver­
t i c a l speed.

To compare t h e results of
c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment,,
one proceeds i n t h e following
manner: Check a l l f l i g h t
regimes w i t h abrupt braking of
t h e h e l i c o p t e r before landing,
i n which t h e blade stresses
were measured. From each
f l i g h t , s e l e c t t h e maximum
(over t h e blade r a d i u s ) WE­
t u d e of stresses set up during
t h e e n t i r e landing mode. The
f i e l d of values of t h e s e
stresses i s hatched i n Fig.1.33.

Then, c a l c u l a t e t h e
stresses f o r regimes w i t h d i f ­
f e r e n t f l y i n g speeds and w i t h
a n i d e n t i c a l r o t o r angle of at­
t a c k . The f l y i n g speed i n t h e
given regime w i l l be character­
i z e d by p . The r e s u l t s of
t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s are given
i n Fig.1.33. The s o l i d l i n e s

122
show t h e dependence of t h e c a l c u l a t e d ma?&" variable blade stresses on f l y i n g
speed. Here, we examined regimes w i t h a n angle of a t t a c k CY = 0, CY = 30' which
can be achieved i n a regime of abrupt braking, as w e l l as w i t h a n angle of at­
t a c k a = 50' which i s p o s s i b l e during s t e e p descerrt a t high v e r t i c a l speed. The
dashed l i n e shows t h e same dependence f o r a = 0 and a = -6', b u t without con­
s i d e r a t i o n of t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y field. I n performing t h e s e calcula-
t i o n s , we i n v e s t i g a t e d f l i g h t re­
gimes without overload when t he
t h r u s t of t h e r o t o r was equal t o
t h e weight .
It follows from t h e s e calcu­
lations, that the greatest increase
i n variable stresses a t low speeds
i s observed i n f l i g h t regimes i n
which t h e free vortex sheet shed
by t h e blades becomes two-dimen­
s i o n a l . When t h e s h e e t i s f a r t h e r
removed from t h e r o t o r plane, t h e
variable s t r e s s e s decrease g r e a t l y
and approach, i n magnitude, t h e
s t r e s s e s c a l c u l a t e d without con­
s i d e r a t i o n of t h e variable induced
velocity field.

A comparison of regimes with

i d e n t i c a l angles of a t t a c k shows
a marked i n c r e a s e i n variable
s t r e s s e s , i n a very narrow range
of f l y i n g speeds.

The r e s u l t s of t h e calcula­
t i o n r e f l e c t t o some degree t h e
p a t t e r n of t h e phenomenon observed
i n f l i g h t . Thus, as i n f l i g h t ,
t h e c a l c u l a t e d values of v a r i a b l e

F'ig.l.33 Results of Calculating V a r i ­

able S t r e s s e s , w i t h Consideration of a
Nonuniform Induced Velocity F i e l d and
Comparison w i t h Ekperiment
stresses i n c r e a s e a t low speeds a
and rise w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n r o t o r
angle of a t t a c k . However, t h e r e
i s a considerable discrepancy be­
tween c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment.

1. A t i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t regimes,
t h e variable stress amplitudes obtained from c a l c u l a t i o n were found t o be lower
t h a n t h o s e measured i n f l i g h t tests.

2. The variable stress amplitudes obtained i n c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment

are q u a n t i t a t i v e l y similar when comparing regimes w i t h d i f f e r e n t angles of at­
tack, using, i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , r o t o r angles of a t t a c k somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n
t h o s e occurring i n f l i g h t .

3 . A comparison of f l i g h t regimes i n which t h e stress magnitudes obtained

I23
 Il l 1 I l l 1
l1111
l11111
l1lI Il1 I1 I I I Il1

i n c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment coincide shows a s u b s t a n t i a l difference i n t h e i r

harmonic composition. The content of high harmonics i s g r e a t e r i n s t r e s s e s
measured i n f l i g h t than i n calculation. Thus, harmonics frorr. t h e f o u r t h t o t h e
s i x t h predominate i n s t r e s s e s measured i n an abrupt braking regime, which a r e
shown i n Fig.1.33. A t t h e same time, stresses of t h e first, t h i r d , and f i f t h
harmonic predominate i n v a r i a b l e stresses obtained by calculation. Here, they
are l i s t e d i n t h e sequence of descending am­
p l i t u d e . A s an exmple, Fig.1.x shows t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s over t h e blade radius
and t h e i r harmonic content i n a f l i g h t regime
a t CY = 50' and p = 0.048.

It should be noted that, i n t h e calcu- /1l5

l a t i o n , we investigated a blade with charac­
t e r i s t i c s ensuring t h e absence of resonance
a t t h e operating rpm. Its resonance diagram
i s shown i n Fig.1.35. The operating rpm
adopted i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s shown on t h e
resonance diagram by a v e r t i c a l l i n e .

The presented d a t a show t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n

of t h e method of calculation, with considera­
t i o n of moderate induced v e l o c i t i e s under t h e
same a s s m p t i o n s as described i n Subsection 3,
approximates t h e r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n and
experiment at low f l y i n g speeds. However,
U f u r t h e r refinements a r e necessary t o o b t a i n
r e s u l t s u s e f u l f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes.

0 5
rm 19. Gomarison of Calculation with Emeriment
at Moderate-5beed Mode
Fig.l.34 D i s t r i b u t i o n of
S t r e s s e s over t h e Blade Radius Here, by moderate f l y i n g speeds we mean
and t h e i r Harmonic Content a t a l l speeds a t which t h e nonlinearity i n t h e
Flight Regimes (p = 0.048 and r e l a t i o n cy = f ( a ) and t h e phenomena associ-
CY = 50'). ated with flow compressibility s t i l l have no
e f f e c t . I n many cases, therefore, Itmoderate
f l y i n g speeds" comprise t h e cruising speed
of a helicopter; this i s e s p e c i a l l y of i n t e r e s t from t h e viewpoint of f a t i g u e
strength, since t h e helicopter operates most of t h e t h e at this speed.

Figure 1.36 gives a comparison of t h e amplitudes of variable s t r e s s e s and

t h e i r first and second harmonics r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r rpm, obtained i n calcula­
t i o n s with s t r e s s e s measured i n t h e blade at c r u i s i n g speed f o r p = 0.25. The
stresses obtained i n f l i g h t a r e shown by dots. The dashed l i n e shows s t r e s s e s
calculated with consideration of t h e assumption that A = A,,, = const, and t h e
s o l i d l i n e s with consideration that h = var.

It follows from this diagram that t h e results from c a l c u l a t i o n and experi­

ment at cruising speed d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y . The t o t a l q l i t u d e of calculated
s t r e s s e s amounts t o no more than 80% of t h e values measured i n f l i g h t . This dis-
 crepancy occurs mainly as a consequence of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e values of t h e
second harmonic of t h e stresses relative t o t h e r o t o r rpm. The coincidence i n
t h e f i r s t harmonic of t h e stresses i s r a t h e r good. The higher harmonics of
stresses i n this f l i g h t regime are quite small and have no s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on
t h e stress amplitude.

The results presented i n Fig.1.36 are t y p i c a l f o r f l i g h t regimes w i t h p =

= 0.25 and are duplicated on
almost a l l h e l i c o p t e r s .
p CyJnrin
We a l s o see from Fig.1.36
t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n of variable
induced v e l o c i t i e s , i n this re­
gime, yields no n o t i c e a b l e re­
finement i n t h e values of t h e
5 t h harmon i c
variable stresses However,
when having t o do only w i t h /116
one harmonic - f o r example, t h e
4 t h harmonic
fourth - it w i l l be found t h a t
i t s value i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y
when allowance i s made f o r t h e
3 r d harmonic
variable induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d .
Therefore, such refinement i s
highly important i f this har­
2nd harmonic
monic i s p r e s e n t and determines
t h e magnitude of f o r c e s a c t i n g
on t h e f u s e l a g e and causing it
f s t h arM on i c t o vibrate.
Above, we have s a i d noth­
i n g on t h e constant component
0 so 100 tSD hlQm of t h e bending stresses. Gener­
a l l y t h e i r magnitude, obtained
Fig.1.35 Resonance Diagram of Blade. on t h e basis of c a l c u l a t i o n ,
proves t o be s o a c c u r a t e that
it u s u a l l y i s not even measured
i n f l i g h t . Calculation yields more reliable r e s u l t s i n this case

20. P o s s i b i l i t i e s-of F u r t h z Refinement of C a l c u k t i o n Results

As follows f r o m t h e above, a c a l c u l a t i o n of variable blade stresses s t i l l

yields no results t h a t could be completely s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e designer. I f , a t
moderate f l y i n g speeds, t h e r e s u l t s of c a l c u l a t i o n more o r less s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
a g r e e w i t h experiment (although f u r t h e r refinement of t h e values of t h e second
harmonic i s extremelv d e s i r a b l e ) , a r a t h e r remote coincidence i s observed at low
1

f l y i n g speeds.

I n this connection, it i s highly importarrt t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d i r e c t i o n i n

which f u r t h e r refinement of t h e results i s sought. We can propose t h e following
i n this r e s p e c t .

k
 I n c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e stresses at low f l y i n g speeds, t h e most important
refinements comprise:
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of i n t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s (abandonment
of t h e Itsteady-flow hypothesisl1);
use of t h e v o r t e x theory which t a k e s i n t o account deformations of t h e /117
f r e e v o r t e x system (abandonment of t h e assumption that v o r t i c e s are shed
from a r o t o r at a constant speed equal t o t h e average d i s k downwash h,,,).

U
Fourth harmonic

0 ai 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 F 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 7

~ig.1.36 Comparison of t h e Values of Variable Stresses,

Calculated under Consideration of a Variable Induced
Velocity f i e l d , w i t h Stresses Measured i n F l i g h t .

I n c a l c u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e stresses a t moderate f l y i n g speeds, where t h e main

discrepancy i s observed i n values of t h e second harmonic of t h e stresses, appli­
c a t i o n of t h e v o r t e x t h e o r y f o r a f i n i t e number of blades and i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of both e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c induced v e l o c i t i e s
would c o n s t i t u t e a highly u s e f u l refinement.

I n cases of a blade of low r i g i d i t y i n t o r s i o n o r of e x c i t a t i o n by t h e ex­

t e r n a l f o r c e s of a r o t o r v i b r a t i o n m o d e coinciding w i t h t h e f l u t t e r mode a t a
frequency c l o s e t o t h e frequency of f l u t t e r , a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t o r s i o n a l blade
deformations may yield n o t i c e a b l e refinements. The method of such a c a l c u l a t i o n
was presented i n S e c t i o n 7, Chapter I V of Vol.1.
126
 Often, i n c a l c u l a t i n g variable stresses a t c r u i s i n g speed (just as a t maxi­
mum speed), a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonlinear r e l a t i o n s c y = f ( a ) and of flow com­
p r e s s i b i l i t y may lead t o s u b s t a r r t i a l refinement, a p o i n t t o be discussed f u r t h e r
i n t h e next Section.

Section 9 Calculation of Blad.e Bending Stresses, w i t h Consideration &

of t h e Nonlinear Dependencg o f Aero&namic C o e f f i c i e n t s
o n P r o f i l e A n g l e _of A t t a c k and Mach Number

1. F l i g h t R e g i m e s
Consideration of t h e nonlinear dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on
t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k i s necessary i n f l i g h t regimes i n which t h e s e angles
a t t a i n such s i g n i f i c a n t values t h a t it no longer i s p o s s i b l e t o use l i n e a r de­
pendence [eq.(8.1)1. Such regimes p e r t a i n t o f l i g h t s a t speeds c l o s e t o maximum
and t o low-speed modes i n which, as a consequence of high blade loading and ex­
c e s s i v e nonuniformity of t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d a t i n d i v i d u a l segments of
t h e d i s k area, t h e angles of a t t a c k e n t e r t h e nonlinear domain of t h e dependence
c y = f ( a ) . In a number of cases, consideration of t h e s e n o n l i n e a r i t i e s i s neces­
sary a l s o i n o t h e r regimes, including t h e cruising-speed mode.

I n general, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l o w compressibility

i s necessary a t high flying speeds f o r h e l i c o p t e r s haring r o t o r s w i t h high blade
t i p speeds.

2. -
Det-e-mnatipn of Aer-odynamic Loads

In Section 8, we had s t i p u l a t e d that t h e i n f l o w angle t o t h e blade p r o f i l e @

i s a small quantity; t h e r e f o r e , t h e a p p r o f i a t e equation (8.23) w a s used i n de­
termining this angle. Here, we s t i p u l a t e t h a t t h e angle @ can vary w i t h i n limits
of 360'; t h e r e f o r e , i t s magnitude will be c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e formula

where t h e values of U, and U, are determined by t h e expressions

Equations (9.2) coincide w i t h t h e formulas used i n Section 8. T h i s means

t h a t , in t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n , it w a s assumed that blade displacements are small s o
that we can p u t
sin f;
cos i: zs 1. I (9.3)
I

The value of t h e angle @ determined from eq.(9.1>, when carrying out t h e

c a l c u l a t i o n on a d i g i t a l computer, i s usually read out only i n t h e range F90°.
T h i s must be taken i n t o account i n c a h d a t i n g t h e angle of a t t a c k by means of
t h e formula
a=(?+@.
(9.4)
Therefore, we can use e ~ ~ ( 9 . 1o)d y at U, > 0. If U, < 0, then, as follows
from Fig.1.37, we have

The i n f l o w angle determined by eqs.(9.1) and (9.5) v a r i e s i n t h e range

-90° < m < 270'.

If we assume t h a t t h e /119
blade s e t t i n g can be changed from
0
'p = -15 t o cp = +45", then t h e
aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s should
be prescribed within limits of
t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e angle of
a t t a c k from -105' t o +315O.

The Mach number needed f o r

determining t h e aerodynamic co­
e f f i c i e n t s i s calculated by
means of t h e formula

M=-. U
a,

Here, as,, i s t h e v e l o c i t y
of sound:

Fig .1.37 Diagram of Flow Past a P r o f i l e

f o r Determining t h e Inflow Angle @. where k i s t h e a d i a b a t i c ex­
ponent and p i s t h e .atmospheric
pressure.

The aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s required f0.r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n are determined on

t h e basis of wind-tunnel tests w i t h t h e p r o f i l e exposed t o a c i r c u l a r air stream.
I n computer calculations, t h e program campiled by engineer M.N.Tishchenko f o r
determining t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s i s highly useful. I n this program, t h e
e f f e c t of t h e Mach number M on t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s i s taken i n t o ac­
count only i n t h e range of p p o f i l e angles of a t t a c k fromcr = -2" t o cr = +15".

128

I
I n t h e remaining range of angle-of-attack v a r i a t i o n , t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i ­
c i e n t s are considered as independent of M.

The dependence of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t cy on t h e angle of a t t a c k CY f o r t h e

p r o f i l e NACA-230, which was adopted i n one of t h e versions of this program, i s
shown i n Fig.l.3�? as a t y p i c a l example.

r . , r-,--,-.- 1 I 1 1 . 3 7 - P I 1 r . . , , I , ,
m

Fig.1.38 Dependence c y = f ( a , M) Adopted i n t h e Program.

If t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t c, and t h e drag c o e f f i c i e n t c, a r e known. then t h e

aerodynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e flapping piane T and i n the plane o f - r o t a t i o n Q
can be determined from t h e formulas

I
1
T =- (c&$ f cl.U,) Q ~;U
2
1 (9 -8)
Q =-2 (c1.U, - cJJ,) Q ~ U .

3 . Method o f Blade Calcu.btion as a System whose Motion

i s Cowled by Prescribed Vibration Modes

A s above i n Section 8, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s reduces

t o solving t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation

[E/y"]"-[[Ny']'+mj;=T, (9.9)
where, with t h e adopted assumptions, t h e aerodynamic f o r c e T i s a nonlinear func­
t i o n of t h e displacements of t h e blade elements y.

I n this case, it is convenient i n solving eq.(9.9) t o use a method where

t h e blade motion i n time i s found by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of ordinary differen­
t i a l equations obtained from eq.(9.9) by Galerkincs method. I n this approach t o
t h e problem, t h e s e equations are coupled o
* over t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . There­
fore, i f - -
at some arbitrary time t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s can be c a l c u l a t e d ,
t h e n t h e blade deformations w i t h r e s p e c t t o each v i b r a t i o n mode are determined
independently, provided t h e s e modes are orthogonal.

Let u s r e p r e s e n t t h e blade v i b r a t i o n mode as t h e sum of a c e r t a i n number of

n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n harmonics of t h e blade:

where
j = 0, 1, 2, ..., j, ( j, being t h e number of t h e higher overtone of
natural blade v i b r a t i o n s taken i n t o account i n t h e s o l u t i o n ) ;
y ( J ) = mode of t h e j - t h overtone of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s normed such
t h a t $1 = R at F = R;
6 , = c o e f f i c i e n t s determining t h e magnitude of blade deformation w i t h re­
spect t o t h e j-th overtone.

As above, we w i l l designate t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, as t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of /121

blade deformation. The values of 6 a r e f u n c t i o n s of time.

The c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation 6 , , i n t h e p r e s e n t method of calcula­

t i o n , a r e taken as generalized coordinates of t h e system. Determination of t h e
l a w of t h e i r time-variance c o n s t i t u t e s t h e content of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

After twice d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eq.(9.10) w i t h r e s p e c t t o time, we obtain

On s u b s t i t u t i n g e q ~ ~ ( 9 . 1 0and
) (9.11) i n t o eq.(9.9) and successively m u l t i ­
plying a l l terms of eq.(9.9) by y(') (where j = 0, 1, 2, ...,
j,) and t h e n in­
t e g r a t i n g over t h e blade r a d i u s , eq.(9.9), by v i r t u e of t h e orthogonality of t h e
n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes, W i l l decompose i n t o j, + 1 independent equations of t h e
form
$- CjBj =A,.
(9.12)
Here,

J
Cj = E / [(y')"I2dr f
0
7
0
N [(y')']z dr ;
R
mi= m (pj)' dr;
0
R
A,-=jT y (j)dr.
0
 A s mentioned above i n Subsections 1and 2 of S e c t i o n 7, t h e q u a n t i t i e s en­
t e r i n g eq.(9.12) have a well-defined p h y s i c a l meaning. The q u a n t i t y C,, known
as t h e generalized blade r i g i d i t y i n deformation w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e
j - t h overtone, r e p r e s e n t s a l s o double t h e p o t e n t i a l energy accumulated by t h e
b l a d e i n bending i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e
same harmonic. The quantity m j i s t h e equivalent blade mass reduced t o i t s t i p .
It i s equal a l s o t o double t h e k i n e t i c energy of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t
t o t h e mode of t h e j - t h overtone w i t h a frequency p = 1. The i n t e g r a l A, on t h e
right-hand s i d e of eq.(9.12) r e p r e s e n t s t h e generalized f o r c e and i s equal t o
double t h e work of aerodynamic f o r c e s i n displacements caused by blade deforma­
t i o n s a t t h e j - t h overtone.

It i s known that t h e frequency of t h e j - t h overtone of natural blade vibra­

t i o n s can be determined from t h e formula

Therefore, it i s convenient t o transform eqs.(9.12), r e l a t i n g a l l terms t o

values of m , . These can t h e n be w r i t t e n as

or

where 6 : { ) i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of q u a s i - s t a t i c blade deformations vlrith r e s p e c t t o

t h e mode of t h e j - t h overtone of aerodynamic f o r c e s T ( s e e Sect .7, Subsect .7).

A s follows from eqs .( 9.8) and (9.2), t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic /122

f o r c e v a r i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade azimuth and depends on t h e blade deforma­
t i o n s or, more p r e c i s e l y , on t h e values of $ and B determining t h e magnitude of
t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y U,. Therefore, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic
f o r c e s , t h e values of and p Dust be predetermined by means of

where B ‘ j ’ i s t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c blade a x i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e

plane of r o t a t i o n , corresponding t o t h e normed n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e i - t h
overtone.

If t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation 6 $ and t h e i r first d e r i v a t i v e s 6 , per­

t a i n i n g t o some azimuthal blade p o s i t i o n or t o some time t are known, t h e calcu­
l a t i o n can be performed i n t h e following sequence.
 First, determine t h e values of iand B from eqs.(9.16). After this, d e r i v e
t h e components of t h e r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y U, and U, as w e l l as t h e v e l o c i t y U
from e q ~ ~ ( 9 . 2 ) :

O f course, t o determine t h e v e l o c i t y U, it i s a l s o necessary t o know t h e

r e l a t i v e d i s k flow r a t i o X which, i n t h e g e n e r a l case, i s a v a r i a b l e changing
w i t h respect t o blade r a d i u s and azimuth. Determination of t h e quantity X w i l l
be taken up i n Subsection 5 of this Section.

If t h e v e l o c i t i e s U, and U, a r e known, t h e n t h e i n f l o w angle Q can be de­

termined from eqs.(9.1) and (9.5), and t h e p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k (Y from
eq.(9.4). The Mach number i s d e t e r f i n e d by eq.(9.6). These d a t a s u f f i c e f o r
determining t h e a e r o d m c c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r c i r c u l a r blowing of t h e p r o f i l e and
hence f o r obtaining t h e a e r o d y m d c f o r c e s T.

Thus, at t h e azimuth in question t h e blade deformation, r a t e of deformation,

and t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s T a c t i n g on t h e blade a r e known. Consequently, gn
t h e basis of eq.(9.&) it becomes p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e a l s o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6
that determine t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s of t h e blade elements :

Next, by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of eqs.(9.&) w i t h r e s p e c t t o time we can

determine t h e new yalues of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of blade deformation 6, and t h e i r
first d e r i v a t i v e s 6 , at t h e next blade azimuth after a c e r t a i n time A t , deter­
mined by t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . The change from t h e t+e t a t which t h e coeffi-,.
c i e n t s of deformation 6 5 and t h e i r first d e r i v a t i v e s 6 $ and second d e r i v a t i v e s 6,
a r e known t o t h e next t h e t + A t can be accomplished by various conventional
methods of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of equations.

As a t y p i c a l exanple, w e a r e giving t h e formulas f o r such a change, derived

from t h e Euler method:

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of various methods of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n w i l l be

discussed i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l below. I n p a r t i c u l a r , it W i l l be shown t h a t t h e /123
Euler method represented by eqs.(9.19) i s not s u i t a b l e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g e l a s t i c
blade v i b r a t i o n s .

.a)
Numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of eqs .( 9 w i t h r e s p e c t t o time permits determin­
i n g t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s and t h e i r first d e r i v a t i v e s at a new blade azi­
muth. After determining t h e new valugs of aerodynamic f o r c e s a t this azimuth we
can a l s o d e r i v e t h e new c o e f f i c i e n t s 6,. This process can be continued u n t i l
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of deformation are determined a t a l l blade azimuths i n one rota­
t i o n of t h e rotor.

If t h e i n i t i a l values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, and b, are a r b i t r a r i l y pre­

scribed, a n i n t e g r a t i p n of t h e equations over one r o t o r r e v o l u t i o n w i l l cause
t h e values of 6, and 6,, obtained by i n t e g r a t i o n at t h e same azimuth, t o differ
from t h e values t a k e n arbitrarily a t t h e i n i t i a l time. However, if t h e blade
motion i s stable, t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n can be continued. Then, after sev­
e r a l r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e r o t o r t h e motion W i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d and Will be re­
peated i n each subsequent revolution. T h i s s t e a d y motion i s t h e sought s o l u t i o n
of e q 4 9 . 9 ) .
Thus, t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n presented here i s t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e Cauchy
problem, w i t h i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e equations of motion of t h e blade w i t h r e s p e c t
-to t i m e a t given i n i t i a l conditions.

4. M m @ & a l F0rmu-b-s - f o r a Blade Model y i t h Discrete Parameters

I n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , a r o t o r blade i s u s u a l l y conceived as a weight­

less beam w i t h attached concentrated loads s b u l a t i n g i t s mass. The aerodynamic
f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade a l s o can be conveniently represented as a series of
concentrated f o r c e s . L e t us assume that aerodynamic f o r c e s are applied a t t h e
attachment p o i n t s of concentrated loads as though a s e p a r a t e f l a p with a c e r t a i n
area Si w e r e attached t o each load (see Sect.1, Subsect.9). Then, t h e aerody­
namic f o r c e s can be determined by f o r m d a s analogous t o eq.(9.8):

where t h e s u b s c r i p t i denotes a l l q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e blade s e c t i o n of

number i (see Fig.l.51). The s i z e of t h e area of t h e concentrated f l a p S, i s
determined by eq.( 1.2).

For a r o t o r blade which i s n o t represented as a beam w i t h d i s t r i b u t e d para­

meters but as a model w i t h a f i n i t e number of e l a s t i c a l l y coupled concentrated
masses, equations analogous t o eq.(9.%) can be derived. However, t h e quanti­
t i e s mj and A, entering t h e equations are not defined as i n t e g r a l s b u t as sums
of t h e form

where
mi.= values of t h e concentrated mass of t h e system;
1l 1l11l 1lIlI I Il Il1Ill

y i J ) = values determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e j - t h over­

t o n e ; here, t h e mode of natural v i b r a t i o n s should be represented
by a series of d i s c r e t e values of t h e o r d i n a t e s yi determining /la
t h e displacements of t h e i - t h mass of t h e blade;
Ti = d i s c r e t e values of aerodynamic f o r c e s determined by eq.(9.20).

The c a l c u l a t i o n of a blade model w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters d i f f e r s i n no re­

s p e c t from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a model w i t h parameters continuously d i s t r i b u t e d
over t h e blade length. However, i n d i g i t a l computer c a l c u l a t i o n s it i s much more
convenient t o i n v e s t i g a t e a model w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters.

5. Consideration of a Variable Induced Velocity Field

Application of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method presented above does not preclude t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of considering a v a r i a b l e . induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d represented by t h e
r e l a t i v e disk flow r a t i o A i n eq.(9.2). For this, i n determinations of aero­
dynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade a t t h e t i m e t i n question, t h e i n t e g r o d i f f e r ­
e n t i a 1 equation of t h e v o r t e x r o t o r theory must be solved [ s e e eq.(5.29) i n
Sect .5, Chapt .I1 of Vol.11

Reduction of t h e problem of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s of a blade t o t h e C a u c b

problem, a t determination of blade motion beginning w i t h some i n i t i a l time, leads
t o appreciable s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n solving t h e i n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of
t h e vortex theory.

When t h e r o t o r advances one s t e p w i t h r e s p e c t t o azimuth, v o r t i c e s t h a t

have t o do only w i t h v a r i a t i o n s i n c i r c u l a t i o n over t h e l e n g t h of this p a r t i c u ­
lar s t e p w i l l be shed by t h e blade. All v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade a t p r i o r
i n s t a n t s of t i m e are merely displaced i n space but show no change i n t h e i r c i r ­
c u l a t i o n . Therefore, i n s o l v i n g t h e i n t e g r o d i f f e r e n t i a l equation p e r t a i n i n g t o
some d e f i n i t e time, i t i s only necessary t o f i n d t h e r e l a t i o n between c i r c u l a ­
t i o n of t h e bound v o r t i c e s and t h e v o r t i c e s shed from t h e blade during i t s shift
a f t e r t h e last i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . The magnitudes of c i r c u l a t i o n of a l l remaining
f r e e v o r t i c e s are a l r e a d y known i n this case and are determined by t h e e n t i r e
h i s t o r y of t h e process of motion.

To s i m p l i f y t h e problem, we can t a k e at t h e i n i t i a l time some schematic

model of a vortex system consisting, f o r example, o n l y of r o t o r v o r t i c e s shed
from t h e blade t i p w i t h constant c i r c u l a t i o n over t h e length. It i s assumed
that, at t h e start of c a l c u l a t i o n , no free v o r t i c e s can exist s i n c e t h e average
induced v e l o c i t y through t h e r o t o r i s equal t o zero.

The method discussed here y i e l d s t h e maxi” accuracy p o s s i b l e i n t h e cal­

c u l a t i o n of induced v e l o c i t i e s f o r a r o t o r scheme w i t h a f i n i t e number of blades.
However, use of this scheme i n o t h e r methods of c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade
v i b r a t i o n s Will lead t o s e r i o u s complications.

Numerous d i f f i c u l t i e s are encountered i n using c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r in­

duced v e l o c i t i e s based on a r o t o r scheme w i t h a n i n f i n i t e number of blades, as
applied t o t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n discussed i n this Section. Thus, t h e method
of successive approximations g e n e r a l l y appears simplest. However, i f we use a

134
 method i n which t h e induced v e l o c i t i e s are c a l c u l a t e d a f t e r completing t h e cal­
c u l a t i o n of blade motion over each r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r (when t h e values of
t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s T are known a t a l l blade azimuths and radii s o that t h e
values of t h e c i r c u l a t i o n at t h e same p o i n t can be determined) and i f we i n t r o ­
duce t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of aerodynamic f o r c e s during t h e next
r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r , it w i l l be found that such a s o l u t i o n process does /125
not converge Consequently, d i f f e r e n t methods bypassing t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s m u s t
be used; as a rule, this l e a d s t o appreciable complications which u l t i m a t e l y may
prove t o be unwarranted.

6. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical I n t e m a t i o n of D i f f e r e n t i a l
Equations of E l a s t i c Blade Vibrations

For a s u c c e s s f u l c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s , it i s of impor­

tance t o s e l e c t t h e most advantageous method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n , i.e., a
method of high accuracy and r e q u i r i n g a m i n i " number of operations f o r solving
t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of motion. Most of t h e machine t i m e i n c a l c u l a t i o n
i s used f o r this operation. Its major p o r t i o n i s spent on determining t h e ex­
t e r n a l f o r c e s . Therefore, t h e computer time i s determined mainly by t h e number
of times t h e equation of motion must be handled. T h i s number i s determined by
t h e chosen method and i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . The smaller t h e s t e p , t h e longer t h e
calculation.

An a n a l y s i s shows that, when seeking a p e r i o d i c s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of

e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s , t h e required i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p varies w i t h i n very wide limits
depending on t h e type of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method used. Poor r e s u l t s are
obtained by many conventional numerical i n t e g r a t i o n methods, such as t h e above-
mentioned Euler method [see eqs .(9.19) 1* The well-known method of s o l u t i o n by
Taylor s e r i e s was found t o be j u s t as u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e problem i n question.
T h i s method l e a d s t o t h e following formulas f o r t h e change-over from t h e time t
t o t h e time t + A t :

..
The value of 6 t + A t = f ( & + A t , &,+At) i s determined from a d i f f e r e n t i a l equa­
t i o n . Here, A t i s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p .

The widely known Runge-Kutta and Adam numerical i n t e g r a t i o n methods are

more suitable f o r t h e given case but s t i l l quite inconvenient.

The best method of checking t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of a given numerical integra­

t i o n method t o t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of blade v i b r a t i o n s i s a numerical
s o l u t i o n of t h e equation
.i+-266 +ir =sin Yt, ( 9 *24)
d e s c r i b i n g v i b r a t i o n s of some mechanical model r e p r e s e n t i n g a mass attached t o

135

I I I l1 l1 l1l l Il1III I1I I I1 I I

a s p r i n g w i t h a damper ( s e e Fig.1.39).

The r o t o r blade can be conceived as a set of a c e r t a i n number of such

models, of d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l frequencies and d i f f e r e n t damping c o e f f i c i e n t s cor­
responding t o t h e frequencies and damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of d i f f e r e n t harmonics of
blade v i b r a t i o n .

A t r e l a t i v e l y small s t e p s A t , t h e use of Taylor series f o r a n i n t e g r a t i o n

of eq.(9.2&) l e a d s t o a s o l u t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g a v i b r a t o r y p r o c e s s whose ampli­
tude t e n d s t o some d e f i n i t e value d i f f e r i n g from t h e exact a n a l y t i c value by a
q u a n t i t y of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n e r r o r . With a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p ,
t h e s o l u t i o n diverges at c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e values of A t . If t h e s o l u t i o n does not
diverge, t h e g r e a t e s t e r r o r arises i n resonance, i.e., a t v = 1. Therefore, /126
we will now estimate t h e e r r o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o this most severe case.

Fig.1.39 E f f e c t of R e l a t i v e I n t e g r a t i o n Steps
on Accuracy of Solution.

figure 1.39 shows t h e change i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude values obtained as a

result of t h e numerical s o l u t i o n - o f eq.(9.&) by means of Taylor series. The
exact a n a l y t i c values of 60 and 6 0 were t a k e n as t h e i n i t i a l values. Cases w i t h
r e l a t i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s equal t o S = 0.1 and 2E = 0.2 and d i f f e r e n t i r k
t e g r a t i o n s t e p s were i n v e s t i g a t e d .
 The maximum values of 6 obtained during t h e i n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d w i t h t h e
o r d i n a l number N w e r e t a k e n as t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude AN a t this period and re­
f e r r e d t o t h e a n a l y t i c value of amplitude

1
A=-=.
2n

It follows from Fig.1.39 t h a t , during t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e solu­

t i o n diverges f r o m t h e exact a n a l y t i c curve. A steady v i b r a t o r y process has an
amplitude aLways g r e a t e r t h a n t h e exact value. The l a r g e r t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e g r a ­
t i o n s t e p AT, t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e e r r o r . Here, we W i l l c a l l t h e r e l a t i v e
i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p t h e quantity

- At
AT=-, (9.26)
T

where
A t = i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p w i t h respect t o t i m e ;
T = v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d of t h e model.

The magnitude of t h e r e l a t i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t 5 a l s o noticeably af- /127

f e c t s t h e accuracy of t h e s o l u t i o n . It follows from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t , t o
obtain a satisfactory accuracy, t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should be of t h e
order of 1/200 of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n period or even smaller.

I n a numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of equations d e s c r i b i n g e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s , it
i s important not only t o secure t h e required accuracy but a l s o t o use a n i n t e ­
g r a t i o n s t e p i n which t h e r e would be no divergent s o l u t i o n .

The determination of t h e limit s t e p of i n t e g r a t i o n , a t which t h e s o l u t i o n

W i l l s t i l l be stable, can be accomplished i n t h e following manner:

Equations (9.23) and ( 9 . a ) can be regarded as some system of d i f f e r e n c e

equations. To determine t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o l u t i o n , w e will d i s c u s s a homo­
geneous system of d i f f e r e n c e equations [without t h e right-hand s i d e of eq.( 9 .&)].

Equations (9.23) are w r i t t e n i n a somewhat more g e n e r a l form, introducing

some constant c o e f f i c i e n t n:

At n = 0, t h e s e formulas coincide w i t h t h e Euler equations (9.19) w h i l e ,

when n = 2,
t h e y coincide w i t h t h e Taylor equations (9.2’3).
..
From e q e ( 9 .&) f o r t h e case of s i n v t = 0, we d e r i v e t h e value of 6, ; sub­
s t i t u t i n g this i n t o eq.(9.27), we o b t a i n t h e follovxLng system of d i f f e r e n c e
equations :

I
 The s o l u t i o n of this system W i l l be sought i n t h e form of

.a)
S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(9 i n t o t h e system of homogeneous d i f f e r e n c e equations
From this equation,
(9.28), we o b t a i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation r e l a t i v e t o CY.
we f i n d CY:

To keep t h e values of 6, from approaching i n f i n i t y as n -, t h e condition

lal<1

i s necessary.
A t r e l a t i v e l y small A t and E, t h e value of CY - as follows from eq.(9.30) -
i s a complex quantity.
After determining t h e modulus we
CY, o b t a i n t h e c o n d i t i o n of a nondivergent
s o i u t i o n:

or

Hence, /Lzs
22
At<---. (9.33)
1-7.

If t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i s r e l a t e d t o t h e o s c i l l a t i o n period of t h e system T
equal t o 217 i n t h e examined s i m p l i f i e d model, we o b t a i n t h e 'condition of a nor+
divergent s o l u t i o n

- I

( 9 034.1
AT<--. n
x(l --A)
 Then, f o r t h e Euler method a t w. = 0, we f i n d t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e
at
-rz
ZS-,
n ( 9 035)

and, f o r t h e Taylor method a t x = 9,

- 2;
AT<--. (9.36)
x

Thus, i n order t o avoid a divergent s o l u t i o n , a step smaller by a f a c t o r

of 2 i s needed i n t h e f i l e r method t h a n i n t h e Taylor method. Both methods give
a divergent s o l u t i o n no matter how small t h e i n t e g r a t i o n step, provided t h a t t h e
r e l a t i v e damping c o e f f i c i e n t n i s e q u a l t o zero.
With an i n c r e a s e i n fi and A t , t h e value of CY becomes a r e a l number. I n
this case, t h e value of CY can never be g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y but may be a negative
quantity g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y i n a b s o l u t e Value.

The condition t h a t a < 1 i s observed i f

(9.37)
Hence, i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o l u t i o n f o r t h e Euler method a t n = 0 will occur

at AT > -F i - J G T
i f and only i f 5> 1, whereas f o r t h e Taylor method ( n = &)

this happens a t AT
* - _.
1
However, t h e s e conditions are u s u a l l y covered by t h e
2rr n
more rigorous condition (9.36).

If t h e s e r e s u l t s are t r a n s f e r r e d t o a system representing a r o t o r blade,

t h e n t h e magnitude of t h e r e l a t i v e s t e p must be s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of t h e
period of t h e highest harmonic of v i b r a t i o n s p o s s i b l e i n t h e system, s i n c e this
w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e s m a l l e s t value of t h e required s t e p a t which numerical i n t e ­
gration i s possible.

Figure 1.40 shows t h e t y p i c a l c h a r a c t e r of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e natural vibra­

t i o n period of a blade Tq and i n t h e r e l a t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t of aerodynamic damp­
i n g Ti w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of t h e harmonic of t h e vibratior, j . The value
of t h e v i b r a t i o n period i s c a l c u l a t e d i n degrees w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade radi­
us. The same diagram shows t h e dependence of +&on t h e number of t h e harmonic;
p j i s t h e frequency of t h e j-th overtone of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s c a l c u l a t e d
i n o s c i l l a t i o n s p e r minute. I n t h e range of lower harmonics, t h e q u a n t i t y pj
changes g r e a t l y w i t h any v a r i a t i o n i n r o t o r r p m frm n = 0 t o t h e operating rpm
n = nop

If we l i m i t ourselves i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of only t h e
f i r s t f o u r harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e fundamental, which

l l l l I I I I I I1 I1 I
I 11111111IlI I I I I I I I I

u s u a l l y i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r obtaining t h e accuracy r e q u i r e d i n p r a c t i c e , t h e n t h e
i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p must be s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of t h e p e r i o d and c o e f f i c i e n t of
relative damping of t h e highest harmonic of natural v i b r a t i o n , t h e t h i r d f o r &
this system.

If we assume t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n o e r i o d w i t h r e m e c t t o t h e t h i r d harmonic
cannot be s h o r t e r t h a n 45' w i t h re­
s p e c t t o t h e r o t o r azimuth and
1%
t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t of
aerodynamic damping w i l l not be
lower t h a n n = 0.07, t h e n - t o ob­
t a i n a nondivergent s o l u t i o n - t h e
201.
i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i n conformity with
eq.(9.36) should be less t h a n 2'
and i n conformity w i t h eq.(9.35)
less t h a n ' 1 w i t h r e s p e c t t o azi­
150 muth. The s t e p would have t o be
shortened much f u r t h e r t o o b t a i n
s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy (fig.1.39).

100 T h i s example shows t h a t a n ap­

p l i c a t i o n of t h e above i n t e g r a t i o n
methods t o blade c a l c u l a t i o n s gives
u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . For this
50 p a r t i c u l a r exanple, t h e Runge-Kutta
and Adams methods permit using a n
i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p of t h e order of
3', but t h e y are not t o o suitable
s i n c e t h e y require s t o r a g e of a n
0123456 10 20 30 j excessive number of v a r i a b l e s , cal­
c u l a t e d f o r t h e preceding i n s t a n t s
Fig.l.40 Dependence of Vibration Period of t i m e , i n t h e computer-memory.
T$ of t h e Relative Coefficient of
Aerodynamic Damping Ti on t h e Number of Good r e s u l t s are obtained by
t h e Natural V i b r a t i o n Overtone j. a p r e v i o u s l y mentioned i n t e g r a t i o n
method (Chapt .IT,Sect .7 i n Vol.1)
w i t h expansion of t h e s o l u t i o n i n
a Taylor series and w i t h r e c a l c u l a t i o n of each i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p . T h i s method i s
completely suitable i n a p p l i c a t i o n s t o t h e problem i n question and i s being used
at p r e s e n t i n numerous computer programs.
The change-over f r o m t h e time t t o t h e t i m e t + A t i s accomplished by this
numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method, i n t h e following sequence:

First rough c a l c u l a t i o n : /130

 Here, *.I
6 t + A t = f(6t+At
I 9 &:+At) 5s
determined from a.. d i f f e r e n t i a l
equation. Then, 6,, i s obtained
from t h e formula

f 'jb
st -at ~

&At
t t+At
Fig.l.41 Dependence of t h e Variable 6
and i t s First and Second Derivatives
w i t h Respect t o Time.
_I
L
Here, gi: A t = f (6;: At , at )
i s determined frm a differen­
t i a l equation.
i:t
The Values Of 6 tn+ A t , 6'11t + A t ,
and 'di1+At are considered f i n a l
for the t i m e t + A t .
The change of v a r i a b l e 6
and i t s f i r s t and second deriva­
t i v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o time, de­
termined i n conformity w i t h
eqs.(9.38), i s shown i n Fig.l.41.

Figure 1.42 gives t h e

steady s o l u t i o n of eq.( 9 .a) o b
t a i n e d as a result of numerical
i n t e g r a t i o n by this method. The
s o l u t i o n i s given f o r d i f f e r e n t
values of t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p .
The heavy l i n e shows t h e exact
analytic solution.

Fig.l.42 Results of Numerical S o l u t i o n of
Eq.(9.26) as a Function of t h e Relative
I n t e g r a t i o n Step.
A t a relative s t e p of 1/72
and less, a numerical i n t e g r a ­
t i o n y i e l d s a s o l u t i o n almost ex­
a c t l y coinciding w i t h t h e analy­
t i c s o l u t i o n . A t a l a r g e r rela­
t i v e s t e p , a s u b s t a n t i a l dif­
ference occurs between t h e exact
and numerical s o l u t i o n , which i s
apparent from F'ig.l.42.

A t a relative s t e p of
 AT>---sl1 (9.391

t h e s o l u t i o n diverges

To preclude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of divergent s o l u t i o n s i n t h e system, t h e i n ­

t e g r a t i o n s t e p should not be g r e a t e r t h a n about 1/3 of t h e p e r i o d of t h e highest
v i b r a t i o n harmonic of t h e system, which has t h e smallest p e r i o d . An important
advantage of this method lies i n t h e f a c t that t h e l i m i t i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i s
p r a c t i c a l l y independent of t h e magnitude of t h e relative d a q i n g c o e f f i c i e n t .

A comparison of t h e limit s t e p s A $ l i p , f o r t h e examined i n t e g r a t i o n methods

as a f u n c t i o n of t h e number of t h e higher harmonic j, of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n of
t h e system i s shown i n F’ig.l.43 f o r a blade w i t h t h e parameters shown i n t h e
diagram of Fig.l.40.

If we r e s t r i c t ourselves t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of only t h e first f o u r har­

monics of natural v i b r a t i o n , t h e n i n conformity w i t h eq.(9.39) it s u f f i c e s t o
have a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p of about 15’ w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade azimuth, i.e.,
by a f a c t o r of about 7 g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e same method without r e c a l c u l a t i o n , i n
o r d e r t o o b t a i n a nondivergent s o l u t i o n .

The r e s u l t s of solving eq.(9.24) permi.t a n approdmate determination of t h e

e r r o r i n t h e a n p l i t u d e values corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t harmonics of blade Vi­
b r a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p used. By error, we mean here t h e
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e exact a n a l y t i c value of t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude and t h e
value obtained as a r e s u l t of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s always
p o s i t i v e i n i n t e g r a t i o n s by means of a Taylor series w i t h r e c u r s i v e calcula­ /132
t i o n . T h i s means t h a t t h e numerical s o l u t i o n always l e a d s t o underestimating
t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude.

The c a l c u l a t i o n e r r o r s , i n percentage of t h e exact values of t h e amplitude

f o r d i f f e r e n t blade v i b r a t i o n harmonics with ordinary parameters as a f u n c t i o n
of t h e s t e p used i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n by Taylor series w i t h r e c a l c u l a t i o n are given
i n Table 1.11.

TABLE 1.11

I C a l c u l a t i o n Errors i n Percent a a e o f Exact Value

Number of Ar l i t u d e for I n t e g r a t i o n St ep i n Degrees
of Overtone
10 20

Fundamental <o. 1 ?O <0.1~; <0.106 0.39; 5% 25 %

1st <O.l?;, <0.1?; 0.4% 6% 12% 50 ?&
2nd <O.l?O 0.396 5% 25% 45 96 80 %
3rd <o.l?; 0.496 15% 30% 7596
5 th <O.l?O 2 96 20% 70%
10 th 1 36 30?6 1 90%
20 th 403;
30 th 90z

.. ..
 The presented d a t a show t h a t
t h e magnitude of t h e required in­
t e g r a t i o n s t e p and hence t h e cal­
c u l a t i o n time are determined
mainly by t h e parameters of t h e
system representing t h e r o t o r
blade. The more degrees of free­
dom t h e system has and t h e more
natural v i b r a t i o n harmonics it /133
possesses, t h e smaller W i l l be
t h e v i b r a t i o n period of t h e high­
est harmonic and t h e smaller
should be t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p .
Therefore, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n time
i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y shortened i f t h e
number of degrees of freedom of
t h e system i s reduced. All t h e s e
70
1 considerations are e s p e c i a l l y im­
p o r t a n t when using d i r e c t calcu-
Number of o v e r t o n e
- .. l a t i o n methods which do not em­
p l o y l i m i t a t i o n s imposed upon t h e
Fig.l.43 Comparison of U t Steps f o r modes of blade v i b r a t i o n . These
Two Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n Methods. methods W i l l be examined i n Sec-
---- U t s t e p i n i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h ex- t i o n 10 of this Chapter.
pansion of t h e s o l u t i o n i n a
Taylor series ;
l i m i t s t e p i n i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h re- 7. Numerical I n t e p r a t i o n Method
c a l c u l a t i o n by eqs .( 9.38). Proposed by L.N.Grodko and
0.P .Bakhov

I n t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of e l a s t i c vibra­

t i o n s of a blade by t h e method proposed by L.N.Grodko and O.P.Bakhov, t h e value
of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t u i n eqs.(9.27) i s t a k e n as e q u a l t o unity.

The s t a b i l i t y condition (9.31) i s s i m p l i f i e d and t a k e s t h e form

Consequently, a t u = 1 t h e r e cannot be a divergent s o l u t i o n w i t h a complex

value of cy. From t h e s t i p u l a t i o n that cy i s a complex number, t h e c o n d i t i o n
(9.40) i s v a l i d only f o r values A t 5 2 - S .

From t h e c o n d i t i o n (9.37) it follows that t h e s o l u t i o n cannot be divergent

as long as

Hence, a t N. = 1, it follows that

lk3
II 111l111111l111l11l I I l1l 1l1l11l1l Il 1 III

A s i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n by a Taylor series w i t h double r e c a l c u l a t i o n , this

method does not give a divergent s o l u t i o n at 5 = 0 and has approximately t h e same
value of t h e l i m i t s t e p .

Its accuracy w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s o l u t i o n of problems of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s

i s no worse t h a n that f o r t h e preceding method. The volume of computational
operations i s c u t almost i n half. Therefore, this method of numerical i n t e g r a ­
t i o n can be recommended f o r p r a c t i c a l use.

8. Sequence of Operations i n Recalculation and- PrnactiEca.Bvalua&ion

of Different I n t e g r a t i o n Steps

A s a whole, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s i s c a r r i e d out i n

t h e following sequence:

1. Assign a r b i t r a r y i n i t i a l values of 6, and i3 a t t h e azimuth JI = 0.

2. From eq.(9.20), determine t h e magnitude of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s Ti ,

f o r whose determination t h e f o n o w i n g parameters should first be calculated: $i,
Pi, U X I , U y i , 41, ai, Mi, cyi, and CXI
..
3. From eq.(9.18),determine t h e values of 6, .
The values of m j and p:
e n t e r i n g this equation are c a l c u l a t e d beforehand a f t e r determining t h e natural
v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e blade and remain constant during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

4. The change-over t o t h e next azimuth i s accomplished i n conformity w i t h /EL,

t h e s e l e c t e d numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method, f o r e x q l e , by means of eqs *( 9.38).

11 'E
The values of 6 t + A t , S t + A t , ami a:+,
f o r t h e t+e t + A t are considered
final. For changing t o t h e nexb azimuth, t h e entire cycle i s repeated.

w
 T h i s i n t e g r a t i o n method can be recommended as f a i r l y exact and has been
quite f u l l y checked i n p r a c t i c e i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s .

The numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out over several r o t a t i o n s of t h e

r o t o r , u n t i l a l l values of 6, i n two successive r e v o l u t i o n s d i f f e r by less t h a n
t h e p r e s c r i b e d accuracy of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . Calculations show t h a t any pre­
s c r i b e d accuracy can be achieved i n this manner.

I n p r a c t i c e , however, it i s assumed t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s completed as

soon as t h e accuracy of determining t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s becomes e q u a l
t o R/lOOO ( R being t h e r o t o r r a d i u s ) . If necessary, a g r e a t e r accuracy can be
prescribed.

The magnitudes of bending stresses a t each azimuth can be determined by t h e

formula

where O J i s t h e normed value of bending s t r e s s e s , i.e., stresses during blade

bending with r e s p e c t t o t h e normed n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e j-th overtone.

The period of t h e process of t r a n s i t i o n t o steady motion l a r g e l y depends on

t h e assigned i n i t i a l values of t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s . A t properly posed
i n i t i a l values of 6, and 6 , , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s completed a f t e r checking two
r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e r o t o r . A t poorly determined i n i t i a l values of 6 , , t h e calcu­
l a t i o n may drag out t o 8 - 10 r e v o l u t i o n s .

The p o s s i b i l i t y of r e f i n i n g t h e f l i g h t r e g i m e parameters Bo, a r o t ,p, and

A,,, a f t e r checking each r e v o l u t i o n should a l s o be included i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
program. The i n d i c a t e d parameters are r e f i n e d such that t h e r o t o r produces t h e
magnitude of t h r u s t and propulsive f o r c e prescribed i n t h e i n i t i a l data. Thus,
it i s l o g i c a l that t h e c a l c u l a t i o n time i s determined a l s o by t h e correctness of
p r e s c r i b i n g t h e parameters of t h e f l i g h t r e g b e .

To r e f i n e t h e f l i g h t regime parameters and a l s o t o s o l v e o t h e r problems, /135

various i n t e g r a l r o t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as t h r u s t T r o t , l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e H,
t c r q u e M,, e t c . should be determined during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

On t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l requirements, blade v i b r a t i o n s can be represented

s u f f i c i e n t l y completely by f o u r natural v i b r a t i o n harmonics. I n this case, even
considering Table 1.ll which shows that t h e l a r g e s t e r r o r s arise i n resonance,
s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy can be obtained a t a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p A$ = 2.5'.

However, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes i n t h e absence of well-defined reso­

nance o r i n t h e presence of damping f o r c e s i n t h e system s u f f i c i e n t t o produce
a damping c o e f f i c i e n t g r e a t e r t h a n 5 = 0.1, t h e accuracy of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
used i n compiling Table 1.11i s not e n t i r e l y l o s t , even a t a s t e p A$ = 5' or, a t
t i m e s , even a t a s t e p AJI = .'DI his f a c t i s of g r e a t importance i n saving time
when using d i g i t a l computers of moderate speed. Thus, w i t h t h e Wtrela" compu­
t e r , only 6 min are required t o determine t h e motion of t h e blade over one rem­
vc5
 l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r , a t a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p of 1
0
'. On decreasing t h e step, t h e
machine t i m e i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y , r i s i n g 'so much a t a s t e p of 2.5' t h a t perform­
ance of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n on this computer becomes d i f f i c u l t . These considera-
t i o n s l o s e t h e i r meaning when t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed on t h e high-speed
M-x) computer.

Fig .I..!+,!+
Comparison of Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s Obtained
by Solving t h e Equations w i t h Galerkin's Method and
w i t h Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n f o r cy = cay CY and p = 0.3.

A s a n example, Fig.l..!+,!+ shows t h e values of t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t cal­

culated f o r a h e l i c o p t e r i n a f l i g h t regime w i t h a speed corresponding t o p =
= 0.3. For t h e h e l i c o p t e r under study, this regime i s f a r from f l o w s e p a r a t i o n ;
t h e r e f o r e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed i n a l i n e a r setup w i t h t h e assumptions
described i n Subsection 3 of Section 8 . With t h e s e assumptions, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
w a s c a r r i e d out a t i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p s of 2.5', 5', and 10'. To a l l i n t e n t s and
purposes, t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s , shown i n Fig.l.44 by a s o l i d l i n e ,
coincide f u l l y . On t h e basis of t h e s e data, it can be concluded t h a t , i n f l i g h t
regimes s u f f i c i e n t l y remote from flow s e p a r a t i o n when t h e l i n e a r approach t o t h e
s o l u t i o n of t h e problem i s used and low v i b r a t i o n harmonics p r e v a i l i n t h e solu­
t i o n , a t appreciable f o r c e s of aerodynamic damping a c t i n g on t h e blade, t h e cal-
 c u l a t i o n can be performed w i t h a n i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p A$ = 1
0
' without s u b s t a n t i a l
loss of accuracy.
The p i c t u r e changes f o r regimes i n which onsek of flow s e p a r a t i o n o c c w s .
Such flow s e p a r a t i o n leads t o an i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o higher har­
monics and t o a sharp decrease i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of aerodynamic damping. A s
a consequence, t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p must
be shortened.

Figure 1.45 g i v e s t h e computa­

t i o n a l d a t a f o r t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s
using t h e s t e p s A$ = 5' and A$ = 10'
f o r t h e same r o t o r as above but i n a
regime a t p = 0.4 w i t h i n c i p i e n t flow
s e p a r a t i o n . The c a l c u l a t i o n w a s car­
r i e d out w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e non­
l i n e a r dependence of t h e aerodynamic
c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e p r o f i l e angle of
a t t a c k CY and on t h e Mach number M. Flow
s e p a r a t i o n leads t o a pronounced i n ­
c r e a s e i n t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e modes of higher har­
monics which, as i s known, even without
s e p a r a t i o n have lower aerodynamic damp­
i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s . Therefore, a de­
c r e a s e i n aerodynamic damping a t f l o w
s e p a r a t i o n p r i m a r i l y a f f e c t s t h e vibra­
t i o n amplitudes w i t h respect t o t h e s e
modes. Due t o this, c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h
t h e s t e p A$ = 1 0' introduces substan­
?' 70 t i a l e r r o r s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e
deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, and 6.,
./ /
I n Fig.l.45 this i s i l l u s t r a t e d on hand
of a comparison of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , a t
A$ = 5'. Therefore, t o reduce t h e er­
ror i n c a l c u l a t i n g deformations i n re­
gimes w i t h i n c i p i e n t flow s e p a r a t i o n
t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p must be reduced t o
Fig.l.45 Deformation C o e f f i c i e n t s values of t h e order of A$ = (2.5-5)'.
a t I n c i p i e n t Flaw Separation, for
Lh = 0.4.
9 . Comparison of Results by Numerical
I n t e n r a t i o n Methods w i t h C a l c u l a
t i o n of Harmonics

A method of stress c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o harmonics was presented

above i n a l i n e a r arrangement, using t h e assumptions se t f o r t h i n Subsection 3
of Section 8. 'Such a method W i l l be s u c c e s s f u l for f l i g h t regimes s u f f i c i e n t l y
remote from flow s a r a t i o n . It has a number of advantages, t h e f i r s t being t h e
T
r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t ca c u l a t i o n t i m e .

I n Fig.1.44. t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e harmonic method

vc7

I
 presented i n S e c t i o n El a r e shown by
a broken l i n e , f o r comparison i n
t h e same f l i g h t regimes a t IJ. = 0.3
w i t h a l i n e a r dependence cy = c: a.
A study of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n methods
shows s a t i s f a c t o r y agreement of t h e
r e s u l t s . The s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e can
be a t t r i b u t e d t o some d i f f e r e n c e i n
t h e i n i t i a l parameters of t h e f l i g h t
regime.
-a0
30'
10. Some Calculation Results
zoo
We w i l l here p r e s e n t i n d i v i d u a l
10
r e s u l t s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e new
p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e o r e t i c a l in­
0.1 0.2 0.3 P v e s t i g a t i o n s o f f e r e d by t h e method
of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n with con- /137
Fig.1.46 M a x i m u m Amplitude of Variable s i d e r a t i o n of a nonlinear dependence
S t r e s s e s over t h e Blade, as a Function of t h e aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on
of Flying Speed. t h e angle of a t t a c k cy and t h e Mach
number M, i n comparison w i t h l i n e a r
methods of c a l c u l a t i o n .

One of t h e major advantages of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of

making stress analyses under conditions c l o s e t o flow s e p a r a t i o n regimes.

Calculation shows t h a t , on approach t o flow separation, t h e aerodynamic

damping of blade v i b r a t i o n s decreases s t e e p l y and t h e amplitude of v i b r a t i o n s
having harmonics i n resonance o r close t o resonance w i t h t h e natural blade Vi­
b r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s . A study of t h e deformation c o e f f i c i e n t s p l o t t e d i n Fig.1.45
i n d i c a t e s t h a t v i b r a t i o n s a t t h e f i r s t overtone occur mainly w i t h t h e second har­
monic, those a t t h e second overtone w i t h t h e f o u r t h , and t h o s e a t t h e t h i r d over­
tone w i t h t h e s i x t h harmonic t o t h e r o t o r rpm, i.e., only w i t h frequencies c l o s e
t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e blade i n question. An e s p e c i a l l y
p.ronounced i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude t a k e s p l a c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o modes of
t h e r e l a t i v e l y higher v i b r a t i o n overtones, as demonstrated i n Fig.l.45 on t h e
example of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 6, and 6.,

The onset of flow s e p a r a t i o n i s characterized by a marked i n c r e a s e i n t h e

amplitude of t h e v a r i a b l e blade stresses. Figure 1.46 shows t h e values of maxi­
mum amplitude of variable stresses over t h e blade r a d i u s as a f u n c t i o n of fly- /139
i n g speed, c a l c u l a t e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e l i n e a r and nonlinear dependence
c y = f(a, M). A marked i n c r e a s e i n stresses i s a highly u s e f u l c r i t e r i o n f o r
determining t h e onset of s e p a r a t i o n i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s ­
t i c s of a r o t o r .

The harmonic content of t h e variable stresses set up during flow separa­

t i o n and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e blade r a d i u s are shown i n Figs.l.47 and
1.&8.
 Fig.1.47 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Variable Fig.l.48 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Amplitude
S t r e s s Amplitudes and t h e Two first of t h e Third, Fourth, f i f t h , and
Harmonic Stress Components over t h e S i x t h Harmonic Components of S t r e s s e s
Blade Radius a t LL = 0.4. over t h e Blade Radius a t L,I = 0.4.

It should be noted that a s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i s a l s o observed i n t h e

r e s u l t s of l i n e a r and nonlinear c a l c u l a t i o n s i n regimes s u f f i c i e n t l y remote from
flow separation.

Figure 1.49 g i v e s t h e d e f o r m t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e same

h e l i c o p t e r a t p = 0.3, w i t h a l i n e a r and nonlinear dependence c y = f(a, M ) ;
Fig.l.50 shows t h e corresponding harmonic colqponents of stresses and t h e i r ampli­
tude o A constructed over t h e blade r a d i u s . As i n d i c a t e d by this diagram, t h e
r e s u l t s d i f f e r substantial&.

Thus, a h e a d y t h e few d a t a presented here show t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of vari­

able b h d e stresses w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e nonlinear dependence c y = f(a, M).
yields a l a r g e number of i n t e r e s t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that have a s u b s t a n t i a l i n ­
f l u e n c e on t h e r o t o r s t r e n g t h .
 ''1 --3rd h o r n o w - 4

n
d---t-- -- tLin'eir c a l c u l o t i
-

Fig.l.49 Comparison of Deformation Coefficients Fig.l.50 Distribution of Variable S t r e s s

Calculated with Consideration of t h e Linear Amplitudes and t h e Four First Harmonic
and Nonlinear Dependence c y = f(a, M ) f o r t h e Components over t h e Blade Radius f o r I J ~ = 0,3.
Regime p = 0.3 Far from Flow Separation.

I
S e c t i o n 10. Calculation of F l e x u r a l Vibrations dth Direct Determination /14.2
-
of t h e Paths of Motion of P o i n t s t h e Blade

1. P r i n c i p l e -0-f t h e Method of Calculation

In Sections 7, 8, and 9 we presented methods of c a l c u l a t i n g f l e x u r a l blade

v i b r a t i o n s where t h e deformation mode was determined by Galerkincs method. For
this purpose, t h e blade deformations w e r e expanded i n a series i n prescribed
known functions. A s such functions, we proposed using t h e natural flexural vi­
b r a t i o n modes of a blade i n vacuum. In this r e s p e c t , it was s t a t e d that, f o r
p r a c t i c a l purposes, it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o l i m i t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o t h e first f o u r
harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n s .
Here, we w i l l d i s c u s s methods t h a t eliminate this assumption and permit a
determination of blade deformations by a d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p a t h s of mo­
t i o n of a c e r t a i n number of o i n t s of t h e blade, without expansion of t h e Vibra­
t i o n mode i n known functionsg.

To determine t h e motion of i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s of t h e blade. it i s convenient

t o use a blade model w i t h d i s c r e t e parameters. I n this case, t h e mass of t h e
blade i s simulated by s e v e r a l concentrated loads d i s t r i b u t e d over i t s length.

For such a mechanical model, we can d e r i v e a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equa­

t i o n s of t h e form

(10.1)
where
i = 0, 1, 2, ..., z ;
..yi = second d e r i v a t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r displacements yi of t h e
i - t h concentrated load w i t h mass mi; t h e values of yi are reckoned
from t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r ;
C i = e l a s t i c f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e i - t h m a s s mi by adjacent segments of
t h e mechanical blade model;
T, = e x t e r n a l aerodynamic f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e i - t h p o i n t of t h e blade
where one of t h e concentrated loads i s s i t u a t e d .

The system of equations (10.1) d e s c r i b e s t h e motion of a l l masses of t h e

mechanical blade model. Thus, it conprises equations w i t h variables yi equal
i n number t o t h e masses of t h e mechanical model i n question.

However, not a l l variables y e n t e r i n g t h e system (10.1) are independent,

s i n c e t h e motion should s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n of equilibrium of t h e e n t i r e
system:
..
2= (migl -Tl)=O.
0 (10.2)

’’ Such a method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a h e l i c o p t e r blade w a s first used by R.M.Zano­

~

zina .
 It i s p r e f e r a b l e t o consider that t h e displacements of a l l masses, except
f o r t h e r o o t mass mo,are independent variables. Then, t h e motion of t h e r o o t
mass, i f we assume To = 0, can be determined i n conformity w i t h eq.(lO.l) as

where
2

C,=Z (T,- m i y r ) .
1

T h i s c o r d i t i o n of equilibrium of f o r c e s i s automatically s a t i s f i e d when /lk3

using t h e formulas presented below.

Thus, t h e system i n question can be described by independent v a r i a b l e s yi

whose number i s lower by one t h a n t h e number of concentrated masses of t h e me­
chanicalmodel. Consequently, t h e number of degrees of freedom of this system
i s ecpal t o t h e number of segments of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n scheme and i s lower by one
t h a n t h e number of concentrated masses.

.-4
-I

Fig.l.51 Blade Model Examined i n t h e Calculation.

The s o l u t i o n of t h e system of equat,ion (10.1) can be obtained by numerical

i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o time. For this, it i s necessary a t each instant of
t i m e t o determine t h e f o r c e s C , and Ti . a The f o r c e s Ti can be determined from
eq~~(9.20)whose d e r i v a t i o n i s given i n S e c t i o n 9. A determination of t h e elas­
t i c f o r c e s C, has many p e c u l i a r i t i e s , which we will d i s c u s s here a t some length.
 ._..... . .-. I .

2. Determination of E l a s t i c F 0 ~ c . e ~
App.lied
- t o a Point
- the Bkdeb>y
of -~ Adjace~ntSegments

L e t us make a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e mechanical blade model used i n

t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . First, l e t us examine a be-type model. W e will represent
t h e blade as a weightless free beam governed by c e r t a i n boundary conditions a t
t h e ends and divided i n t o a segments, along whose edges concentrated loads are
placed (F'ig.l.51). The l e n g t h s of t h e segments can be d i f f e r e n t .

A s before, we r e p r e s e n t t h e flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade as a stepped

curve so t h a t it remains constant over each segment. We w i l l assume t h e cen­
t r i f u g a l f o r c e as applied only
t o t h e loads. Therefore, i t s
magnitude w i l l remain constant
over each segment. We will
a l s o assume t h a t t h e aerody­
namic f o r c e s are applied only
a t t h e p o i n t s of attachment of
t h e loads as i f a s e p a r a t e
f l a p w i t h a n a r e a SI were at­
tached t o each load.

To produce t h e conditions
of blade attachment a t t h e
root, we Will assume that t h e
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i s sensed by
a s p e c i a l attachment of r o o t
mass m,, able t o move f r e e l y
i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n . When
Yo YJ Y%
s01Ving t h i s problem i t i s not
necessary t o c r e a t e freedom of
Fig.l.52 Polygon of Forces Acting on v e r t i c a l motion of t h e r o o t
Adjacent Blade Elements. mass. However, i n o t h e r prob-
l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with a deter-
mination of synchronous vibra-
t i o n modes of t h e blade and fuselage, this c o n d i t i o n is necessary. If t h e &
f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s are disregarded arid t h e blade i s considered as attached a t
t h e hub on a r i g i d base, t h e conditions of r o o t attachnent i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
are e s t a b l i s h e d by p r e s c r i b i n g t h e necessary - u s u a l l y r a t h e r l a r g e - mass m,.
It i s l o g i c a l that such a n i d e a l i z e d scheme dl1 y i e l d a more a c c u r a t e de­
s c r i p t i o n of t h e r e a l p a t t e r n of blade v i b r a t i o n t h e l a r g e r t h e number of seg­
ments i n t o which t h e blade i s divided. The blade can be represented w i t h suf­
f i c i e n t accuracy by a scheme i n t h e form of a beam c o n s i s t i n g of 25 - 30 segments
and of t h e same number of concentrated loads.

To determine t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e Cl, we W i l l c o n s t r u c t t h e equations of blade

deformations. Figure 1.52 shows t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on two adjacerrt segments of a
deformed blade. let us write out t h e equations of deformation of t h e s e segments.

Since t h e i n e r t i a and aerodynamic f o r c e s f o r t h e mechanical model i n ques­

t i o n are applied o n l y along t h e edges of t h e segments, t h e deformations of each
segment can be d e t e d n e d by t h e equation
[E/y"]"- [Ny']' =o.

The magnitude of t h e f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y E1 and t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e N re­

main constant over each segment. Therefore, they can be removed from t h e d i f ­
f e r e n t i a t i o n sign. Then, eq.(10.4) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form
M " - p2M =:0, (10.5)
where M = EIy" i s t h e bending moment i n t h e blade s e c t i o n and 1.1' = -.E1
N

The s o l u t i o n of eq.(10.5) can be w r i t t e n as

M,=Asinhpx + Bsinhpx, ( 10.6)

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A and B can be obtained from t h e boundary conditions.

-
Thus, f o r t h e segment 1 2, we have M = M a t x = 0 and M, = M, a t x = I,,
Substituting t h e s e conditions i n t o eq.f1O.6jy we o b t a i n
.&

Here, a1 = pltlB and p1 = -

JT.
E112
With consideration of eq.(10.7) and of t h e f a c t t h a t M, = EI,,y", eq.(10.6)
can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

After twice i n t e g r a t i n g eq.(10.8) and bearing i n m i n d t h a t a t x = 0 y f = B1;

y = yl, and a t x = t,yf = B,; y = y2, we o b t a i n

61( ~ a - - ~ ) = d , M , - i - e , M , + ~ , (10.9)

or

Here ,
 The equation of deformation f o r t h e segment 0-1 can be w r i t t e n by analogy
w i t h eq.( 10.10) :

bo (y1 -go) = - e,M, -dOM0 + PI.

(10.11)

Changing a l l s i g n s i n eq.(lO.ll) and adding w i t h eq.(lO.9), we o b t a i n

d0Mo-t c,M, +d,M,= A,, (10012)

where

After performing t h e same operations f o r o t h e r adjacent segments, we ob­

t a i n a system of z equations of t h e following form:

We have w r i t t e n this system of equations here i n t h e form of a t a b l e . /vc6

Any of t h e equations of t h e system r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products of coeffi­
c i e n t s , occupying one row i n t h e r e c t a n g u l a r Table 1.12, while t h e unknown func­
t i o n s Mi simultaneously e n t e r i n g s e v e r a l equations and shown i n t h e v e r t i c a l
column are given i n a s e p a r a t e row on t o p of Table 1.12. The unknown f u n c t i o n B o
e n t e r i n g only t h e first equation i s w r i t t e n i n this row. The right-hand s i d e s
of t h e equations A, are placed i n a s p e c i a l column.

The system of equations i n Table 1.12 i s solved by t h e method of elimina­

t i o n of unknowns. T h i s method w a s a l r e a d y described i n Subsection 5 of Section 4.
Thus, t h e system of equations w r i t t e n out above permits determining t h e
values of t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e blade at t h e r o o t B o and a l l values of
t h e bending moments M, i f t h e deformation mode of t h e blade i s known as a set of
values of y,.

1 55

I
 To determine t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e Ci, it i s necessary t o perform a number of
successive operations, t h e first of which involves s o l v i n g t h e system repre­
sented i n Table 1.12. It i s expedient t o i n c l u d e i n this sequence of operations
a determination of t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c blade axis p i which are
needed l a t e r f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s :

F'rm t h e known values of M i and from t h e c o n d i t i o n of equilibrium of t h e

elements, we can c a l c u l a t e t h e shearing f o r c e Qi,l+l which i s constant over each
segment of t h e blade. Actually, equating t h e sum of t h e moments of a l l f o r c e s
a c t i n g on t h e segnent i, i+lt o zero, we o b t a i n t h e .equation

from which we can determine t h e value Qi,i+l.

Knowing t h e value of t h e
shearing f o r c e s over t h e blade
length, we can determine a l s o
t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e C, applied t o
t h e mass mi by t h e adjacent seg­
ments :

These computations permit

determining a l l values of elas­
t i c f o r c e s C, exerted on t h e
given k s s m, by t h e adjacent
segments, i f t h e deformation
mode yi i s known.

3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Numerical
F'ig.1.53 Bending Moments w i t h Respect t o .
I n t e g r a t i o n of Eqs (- 10.1)
t h e First Overtone of Natural Vibrations,
Calculated w i t h a Different Number of I n S e c t i o n 9 , we described
Masses. t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
a p p l i c a t i o n of numerical i n t e ­
g r a t i o n t o t h e s o l u t i o n *of d i f ­
f e r e n t i a l equations of e l a s t i c blade v i b r a t i o n s . It was shown that t h e success
of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s l a r g e l y determined by t h e magnitude of t h e l i m i t
s t e p , which i s d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e smallest v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d of t h e
mechanical model examined as a blade analog. The l i m i t i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should
not be t o o small, s i n c e c a l c u l a t i o n i n this case w i l l be extremely time-con­
suming.

A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the.model under study i s that it may have as m a n y natu­

156
r a l v i b r a t i o n harmonics as t h e r e are segments i n t o which t h e blade i s divided
over i t s l e n g t h i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . As a l r e a d y mentioned above, t o reduce er­
rors when changing from a blade t o i t s mechanical model analog, t h e blade must
be represented by a t least 25 - 30 segments w i t h t h e same number of concentrated
masses. Therefore, i n determining t h e Limit i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i n this case it i s
necessary t o proceed from t h e p e r i o d of t h e highest (30th) overtone of n a t u r a l
vibrations.

Figure 1.40 shows t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency and

p e r i o d of a n ordinary h e l i c o p t e r blade as a f u n c t i o n of t h e number of t h e over­
tone. It follows from this diagram t h a t t h e p e r i o d of t h e 30th overtone of natu­
r a l v i b r a t i o n s i s about '
1 w i t h respect t o t h e r o t o r azimuth. It was s t a t e d
above t h a t , i n using t h e most suitable method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n t o o b t a i n
a nondivergent s o l u t i o n , t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should be less t h a n one t h i r d of
t h e period of t h e highest overtone. Consequently, f o r t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n
examined here, t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p should be at least 0.3' w i t h respect t o t h e
r o t o r azimuth. T h i s s t a b i l i z e s t h e s o l u t i o n and permits neglecting t h e appreci:
able, e r r o r i n determining t h e amplitudes corresponding t o high v i b r a t i o n over­
tones, s i n c e t h e i r magnitudes are u s u a l l y small and s t r e s s e s i n t h e blade are de­
termined mainly by s e v e r a l first harmonics of natural v i b r a t i o n s . The v i b r a t i o n
amplitude w i t h respect t o t h e s e harmonics can be determined w i t h s a t i s f a c t o r y
accuracy.

It becomes understandable from t h e above considerations t h a t , i n using t h e

c a l c u l a t i o n method w i t h a d i r e c t determination of t h e p a t h of motion of p o i n t s
of a blade, it i s advantageous t o use a mode1 w i t h a m i n i m u m number of concen­
t r a t e d loads. It i s d e s i r a b l e t o use only models w i t h a number of loads not more
t h a n 12 - 15. It should be noted that, w i t h such a small number of segments,
t h e above beam model introduces e r r o r s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s of this model. To i l l u s t r a t e this, Fig.1.53 shows t h e mode of
t h e bending moment corresponding t o t h e f i r s t overtone of n a t u r a l blade vibra­
t i o n s , c a l c u l a t e d f o r z = 28 ( s o l i d l i n e ) and z = 12 (dashed l i n e ) . It follows
from Fig.1.53 t h a t , f o r a small number of segments, t h e bending moment i n t h e
b h d e model begins t o show p e c u l i a r i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r highly f l e x i b l e beams
s t r e s s e d by t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e s i n a f i e l d of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i n t h a t bending
moment concentrations appear at t h e s i t e where t h e masses are located. T h i s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w a s mentioned a l r e a d y i n Section 4, Subsection 9. The occurrence
of such concentrations s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduces t h e c a l c u l a t i o n accuracy. There­
f o r e , t h e use of beam models w i t h a number of segments less t h a n 25 ( z = 25) i s
not recommended. For a small number of masses, such e r r o r s do not arise when /lk8
using a multihinge a r t i c u l a t e d model, although v i b r a t i o n modes of higher harmow
i c s will be severely d i s t o r t e d . I n Fig.1.53, t h e bending moment c a l c u l a t e d f o r
a multihinge model w i t h a number of segments z = 12 i s shown by a dot-dash l i n e .

Proceeding from t h e s e considerations, l e t us examine i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e

method presented here as r e l a t e d t o a multihinge model. Furthermore, it w i l l be
shown i n Subsection 6 of this Section that a multihinge model permits applying
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s by numerical integration-methods, a t a n in­
verse o r d e r of determining t.he variables, which i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible i n t h e
beam model.
I

4. Equations of Motion f o r a M u l t i h i w e A r t i c u l a t e d
Blade Model

kt us r e p r e s e n t t h e blade as a c h a i n c o n s i s t i n g of p e r f e c t l y r i g i d weight­
less links interconnected by hinges. The weight of t h e blade i s concentrated i n
t h e hinges of this c h a h i n t h e form of i n d i v i d u a l loads w i t h a mass mi. The
flexural r i g i d i t y of t h e blade i s a l s o concentrated i n t h e hinges, based on t h e
concept t h a t a s p r i n g of r i g i d i t y c i preventing f r a c t u r e of t h e blade i n this
hinge is, s o t o speak, b u i l t i n t o each hinge (Fig.1.54).

Fig A.54 Diagram of Multihinge A r t i c u l a t e d

Blade Model.

The system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of v i b r a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o this blade

model will be derived here, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e equation d e s c r i b i n g t h e equilibrium
of t h e load w i t h t h e o r d i n a l number i = 2. Then, by analogy, we will c o n s t r u c t
a l l remaining equations of t h e system.

The equation of equilibrium of t h e load w i t h m a s s m, can be w r i t t e n i n &

t h e form

m2Y2 ==4c,-tT,. (10.16)

The e l a s t i c f o r c e C z exerted on t h e mass m2 by t h e adjacent segments of t h e

model i s determined by t h e formula
 I

where QI2 and &e3 are t h e shearing f o r c e s on segments of t h e model adjacent t o

t h e load.

To determine t h e magnitude of t h e shearing f o r c e s Q12 and Q3,we will de­

rive equations that equate t o zero t h e sum of t h e moments of a l l f o r c e s r e l a t i v e
t o t h e p o i n t of t h e load w i t h a mass m2 ( p o i n t A) for b o t h segments of t h e model
adjacent t o this load. These equations have t h e following form:

(10.18)

Determining Q12 and Q23 from this and s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t o f o r ­

mula (ID.l'7), we o b t a i n
C2=Q23 - Q12=

The bending moment e n t e r i n g this equation can be expressed by blade ele­

ment displacement, using t h e formulas

(10.20)

S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.(10.20) for M1, M2, and M, i n t o eq.(lO.19), we o b t a i n t h e

following equation:

where

(10.22)

159

I
I I I I I I I 11111111111l11lI11I I I I I I1 I
a

If re a l s o r i t e out a l l remaining values of C, and s u b s t i t u t e them i n t o /150

eq.(10.16), t h e n t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of blade v i b r a t i o n s can be
represented i n t h e form shown i n Table 1.13.

,
Table 1.13

I ............
.........
I I ... I ..
....
G-2

Each equation of t h e obtained system, occupying one row i n Table 1.13, rep­
r e s e n t s t h e sum of t h e products of t h e known c o e f f i c i e n t s d,, e l , and f, and t h e
variables yi which simultaneously e n t e r s e v e r a l equations. The variables y i are
set off v e r t i c a l l y i n a s p e c i a l row i n t h e upper p o r t i o n of Table 1.13. The
right-hand s i d e s of t h e equations, representing t h e sum of i n e r t i a and aerody­
namic f o r c e s , are given i n a s e p a r a t e column t o t h e r i g h t of Table 1.13.

T h i s system of equations d i r e c t l y c o r r e l a t e s blade deformations w i t h t h e

f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade, without intermediate coupling a c r o s s bending moments,
as had been t h e case i n analogous equations p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e beam model de­
s c r i b e d above i n Subsection 3 of this Section and i n equations used p r e v i o u s l y
i n Section 4 f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e free v i b r a t i o n s of a blade.

T h i s form of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n
determining t h e ' e l a s t i c blade deformations, b u t it a l s o has c e r t a i n shortcomings.
One of these, as a l r e a d y mentioned, i s that t h e e l a s t i c blade a A s i s not repre­
sented as smooth b u t as a broken l i n e . The mode of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e bend­
i n g moment over t h e blade l e n g t h i s a l s o represented as a broken l i n e . A second
shortcoming i s t h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s i n s e l e c t i n g t h e hinge r i g i d i t i e s ci .
L e t us p r e s e n t one o f . t h e methods of determining t h e s e r i g i d i t i e s . For
this purpose, we i n v e s t i g a t e d two adjacent blade segments. The value of t h e

160

I
Ill 11111 111 1111 I Ill
hinge r i g i d i t y c i i s determined from t h e s t i p u l a t i o n that t h e angles of r o t a t i o n
of t h e ends of adjacent segments Bo and B, of t h e equivalent beam model coincide
with t h e angles Bo, and B,, for t h e hinge scheme Fig. 1.55):

I f , i n comparing t h e s e angles, we neglect t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s

and assume t h a t t h e bending moment over t h e s e two segments i s constant (M, = /151
= M, = M, = const), t h e n t h e condi-
t i o n (10.23) w i l l y i e l d t h e follow­
i n g formula f o r determining t h e hinge
rigidity:

_-
1
CI
-
E101
'01 I
I - .
E112
I12
(10.24.)

I n p r a c t i c e , t h e s e assumptions
can be obeyed only approximately.
T h i s l e a d s t o c e r t a i n e r r o r s i n using
such a c a l c u l a t i o n method.

5 . Sequence of @ e r a t i o n s i n Calcu­
l a t i n g E l a s t i c Vibrations by t h e
Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n Method

A s a whole, blade c a l c u l a t i o n s
by t h e proposed method are c a r r i e d
out i n t h e following sequence: A t
t h e i n i t i a l t i m e , which is u s u a l l y
r e l a t e d w i t h t h e azimuth I) = 0, an
Fig.1.55 For Determination of Nnge arbitrary blade deformation mode y,
Rigidity. and t h e d i s % r i b u t i o nof t h e rate of
displacement of t h e masses 9, are
p r e s c r i b e d . If a l l values of yi are
known, t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e s C , can be determined by t h e formulas presented i n Sub­
s e c t i o n s 2 and 4 of this Section. The angles of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c blade
axis p i should be c a l c u l a t e d at t h e same time. For t h e beam model, t h e s e are
derived from eq.(lO.l3). For t h e a r t i c u l a t e d model, t h e y can be determined as
t h e half-sum of t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of two l i n k s of t h e model adjacent t o t h e
p o i n t i n question:

p1-- Pi-1.r + Pf.i+l

2
.
If t h e values of B and y, are known, t h e n t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s Ti can be
obtained from e q . ( 9 . 2 0 j . These d a t a s u f f i c e t o determine t h e values y, by
means of e q s . ( U . l ) .
 N e x t , a change-over i s made t o t h e next azimuth of t h e blade by means of /152
f o r m u h s analogous t o eq.( 9.43) :

.. Yt+Y:+bt .
YQY = *
2

The values of ytf,At, ;:$At, a d y r + A t f o r t h e time t + A t are considered

final. The index i, referring t o t h e number of t h e concentrated load, Js omit­
t e d i n eqs.(10.25) s o as t o prevent excessive complication of t h e expressions.

A l l operations are t h e n repeated, t o change t o t h e new azimuth. T h i s i s

continued f o r s e v e r a l r e v o l u t i o n s of t h e r o t o r u n t i l t h e motion of t h e blade be­
comes stable. The c a l c u l a t i o n terminates w i t h t h e r e v o l u t i o n a t which t h e solu­
t i o n converges t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s o l u t i o n , w i t h t h e p r e s c r i b e d accuracy. The
accuracy of t h e s o l u t i o n i s determined by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e o r d i n a t e s of t h e
mass displacement when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e motion i n two successive r o t o r revolu­
tions.

Analysis of t h e r e s u l t s can be c a r r i e d out i n any manner, depending on t h e

purpose of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . To s o l v e problems of blade s t r e n g t h a n a l y s i s , t h e
bending moments MI, every 1 0' of r o t o r azimuth, are u s u a l l y read i n t o t h e ex­
ternal memory. After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e values of M i and t h e drag moments of t h e
blade s e c t i o n s , t h e values of t h e stresses and t h e i r amplitude are determined

(10.26)

and t h e stresses are expanded i n harmonics.

Calculation of e l a s t i c v i b r a t i o n s by t h e above method comprises a constant

r e p e t i t i o n of t h e same operations, which amounts t o a determination of t h e
f o r c e s C i and T i and t o t h e s o l u t i o n of eq.(lO.l). Therefore, t h e computer t i m e
p r i m a r i l y depends on t h e numter of such r e p e t i t i o n s . T h i s number i s determined
by only two f a c t o r s . The f i r s t i s t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e p e r i o d of changing t o a
stable process, which depends only on t h e correspondence of t h e i n i t i a l condi­
t i o n s of steady motion and on t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e r o t o r and i s inde­
pendent of t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n . The second, a l r e a d y mentioned above, i s
t h e required i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p .

162
1

6. Method of C a l c u l a t i o n w i t h Inverse Order of Determining

Variables i n Numerical I n t e g r a t i o n

I n S e c t i o n 9 and i n this Section, we discussed d i r e c t methods of numerical

i n t e g r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l ecpations f o r t h e case i n which, on changing t o a /153
new t h e , we determined t h e variable y and i t s first d e r i v a t i v e $, and t h e n t h e
second d e r i v a t i v e y f r o m t h e d i f f e r e ­
t i a l equation. Here, we w i l l examine
a method of c a l c u l a t i o n proposed by
V.E.Baskin i n which t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s
are determined i n t h e opposite order.

I n sequence, we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e
three t i m e s : t h e time t, a t which t h e
blade deformation must be determined,
and t h e two times tn,l = t, -
A t and
t,, = t, - 2at preceding this.

Assuming that t h e second deriva­

t i v e 9 remains constant over each in­

yirmn;
t e g r a t i o n i n t e r v a l , a s shown i n
Fig.1.56c, t h e value of Tn-l can be
.. b) t
expressed by Fnm2and $n,l :

'' -!/n-I -~n-2

Yn-1- ( 10 27
At
I Yn-I I I
1
t n-2 2 n-r t n t If we now assume t h a t t h e f i r s t
d e r i v a t i v e $ a l s o remains constant over
C) t h e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t e r v a l , a s shown i n
Fig.1.56b by a broken l i n e , t h e n t h e
Fig.1.56 Change of Variable y and values of f n - l and $,-, can be deter-
i t s Time Derivatives, i n Numerical mined from t h e formulas
Integration.

(10.28)

S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(10.28) ink0 eq.(10.27) yields t h e expression f o r yn-l :

If t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p i s s u f f i c i e n t l y small, t h e n we can p u t approxim­

ately
.. ..
YfI = Yn-I

I
and write e q . ( l O . a ) i n t h e form

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values of f, i n t o t h e system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations re­

presented by Table 1.13, a system of a l g e b r a i c equations r e l a t i v e t o t h e un­
knowns y, i s obtained. A s above, this system i s w r i t t e n i n t h e form of
Table 1.a.
I n t h e v a r i a b l e s y i n Table le&, t h e index denoting t h e i n s t a n t of time i s
given as s u p e r s c r i p t , w h i l e t h e index r e f e r r i n g t o t h e number of t h e concen- &
t r a t e d load of t h e model -as before - i s given as s u b s c r i p t .
I n compiling Table 1.14- 5%was a l s o assumed t h a t t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s cal­
culated f o r t h e t i m e t,,, can be set approximately equal t o t h e s e f o r c e s f o r t h e
time t,.

Table 1. 14
...

1 I , ...
I I! ...
... ... ... -
...
__
-
...
EL-2

4-

The assumption (10.30) permits expressing t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n yn at t h e time t,

i n terms of t h e deformations ynW2,y,-i, and y,. After determi& the inertia "
f o r c e s as t h e products formed by t h e masses mi w i t h t h e 'corresponding accelera­
t i o n s and after adding t h e s e t o t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s , we can o b t a i n t h e t o t a l
external f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade. Then t h e deformations y, are determined as
i n a conventional s t a t i c problem. T h i s i s based on solving t h e system of equa­
t i o n s i n Table l.&; The only s p e a i a l feature of t h e s e equations i s t h e f a c t
that t h e components of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s expressed i n terms of t h e s t i l l uncal­
culated values of y,, are transposed t o t h e left-hand s i d e and are determined
simultaneously w i t h solving t h e system of equations

Thus, t h e determination of t h e various parameters of blade motion by this

method i s c a r r i e d out i n a n unconventional order. A s it were, f i r s t t h e accel­
e r a t i o n s and t h e n t h e deformations are determined. For this reason, we c a l l e d
this method of s o l u t i o n Itinverse method of numerical integration11. Another fre­
quently used d e s i g n a t i o n i s l l i q l i c i t method11.

The c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h t h e i n v e r s e method of numerical i n t e g r a t i o n does not

r e s u l t i n a divergent s o l u t i o n , even a t r a t h e r l a r g e i n t e g r a t i o n s t e p s . There-
f o r e , t h e s i z e of t h e required i n t e g r a t i o n
s t e p should be determined only on t h e basis
Y of t h e magnitude of e r r o r s r e s u l t i n g from
IO t h e use of this method. The magnitude of
t h e e r r o r can be estimated by applying t h e
5 i n v e r s e method of i n t e g r a t i o n t o t h e s o h ­
t t i o n of eq.(9.&). The r e s u l t s of this tal­
0 c u l a t i o n are p l o t t e d i n Fig.1.57.
-5
It follows from t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t ,
- 10 t o achieve a s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy of t h e
deformation values corresponding t o frequen­
c i e s e q u a l t o t h e r o t o r rpm, t h e i n t e g r a t i o n
Fig.1.57 Results of Numerical step should be l e s s t h a n 1’ w i t h r e s p e c t t o
S o l u t i o n of Eq.(9.26) by t h e
11Inverse Method of Integrationll,
as a Function of t h e R e l a t i v e
t h e r o t o r azimuth
(A T -&)-
=

I n t e g r a t i o n Step. I n c a l c u l a t i n g by t h e method w i t h ir+ /155

verse order of determining t h e v a r i a b l e s ,
t h e system of equations i n Table 1.14-i s
solved i n sequence a t each azimuth, using predetermined values of y;-” and d-’.
A t t h e i n i t i a l t i m e , t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s can be t a k e n a r b i t r a r i l y .

The above method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s more laborious t h a n methods t h a t use ex­

pansion of t h e s o l u t i o n i n accordance w i t h p r e s c r i b e d v i b r a t i o n modes, and t h u s
i s very time-consuming i n c a l c u l a t i o n s on d i g i t a l computers. However, t h e method
o f f e r s valuable advantages i n estimating t h e i n f l u e n c e of various concentrated
e f f e c t s on a blade, f o r example, i n estimating t h e e f f e c t s produced by blade
dampers and i n a l l cases when t h e s o l u t i o n cannot be represented w i t h s u f f i c i e n t
accuracy by a limited number of p r e s c r i b e d modes.

7. CmDarative Evaluation of Various Methods of C a l c u l a t i r q

F l e x u r a l Blade Vibrations

I n this Chapter, we have presented a l a r g e number of methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g

f l e x u r a l b l a d e v i b r a t i o n s ; naturally, this raises t h e question as t o w h a t method
t o s e l e c t f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n and w h a t C r i t e r i a t o use as basis f o r this
s e l e c t i o n . The answer i s quite simple: For p r a c t i c a l purposes, t h e o p t i m u m
method w i l l always be t h e one that most fully and a c c u r a t e l y t a k e s i n t o account
a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r o t o r behavior, i n c l u d i n g t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y
f i e l d and t h e nonlinear c h a r a c t e r of t h e dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s
on t h e angle of a t t a c k and t h e Mach number. However, it i s impossible here t o
d i s r e g a r d t h e e x i s t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s that t h e more c q l e t e and more a c c u r a t e t h e
method of c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e more time w i l l be required f o r c a l c u l a t i o n on d i g i t a l

165
 TABLE 1.15

Method o f C a l c u l a t i o n w i t h Expansion of Method o f C a l c u l a t i o n wit41

i n E i g e n f u n c t i o n s and D et er mi n at i o n o f t h e E i g e n f u n c t i o n s and w i t h
D i r e c t Det ermi nat i on of t h e
C o e f f i c i e n t s o f Expansion o f Time T r a j e c t o r i e s o f Motion of
F o u r i e r S e r i e s i n Harmonics by t h e Method o f Numerical
I n d i v i d u a l P o i n t s o f t h e Bladc
I n teLtra t i o n o f Transformkd

Di f f er en ti al
I Equations

equations [ElyllJ'' - [ N ~ ' ] 't my'= T

Form o f p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f solution

Method o f transform:
t i o n of e q u a t i o n s Equations a r e n o t transformed

Uethod o f de te rm in in g C a e f f i c i e n t s o f ex p an s i o n o f t i m e f a c t o r s , a r e D i r e c t method o f n u mer i cal I n v e r s e method of numeri cal

t i m e factors d eter m in ed from a system o f a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s integration integration

Vrtq = So00 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c
Atreq = 2.5;.F0
Vreq = 20000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c
-
3 nonuniform in d u ced v e l o c i t y f i e l d expanded i n v e l o c i t i e s d et er mi n ed f o r a r o t o r w i t h f i n i t e number o f blades
harmonic components ( f o r a number of p o i n t s o v e r the r a d i u s zr 512)
Vreq = 50000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c Vpeq = 100000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c Vreq = 500000 o p e r a t i o n s j s e c
"he methods a r e c o n v e n i e n t for t a k i n g i n t o account t h e n o n l i n e a
r e l a t i o n c y = f(a,M) and c x . = f(a,M).
For t a k i n g i n t o acco u n t t h e r e l a t i o n cy = f ( = , M )
-
'reg = 500000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c i
Vreq = 200000 o p e r a t i o d s e c
and c x = f ( a,M) , t h i s method i s u n s u i t a b l e i n
practice at z p =f2
V r e q = 250000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c V r e q > 100000 o p e r a t i o n s / s e c
--
 computers. Therefore, i n s e l e c t i n g t h e optimum c a l c u l a t i o n method, t h e main
c r i t e r i o n i s t h e machine c a p a b i l i t y which p l a c e s a limit on t h e use of t h e most
r e f i n e d c a l c u l a t i o n methods.

To s e l e c t t h e most suitable c a l c u l a t i o n method, we compiled Table 1.15 which

a l s o gives t h e required speed of computation f o r various methods of c a l c u l a t i o n .
The table a l s o shows t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i f f e r e n t methods.

Here, we w i l l p r e s e n t approximate values of t h e required speed of operation

p e r second V,,, f o r c a r r y i n g out a c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h i n 5 -
10 min. The required
speed i s given f o r a l l c a l c u l a t i o n methods i n f o u r v a r i a n t s of t h e assumptions
used. The required c a p a c i t y of t h e computer memory i s not estimated i n Table 1.15
s i n c e , i n modern computers, this u s u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s no handicap f o r t h e pro­
grammer.

It follows from a p e r u s a l of t h e d a t a i n Table 1.15 t h a t , f o r a low-speed /157

computer (speed of t h e o r d e r of 5000 operations/sec), only one method known as
t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n i n harmonics can be used t o any g r e a t e r extent. I n
this method, t h e s o l u t i o n i s expanded i n eigenfunctions. The time f a c t o r s i n
t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are represented as a Fourier s e r i e s i n harmonics. The c o e f f i ­
c i e n t s of this series are determined from a system of a l g e b r a i c equations derived
from a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation by means of G a l e r k i n t s method. T h i s method i s de­
s c r i b e d i n Section $.

On low-speed computers, this method can be used only under t h e assumption

of a uniform induced v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n A = const. For t a k i n g i n t o account
t h e nonlinear dependence of aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e p r o f i l e angle of at­
t a c k and on t h e Mach number, t h e method i s p r a c t i c a l l y useless. These r e l a t i o n s
can be considered i n this method only by making extensive assumptions. However,
even w i t h such a n approach, t h e computation necessary f o r constructing t h e
mathematical formulas i s so h b o r i o u s t h a t , f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, i t i s
simply unfeasible.

On moderate-speed computers (speed of 20,000 -

50,000 operations/sec), t h e
most convenient method i s t o expand t h e s o l u t i o n i n eigenfunctions and t o deter­
mine t h e time f a c t o r s of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n . T h i s method
i s presented i n Section 9, and i s N t e convenient f o r t a k i n g i n t o account t h e
nonlinear c o r r e l a t i o n between aerodynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s , p r o f i l e angle of a t t a c k ,
and Mach number.

I n cases i n which t h e variable induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d must be considered,

this method c a n be used only on high-speed computers. If, i n determining t h e in­
duced v e l o c i t i e s , t h e number of c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t s over t h e r a d i u s and azimuth of
t h e r o t o r i s limited, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n can be performed a l s o on moderate-speed
computers.

The method of c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h d i r e c t determination of t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s of

motion of i n d i v i d u a l blade p o i n t s (see Sect.10) can be used only on computers
w i t h a speed g r e a t e r t h a n V > 100,000 operations/sec. A consideration of t h e
v a r i a b l e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d s and of t h e nonlinear c o r r e l a t i o n s between aero­
dynamic c o e f f i c i e n t s , p r o f i l e a n g l e of a t t a c k , and Mach number f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s
t h e speed needed f o r this method. Only t h e i n v e r s e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n method

167

I
 1
l

i s considered i n t h e last column of Table 1.15. I n using t h e d i r e c t method of

numerical i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e required computer speed f o r t h e method w i t h d i r e c t de­
t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s of motion of i n d i v i d u a l blade p o i n t s may i n ­
c r e a s e even more s t e e p l y .

The required computer speeds given in Table 1.15 a r e obtained f o r t h e case

i n which t h e computations r e q u i r e 5 -
10 min. Within this t i m e , it i s p o s s i b l e
t o make s e v e r a l checkouts required i n designing a blade w i t h v a r i a t i o n i n r o t o r
parameters and f l i g h t regime.

If we l i m i t ourselves t o a c a l c u l a t i o n a t only one v a r i a n t of t h e parameters,

a longer computer time i s admissible. I n t h i s case, t h e required computer speed
shown i n Table 1.15 can be reduced accordingly.

Using t h e above considerations, it i s p o s s i b l e - f o r each i n d i v i d u a l case -

t o s e l e c t t h e optimum method based on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of using various a s s q ­
t i o n s and a v a i l a b l e time i n c a l c u l a t i o n s on a computer.

S e c t i o n 11. Fatigue S t r e n a t h and Blade Xfe /158

1. Testing a S t r u c t u r e t o Determine i t s Service .&ice
The s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e i s u s u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e basis
of r e s u l t s of dynamic a n a l y s i s .

Depending upon how e s s e n t i a l t h e s t r u c t u r e i s f o r f l i g h t s a f e t y , tests of

one o r s e v e r a l design v a r i a n t s are performed. Frequently, only i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s
of a s t r u c t u r e whose s t r e n g t h i s d e c i s i v e f o r t h e e n t i r e u n i t as a whole, are
tested.

I n determining t h e blade l i f e , it i s conventional t o t e s t i n d i v i d u a l s p a r

segments w i t h airframe components that set up stress concentrations i n t h e spar.
Specimens of a t least t h r e e d i f f e r e n t spar segments a r e t e s t e d . A s a r u l e , t h e s e
segments i n c l u d e t h e r o o t b u t t and two segments along t h e l e n g t h of t h e spar.
Sometimes i t becomes necessary t o t e s t a d d i t i o n a l specimens t o check i n d i v i d u a l
design features of t h e spar ( f o r example, a t p o i n t s of t r a n s i t i o n of t h e spar
cross section).

Specimens of blades are almost always t e s t e d on resonance stands, w i t h ex­

c i t a t i o n by mechanical v i b r a t o r s . The l e n g t h of t h e t e s t specimen i s chosen
such t h a t i t s natural frequency i n bending i s w i t h i n t h e operating range of t h e
v i b r a t o r . Usually t h e t e s t s are conducted a t a frequency of 1500.to 2500 c y c l e s
p e r minute. I n t h i s case, t h e l e n g t h of t h e specimens i s of t h e order of 3-4 m.
I n a d d i t i o n t o a l t e r n a t i n g bending stresses, t h e specimen must be extended by
l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e s c r e a t i n g a constant s t a t i c load c l o s e t o t h a t which t h e
blade experiences i n f l i g h t due t o t h e e f f e c t of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . Figure 1.58
shows a stand f o r t e s t i n g of h e l i c o p t e r blade specimens .with a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e
of t h e order of 100 t o n s ( f o r c e ) .

I n general, complete blades r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s h o r t specimens are

t e s t e d , because of t h e excessive compleAty of t e s t stands required f o r . t h i s pur­
168
pose and t h e long t e s t i n g t i m e , s i n c e t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency i n this case can­
not be higher t h a n 300 -
400 cpm.

2. D i e e r s i o n of- t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Ehdurance
in Fatigue Tests
A n appreciable s c a t t e r i n g of t h e t e s t res; u l t s i s observed i n f a t i g u e tests
on a c e r t a i n number of specimens manufactured under T d e n t i c a l conditions. Fail­
ure of specimens t e s t e d a t t h e
same s t r e s s level occurs a t a /lrs
d i f f e r e n t number of cycles N.
The r a t i o of t h e g r e a t e s t number
of c y c l e s t o t h e least number
o f t e n reaches 20 -
4.0.

The d i s p e r s i o n of t h e char­
a c t e r i s t i c s of f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h
i s explained by t h e inhomogeneity
of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l
and by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e con­
d i t i o n s of manufacturing and pro­
cessing t h e specimens. F a i l u r e
of specimens always begins from
small f l a w s w i t h i n t h e material
and on t h e surface' of t h e speci­
men. I n t h e overwhelming ma-
Fig.1.58 Blade Test Stand. j o r i t y of cases, f a i l u r e begins
from a d e f e c t s i t u a t e d on t h e
s u r f a c e . I n this case, t h e en­
durance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e specimen are determined by t h e type and magnitude
.
of t h e s e d e f e c t s

The s c a t t e r i n g of f a t i g u e f a i l u r e d a t a i n tests of various specimens i s

u s u a l l y characterized by a d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n of t h e number of cycles N t o
failure of t h e specimen. An analysis of t h e t e s t d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d i s ­
t r i b u t i o n of logarithms of t h e number of cycles log N t o f a i l u r e r a t h e r c l o s e l y
obeys t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w a t almost a l l average values of t h e probabil­
i t y of failure, beginning approximately from a p r o b a b i l i t y of 0.01 - 0.02.

Figure 1.59 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e P and t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y cp, corresponding t o t h e real c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance of
t h e s t r u c t u r e (solid curves) and t h o s e d e t e d n e d by t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w
(broken curves) :
( IqN - mloaN ) 2
 p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e ;
p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e at a number of c y c l e s
of stress less t h a n N;
value of t h e logarithm of t h e number of cycles t o failure of
the structure;
mea-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e l o g a r i t h s
of t h e number of cycles t o failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e ;
m a t h e m t i c a l expectation of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms
of t h e number of cycles.

I n t h e range of l o w p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n usu­
a l l y d e v i a t e s from t h e normal l a w (Fig.1.59). T h i s has t o do w i t h a n k o r t a n t
feature of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance. I n f a c t , f a t i g u e f a i l u r e clan t a k e
p l a c e only after a c e r t a i n number
of c y c l e s of stress NO and can
never occur earlier. T h i s feature
of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endur­
ance l e a d s t o t h e concept of a
zone of i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o N i n which
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e
s t r u c t u r e i s equal t o zero (P = 0 ) .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s permits an
i n p o r t a n t conclusion as t o t h e pos­
s i b i l i t y of determining t h e s e r v i c e
l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r e , based on
endurance conditions w i t h a prob­
a b i l i t y of failure equal t o zero,
Fig.l.59 Curves f o r t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of even i n t h e presence of s u f f i c i e n t ­
Endurance i n Tests and Corresponding t o l y high a l t e r n a t i n g stresses.
Normal Law.
Unfortunately, a determination
of t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d No,
w i t h any s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy, i s v i r t u a l l y impossible. Therefore, i n deter­
mining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance
i s u s u a l l y t a k e n as norma1,and t h e requirement P = 0 i s replaced by t h e require­
ment of a very low p r o b a b i l i t y of failure.
/160
The d e v i a t i o n of t h e values of t h e logarithms of t h e number of cycles from
t h e normal l a w should be observed a l s o i n t h e r e g i o n of high p r o b a b i l i t i e s of
failure. A t a r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses this happens s i n c e
t h e r e i s almost always some specimen that does not f a i l even at a very l a r g e num­
ber of cycles of s t r e s s .

3 . Basic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . of t h e Fatigue Strew&h of S t r u c t u r e

The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of a s t r u c t u r e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d u s u a l l y by t h e number
of cycles N it i s able t o withstand p r i o r t o f a i l u r e a t a given upper l i m i t of
a l t e r n a t i n g stresses 0 . The higher t h e upper l i m i t of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses 0 ,
t h e smaller t h e number of c y c l e s of stress t h e s t r u c t u r e dl1resist.

170
 The curve c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e number of c y c l e s N t o failure as a f u n c t i o n of
t h e upper l i m i t of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses o i s c a l l e d t h e Ffrihler curve.

The v6hler curve can be approximately described by t h e equation

amN==const a t >a,andN <N,;

o=o,sconst
o
af N>N,. I
Here,
o w = maximum amplitude of stress below which t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l with­
s t a n d a n i n d e f i n i t e l y l a r g e number Of c y c l e s of s t r e s s N without ,
f r a c t u r e ; this peak amplitude i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e f a t i g u e l i m i t
o r endurance l i m i t ;
N, = minimum number of c y c l e s of stress corresponding t o t h e f a t i g u e
limit ;
m = some exponent whose value i s determined from t e s t , r e s u l t s .
The bf6hler curve can be p l o t t e d f o r d i f f e r e n t values of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
failure. For this, a batch of t e s t p i e c e s i s divided i n t o s e v e r a l groups and
t e s t e d a t d i f f e r e n t ranges of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses.

After c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n functions of endurance f o r various

l e v e l s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses (Fig.1.60) and connecting p o i n t s of t h e same prob­
a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e , we can o b t a i n t h e Wtc;hler curves corresponding t o a d i f f e r e n t
p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e . Usually, i n s o doing t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s ­
t i c s of endurance i s smaller, t h e higher t h e l e v e l of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s , and
t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d No i s more d i s t i n c t l y expressed a t lower s t r e s s e s . A t
low stresses, t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d i s reached a t r e l a t i v e l y high probabili­
t i e s P, whereas a t high s t r e s s e s it shifts toward such small p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h a t
it u s u a l l y goes unnoted. /161
The t e s t d a t a almost always confirm t h e presence of a f a t i g u e l i m i t o w . A t
a given stress B a c e r t a i n number of specimens Usually w i not f a i l even a t a
n
very l a r g e number of cycles of stress. The e x i s t e n c e of a f a t i g u e l i m i t i s c o w
firmed a l s o i n p r a c t i c a l experience of operating various machines and mechanisms.
We know of many d i f f e r e n t components t h a t c o n s t a n t l y operate under appreciable
a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s and do not f a i l a t a number of c y c l e s of lo8 and more.
There a r e i n d i v i d u a l exceptions t o this g e n e r a l r u l e . It has been noted t h a t ,
f o r c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r a l elements made of aluminum a l l o y s , t h e f a t i g u e curve con­
t i n u e s t o drop even a t a n endurance of t h e order of lo8 -10’’ cycles. However,
this drop i s s o n e g l i g i b l e t h a t even i n this case t h e hf6hler curve can be ap­
proxi.mc?;tely represented i n t h e form of eq.(U.3). I n any case, as applied t o
t h e b a s i c p a r t s of a h e l i c o p t e r , consideration of t h i s drop y i e l d s no s u b s t a n t i a l
refinements.

A d e f i n i t e d i s p e r s i o n i s a l s o observed i n t h e values of t h e endurance l i m i t s .

The presence of a s e n s i t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e amplitude of stresses
i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c for t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s t h r e s h o l d w i l l henceforth be
c a l l e d t h e minimum f a t i g u e limit o w m i n . A t stresses below o w m inot n a single
specimen w i l l fail, even a t a very l a r g e number of c y c l e s of stress. I n con-
 P%

33.9
39

90

SO
20
10

1.0

~ i g . l . 6 0 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Endurance at Different Levels

of Alternating S t r e s s e s .

Fig.l.61 lf6hler Curves Correspond- fig.1.62 lf&iLer Curves Corresponding

i n g t o Different P r o b a b i l i t y of t o D i f f e r e n t P r o b a b i l i t y of F a i l u r e
Failure on a Logarithmic Scale.

f o m i t y w i t h t h e above f e a t u r e s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f a t i g u e , t h e V6hler
curves should have t h e slope depicted i n Fig.l.61.

If t h e curves corresponding t o a d i f f e r e n t r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e are re­

placed by a n approximate a n a l y t i c r e l a t i o n (ll.37, t h e n t h e hf6hAer curves on a
logarithmic s c a l e will have t h e slope shown i n ~ i g . 1 . 6 2 . The zone of insensi­
t i v i t y corresponding t o zero p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s hatched i n this graph.

172
A t such a p l o t t i n g of t h e W'c;hler curves, t h e number of cycles N, corresponding
t o t h e endurance l i m i t and t h e exponent m d i f f e r f o r curves corresponding t o
differ ent p r o b a b i l i t i e s of failure.

It should be noted t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e W'6hler curves as shown i n

E g s . l . 6 1 and 1.62 i s p o s s i b l e only i n tests w i t h small l a b o r a t o r y specimens,
s i n c e a very l a r g e number of t e s t p i e c e s i s required.

Construction of such curves i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible when estimating t h e

s t r e n g t h of a s t r u c t u r e , s i n c e only a very small number of specimens can be used
i n such estimates. Often this number does not exceed n = 3 - 5 (where n i s t h e
number of t e s t e d specimens). I n this case,
t h e tests yield only n values of t h e nun­
ber of c y c l e s t o f r a c t u r e a t a p r e s c r i b e d
magnitude of loads f o r a s t r e n g t h esti­
mte. With such a limited number of data,
some i d e a on t h e f a t i g u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of a given s t r u c t u r e can be gained only on
I t h e basis of c e r t a i n asswlrptions w i t h re-
spect t o t h e W'dhler curves.
i l l
-80 -40 0 40
4L.l
80 G,Kg/tnm*
The range of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses at
which t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l withstand a pre­
compress i o n Tension s c r i b e d number of cycles N t o f a i l u r e de­
pends a l s o on t h e magnitude of t h e con-
Fig.1.63 Hay's Diagram f o r Speci- s t a n t component of t h e stresses of t h e
mens of Tubular Blade Spars. cycle o m ( s t a t i c l o a d ) . The g r e a t e r t h e /163
s t a t i c load, t h e smaller t h e range of
s t r e s s e s a t which t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l with­
stand a given number of cycles. T h i s dependence i s u s u a l l y characterized by
Hay's diagram. A s a n example F'ig.1.63 shows t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of such a diagram.
For t u b u l a r s t e e l s p a r s a t o m = 20 -
30 kg/mm2 a n i n c r e a s e i n s t a t i c load
by a n amount Ao, l e a d s t o a decrease i n t h e f a t i g u e l i m i t by a n amount AD, M
M O.4Aom .
For duralumin s p a r s a t om = 6 -
8 kg/m2, t h e value i s Ao, M 0.3A0, .
It should be mentioned t h a t , i n t h e r e g i o n of constant compressive stresses,
t h e f a t i g u e Limits i n c r e a s e s u b s t a n t i a l l y . T h i s f a c t i s u t i l i z e d when confer­
ring s t r e n g t h t o components by cold-working (see Subsects.lb and 17).

4. Stresses- S e t UD i n t h e Blade S t r u c t u r e i n F l i g h t

In Section 1of this Chapter (Subsect.3) it was mentioned t h a t , under t h e

e f f e c t of aerodynamic f o r c e s , t h e blades of a h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t are s u b j e c t
t o appreciable a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of regimes designated
as low-and high-speed modes.
Figure 1.64 s h m t h e type of v a r i a t i o n i n amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g
stresses w i t h respect t o flying speed, for two blade s t r u c t u r e s : one w i t h a s t e e l
and one w i t h a duralumin spar. A s i n d i c a t e d i n this diagram, m a x i " a l t e r n a t i n g
stresses can arise b o t h at low speeds (braking regime) and a t maxi" f l y i n g

173
speed. As demonstrated before, t h e blades perform flexural v i b r a t i o n s such t h a t ,
a t each p o i n t of t h e spar, t h e stresses vary i n accordance w i t h a p e r i o d i c l a w
d u p l i c a t i n g each r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r . A s a t y p i c a l example, F’ig.1.65 shows
t h e recording of stresses obtained i n blade s e c t i o n s a t relative r a d i i F = 0.73
and F = 0.8 i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t rela­
t i v e l y high speed. The same diagram g i v e s
0. t h e harmonic content of t h e stresses set up
i n t h e s e blade s e c t i o n s .
30
Usually, i n a h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t p =
= 0.2 - 0.4 t h e first harmonic component of
20 t h e stresses reaches d u m values. The
second harmonic i s lower i n amplitude and
g e n e r a l l y amounts t o 30 - 70% of t h e first
harmonic. The first and second harmonics,
10
-
g e n e r a l l y t o t a l i n g 70 90%, determine t h e
magnitude of t h e t o t a l a l t e r n a t i n g blade /l64
stresses i n t h e s e regimes, s i n c e t h e higher
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 P harmonics u s u a l l y are small. Their magni­
tude almost always decreases w i t h a n i n c r e a s e
Fig.1.64. Character of Vari­ i n o r d e r of t h e harmonic. Such a type of
a t i o n i n Amplitudes of Alter­ v a r i a t i o n i n magnitude of harmonics can be
n a t i n g S t r e s s e s as a Function a t t r i b u t e d t o a decrease i n magnitude of t h e
of Flying Speed i n Blades of harmonic components of aerodynamic f o r c e s
LaJ (Tubular S t e e l ) and Mod­ on change-over t o higher harmonics.
erate (Duralumin Spar) Rigid­
i t y i n t h e Flapping Plane. For a l l blades t h e r e are exceptions t o
this rule, having t o do with t h e occurrence
of o r p r o x h i t y t o resonance.

I n low-speed modes, t h e harmonic content of t h e e f f e c t i v e stresses i s d i f ­

f e r e n t . Here t h e higher harmonics predominate, and harmonics c l o s e i n frequen­
c i e s t o t h e frequency of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e second and t h i r d over­
t o n e s are mainly d i s t i n g u i s h e d . An e s p e c i a l l y pronounced i n c r e a s e i n a l t e r n a t i n g
stresses i n t h e s e f l i g h t regimes (see Fig.l.64) t a k e s p l a c e f o r blades of low
r i g i d i t y i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e (see Sect.3, Subsect.3). For such blades, stresses
w i t h t h e f o u r t h and s i x t h harmonics are predominant (F’ig.1.66). Low-speed modes
may cause damage t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of such blades (see Table 1.21).

For a blade of moderate r i g i d i t y i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, t h e i n c r e a s e i n al­

t e r n a t i n g stresses a t low speeds i s appreciably weaker (see Fig.1.64.) and pre­
dominance of higher harmonics i s not s o marked (Fig.1.67). For such blades ( j u s t
as f o r blades of high r i g i d i t y ) high-speed f l i g h t modes may lead t o b a s i c damage
potential.

Along with a l t e r n a t i n g stresses due t o flexural v i b r a t i o n s , t h e blade s p a r

i s extended and bent by constant ( i n magnitude) c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and by t h e
constant component of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . Therefore, t h e s p a r material
works under a l t e r n a t i n g stresses w i t h a l a r g e s t a t i c load. The s t a t i c load mark­
e d l y lowers t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s p a r .
5. Hypothesis of I&near.Su"&ion of D-wae P o t e n t i a l
ar&Average Equivalent A q l i t u d e of Alternating
Stresses
I n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes, a l t e r n a t i n g stresses of widely d i f f e r i n g mag­
nitude are set up i n a s t r u c t u r e . I n this case, t h e d u r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l
f l i g h t regimes may d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y . Thus, a f l i g h t a t c r u i s i n g speed i s
u s u a l l y t h e regime of longest d u r a t i o n . I n h e l i c o p t e r s used for cargo t r a n s p o r t ,

,To t a l s t r e s s e s

CS

R e c o r d i n g of s t r e s s e s :

12.4

H a r n o n i c con t e n t

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
of h a r m o n i c of harmonic

Fig.1.65 Recording of S t r e s s e s i n Fig .1.66 Oscillogram of Alternating

Two Sections of a Helicopter Blade S t r e s s e s i n a Blade w i t h a Tubular
i n Horizontal F l i g h t Regime (p = S t e e l spar of Low R i g i d i t y i n t h e
= 0.3) and t h e i r Harmonic Content. Flapping Plane during Braking, and
t h e i r Harmonic Content.

this regime occtrpies 60 - 70% of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e . The maximum f l y i n g speed /166

of cargo h e l i c o p t e r s used i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy i s r a r e l y reached. Such heli­
c o p t e r s a l s o spend very l i t t l e t i m e i n low-speed modes which g e n e r a l l y a r e only
t r a n s i e n t regimes during takeoff and approach t o landing.

However, h e l i c o p t e r s can be used f o r widely d i f f e r i n g t y p e s of work, where

t h e d u r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l f l i g h t regimes varies. A s an e x q l e , Table 1.21 g i v e s

175
 t h e values of t h e r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of dif­
f e r e n t regimes c y i common f o r one of t h e m i l i ­
t a r y transport helicopters.

The s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e
should be determined w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of
t h e time base of a h e l i c o p t e r i n f l i g h t re­
gimes of d i f f e r i n g a l t e r n a t i n g stress l e v e l
which c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s t r u c t u r e a d i f f e r e n t
p o r t i o n of f a t i g u e damage p o t e n t i a l . To t a k e
this i n t o account it i s convenient t o use t h e
1 2 3 9 5 6 7 8 hypothesis of l i n e a r sunanation of damage po­
Number of harmonic t e n t i a l s . T h i s hypothesis presupposes t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of summing i n d i v i d u a l components
Fig.1.67 Harmonic Content of of damage p o t e n t i a l contributed by d i f f e r e n t
A l t e r n a t i n g Stresses i n a s t r e s s l e v e l s and s t i p u l a t e s t h a t f a i l u r e of
Blade of Moderate R i g i d i t y a s t r u c t u r e t a k e s p l a c e as soon as
w i t h a Pressed Duralumin Spar
i n Braking Reghe.
where
-
AN,= y
d
ANi
-
Ni
.

Here,
N, = number of cycles t o failure f o r a s t e a d i l y s u s t a i n e d stress l e v e l
w i t h amplitude a,;
AN, = number of cycles of stress w i t h amplitude o, experienced by t h e
s t r u c t u r e i n t h e i - t h f l i g h t regime.

The r a t i o A i , = -AN,
Ni
i s usually c a l l e d t h e damage p o t e n t i a l of a s t r u c t u r e

i n a regime w i t h a n amplitude of stresses oi, w h i l e ANxis designated as t o t a l

damageability .
It has been proved by o t h e r authors that, a t a c e r t a i n a l t e r n a t i o n of stress
regimes, failure of a s t r u c t u r e may t a k e p l a c e as soon as

However, t h e cases discussed i n t h o s e papers, f o r t h e most p a r t , do not

cover stress conditions of t h e h e l i c o p t e r parts. Therefore, we can almost al­
ways use eq.(ll.l+.) i n t h e calculations.

A s a consequence of t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance, t h e
damage p o t e n t i a l of i n d i v i d u a l s p e c h e n s of a given s t r u c t u r e may d i f f e r even
for one and t h e same stress l e v e l . S t r u c t u r e s w i t h t h e lowest values of endur­
ance are s u b j e c t t o maxi” damageability. Therefore, one can talk of damage
p o t e n t i a l as corresponding t o a c e r t a i n p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e .

If, i n eq.(ll.l+), t h e values of N, corresponding t o a n assigned p r o b a b i l i t y

of failure P a s d are given, t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e will a l s o be e q u a l t o
176
 -
P a s d a t ANx = 1. T h i s makes it p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e formula f o r c a l c u l a t i n g
t h e safe n m b e r of c y c l e s of stress N, w i t h t h e assigned p r o b a b i l i t y of failure
P a s d determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of s t r u c t u r e s based on endurance conditions:

Here,
cyI
- -
- AN,
NE. 1
= r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of t h e regime w i t h stress 0,;

Ne. = number of c y c l e s of stress during t h e l i f e of t h e s t r u c - /167

ture when determining t h e r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l
f l i g h t regimes c y i ( g e n e r a l l y speaking, we can t a k e any
a r b i t r a r y i n t e r v a l of t h e service t i m e of a h e l i c a p t e r w i t h
a number of c y c l e s N t h a t need not a t a l l be equal t o t h e
number of cycles of stress during t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e
of t h e s t r u c t u r e N8. 1 );
N, = number of cycles of s t r e s s of amplitude CY, a t which t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s equal t o t h a t assigned ( P a r d ) .

If t h e a c t i n g s t r e s s e s are lower t h a n t h e m i n i " f a t i g u e l i m i t , t h e n

damageability i s not introduced i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e . I n this case, t h e number of
cycles N, i n eq.(11.5) can be set equal t o i n f i n i t y .

L e t us introduce t h e concept of r e l a t i v e d u r a t i o n of regimes E which add a

damage p o t e n t i a l t o t h e s t r u c t u r e :

where Nd i s t h e number of cycles of stress during t h e Life of t h e s t r u c t u r e

which c o n t r i b u t e s t o damageability.

Thus, during t h e s e r v i c e l i f e R, t h e s t r u c t u r e i s damaged only during a time

equal t o ER.

It o f t e n proves convenient, f o r g r e a t e r c l a r i t y of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , t o in­

troduce t h e concept of average equivalent amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses.

The average equivalent amplitude of stresses i s a n amplitude constant i n

t i m e and a c t i n g during a p a r t of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e e q u a l t o ER, which c o n t r i b u t e s
damageability t o t h e s t r u c t u r e equal t o t h e damageability introduced by ampli­
t u d e s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses d i f f e r i n g i n magnitude i n a l l f l i g h t regimes en­
countered during t h e s e r d c e of a h e l i c o p t e r .

I n introducing this concept, it i s assumed t h a t a t stresses g r e a t e r t h a n

t h e f a t i g u e limit, t h e endurance of t h e s t r u c t u r e can be determined as

I
 N,=N, r:)". (11.6)

Then, s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.( ll.6) i n t o eq.( ll.4), we o b t a i n

where surmnation i s performed only for those regimes that raise t h e damage PO­
t e n t i a l t o the structure.

If we introduce one equivalent stress l e v e l w i t h a n ampztude oeq and w i t h

a number of cycles determined from t h e s t i p u l a t i o n that s t r e s s e s aeq a c t con­
t i n u o u s l y during a p a r t of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e ER, i.e., that Neq = eNS.t, t h e n we
can write

Conse quent l y ,

The c a l c u l a t i o n of equivalent stresses f o r a blade of a h e l i c o p t e r a t t h e

maximally s t r e s s e d s e c t i o n at a r e l a t i v e r a d i u s 'F = 0.74. i s given as an example
i n Subsection 12; see a l s o Table 1.21. The s p a r of this blade i s a s t e e l tube
squashed i n t o a n e l l i p s e over i t s e n t i r e length, beginning from r a d i u s F = 0.3.
The finimum f a t i g u e limit of t h e t u b u l a r blade a t this s t a t i o n , based on r e s u l t s
of dynamic t e s t s , can be t a k e n as equal t o o w n i n= 13 kg/mm".

S t r e s s analysis of a blade with a t u b u l a r s t e e l spar i s u s u a l l y c a r r i e d out

i n two planes: i n t h e p l a n e of m i n i " (o,.)and i n t h e p l a n e of maximum r i g i d i t y
(a,). In this case, it my happen that, at some p o i n t of t h e perimeter of t h e
s p a r s e c t i o n , t h e amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses reaches a magnitude ax =
= &
,= greater, t h a n t h e amplitude oy .
However, u s u a l l y owing t o t h e phase d i f f e r e n c e of t h e stresses a c t i n g i n
t h e s e two planes, such a magnitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i s almost never
reached. Therefore, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a blade we can use t h e
approxjmate formula:

The c o e f f i c i e n t 5 can be c a l c u l a t e d i f a simultaneous recording of stresses

a x and oy i s a v a i l a b l e . If t h e r e are no d a t a f o r determining 5 , t h e n s u f f i c i e n t l y
reliable results can be obtained by assuming 5 = 0.5.

6. D i m e r s i o n of &he-Amplitudes of Al.ter-wtinn S t r e s s e s
i n-
i anAssigned. F l i g h t Regime

In measuring a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n f l i g h t it has been found t h a t , at an

assigned f l i g h t regime, t h e magnitudes of stresses differ during t h e f l i g h t re­
gime and i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t s . T h i s makes it necessary t o introduce t h e average
equivalent amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n a l l f l i g h t regimes.

To determine this amplitude, we c a n use s p e c i a l oscj-llogram decoders which

permit determining t h e number of amplitudes of stresses n, located i n t h e range
d'k=okR­

where o, and o k - 1 are t h e amplitude levels of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s s e l e c t e d f o r

t h e calculation.

Then, t h e average equivalent amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s i n t h e re­

gime i n question can be determined by a formula analogous t o eq.(11.9):

(11.10)

Here, ­
n, = r e l a t i v e number of c y c l e s w i t h amplitude ok

where
nk = number of Cycles with amplitude 0, w h i l e nx i s t h e t o t a l number
of cycles recorded by t h e decoder;
ei = r e l a t i v e number of cycles w i t h s t r e s s e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e m i n i "
f a t i g u e limit i n t h e i - t h f l i g h t regime.

Summation w i t h r e s p e c t t o k i s c a r r i e d out only f o r t h o s e time i n t e r v a l s i n

t h e i - t h regime i n which t h e amplitude of stresses 0, i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e mini­
mum f a t i g u e l i m i t o w n i n .

When determining t h e average equivalent amplitude during t h e e n t i r e s e r v i c e

l i f e of a h e l i c o p t e r by means of eq.(ll.9), t h e amplitude i n each f l i g h t regime
should be c a l c u l a t e d from eq.(ll.lO), w h i l e t h e relative d u r a t i o n of t h e regimes
r a i s i n g t h e damage p o t e n t i a l of t h e s t r u c t u r e i s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e formula

To s i m p l i f y t h e decoding, it i s g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e t o r e p l a c e determination /169

of t h e equivalent amplitude by t h e maximum amplitude i n each regime; this raises
 t h e r e l i a b i l i t y margin but leads t o some decrease i n s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e s t r u c ­
ture

7. Method of Calculating Service L i f e w i t h t h e u s e

of Reliability C o e f f i c i e n t s

The problem of determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a given s t r u c t u r e reduces t o

f i n d i n g some safe number of cycles of stress i n s e r v i c e N, a t wl-ich t h e prob­
a b i l i t y of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e i s very small and equal t o t h e assigned
value. Lf it were p o s s i b l e t o t e s t a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of specimens, i t
would be easy t o f i n d N, after determining t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
t h e i r s e r v i c e l i f e (Fig.1.68). Numerous methods of c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e
[see, f o r example (Ref.43)I a r e based on this approach. However, i t i s u s u a l l y
necessary t o determine t h e s e r v i c e l i f e - of a s t r u c t u r e on t h e basis of dynamic
tests of a f e w specimens n of t h e s t r u c t u r e , where it i s impossible t o determine
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e w i t h t h e required accuracy. Therefore, t h e
method of c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e , based on t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
of c e r t a i n margins of r e l i a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of cycles llN and
amplitude of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s V0,has become popular i n p r a c t i c a l engineering.

fig.1.68 Determination of Safe Number of Cycles,

Based on t h e Service L i f e D i s t r i b u t i o n Curve.

To c a l c u l a t e t h e s e r v i c e l i f e by this method, it i s necessary t o make a

stress a n a l y s i s of a s t r u c t u r e i n various f l i g h t regimes, t o deter;mine t h e equi­
valent s t r e s s e s , and t o conduct dynamic t e s t s of one o r s e v e r a l specimens of t h e
s t r u c t u r e a t s t r e s s e s of

%d =%%9 - (1l.m
The margin of r e l i a b i l i t y i s introduced here t o t a k e i n t o account t h e
p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n values of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s . s e s i n i d e n t i c a l units of d i f ­
ferent helicopters.

180
 After t e s t i n g t h e specimens and obtaining t h e minimum value of cycles t o
failure Nmin,we determine t h e safe n m b e r of cycles of stress i n s e r v i c e , by
means of t h e formula

The margin of r e l i a b i l i t y qN i s introduced t o take i n t o account t h e d i s - /170

p e r s i o n of t h e endurance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Then, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e i n hours can be determined from t h e

formula

where f i s t h e frequency of s t r e s s i n g t h e blade i n s e r v i c e ( c y c l e s p e r minute).

In some cases, t h e endukance of a s t r u c t u r e migM depend on t h e frequency

of stress a p p l i c a t i o n . Therefore, if dynamic tests are c a r r i e d o u t a t a frequency
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e frequency of s t r e s s i n g i n f l i g h t , it W i l l be necessary t o irr­
troduce a n a d d i t i o n a l margin f o r t h e frequency of s t r e s s i n g vi.T h i s margin i s
introduced mainly f o r components made of duralumin and f o r tests c a r r i e d out a t
a frequency which i s by a f a c t o r of 5 - 10 higher t h a n t h e frequency of stress­
i n g i n f l i g h t . I n this case, t h e value i s t a k e n as equal t o T i = 1.5 -
2.0.
When allowing f o r t h e s e f a c t o r s , t h e formula f o r determining t h e service l i f e
can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

If we assume t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e endurance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s obeys

t h e normal l a w and t h a t t h e parameters of this l a w are known, then, as a l r e a d y
mentioned, t h e magnitudes of t h e required r e l i a b i l i t y margins w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h e number of cycles 7lN and a q l i t u d e of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses could be deter­
mined by c a l c u l a t i o n , a f t e r assigning a c e r t a i n , s u f f i c i e n t l y small p r o b a b i l i t y
of f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n s e r v i c e . However, such c a l c u l a t i o n s cannot l a y
claim t o high accuracy. Therefore, we can use t h e method of assigning t h e magni­
t u d e s of t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s on t h e basis of h e l i c o p t e r operating experience,

On t h e basis of such experience, t h e safety f a c t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e am­

p l i t u d e of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses To can be t a k e n as equal t o 1.2, whereas t h e
f a c t o r w i t h respect t o t h e number of c y c l e s of stress yN varies as a f u n c t i o n of
t h e number of t e s t e d specimens and t h e degree of e s s e n t i a l i t y of t h e u n i t f o r
f l i g h t safety

A l l units and components of a h e l i c o p t e r can be divided i n t o f o u r groups

based on degree of essentiality f o r f l i g h t safety:

Grom I - units whose failure l e a d s ' t o immediate and complete d i s r u p t i o n of

 o p e r a b i l i t y and s a f e t y , w i t h a d i f f i c u l t l y d e t e c t a b l e i n c i p i e n t f a t i g u e crack.
T h i s group i n c l u d e s blades whose s p a r i s covered and does not permit p o s t f l i g h t
i n s p e c t i o n , a v a r i e t y of components of t h e hub and c o n t r o l s of t h e main and aux­
i l i a r y r o t o r s not a c c e s s i b l e t o inspection, t h e r o t o r s h a f t , e t c .

-
Grour, I1 u n i t s whose failure could l e a d t o imediate and complete disrup­
t i o n of o p e r a b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e and f l i g h t safety, b u t where e a r l y detec­
t i o n of i n c i p i e n t f a t i g u e cracks i s p o s s i b l e . T h i s group i n c l u d e s blades w i t h a
r e l i a b l y operating system s i g n a l i n g t h e appearance of cracks, as w e l l as a l l
o t h e r u n i t s c l a s s i f i e d i n Group I provided t h a t i n c i p i e n t f a t i g u e cracks can be
detected i n preflight inspection.

-
Grow I11 u n i t s whose f a i l u r e l e a d s
T A B U 1-16 t o p a r t i a l l o s s of o p e r a b i l i t y and ell-
dangers f l i g h t s a f e t y , b u t permits forced
SAFETY FACTORS WITH RESPEGT TO landing without damage t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r .
NUMBER OF C Y C W - T h i s group i n c l u d e s numerous f u s e l a g e
p a r t s and even t h e reduction g e a r frame­
work i f it i s redundant.

Specimens n
Group
-
Grow IV u n i t s whose f a i l u r e /171
causes p a r t i a l loss of o p e r a b i l i t y , al-
IV
__­
~~ lass continuance of f l i g h t , does not lead
t o r a p i d failure of o t h e r units, and per­
12 6.0 6 2,.5 mits d e t e c t i n g rupture i n ground inspec­
8 4.0 4 2.0 t i o n . T h i s group includes numerous ele­
6 3.0 3 1.5 ments of t h e fuselage, s t a b i l i z e r of t h e
4 2.5 2 1.o h e l i c o p t e r , and of o t h e r r e l a t e d s t r u c ­
tural elements.

>L
The more e s s e n t i a l t h e u n i t , t h e
"
The f a c t o r s TN given f o r Group I g r e a t e r should be t h e magnitude of t h e
o f t h e units are double t h e u s u a l s a f e t y f a c t o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number
values, s i n c e t h e y i n c l u d e a l s o of c y c l e s . The following values of t h e s e
t h e f a c t o r s Tc o f t e n introduced t o f a c t o r s are proposed here (Table 1.16).
allow f o r inaccuracy of t h e hy­
p o t h e s i s of l i n e a r s u m a t i o n of &I p r a c t i c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o re­
damageability . a l i z e s a f e t y f a c t o r s f o r t h e number of
c y c l e s requrired i n Groups I and I1 of
h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s only at a very low fre­
quency of s t r e s s a l t e r n a t i o n i n f l i g h t . I n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e w i t h
such l a r g e s a f e t y f a c t o r s f o r a l l b a s i c h e l i c o p t e r units, tests up t o a very
l a r g e number of cycles, much g r e a t e r t h a n lo7 cycles,wouB be r e q u i r e d ; this
would t a k e a g r e a t d e a l of time. Therefore, a n a c c e l e r a t e d method of dynamic
tests w i t h a s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number of c y c l e s of T N = 1 o r of even less
t h a n Unity i s gaining i n p o p u l a r i t y . I n this case, t h e required r e l i a b i l i t y i s
secured by introducing ordy t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r s t r e s s e s . To convert t h e fac­
t o r TN t o t h e f a c t o r for we g e n e r a l l y use e q . ( l l . S ) w i t h t h e exponent m = 6.
With this approach, t h e required f a c t o r of s a f e t y f o r t h e amplitude of alternat­
i n g stresses differs, depending on t h e number of t e s t e d specimens and i s g r e a t e r
f o r duralumin, m a k i n g it necessary t o introduce a n a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r f o r t h e d i f ­
ference of t h e frequency i n tests and i n f l i g h t .

182
 I?, t h e safe number of cycles i s determined
1 1.8 2.0 w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e minimum number of c y c l e s
2 1.7 1.9 of stress of t h e specimen t o failure N, =
3 1.6 1.8
-- "in
6 1.5 1.7

8. Method of A.F.Selikhov f o r Calcu&tirv: t h e Required S a f e t y /L72

Factor
_- w_i t h Respect
_
t o t.h e Number
~
of Cycles
-
+ilN
~

A s mentioned above i n Subsection 2, t h e endurance of a s t r u c t u r e has a sen­

s i t i v i t y threshold w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of cycles No s o t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n f u n c t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n of
-. ­
low p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e de­
'f y (lOg>JmL") d a t e s from t h e normal l a w .
~

/n=lOO Theoretically, one could s e l e c t

a s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number
of c y c l e s such t h a t t h e prob-
a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c -
ture would be equal t o zero.
However, as shown elsewhere
(Ref.&), f o r a s u f f i c i e n t l y ac-
c u r a t e determination of t h e sen-
s i t i v i t y threshold a l a r g e num-
ber of specimens i s required s o
t h a t i t u s u a l l y i s impossible t o
determine i t s magnitude f o r a
6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 IogN
s t r u c t u r e . Therefore, one gener-
a l l y assumes t h a t t h e logarithms
of t h e number of cycles t o f a i l -
Fig.1.69 D i s t r i b u t i o n of M i n i " Endurance ure l o g N are d i s t r i b u t e d ac-
Values f o r a Different Number of Specimens. cording t o t h e normal l a w and
t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r e
i s not based on t h e c o n d i t i o n
t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of fa ilure i s P = 0 but on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t this prob­
a b i l i t y i s s u f f i c i e n t l y small, say e q u a l t o P = 1/10,000. If t h e r e a c t u a l l y i s
B threshold of . s e n s i t i v i t y p r e s e n t , t h e n t h e s t i p u l a t i o n of such a small prob-
 a b i l i t y of failure, c a l c u l a t e d i n accordance w i t h t h e normal l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
tends t o be more rigorous t h a n t h e requirement P = 0 which could be imposed i f
t h e value of No were c a l c u l a b l e . Therefore, a determination of safety f a c t o r s
on t h e basis of a somewhat g r e a t e r p r o b a b i l i t y of failure, s a y P = l/lOOO and
even P = 1/100, i s e n t i r e l y permissible.

To determine t h e required safety f a c t o r s f o r t h e number of cycles we can

use t h e method proposed by A.F.Selikhov. T h i s method involves t h e following:

Assuming that t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms of t h e numbers of c y c l e s

t o failure of a s t r u c t u r e obeys t h e normal l a w

t h e n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e minimum endurance values o f a c e r t a i n batch of speci­

mens of this s t r u c t u r e can be d e t e r d n e d from t h e formula

where
n = nmber of t e s t e d specimens;

Q(x) = Laplace f u n c t i o n mlogN - log '

SIOKN fl > *

The c h a r a c t e r of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of ym1 ( l o g N) f o r values S, = 0 .l5

and n = 5, 10, and l00 i s i n d i c a t e d i n Fig.1.69. The values of t h e mathematical
expectations and t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n s of this d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f u n c t i o n
of S l o g N and n can be found from t h e curves presented i n Figs.l.70 and 1.71.

The mathematical expectation of t h e minimum endurance value can be deter­

mined by t h e formula

mlqNmln "hyN- AmZogN.

The value of AmloKN i s determined as a f u n c t i o n of t h e mean-square devia­

t i o n S l o K N and of t h e number of t e s t e d specimens, from t h e curve i n Fig.l.70.

The mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e m i n i m u m endurance value S lo mi II referred

t o S l o K N i s given i n F'ig.l.71.
*
Thus, i f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance of t h e /173
s t r u c t u r e are known, eq.(ll.15) can be used f o r determining t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
t h e minimum endurance values when t e s t i n g a smallqumber of specimens n. Know­
i n g this d i s t r i b u t i o n , we can determine t h e p r o b a b i u . t y of failure of a s t r u c ­
ture at a number of c y c l e s of stress of
184,
 (11.16)

where
'qN = r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of cycles;
N m i n = m i n i m u m value of t h e number of cycles t o f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c t u r e
i n tests.

Taking t h e logarithm of eq.(11.16), we o b t a i n

hgNs =E --logqhl,
where
E

If dynamic tests of f u l l - s c a l e models a r e c a r r i e d out a t loads equivalent

t o t h e loads a c t i n g on t h e s t r u c t u r e i n question i n f l i g h t , it can be taken as
c e r t a i n t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance i n dynamic t e s t s and under s e r v i c e
conditions i s i d e n t i c a l . A d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s can arise only from
e r r o r s i n t h e dynamic tests and from t h e s c a l e e f f e c t i n cases i n which t h e
volume of t h e l o a d e d ' m a t e r i a l i n t h e s t r u c t u r e i s g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e specimen.
An example would be t h e case i n which a specimen c u t out of a blade i s loaded i n
t h e t e s t only on i t s midsection. If dynamic t e s t s are c a r r i e d out a t loads d i f ­
fering from t h o s e a c t i n g i n f l i g h t , t h e n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
of endurance i n s e r v i c e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r f r o m t h o s e obtained i n t e s t s and
can be determined only a p p r o h a t e l y by a conversion based on s p e c i f i c assump­
t i o n s w i t h respect t o t h e hGhler curve.

If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance under s e r v i c e conditions c p e e r v has been

determined, t h e n t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of one a r b i t r a r i l y t a k e n
specimen of a s t r u c t u r e i n s e r v i c e at t h e given outcome of dynamic t e s t s s a /174­
can be determined from t h e expression

(11.u)

The t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of this specimen of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n

s e r v i c e w i l l be equal t o t h e sum of t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s m u l t i p l i e d by
t h e a b s o l u t e p o s s i b i l i t y of each outcome cpmi (<,)dS, :

After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e value of this i n t e g r a l , we can construct t h e depend­

ence of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e s t r u c t u r e P on t h e adopted magnitude
of t h e f a c t o r of safety w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e number of c y c l e s 'QN.

If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance i n service and i n tests i s i d e n t i c a l

I
t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y P depends only on two f a c t o r s : t h e number of t e s t e d speci­
mens n and t h e r a t i o of t h e l o g a r i t h of t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y l o g TN t o t h e
mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e numbers of c y c l e s t o failure of
t h e specimens SI, ( F i g J.72)

-A -%gN

1ni
1
50
w
w
R

Fig.l.70 Change i n Magnitude of Fig J.71 Mean-Square Deviations

Mathematical Expectation of M i n i - of M i n i " Endurance Values as a
mum Endurance Values as a Function Function of t h e Number of Tested
of t h e Number of Tested Specimens. Specimens.

Thus, t o determine t h e required s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number of cycles, we

can conduct d y d c tests on n specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e , determine t h e mean-
square d e v i a t i o n S l o g and Nmin and, after a s s i g n i n g a c e r t a i n p r o b a b i l i t y of
failure P a a d , dercve TN f r o m t h e curves i n Fig.1.72. After this, t h e safe number
a
of cycles t o failure can be determined from eq.(11.12).

This approach i s p o s s i b l e when only f e w specimens are t e s t e d . The value of

S l o g can be taken from t h e r e s d t s of o t h e r tests of similar structures".
If we assume beforehand t h a t S l o g N= 0.2 ( t h i s value i s c l o s e t o t h e m i n i ­
mum mean-square d e v i a t i o n s observed f o r most h e l i c o p t e r u n i t s ) and a s s i g n t h e
p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e i n d i c a t e d i n Table 1.18, t h e n values of t h e s a f e t y fac­

+* A similar approach as r e l a t e d t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a i r p l a n e s t r u c t u r e s w a s
proposed by V.L.Raykher.

186

,
 t o r s c l o s e t o those given i n Table 1.16
can be obtained. Usually, t h e values
of Slog are higher. Therefore, t h e
s a f e t y f a c t o r s obtained by this method
are l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e given i n t h e table
(Table 1.16).

The main problem i n using t h e

method presented here l i e s i n defining
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e s t r u c ­
t u r e t o be assigned i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of
s e r v i c e l i f e . Frequently, t h e prob­
abilities recommended by d i f f e r e n t
sources d i f f e r by three o r f o u r o r d e r s
of magnitude [see, f o r example (Ref.43)I.
The values f o r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y pro- /176
posed here ( i n Table 1.18) were s e l e c t e d
w i t h t h e a i m of having them correspond,
w i t h more o r l e s s r e l i a b i l i t y , t o num­
Sb, H bers of cycles smaller t h a n t h e sensi­
t i v i t y t h r e s h o l d N o . Therefore, t h e s e
Fig.1.72 Diagram f o r S e l e c t i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s should be regarded as
Magnitude of t h e Safety Factor V N c e r t a i n c ondi t iona 1 values p e rt a i n ing
w i t h Respect t o t h e Number of Q c l e s t o t h e normal l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n . The
of S t r e s s . a c t u a l values a r e much lower o r even
e q u a l t o zero.

9 . Determination of S l o g a t Given F i d u c i a l P r o b a b i l i t y
- _ __ - - -~

A s follows from t h e preceding Subsection, t h e l o g a r i t h of t h e f a c t o r of

s a f e t y w i t h respect t o t h e number of c y c l e s log vN needed f o r ensuring t h e given
p r o b a b i l i t y of failure i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of <he logarithms ' o f
t h e numbers of cycles t o f a i l u r e of t h e
TABLE 1.18 s t r u c t u r e S l o gN . The g r e a t e r Slo N J
t h e g r e a t e r should be t h e f a c t o r TN.
Therefore, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of determin-
Group o f U n i t s i n g t h e s e r v i c e Life of a s t r u c t u r e de­
of Efferent ~ ~ ~ P
~ r o b a
~ b i l i t
t y of
i Failure
~ l i ~ ~
for S a f e t y of St ruct ure pending on t h e a d m i s s i b i l i t y of numer­
ous adopted assumptions i s l a r g e l y re­
l a t e d w i t h t h e accuracy of determining
Group I ­ 1
qooo
slog N

Group I1 ­
1 Usually, 3 - 5 specimens of a f u l l -
1000 s c a l e s t r u c t u r e are t e s t e d t o e s t a b l i s h
i t s s e r v i c e l i f e . I n many cases it is
Group I11 - 1
considered s u f f i c i e n t t o t e s t only one
100
specimen. There i s no doubt t h a t , w i t h
Group IV - 1
such a small number of t e s t e d s t r u c ­
10
t u r e s , t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y f o r a
s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e determination of

187
 II I I I 1I1111111111l1l 1l 1l1l 1I I I1 Il I I I l I

Slog . Therefore, it i s assumed i n t h e method proposed by A.F.Selikhov ( s e e

Subsect.8) t h a t S l o g cannot be determined i n a l l cases. With a small number of
t e s t e d specimens, we can t a k e SlogN based on t h e t e s t r e s u l t s of analogous speci­
mens of another s t r u c t u r e t e s t e d e a r l i e r . Such an approach g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s
t h e process of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e and proves extremely u s e f u l i n
practice

A determination of Slor with s u f f i c i e n t r e l i a b i l i t y i s p o s s i b l e by t e s t i n g

at least t e n specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e . For an estimation of this r e l i a b i l i t y ,
one o f t e n uses t h e concept of f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of S l o gN .

The f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y f3 i s usually s e l e c t e d such t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e t o

consider confident t h a t t h e value SlogN l i e s i n t h e i n t e r v a l :

where -
S l o g = estimation of Slog obtained f o r a l i m i t e d number of t e s t re­
sults;
q = c o e f f i c i e n t g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y i n magnitude.

It follows from t h e aforesaid t h a t t h e unknown value of S l o g N may l i e w i t k

i n t_he confidence limits, with a p r o b a b i l i t y f3. Consequently, this can be equal
t o qSlogN. I n this case, t h e logarithm of t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r t h e number of
cycles log TN i n conformity with t h e method presented i n Subsection 8 increases
i n proportion t o t h e quantity q, which i s t h e reason f o r t h e f a c t that t h e cal­
culated value of t h e s e r v i c e L i f e decreases.

The value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t q depends on t h e number of t e s t e d specimens

and on t h e adopted value of t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y f3.

Table 1.19 gives t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t q and t h e values of t h e

f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y f3 corresponding t o them, which we have taken from t h e book
of E.S.Wenze1 IlTheory of P r o b a b i l i t y n .

A s follows from Table 1.19$ i f f o r example - - a t o t a l of 25 specimens i s

t e s t e d and t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y i s not l e s s t h a n YO%, t h e n t h e experimentally
obtained value of slog must be increased by a f a c t o r of 1.15 when c a l c u l a t i n g
t h e s e r v i c e Life.

I n assigning t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y , it must be borne i n m i n d t h a t t h e /177

r e l i a b i l i t y of determining S l o r N should not exceed t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of determin­
ing a l l other parameters e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e . T h i s
p e r t a i n s p r i m a r i l y t o parameters determining t h e l a w of d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance
i n t h e region o f small p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a X u r e , such as t h e threshold q of sen­
s i t i v i t y No, and t o t h e character of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w i t s e l f which only ap­
p r o x i m t e l y can be taken as logarithmically normal.

Therefore, t h e f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y p, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of
determining SlogN, can be lowered s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o values a t which t h e coeffi­
188
c i e n t q will be not much greater than Unity.

Based on t h e s e considerations, i n determining t h e f a c t o r s TN we o f t e n as­

sume q = 1and use t h e value of S l o g as not being t h e value corresponding t o
t h e upper l i m i t s of t h e confidence i n t e r v a l a t s u f f i c i e n t l y high B .

10. Dispersion i n t h e Stress Levels f o r Various S t r u c t u r a l

-
Reliability Margin w i t h Remect t o t h e
Amplitude
- l t e r n. a t-i n g Stresses Q',
o f.x_

The amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses s e t up i n f l i g h t i n i n d i v i d u a l speci­

m e n s of h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s of i d e n t i c a l s t r u c t u r e d i f f e r considerably.

Actual measurements have shown that, i n i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t regimes, t h e ampli­

t u d e s of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses d i f f e r both f o r t h e blades of one and t h e same
r o t o r and f o r blades of d i f f e r e n t r o t o r s . This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e disper­
s i o n of t h e parameters of series-produced blades because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r
s i z e and shape and hence i n t h e i r
weight. Usually, t h e r e a r e d e v i a t i o n s
TABLE 1.19 from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l contour of t h e
p r o f i l e and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e geo-
Values of Fiducia l P r o b a b i l i t y B metric twist of t h e blade. Further-
in % for Different q more, when i n s t a l l i n g t h e blades on
t h e h e l i c o p t e r and a d j u s t i n g t h e coning
1.06-1 1.1 I 1.15 1.20 11.25 I 1.3
of t h e r o t o r , c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s arise
i n t h e blade s e t t i n g angle. A l l this
n=5 14.6 24.1 35.5 46.1 55.6 63.7 u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s t o some d i f f e r e n c e i n
n=10 20.8 34 49 62 72.2 79.7 t h e operating conditions of i n d i v i d u a l
n=25 32.7 51.8 70.6 83.2 90.5 94.4 blades and, as a consequence, t o a dis­
n=50 45.2 68.2 86 94 97.4 98.8 p e r s i o n of t h e amplitudes of alternat­
i n g s t r e s s e s set up i n i d e n t i c a l f l i g h t
regimes.

There i s a l s o a d i f f e r e n c e i n f l i g h t regime parameters a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

manner of p i l o t i n g by i n d i v i d u a l p i l o t s .
h o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e , which i s not smaller b u t might even be g r e a t e r , i s ob­
served i n t h e stress amplitudes of a l l o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r p a r t s . The d i s p e r s i o n
i n stress amplitude i s e s p e c i a l l y great i n cmponents where a l t e r n a t i n g loads
from i n d i v i d u a l blades should be e q u a l t o zero when added ( i f t h e blades are
i d e a l l y i d e n t i c a l ) , f o r a l l harmonics w i t h t h e exception of harmonics t h a t are
m u l t i p l e s of t h e number of blades. If t h e blade parameters are d i f f e r e n t -and
this i s p r a c t i c a l l y always t h e case - t h e n t h e small a l t e r n a t i n g loads w i t h har­
monic frequencies t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e number of blades i n t h e s e h e l i c o p t e r
u n i t s will be supplemenbed by relatively high loads w i t h o t h e r harmonics, having
magnitudes p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e magnitude of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n blade parameters.
The s c a t t e r i n g of t h e values of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g stresses i n such units may be
very g r e a t . Usually, such units i n c l u d e t h e following: automatic p i t c h control,
r o t o r c o n t r o l components, and f u s e l a g e p a r t s ; i n t h e latter, it i s mai* the
r e d u c t i o n gear frame t h a t i s e s p e c i a l l g stressed by a l t e r n a t i n g loads.
 To allow f o r a l l above f a c t o r s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e , we w i l l /178
introduce t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e amplitude of alter­
nating stresses %. T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t should ensure o p e r a t i o n a l r e l i a b i l i t y of
any s t r u c t u r a l specimen i n a group of h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e ex­
i s t i n g s c a t t e r i n g i n t h e a l t e r n a t i n g stress values.

Usually, some h e l i c o p t e r i s a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d for measuring t h e alter­

nating stresses i n a s t r u c t u r e . The a l t e r n a t i n g stresses ome a s obtained i n tests
w i t h this h e l i c o p t e r are t h e n used f o r conducting dynamic tests. T h i s means
that t h e tests are made w i t h stresses o t e s t - - Tu o m e a e . Therefore, t h e method
presented above ( s e e Subsect.8) of determining t h e r e l i a b i l i t y margin vN
and a
safe l i f e yields r e s u l t s t h a t can be applied o‘nly t o a specimen of t h e s t r u c t u r e
i n which stresses equal t o o t e s t are a c t i n g . For a l l o t h e r specimens of this
s t r u c t u r e t h e s e r v i c e l i f e w i l l be longer i f t h e a c t i v e stresses o a c t < o t e s t
and s h o r t e r i f o a C t > I S t e s t o

Let us determine t h e value of t h e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t Tu from t h e con­

d i t i o n that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r u n i t i n question Pc,
w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e x i s t i n g d i s p e r s i o n in t h e amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g
stresses, i s equal t o t h e assigned p r o b a b i l i t y P a s d . Usually, this value is
t a k e n t o be t h e same as t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e Po of t h e u n i t i n which t h e
a l t e r n a t i n g stresses o t e s t adopted i n dynamic t e s t s are a c t i v e .

Thus, i f t h e value of V N i s chosen from t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y

of failure of t h e specimen w i t h stresses o t e s t i s e q u a l t o Po = P a s d , t h e n t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of o t h e r specimens of this s t r u c t u r e can be determined
by means of t h e formula

Here, P, i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r u n i t i n which stresses

equal t o IS are s e t up. I n this case, t h e endurance d i s t r i b u t i o n c p s e r v deter­
mined on t h e basis of dynamic tests f o r some s e l e c t e d equivalent stress l e v e l
which enters eq.(11.20) should be r e c a l c u l a t e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e f a c t
that, i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e , d i f f e r e n t equivalent stresses are
set up.

If we assume t h a t t h e endurance changes i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w

cmN=const, (11.21)

t h e n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n y s e r v( 5 ) can be set equal t o

190
where
( S l o g )o = mean-square d e v i a t i o n of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e number of c y c l e
l o g a r i t h m a t stresses o a c t d i f f e r i n g from those used i n t h e
dynamic tests;
(mlo )a = mathematical expectation of this d i s t r i b u t i o n ;
o t e s t = stresses i n t h e t e s t ;
o a C t = stresses a c t i n g i n some h e l i c o p t e r specimen.

kt u s assume t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e a c t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g stress ampli­

tudes i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of a s t r u c t u r e can be t a k e n as l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y /119
normal. Then t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e h e l i c o p t e r u n i t i n question w i l l
be e q u a l t o

where y l O gD a c t i s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of t h e a c t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g stress ampli­

t u d e s (Fig.1.73).

Here, it must be borne i n mind t h a t t h e value of o t e s t adopted f o r dynamic

t e s t s i s s e l e c t e d a r b i t r a r i l y , based on t h e r e s u l t s of measuring stresses i n one
randomly chosen h e l i c o p t e r or i n s e v e r a l h e l i c o p t e r s . Therefore, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
d i s t r i b u t i o n of f a i l u r e P, f o r units w i t h d i f f e r e n t a c t i n g s t r e s s e s w i l l shift
along t h e a x i s log o ( s e e Fig.1.73) depending on t h e adopted value of u t e s t s o
t h a t , a t oact = o t e s t, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e P, would be e q u a l t o P a a d i n
view of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e value of r\, w a s s e l e c t e d from this condition. Hence,
it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e value of Pmea8 will depend on t h e q u a n t i t y o t e e t .
Consequently, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y P m e a s i s a c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y f o r a
s p e c i f i c , randomly s e l e c t e d value of ot e . The t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of
a u n i t , a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d from a group of h e l i c o p t e r s Pc, can be obtained as
t h e sum of c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s P m e a 6 m u l t i p l i e d by t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of oc­
currence, i n this unit, of stresses which had been t a k e n as t h e basis f o r t h e
dynamic t e s t s Y l O g om, d l o g o:

If t h e stresses are measured i n one and t h e same helicopter, t h e n we can

consider t h a t
 I I I 1l11111l111111111111IlI1lIl1lIl

If t h e measurement i s made on
several specimens of a s t r u c t u r e /180
arid i f , i n t h e dynamic tests, t h e
following stresses are assigned :

where om a v i s t h e average ampli­

t u d e of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses
measured on several specimens of a
structure, then the distribution
paramet er' y10 & J' , e 8 8 should be de-
Fig.1.73 Character of t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n termined as t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n para-
o f y l o g and P, f o r Different o t e s - - meters of t h e average values of al­
- Toomeas t e r n a t i n g stresses

It follows from eq.(U.25) that t h e t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of failure Pc depends

upon t h e q u a n t i t y 7,. Therefore, a f t e r assigning Pc = Pas*,we can determine
t h e necessary value of To. It i s evident t h a t i n this case t h e required value
of ?l a
depends on t h e l a w of a l t e r n a t i n g stress d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t speci­
m e n s of i d e n t i c a l h e l i c o p t e r units y l 0 g o a c t .
To determine t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w we can use d a t a from d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s analyses which
are o f t e n performed on t h e sqne h e l i c o p t e r units i n t e s t s made f o r d i f f e r e n t pur­
poses.

It i s l o g i c a l that t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e average equivalent a l t e r n a t i n g

stresses may d i f f e r f o r d i f f e r e n t u n i t s .

The mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l t e r n a t i n g stresses f o r

d i f f e r e n t r o t o r blades u s u a l l y l i e s i n t h e range of

s/oyn =O.02 -0.035.

If, as i s o f t e n done, we assume a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g

stress amplitudes, t h e n t h e s e values of S,, & Will correspond t o the values

(n.26)

where
Sa = mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l t e r n a t i n g stress
amplitudes f o r . d i f f e r e n t blades;
m u = mathematical expectation of this d i s t r i b u t i o n , i.e., average stress
i n t h e s e blades.
192
 For small yo, we can assume S l o g = y u l o g e.

For units whose load depends on t h e quality of adjustment of t h e r o t o r ,

such as automatic p i t c h control, r e d u c t i o n g e a r frame, and o t h e r s , t h e c o e f f i ­
i s~ somewhat l a r g e r .
c i e n t ~

It follows from t h e composition of eq.(ll.25) that t h e t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of

failure Pc depends mainly on two parameters:

a=--mSrqd
‘hgN ’
b=-, fb0V.s
SbJ.

where m i s t h e exponent of t h e hf6hler curve.

The t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y of failure Pc depends a l s o on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of

f a i l u r e Po of t h e s t r u c t u r a l specimen w i t h stresses etas t , used i n t h e calcula­
tion.

Figure 1.74. shows t h e calcu­

l a t i o n s of t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y P c
f o r d i f f e r e n t values of a b, and
Po according t o eq.(l1.25j i n t h e
case where t h e s t r e s s e s w e r e /181
measured o n l y i n one specimen of
t h e h e l i c o p t e r s t r u c t u r e . The cal­
c u l a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out a l s o
f o r d i f f e r e n t values of t h e number
of t e s t e d specimens, but it was
found t h a t t h e t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y
of f a i l u r e does not depend appre­
c i a b l y on this number. I n Fig .1.74
t h e broken curves represent nape - -
= 5 and t h e s o l i d curves, n s p e c ­ -
= 20.

If it i s required t h a t P c =
= Po = P a e d , t h e n we can Obtain
f i n a l graphs from which it i s easy
t o determine t h e necessary margin
b- Iog?G
0 I 2
s1096
T o if t h e values of Slogs, S I o g N ,
and Paed are known. These graphs
Fig.1.74 Results of Calculating t h e are given i n Fig.1.75. As i n
P r o b a b i l i t y of F a i l u r e n i t h C o n s i d e r a F’ig.1.74, t h e broken curves per­
t i o n of Dispersion i n t h e Values of t a i n t o t h e case n r p e c = 5 and
S t r e s s e s Acting i n D i f f e r e n t Specimens t h e s o l i d curves, t o t h e case
o f .a Structure. nspec = 20-
 As an example, l e t us f i n d t h e required margin To f o r a helicopter blade i f
it i s known that y a = 0.0e ( S 1 , , ~ = 0.035), and S l o gN = 0.4.
F i r s t , w e determine t h e value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a:

mSzo9, 6~0.035
a=----­ -- =0.525.
'li?gN 0.4

Then, assigning t h e value Pc = 1/u)OO, we o b t a i n from t h e curves i n

Fig .1.75 :
6=1.28 ( at n,,=5);
from where
logqa= 1.28 * 0.035 =0.0448,
and
q,=1.11.
If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w 'pa i s unknown, we usually t a k e To = 1.2. T h i s &
value of &, as already mentioned i n Subsection 7, i s o f t e n used i n p r a c t i c a l
calculations.

a=
SIOgN

0.8
7
/

0.6
\
O= ­
I
1 ~ 0 0

0.4

0.2

0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Fig.1.75 Diagram f o r Selecting t h e R e l i a b i l i t y Margin Tu.

11. Method of Determining t h e R e l i a b i l i t y Margin Tu

Proposed by A.F.Selikhov

I n our presentation, c e r t a i n methods and arguments d i f f e r somewhat from

those suggested by A.F.Selikhov, but t h e basic p r i n c i p l e of t h e approach t o

194
 I

s o l v i n g t h e problem i s borrowed from t h a t author.

Here, i n determining To t h e method described i n Subsection 8 was used ex­

cept that t h e d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e amplitudes of stresses a c t i n g i n f l i g h t i s taken
i n t o account i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e endurance d i s t r i b u t i o n .

If, as before, it i s assumed that -

upon a change i n stress amplitude -
t h e endurance under s e r v i c e conditions changes i n conformity w i t h t h e law (lle21),
i.e., t h a t

t h e n we can d e t e h n e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e endurance d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
s e r v i c e w i t h consideration of t h e d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e amplitudes of a c t i n g stresses.
I
I The mathematical expectation of this d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l be e q u a l t o

where m l o g oa c t i s t h e mathematical expectation of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress

amplitudes i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d s t r u c t u r e ( t h e average
value of t h e amplitudes of a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e
structure).

If t h e tests are c a r r i e d out a t stresses of /183

ofest= %msay,

then, a f t e r p u t t i n g

The mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e numbers of cycles t o

f a i l u r e under s e r v i c e conditions can be determined from t h e formula

If t h e d y n a d c t e s t s are c a r r i e d out a t a n amplitude of stresses o t e s t ­

-
= To oav (where oaV i s t h e average amplitude measured i n f l i g h t on d i f f e r e n t
specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e ) , t h e n t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of en­
durance i n t e s t s w i l l depend on t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e a c t i n g stresses i n d i f f e r ­
e n t h e l i c o p t e r specimens. The amplitude e s t a b l i s h e d i n tests i s a random quan­
t i t y depending on t h e r e s u l t s of stress a n a l y s i s . A s before ( s e e Subsect .e),
we are i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms
of t h e mini" number of c y c l e s t o failure.

195

I
where
N2 = m i n i " number of cycles t o f a i l u r e of a s t r u c t u r e , w i t h considera­
t i o n of t h e f a c t that t h e amplitude of t h e tests can be e s t a b l i s h e d
as d i f f e r e n t , depending upon t h e r e s u l t s of measuring t h e average
stress amplitude 5av;
Nmln = m i r T i " number of cycles t o f a i l u r e of a s t r u c t u r e at a c e r t a i n
f i x e d value of t h e stress q l i t u d e i n t h e tests ote .
Then,

then
+log maav
log~t~#t=logq, ­
We put

log maav miop,, -

Then, m2 = m l o g N, i n 9 arid t h e value of t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e logarithms
of t h e numbers of cycles i n tests w i l l be

where (SI ,,)av i s t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e values of t h e average loga­

rithm of t h e s t r e s s amplitude measured i n d i f f e r e n t specimens.

This value depends on t h e number of measurements n m e a B :

With consideration of eq.( 11.33), t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n i n t h e endurance

d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t e s t s can be determined by means of t h e formula
 Using t h e same reasoning as above ( s e e Subsect.�?), we a r r i v e a t t h e f a c t
that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i n this case can be determined by a n expression
similar t o eq.(ll.19):

If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e logarithms of t h e mhimum number of cycles t o

failure i n t e s t s can be represented approximately by t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w ,
t h e n e q . ( l l . 3 6 ) can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form

If we introduce new v a r i a b l e s

t h e n eq.(ll.37) i s transformed i n t o

where t h e upper limit f ( F z ) i s determined by t h e expression

S u b s t i t u t i n g here t h e values of m l and m2, we' o b t a i n

It follows from this expression that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure Pc can be

determined f o r each %, i f we know t h e values of
197
 We can propose t h e following method of determining t h e required margin la:

F i r s t , construct t h e dependence of S2/S1 on log % + log VN + Am1.g~

- for
S1
assigned values of P c ( s e e Fig.1.76). Then, after determining S I and S2 from /185
eqs.(ll.a) and (ll.35), use Fig.1.76 f o r determining t h e assigned value Pas*

from where, knowing IN,

Amlog (see Fig.l.70), and SI, it i s easy t o determine
a l s o ?la.

The method proposed here i s r a t h e r simple, although it involves somewhat

more complicated computations f o r determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e i n comparison w i t h
t h e method proposed i n Subsection 10,
where t h e margins were calcu­
-
SZ
SI
l a t e d on t h e basis of values t a k e n
d i r e c t l y from t h e graph.

It f o n o w s from t h e above for­

0.8 mulas that, under t h e assumptions
adopted here, t h e margins of reli­
a b i l i t y TN and Tu can be combined
0.6 i n t o a s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n 7\ = TN7; or
one r e l i a b i l i t y margin can be sub­
s t i t u t e d f o r t h e other. T h i s i s
0.4 convenient i n c a r r y i n g out calcula­
t i o n s and conducting dynamic tests,
a f a c t a l r e a d y mentioned i n Sub­
0,2 s e c t i o n 7, but it o f f e r s no advan­
t a g e i n s e l e c t i n g t h e margins T N and
Tu s i n c e t h e i r values are determined
from d i f f e r e n t conditions.
Fig.1.76 Graph f o r Determining
log TU -k log TN + b l og N
as a 12. Ekamle of Calculation of
S1 Service W f e
Function of S1/S2, for Different
Assigned P r o b a b i l i t i e s of F a i l u r e A s an exitmple, l e t us c a l c u l a t e
t h e s e r v i c e l i f e f o r a blade of a
he,avy h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a t u b u l a r
s t e e l spar.

I n determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a blade, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s first per-

.formed f o r s e c t i o n s located a t d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e r a d i i , after which t h e s e r v i c e
l i f e obtained f o r .the weakest s e c t i o n is e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e e n t i r e blade.
 Let t h e weakest s e c t i o n be that at a r e l a t i v e radius F = 0.74.
We now assume that t h e r e s u l t s of t h e dynamic tests of f i v e specimens of
t h e spar at an a l t e r n a t i n g stress amplitude *15 kg/mm2 are as follows (see
Table 1.20) :

From tests, we draw t h e conclusion t h a t t h e endurance Limit ow o f t h e /186

specimens Nos.2, 3, 4, and 5 i s higher t h a n cr,, = 15 kg/nnn2. Consequently, t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y P t h a t t h e endur­
&ce limit-ow i s lower t h a n
TABIE 1.20 15 kg/mn2 can be t a k e n as
equal t o 0.2.
~~

No. of ,Specimen Number of Cycles On s e t t i n g S l o g u wequal

of Stress Test Results
~~-
t o 0.07 (see Subsect.l3), it
No. 1 9.8~106 Specimen f a i l e d Will be found t h a t t h e endur-
No. 2 20*106
ance Limit o,,% = 13 kg/mm2
No.3 20*106 Specimens d i d n o t corresponds t o a 5% probabil-
No. 4 203 106 fail i t y . T h i s limit Will be con-
No. 5 2ou106 s i d e r e d minimum.

The margin f o r t h e number

of c y c l e s can be t a k e n e i t h e r
on t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l experience by assigning t h e s e r v i c e l i f e i n accordance
w i t h Table 1.16 or on t h e basis of t h e method of A.F.Selikhov ( s e e Subsect.8)*
Based on Table 1.16 f o r Group I1 (blade equipped w i t h a spar-damage warning de­
v i c e ) and n = 5, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y margin rJN can be t a k e n as equal t o about 2.7.

In t h e second case, S l q l Nmust be known. It i s obvious t h a t merely from

t h e r e s u l t s of tests it i s impossible t o d e t e r n i n e t h e value of SloIN. However,
i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a s s i g n a c e r t a i n value t o S l o g N based on r e s u l t s of tests with
similar specimens.

L e t us p u t S l o g N = 0.4. Then, assigning t h e value Paed = 1/1000 (Group I1

of u n i t s ) we o b t a i n l o g IN = 2.3 S l o g N , i.e., T N = 8.3, from Fig.1.72. Thus,
t h e required r e l i a b i l i t y margin for t h e number of cycles rJN according t o Seli­
khovTs method i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t obtainable from s e r v i c e l i f e de­
terminations. I n many cases, this d i f f e r e n c e i s p a r t i a l l y compensated by i n t r o ­
ducing t h e concept of f a t i g u e l i m i t i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n and by r e f i n i n g t h e re­
quired r e l i a b i l i t y margins la.

A s mentioned above, i n d e f i n i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e with t h e use of t h e r e l i ­

a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l experience, t h e value of
Tu can always be t a k e n as equal t o 1.2. However, this c o e f f i c i e n t can be re­
f i n e d i n conformity w i t h t h e method proposed i n Subsections 10 and 11. For this
purpose, more complete d a t a are necessary on t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e alternating
stress amplitude for d i f f e r e n t specimens of t h e s t r u c t u r e .
Let u s assume that t h e stresses are measured i n only one specimen. However,
on t h e basis of experience i n measuring similar u n i t s of o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r s i t can
be assumed t h a t y a = 0.08 and t h u s S l o g u = 0.035. Then, by means of t h e methods

199
presented i n SUbsectiOri 10 and 11 we o b t a i n 7\0 = 1.11. Nevertheless, we w i l l
take va
= 1.2.

The m i n i " value of N m l n of f i v e t e s t e d specimens ( n = 5) a t a n a l t e r n a t i n g

s t r e s s amplitude of CJ = F15 kg/m2 i s Nmin = 9.8 x lo6 cycles.

The number of cycles corresponding t o t h e minimum f a t i g u e l i m i t i s deter­

mined from t h e formula

while t h e values of N, a r e obtained from t h e formula

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e , we w i l l assume t h a t , i n a l l regimes
where t h e a c t i n g s t r e s s e s a r e below t h e minimum value of t h e f a t i g u e l i m i t , no
i n c r e a s e i n damage p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e t a k e s p l a c e .

We w i l l not c a l c u l a t e t h e equivalent s t r e s s e s i n i n d i v i d u a l f l i g h t regimes,

b u t w i l l assume them as equal t o t h e maxi" measured s t r e s s - E t u d e s . In
this case, t h e value of c i will be e i t h e r zero 'or u n i t y .

The c a l c u l a t i o n of equivalent s t r e s s e s i s given i n Table 1.21.

If we assume t h a t t h e endurance obeys t h e l a w (11.21) a t a l l a l t e r n a t i n g

s t r e s s l e v e l s and that t h e r e i s no f a t i g u e l i m i t ( i n this case E , = 1i n a l l re­
gimes), t h e n a l l f l i g h t regimes a r e equivalent i n damageability t o t h e regime
w i t h a s t r e s s amplitude of creq = 11.5 kg/mm2 a c t i n g during t h e e n t i r e s e r v i c e /188
l i f e of t h e blade. I n this case,

"=N (A)"=
1.2x11.5 16.2~loG;

If it i s assumed t h a t t h e m i n i " endurance limit i s crWmln 13 kg/mm2,

=
t h e n one regime [see eq.(ll.9)1 with a n amplitude oeq = 13.6 kg/m2 will be
equivalent t o a l l f l i g h t regimes. The d u r a t i o n of this regime, as follows from
Table 1.21, Will be about 23% of t h e s e r v i c e l i f e O f t h e blade ( 6 = 0 . 2 3 ) .

Then t h e l i f e t i m e i t s e l f can be determined i n t h e following manner:

200
 N, =N*=0,707~106;
qN

The same r e s u l t s can be obtained from t h e t o t a l damageability without mak­

ing use of t h e concept of equivalent stresses [see eq.(l.l.5)]:
N, =+-=3.09~
1 lo6;
7 Ni%
i

TABWE 1.21
EXAIVLPUOF CAIXULATION OF B.T.d.DE SEEVICE LIFE WITH RESPECT
TO A SECTION OF RELATTVE RADIUS I; = 0.74

aw mln=13 kg/m+; k 0 . 5 ; n=5; Slog~=O.4;rio=1,2

N , mIn=23%106

=0.5
Flight Regime ai
a%
_. __ ~

Hovering 0 0.1 6 .O 8.8 9.7 11.64 M 3

L o w speeds
V=20 km/hr 1 0.03 7.2 10.5 ,1.6 13.92 1.84*106 0.016~10-6
V=30 km/hr 1 0.02 L0.5 13.2 ,5.02 18.02 0.39xlOG O.O51x10-~
V=60 km/hr 1 0.05 12.4 12.5 15.05 18.06 0.39~106 0.128~10-6
Takeoff 1 0.02 9.5 12.4 14.0 16.8 0.59~106 0.034*10-6
C1 imb 0 0.06 6.0 5.6 6.9 8.28 a, 0
C r u i s i n g speed 0 0.55 8.0 9.0 10.5 12.60 00 0

Maximum speed 1 0.10 8.0 10.5 11.09 13.31 2.4~106 0.042*10-6

GI i d i n g 0 0.05 7.5 7.2 8.8 10.56 on 0

Braking
1st stage-a,,,,x 1 0.00: l5,2 18.4 21.11 25.33 0.05~106 0.04~10-6
2nd stage-0.7 anlax 1 0.00 10.64 12.88 14.79 17.75 0.43~106 0.016~10-6
3rd st a g e- ho v erin 0 0.01 6,O 8.8 9.72 11.66 00 0

0= 229 C 0.327~10-6

201
 These r e s u l t s show that on i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e concept of f a t i g u e l i m i t o r
endurance limit, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a blade W i l l be g r e a t e y when derived from
calculation.

However, it must be borne i n m i d that t h e margins w i t h respect t o t h e num­

ber of c y c l e s presented i n Table 1.16 were introduced i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s with­
out assumption of t h e e x i s t e n c e of a f a t i g u e limit. Therefore, t h e y should not
be used i n c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h a f a t i g u e limit.

13. Possible Ways of Determining t h e Minimum Endurance

Limit of a S t r u c t u r e
The above example i n d i c a t e s t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher values f o r t h e s e r v i c e
l i f e of a s t r u c t u r e can be obtained when making use of t h e concept of minimum
endurance limit. Therefore, a determination of t h e s e values i s mandatory i n
many c a s e s I

A s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e determination of t h e values of o w n i nfrom t h e re­

s u l t s of tests i s v i r t u a l l y infeasible. O r d ? a highly approximate determination
of this value i s p o s s i b l e . Even then, a n a p p r e c i a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of
t e s t specimens i s required. Nevertheless, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of s e r v i c e l i f e , even
approximate endurance limits w i l l c l o s e l y approach t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s t o /189
r e a l i t y and o f f e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of developing more competent t e c h n i c a l solu-
t i o n s . Therefore, it. i s always advisable t o r e s o r t t o a determination of endur­
ance limits, using both approximate and simp* formal methods of c a l c u h t i o n .
- n,
-=fail +
IJ 7 0
99
9s
90
80
50
20
10
5
1

0.1
1101
3 4 5 6
I . __ I

0:s 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 kg =Io

Fig.1.77 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Endurance Limits.

Primarily, a n attempt must be made t o d e f i n e and determine t h e parameters

of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance limits. Toward this end, f a t i g u e tests
m u s t be performed w i t h specimens a t s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i n g stress l e v e l s , located
. i n t h e region of endurance limit d i s t r i b u t i o n . The tests should be c a r r i e d out
I o n t h e base of a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of cycles. I n s e l e c t i n g t h e t e s t
I base, it i s g e n e r a l l y assumed that, f o r s t e e l Specimens, this base can be s e t
somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n lo7 cycles, f o r example 2 x lo7 cycles, whereas f o r duralu­
min specimens t h e base must be somewhat higher t h a n 2 X lo7 cycles (frequently,
a base of 5 x lo7 c y c l e s i s used).
The p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e endurance l i m i t i s higher t h a n t h e assigned al­
t e r n a t i n g stress l e v e l i s defined as t h e r a t i o of t h e number of specimens t e s t e d
a t t h e given base a t no failure nno-iail t o t h e t o t a l number of specimens t e s t e d
a t this and at a lower l e v e l of stresses n:

The r e s u l t a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance limits can coincide w i t h t h e normal

l a w only i n a small s e c t i o n corresponding t o t h e average values of p r o b a b i l i t y
(Fig.1.77). A t small p r o b a b i l i t i e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e endurance limits
d e v i a t e s from t h e normal l a w and has a c e r t a i n s e n s i t i v i t y threshold o w n i n .A t
l a r g e p r o b a b i l i t i e s , beginning w i t h some stress ofa i , a l l specimens f a i l with­
out having been s u b j e c t t o t h e assigned base of t h e t e s t .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of endurance limits a t average p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s

best represented by t h e lognormal d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w . T h i s can be used a l s o f o r
determining t h e minimum endurance limit

Available r e s u l t s of t e s t s on blade specimens show t h a t , for this l a w , we /190

can t a k e values of S l o g e q u a l t o about

S/opw ~ 0 . 0 -
5 0.07,

where S l o g i s t h e mean-square d e v i a t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of f a t i g u e l i m i t
logarithms.

It i s impossible t o propose a s u f f i c i e n t l y reliable method f o r d e t e d n i n g

CJ
'm in
. Thus, we can suggest only a p u r e l y formal method which, however, yields
s u f f i c i e n t l y good r e s u l t s i n p r a c t i c e . It can be assumed t h a t t h e minimum en­
durance limit coincides w i t h t h e value of o w corresponding t o 5% p r o b a b i l i t y of
a l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y n o m a 1 d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance limits.

If such a n approach i s used, t h e values of o w n i ncan be r e f i n e d by a method

i n which f a t i g u e t e s t s are c a r r i e d out a t two a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s levels, c l o s e
i n amplitude. The t e s t specimens, a t least 15 - 20 of them, are divided i n t o
two groups.

The first group i s t e s t e d a t maximum a l t e r n a t i n g stress which s q p o s e d l y

does not exceed t h e minimum endurance l i m i t ; f o r this reason, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o
prevent any of t h e specimens from failing at a number of c y c l e s corresponding t o
t h e s e l e c t e d t e s t base. The results of t e s t i n g this group serve t o confirm that
t h e minimum endurance limit may a c t u a l l y correspond t o t h e i r t e s t level.

203
 The second group of specimens i s t e s t e d a t somewhat higher a l t e r n a t i n g
s t r e s s e s , s o t h a t a c e r t a i n percentage will f a i l without having operated t h e
r a t e d number of cycles. After determining t h e p r o b a b i l i t y that t h e endurance
limit i s below t h e amplitude of t h e second test level and after assigning some
value of S l o g u , , we c a h d a t e t h e value of ow corresponding t o t h e 5% probabili­
t y . If t h e t e s t d a t a of t h e first group do not c o n t r a d i c t this r e s u l t , t h e n t h e
r e s u l t a n t value of 0w570 can be taken as t h e m i n i " endurance l i m i t .

Occasionally, it i s assumed f o r g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y t h a t t h e minimurh endur­

ance limit corresponds t o smaller p r o b a b i l i t y values, say, a p r o b a b i l i t y of
1/100. However, i t s e e m that s t i l l lower values of this p r o b a b i l i t y a r e not
advisable.

It should be noted that i n many cases a n a r b i t r a r y concept, which could be

c a l l e d t h e reduced endurance l i m i t , i s used f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e f a t i g u e
strength.

The reduced endurance limit i s determined by converting t h e t e s t r e s u l t s ,

by means of e q . ( l l . 3 ) , t o a n a r b i t r a r y base which o f t e n i s taken as N b a s o ­
-
= lo7 cycles f o r s t e e l and Nbase = 2 x lo7 cycles f o r duralumin:

where
o t e s t = a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s amplitude i n t h e t e s t ;
N, = number of cycles t o f a i l u r e corresponding t o a p r o b a b i l i t y of
f a i l u r e equal t o P ;
m = exponent of t h e hfhhler curve, u s u a l l y taken as m = 6.
If we t a k e N, corresponding t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e as equal t o 5%, /191
t h e n t h e value of o w r e df u r n i s h e s an approximate i d e a as t o t h e magnitude of t h e
minimum endurance limit. The m i n i " value of t h e number of cycles t o f a i l u r e
of a given s t r u c t u r e N m i n o f t e n i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r N, as t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . We must emphasize that t h e reduced eridurance l i m i t , i r r e s p e c ­
t i v e of t h e manner i n which it i s determined, does not correspond t o t h e concept
of endurance limit i n t h e sense i n which it i s used above, i n this Section.

It i s a l s o of importance t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e reduced endurance

limits has a mean-square d e v i a t i o n e c p a l t o

which i s almost always g r e a t e r t h a n t h e value of S l o g u , .

I-!+. AdvantaRes and Disadvantages of Various Approaches i n
Determiniw t h e Necessary ReJEability Margins. and
E s t i g a t i o n of t h e i r Accuracy

The simplest approach, as a l r e a d y shown above (see Subsect.7), i s t o calcu­

late t h e s e r v i c e l i f e under a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s TN and To taken on
t h e basis of p r a c t i c a l experience i n defining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e . These c o e f f i ­
c i e n t s have been checked on a l a r g e number of h e l i c o p t e r s and many hundreds of
units have s u c c e s s f u l l y l i v e d out t h e s e r v i c e l i f e t h u s e s t a b l i s h e d . However,
it must be borne i n m i n d that t h e use of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s TN and & has been con­
firmed by p r a c t i c e only i n combination w i t h some method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e
s e r v i c e l i f e which, i n p a r t i c u l a r , d i f f e r s by t h e following assumptions:
1. No endurance l i m i t exists, and t h e l46hler curve i s described by
eq.(ll.Zl). Accordingly, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s 8 and c i are t a k e n
as equal t o u n i t y .
2. I n each f l i g h t regime, t h e s t r e s s amplitude i s considered equal t o
i t s maximum measured value i n this regime.
However, such a n approach t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s e r v i c e l i f e has substan­
t i a l shortcomings :
1. I n determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e , one d i s r e g a r d s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e
d i s p e r s i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of endurance which may be d i s s i m i l a r f o r u n i t s
of d i f f e r e n t design which,furthermore, are d i s s i m i l a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e ma­
t e r i a l s used and t h e manufacturing process. The magnitude of d i s p e r s i o n of
stresses a c t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t specimens of a given s t r u c t u r e i s a l s o disregarded.

2. Rejection of t h e concepts of endurance l i m i t and exclusive use i n t h e

c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e maxi" stress amplitudes i n each f l i g h t regime lead t o isl­
c o r r e c t i d e a s as t o t h e s h a r e of damage p o t e n t i a l contributed by d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t
regimes.

Therefore, an attempt should be made t o use improved methods,incorporating

t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e t h e o r y of p r o b a b i l i t y . One of t h e p o s s i b l e v a r i a n t s
of this approach i s given i n Subsections 8, 10, and 11.

It i s necessary t o p o i n t o u t that this method, i n t h e form i n which i t i s

presented here, gives completely s a t i s f a c t o r y values of s e r v i c e l i f e r a t h e r
c l o s e t o t h o s e obtained by t h e preceding method. O f course, t h e r e i s some re­
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e values of t h e safety f a c t o r s . The margin IN is substantial­
~ J T l a r g e r whereas t h e margin Tu i s smaller. Furthermore, t h e concept of m i n i - /192
mum endurance limit should be used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . Otherwise, t h e s e r v i c e
l i v e s W i l l be underestimated.

In apply5ng this method, such l a r g e p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e ( e q u a l t o

1/u300 o r even more) o f t e n raise doubt. Actually, this m e a n s t h a t one u n i t out
of 1000 should f a i l during i t s r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e . Therefore, we must a g a i n em­
phasize t h a t t h e i n d i c a t e d p r o b a b i l i t i e s are p u r e l y c o n d i t i o n a l values, corre­
sponding t o t h e noma1 d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of endurance. I n r e a l i t y , i n the'region
of small values of p r o b a b i l i t y of failure, this l a w d e v i a t e s from t h e normal and
a sensitivity t h r e s h o l d i s observed i n t h e endurance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Its values
=e i n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y r e g i o n of about 1/lDO o r f l u c t u a t e about this value. Con-
secpently, assignment of a c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y of 1/u)OO i s a c t u a l l y equi­
v a l e n t t o t h e requirement of a very small o r even zero p r o b a b i l i t y . Therefore,
we cannot agree w i t h t h o s e authors who are not a f r a i d t o s t i p u l a t e a p r o b a b i l i t y
,
of t h e order of 1Cr6 o r even l(r7 under a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e normal l a w of d i s ­
t r i b u t i o n of endurance. There i s no s u f f i c i e n t l y v a l i d reason for such demands.

Generally, anyone familiar w i t h t h e above method w i l l o b j e c t t o doing away

w i t h refinements of experimentally obtained values of t h e m e a s s q u a r e devia­
t i o n s S l o gN, based on t h e r a t h e r high values of f i d u c i a l p r o b a b i l i t y accepted
i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y theory. If such a refiEement i s
made, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n would have t o i n c o r p o r a t e a two-fold value of S l o g ( s e e
Subsect.9), which would l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e required margin TN and t h u s
t o a decrease i n s e r v i c e l i f e .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e above considerations (see Subsect .9), another inaccuracy

i n t h e proposed method of c a l c u l a t i o n should be pointed out. Usually, t h e
equivalent stresses a c t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes are replaced by t h e i r
maximum values, l e a d i n g t o a n underestimation of s e r v i c e l i f e . These two inac­
c u r a c i e s mutually c a n c e l out, and an e l i m i n a t i o n of one should d e f i n i t e l y be ac­
companied by e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e o t h e r . I n such a case, t h e values of t h e s e r v i c e
l i v e s obtained by c a l c u l a t i o n do not change s u b s t a n t i a l l y .

There i s no doubt that i n time, as new experimental d a t a are c o l l e c t e d ,

more extensive refinements Will have t o be introduced i n t o t h e method of calcu­
l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e . P r a c t i c a l experience i n operating h e l i c o p t e r s and t h e
e v e r g r e a t e r number of r e s u l t s of dynamic t e s t s W i l l a l s o f u r n i s h a n i n c e n t i v e
i n this d i r e c t i o n .

15. Blade S t r e n d h Requirements i n Desi,qn S e l e c t i o n

A h e l i c o p t e r blade operates under conditions s e v e r e l y t a x i n g i t s s t r e n g t h .
During i t s e n t i r e s e r v i c e l i f e , t h e blade i s s u b j e c t t o excessive s t a t i c and
v a r i a b l e loads. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e blade operating conditions imposes
extremely s t r i n g e n t requirements on 5ts s t r u c t u r e and p r i m a r i l y on t h e f a t i g u e
s t r e n g t h of i t s main element, t h e spar. Consequently, t h e blade s p a r should be
made only of materials w i t h high f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Blade designs w i t h t u b u l a r steel spars and pressed duralumin spars are /193
t h e most common type a t p r e s e n t .

Ekcellent r e s u l t s can be expected when manufacturing s p a r s of various syn­

t h e t i c materials. Blade designs with a glass-laminate s p a r are a l r e a d y known.
However, p r a c t i c a l experience operating such blades i s s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t . For
this reason, we w i l l not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s t h e s t r e n g t h a s p e c t s of such types.

The most important requirement for blades w i t h steel and duralumin s p a r s

i s t h a t of mazimum e l i m i n a t i o n of any stress raisers which lower t h e f a t i g u e
s t r e n g t h . The use of b o l t s and r i v e t s i s impermissible i n blades. The frame of
t h e blade i s f a s t e n e d t o t h e spar e x c l u s i v e l y by glued j o i n t s .

F i t t i n g s w i t h l a r g e stress raisers can be t o l e r a t e d only i n segments w i t h

206
s m a l l a l t e r n a t i n g stresses, f o r example, i n t h e blade r o o t c l o s e t o t h e hub
hinges. I n this case, d e s p i t e t h e small a l t e r n a t i n g stresses, t h e s e c t i o n of
t h e s p a r near t h e r o o t j o i n t must be increased by a f a c t o r of 3 - 4. Only a
very appreciable r e d u c t i o n i n a l t e r n a t i n g stresses w i l l permit t h e use of f i t ­
t i n g s w i t h stress raisers.

Fatigue s t r e n g t h i s a l s o d i s t i n c t l y lowered by small technological d e f e c t s

which a l s o a c t as stress raisers. Consequently, i n t h e manufacture of blade
spars t h e process used m u s t be aimed a t complete e l i m i n a t i o n of a l l apparent de­
f e c t s of t h e spar.

To e l i m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of some f l a w s remaining undetected, t h e spars

must be subjected t o rigorous i n s p e c t i o n under a p p l i c a t i o n of a l l modern methods
of nondestructive materials t e s t i n g .

Below, t h e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of a blade w i t h s t e e l and duralumin s p a r s

W i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

16. _S t-r e n g t h of..a Blade w i t h Tubular Steel ,%ar

Cold-rolled tubing of high-alloy steels 30KhGSA o r 4OKhIWA quenched and
tempered t o a s t r e n g t h of ob = U O -
130 kg/mm2 i s carmnonly used f o r t h e blade
spar.

After hot- and cold-rolling, shaping, and quenching, t h e o u t e r and inner

s u r f a c e s of t h e t u b e are polished. Recently, cold-working of t h e s p a r s has be­
come a mandatory o p e r a t i o n after p o l i s h i n g .

A t h u s manufactured s p a r without cold-working may have a minimum endurance

limit of t h e order of oWm = 12 - 13 kg/mm2 a t a n average component of t h e
cycle om = 20 - 25 kg/rm2. However, t h e s t r e n g t h i s reduced g r e a t l y i f , i n
manufacturing t h e s p a r , various t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e f e c t s and miscalculations are
permitted. The following can be mentioned as t h e most dangerous types:

I n t e r n a l cracks and lam. During hot-rolling, p l a s t i c deformation may be

accompanied by p a r t i a l tearing of t h e mater5al. T h i s u s u a l l y occurs a t a re­
duction i n temperature of t h e workpiece during rolling and a l s o as r e s u l t of con­
tamination of t h e s t e e l by nonmetallic and gas i n c l u s i o n s , t h e formation of
f i l m s , high porosity, segregation, and o t h e r m e t a l l u r g i c a l d e f e c t s . The cracks
r u n i n t o t h e workpiece a t a n a c u t e angle, SO that it i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e
t h e outcropping of t h e crack on t h e surface.

On f u r t h e r cold-rolling, t h e degree of deformation i n c r e a s e s and t h e crack

f o l d s over i n t o t h e w a l l of t h e tube a t a n ever smaller angle t o i t s s u r f a c e . /194.
Usually a series of such i n t e r n a l cracks i s observed. They are small, being’
about 0.1 - 1.0 mm deep and 3 -
10 m wide.
Laps appear upon cold-rolling on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e . They are u s u a l l y due
t o extensive s u r f a c e roughness a f t e r hot-rolling. Subsequent p l a s t i c cold-work­
i n g leads t o a n uneven flow of t h e material during which d e f e c t s known as l a p s I
and seams may form. Laps are a l s o able t o form by flow of metal i n t o t h e gap
between t h e r o l l grooves and formation of a f i n which folds over upon subsequent
deformation.

Both d e f e c t s c a n be d e t e c t e d by magnaflux i n s p e c t i o n of t h e polished sur­

face. Figure 1.78 shows c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t e r n a l cracks a t t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e of
a spar. The micrograph was obtained dur­
i n g magnetic i n s p e c t i o n . The endurance
limit of a t u b e w i t h seams and l a p s
drops t o o w n i n= 5 - 7 kg/mm2.

Rolled-in s c a l e .on inner s-wf&c=e.

After hot-rolling, a l a y e r of s c a l e i s
l e f t on t h e t u b e surface, which has a
g r e a t e r hardness t h a n t h e metal. An­
n e a l i n g i s done a f t e r each s t e p i n cold-
r o l l i n g . Although annealing proceeds i n
a n i n e r t atmosphere, t h i n films of s c a l e
are formed on t h e surface, due t o t h e
oxygen content of t h e metal. If t h e
Fig.l.78 Cracks on Inner Surface s c a l e i s not completely removed, it W i l l
of Steel Spar. be crushed during t h e rolling process
and forced i n t o t h e metal, forming so-
c a l l e d r o l l e d - i n s c a l e . On t h e exposed
o u t e r surface of t h e tube, t h e r o l l e d - i n s c a l e i s r e a d i l y eliminated by machill­
ing. On t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e of t h e tube whose machining i s more complex and pos­
sible only by belt-grinding or hydraulic polishing, t h e r o l l e d - i n s c a l e cannot
be completely removed. Therefore, small but acute-angled p i t s of a s i z e not ex­
ceeding 0.1- 0.05 m and d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t during inspection, may be l e f t
even a f t e r grinding. The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s u r f a c e drops i n this case t o
OWm 1 n
= 10 -12 kg/mm2.

Rolled-in s c a l e c a n be eliminated by t u r n i n g and grinding t h e s u r f a c e of

t h e workpiece a f t e r hot-rolling u n t i l a l l s c a l e i s removed and by sandblasting
a f t e r annealing before each operation of cold-rolling .
For a complete e l i m i n a t i o n of cooling cracks, l a p s , r o l l e d - i n s c a l e , and
o t h e r s u r f a c e d e f e c t s , l o n g i t u d i n a l grinding of t h e o u t e r and i n n e r s u r f a c e s of
t h e tube, a f t e r f i n a l cold-rolling and before shaping, i s highly e f f e c t i v e .

e c mtube-Strakhteniqg After quenching and

tempering, t h e s p a r t u b e s are bent s l i g h t l y . Therefore, before assembling t h e
blade, t h e tubes may need s t r a i g h t e n i n g . T h i s sets LP I r e s i d u a l stresses i n t h e
t u b e material. Usually, limiters are used during t h e s t r a i g h t e n i n g operation,
t o keep t h e r e s i d u a l t e n s i l e stresses i n t h e t u b e from exceeding 10 -
x) kg/mm2.
These stresses i n c r e a s e t h e average component of t h e cycle and lead t o a decrease
-
of x) 25% i n t h e endurance l i m i t . S t i l l g r e a t e r reductions i n s t r e n g t h may 1195
occur i f t h e s t r a i g h t e n i n g i s improperly done. To do away w i t h t h e n e c e s s i t y of
s t r a i g h t e n i n g , t h e quenched t u b e s should be tempered i n s p e c i a l devices t h a t
eliminate t h e strains produced on quenching.

In estimating t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of s p a s , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d
208
t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f r e t t i n g corrosion. F r e t t i n g corrosion i s a n almost cer­
t a i n a t t e n d a n t phenomenon of c y c l i c blade stresses and l e a d s t o a s u b s t a n t i a l
reduction i n fatique s t r e n g t h . T h i s u s u a l l y occurs a t p o i n t s where t h e r e i s
mating between p a r t s and t h e spar, i f relative microslip i s p r e s e n t between t h e
o s c u l a t i n g s u r f a c e s . P o i n t s of clamp i n s t a l l a t i o n
f o r attachment of t h e blade frame are t h e u s u a l
s e a t s of f r e t t i n g corrosion i n s t e e l spars.

Figure 1.79 g i v e s a micrograph of a ruptured

spar. The r o o t of t h e f a t i g u e crack coincides w i t h
t h e seat of f r e t t i n g corrosion.

A marked i n c r e a s e i n t h e dynamic s t r e n g t h of
s t e e l s p a r s can be obtained by mechanical work-
hardening of t h e i r surface, known a l s o as cold-
working.

A t present, cold-working of spars has become

a n almost indispensable o p e r a t i o n i n t h e f a b r i c a ­
t i o n of blades. Three methods of mechanical
strengthening have become common i n h e l i c o p t e r en­
gineering: t h e dynamic method of M.I.Kuzfmin, t h e
v i b r a t o r y impact method of S.V.Ochagov, and t h e
shot-peening method. The choice of t h e method gen-
Fig. 1.79 I n c i p i e n t e r a l l y depends on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s t r u c -
Fatigue F a i l u r e from t u r a l component t o be strengthened and on t h e pro-
F r e t t i n g Corrosion. duction f a c i l i t i e s . When using t h e dynamic method
f o r strengthening t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e of a spar, i t s
i n n e r s u r f a c e i s work-hardened by shot-peening. I n
developing complicated devices f o r t h e v i b r a t o r y impact method, main emphasis i s
u s u a l l y on simultaneous treatment of both i n n e r and o u t e r s u r f a c e s of t h e s p a r
by this m e t hod.

An i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s obtained by o l d e r methods of cold-work­

i n g . The b e s t method, giving t h e most s t a b l e r e s u l t s i n treating t h e o u t e r sur­
f a c e of s t e e l spars, i s M.I.Kuz"infs dynamic method.

The i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h due t o cold-working i s a t t r i b u t e d mainly

t o two causes: The o u t e r s u r f a c e of a given p a r t which i s most s e n s i t i v e t o in­
c i p i e n t f a t i g u e f a i l u r e i s rendered smoother ( F i g .1.80) and r e s i d u a l compressive
stresses are set i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s which, i n conformity w i t h Hayfs dia­
gram (see Fig.1.63, l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e s u r f a c e
l a y e r of t h e p a r t .

Figure 1.81 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r n a l stresses i n t h e material of

a s t e e l spar, obtained by dynamic cold-working and g r i t - b l a s t i n g . Grit-blasting
sets up almost t h e same r e s i d u a l stresses as t h e shot-peening method of cold-
working.

The increment i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h due t o cold-working i s e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e /196

i n t h e presence of f r e t t i n g corrosion. Apparently, compressive stresses inpede
t h e spread of c o r r o s i o n i n t o t h e material. Figure 1.82 shows t h e r e s u l t s of

209
 t e s t i n g s t e e l s p a r s w i t h cold-worked and noncold-worked surfaces operating under
conditions of onset of fretting corrosion.

620
-30
M 4UOO: 1
-40
4 -50
-60
-70
-EO

Fig.l.80 Surface Profilogram of Fig.l.81 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Internal

Spar Pressed from Aluminum Alloys
a f t e r Machining ( a ) and a f t e r
Cold-Working ( b ) .
S t r e s s e s from Cold-Working with
Respect t o Wall Thickness of Tubular
Steel Spar.
Cold-working by t h e method of
M.I.Kuz"in;
.
----T r i p l e g r i t - b l a s t i n g

u
32 54 36 38 40 6, &g/n7mz

Fig.1.82 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Reduced Endurance L i ~ t o sf

Tubular S t e e l Spars under t h e F f f e c t of F r e t t i n g
Corrosion.
a - Surface polished and sandblasted; b - Surface polished and
sandblasted three times with g r i t ; c - Surface cold-worked by
M. I .Kuz "in's m e t hod.

210
 The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of s t e e l s p a r s can be increased by cold-working by a
f a c t o r of 1.5 - 2 and, i n t h e presence of f r e t t i n g corrosion, by a f a c t o r of
2.5 - 3.
Cold-working w i l l raise t h e f a t i g u e U t of a s t e e l spar t o values of t h e
o r d e r oWmi n = 28 -
30 kg/m2 a t om = 20 -
25 kg/mn”. Thus, cold-working has
proved a most e f f e c t i v e means of i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and s e r v i c e l i f e of
blades.

17. S t r e n g t h of a Blade w i t h Duralumin %ar /197

The most important problem i n designing blades of this type i s t o secure a
s u f f i c i e n t l y high f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of t h e spar. Generally, attachment of t h e
frame t o t h e spar i s accomplished by
g l u e and t h u s creates no s u b s t a n t i a l
stress raisers i n t h e s p a r . S t r e s s
concentrations i n spars are due mainly
t o small d e f e c t s t o l e r a t e d i n i t s
fabrication.

The s u r f a c e f i n i s h of a s p a r
p l a y s t h e main r o l e i n reducing i t s
f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . A milled and sand­
b l a s t e d spar made of AVT-1 a l l o y with­
out machining of t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e may
have a n endurance limit of t h e order
of o W m i=n3.8 - 4.2 kg/m” a t a n
average component of t h e cycle om =
= 6 kg/m”.

The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of a given
Fig.1.83 Microsection of Spar W a l l s p a r may be reduced due t o d e f e c t s
produced i n i t s p r e s s i n g and machin­
through Blowhole Formed i n Pressing.
ing .
Frequently, t h e i n s i d e channel of t h e s p a r i s not machined a f t e r p r e s s i n g .
Therefore, p r e s s i n g d e f e c t s may remain on t h e i n n e r surface: adherent m e t a l
slugs, l o n g i t u d i n a l scratches, blowholes (Fig.1.83), and, f i n a l l y , coarse-
c r y s t a l l i n e rings. These d e f e c t s may reduce t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h t o values of
= 2.5 - 3.0 kg/mm2 (om = 6 kg/mm2). T h i s suggests t o follow t h e p r e s s i n g
OWm i n
by machining of t h e s u r f a c e of blade spars with r e l a t i v e l y high s t r e s s e s .

A s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s produced a l s o by nonmetallic
and gas i n c l u s i o n s . To e l i m i n a t e such i n c l u s i o n s , a s p e c i a l melting p r a c t i c e
should be used ( s e t t l i n g of t h e m e t a l , teeming from c e r t a i n l e v e l s , f i l t e r i n g
through mesh f i l t e r s , etc.). The b e s t metal i s obtained by melting i n e l e c t r i c
i n d u c t i o n furnaces, w i t h holding of t h e molten metal i n e l e c t r i c a l l y heated
mixers .
To e l i m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of overlooking nonmetallic and gas i n c l u s i o n s ,

211

I
each spar should be subjected t o c a r e f u l u l t r a s o n i c inspection.

No less important i s t h e elimination of p o s s i b l e corrosion p i t t i n g of

pressed spars during f a b r i c a t i o n (as w e l l as under s e r v i c e conditions). Practi­
c a l . experience has shown t h a t surface and i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e corrosion of a depth
t o 0.1 - 0.15 m w i l l g r e a t l y lower t h e endurance limit. Therefore, metals of
high corrosion r e s i s t a n c e should be used f o r blade spars, and s p e c i a l measures
must be taken i n f a b r i c a t i o n t o p r o t e c t t h e spars from corrosion b electro­
p l a t i n g after intermediate treatment s t e p s ( f o r example, anodizingy.

P%
99 m

90
80
10
EO
40
20
10

4 5 6 7 8 9nw,kglmmz
R) bl

I
5 .L84 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Reduced Endurance Emits
?to a Base of lo7 Cycles) of Pressed spars Made
of AVT-1 Alloy w i t h Polished ( C i r c l e s ) and Cold-
Worked (Crosses) Surfaces ( a ) and D i s t r i b u t i o n
of Compressive Stresses i n t h e Thickness of t h e Spar
Wall from Cold-Working by S.V.Ochagov*s Vibratory
Iinpact Method ( b ) .
A marked increase i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of spars made of aluminum a l l o y s can
be achieved by cold-working of t h e spars. Figure 1.84 gives t h e results of
f a t i g u e t e s t s of cold-worked s p a r s compared w i t h spars without cold-working. The
d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r n a l stresses set up by cold-working i s a l s o shown. The en­
durance l i m i t of cold-worked spars can be r a i s e d t o values of o w m i n= 5.5 t o
6 .O kg/nnn2 (om = 6.0 kg/m2) 0

It should be noted that t h e s t r e n g t h of cold-worked duralumin s p a r s i s re­

duced g r e a t l y i f t h e spar frame, during t h e gluing process, i s heated t o a tem­
p e r a t u r e of about 2OO0C a& higher. T h i s makes it mandatory t o c o n t r o l t h e tem­
p e r a t u r e i n t h e gluing operation.

18. Effect of Service Conditions on Fatigue stren&h-of-.%grs

The above method f o r determining t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h and s e r v i c e l i f e can
be used only if t h e s t r u c t u r e , during a c t u a l service, does not suffer mechanical
o r corrosion damage. O t h e m s e , t h e approach t o determining t h e s e r v i c e l i f e
must be modified and reduced t o a study of t h e e f f e c t of such damage. F’rcnnthis

212
viewpoint, t h e s t r u c t u r e s of a l l blades should be divided i n t o two types: blades
w i t h p r o t e c t e d and blades w i t h exposed s p a r s .

I n a blade d e s i g n w i t h t u b u l a r steel, t h e spar i s u s u a l l y completely pro­

t e c t e d by t h e frame and cannot be mechanically damaged i n s e r v i c e . The g r e a t e s t
r i s k i n such a design i s corrosion; t h e r e f o r e , t h e service l i f e of such blades
i s determined by t h e q u a l i t y of t h e a n t i c o r r o s i o n coatings of t h e spar.
I n blade designs i n which t h e spar forms t h e contour of t h e leading edge of
t h e p r o f i l e , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must 'be p a i d t o i t s p r o t e c t i o n from mechanical
damage. If such p r o t e c t i o n i s inadequate, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e i s shortened and /199
becomes dependent on t h e degree of damage of t h e spar. Usually, a permissible
degree of damage i s s t i p u l a t e d here and checked during p r e f l i g h t blade inspec­
tion.

To estimate t h e e f f e c t of damage of a spar i n s e r v i c e , dynamic t e s t s are

r u n on specimens c u t out of blades operated f o r a c e r t a i n number of hours under
various s e r v i c e conditions, followed by e s t a b l i s h i n g a r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e based
on t h e conditions of endurance of specimens undamaged i n s e r v i c e . When t h e
f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h decreases excessively, measures are t a k e n t o improve t h e pro­
t e c t i o n of t h e spar.
 CHAPTER I1

HELICOPTER VIBRATIONS

S e c t i o n 1. Forces Causing Helicopter Vibrations

1. & c i t a t i o n Frequencies

Since, i n forward f l i g h t of a h e l i c o p t e r , t h e r o t o r blades which are sub­

j e c t t o t h e e f f e c t of time-variant aerodynamic f o r c e s vibrate both i n t h e plane
of r o t o r t h r u s t and i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e
blade i n t h e hub hinges are a l s o v a r i a b l e i n
time. Correspondingly, v a r i a b l e f o r c e s e q u a l
i n magnitude t o t h e s e r e a c t i o n f o r c e s a c t on
t h e r o t o r hub.

The variable f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r
hub and produced by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades can
be given i n t h e form of t h r e e f o r c e s X(t),
Y(t), Z ( t ) and three moments r e l a t i v e t o t h e
coordinate axes M , ( t ) , My(t), M,(t) (Fig.2.1).
If t h e h e l i c o p t e r has a n a n t i t o r q u e r o t o r , t h e
blades of this r o t o r W i l l cause time-variant
f o r c e s of t h e same o r i g i n t o a c t on t h e heli­
copter; t h e s e can a l s o conveniently be given
Fig.2.1 Forces and Moments i n t h e form of three variable f o r c e s and three
from t h e Rotor, Acting on a
Helicopter . moments .
The v a r i a b l e f o r c e s from t h e v i b r a t i n g
r o t o r blades, a c t i n g on t h e helicopter, are
t h e main source of fuselage v i b r a t i o n .

Fuselage v i b r a t i o n s may a l s o be caused d i r e c t l y by aerodynamic f o r c e s act­

i n g on t h e f u s e l a g e due t o t h e f l u c t u a t i n g airflow repulsed by t h e r o t o r s . Thus,
t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e flow pushed back by t h e r o t o r i n t h e f u s e l a g e region is
c r e a s e s whenever any of t h e r o t o r blades p a s s e s above t h e fuselage. However,
numerous c a l c u l a t i o n s and measurements of p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a t t h e f u s e l a g e
demonstrate t h a t t h e s e v a r i a b l e aerodynamic f o r c e s are appreciably weaker t h a n
t h e variable f o r c e s produced by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades and a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub.
For e x a q l e , for t h e Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r t h e variable f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e f u s e l a g e
due t o f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e flow repulsed by t h e r o t o r i n t h e most unfavorable
f l i g h t regime ( d e c e l e r a t i o n before landing) i s of t h e order of *lo -
15 kgf,
whereas t h e variable f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub i n d i f f e r e n t f l i g h t regimes
are of t h e order of 4 2 0 0 - 600) kgf. Therefore, i n analyzing h e l i c o p t e r vi- /201
b r a t i o n s we are p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n variable f o r c e s imposed on t h e r o t o r hub.

These f o r c e s , g e n e r a l l y speaking, can be defined as dynamic r e a c t i o n s a t

forced blade v i b r a t i o n s i n f l i g h t , f o r which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n methods a r e pre­
sented i n Chapter I. Here, it must be emphasized that t h e variable f o r c e s i n

2ue
 such a c a l c u l a t i o n are determined w i t h considerable inaccuracy. The reason f o r
this l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g blade v i b r a t i o n s , only t h e lower har­
monics of t h e loads are s a t i s f a c t o r i l y determined and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n e r r o r s in­
c r e a s e w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e order of t h e harmor6cs. Furthermore, as w i l l be
shown below, i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s it i s t h e high harmonics of exci­
t a t i o n t h a t are of d e c i s i v e importance. T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t that a l l methods
of v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s presented i n this Chapter are of a mainly q u a l i t a t i v e
nature.
An exact c a l c u l a t i o n o f v i b r a t i o n s by means of methods presented i n this
Chapter i s p o s s i b l e only i n c e r t a i n s p e c i a l cases. The most important of t h e s e
i s t h e designing of a new h e l i c o p t e r fuselage o r
even of a h e l i c o p t e r of a d i f f e r e n t configuration
( f o r example tandem o r side-by-side i n p l a c e of
single-rotor) equipped w i t h p r e v i o u s l y used r o t o r s ,
f o r which t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e s w e r e determined ex­
perimentally ( f o r example, by measuring stresses i n
t h e r o t o r s h a f t o r i n t h e r e d u c t i o n gear mount).

It should be noted t h a t t h e q u a l i t a t i v e methods

of estimating v i b r a t i o n s permits a number of u s e f u l
conclusions i n designing h e l i c o p t e r s and i n improv­
i n g them during f l i g h t tests. For example, it i s
p o s s i b l e t o judge t h e e f f e c t on v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
shape of t h e blade resonance diagram and t h e fuse-
Fig.2.2 Rotor Rotating l a g e resonance diagram and t h u s d e f i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n
i n a n Oncoming Airflow. toward which t h e design parameters should be changed
so as t o reduce v i b r a t i o n s , and sometimes even t o
estimate t h e degree of r e d u c t i o n i n vibrahion.

To draw c e r t a i n g e n e r a l conclusions as t o t h e nature of time-variance of

t h e f o r c e s X(t), T ( t ) , and Z ( t ) and of t h e moments M,(t), M,(t), and M,(t), l e t
us t u r n t o Fig.2.2 which shows a 5-bhde r o t o r uniformly r o t a t i n g with a n angu­
lar v e l o c i t y w i n a r e l a t i v e airflow of constant v e l o c i t y V. A t a c e r t a i n
t i m e t, l e t t h e r o t o r blades occupy t h e p o s i t i o n shown i n t h e s k e t c h and l e t at
this t i m e t h e f o r c e X have a c e r t a i n value X ( t ) . After a time i n t e r v a l ecpal t o
1/5 of t h e time of one complete r e v o l u t i o n of t h e r o t o r , t h e r o t o r w i l l t u r n by
1/5 of this complete r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s causes blade N o . 1 t o occupy t h e p o s i t i o n
of blade No.2, blade No.2 that of blade N0.3, and s o on. It i s obvious t h a t , i n
t h e new p o s i t i o n and i f a l l r o t o r blades are a b s o l u t e l y i d e n t i c a l , t h e e n t i r e
p a t t e r n of f l o w and hence a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e blade W i l l be e x a c t l y t h e
same as a t t h e i n i t i a l time t. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e value of t h e f o r c e X W i l l be
t h e same. It i s evident t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n i s repeated w i t h t h e next t u r n of
t h e r o t o r by l / 5 of a complete revol.ution. Consequently, t h e f u n c t i o n X(t) i s a
p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n of t i m e of a p e r i o d equal t o 1/5 t h e time of one complete r o t o r
revolution. Figure 2.3 shows one of t h e p o s s i b l e s l o p e s of t h e curve of t h e de­
pendence X = X ( t ) .

Thus, t h e f o r c e X w i l l vary i n time w i t h a n angular frequency 50, whereas

t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r blade w i l l change w i t h a frequency w
(once p e r r o t o r r e v o l u t i o n ) .

I
 E k e any p e r i o d i c function, t h e f u n c t i o n X ( t ) can be expanded i n a Fourier
series. T h i s W i l l cause t h e lower harmonic i n t h e expansion t o be t h e har- /202
monic 5w, s o t h a t t h e expansion w i l l have t h e form
X(t)=X0+Xa, cos5~~t+Xb,sin5wt+Xa,cos10wt+Xb,sin loot+
+Xa,cos 15wt$Xb,sin 15wt+. ., .
i.e., t h e fundamental frequency p = 5w, while t h e m u l t i p l e frequencies are 2p =
= low, 3p = l5w, 4p = a w , e t c .

, e x a c t l y t h e same conclusions can be drawn w i t h respect t o t h e

f u n c t ? ~ ~ o
Z (~t ) ,~ M,(t),
~ ~ , M,(t), and M,(t).

I n general, f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades equal t o z, a l l f o r c e s and

moments a c t i n g or? t h e h e l i c o p t e r p e r i o d i c a l l y change i n t i m e , w i t h t h e frequency
of t h e so-called fundamental harmonic of t h e r o t o r p = zw. The expansion of
t h e s e f o r c e s and moments i n a Fourier series has t h e form

I
X (t)=Xa+Xal COS p t f x b , sin pt+Xa, cos 2pt
f Xb. sin a p t 4 X,, cos 3pt f Xb, sin 3pt -/- ...;
M x ( t ) = M ~ , 4 M : ,c o s p t + M ~ l s i n p t + M ~ I c o s 2 p t +
4- M i , sin 2pt f M;, cos 3pt +Mi, sin 3pt +..:,
where
p =zw.
(1.2)

?!, by t h e r o t o r and a c t i n g d i r e c t l y on t h e fuse­

r\nnp,n ,X-X(t) lage .

o u w v u v L o If, i n addition, t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s
equipped w i t h a n a n t i t o r q u e r o t o r having z,
o f i n d i v i d u a l blade quality.

We note t h a t a l l above arguments are f u l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of

variable f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e swashplate of t h e automatic p i t c h c o n t r o l and pro­
duced by t h e r o t o r blades. Despite t h e f a c t t h a t t h e moment of t h e f o r c e s a c t ­
i n g on t h e blade relative t o t h e axial hinge (hinge moment) v a r i e s i n time w i t h
a fundamental frequency w, t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on t h e swash-
p l a t e vary i n time w i t h a fundamental frequency zw. Therefore, t h e v a r i a b l e
f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e and c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l loops vary w i t h a /203
fundamental f r e q e n c y p = zw and a l s o c o n t a i n t h e harmonics a, 3p, 4p, etc.
I n addition, lower e x c i t a t i o n harmonics can appear only a t deviations i n i n d i v i ­
d u a l blade p r o p e r t i e s .

2. DeDendence 0.f t h e F r e q u e n c g t r u m - of Excitiqg Forces

o-n t h e Harmgnic Content of Blade Vibrations

Above, on t h e basis of very g e n e r a l considerations, we have demonstrated

t h a t v a r i a b l e f o r c e s and moments X, Y, Z, M,, My, and M, produced by t h e vibra­
t i n g blades and a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub
vary i n time w i t h the-frequency of t h e
fundamental harmonic zw of t h e r o t o r and
a l s o c o n t a i n i t s m u l t i p l e harmonics 2zw,
3 8 ~ 1 e, t c . , whereas t h e r o t o r blades and
hence t h e f o r c e s generated by each blade
and a c t i n g on t h e hub perform v i b r a t i o n s
w i t h t h e fundamental frequency w and
c o n t a i n m u l t i p l e harmonics 21-14 3w, 4w,
e t c . which comprises a l s o t h e harmonics
zw, 2zw, e t c . T h i s suggests t h a t cer­
t a i n harmonic components of t h e vari­
a b l e f o r c e s s e t up by each blade and ~ I W
pressed on t h e hub are neutralized a t
t h e hub while o t h e r s a r e s m e d . We
Fig.2.4 Polygon of Forces Generated will prove t h a t this i s a c t u a l l y so.
by t h e Blade and Impressed on t h e L e t us r e f e r t o Fig.2.4. which g i v e s a
b t o r Hub. schematic s k e t c h of a hub w i t h hinged
blades.

The f o r c e impressed on t h e hub from t h e k-th blade can be resolved i n t o

three components: Nk d i r e c t e d along t h e blade radius, Pk p a r a l l e l t o t h e ax2s of
t h e r o t o r s h a f t , and Qk perpendicular t o both.

Each of t h e s e components i s a p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n of time w i t h a fundamental

frequency w . It i s obvious t h a t , i n a s t e a d y - f l i g h t regime, t h e functions N k ( t ) ,
P k ( t ) , and Q ( t ) are i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l blades but s h i f t e d i n phase f o r each
blade relative t o t h e adjacent one by some q u a n t i t y corresponding t o t h e time of
r o t o r t u r n through a n angle 2n/z. T h i s j u s t i f i e s w r i t i n g t h e expansion of t h e s e
f u n c t i o n s i n Fourier series i n t h e form
where

or, more concisely,

Let us now formulate t h e following problem: Knowing t h e values of t h e co­

e f f i c i e n t s of expansion i n Fourier s e r i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n s P k ( t ) , &,(t), and
N k ( t ) , o r , i n o t h e r words, knowing t h e harmonic Components of t h e f o r c e s P,, Q,,
N,, we f i n d t h e variable f o r c e s X, Y, Z and t h e moments M,, My, M, (more e x a c t l y
% h e i r harmonic components) from which we can p l o t t h e dependence of t h e vibra­
tion-inducing f o r c e s on various harmonic components of t h e f o r c e s produced by
a n i n d i v i d u a l blade and a c t i n g on t h e hub.

Summing t h e f o r c e s generated by each blade and a c t i n g on t h e hub, we o b t a i n

t h e following formulas :

where
Jl, = azimuthal angle of t h e k-th blade:

218
 h = d i s t a n c e between d s of r o t a t i o n and matched f l a p p i n g and drag
hinges

If t h e hub has unmatched hinges, t h e n we must t a k e h = t v e h i n eq.(1.9) and

h = t h . h i n eq.(l.lO).

Let us e x d n e i n d e t a i l eq.(1.7) f o r determining t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e Y.

S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o it ,eq.( 1.3) for t h e f o r c e P,, it becomes necessary t o calcu­
l a t e t h e sums i n t h e f o r m

where n a r e i n t e g e r s ( n = 1, 2, 3 , ...).

We will show t h a t t h e trigonometric sums of such a form have t h e following

noteworthy property: For any n not a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of blades z , both /205
sums a r e equal t o zero for any t; when n i s a multiple of z, ?.e., i f n = s z
( s = 1, 2, 3, ...), t h e n

(1.12)

f o r any value of t, b u t

Furthermore,
6 5
COS 6 (Ut +cpa) = COS 7 (Ut+ yk)=
k-I k-1

I
but

We can prove t h e v a l i d i t y of eqs.(1.12) by d i f f e r e n t methods. For this,

l e t us use t h e convenient method proposed by R.A.Mikheyev based on t h e applica­
t i o n of t h e well-known Euler formula expressing t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between trigono­
m e t r i c functions and exponential f u n c t i o n s w i t h a n imaginary argument. We Will
prove t h e v a l i d i t y of only t h e first equation i n t h e system (1.12). We have:

Theref ore,

k- 1
cosn?, = -
2 E
k-1
[efn'k+e-fn'k I=
2 2% 2%
in - k -in -k

2
k -1 k-I

Let us s e p a r a t e l y check t h e sum

fn 5k
-­
(efn $)+(efn G)z+(ein %)3+ +(ein 5)"
k -1
e "
...

T h i s i s a geometric progression w i t h t h e denominator e

in 2 2
. /zo6
Using t h e well-known formula f o r t h e sum of a geometric progression, we
obtain

12% -!L
e ' (1 - e i z x n )
12.5
k- 1 I-e '

Since n i s a n i n t e g e r , t h e numerator of this expression i s always equal t o

zero, s o t h a t ei2nn = 1 ( n = 1, 2, 3 , .) .. .
The denominator of this expression can vanish only i f (+) i s an i n t e g e r ,

i.e., if n i s a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of blades z . Thus, this sum i s equal t o

zero f o r any n w i t h t h e exception of t h o s e n t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e number z.

I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e value of t h e sum becomes indeterminate (+). his in­

220
 deterrninacy can be evaluated by t h e well-known LfHospital r u l e . kt n vary con­
tinuously, approaching some value s z ( s i s any i n t e g e r ; s = 1, 2, 3, ). D i f ­
f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e numerator and denominator w i t h r e s p e c t t o n and passing t o t h e
...
limit n -t sz, we have

W e can a l s o show e x a c t l y t h a t

0, if n is not a multiple of '7.;

A s a r e s u l t , we a r r i v e a t t h e conclusion t h a t i f n i s not a m u l t i p l e of z,
then 2

cos n+&=0.
k-1

=-
cos n+&
z
2
+ e--lnaf) =z cos n w t = z cos (szwt).
R-1

I n E k e manner, we can prove t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e second equation of t h e

system (1.12).

The i n d i c a t e d p r o p e r t y of trigonometric sums i s conveniently w r i t t e n i n t h e

form
0, i f n i s no t a m u l t i p l e of z;
cos nqk =
R-l zcosnwt, if n=sz; s=I, 2, 3. ..;
2

h-1
sin =
0, i f
zsinnof,
n i s n o t a m u l t i p l e of z;

if n=sz; s=l, 2, 3 . . .

Let us now r e t u r n t o t h e expression f o r t h e f o r c e Y from eq.(l.7),

I into /207
which we s u b s t i t u t e t h e value of t h e f o r c e P, from eq.(l.4) :

221

I
 On t h e basis of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p r o p e r t y of trigonometric sums [eq.(l.l3)1
it can be s t a t e d t h a t , upon summation of d i f f e r e n t harmonics i n this expression,
a l l harmonics t h a t are not a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of blades z w i l l disappear.
The harmonics t h a t are a m u l t i p l e of z are summed i n conformity w i t h eqs.(l.l3),
s o t h a t we f i n a l l y o b t a i n

Thus, a l l harmonic components of t h e f o r c e Pk (t)- t h a t are not a m u l t i p l e

of t h e number of blades are n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e r o t o r hub and do not cause vibra­
t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r fuselage. A s a result, t h e variable f o r c e Y changes i n
time w i t h t h e fundamental harmonic p = zw of
t h e r o t o r , and a l s o contains m u l t i p l e harmonics
a* mm a, 3p, e t c . T h i s completely confirms t h e
b a s i c conclusion of t h e preceding Subsection,
and y i e l d s a d d i t i o n a l information e x a c t l y de­
f i n i n g t h e harmonic components of t h e f o r c e Pk
t h a t are dangerous from t h e aspect of vibra­
tions.

Let us examine a n example f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n

0 purposes. W e assume t h a t , f o r some r o t o r , t h e r e
i s resonance of t h e second overtone of blade
Fig.2.5 Amplitude of V i b r a - v i b r a t i o n i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane w i t h t h e f i f t h
t i o n s i n Cockpit of Single- harmonic of t h e r o t o r ( 5 w ) . I n this case t h e
Rotor Helicopter as a Func- harmonic component corresponding t o t h e f i f t h
t i o n of Flying Speed. harmonic (Pas and Pb5) w i l l be l a r g e i n t h e ex­
pansion of t h e f o r c e Pk f o r such a r o t o r .

If t h e r o t o r has f i v e blades, t h e above t y p e of resonance w i l l lead t o ap­

p r e c i a b l e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

If t h e r o t o r has f o u r blades, this resonance w i l l i n no way manifest i t s e l f

i n v i b r a t i o n s of t h e helicopter, s i n c e t h e harmonic components of t h e f o r c e Pk
corresponding t o this resonance W i l l be n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub. A s w i l l be
shown l a t e r , t h e variable moments M, and M, a t t h e hub can be appreciable; how­
ever, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s are determined mainly
by t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e s X, Y, Z. Occasionally, it i s erroneously assumed t h a t
t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a given h e l i c o p t e r are smaller, t h e l a r g e r t h e number of r o t o r
blades. However, it i s evident i n this example t h a t i n r e a l i t y t h e matter i s
not s o simple and t h a t i n this case a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number of blades a c t u a l l y
will lead t o a r e d u c t i o n i n v i b r a t i o n .
Let u s examine another example: Figure 2.5 shows t h e r e s u l t s of experi­
mental v i b r a t i o n measurements i n t h e cockpit of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r which
w a s t e s t e d w i t h two r o t o r s : three- and four-blade types. The r o t o r s had com­
p l e t e l y i d e n t i c a l blades and d i f f e r e d only i n t h e hubs. The curves d e p i c t t h e
dependence of t h e q l i t u d e a y of v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e cockpit on t h e f l y ­
i n g speed V f o r both r o t o r s .

A s shown by c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e s e r o t o r s , t h e r o t o r blade had a resonance /208

222
 of t h e second overtone of v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e w i t h t h e f o u r t h har­
monic of t h e r o t o r at t h e operating rpm. As a r e s u l t , t h e Vibrations of t h e
h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a four-blade r o t o r , over t h e g r e a t e r p o r t i o n of t h e speed range,
w e r e appreciably higher (at V = 4.0 - 50 km/hr, by a f a c t o r of more t h a n 3 ) than
t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h t h e three-blade r o t o r . However, at a high
f l y i n g speed t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a four-blade r o t o r w e r e
smaller t h a n those of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a three-blade r o t o r . This i s explained
by t h e f a c t t h a t , at low flying speed, a l a r g e harmonic component of aerodynamic
f o r c e s exi-sts, corresponding t o t h e f o u r t h harmonic and caused by t h e l a r g e non­
u n i f o r n i t y of t h e induced v e l o c i t y field of t h e r o t o r at a l o w f l y i n g speed.
With a n i n c r e a s e i n f l y i n g speed t h e r e occurs a n e q u a l i z a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y
field of t h e flow p a s s i n g through t h e r o t o r (see Chapt.1, Sect.8); correspond­
ingly, t h e e x c i t a t i o n of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h respect t o t h e f o u r t h harmonic
decreases rapidly, whereas t h e t h i r d harmonic does not decrease as r a p i d l y w i t h
a n i n c r e a s e i n speed o r may not decrease a t a l l . The r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e magnitude
of t h e f o u r t h harmonic i n t h e induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d a t low f l y i n g speed ap­
p a r e n t l y i s a phenomenon common t o a l l r o t o r s .

Let us now r e t u r n t o a determination of o t h e r f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on

t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Ecpation (1.9) f o r t h e moment M y i s completely analogous t o
eqe(1=7).
Repeating t h e reasoning used i n d e r i v i n g eq.(l.&) f o r t h e f o r c e Y, we ob­
t a i n t h e following expression:

The v a r i a b l e moment M y i s dangerous not only from t h e aspect of h e l i c o p t e r

v i b r a t i o n s ( i t will be shown i n Sect .3, Subsect .1 t h a t this moment causes only
l a t e r a l f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s ) . T h i s moment i s one of t h e sources of t o r s i o n a l
v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e transmission system of a h e l i c o p t e r .

A s we s e e from eq.(1.15), t h e variable p o r t i o n of this moment i s determined

e x c l u s i v e l y by t h e harmonic components of t h e f o r c e q t ) which a r e m u l t i p l e s t o
t h e number of blades.

L e t us now t u r n t o t h e first e c p a t i o n of t h e system (1.8). S u b s t i t u t i n g

i n t o it t h e expressions f o r Qk(t) and % ( t )C e q ~ ~ ( 1 . 5and) (1.6)1, we o b t a i n

223

' 1111111111 I I1 I 11111-11-111 1111 I 111 I 1 I1 111I I I I,.I I,

 To c a l c u l a t e t h e remaining addends l e t us examine t h e expression

XQn= [Q,,; cos nqk+ Qe, sin n +k] sin Oh,

k-1

which r e p r e s e n t s t h e component of t h e f o r c e X caused by t h e n-th harmonic of

t h e f o r c e Q.
z
C sinn+ksirl+k .
2

Here, we encounter sums of t h e form C cosn?ksin+k and These

k-I k-1
sums are a l s o e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e d by means of eq.(1.13). Actually,

sin qk=-
cos n+&
2
k-1 k-1 k- 1
z z

On t h e basis of eqs.(l.l3) we can assert t h a t t h e s e sums w i l l be nonzero

only i f one of t h e numbers ( n + 1) o r ( n -
1) i s a m u l t i p l e of t h e number of
blades. Let ( n + 1) = s z ( s = 1, 2, 3 , ...) and t h u s n = s z - 1. Then,

z
COS n$&sin +i= -sin (szwf);
2
k- 1
z
z
sin n$k sin l;)k = -- cos (szwt).
2
k -1

Furthermore, i f ( n - 1) = s z ; n = s z + 1, t h e n

cos n$&sin $& = --

2
P
sin (szwt);
k-1

As a r e s u l t , we o b t a i n t h e following expression for t h e component of t h e

f o r c e X which i s obtained from a l l harmonic components of t h e f o r c e Q:

224

I
 (1.16)

For t h e p o r t i o n of t h e f o r c e X caused by harmonic components of t h e f o r c e

N(t), we o b t a i n i n like manner t h e expression of t h e form

The f o r c e X can be determined b y . t h e formula

X=XQ$XN.

If t'he expression f o r t h e f o r c e X(t) i s w r i t t e n i n t h e form of e q . ( l . l ) , /210

t h e follow-ing formulas f o r i t s harmonic components are obtained:

The components corresponding t o harmonics t h a t are m u l t i p l e s of t h e funda­

mental harmonic Xa2, X b 2 , e t c . are obtained from t h e s e same formulas, i f we re­
p l a c e t h e index z by t h e i n d i c e s 22, 32, e t c .

Thus, t h e variable p a r t of t h e f o r c e X(t) i s determined by t h e harmonic

components of t h e f o r c e s Q ( t ) and N(t) which a r e combinatory w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
fundamental harmonic of t h e r o t o r ( z - 1; z + 1) o r t o i t s m u l t i p l e harmonics
( 2 2 - 1; 22 + l), e t c .

For exanple, f o r a r o t o r w i t h three blades ( z = 3), t h e fundamental har­

monic of t h e f o r c e X (frequency 3 w t ) w i l l be determined by t h e second and f o u r t h
harmonics of t h e f o r c e s at)
and N ( t ) , t h e second harmonic of t h e f o r c e (fre­
quency 6 w t ) w i l l be determined by t h e f i f t h and seventh harmonics of f o r c e s at)
and N(t), and s o on.

Completely analogous formulas we obtained f o r harmonic components of t h e

force z ( t )

225
 J u s t as i n eqs.(l.M), t o o b t a i n t h e m u l t i p l e harmonics za2, Zb2, z ~ z,,
t h e index z i n t h e s e formulas must be s u b s t i t u t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y by t h e i n d i c e s 22,
32, e t c .
I n l i k e manner, t h e expressions f o r t h e harmonic components of t h e moments
M, and M, a r e obtained from e q s . ( l . U ) :

(1.20)

rh
M "u , -- - [ -2P (Z+l) -p , +1)1;
(1.21)
rh
Mi,=- 2 [ -P ~ ( z + l ) - P " Z - l ) l .

Let us a l s o mention t h e f o l l a J i n g f a c t which occasionally might f a c i l i t a t e

a q u a l i t a t i v e v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s . If t h e v a r i a b l e f o r c e i n t h e r o t o r plane ( X
o r Z ) o r t h e moment (Mx, M,) are determined by some harmonic component of t h e
f o r c e generated by t h e blade, t h e n we o b t a i n a vector of constant length uni­
formly r o t a t i n g i n t h e plane of t h e rotor w i t h an angular v e l o c i t y zw ( o r szw).
The d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n i s opposite t o t h a t of t h e r o t o r i f this vector i s ob­
t a i n e d from t h e harmonic component z + 1 ( o r sz + l), and e q u i d i r e c t i o n a l w i t h
t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r i f this vector i s obtained from t h e harmonic coPnponent
z - 1 ( o r sz - 1).
For i n s t a n c e , l e t t h e r o t o r have f i v e blades ( z = 5) and l e t us look a t /211
t h e vector of t h e moment a t t h e hub, w i t h components M, and M, obtained from t h e
harmonic component ( z - 1):
P=P,,cos 4wt$Pb,sin4wt.

Then C e q ~ ~ ( l . 2 0and
) (1.2l)Iy
rh
M,=- [Pb, cos 5od -Pu4sin 5wt];
2
zh
Mz=- [ - Pb,s in 5 w t
2
- P,, cos 5 w t ] .

A s i n d i c a t e d by t h e s e formulas, t h e vector
X=M,+M,
r e p r e s e n t s a vector of constant l e n g t h

226
 uniformly r o t a t i n g i n t h e p l a n e of t h e r o t o r w i t h a n angular v e l o c i t y 5m i n a
d i r e c t i o n coinciding w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t o r r o t a t i o n .

Thus, t h e above analysis shows that a r o t o r i s a s o r t of f i l t e r which, out

of a l l harmonic components of t h e f o r c e s on v i b r a t i n g blades, t r a n s m i t s t o t h e
f u s e l a g e o n l y c e r t a i n ones corresponding t o t h e fundamental harmonic of t h e
r o t o r zw, t o i t s composite harmonics ( z -
1) m and ( z + l)w, harmonics t h a t are
m u l t i p l e s of t h e fundamental harmonic Zzw, ~ Z W , etc., and t o composite harmonics
(22 - 1)m, (22 + 1)w, (32 - l ) w , (3z + l ) w , e t c .

A s a rule, t h e lower harmonics ow, ( z + l)w, and ( z -

l ) w represent t h e
g r e a t e s t danger both from t h e aspect of t h e v i b r a t i o n level and from t h e aspect
of dynamic s t r e n g t h of t h e f u s e l a g e members.

Of t h e harmonics which are a consequence of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e flap­

ping p l a n e ( f o r c e P,, see Fig.2.4), t h e harmonic z w (a& m u l t i p l e s of it) lead
t o t h e appearance of a v e r t i c a l variable f o r c e on t h e r o t o r , whereas t h e har­
monics ( z - 1) and ( z + 1) (and a l s o 22 - 1, 22 + 1, e t c . ) l e a d t o t h e appear­
ance of v a r i a b l e moments a t t h e hub r e l a t i v e t o t h e axes O x and 02.

O f the harmonics_ which-are a consequeqce of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane

of r o t a t i o n ( f o r c e s Q and N,, see Fig.2.4.), t h e harmonic z w (and m u l t i p l e s of
i t ) lead t o t h e appearance of a variable t w i s t i n g moment on t h e r o t o r s h a f t ,
whereas t h e harmonics ( z - 1 ) w and ( z + l)w, and a l s o (22 -
1, 22 + 1, e t c . ) ,
lead t o t h e appearance of variable f o r c e s ( l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l ) i n t h e plane
of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .

We note i n conclusion that, upon summation of t h e f o r c e s generated by t h e

blades and a c t i n g on t h e swashplate of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l , we Obtain e x a c t l y t h e
same formulas f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e harmonic components of t h e v e r t i c a l f o r c e Y and
t h e moments M, a& M, applied t o t h e swashplate. I n this case, eqs.(l.&),
(1.20), and (1.21) can be used d i r e c t l y , understanding by t h e f o r c e

t h e f o r c e a c t i n g i n t h e trimmer of t h e k-th blade (hinge moment divided by t h e

corresponding arm), and understanding by t h e q u a n t i t y h t h e r a d i u s of t h e swash-
p l a t e of t h e p i t c h control.

Thus, knowing t h e harmonic content of t h e hinge moment, i t i s not d i f f i c u l t

t o c a l c u l a t e t h e variable f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e and c y c l i c p i t c h cor+
t r o l loops.

S e c t i o n 2. -%a1 Vibrations of t h e Fuselane as a n E l a s t i c Beam La2

If t h e variable f o r c e s imparted t o t h e fuselage by t h e r o t o r s are known,
t h e n c a l c u l a t i o n of T i b r a t i o n s at d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of t h e f u s e l a g e can be car­
r i e d out by conventional methods of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of a n elas­
t i c beam of variable c r o s s s e c t i o n . O f course, t h e f u s e l a g e of a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r

227

I
can be regarded as a t h i n flexurally e l a s t i c beam.

I n reality, t h e t r a n s v e r s e dimensions of a f u s e l a g e cannot be considered

small i n comparison w i t h t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l dimensions. Furthermore, t h e f u s e l a g e
of a h e l i c o p t e r of s i n g l e - r o t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n may have 11discontinuitiesl* i n t h e
r e g i o n of t h e t a i l boom, pronounced reduction i n r i g i d i t y over t h e length, and
o t h e r p e c u l i a r i t i e s . These s p e c i a l features and t h e i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n vibra­
t i o n a n a l y s i s are discussed i n S e c t i o n 3 . Here, we Will d e s c r i b e methods of
v i b r a t i o n analysis of a n e l a s t i c beam, s i n c e t h e s e form t h e basis f o r f u r t h e r
discussion. In this Section, we w i l l a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e v i b r a t i o n s of a system
c o n s i s t i n g of two e l a s t i c beams forming a llcrossl*. A f u s e l a g e w i t h a wing i s
reduced t o such a system.

1. Calculation o f Forced Vibrations of a n E l a s t i c Beam

by t h e Method of b a n s i o n i n Natural Modes

Let a time-variant load q, d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e beam l e n g t h and varying i n

accordance w i t h t h e harmonic l a w

4 (x, t)= q (x)cos p t (2.1)

be applied t o a f l e x u r a l l y e l a s t i c i d e a l beam (fig.2.6) without damping, which
i s i n a free s t a t e under t h e e f f e c t of a balanced system of t h e - i n v a r i a n t f o r c e s
( t h e f o r c e of r o t o r t h r u s t balances t h e f o r c e of
gravity).
yi
I
The equation of lateral flexural vibra­
t i o n s of such a beam has t h e form

(E/y")" + my = q ( x , t).
I=-----"
--L 4 This equation i n p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s was
derived i n Subsection 10, S e c t i o n 1, Chapter I
fig.2.6 Diagram of a Free f o r a n e l a s t i c beam i n a c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d .
E l a s t i c Beam under Applica- I n t h e i r absence (N 5 0), t h e expression t a k e s
t i o n of a D i s t r i b u t e d Load. t h e form of eq.(2.2).

The problem i s t o f i n d t h e motion of t h e

beam, i.e., t o f i n d t h e f u n c t i o n y = y(x, t ) which satisfies eq.(2.2) and t h e
boundary conditions which, i n t h e case of a beam w i t h free ends, have t h e form

The functions y(x, t ) s a t i s f y i n g t h e homogeneous equation (without t h e

right-hand s i d e )

(Efy")"+my=i~ (2*4)

228

.-I11 I I I I I I
and t h e boundary conditions (2.3) correspond t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
beam. The s o l u t i o n of eq.(2.4) i s sought i n t h e form

y (x, t )=.&) cos pt. (2.5)

T h i s expression, after s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t o eq.(2.4), leads t o an ordinary /213
d i f f e r e n t i a l equation w i t h t h e parameter p f o r determining t h e f u n c t i o n y(x):

(EITP- pzmy=o, (2.6)

The last equation has s o l u t i o n s d i f f e r e n t from zero only a t c e r t a i n values
of t h e parameter p: p = po; p = p l ; p = p 2 ; p = p3, e t c . To each value of p =
= Pk (k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
.) t h e r e corresponds a c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n y k (x), which
s a t i s f i e s eq.(2.6) a t p = Pk , s o t h a t
F i r s t j u n d a n e n t a l node ,p=o 4

-.enter
F i r s t e l a s t i c node
The O r d e r s O f Pk ( k = 0 , 1, 2, 3, . . e )
are c a l l e d t h e natural frequencies of t h e
beam, w h i l e t h e f u n c t i o n s T , ( x ) a r e desig­
of g r a v i t y nated as t h e corresponding natural v i b r a t i o n
modes.

The motion of t h e beam according t o t h e

law
Second e l a s t i c node P ’ P t
y (A, 4 = a Z (4cos PRt, (2.8)

t where ak i s a constant, i s c a l l e d t h e natu­

r a l v i b r a t i o n of t h e beam w i t h respect t o
t h e k-th overtone.

The e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of t h e homogeneous
equation 72.4) has t h e form

Fig. 2.7 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Natural

V i b r a t i o n Modes of a Fuselage
as a Free Beam. where a, and (pk are arbitrary constants.
(p:, pz, e t c . are t h e v i b r a t i o n
frequencies of t h e first, Thus, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of a beam
second, e t c . e l a s t i c overtones; r e p r e s e n t motion produced as a result of
i n g e n e r a l we can assume: po = t h e s u p e r p o s i t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t
= 0 ; p1 = 0, pz = p?;’; p3 = p3+
e t c .) . 2’
o v e r tones.

The methods of f i n d i n g t h e natural fre­

quencies Pk and t h e corresponding modes yk(x)
f o r a beam w i t h a given l a w of v a r i a t i o n i n r i g i d i t y EI(x) and a l i n e a r mass
m(x) are presented i n S e c t i o n 2 of Chapter I.

229
 1

Figure 2.7 shows t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modes of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a free

beam. The two modes correspond t o v i b r a t i o n s of a beam as a s o l i d body and-have
natural frequencies equal t o zero. The first of t h e s e modes corresponds t o f o r ­
ward motions of t h e beam, and t h e second t o angular displacement of t h e beam
relative t o i t s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y .

A l l formulas derived i n this S e c t i o n are e q u a l l y suitable f o r c a l c u l a t i n g

t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a n e l a s t i c beam w i t h any clamping conditions a t i t s ends.
However, when t h e s e formulas are used f o r v i b r a t i o n s of a free beam and p a r t i c u ­
l a r l y of a fuselage, it must be remembered that t h e number of t h e frequencies pk
and of t h e modes yk(x) of natural v i b r a t i o n s must i n c l u d e t h e two lower modes
which correspond t o fundamental frequencies. Thus, i n a l l formulas it i s neces­
sary t o set po = 0 and p1 = 0 and t o t a k e i n t o ' a c c o u n t that t h e corresponding
normed modes have t h e form
a

where x, i s t h e coordinate of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e beam.

If t h e above modes are not taken i n t o account i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of f u s e l a g e

v i b r a t i o n s , t h e v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s W i l l not include v i b r a t i o n s of t h e f u s e l a g e
as a s o l i d body, which W i l l lead t o appreciable e r r o r s i n t h e v i b r a t i o n magid­
tude.

kt us study here t h e problem of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam subjected t o

a Ifpurely11 harmonic load [see eq.(2.1)]. Ln this case, eq.(2.2) t a k e s t h e form
(E/y")"$-my= q (x)cos pt. (2.10)

Let us first seek t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n of this equation corresponding t o

s t e a d y forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam w i t h a frequency p i n t h e form
-
y =y ( x )cos pt. (2.11)

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.( 2.10), we a r r i v e a t a n ordinary d i f ­

f e r e n t i a l equation f o r determining t h e f u n c t i o n ?(x) which, of course, i s known
as t h e mode of forced v i b r a t i o n s :
( Eiy")" - pZmC/=q (x). (2.12)

Let us t h e n seek t h e s o l u t i o n of this equation i n t h e form of a n expansion

i n natural modes:

If, i n this sum, we t a k e a lirnited number of terms, then, i n determining

t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c k , we can o b t a i n only t h e approximate s o l u t i o n s
of eq.(2.12). However, it i s p o s s i b l e t o prove t h a t i n t h e method of determix­

230
i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ck given below, t h e approximate s o l u t i o n w i t h a r a t h e r
l a r g e number of terms i n t h e series (2.13) can d i f f e r from t h e exact s o l u t i o n
as much as d e s i r e d .
To f i n d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ck, we s u b s t i t u t e e ~ ~ ( 2 . 1 3i n
) t o eq.(2.12) and,
after multiplying both s i d e s of eq.(2.12) by Yn(x), we i n t e g r a t e them from 0
to 1 T h i s w i l l y i e l d t h e equation

The i n t e g r a l s i n t h e first term on t h e left-hand s i d e of this equation can

be s i n p l i f i e d by using i n t e g r a t i o n by p a r t s :

but

since t h e functions yk (x) s a t i s f i e s t h e boundary conditions (2.3).

Furthermore,

By v i r t u e of t h e conditions (2.3), we have

s o that, as a r e s u l t , we o b t a i n

Since a l l f u n c t i o n s & ( x ) ( k = 1, 2, 3, ...) s a t i s f y eq.(2.7), we can write

Multiplying t h e f i r s t e q u a t i o n by 7, and t h e second by Fk, we t h e n sub­

t r a c t one from t h e o t h e r and i n t e g r a t e t h e obtained expression from 0 t o 1.
This yields
 However, t h e left-hand s i d e of this equation i s e q u a l t o zero by v i r t u e of
t h e c o n d i t i o n (2.15). Therefore, i f only pk # p,, then

T h i s i s t h e so-called c o n d i t i o n of o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n
modes (see a l s o Chapt .I, Sect .2, Subsect .3).

Furthermore, multiplying both s i d e s of eq.( 2.7) by y,, and i n t e g r a t i n g from

0 t o 1, w e o b t a i n

Hence, we can conclude that if n # k, t h e n

If n = k, we o b t a i n a n expression f o r t h e frequency p, of t h e n-th overtone

of v i b r a t i o n s i n terms of i t s mode (x): F,

T h i s i s t h e well-known Rayleigh formula.

On t h e basis of conditions ( 2 . z ) and (2.17) we can assert that, i n

eq.(2.&), a l l terms f o r which k # n vanish. Taking this i n t o account and mak­
i n g use of eq.(2.l5), we rewrite eq.(2.&) i n t h e form /216
c,
I

0
EZii2dx- c,p2
0
I
mzdx= s
0
I
q&dx.

1
Dividing both s i d e s of t h e last equation by G,2dx, solving it relative
0
t o c,, and using Fkyleighrs formula [eq.(2.18)1, we f i n d

232
 cn=
1
.-.0 ” ­
1
(2.19)
J
0

We t h e n introduce t h e notations:
I -
An =J qgndx; (2.20)
0

(2.21)

The q u a n t i t y A , r e p r e s e n t s t h e work of t h e e x c i t i n g load q(x) a t t h e mode

of t h e n - t h overtone of v i b r a t i o n s , w h i l e t h e q u a n t i t y k , denotes t h e l a r g e s t
(during t h e p e r i o d ) value of t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e given overtone of vibra­
t i o n s r e f e r r e d t o t h e q u a n t i t y p”, Thus,

Taking i n t o account e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 1 3and

) (2.ll), we o b t a i n t h e following s o l u t i o n
of equation (2.10):

From this expression, we can draw c e r t a i n important conclusions.

First, it i s obvious that i f t h e frequency of v a r i a t i o n of t h e e x c i t i n g
load p approaches one of t h e frequencies Pk of natural v i b r a t i o n s , then t h e vi­
b r a t i o n amplitude a t any p o i n t of t h e beam i n c r e a s e s without bounds. T h i s i s
t h e phenomenon of resonance of a n e x c i t i n g load w i t h t h e k-th overtone of natu­
r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s . Since we do not consider here t h e e f f e c t of damping f o r c e s
( t h i s W i l l be done later on), t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude i n resonance i s unlimited.

Furthermore, i f t h e q u a n t i t y p i s c l o s e t o t h e frequency p n of t h e n - t h
overtone of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e term w i t h t h e number n i n t h e sum (2.23) becomes ap­
p r e c i a b l y l a r g e r t h a n t h e o t h e r terms. Therefore, we can assume approximately
t h a t , i n t h e v i c i n i t y of resonance (p = p , ) , we have

y (x, t)=
1 A, ­
___ - y, (x) cos p t =cn;, (x) cos p t ,
P ; - P ~ Kn

meaning t h a t , i n t h e v i c i n i t y of resonance w i t h some overtone of natural vibra­

t i o n s t h e mode of forced v i b r a t i o n s differs l i t t l e from t h e mode of v i b r a t i o n s
of t h e given overtone.

233

I
 Finally, when t h e value of p changes from a n amount .somewhat smaller t h a n /217
p a t o a n amount somewhat l a r g e r t h a n pa, t h e quantity i n t h e b r a c k e t s of formula
(2.23) changes sign. Therefore, i f we construct a graph f o r t h e dependence of
t h e amplitude yo o f some point- of t h e beam
on t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequency p [ f o r a cork
Yo s t a n t q(x)l, this graph w i l l have t h e shape
s h o w n i n Fig.2.8. The curve of t h e graph
has i n f i n i t e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a t t h e p o i n t s
P = P19 P = P29 P = P39 e t c *

2. Ihmamic R i n i d i t y of a Beam.
0 Resomnce and Antiresonance

I n t h e preceding Subsection, we dis­

Fig.2.8 Dependence of Vibration
Amplitude of any Fuselage Point
on t h e E x c i t a t i o n Frequency.
caused by a concentrated e x c i t i n g f o r c e
cussed t h e case of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a
beam subjected t o an e x c i t i n g f o r c e dis­
t r i b u t e d over i t s length, which v a r i e s i n
time by t h e harmonic l a w (2.1); t h e derived
formulas remain i n f o r c e f o r any l a w of
v a r i a t i o n i n load over t h e beam length
i.e., f o r any form of t h e f u n c t i o n q(xj.
Therefore, it i s not d i f f i c u l t t o derive,
from t h e s e expressions, formulas f o r deter­
mining t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam

F=Fo COS p t , (2.24.)

applied a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t x = xo (Fig.2.9).

In f a c t , l e t t h e load q(x) be applied t o a beam over only a small segment

of length Ax i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e p o i n t x = xo. I n this case, eqs.(2.22),
(2.20), and (2.21) remain v a l i d , but i n eq.( 2.20) t h e corresponding i n t e g r a l
must not be taken over t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e beam 1 but only over a segment
Ax, i.e.,

A t a small value of Ax, this i n t e g r a l can be approximately replaced by t h e

quantity

where

F, = qdx. (2.26)
Ax
I

Equation (2.25) becomes exact a t a n i n f i n i t e l y small Ax, i.e., i n t h e case of a

concentrated e x c i t i n g f o r c e

Thus, we a r r i v e at t h e following conclusions: If t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a /218

beam are caused by a concentrated f o r c e [eq.(2.24)] applied a t t h e p o i n t x = q,
t h e n t h e motion of t h e beam i s described as before by eq.(2.23) i n which t h e
q u a n t i t y A, i s determined by t h e formula

(2.27)

i.e., t h e q u a n t i t y A, r e p r e s e n t s t h e work done by t h e e x c i t i n g load Itat t h e mode

of t h e k-th overtone of vibrations!!.

't 4 f'fo cos pt

Fig.2.9 For Analyzing Forced Fig.2.10 Diagram of t h e Action

Vibrations of a Free Beam due of a Longitudinal Force Produced
t o a Concentrated Force. by t h e Rotor and Exerted on a n
E l a s t i c Fuselage.

We note that this method of d e f i n i n g t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s holds a l s o i f

t h e v i b r a t i o n s are caused by a concentrated bending moment varying by a har­
monic l a w

a p p l i e d a t t h e p o i n t x = x0. I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t y A, should be determined

by t h e formula
A R =MOZ N o ) I
(2.29)
where Fl(xo) i s t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c l i n e a t t h e p o i n t x = xo
corresponding t o t h e mode of t h e k-th overtone.

Lf t h e beam v i b r a t i o n s are caused by a l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e

x=xo COS p t , (2.30)
a p p l i e d t o some arm h (Fig.2.10), a l l of t h e derived formulas remain v a l i d
since, i n this case, t h e f o r c e X, can be t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e p o i n t A t o t h e
corresponding p o i n t B of t h e beam, during which process t h e couple w i t h a moment
equal t o M, = &h has been added.

235

I
 /

The l o n g i t u d i n a l variable f o r c e applied a t t h e p o i n t B i s able t o cause

only l o n g i t u d i n a l (axial) v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam, whereas lateral v i b r a t i o n s of
t h e beam due t o t h e harmonic moment M, are determined i n t h e manner i n d i c a t e d
above

I n examining l a t e r a l forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam produced by a concentrated

f o r c e F = F, cos p t , it i s convenient t o i n t r o d u c e t h e concept of dynamic r i g i d ­
i t y of t h e beam a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e x = x,.

Let t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y D(p) of t h e beam at t h e p o i n t x = x, be repre­

sented as t h e r a t i o of -t h e highest value (amplitude) of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e F,
t o t h e amplitude yo = y(xo) of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam a t t h e p o i n t of
a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e , such t h a t

D ( p ) =-FO
YO
.

We have i n mind t h a t , on a v a r i a t i o n i n f o r c e i n accordance w i t h t h e har­

monic l a w F = F, cos p t , t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of this f o r c e W i l l execute
steady forced v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e law y = To cos p t .

Thus,' t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of a beam i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n fre­

quency p and i s considered p o s i t i v e i f t h e f o r c e and displacement vary i n time
Itin phase" and negative i f t h e f o r c e and displacement vary i n llantiphasell.

The v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e x = x, /219

can be determined from eq.(2.23):

If we p l o t t h e graph of t h e v a r i a t i o n of To w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e frequency p
at a constant value of F,, a curve analogous t o that shown i n Fig.2.8 will be
obtained. Therefore, i f we c o n s t r u c t t h e graph of t h e dependence of t h e dynamic
r i g i d i t y D(p) at t h e given p o i n t of t h e beam as a f u n c t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n fre­
quency, this graph w i l l have t h e form shown i n Fig.2.11.

The d y n a c r i g i d i t y D(p) vanishes a t t h e resonances p = p l , p = pz, etc.

and becomes i n f i n i t e a t a l l values of t h e frequency p (p = p12, p = pS3, p =
- p3&, e t c . ) at which t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of
f o r c e vanishes. These values of t h e frequency p are known as antiresonance fre­
quencies and are equal t o t h e frequencies of t h e corresponding overtones of
natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam w i t h ahinged support a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n
of f o r c e F.

Actually, l e t us imagine that at t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e F t h e

beam has a hinged support ( t h e beam i s not c r o s s c u t at this p o i n t ) s o t h a t this
p o i n t of t h e beam remains s t a t i o n a r y during v i b r a t i o n . Such a beam has i t s own
n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes. I n t h e presence of natural beam Vibra­

236

Fig.2.11 Graph of Dynamic
Bgidity . However, t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s can be regarded
such forced v i b r a t i o n s , t h e
t i o n a r y so t h a t t h e dynamic
i s i n f i n i t e . T h i s i s known
t i o n s of a c e r t a i n overtone, a dynamic re­
a c t i o n Will arise a t the. support x = xo
which varies i n t i m e according t o a har­
monic l a w w i t h t h e frequency of this over­
tone. The amplitude (highest value) of
this r e a c t i o n f o r c e w i l l depend on t h e
amplitude ( o f some p o i n t , f o r example, t h e
end) of natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam,
which may have any magnitude (depending
upon t h e i n i t i a l conditions). Therefore,
we can always s e l e c t a beam v i b r a t i o n am­
p l i t u d e such that t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e ampli­
tude has a p r e s c r i b e d value Foe If we now
imagine t h e support as removed but s t i l l
continue t o apply, t o t h e beam a t this
p o i n t , t h e f o r c e F varying by a harmonic
l a w w i t h t h e same frequency, t h e n t h e f r e e
beam Will continue t o v i b r a t e w i t h r e m e c t
t o t h e same mode w i t h t h e same amplitide.
as forced v i b r a t i o n s of a free beam under
t h e e f f e c t of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e F. With
p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e i s sta­
r i g i d i t y of t h e beam. corresponding t o this regime
as antiresonance.

I n t h e graph of t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y ( f i g . 2 . U ) , t h e p o i n t s of resonance

D(p) = 0 and antiresonance D(p) = 03 a l t e r n a t e . It can be demonstrated t h a t t h i s
i s always so f o r an e l a s t i c beam.

Thus, a t a c e r t a i n e x c i t a t i o n frequency, t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e
e x c i t i n g f o r c e becomes a r r e s t e d , and t h e node of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n will be
formed a t this p o i n t . T h i s phenomenon i s c a l l e d antiresonance. The frequency
of each antiresonance i s always located between two adjacent natural v i b r a t i o n
frequencies of a f r e e beam.

The phenomenon of antiresonance i n "pure for"! can occur only i n i d e a l /220

o s c i l l a t o r y systems without damping. I n t h e presence of damping, t h e v i b r a t i o n
amplitude of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r c e i n antiresonance does not
vanish. T h i s amplitude w i l l be lower, t h e smaller t h e damping [see, f o r ex­
ample, t h e paper by Den-Gartog (Ref .19) on a dynamic v i b r a t i o n damper) .
3 . b x > l i c a t i o n of the- Method of Q"ic RiccidiQ to-the Vibration
Analysis
- of Side-by-Side Helicopters

The concept of dynamic r i g i d i t y i s r a t h e r convenient i n c a l c u l a t i n g o s c i l ­

l a t o r y systems that can be divided i n t o two o r more components, making it easy
t o define t h e i r vibrations individually.

ht u s examine a v i b r a t o r y system c o n s i s t i n g of two crossed e l a s t i c beams 1

and 2, shown i n Fig.2.12. A f u s e l a g e With a n e l a s t i c Wing, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r

237
h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side configuration, r e p r e s e n t s such a system.

It i s necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of this system caused by

a variable f o r c e F, varying according t o a harmonic l a w and applied at t h e
coupling p o i n t A of t h e beams 1 and 2 ( t h e
method of c a l c u l a t i o n Will be i n d i c a t e d be­
low f o r t h e case i n which t h e e x c i t i n g
f o r c e s are a p p l i e d a t any p o i n t ) . Using t h e
method presented i n Subsections 1and 2, it
i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e , f o r each of t h e
beams, t h e f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s produced by
c e r t a i n f o r c e s F, and F, applied t o each of
t h e s e beam$ a t t h e p o i n t A. I n s o doing,
we can f i n d t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of each of
t h e beams a t t h e p o i n t A. Let t h e s e dynamic
Fig.2.12 Diagram of Vibratory
System of Two Crossed Beams.
r i g i d i t i e s be D,(p) and D,(p) .
It i s easy t o show that t h e dynamic
r i g i d i t y D(p) of t h e e n t i r e system W i l l be
equal t o t h e sum of t h e dynamic r i g i d i t i e s of both beams:

D (PI=Dl (PI + 0 2 (PI * (2.33)

Actually, t h e f o r c e F = F, cos p t a c t i n g on t h e system as a whole will be

equal t o t h e sum of t h e f o r c e s F, = F,, cos p t and F, = F ,, cos p t a c t i n g on
each of t h e beams. However,

where 5, i s t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e p o i n t A, i d e n t i c a l f o r both beams.

Conse quent l y,

Thus, t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y of t h e system i s easily found by means of

eq.(2.33) i f t h e dynamic r i g i d i t i e s of t h e beams 1 and 2 are known. The graph
of t h e dynamic r i g i d i t y D(p) can be obtained by simple a d d i t i o n of t h e o r d i n a t e s
of t h e graphs .D,(p) and & ( p ) . The values of t h e frequency p a t which D(p) = 0
will give t h e values of t h e natural frequencies of t h e system of two beams. T h i s
y i e l d s a convenient method f o r determining t h e natural frequencies of t h e sys­
t e m . Since t h e s e frequencies a r e t h e r o o t s of t h e equation

t h e y can be found from t h e c o n d i t i o n L a

 The last equation i s easy t o s o l v e g r a p h i c a l l y by superposition of t h e
graphs of D,(p) and -D,(p), as i s shown i n Fig.2.13. Theabscissasp,, p2, e t c .
of t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e graphs D,(p) and -D2(p) give t h e values of
t h e natural frequencies of t h e system.
WPl
With this method of c a l c u l a t i o n ,
t h e natural v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e sys­
t e m are simultaneously determined. The
natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e system,
corresponding t o some frequency Pk
( k = 1, 2, ...),Will c o n s i s t of t h e
6 forced v i b r a t i o n modes of each of t h e
beams a t this frequency, due t o t h e
f o r c e s F,, and FO2. Since, a t n a t u r a l
frequencies,
Fo=Foi +Fo,=O,
i t follows t h a t
Fig. 2.13 For Determining t h e Fol= -F02,
Natural Frequencies of t h e System
by t h e Method of Dynamic Rigidi- i.e., t h e f o r c e F,, applied t o t h e
ties. beam 1 i s equal i n magnitude and op­
p o s i t e i n s i g n t o t h e f o r c e FO2 applied

The n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes of this system can be normed by s e l e c t i n g an

a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e . For example, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e l e c t a s c a l e such t h a t t h e
v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e beam 1 has a n amplitude equal t o u n i t y a t i t s t i p (x = 1 ) .
In this case, t h e corresponding s c a l e of t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e beam 2 should
be s e l e c t e d from t h e condition of a v i b r a t i o n amplitude i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e
beam 1 a t t h e coupling p o i n t .

Having t h e normed natural v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e system a v a i l a b l e , its

forced v i b r a t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d from harmonic f o r c e s applied a t any point,
by t h e method of expansion i n normal modes i n t h e same manner as i n t h e case of
a n i s o l a t e d beam. Here, t h e v i b r a t i o n s of both beams are sought i n t h e form

where yk(x) i s t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of a given beam corresponding t o t h e normed

mode of t h e k-th overtone of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system (simultaneous v i b r a t i o n s
of both beams).

The c o e f f i c i e n t s ck are determined i n t h e conventional manner from eq.( 2.22):

where pk i s t h e frecpency of simultaneous v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone of t h e

system.
239
 The c o e f f i c i e n t s A, and K, are determined by means of t h e following formu­
las :
Ak=FOik(~o). ( R = l , 2, 3,...)
(2.37)

T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t r e p r e s e n t s t h e work done by t h e e x c i t i n g load a t t h e mode

of t h e k-th overtone of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system. The quantity &(x,)
r e p r e s e n t s t h e amplitude of t h e normed v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e k-th overtone of
t h e system a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e , . r e g a r d l e s s t o which beam t h e
e x c i t a t i o n i s applied [here, yk((x,) i s t a k e n w i t h a Ilplusll s i g n i f t h e d i r e c t i o n
of t h e f o r c e and t h e d e f l e c t i o n coincide, and w i t h a l"inus11 s i g n i f t h e di- /222
r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e and d e f l e c t i o n do not coincide]:

K k = s my2kdx f m&x.
for 1st beam for 2nd beam (2.38)

If v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system
are e x c i t e d by s e v e r a l harmonic
I f o r c e s applied t o d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s
i n s t e a d of by a s i n g l e force, t h e n
t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s a r e found by
adding t h e v i b r a t i o n s caused by each
of t h e f o r c e s s e p a r a t e l y .

Here, we should b r i e f l y men­

t i o n one of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of ex­
c i t a t i o n by r o t o r s of h e l i c o p t e r s
- of m u l t i r o t o r configuration. De­
pending on t h e kirieGatic connection
of t h e r o t o r s (over t h e transmis­
s i o n system), it may happen t h a t
v a r i a b l e e x c i t i n g f o r c e s produced by
d i f f e r e n t rotors vary i n t i m e i n
phase o r i n antiphase. For example,
i f t h e r o t o r s of a side-by-side
h e l i c o p t e r are s o coupled t h a t t h e
blades of both r o t o r s simultaneous-
occupy analogous p o s i t i o n s ( f o r
example, extreme forward p o s i t i o n
as shown i n t h e diagram A of
Fig.2.a For Analysis of Vibrations Fig.2.&), t h e f o r c e s e x e r t e d on
of Side-by-Side Helicopter. both r o t o r s simultaneously a t t a i n
maxi"axim and minimum values - t h e y
w i l l vary i n phase. If t h e r o t o r s
are coupled as shown i n t h e diagram B, then- t h e e x c i t i n g loads from both r o t o r s
vary i n antiphase. I n case A, t h e e x c i t i n g loads from both r o t o r s w i l l cause
only symmetric modes of simultaneous v i b r a t i o n s of t h e fuselage-wing system
whereas, i n case B, only skew-symmetric modes occur (Fig.2.15). Since, i n t h e
c a s e of skew-symmetric v i b r a t i o n s , t h e r e are no v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e fuse­
l a g e p o i n t s f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of side-by-side configuration, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o

Sk ew- s y m m e t r i c
modes
Fig.2.15 Natural V i b r a t i o n Modes
of a Wing-Fuselage System i n a
Side-by-Side Helicopter.
connect t h e r o t o r s as shown i n t h e dia­
s y mm e t r i c gram 13 ( F i g . 2 . a ) . Analogous considera­
modes
t i o n can be made w i t h r e s p e c t t o tandem
helicopters.
I
I O f course, i n s o l v i n g t h e problem of
I . r t h e most suitable mutual arrangement of /223
i r o t o r s i t i s a l s o necessary t o consider
t h e s p e c i f i c values of natural frequen­
c i e s of various overtones of t h e fuselage -
and t o examine, along w i t h f u s e l a g e Vi­
b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry, later­
a 1 v i b r a t i o n s ; this w i l l . be discussed
f u r t h e r i n Section 3.

4.. Method. .of.Auxiliary Mass

To determine t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s by t h e method proposed i n Subsection 2,

r e s u l t s from a natural v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s of t h e f u s e l a g e are required. I n this
case, t h e amplitude of forced v i b r a t i o n of t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of force,
needed f o r determining t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s , i s deterrrined by means of eq.( 2.32)
as a n expansion i n natural modes. However, whenever it i s p o s s i b l e t o program
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of natural frequencies on a d i g i t a l computer s o t h a t this calcu­
l a t i o n W i l l t a k e l i t t l e t i m e , we can recommend t h e so-called method of a u x i l i a r y
m a s s f o r determining t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e f u s e l a g e a t a given p o i n t . I n
this method, t h e natural f u s e l a g e frequency i s c a l c u l a t e d under attachment of
a n a u x i l i a r y mass Dm t o t h e p o i n t a t which t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s i s t o be deter­
mined. The c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed f o r d i f f e r e n t values of Am, and i t s r e s u l t s
are used f o r p l o t t i n g t h e graph Am(p) of t h e dependence of Dm on t h e natural
frequencies of d i f f e r e n t overtones.

C G ko

Fig.2.LS Typical Dependence of A w d l i a r y Mass of a n E l a s t i c

Fuselage (or DynamicStiffness) a t t h e Point of Rotor Attach­
m e n t on t h e & c i t a t i o n Frequency.
 Figure 2.15 g i v e s a n example of such a graph f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .
I n this diagram, t h e weight of t h e extra mass AG = gAm i s l a i d o f f on t h e o r d i ­
nate.

It i s easy t o show that this graph, t o some degree, can completely r e p l a c e

t h e graph D(p) i n Fig.2.11. I n f a c t , f o r natural Vibrations of a beam w i t h a n
auxiliary mass Am a t a frequency p, t h e beam Will be loaded by t h e correspond­
i n g a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e of i n e r t i a whose amplitude i s

F , =Amp2y0, (2.39)
where yo i s t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t t h e p o i n t of attachment of t h e auxiliary
mass.

The f o r c e of i n e r t i a Fo a t t h e i n s t a n t of maxi" d e f l e c t i o n from t h e /224.

equiklbrium p o s i t i o n i s d i r e c t e d toward t h e same s i d e as t h e d e f l e c t i o n yo. A
s p r i n g attached t o a beam w i t h a s t i f f n e s s I c1 = I A m p 2 ] , producing a f o r c e pro­
p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d e f l e c t i o n yo and d i r e c t e d opposite t o this d e f l e c t i o n , cor­
responds t o negative values of Am.

O f course, e x a c t l y t h e same v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam can be obtained without

a n a u x i l i a r y mass, but t h e s e are forced v i b r a t i o n s produced by t h e a c t i o n of a
harmonic f o r c e of t h e same amplitude Fo and varying with t h e same frequency p.

The dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e beam i s determined by means of t h e formula

FO .
D ( p ) =-
YO

Comparing this expression w i t h eq.(2.39), we f i n d

On t h e basis of this formula, it i s easy t o c o n s t r u c t t h e graph of t h e de­

pendence D(p), s i n c e we have t h e dependence Am(p) a t our d i s p o s a l . However,
this need not be done and t h e graph Am(p) o r AG(p) can be used d i r e c t l y . For
example, t o determine t h e natural fuselage frequencies of a side-by-side con­
f i g u r a t i o n , we can l o c a t e t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e graphs AG,(p) and
-AG,(p) i n s t e a d of t h e p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n on t h e graph D,(p) and -D,(p) ( s e e
~ig.2.13).

5. E f f e c t of D a m p i n g Forces. V i b r a t i o - q a t Resonance
The t h e o r y presented above and t h e r e s u l t a n t methods of c a l c u l a t i o n are
based on t h e assumption t h a t t h e beam i s p e r f e c t l y e l a s t i c and that damping
f o r c e s are absent. AS f o r any o t h e r O s c i U a t o r y system, a v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s of
a beam f a r from resonance need not t a k e t h e damping f o r c e s i n t o account; this
does not lead t o l a r g e e r r o r s .

However, a v i b r a t i o n analysis of a beam c l o s e t o resonance or a c t u a l l y i n

242
I

resonance requires allowance f o r t h e damping forces, s i n c e t h e v i b r a t i o n ampli­

tude at resonance is d e t e e n e d e x c l u s i v e l y by t h e presence of damping and
since, i f absence of damping i s assumed, t h e amplitude at resonance becomes un­
bounded.

Damping f o r c e s during v i b r a t i o n s of an e l a s t i c beam are generated mainly as

a consequence of f r i c t i o n between s t r u c t u r a l elements of t h e beam during i t s de­
formations and a l s o as a consequence of so-called i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n i n t h e beam
material which, f o r a composite beam, i s e n e r a l l y n e g l i g i b l e i n comparison w i t h
t h e f r i c t i o n between s t r u c t u r a l elements

The equation of flexural v i b r a t i o n s of a beam i n t h e presence of damping

can be derived by assuming that t h e bending moment M i n t h e beam s e c t i o n i s pro-
p o r t i o n a l t o i t s curvature -
a 2Y ( i n accordance w i t h Hookets law) and t o t h e
a x2
time rate of change of curvature, s o t h a t we can write

where 7\ i s some c o e f f i c i e n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e danping p r o p e r t i e s of t h e beam

a t a given c r o s s section, which i s assumed t o be a given f u n c t i o n of t h e x-coor­
d i n a t e.

Using t h e known r e l a t i o n s h i p : /225

where @-(x, t ) i s t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e l a t e r a l load applied t o t h e beam, and

t a k i n g i n t o account t h a t this load, during v i b r a t i o n , i s composed of t h e ex­
ternal e x c i t i n g load q(x, t ) and t h e l o a d due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s , so t h a t

9" (x,t)=q (x,t )- m z ­

02.Y
at2 '

t h e n eq.( 2.41) w i l l y i e l d t h e f o l - l k n g p a d i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equation describing

l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a beam w i t h damping:

This equation d i f f e r s from eq.(2.2) only by t h e presence of a term w i t h a

factor 7 ; i f 7 = 0, i t w i l l coincide w i t h eq.( 2.2).
If q(x, t ) = 0, we o b t a i n a n e c p a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e natural Yibration of
a beam i n t h e presence of damping:

243
 The exact s o l u t i o n of this equation i s r a t h e r complex. However, a t rela­
t i v e l y weak damping, a simple approximate s o l u t i o n can be used. Such a n approx­
h a t e s o l u t i o n of this equation, corresponding t o n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a beam
with r e s p e c t t o t h e k-th overtone, can be found by asswning

y =Y, (XI e h k t , (2.44)

where yk(x) i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e k-th overtone of t h e beam i n
t h e absence of damping.

this s o l u t i o n i n t o eq.(2.43), canceling t h e f a c t o r & k t , mul­

Substituti
7
t i p l y i n g by yk(x , i n t e g r a t i n g t h e equation w i t h i n t h e i n t e r v a l 0 t o 1, and
t a k i n g e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 1 7and
) (2.18) i n t o account, we o b t a i n t h e following equation f o r
determining h k :

i2,+2nkhk+ pi=o, (2.45)

where

The r o o t s of this equation W i l l be

where
P k* =l / p ; - n; .
Accordingly, we can write eq.(2.44) i n t h e form

i.e., t h e q u a n t i t y n, r e p r e s e n t s t h e d q i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
k-th overtone w h i l e p r r e p r e s e n t s t h e n a t u r a l frequency of t h e k-th overtone i n
t h e presence of damping.

We can show t h a t such a n approximate s o l u t i o n of eq.(2.43) w i l l d i f f e r /226

less from t h e exact s o l u t i o n t h e smaller - i n comparison w i t h u n i t y - t h e dimen­
s i o n l e s s c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e k-th overtone determinable by t h e formula

- nk
nk=-.
Pk

T h i s c o e f f i c i e n t i s one of t h e most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of v i b r a t i o n s

of t h e given overtone and can be determined experimentally, e i t h e r by a n a l y s i s
of t h e oscillogram of damped v i b r a t i o n s of t h e given overtone or by applying t h e
r e s u l t s of measuring t h e f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e beam under t h e e f f e c t
of a v i b r a t o r ( t o be discussed below).

For a conventional f u s e l a g e ( r i v e t e d fuselage w i t h duralumin s k i n ) t h e

damping c o e f f i c i e n t s ?ik of d i f f e r e n t overtones are l o c a t e d w i t h i n limits of 0.02
t o 0.05. These are r a t h e r small values of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t , i n whose
presence t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e k-th overtone can be considered equal
t o t h e frequency c a l c u l a t e d without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of damping, s i n c e p z =
= Pk ,Jm. his c o r r e c t i o n i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e i n d i c a t e d values of iik.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam w i t h damping, described by

eq.(2.42), it i s p r e f e r a b l e - i n . v i e w of t h e weak damping -
t o use a n approx­
imate method based on t h e f a c t that damping i s completely disregarded f a r from
resonance whereas, c l o s e t o resonance, a n approximake s o l u t i o n i s obtained on
t h e assumption that t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n mode near resonance of t h e k-th over­
tone, j u s t as i n t h e case of absence of damping, i s c l o s e t o t h e natural vibra­
t i o n mode of t h e given overtone.

I n t h e presence of damping, t h e equation of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a beam

under t h e e f f e c t of a harmonic load

i s conveniently w r i t t e n i n t h e cofqlex form

Since t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e right-hand s i d e of this equation coincides w i t h

eq.(2.51), t h e a c t u a l motion of t h e beam i s described, i n v i e w of t h e l i n e a r i t y
of t h e s o l u t i o n , by t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e complex s o l u t i o n of eq.(2.52). Close
t o resonance w i t h t h e k-th overtone of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s , t h e s o l u t i o n of this
equation i n conformity w i t h t h e above considerations i s best sought i n t h e f o r m

y ( x , t )=ck& ( x ) eipt, (2.53)

where yk(x), as usual, i s t h e mode of t h e k-th overtone of v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e ab­
sence of damping.

bt us s u b s t i t u t e t K s expression i n t o eq.( 2.52). We t h e n multiply both

s i d e s of eq.( 2.52) by T k (x) and i n t e g r a t e from o t o t .
Transforming t h e ob­
t a i n e d i n t e g r a l s and t a k i n g eqs.(2.17) and (2.18) as well as eq.(2.46) i n t o ac­
count, we o b t a i n t h e following equation f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ck:

where A, and Kk are as u s u a l determined from eqs.(2.X)) and (2.21). Hence,

 The modulus of t h e complex q u a n t i t y ck determines t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude:/227

w h i l e t h e argument c k

determines t h e phase of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e x c i t i load

[eq.(2.51)1. ~n t h e presence of resonance, t h e value of ck [see eq.(2.581 be­
comes p u r e l y imaginary:

This means that, at resonance, t h e phase angle between t h e e x c i t i n g load

and t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam i s equal t o n/2. I n t h i s case, as i s r e a d i l y
v e r i f i e d by d i r e c t s u - b s t i t u t i o n i n t o t h e equation, t h e v i b r a t i o n s Will t a k e p l a c e
i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w

y ( x , t ) =;&yk (x)sin p t , (2.57)

where

Thus, t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t resonance i s completely determined by t h e

value iik of t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e k-th overtone. T h i s
can be used f o r a n experimental determination of &. If v i b r a t i o n s of t h e beam
are exci.ted by means of a v i b r a t o r , i.e., by a given concentrated f o r c e F = F,
cos p t applied a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t x = xo, and i f t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude yo at
resonance (p = Pk) i s measured at t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e , i t becomes
easy t o f i n d t h e q u a n t i t y ?ik. Here A, w i l l be determined by eq.(2.27) and t h e
q u a n t i t y yo, by t h e formula

YO =’ k y k (xO) *

Therefore, t a k i n g account of eq.(2.58), we f i n d

or

(2.59)

246
where t h e q u a n t i t y mk, which we can c a l l t h e mass of t h e k-th overtone reduced
t o t h e p o i n t x = xo, i s determined by t h e formula

1 ­
mk= my: dx. (2.60)
0
Here,

(2.61)

The value of t h e reduced mass mk i s determined with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by

c a l c u l a t i o n , b u t i t can a l s o be determined experimentally by measuring t h e natu­
r a l v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e beam a t resonance w i t h t h e k-th overtone.

When d e s i r i n g t o make a pre-estimate of t h e - E t u d e a t resonance f o r a /2;?8

f u s e l a g e s t i l l on t h e drawing board and not y e t given over t o manufacture, it
i s p o s s i b l e t o use eq.(2.58), using f o r E, t h e values known from some o t h e r fuse­
k g e of similar design, s i n c e t h e values of i i k f o r similar designs d i f f e r l i t t l e .

S e c t i o n 3. Vibration Analysis w i t h Consideration of Fuselage

Characteristics

1. - - Charactgr-stics
F uselage . lateral and Vert.i.cal Vibrations
In t h e preceding Section, methods were proposed f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v i ­
b r a t i o n s of a fuselage as a n e l a s t i c beam ( O r as a system of two crossed beams
f o r a side-by-side configuration)
f o r which t h e dimensions of t h e
c r o s s s e c t i o n s w e r e small i n com­
p a r i s o n w i t h t h e length. I n many
cases, such a method of c a l c u l a t i o n
gives completely s a t i s f a c t o r y re­
s u l t s . However, i n some cases
when t h e f u s e l a g e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r
has c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d i f f e r
g r e a t l y from those of t h e model of
a n e l a s t i c beam, more complicated
Fig. 2.17 For Reducing t h e V i b r a t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s y s t e m are involved.
Problem of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage t o t h e The fuselage designs of various
V i b r a t i o n Problem of a n E l a s t i c Beam. types of h e l i c o p t e r s ( s i n g l e - r o t o r ,
side-by-side configurations, tandem
configuration) vary widely. There­
fore, i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o g i v e any g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e method of calcula­
t i o n which would permit a s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i s of f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n s
generated by c e r t a i n f o r c e s .

Each new f u s e l a g e design may n e c e s s i t a t e s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n t h e method

of c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s . T h i s problem might become r a t h e r complicated.
However, i n a l l cases t h e method of c a l c u l a t i o n should be based on g e n e r a l p r i ­
c i p l e s of t h e theory of v i b r a t i o n s of e l a s t i c systems. The design engineer who
.. . . ,I

has t h e f u n c t i o n of making v i b r a t i o n analyses of new configurations f o r heli­

copter p r o t o t y p e s should be s o versed i n t h e s e g e n e r a l methods as t o be a b l e t o
modify each computational system t o f i t each new problem. Therefore, t h e ma­
t e r i a l i n this Chapter is presented i n a manner t o demonstrate t h e essence of
t h e most important methods used i n v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s . For example, t h e method
of expansion i n natural modes, t h e method of dynanic r i g i d i t y , t h e concept of
resonance and antiresonance are not only a p p l i c a b l e t o a n e l a s t i c beam o r t o a
system of two crossed beams b u t a l s o t o any o t h e r more complicated v i b r a t o r y sys­
t e m . These methods were presented i n t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a beam since, on t h e
one hand, it i s easiest t o demonstrate them f o r this example and, on t h e o t h e r
hand, t h e method of c a l c u l a t i n g v i b r a t i o n s of a beam i s o f t e n a p p l i c a b l e t o
f u s e l a g e v i b r a t i o n analyses without modification.

To i l l u s t r a t e c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a real fuselage, l e t us t u r n t o
Fig.2.17 which schematically shows t h e f u s e l a g e of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .
T h i s f u s e l a g e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f a c t that i t s f l e x u r a l a x i s i s a broken
l i n e , t h a t t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e f u s e l a g e compartments do not l i e on t h e
flexural axis, and that each fuselage compartment i s a body a l l of whose measure­
ments are of t h e same order s o that, i n c a l c u l a t i n g v i b r a t i o n s , not only t h e /229
mass of t h e compartment but a l s o i t s
moments of i n e r t i a r e l a t i v e t o a l l
three axes must be taken i n t o consid­
e r a t i o n . Calculations show that, i n
determining t h e lower harmonic of
flexural v i b r a t i o n s of such a f u s e l a g e
both i n t h e p l a n e xOy ( v e r t i c a l vibra­
t i o n s ) and i n t h e p l a n e xOz ( l a t e r a l
v i b r a t i o n s ) , we can o b t a i n completely
s a t i s f a c t o r y results i f we conceive
t h e f u s e l a g e as a t h i n e l a s t i c beam
w i t h a r e c t i l i n e a r axis.
Fig.2.18 Design Model f o r Vibration
Analysis of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage. If, i n t h e v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s , we
l i m i t ourselves t o a study of vibra­
t i o n s of t h e f u s e l a g e as a s o l i d body
and t a k e i n t o account only t h e lower e l a s t i c mode ( t h e first three modes i n
Fig.2.7), t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s of a f u s e l a g e as a t h i n beam w i t h a rec­
t i l i n e a r a x i s gives s a t i s f a c t o r y results. However, i f t h e second e l a s t i c mode
has a frequency c l o s e t o t h e frecpency of t h e fundamental harmonic of t h e
r o t o r zw (and this i s o f t e n the case), this t y p e of c a l c u l a t i o n may l e a d t o cer­
t a i n e r r o r s . I n v i b r a t i o n analyses of t h e cockpit ( a t t h e f u s e l a g e nose) t h e
e r r o r may be i n s i g n i f i c a n t w h i l e t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes i n t h e region of t h e
tail boom may d i f f e r g r e a t l y f r o m t h e real values. To i n c r e a s e t h e accuracy of
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e v i b r a t i o n s must be determined w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l a r g e
number of e l a s t i c overtones (second and t h i r d ) . However, a s u f f i c i e n t l y accu­
r a t e determination of t h e second e l a s t i c mode now involves a complication of t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n model

An appreciable refinement of t h e c a l c u l a t e d results can be obtained by using

t h e design model shown i n Fig.2.18. The f u s e l a g e here i s replaced by a n e l a s t i c
beam w i t h a r e c t i l i n e a r axis, t o which i n d i v i d u a l loads 1, 2, 3, e t c . are at­
tached. The c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of each load i s a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e 4 from

248
t h e beam axis. For each load, we a s s i g n i t s mass m, and moments of i n e r t i a I,
and I, w i t h r e s p e c t t o axes p a r a l l e l t o t h e axes Ox and Oz and passing through
t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load. For each segment of t h e e l a s t i c beam between
t h e loads k and k + 1, we p r e s c r i b e t h e flexural r i g i d i t i e s EI,” and EIE i n both
p l a n e s xOz and xOy and t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y GI,.

Fig.2.19 Natural Vibration Modes of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage

of a Single-Rotor Helicopter i n t h e Plane of Symmetry.

For this design model, t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s ( i n t h e plane X O Z ) represent

simultaneous f l e x u r a l and t o r s i o n a l ( b i n a r y ) v i b r a t i o n s . The frequencies and
modes of t h e n a t u r a l binary v i b r a t i o n s of such a system can be c a l c u l a t e d by t h e
method proposed i n S e c t i o n 6 of Chapter I ( s e e Fig.l.19) as applied t o a r o t o r
blade. I n this case, it must be assumed that t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e N = 0, t h a t
t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e c o n t r o l l i n e s c,,, = 0, as w e l l as that EXy’’(0) = 0 and
(EI”)’ T h i s corresponds t o t h e f a c t that t h e l e f t end of t h e be& i s not
clamped. The quarrtity x , . ~i n t h e blade c a l c u l a t i o n must be s u b s t i t u t e d by t h e
values of s t a g g e r s h k .
I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e forced l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of this system, t h e method of
expansion i n natural modes ( b i n a r y ) can be used. I n this case, a l l formulas of
S e c t i o n 2 of this Chapter are a p p l i c a b l e i n which t h e q u a n t i t y A, means t h e work
done by t h e e x c i t i n g load a t t h e normed mode of a given harmonic and t h e quan­
t i t y K, r e p r e s e n t s t h e k i n e t i c energy of a given harmonic r e f e r r e d t o t h e square
of i t s frequency pg. Figure 2.19 shows t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modes of n a t u r a l , /230
l a t e r a l binary v i b r a t i o n s of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .

The c a l c u l a t i o n method and model given i n Fig.2.18 can be used f o r a n analy­

sis of v e r t i c a l binary v i b r a t i o n s of t h e wing of a side-by-side h e l i c o p t e r w i t h
wing-tip engine pods (Fig.2.x)). If t h e c e n t e r s of g r a v i t y of t h e pods have a
l a r g e o f f s e t h, t h e v i b r a t i o n analysis of such a wing cannot t a k e only i s o l a t e d
flexural v i b r a t i o n s i n a v e r t i c a l p l a n e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n but m u s t allow a l s o
f o r simultaneous binary v i b r a t i o n s . A c a l c u l a t i o n of synchronous v i b r a t i o n s of

249
t h e fuselage-wing system i n this case requires t h e method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s .

The design model best simulating a n a c t u a l h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e obviously i s

that shown i n Fig.2.21. Here, t h e flexural a x i s of t h e beam i s given as a cer­
t a i n discontinuous l i n e . The angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e k-th segment of this
o f f s e t l i n e i s denoted as t h e angle cdkm Such a d e s i g n model s a t i s f a c t o r i l y re­
f l e c t s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of any f u s e l a g e having a p l a n e of symnetry xOy. For a
fuselage w i t h such a p l a n e of symnetry, a s e p a r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n can be made of
t h e v e r t i c a l flexural v i b r a t i o n s ( o r v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry) and
t h e lateral binary v i b r a t i o n s .

F’ig.2.20 Diagram of Engine Pod Fig.2.21 Design Model f o r Calculating

w i t h Large Offset. Vibrations of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage
w i t h a Discontinuous F l e x u r a l Axis.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v e r t x c a l v i b r a t i o n s f o r each load, three degrees of /231

freedom must be t a k e n i n t o consideration:
displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load along t h e axis Ox;
displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load along t h e a x i s Oy;
r o t a t i o n of t h e load r e l a t i v e t o t h e a x i s Oz.

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l a t e r a l b i n a r y v i b r a t i o n s f o r each load, three degrees

of freedom must a g a i n be taken i n t o account:
displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e load along t h e a x i s O z ;
r o t a t i o n about t h e a x i s Ox;
r o t a t i o n about t h e axis Oy.

Calculation of v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n s of such a system i s discussed i n t h e

Subsection below. We W i l l a b 0 i u u s t r a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e so-called methods
of r e s i d u e s f o r v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s , which o f t e n i s r a t h e r convenient t o use.

The c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of such a system i s not discussed

here since, for c a l c u l a t i n g lateral binary v i b r a t i o n s , r a t h e r s a t i s f a c t o r y re­
sults can be obtained by using t h e design model shown i n Fig.2.18. It should be
noted t h a t , f o r t h e system shown i n Fig.2.21, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t e r a l binary
v i b r a t i o n s could a l s o be c a r r i e d out by t h e method of r e s i d u e s .

250
2. Calculation of Fuselage Vibrations
- i n t h e Plane-pf Symnetm
by theeMethod of Residues

Let a two-dimensional e l a s t i c system, depicted i n Fig.2.21, execute steady

forced v i b r a t i o n s i n i t s own p l a n e xoy under t h e e f f e c t of a harmonic e x c i t i n g
load c o n s i s t i n g of f o r c e s and moments

a p p l i e d t o each load (Fig.2.22).

During s t e a d y v i b r a t i o n , a l l p o i n t s of t h e system will execute harmonic

v i b r a t i o n s with a n e x c i t a t i o n frequency p so that, i f we denote by x,
y, and 9
r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e displacements of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c of t h e load along t h e
axes Ox and Oy and t h e angle of r o t a t i o n of t h e load r e l a t i v e t o i t s c e n t e r of
g r a v i t y , t h e n we can express t h e k-th load by

Let us t h e n e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t i o n s connecting t h e f o r c e s applied t o t h e

loads w i t h t h e deformation of t h e beam segments. We W i l l consider t h e f o r c e s
and deformations only f o r t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e system corresponding t o t h e m a x i ­
mum d e v i a t i o n from t h e p o s i t i o n of equilibrium ($.e., we w i l l study only ampli­
tudes of f o r c e s and deformations). We t h e n c o n s t r u c t t h e equations of equilib­
r i u m f o r t h e k-th load (Fig.2.53). To t h e load, t h e following are applied:
,
e x t e r n a l f o r c e s p i x , Pky ME (applied a t p o i n t A ) ;
i n e r t i a f o r c e s of t h e load m,$'gk; m k p 2 y k ; Ikp29k (applied a t p o i n t c ) ;
f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e load from t h e sewed of t h e beam t o t h e l e f t of
it: Yk--l,
f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e load from t h e beam segment t o t h e r i g h t of it: 1232
'k, yk9 Mk

The equations of equilibrium of t h e load are w r i t t e n i n t h e form

The p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n s of f o r c e s and displacements are i n d i c a t e d i n

Figs.2.22, 2.23, and 2.24. The q u a n t i t y I, r e p r e s e n t s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e
p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e external e x c i t i n g f o r c e s P i x t o t h e p o i n t of attach­

251
ment of t h e load t o t h e e l a s t i c beam.

From t h e c o n d i t i o n of equilibrium of a s e c t i o n of t h e beam'(Fig.2.Zh) we

have
M;=Mk fY k l k cos a k - xklk Sin a k .
(3.6)
To study t h e deformations, l e t us t u r n t o Fig.2.2& which shows t h e k-th
s e c t i o n of a n e l a s t i c beam AkBk i n a p o s i t i o n of equilibrium and t h e same sec­
t i o n i n a displaced p o s i t i o n ALBL Let t h e quantities x k ) y ,
X k + l and yk+ be
t h e displacement of t h e p o i n t A, and Bk (ends of t h e section), and l e t 9, and
8 k + l be t h e angles of r o t a t i o n of a tangent t o t h e e l a s t i c a x i s on t h e l e f t and
r i g h t ends. Furthermore, l e t 6, be t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e beam at t h e k-th sec­
t i o n , i.e., t h e displacement of t h e r i g h t end of t h e beam ( p o i n t B k ) i n a di­
r e c t i o n perpendicular AkBk r e l a t i v e t o t h e tangent t o t h e e l a s t i c axis a t t h e
l e f t end ( p o i n t A k ) . Then we can write

where 1, and cyk are, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e l e n g t h and angle of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e

k-th s e c t i o n of t h e beam (F'ig.2.24).

0
kLK' x

Fig.2.22 Polygon of Forces Acting on a S e c t i o n

of t h e E l a s t i c Fuselage Model.

252
 Fig.2.23 Polygon of Forces Fig.2.24 Polygon of Forces Applied
Applied t o k-th Element of t o a S e c t i o n of a n E l a s t i c Fuselage
a n E l a s t i c Fuselage Model. Model.

Applying t h e u s u a l methods of s t r e n g t h of m a t e r i a l s , we f i n d t h e following

equations c o r r e l a t i n g t h e f o r c e s and deformations:

The d i s p h c e m e n t s of t h e beam p o i n t s x, and y k are r e l a t e d with t h e center­

of-gravity displacements of t h e loads by t h e evident formulas

The recurrence formulas (3.3), (3.4), (3.5), and (3.7), t o g e t h e r w i t h

eg.(3.8), (3.9), (S.lO), and ( 3 . U ) and if t h e f o r c e s and displacements of t h e
k-th load are known, make it p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e f o r c e s and displacements
of t h e ( k + l ) - t h load. Using t h e s e formulas, we can s o l v e t h e problem by t h e
r1chai.n method", as follows: After a s s i g n i n g t h e amplitudes %yo and 9, a t t h e
l e f t end of t h e beam, it becomes p o s s i b l e t o determine, successively passing
from s e c t i o n t o s e c t i o n , t h e *Etudes a d f o r c e s at t h e extreme r i g h t end of
t h e beam, expressing them i n terms of t h e quanrtities xo, yo, 9,. If t h e beam
has n loads, we can t h u s determine t h e q u a n t i t i e s X,, Y,, and M, a t t h e r i g h t

253
 end o r t h e f l r e s i d u a l l ~ . However, s i n c e t h e r i g h t end of t h e beam i s free, t h e
~lresidualllshould be equal t o zero, %.e., a t t h e r i g h t end of t h e beam t h e con­
ditions
Xn= Yn= M,=O

should be s a t i s f i e d .

These conditions r e p r e s e n t a system of three equations f o r determining t h e

unknowns xo, yo, zY0, i n terms of which we had a l r e a d y expressed t h e v i b r a t i o n
anrplitudes and t h e f o r c e s on a l l loads of t h e beam.

T h i s method of c a l c u h t i n g t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of a system (Fig.2.21) i s

completely analogous t o t h e well-known method of ItresiduesII (Tolle method),
used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of multidisk systems (Ref.20). A
similar method i s used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g flexural v i b r a t i o n s of e l a s t i c beams. I n
t h e American and English l i t e r a t u r e such a method i s known as Myklestadts method
(Ref.33, 34). T h i s method permits: 1) f i n d i n g t h e curve of dynamic s t i f f n e s s
(F’ig.2.l.l) of a system at any p o i n t and i n any d i r e c t i o n by c a l c u l a t i n g vibra­
t i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t values of p; 2) f i n d i n g t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies and
modes of a system from a n a n a l y s i s of t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system c l o s e
t o resonance, when t h e forced v i b r a t i o n amplitudes i n c r e a s e without bounds.

T h i s method i s e s p e c i a l l y convenient when using e l e c t r o n i c c o q u t e r s , with­

out which it i s p r e s e n t l y impossible t o conduct dynamic c a l c u l a t i o n i n t h e
necessary volume.

For a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of this method it i s convenient t o express t h e

f o r c e s and displacements at t h e k-th s e c t i o n i n terms of t h e values of xo, yo,
and t o g i v e 6, i n t h e form

where Ai, BC, e t c . are c o e f f i c i e n t s .

When c a l c u l a t i n g by t h e llchainff method, t h e values of t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s

of t h e k-th s e c t i o n must be used f o r determining t h e i r values f o r t h e ( k + l ) - t h
s e c t i o n . Using recurrence formulas f o r f o r c e s and displacements, i t i s easy t o
construct recurrence formulas f o r t h e corresponding c o e f f i c i e n t s . The follow­
i n g formulas are obtained i n this manner:
9 . 9 9 9.
For t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,, Bk, c k , and D,, we have

254
 6 6 6
For t h e q u a n t i t i e s B,, Ck, and D,, analogous formulas a r e obtained by replacing
t h e q u a n t i t i e s A by B, C, and D, r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s p e r t a i n s a l s o t o t h e f o l ­
lowing formulas [eqs.(3.14.) and (3.1511.

For t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A i , B i , CgandDg:

sin ak AAf - I: sin ahcos ak

A:,.= A i - 1:
2EIk '
6EIk A:$

1isin2 ak
+6EIR Af--l,sin akAB,.

For the c o e f f i c i e n t s A i , B$, C{ andD$:

l2 ah
cos 13,cos2 a k
A{+,=,A{ +R 2EIk A f + 6EIk A i ­

- I: A: +I , cos a, A:.
sin
cos nk ak

6EIh

For the C o e f f i c i e n t s A f , B f , . cf a d 0::

A f =A$-l +mkp2A: -mkp2f1,AD,f Pl,;

I
and Of:

The formulas f o r C," and DC are obtained from t h e last equation on replac­
i n g t h e q u a n t i t i e s B by t h e q u a n t i t i e s C and D, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

25 5
 The derived formulas permit determining t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s at
t h e next s e c t i o n from t h e i r known values i n t h e previous s e c t i o n . Thus, moving
from s e c t i o n t o s e c t i o n o r from s t a t i o n
t o s t a t i o n from l e f t t o r i g h t , t h e
Ymm values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a t t h e r i g h t
0.UL end of t h e beam a r e determined. On t h e
r i g h t (free) end ( k = n), t h e condi­
tions
-402
X,,
=A: + B~xO-/- C:LJ, +Df80=0;
u,,=A,Y+ B , Y X ~ + - C ~ ~ ~ + D , Y ~ ~ = O ;
(3 *22)
M, A t + Bfxo +CFyo+D f 8 , =O
-005

-0.10
should be s a t i s f i e d .
-012 - ‘ Solving this system, we f i n d t h e
-a.w I I
values of k, yo, and 9, of i n t e r e s t
here :
F’ig.2.25 Forced Vibration Mode of
a n E l a s t i c Fuselage of a Single- A
Rotor Helicopter Obtained by t h e xo=* ;
Met hod of Residues
Ah . (3.23)
A ’

where
A = determinant of t h e system (3.22);
Axo, Ayo, Ag = determinants obtained f r o m t h e determinant A by r e p l a c i n g
t h e corresponding column by t h e free terms of t h e equations.

Knowing t h e q u a n t i t i e s xo, yo, and 9, permits finding, by means of

eqs.(3.l2), t h e displacements and f o r c e s a c t i n g i n each c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h e
beam.

f i g u r e 2.25 shows t h e mode of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a single-rotor heli- /236

copter, determined by t h e i n d i c a t e d method. The v i b r a t i o n mode i n this case
should represented by three graphs: xk(x), y k ( x ) , and 8k(x).

Table 2.1 g i v e s t h e i n i t i a l d a t a f o r t h e performed c a l c u l a t i o n .

The forced Vibrations were c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e follawing f o r c e s applied t o

t h e r o t o r hub (load No.3) :

P&. =0.05G; P&,= 0.03G; Mi =O,

where G i s t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight.

256
 Table 2.1

1 I 1
I ! - I I 9 / 1 0

12.4 1.13.7 15.1 16.7 18.4

-0.02:

I k (“1 0.00155 0.00G6 0.0068 0.207 0,0015 0.00042 O.ooO28 O.OOU17 O.oW13 1.0 ­
.- .. ~

0
ak 0

One of t h e v i r t u e s of this method of c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h a t , f o r c a l c u l a t i n g

forced v i b r a t i o n s it i s not necessary t o perform a preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n of
t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes of t h e system. Furthermore, i n such
a c a l c u l a t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t values of frequencies p, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o construct
a graph of t h e dynamicstiffness of t h e system D(p) a t any p o i n t and a l s o t o &?J­
f i n d a l l natural v i b r a t i o n frequen­
c i e s and modes. Figure 2.26 pre­
s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
of t h e graph of dyrm&c s t i f f n e s s
f o r t h e same system, given i n
-600
-400
-2RG
Table 2.1 f o r forced Pgy
values of Pk f o r which D(p) = 0 give
The .
t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of
0
in t h e system, w h i l e t h e mode of forced
200 v i b r a t i o n s a t a value of p c l o s e t o
403 any of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n f r e ­
600 quencies Pk (k = 1, 2, 3 , ...)
gives, w i t h any d e s i r e d degree of
Fig.2.26 Curve of Dynamic Fuselage accuracy, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n mode
S t i f f n e s s , Obtained by t h e Method of of this overtone. The modes of t h e
Residues. first three harmonics f o r t h e ex­
amined system obtained i n this man­
ner are shown i n Fig.2.27.

We note i n conclusion t h a t t h e method of Vesiduesll presented here requires

performing t h e c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h a very ’high accuracy ( a t least f o u r o r f i v e sig­
n i f i c a n t d i g i t s ) . T h i s makes t h e above method u n s u i t a b l e i n p r a c t i c e f o r a /;?38
keyboard c a l c u l a t o r . However, as a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , v i b r a t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s i n
t h e required volume can g e n e r a l l y be performed only on high-speed computers f o r
which t h e i n d i c a t e d accuracy i s comnon.

257
 x; v p,=o p2=o
xi y
-
ps pJ” 192Ocqc/min

10

-5

x ;y
5

Fig 2.27 Natural Vibration Modes of t h e Three Lower

Overtones of a Single-Rotor Helicopter Fuselage,
Obtained by t h e Method of Residues.

3. Consideration of t h e Effect of S h e a r i w Deformation

A l l above-described methods of v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s f o r a f u s e l a g e were based
on t h e use p f conventional r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e s t r e n g t h of materials f o r bend­
i n g of a t h i n beam. These r e l a t i o n s t a k e i n t o account only t e n s i l e and compres­
s i v e deformation of t h e f i b e r s of t h e beam m a t e r i a l and d i s r e g a r d s h e a r deforma­
t i o n . Furthermore, a consideration of t h e s e strains introduces c e r t a i n correc­
t i o n s i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s , which are r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e first
harmonic of v i b r a t i o n s (decrease i n frequency by 5 - 6 % ) , somewhat g r e a t e r f o r
t h e second harmonic (decrease i n frequency by 10 - l5%), stin g r e a t e r f o r t h e
t h i r d harmonic ( 2 0 - SO%), and s o on. Therefore, i f a v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s re­
quires c o n s i d e r a t i o n of high harmonics, t h e v i b r a t i o n should be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h
consideration of s h e a r strains caused by t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s e s i n t h e f u s e l a g e
skin. T h i s can be performed i n t h e following manner: If t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s
c a r r i e d out f o r a model of t h e type shown i n fig.2.21, t h e n a l l formulas of t h e
llresiduell method can be used, w i t h t h e exception of eq.(3.8) which, i n this case,
must be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

(3.24)

where 6; i s t h e a d d i t i o n a l d e f l e c t i o n of t h e k-th s t a t i o n due t o t h e shear

f o r c e $;

258
 T h i s a d d i t i o n a l d e f l e c t i o n 6; can be determined by means of t h e following
formula [see, f o r example (Ref.;?l)]:

Here, F, i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of t h e fuselage a t t h e k-th s t a t i o n , w h i l e

Hi s some dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t determined by t h e formula

moment of i n e r t i a of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e n e u t r a l
axis;
s t a t i c moment r e l a t i v e t o t h e n e u t r a l axis of a p a r t of t h e c r o s s
s e c t i o n located above a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e n e u t r a l
a x i s and a t a d i s t a n c e z from i t ;
6(z) = thickness of t h e f u s e l a g e s k i n a t a d i s t a n c e z from t h e n e u t r a l
axis.

The i n t e g r a l i n eq.(3.27) i s taken over t h e e n t i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n F of t h e

fuselage .
I n conformity w i t h t h e c o r r e c t i o n i n eq.(3.8), c o r r e c t i o n s must be i n t r o - /239
duced i n t o t h e recurrence formulas f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ,:A Ai, A,,9 e t c .

Section 4. Combined
-~ Vib_rations of the-System-mlage-Rotor

1. VibratAons of t.hg
- &stem Fuselage-Rotor

The methods of c a l c u l a t i n g v i b r a t i o n s of e l a s t i c blades presented i n Chap­

t e r I assume t h a t t h e blade i s hinged t o t h e hub which, i n turn, i s attached t o
a s t a t i o n a r y support. Actually, t h e hub i s attached t o a n e l a s t i c f u s e l a g e and
f o r c e s a r e created during blade v i b r a t i o n t h a t cause t h e hub t o move so t h a t , i n
r e a l i t y , t h e d e f l e c t i o n a t t h e hinge of t h e hub during blade v i b r a t i o n s i s not
equal t o zero but t o t h e corresponding d e f l e c t i o n of t h e fuselage.

Results of f l i g h t t e s t s have shown i n many cases that c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e

n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of blades performed without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e
e l a s t i c i t y of t h e f u s e l a g e may r e s u l t i n s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s . In this connection,
M.L.Mill has formulated and s t a t e d t h e problem of c a l c u l a t i n g combined vibra­
t i o n s of t h e system fuselage-rotor as a s i n g l e o s c i l l a t o r y system. The b a s i c
r e s u l t s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c a r r i e d out i n this d i r e c t i o n are given below.

259
 The frequencies and modes of natural combined v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system
fuselage-rotor can be found by using t h e method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s , whose es­
sence i s presented i n Subsections 2, 3, and 4 of S e c t i o n 2.

However, performance of such c a l c u l a t i o n s involves a l a r g e volume of c o q u ­

t a t i o n a l work. T h i s p e r t a i n s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o determinations of t h e l a t e r a l natu­
r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system fuselage-rotor, when t h e dynamic s t i f f ­
n e s s o f t h e r o t o r i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i s t o be determined. Furthermore,
c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n between f u s e l a g e and blade v i b r a t i o n s gener­
a l l y i s weak and t h a t t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system fuselage-
r o t o r can always be divided i n t o two groups such that t h e frequencies of t h e
f i r s t group are quite c l o s e t o t h e natural frequencies of t h e i s o l a t e d fuselage,
i n whose c a l c u l a t i o n t h e blade mass i s considered as concentrated a t t h e r o t o r
center, whereas t h e frequencies of t h e second group a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o
t h e natural blade frequencies c a l c u l a t e d on t h e assumption t h a t t h e blades a r e
attached t o a p e r f e c t l y r i g i d and i n f i n i t e l y heavy fuselage.

When t h e hub attachment t o t h e f u s e l a g e i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y r i g i d ( e l a s t i c

r o t o r s h a f t , e l a s t i c reduction-gear frame, g e a r case), it may happen that some
of t h e frequencies of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e second group noticeably change i n c o w
p a r i s o n w i t h blade frequencies c a l c u l a t e d by t h e u s u a l method.

Therefore, t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e f i r s t group can u s u a l l y

be determined by means of methods presented i n this Chapter as fuselage frequen­
c i e s , disregarding e l a s t i c i t y of t h e blades. An.exception a r e s p e c i a l cases
where, f o r example, t h e r o t o r s are attached t o l i g h t and e l a s t i c Wings on a h e l i ­
c o p t e r of side-by-side configuration. I n such cases, t h e frequencies of com­
bined o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e system fuselage-rotor must be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e
above-described method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s .

A s regards t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n frequencies, i t i s apparently always

necessary t o estimate t h e p o s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n of some of t h e s e frequencies due t o
l o c a l e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment t o t h e f u s e l a g e .

Thus, t o allow f o r t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of f u s e l a g e and blade v i b r a t i o n s , it ,

& &
s u f f i c e s i n p r a c t i c e t o estimate only t h e change i n n a t u r a l blade frequencies
caused by l o c a l e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment.

In t h e next Subsection, we W i l l p r e s e n t a method f o r such a c a l c u l a t i o n t o

determine t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , with considera­
t i o n of t h e f l e x u r a l e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r s h a f t . T h i s case i s t h e most im­
portant i n practice.

To t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r shaft one can always add t h e e l a s t i c i t y of

o t h e r elements of t h e r o t o r attachment ( g e a r frame, g e a r case, e t c . ) . Here we
w i l l give c e r t a i n important fundamental considerations, from which it W i l l be­
come obvious t h a t only some of t h e n a t u r a l - b l a d e v i b r a t i o n frequencies are able
t o change as a r e s u l t of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment.

I n Section 1 of thris Chapter it was shown t h a t not a l l harmonic components

of f o r c e s generated by v i b r a t i n g blades llpasslt t o . t h e fuselage, s i n c e many are
n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e r o t o r hub casing.

260
 For i n s t a n c e , during blade v i b r a t i o n s of a five-blade r o t o r i n t h e f l a p p i n g
plane, t h e f i r s t f o u r harmonic components of f o r c e s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e hub from
t h e blades (w, 2w, 3w, 4 w ) are n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub and only t h e f i f t h har­
monic component i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e fuselage.

Hence it i s obvious t h a t , i n c a l c u l a t i n g forced blade v i b r a t i o n s due t o

f o r c e s corresponding t o t h e harmonics w, 2w, 3 0 , and 4 w , we m u s t examine t h e
natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes and frequencies (with t h e method of expansion i n
n a t u r a l modes), c a l c u l a t e d f o r ordinary boundary conditions when t h e blade i s
assumed t o be hinged t o a s t a t i o n a r y hub.

When d e a l i n g w i t h f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s of t h e f i f t h harmonic, t h e presence of

combined v i b r a t i o n s of blade and f u s e l a g e must be t a k e n i n t o consideration.

The p h y s i c a l meaning of this phenomenon i s t h a t t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n modes

of a r o t o r w i t h e l a s t i c blades can be divided i n t o two groups:
1) r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e f o r c e s from i n d i v i d u a l blades a r e
n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub casing;
2) r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e f o r c e s from i n d i v i d u a l blades a r e
summed a t t h e hub casing and a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e fuselage.

Figure 2.28, as a t y p i c a l exawle, shows two such v i b r a t i o n modes f o r a

r o t o r w i t h f o u r blades s i n c e t h e p i c t u r e i s c l e a r e s t f o r such a r o t o r . Both Vi­
b r a t i o n modes A and B correspond t o t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p 1 of a single-mode
overtone of a n i s o l a t e d blade i n t h e flapping plane and d i f f e r only by t h e phase
d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n s w i t h
r e s p e c t t o i n d i v i d u a l blades. The
v i b r a t i o n mode A corresponds t o a
s i t u a t i o n where p a i r s of opposite
blades vibrate i n opposite phase.
I n t h i s case, t h e f o r c e s p l , pa, p3
and p4 a c t i n g on t h e r o t o r hub mu­
t u a l l y cancel out a t each i n s t a n t
of t i m e and are not transmitted t o
t h e fuselage. The v i b r a t i o n mode B
corresponds t o t h e s i t u a t i o n where
a l l f o u r blades vibrate i n phase.
I n this case t h e forces p l , p2, p3
and p 4 are summed a t t h e hub and
generate a f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e fuse­
l a g e and varying i n time w i t h a
frequency p

If t h e r o t o r hub i s a t t a c h e d
Fig.2.28 Vibration Modes of a Rotor t o a p e r f e c t l y r i g i d support, then
w i t h E l a s t i c Blades. t h e frequencies of both v i b r a t i o n
modes A and B of t h e r o t o r are ide+
t i c a l and equal t o t h e frequency p1
or t o t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e first harmonic of a n i s o l a t e d blade w i t h a
hinged b u t t . If t h e hub i s attached t o some e l a s t i c base w i t h a v e r t i c a l r i g i d ­
i t y c, t h e frequency of t h e v i b r a t i o n mode A Will not change and remains e q u a l
t o pl, whereas t h e frequency of t h e modes B w i l l decrease and that t h e more t h e
lower t h e r i g i d i t y c .
26 1
 It can be demonstrated t h a t t h e modes of t h e two i n d i c a t e d types exist f o r
. a r o t o r w i t h any number of blades 2. These v i b r a t i o n modes can be characterized
by a formula. For example, a l l v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e z-bladed r o t o r corre­
sponding t o t h e k-th overtone of v i b r a t i o n s of a n i s o l a t e d blade are character­
i z e d by t h e following l a w of blade vibration:

yn (at ) =gk(X) cos s $ n cos P k t , (4.1)

where
yn(x, t ) = d e v i a t i o n of a p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinate x, belonging t o t h e
n-t h blade ;
cos s $ ~= c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e l a w of v i b r a t i o n phase d i s t r i b u t i o n
f o r i n d i v i d u a l blades, ?.e., o f t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e
r o t o r as a whole;
s = any i n t e g e r that can be c a l l e d t h e o r d e r of a given r o t o r
v i b r a t i o n mode ( s = 1, 2, 3, ...,
8).

The q u a n t i t i e s $n are determined by t h e formula

2n
9 n =- n.
z

On t h e basis of e ~ ~ ( 1 . 1 3i )n Section 1, it i s easy t o show t h a t t h e vibra­

t i o n modes of t h e o r d e r s s = 1, 2, 3, ...,
z -
1 correspond t o a s i t u a t i o n i n
which t h e f o r c e s generated by i n d i v i d u a l blades are equalized a t t h e hub and
t h a t only t h e m d e of t h e order s = z corresponds t o a s i t u a t i o n where t h e f o r c e s
from i n d i v i d u a l blades are summed and t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e fuselage.

The modes A and B presented i n Fig.2.28 are modes of t h e second and f o u r t h

order f o r a four-blade r o t o r . It i s obvious from t h e a f o r e s a i d t h a t t h e natu­
r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a r o t o r , corresponding t o v i b r a t i o n modes of a l l
orders w i t h t h e exception of s = z, do not depend upon t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e
hub attachment and t h a t only t h e frequencies corresponding t o t h e r o t o r vibra­
t i o n mode of t h e order s = z depend on this e l a s t i c i t y .

We can f u r t h e r show t h a t a l l harmonics of f o r c e s t h a t e x c i t e blade vibra­

t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g plane, w i t h t h e exception of t h e Iltransient" harmonics zw,
2zw, 3zw, e t c . w i l l e x c i t e only those r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e f o r c e s
produced by t h e blades are n e u t r a l i z e d a t t h e hub and that only t h e harmonic
components of t h e exciting f o r c e s corresponding t o t h e lltransientll harmonics
w i l l e x c i t e r o t o r v i b r a t i o n modes a t which t h e blade-generated f o r c e s are summed
and t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e hub.

Hence, we can draw a u s e f u l p r a c t i c a l conclusion: If we construct an ordi­

nary resonance diagram of t h e blade (see Fig.l.6 of Chapt.1) i n t h e flapping
plane, c a l c u l a t e d without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r attachment t o
t h e fuselage, t h e n t h e resonances with a l l of t h e harmonics, except f o r reso­
nances w i t h t h e harmonics zw, 220, e t c . , correspond t o r e a l i t y . The resonances
w i t h t h e harmonics zw, 2zw, etc., must be i n v e s t i g a t e d a d d i t i o n a l l y , t a k i n g i n ­
t o account t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r hub attachment and r e f i n i n g t h e values
of t h e corresponding n a t u r a l frequencies.

262
 However, it should be mentioned t h a t , i n s t u d i e s of blade Vibrations i n
t h e f l a p p i n g plane, it i s g e n e r a l l y p o s s i b l e t o d i s r e g a r d t h e e l a s t i c i t y of hub
attachment f o r such harmonics s i n c e t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e hub attachment i n a
v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i s u s u a l l y l a r g e and has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e natural b h d e
v i b r a t i o n frequencies (except f o r t h e case of r o t o r attachment of a side-by-side
h e l i c o p t e r t o l i g h t and flexible wings).

I n studying t h e resonance diagram of a blade i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n t h e

e f f e c t of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e r o t o r hub attachment t o t h e f u s e l a g e must be t a k e n
i n t o consideration. All above considerations hold a l s o f o r blade v i b r a t i o n s i n
t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n , w i t h t h e only d i f f e r e n c e that i n this case t h e ‘Itran­
sientll harmonics are t h e harmonics ( z - l)w, ( z + l)w, (2z - 1)w, (22 + l)w,
e t c . Furthermore, at resonance w i t h t h e harmonics zw, 2zw, e t c . i n t h e p l a n e of
r o t a t i o n , allowance must be made f o r t h e combination of r o t o r v i b r a t i o n s w i t h
t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e transmission system ( t h e p e r t a i n i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s can
a l s o be c a r r i e d out on t h e basis of t h e method of dynamicstiffness).

2. -
Calculation of. t h e Natural Rotor Blade Vibrations i n t h e Plane
of &tatiog, w i t h Consid-eration of E l a s t i c i t y of t h e Rotor
t.0 t h e Fuselage

Let us examine t h e problem of natural blade v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r mounted

t o a f l e x u r a l l y e l a s t i c s h a f t (Fig.2.29). Let t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e s h a f t w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r c e P a p p l i e d t o t h e s h a f t a t t h e hub c e n t e r and l y i n g i n t h e
p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r be e q u a l t o c 0 . Consequently, t h e f o r c e P and
t h e r e s u l t a n t displacement 6 of t h e shaft end are c o r r e l a t e d by

P = co6. (4.2)
I n this case, it i s immaterial whether t h e displacement 6 i s produced by bend­
i n g of t h e s h a f t i t s e l f or i s due t o t h e e l a s t i c i t y of i t s attachment t o t h e
fuselage.

Let us d i s c u s s only t h e case when t h e given r i g i d i t y i s i d e n t i c a l i n a l l

d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e xOz, i.e., when t h e e l a s t i c support t o which t h e r o t o r
i s attached i s i s o t r o p i c . I n r e a l i t y this i s not so, b u t t h e r i g i d i t i e s of at­
t a c h e n t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s of t h e Ox and Oz axes g e n e r a l l y d i f f e r l i t t l e s o t h a t
t h e support can be assumed as i s o t r o p i c , understanding by t h e quantity co t h e
a r i t h m e t i c mean of t h e r i g i d i t i e s c, and c,:

C a l c u h t i o n of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r on a n e h s t i c base can be per­

formed by t h e method of dynamic s t i f f n e s s .

First, we introduce t h e concept of d y ” L c s t i f f n e s s of a blade i n t h e p l a n e

of r o t a t i o n . L e t a f l e x u r a l l y e l a s t i c blade i n t h e c e n t r a l c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e
f i e l d be attached a t t h e r o o t by a hinge such that t h e hinge i s able t o move &
f r e e l y i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e a x i s of t h e undeformed blade (see
Fig. 2.30) .
263
 1

&
I
li=Q
cospt

Fig . 2 . 3 Diagram of Rotor on f i g .2.3O Diagram f o r Calculation

E l a s t i c Shaft. of Forced Blade Vibrations t o De­
t e d n e Dynamic Rotor S t i f f n e s s .

Furthermore, l e t t h e blade execute s t e a d y forced v i b r a t i o n s under t h e ef­

f e c t of a lateral e x c i t i n g harmonic f o r c e
F = Fo COS p t ,

a p p l i e d t o t h e hinge A. I n this case, t h e p o i n t A of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e

W i l l a l s o execute v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e l a w
u =u g cos p t .

We W i l l c a l l t h e q u a n t i t y

t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e blade.

The dynamic blade s t i f f n e s s can be determined e i t h e r by t h e method given i n

Subsection 2 of S e c t i o n 2 o r by t h e method of a u x i l i a r y mass (Sect.2, Subsect .4).
I n so doing we must t a k e i n t o account t h a t t h e blade moves i n a c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e f i e l d so that it i s no longer a question of solving a n equation of t h e
t y p e of eq.(2.2), as had been done i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e fuselage, but of solving
t h e equation of blade v i b r a t i o n in t h e plane of r o t a t i o n ( s e e Chapt.1, Sect.1,
Subsect .11), which has t h e form

(E/u")"-((Nu')'+mu--2U=q(rl t). (4.5)

Here, N i s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i n t h e blade s e c t i o n at a r a d i u s r.

When using t h e method of a u x i l i a r y m a s s , t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n fre­

quencies and modes m u s t be c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i n t h e presence
of a n attachment according t o t h e scheme depicted i n fig.2.30, With a d i f f e r e n t
value f o r t h e a u x i l i a r y mass Am, a t t h e p o i n t A, using t h e method presented i n
Chapter I, S e c t i o n 2, Subsection 5.
 From t h e r e s u l t s of such a c a l c u l a t i o n we can construct t h e graph of Am, =
= f(p). An example of such a graph i s shown i n Fig.2.32. The p o i n t s of in­
f i n i t e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n f ( p ) g i v e t h e natural frequencies of t h e
blade w i t h a f i x e d hinge a t t h e
p o i n t A, i.e., t h e n a t u r a l f r e ­
quencies of a blade f o r t h e
case of a n i n f i n i t e l y l a r g e
r i g i d i t y of t h e r o t o r s h a f t .
The p o i n t s a t which Om, = 0
y i e l d t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of
a blade attached f r e e l y accord­
i n g t o t h e scheme depicted i n
Fig. 2.30.

The magnitude of ' t h e dy- @

namic blade s t i f f n e s s correspond­
i n g t o this value of p can be
determined from t h e formula

Fig.2.31 For Calculation of Dynamic S t i f f - The a d d i t i o n a l term w20mb(p)

ness of a Rotor w i t h E l a s t i c Blades. i n this formula i s due t o t h e
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e component of
mass Am, d i r e c t e d along t h e
normal t o t h e blade.

We will show f u r t h e r t h a t t h e dynamic s t i f f n e s s of t h e r o t o r as a whole can

be found i f t h e d y n a m i c s t i f f n e s s o f t h e blade i s known. Let us t u r n t o F'i.g.2.31
which gives t h e planform of a r o t o r hub w i t h v e r t i c a l hinges and t h e k-th elas­
t i c blade. L e t xOy be a coordinate system r o t a t i n g t o g e t h e r with t h e r o t o r with
a n angular v e l o c i t y w. Furthermore, l e t t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub execute pre­
s c r i b e d harmonic v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n i n obedience t o t h e l a w

x=x, cos p i ;
y=,yo sin pt. I
Such v i b r a t i o n s of t h e hub cause v i b r a t i o n s of t h e e l a s t i c blades i n t h e
plane of r o t a t i o n , reducing t h e problem t o f i n d i n g t h e f o r c e s exerted by t h e Vi­
b r a t i n g blades on t h e hub during i t s motion.

Let us choose a n a u x i l i a r y r e c t a n g u l a r coordinate system r o t a t i n g t o g e t h e r

w i t h t h e r o t o r nOr, f o r which t h e O r - a x i s i s p a r a l l e l t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e passing
through t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub and through t h e drag hinge A of t h e k-th blade.
The Or-axis makes a c e r t a i n angle I ) ~ with t h e Ox-axis. We denote by uo and v,
t h e coordinates of t h e hub c e n t e r i n t h e system fir. Then, obviously,

+
uo= --x sin ( J ~ y cos qk;
ZJO = X COS qk +y sin $,k.

265
 During v i b r a t i o n s of t h e hub i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w (4.6), t h e coordi­
n a t e s uo and vo w i l l vary i n time i n obedience t o t h e l a w

-+
uo=( -xosin qk) cos p t (gocos IjlJ sin pi;
+
vo=(x, cos $&) cos pf (gosin qk)sin p t . (4.7)

Furthermore, l e t u denote t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e p o i n t of t h e elastic .&&

blade a x i s a t a r a d i u s r from a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a s s i n g through t h e drag hinge A
of t h e blade and running p a r a l l e l t o t h e O r - a x i s . During v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
blade, t h e q u a n t i t y u i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e r a d i u s r and t h e t h e t such t h a t u =
= u(r, t ) .

Let be t h e v e c t o r of t h e t o t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n of a p o i n t of r a d i u s r of t h e
e l a s t i c blade azis. Then,
- ­
+wt, -!- "cor '

where -wml = v e c t o r of r e l a t i v e a c c e l e r a t i o n of a p o i n t due t o motion i n a

- moving coordinate system d r ;
wtr = v e c t o r of t r a n s l a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o motion of a p o i n t to­
-w C o r = gv ee tcht oe rr wofi t hC ot hr ieo lcoordinate
-
system nOr;
is acceleration.

We t h e n introduce t h e u n i t v e c t o r s ? and 3,d i r e c t e d along t h e axes r arid

n, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Then, we can w r i t e

If we denote by w, and w, t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e v e c t o r of t o t a l accelera­

t i o n onto t h e axes On and Or, t h e following expressions are obtained:

+ (u- oiu)+20vo;
w,=(io- w"o)
w,= (wo - w2vo) - 02r - 2wuo- 20u.
*. I (4.81

The equation of equilibrium i n t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e f i e l d has t h e form

(EJIC'')II - (Nu')'=q , (4.9)
where q i s t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e l a t e r a l l o a d applied t o a beam.

During blade v i b r a t i o n s , t h e l a t e r a l load due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s can be

w r i t t e n i n t h e form
.­ w2u0) (U - A)
q ( r , t )= - mw, = - m [(io + +.2wV01,
266
 where m i s t h e l i n e a r mass of t h e blade Em = m ( r ) ] .

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.(4.9), we o b t a i n t h e following p a r t i a l

d i f f e r e n t i a l equation f o r determining t h e f u n c t i o n u ( r , t ) :

where

If’ t h e motion of t h e c e n t e r of t h e hub i s given by eqs.(4.7), t h e n t h e load

$(r, t ) W i l l be a known f u n c t i o n of t i m e .
The unknown f u n c t i o n u(r, t ) should s a t i s f y eq.(4.10) as w e l l as t h e
boundary conditions

u ( 0 ,t)=u”(O, t)=O;
u”(L?,t )=( E I U ” ) ’ l r - R =0. I
D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eqs .(4.7) and s u b s t i t u t i n g them i n t o e q . ( k . l l ) will y i e l d
q* (r, t)=mAk COS p i - t mB, sin p i , (4.13)
where t h e constants A, and are determined by t h e formulas

The s o l u t i o n o f eq.(b.lO), corresponding t o s t e a d y forced v i b r a t i o n s due /246

t o a load [see eq.(k.l3)], i s sougM i n t h e f o r m

u (r, t )=U (r)[ cos p t +B, sin p t ]. (4.15)

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.(4..10) w i t h t h e right-hand s i d e f o r q4’
from eq.(4.13), we f i n d that t h e f u n c t i o n <(r) should s a t i s f y t h e ordinary dif­
f e r e n t i a l equation

as w e l l as t h e boundary conditions
-
u (0)=U” (0)=0;
2 (l?)=(�Tu/’)’l;-R=o. I
W e note f u r t h e r that, i n c a l c u l a t i n g blade v i b r a t i o n s e x c i t e d by v i b r a t i o n
of t h e hinge A according t o t h e scheme depicted i n Fig.2.30, it is necessary t o
s o l v e a n equation of t h e form

267

I
 -mu -w2u =0 ,
(E/u")"- (Nu')'

where u i s t h e t o t a l displacement of a p o i n t of t h e e l a s t i c b h d e swds of radi­

us r. I n this case, t h e f u n c t i o n u(r, t) should s a t i s f y t h e conditions
u (0, f)=2x0 cos pf;
u" ( 0 ,f)=O. I
u" ( R ,t )=0;
(E/U")'Jr-R =o. I
Seeking t h e s o l u t i o n of this equation i n t h e form
u= [uo tu(r)]cos p f ,
we a r r i v e a t t h e conclusion that t h e f u n c t i o n u(r) should s a t i s f y t h e equation
(�12)''
- (~2)'
- (p2+ 02) mu =(p2 + 0 2 ) mu,,

which d i f f e r s from eq.(4.l6) o n l y by t h e constant % ( p a + w2). The boundary

conditions f o r t h e f u n c t i o n E(.) i n this case f u l l y coincides w i t h eq~~(4.1'7).

Thus, during blade v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e scheme shown i n Fig.2.30,

t h e function u(r)
i s t h e same as i n t h e problem of i n t e r e s t here [ s e e eqs.(b.Ih)
and (4.17)1 i f we s e l e c t t h e amplitude uo such that t h e condition

i s satisfied.

Physically, this means that t h e mode of forced blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e

problem of i n t e r e s t here coincides w i t h t h e mode of blade v i b r a t i o n s excited ac­
cording t o t h e scheme i n Fig.2.30. On t h e basis of this r e s u l t , an important
form& i s derived. For this, we note that during Vibrations of a blade attached
according t o t h e scheme shown i n Fig.2.30 and e x c i t e d by t h e f o r c e F = F, cos p t ,
t h e sum of t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of a l l l a t e r a l i n e r t i a f o r c e s applied t o t h e blade /2k7
should be balanced by t h e f o r c e F. Hence, we f i n d

Fo=Amb( p )(p* + w2) uo= - (p2+d ) j! m

v.h
(uo 3-2)
dr=

-(p2+~2)u~m~-(p2+~2) mzdr,
'v.h

where mb i s t h e blade mass up t o t h e drag hinge

268
On s a t i s f y i n g c o n d i t i o n (4.B), we o b t a i n t h e formula

meaning t h a t t h e i n t e g r a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e blade of t h e f u n c t i o n mE [where

U i s t h e s o l u t i o n of eq.(4.16)1 i s expressed i n terms of dynamic blade s t i f f n e s s
o r , which comes t o t h e same, i n terms of t h e a u x i l i a r y mass Am,(p).

It i s now easy t o Obtain expressions f o r t h e f o r c e s exerted on t h e hub by

t h e v i b r a t i n g blades. We denote by Qk and Nk, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e p r o j e c t i o n s on­
t o t h e On- and Or-axes of a f o r c e exerted by t h e k-th blade k on t h e drag hinge
of t h e hub. Then,

Qk-- 1v.h
nzw,dr=-
R,
3
v.h
m(u-ozu)dr­

- (It0 - 02uo +20)vO)mb;

R
N,=- J mw, d r = - m6(vo-02wo - 2u0w)f
'v.h
R
$w2 mrdr+2w mudr.
v.h v.h

where No = w2 7 mr d r i s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e e x e r t e d by t h e blade on t h e drag

'v.h
hinge

Denoting by X and Y t h e f o r c e s exerted on t h e hub by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades,

26?
we d e r i v e t h e formulas:

S u b s t i t u t i n g here eqs.(4.21) and (4.22) alad t a k i n g i n t o account t h e proper­

t i e s of t h e trigonometric sums described i n Subsection 2, Section 1 of this
Chapter [eqs.(l.l3)], we arrive at t h e f o l l a s i n g expressions:

On t h e o t h e r hand, we can c o n s t r u c t t h e equations of motion of t h e hub of

a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c shaft, which have t h e form

where
q,, = mass of t h e hub casing;
co = shaft rigidity.

If t h e motion of t h e hub t a k e s p l a c e i n obedience t o t h e l a w (4..6), t h e

last equations will yield

If we equate t h e s e expressions t o eqs.(4.23) and (4.24), we o b t a i n a system

of two l i n e a r homogeneous equations f o r determining t h e amplitudes x o and yo:

Ax~+BIJ~=O;
Bxo+AyO=O, I (4 925)

where

270
 Equating t o zero t h e determinant of this system, we o b t a i n t h e character­
i s t i c equation f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l frequencies p:

whence
A=&B.

I n t h e case A = -B [as i s apparent from eq.(4.25)1, xo = yo. T h i s cor­

.
responds t o r o t a t i o n of t h e hub c e n t e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r
[see eq. (4 -6)1

Fig.2.32 Determination of Vibration Frequencies of

a Rotor on a n E l a s t i c Shaft, by t h e Dynamic
S t i f f ness M e t hod.

I n t h e case A = B we have xi, = -yo, which corresponds t o r o t a t i o n of t h e

r o t o r c e n t e r opposite t o t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equations (4.28) can be solved w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e qua­

t i t y Am,(p). T h i s y i e l d s t h e following equation:

27 1
 T h i s equation can be solved g r a h i c a l l y by superimposing, on t h e curve of
t h e a-liary blade mass b b = h b ( p p y two curves corresponding t o t h e r i g h t -
hand s i d e of this expression i n which we t a k e e i t h e r t h e upper s i g n s (minus s i g n
i n t h e numerator and p l u s s i g n i n t h e denominator) o r t h e lower signs. The
first of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s W i l l be denoted by Am,(p) and t h e second, by Am2(p).

The a b s c i s s a s of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s of t h e curve Aml(p) w i t h t h e graph

of a u x i l i a r y blade mass &,(p) y i e l d t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a
r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c shaft, corresponding t o v i b r a t i o n modes i n which t h e c e n t e r
of t h e hub r o t a t e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , w i t h a n angular
v e l o c i t y p r e l a t i v e t o t h e coordinate system xOy f i x e d t o t h e r o t o r and hence
w i t h an angular v e l o c i t y p + w relative t o t h e body-fixed coordinate system
( h e l i c o p t e r body). Obviously, such modes can be e x c i t e d only by t h e harmonics
( z - l)w, (22 - 1 ) w , e t c . The a b s c i s s a s of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s of t h e
curves Am2(p) and Amb(p) yield t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a r o t o r on
a n e l a s t i c s h a f t i n which t h e hub c e n t e r r o t a t e s i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h a t
of t h e r o t o r . Such v i b r a t i o n modes can be e x c i t e d only by t h e harmonics ( z +
+ I ).
, (22 + l ) w , e t c .
Figure 2.32 g i v e s t h e graphs f o r t h e curves Amb(p), Am,(p), and Am ( )
constructed f o r t h e following i n i t i a l data: e o = 500 kg/m; m h u b = 3s kzzmz/m;
m b = Pj kg*sec2/m; w o = 190 rpm; 2 = 5. These graphs show appreciable d i f f e r ­
ences between t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c s h a f t and t h e
n a t u r a l frequencies of a n i s o l a t e d blade. For example, t h e p o i n t H of an i n - /250
f i n i t e d i s c o n t i n u i t y of t h e curve Amb(p) corresponds t o t h e frequency of a
single-node overtone of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a n i s o l a t e d blade of t h e given
r o t o r (with a s t a t i o n a r y hub). I n this case, p = p1 = 64.0 cycles/min. Here,
Fig.2.33 shows t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of this overtone.

p=p:,

Fig.2.33 Modes of Blade Vibrations.

-
a Mode of blade v i b r a t i o n s without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of
-
s h a f t e l a s t i c i t y ; b Modes of blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of blade e l a s t i c i t y .

I n a d d i t i o n t o this n a t u r a l frequency, a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c s h a f t a l s o has

v i b r a t i o n frequencies correspondi
7 t o t h e p o i n t s A, By C and D of t h e i n t e r ­
c e p t s of t h e curves Am,(p) and Am, p ) w i t h t h e curve Amb(p). Here, v i b r a t i o n s
of modes corresponding t o t h e p o i n t s A and D can be e x c i t e d only by t h e har­
monics ( z - l ) w , (22 - l ) w , e t c . ( i n this case, 4.w and 9 w etc.). Vibrations cor­
responding t o t h e p o i n t s C and B can be e x c i t e d only by t h e harmonics ( 2 + l)w,
(22 + l ) w , e t c . ( i n this case, 6w, llw, e t c . ) .

272
 These resonance curves were p l o t t e d f o r a h e l i c o p t e r which first had been
equipped w i t h a four-blade r o t o r ; however, l a t e r t h e r o t o r hub had t o be modi­
f i e d and t h e r o t o r was designed as a five-blade type s o as t o e l i m i n a t e t h e se­
vere resonance of t h e blade w i t h t h e harmonic 3 w i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n
(point A).

Figure 2.33 g i v e s t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n modes i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a ­

t i o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of shaft e l a s t i c i t y corresponding t o t h e p o i n t s A (p: =
= 560 cycles/min) and B(pi = 761 cycles/min).

I n conclusion, we should mention t h a t t h e above method f o r determining t h e

natural frequencies of a blade i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of
shaft e l a s t i c i t y i s one of t h e most c q l e x examples of using t h e method of dy­
“icstiffness;this was t h e main reason f o r d e s c r i b i n g it here i n some d e t a i l .
A s regards f i n d i n g t h e natural blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e f l a p p i n g p l a n e with con­
s i d e r a t i o n of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e hub attachment and of t h e blade v i b r a t i o n fre­
quencies i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n w i t h consideration of t o r s i o n a l e l a s t i c i t y of
t h e transmission system (which are excited by t h e harmonics zw, Zzw, 3zw, e t c . ) ,
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s involved are much simpler and can be c a r r i e d out i n f u l l on t h e
basis of t h e p r i n c i p l e s set f o r t h i n Section 2.

273
 CHAPTER 111 /251

Ground resonance u s u a l l y i s t o mean spontaneous Vibrations (build-up) of a

h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground w i t h i n c r e a s i n g amplitude. T h i s phenomenon w a s first
noticed a f t e r a drag hinge p e r m i t t i n g t h e blade t o mve i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n
of t h e r o t o r w a s introduced i n t o t h e design of t h e r o t o r hub.

I n t h e h i s t o r y of h e l i c o p t e r engineering t h e r e were quite a f e w cases where

a h e l i c o p t e r was destroyed by v i b r a t i o n s of this type. Attempts t o eliminate
ground resonance on a f u l l - s c a l e h e l i c o p t e r sometimes required extensive modifi­
c a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r design. T h i s forced d e s i g n engineers t o work on t h e
development of t h e t h e o r y of ground resonance and reliable methods of i t s calcu­
l a t i o n , which would permit s e l e c t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s t r u c t u r a l mem­
bers determining t h e s t a b i l i t y margin of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground.

A t p r e s e n t t h e r e i s a t h e o r y of ground resonance which explains a l l t h e

most important features of this phenomenon and permits c a l c u l a t i n g t h e design
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on which depends ground resonance. T h i s t h e o r y a r o s e as a re­
sult of numerous t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of ground resonance
c a r r i e d out both i n t h e Soviet Union and abroad. O f t h e Soviet works on t h e
t h e o r y of ground resonance we m u s t p o i n t out first t h e works of B.Ya.Zherebtsov
and A.I.Pozhalostin.

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of ground resonance have shown t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l essence of

this phenomenon involves t h e follow5ngt During natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e r o t o r
b l a d e s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n ( r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinges), which can arise
from any impetus (wind gust, rough landing, etc.), i n e r t i a f o r c e s appear i n t h e
plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r . Being t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r fuselage,
t h e y cause i t s v i b r a t i o n s on t h e e l a s t i c landing gear. The f o r c e s swinging t h e
h e l i c o p t e r vary w i t h a d e f i n i t e frequency depending upon t h e natural frequency
of t h e blade i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n ' a n d t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t a t i o n of
t h e r o t o r . A h e l i c o p t e r i s most easily swung when t h e frequency of change of t h e
e x c i t i n g f o r c e s i s c l o s e t o t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r
on a n e l a s t i c landing gear. Simultaneously w i t h v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r
body, f o r c e s arise which swing t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n . The
presence of this b i l a t e r a l couple between v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and blades
r e s u l t s i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r becoming unstable at a c e r t a i n angular v e l o c i t y of
r o t o r r o t a t i o n , i.e., t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s once begun ( a s a consequence of
some impetus) a r e not d q e d but increased.

The b a s i c means of combatting ground resonance are:

1) The i n s t a l l a t i o n of s p e c i a l dampers on t h e drag hinges of t h e r o t o r

b l a d e s which damp t h e blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n .

2) The i n t r o d u c t i o n of s p e c i a l damping elements i n t h e design of t h e /252

274
shock absorber s t r u t or t h e p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Wdrau­
l i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e shock absorber s t r u t s i n forward and reverse strokes, and
a l s o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r i g i d i t y of t h e shock absorber s t r u t s and pneumatic
tires.

The proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade dampers and t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r i g i d i t y and damping of t h e landing gear i s t h e main
purpose of c a l c u l a t i n g a h e l i c o p t e r f o r ground resonance.

The t h e o r y of ground resonance which W i l l be presented below holds t r u e only

f o r r o t o r s w i t h a number of blades n 2 3 ,

The t h e o r y of ground resonance of a two-blade r o t o r has a number of s p e c i a l

features and i s appreciably more complex (Ref .36).

S e c t i o n 1. S t a b i l i t y of Rotor on E l a s t i c Base

1. Statement of Problem and Equations of Motion

The most important features of ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r can be ob­

t a i n e d from an examination of t h e motion of some i d e a l i z e d mechanical system,
which we will c a l l a Voter on a n e l a s t i c base".
Such a system i s schematically shown i n Fig.3.l.
The s h a f t of t h e r o t o r w i t h heavy and p e r f e c t l y
r i g i d blades ( 3 ) , a t t a c h e d t o t h e r o t o r hub by
means of t h e drag hinges ( 4 ) , r o t a t e s i n sup­
p o r t s r i g i d l y connected w i t h some heavy casing
(body) (1)which i s e l a s t i c a l l y mounted t o a
s t a t i o n a r y base ( 2 ) and has only one degree of
2 freedom, namely forward displacement along t h e
. x axis O x p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of t h e
I r o t o r . Upon displacement of t h e body (1)along
t h e Ox-axis, an e l a s t i c r e s t o r i n g f o r c e i s gen­
Fig.3.1 Diagram of Rotor e r a t e d by t h e s p r i n g c and a damping f o r c e by
on E l a s t i c Base. t h e damper k. Let us assume t h e e l a s t i c arid
-
1 Casing; 2 - Base; 3 - damping c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e base t o be l i n e a r ,
Blade; 4 - Hnge. i.e., t h a t t h e f o r c e X a c t i n g on t h e casing (1)
during i t s displacement x ( t ) i s expressed by t h e
fo m l a

where
c = c o e f f i c i e n t of s t i f f n e s s of t h e s p r i n g ( s p r i n g constant);
k = damping c o e f f i c i e n t .

We W i l l c a l l t h e q u a n t i t i e s c and k t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and damp­

i n g of t h e e l a s t i c base. If' m, i s t h e m a s s of t h e casing (I) and P, i s t h e pro­
j e c t i o n onto t h e Ox-axis of t h e f o r c e exerted on t h e casing by t h e r o t o r , t h e n
t h e equation of motion of t h e casing can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

27 5
 m,x +rcx +-cx =P,. (1.2)

Here and below, t h e d o t s denote d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o time.

Furthermore, we w i l l assume t h a t t h e r o t o r r o t a t e s uniformly w i t h a n angu­

lar v e l o c i t y w i n vacuum, i.e., we w i l l neglect t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s . The
t h e o r y of ground resonance disregarding aerodynamic f o r c e s agrees r a t h e r w e l l
w i t h experiment. Thus, o n l y i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r i s i n g during blade v i b r a t i o n s i n
t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n are t a k e n i n t o account.

To construct t h e equations of motion of t h e blade, l e t us t u r n t o Figs.3.1

and 3.2. /253
Let us s e l e c t a s t a t i o n a r y r e c t a n g u l a r coordinate system Oxyz. The a x i s Oy
i s d i r e c t e d along t h e a x i s of t h e r o t o r s h a f t , at a p o s i t i o n of t h e casing (1)
corresponding t o s t a t i c equilibrium. The d i r e c ­
t i o n of t h e Ox-axis i s t a k e n such t h a t t h e only
p o s s i b l e displacement of t h e casing i s d i r e c t e d
along t h e Ox-axis .
A s usual, l e t x be t h e displacement of t h e
a x i s of t h e r o t o r shaft t o g e t h e r with t h e casing
along t h e Ox-axis (Fig.3.2). Furthermore, l e t
$k be t h e azimuthal angle of t h e k-th r o t o r blade
reckoning from t h e ' p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox-
axis.

The angles $k of d i f f e r e n t r o t o r blades are

determined by means of t h e formula

Fig.3.2 For Derivation of

Equations of Motion. (1.3)

where n i s t h e number of r o t o r blades; k = 1, 2, ..., n.

We denote by t v . h t h e d i s t a n c e AB (F'ig.3.2) from t h e axis of r o t a t i o n A t o
t h e axis of t h e v e r t i c a l o r drag hinge B, and by 5 k t h e angle of d e f l e c t i o n of
t h e k-tli blade during i t s r o t a t i o n relative t o t h e drag hinge, taking S k as posi­
t i v e when t h e blade i s d e f l e c t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r .

Then, t h e coordinates x k and zk of t h e element of t h e k-th b h d e w i t h a

m a s s dm a t a d i s t a n c e p from t h e a x i s of t h e drag hinge a r e expressed by t h e f o l ­
lowing formulas:

D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e s e e5pressions twice w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e , we o b t a i n
formulas for determining t h e , components of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e blade element:

276
 I n d e r i v i n g t h e equations of small blade v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag
hinge we must, as usual, l i m i t ourselves t o small q u a n t i t i e s of t h e first order.
Therefore, we can assume t h a t
(w +i,)Z = w2+ 20ik.

Thus, w i t h a n accuracy t o small q u a n t i t i e s of t h e second order, t h e formu­

las f o r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s Sk and j ; k can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

When t h e system moves i n a vacuum, t h e r o t o r blades a t each i n s t a n t of

time t are loaded only by i n e r t i a f o r c e s . The elementary i n e r t i a f o r c e s a c t i n g
on a blade element are expressed by t h e formulas:

dXk= -dinsk;
dZk = - dmkzk.
.. ]
I n t h e drag hinges of t h e r o t o r hub, l e t t h e r e be l i n e a r e l a s t i c and damp-&
i n g devices which, during r o t a t i o n of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge, load
it by t h e moment

d i r e c t e d toward t h e s i d e opposite t o t h e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n S k . We w i l l c a l l cb
and k b , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of e l a s t i c i t y and damping of t h e blade.

A t each i n s t a n t of t i m e , t h e moment from t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s applied t o t h e

blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge should be balanced by t h e moment M. Therefore,
we can w r i t e
[xkesin($R+Ek)-ZReCOS($kfEk)] dnz=cbik+Kbgkr
I

where i n t e g r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d out over t h e blade l e n g t h 1 .

The equation of motion of t h e k-th blade i s derived from t h e last expres­

s i o n and from eqs.(l.5) a f t e r simple transformations. Since we are i n t e r e s t e d
i n t h e equations of small blade v i b r a t i o n s , we can limit ourselves t o >erms of
t h e first o r d e r of smallness relative t o t h e q u a n t i t i e s x, 2, C k , and after sk,
d i s c a r d i n g terms containing squares and products of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s . Then, we
can put
cos Ek = 1;

27 7
 sin Ek = Ek;
sin (+& +Ek) +ER cos
=4. sin +Jk +k;

COS (qR+ ER) zz cos qR-ER sin qk.

After such s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , t h e equation of small v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th

blade W i l l t a k e t h e following form:

Here, t h e following n o t a t i o n s are used:

nb = kb = relative damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade;

h

2 -- - c b
Pb, - n a t u r a l frequency of a nonrotating blade ( a t
u) = 0) r e l a

IV.h t i v e t o t h e drag hinge;

v o = dimensionless blade parameter determined by t h e formula:

where
s,,, = p
cm
i = s t a t i c ‘ b l a d e moment relative t o t h e drag hinge;
I,., = Sp”dm = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag
E hinge.

The right-hand s i d e of eq.(1.8) r e p r e s e n t s t h e moment due t o i n e r t i a f o r c e s

a c t i n g on t h e blade, generated by t h e r o t o r s h a f t displacement ( x ) . When t h e
s h a f t i s s t a t i o n a r y , a t 2 = 0, eq.(1.8) d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r a l blade v i b r a t i o n s
of a uniformly r o t a t i n g r o t o r i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n .

The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of eq.(1.8) without t h e right-hand s i d e has t h e form

where S k o and rqk are arbitrary constants, w h i l e t h e quantity Pb i s determined by

t h e formula

Pb = { P i o + v:w* - nb”

and r e p r e s e n t s t h e angular frequency of natural b h d e v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane of

rotation.

Furthermore, it i s necessary t o determine t h e f o r c e P, exerted on t h e casing

278

. ...
 by t h e r o t o r . The f o r c e P, r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s of
v i b r a t i n g blades and, on t h e basis of t h e well-known theorem of motion of t h e
c e n t e r of i n e r t i a ( c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ) of a mechanical system, can be determined
as t h e product of t h e mass of t h e blade system and t h e component of a c c e l e r a t i o n
of t h e common c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system along t h e a x i s ox1

Let us d e r i v e formulas f o r determining t h e coordinates of t h e common c e n t e r

of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system.

Let Xk, and zk be t h e coordinates of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e k-th

C

blade. Then, t h e coordinates x, and z, of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade

system can be c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e expressions:

k-1
1 (1.10)

Furthermore, l e t p, be t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade
from t h e axis of t h e drag hinge. Then, i n conformity w i t h eqs.(l.4), t h e coor­
d i n a t e s x,, z, can be determined as
xkc = x -k cos 9.4 +@c cos (Ok + kk);
zkc =‘v.h sin + @c sin (+k +Ek).
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e expressions i n t o eq.( 1.10) and considering t h a t , f o r
n 2 3 [see Chapt.11, Sect.1, Subsect.2, eq.(1.13)1,

n
3 cosq,=o;
k-l 1
n

2 sin+k=O,
k -1 I (1.11)

w e o k t a i n t h e following simple expressions f o r t h e coordinates of t h e comon

c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system:

n
(1.12)

k -1

279

I
 The f o r c e P, a c t i n g on t h e e l a s t i c base can be determined fron: t h e formula
P , = -nm,x,.

Twice d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e f i r s t equation of t h e system (1.12), we o b t a i n /256

S u b s t i t u t i n g this expression i n t o eq.(1.2) W i l l f i n a l l y yield t h e follow­

i n g equation of motion of t h e casing:

T h i s equation i s convenienkly w r i t t e n i n t h e form

n

X +2 n o i+p i x = M d
[ (.ik
- u2ik)sin qk + poikcos
k -1

where t h e quantity

r e p r e s e n t s t h e t o t a l mass of t h e system, w h i l e n, i s t h e r e l a t i v e d a q i n g coef­

f i c i e n t of t h e e l a s t i c base, determined by t h e formula
x
no=--,
2M

and t h e quantity p o r e p r e s e n t s t h e angular frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of a

r i g i d r o t o r (without drag hinges) on an e l a s t i c base and i s determined by t h e
formula

We w i l l now write t h e system of equations of motion of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c

base, c o n s i s t i n g of t h e equations of motion of t h e blades [eq.(1.8)1 and t h e
equation of motion of t h e casing of t h e base:

n (1.16)

k-1

where k = 1, 2, ..., n.
280
 Thus, t h e equations of small v i b r a t i o n s of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base repre­
s e n t a homogeneous system of ( n + 1) l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with p e r i o d i c
c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r determining ( n + 1) unknown f u n c t i o n s x ( t ) , s , ( t ) (where k =
= 1, 2, ..., n).

2. S t a b i l i t y Analyzba.pd & s i c Results

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s conducted by Coleman (Ref .35) and B.Ya.Zherebtsov showed

t h a t , f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades n 2 3, this system of equations can be
reduced t o a system of l i n e a r equations w i t h constant c o e f f i c i e n t s , i f we re­
p l a c e < , ( t ) by new v a r i a b l e s x,(%) and z , ( t > r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e coordinates of t h e
c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system. I n t h e case of a two-blade r o t o r ,
eqs.(l.l6) cannot be reduced t o equations w i t h constants. An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of
t h e s t a b i l i t y of motion of a two-blade r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base i s q u i t e com­
plex. Its p r e s e n t a t i o n can be found elsewhere (Ref .36). B.Ya .Zherebtsov studied
a l s o t h e case of a two-blade r o t o r on a n i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c support when t h e /257
casing of this support 'had two degrees of freedom - i n d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox- and
Oz-axes ( s e e Fig.3.2) - and t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e base i n both d i r e c t i o n s w a s
i d e n t i c a l . I n this e x c e p t i o n a l case, t h e problem i s e a s i l y reduced t o a system
of equations with constants.

Here, we w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s t a b i l i t y of a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades

n 2 3, which i s of t h e g r e a t e s t p r a c t i c a l value.
I n order t o o b t a i n t h e equations of motion w i t h constant c o e f f i c i e n t s , we
w i l l transform eqs.(l.l6) t o t h e new variables x ( t ) , V(t), C ( t ) r e l a t e d w i t h t h e
previous formulas:
" \

The new q u a n t i t i e s 7 and E, as i s apparent from e q s . ( l . l 2 ) , a r e equal with -

a n accuracy t o w i t h i n t h e constant f a c t o r p c / n - t o t h e coordinates of t h e c e n t e r
of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system i n a moving coordinate system x'Az' whose axes
are p a r a l l e l t o t h e Ox- and Oz-axes of t h e f i x e d system, w h i l e t h e o r i g i n of t h e
coordinates A coincides w i t h t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r (see Fig.3.2).

To d e r i v e t h e equations of motion i n t h e new variables, a l l equations of

motion of t h e blades [ t h e first equation of t h e system (1.16)l must first be
m u l t i p l i e d by cos Jlk followed by a d d i t i o n of t h e i r l e f t - and right-hand s i d e s
from k = 1 t o k = n; m u l t i p l i c a t i o n i s t h e n performed by s i n +k a g a i n followed
by a d d i t i o n . Here, it m u s t be noted that, f o r a r o t o r w i t h a number of blades
n 2 3, we have by v i r t u e of e q s . ( l . l 3 ) of Chapter 11:

281
 n

Furthermore,

The last formulas are obtained by successive d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of e q s . ( l . l 7 ) .

This r e s u l t s i n t h e following system of equations:

(1.20)

/258
Thus, we o b t a i n a homogeneous system of three l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l equations
of t h e second order w i t h constant c o e f f i c i e n t s r e l a t i v e t o three unknown func­
t i o n s x ( t ) , T ( t ) , and G ( t ) .

Now, t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s of t h e system can be c a r r i e d out i n t h e conven­

t i o n a l manner.

Let us p u t

x=x,,ehf;
q =T o e i f ;
C =<,eXt,

where xo, To, and G o a r e c e r t a i n constants.

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e expressions i n t o eqs.(1.20), we o b t a i n a system of t h r e e

a l g e b r a i c l i n e a r homogeneous equations f o r determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s xO, To,
and G o . Equating t h e determinant of this system t o zero, we o b t a i n t h e charac­
t e r i s t i c equation f o r determining h . On expanding this equation i n powers of h,
we o b t a i n
-6
1 f a~5+b~4+~h2feh+f=0, (1.21)

282
Here and below, we introduce t h e following notations:

(1.22)

a= A,;
-
b =Bo +Blw2;
c =c, +c& (1.23)
d =Do+ DlZ2 + D2G4;
e = +E$ + ~ ~ 0 4 ;

f =Fo+F,02+ F2&4.

283
 The dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s of damping & (of a n e l a s t i c base) and 5,
(blade) are d e t e r m h e d by means of

The dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t e i s obtained from t h e formula:

(1.26)

It i s easy t o e x p l a i n t h e mechanical meaning of this important c o e f f i c i e n t .

The q u a n t i t i e s S,,, and I,., can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

where pi = d k is the r a d i u s of i n e r t i a of t h e blade relative t o t h e drag

mb
hinge. Therefore, eq.( 1.26) can be r e w r i t t e n as

1 nm 2
e=­
2 =(:).
The quantity p c / p i depends upon t h e l a w of mass d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e blade
l e n g t h and, f o r d i f f e r e n t blades, l i e s w i t h i n t h e narrow limits of pc/pi
= 0.8 - 0.9.

Consequently, it can be assumed i n f i r s t approximation khat t h e quantity E

i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t i o of t h e t o t a l blade mass t o t h e t o t a l system mass
(mass of t h e e l a s t i c base casing p l u s mass of t h e blades) and t h u s can be c a l l e d
t h e relative r o t o r mass.

A d e t a i l e d analysis of t‘he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation shows t h a t only o s c i l l a ­

t o r y i n s t a b i l i t y i s p o s s i b l e i n t h e system w h i l e aperiodic i n s t a b i l i t y i s -0s­
s i b l e (Ref .35). The boundaries of t h e zones of o s c i l l a t o r y i n s t a b i l i t y (cor­
responding values of 5) can be found i n t h e f o l l o d n g manner: A t t h e boundary
of t h e zone of i n s t a b i l i t y t h e r e a r e p u r e l y harmonic (not damped and not in­
creasing) v i b r a t i o n s , which f u r n i s h e s a p u r e l y imaginary value of one of t h e
r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation (1.21)-. S e t t i n g , i n this equation, h = ip
(where i s a real quantity) and equating t o zero t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s ,
we o b t a i n t h e following equations: /260
(1.28)

284
 Since t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a, b, c, d, e, and f are known f u n c t i o n s of W [see
eqs.(1.23) and (1.&)1, we can regard eqs.(1.28) as a system of two equations
w i t h two unknowns p and W . The values of w
and 5, being t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e
system (1.28), represent t h e dimensionless angular v e l o c i t y ; ;of r o t o r r o t a t i o n
a t which harmonic v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system are p o s s i b l e , and t h e corresponding
dimensionless angular v i b r a t i o n frequency 5.

We can s o l v e t h e system (1.28) by making use of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e first

equation of t h e system (1.28) i s b i q u a d r a t i c w i t h r e s p e c t t o 5.
Prescribing d i f ­
f e r e n t values of E , we can determine from this equation followed by calcula­
t i o n of t h e value of a c e r t a i n quantity D(Z) e q u a l t o t h e left-hand s i d e of t h e
second equation of t h e system (1.28) at this value of p:

From t h e r e s u l t s of this c a l c u l a t i o n , a curve f o r t h e dependence of D on w

can be p l o t t e d . The values of a t which D vanishes w i l l a l s o be t h e boundaries
of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone. We can demonstrate that t h e values of at w, which D >
> 0, correspond t o steady motion of t h e system w h i l e t h e values of w, a t which
D < 0, correspond t o unsteady motion.
Calculation of t h e unstable range i s q u i t e laborious and, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l
purposes, can be performed only on d i g i t a l computers. Figures 3.3 - 3.12 show
c e r t a i n r e s u l t s of such c a l c u l a t i o n s c a r r i e d out by engineer V.G.Pashkin on t h e
d i g i t a l computer 11 Strela". The graphs permit determining t h e s t a b i l i t y bounda­
r i e s and t h e damping margins.

The s t a b i l i t y - of t h - - i s determined i n g e n e r a l by t h e following f i v e

e system
parameters: v, E , Pbo, no, nb. The graphs are p l o t t e d f o r t h e two most fre­
quently encountered values v o = 0.25 and v o = 0.3. Here, t h e value of pb0 = 0,
i.e., f o r a r o t o r w i t h drag hinge dampers, i s examined. E l a s t i c elements are
absent. The e f f e c t of e l a s t i c elements Will be discussed l a t e r i n t h e t e x t . For
each of t h e values of v o t h e r e i s a series of graphs corresponding t o d i f f e r e n t
values of E . The a b s c i s s a of each graph gives t h e values of t h e dimensionless
angular v e l o c i t y w corresponding t o t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone, while
t h e o r d i n a t e g i v e s t h e dimenionless c o e f f i c i e n t n b of blade damping a t which
t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone i s obtained. The graphs are constructed f o r d i f f e r e n t
values of t h e dimensionless damping c o e f f i c i e n t of a n e l a s t i c base.

A s shown by t h e s e graphs, t h e width of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone s u b s t a n t i a l l y

depends upon t h e danping c o e f f i c i e n t s nb and ii,. on a n i n c r e a s e i n damping E,
( a t f i x e d E,) t h e unstable range narrows and, a t a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l value ::-,
c o n t r a c t s i n t o a p o i n t . A t a value i i b > E$, t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone i s absent a t
a l l values of G. For example, a t E = 0.02, v, = 0.25 ( s e e Fig.3.3), i f no =
= 0.06, t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone c o n t r a c t s t o a p o i n t as soon as nb = 0.128; a t >nb
> 0.128, t h e system i s stable f o r any ; ;( i n this case, E ; = 0.128).
-
The r a t i o 6 . = -,
nb
whenever it i s g r e a t e r t h a n unity, i s conveniently 1266
%
-
nb
c a l l e d t h e damping margin.

The value of w a t which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone c o n t r a c t s t o a p o i n t i s c a l l e d

285
 c =O.OZ
v,-o.25

Steady
no t i o n

Fig .3 .4 Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

( e = 0.04; v,-, = 0.25).

286

.
. .. . . ..
 'b
0.25 ~~

t-0.06
v,=0.25
-
0.20

a 15 ~

Steady
mot i o n

0.10 ~

I
I .. .J - . . 1- I .- I I 1 I
D 1 2 3 I
Z

Fig .3.5 Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

(e = 0.06; v0 = 0.25).

I 1 I 1 I I I I
0 1 2 3 l
z

fig .3.6 Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

( c = 0.08; v 0 = 0.25).

287
 'b
0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.OS

I I 1
-
a 1 2 3 w

Fig .3.7 Graphs f o r Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

( e = 0.10; v o = 0 . 2 5 ) .

Fig.3.8 Graphs for DetermLning I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

(G = 0.02; v0 = 0.30).

288
 E-0.04
Vo-O.30
x Go= 0.02

Steady

I
I . I I 1 1
D 1 2 J B

Fig .3.9 Graphs f o r Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

(E = 0.04.; v 0 = 0.30).

E=D.OG
vo=0.30

ii,=o.oz
/ .0.04
~-

Steady
motion

E g . 3 .ID Graphs f o r Determiming I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

( E = 0.06; v 0 = 0.30).

289
 ‘b
430

E,= 0.02
0.25

D.20

0. f 5

0.05

3
-
O 1 UJ

Fig.3.11 Graphs for Determining I n s t a b i l i t y Boundaries

( C = 0.08; v0 = 0.30).

290
t h e c r i t i c a l value and can be c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e approximate formula:

Below, we w i l l give a p b s i c a l l y c l e a r e l u c i d a t i o n of this formula.

It should be noted that a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e q u s n t i t y i i b does not always lead

t o a n improvement of s t a b i l i t y . A t low values of no ( t h i s can be t r a c e d from
t h e graphs), a n i n c r e a s e i n i i b may even lead t o a s m a l l displacement of t h e
lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone toward smaller values of z. T h i s might
result i n t h e appearance of i n s t a b i l i t y a t values of w f o r which t h e motion was
s t e a d y a t smaller n b .

An i n c r e a s e i n damping & of t h e e l a s t i c base a t moderate values of E, a l s o

l e a d s t o a; hprovement of s t a b i l i t y ; however, a t very low values of E, a n in­
c r e a s e i n n, may lead t o a rightward shift of t h e upper boundary of t h e i n s t a ­
b i l i t y zone and t h u s t o a broadening of t h e zone i t s e l f .

An a n a l y s i s of t h e graphs permits t h e f o l l o w i n g important conclusion: When­

ever t h e q u a n t i t i e s E, and are of t h e same o r d e r of magnitude and d i f f e r t o
one or t h e o t h e r s i d e by not more t h a n a f a c t o r of 2 - 3, any i n c r e a s e i n damp­
i n g E, or E, w i l l r e s u l t only i n a n i n c r e a s e of s t a b i l i t y . A t such values of &
and no, t h e g r e a t e s t required damping occurs approximately a t

- -
w=w,, =-.1 -1 V"

For this q u i t e important p r a c t i c a l case, B.Ya.Zherebtsov's simple approx­

imate formula3$ can be derived, which shows t h a t t h e damping margin i s propor­
t i o n a l t o t h e product of t h e q u a n t i t i e s iib and c.
T h i s formula y i e l d s t h e
values of t h e product Ebnoa t which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone c o n t r a c t s t o a p o i n t :

his approximate formula holds only a t F b , = 0; i t s v a l i d i t y can be t r a c e d

from t h e graphs. A t Fbo # 0, we can use another approximate formula:

where t h e dimensionless q u a n t i t y A i s determined from t h e formula

>L
" T h i s formula w i l l be derived i n S e c t i o n 3 . Equation (1.31) will a l s o be con­
structed there.
 A=- 1+yo

YO+ 1/ 1+ Pi, (?)

Figure 3.13 shows t h e dependence of A on j?bo ? f o r v o = 0.25. The graph i l E ­
d i c a t e s t h a t t h e required damping can be s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduced by introducing & &
a n e l a s t i c element i n t h e drag hinge of t h e r o t o r . An hprovement i n s t a b i l i t y
of t h e system by a n i n c r e a s e i n eb
is illustrated also
A by t h e series of graphs i n F'ig.3.&.

However, when introducing a n e l a s t i c element i n t o

t h e design of t h e drag hinge o r when introducing so-
c a l l e d e l a s t i c i n t e r b l a d e couplings, i t i s necessary t o
r e c a l l t h a t t h e bending moment a c t i n g on t h e blade r o o t
i n f l i g h t i s generated both by t h e damper and by t h e
' *' '' 48
e l a s t i c element i n t h e drag hinge. Therefore, upon i n -
creasing t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e e l a s t i c element (on i n ­
creasing F b o ) t h e moment exerted on t h e blade by t h e
F'ig.3.13 Effect of e l a s t i c element ( o r i n t e r b l a d e couplings) w i l l i n c r e a s e
E l a s t i c i t y of t h e simultaneously w i t h a decrease i n t h e required moment
Drag Hinge on Re- produced by t h e damper. The optimal value of j?bo should
quired Damping. be considered that value a t which t h e bending moment
a c t i n g on t h e blade i n f l i g h t will be m i n i " , a t COR­
s t a n t damping margin w i t h r e s p e c t t o ground resonance.
T h i s optimal value of p b o depends on &, and should be s e p a r a t e l y s e l e c t e d f o r
each h e l i c o p t e r . For more d e t a i l s , see S e c t i o n 6.

3. Physical P i c t u r e of Rotor Behavior i n t h e Presence

of Ground Resonance

To e l u c i d a t e t h e p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e of r o t o r behavior i n t h e presence of
ground resonance, l e t us examine t h e following problem:

Let t h e casing of t h e e l a s t i c base (fig.3.1) execute harmonic v i b r a t i o n s /268

according t o t h e p r e s c r i b e d l a w :

x=xo sin pi, (1.33)

where xo and p are t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude and frequency o f t h e casing.

Let us examine forced blade v i b r a t i o n s during such movement of t h e casing.

The equation of motion (1.8) of t h e k-th r o t o r blade w i l l t a k e t h e following
form i n this case:

(1.34)
---
- p2xosin p t sin
1p.h

292
 F'ig.3.U. Graphs I l l u s t r a t i n g t h e Effect of E l a s t i c i t y
of t h e Drag Hinge (E = 0.04; v,, = 0.366).

Considering t h a t Q k = wt + -
237
n
k (k = 1, 2, ..., n) and representing t h e

right-hand s i d e of this equation as two harmonics, we can w r i t e t h e equation i n

t h e form

T h i s i s t h e conventional equation of forced v i b r a t i o n s of a system w i t h one

degree of freedom.

The right-hand s i d e of eq.(1.35) r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e which, i n

this case, c o n s i s t s of two components, each of which r e p r e s e n t s a load varying
-
by a simple harmonic l a w w i t h a frequency equal t o (LU p ) o r (LU+ p ) , respec­
t i v e l y . E&- v i r t u e of t h e l i n e a r i t y of eq.(1.35), t h e blade v i b r a t i o n s due t o
each of t h e s e loads can be examined independently. The f o r c e d (steady) vibra­
t i o n s of t h e blade will t a k e p l a c e i n obedience t o t h e law:

where s2, cp,l cpz, are c e r t a i n constants that are r e a d i l y determined from
eq.(1*35)
293
 Thus, during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing of t h e e l a s t i c base according t o a
simple harmonic l a w w i t h a frequency p, t h e r o t o r blades W i l l execute forced vi­
b r a t i o n s w i t h two combined frequencies (w + p ) and (w -
p ) depending upon t h e
angular v e l o c i t y u) of r o t o r r o t a t i o n .

The most i n t e n s e blade v i b r a t i o n s occur a t resonance, when one of t h e ex­

c i t a t i o n frequencies (p + w ) o r ( p -
w ) i s c l o s e t o t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n fre­

quency of t h e blade p b = , J p T .

L e t us first examine t h e case of resonance when

I n this case, t h e quantity i n eq.(1.36) w i l l be appreciably g r e a t e r t h a n

t h e quantity s2, s o t h a t we can neglect t h e second t e r m i n eq.( 1.36). With t h i s
. s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and w i t h t h e condition (1.37), t h e l a w of motion of t h e blade
w i l l have t h e form

where

Let us next c a l c u l a t e the f o r c e P, exerted on t h e casing of t h e e l a s t i c /269

base by t h e i n e r t i a of t h e r o t o r blades v i b r a t i n g i n this mode. For this, l e t
us f i n d t h e displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e blade system by means
of eq.(1.12). S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h e s e formulas eq.( 1.38) f o r S k and t a k i n g i n t o
account t h a t

and n

3sin n
k-1

easy transformations will y i e l d t h e following l a w of motion of t h e c e n t e r of

g r a v i t y of t h e blade system:

x , = x + ce Eo cos p t ;
2
1
e2
z,=CEosin pt.
l
If we t a k e i n t o account t h a t t h e coordinates of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y i n

294
t h e coordinate system x'Az' r e f e r r i n g to t h e casing are expressed by t h e formu­
las xi = x, -
x and z i = z, then t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e system of blades
i n this coordinate system moves i n accordance w i t h t h e law:

, I
zc=y e C E Osin pt.
I
Thus, a t resonance when t h e e q u a l i t y (1.37) i s s a t i s f i e d , t h e c e n t e r of
g r a v i t y of t h e blade system describes, i n t h e coordinate system f i x e d w i t h re­
s p e c t t o t h e casing, a c i r c l e of r a d i u s & p e s o . I n this case, t h e angular ve­
l o c i t y of i t s r o t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o this c i r c l e i s e q u a l t o t h e frequency p
of t h e given v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing.

..
bt us t h e n determine t h e f o r c e P, a c t i n g on t h e casing, by means of t h e
formula P, = -mbx,. Here, we o b t a i n t h e following expression:

p x = +nm,p2
[
x, +' 2 Eo
I cos p t .

S u b s t i t u t i n g here t h e expression for so from eq.( l.39), we o b t a i n

Thus, during v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing by t h e harmonic l a w [eq.(1.33)1 and

under t h e condition of blade resonance [eq.(1.37)1, t h e f o r c e exerted on t h e
casing by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades v a r i e s i n time by a harmonic law with t h e same
frequency p, w i t h a v i b r a t i o n phase n/2 (with r e s p e c t t o t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
casing) and i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e azimuth xo of t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e casing.

Equation (1.42) can a l s o be represented i n t h e form

On deriving t h e equation of t h e casing (1.2) under t h e e f f e c t of t h e

f o r c e P, given by such a n expression, we o b t a i n
m

Using our p r e v i o u s l y adopted notations, this equation can be w r i t t e n as

29 5
 If it were p o s s i b l e t o f i n d t h e parameters of t h e system at which t h e l a w
of motion of t h e casing [eq.(1.33)1 satisfies this equation, this would mean
that, a t such system parameters, p u r e l y harmonic motion (undamped v i b r a t i o n s )
w i t h a frequency p would be p o s s i b l e . S u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(1.33) i d 0 eq.(1.43), it
i s easy t o demonstrate that this i s obtained when t h e following two conditions
are s a t i s f i e d :

Furthermore, it should be r e c a l l e d that eq.(1.43) was derived from t h e con­

d i t i o n of blade resonance, i.e., under t h e c o n d i t i o n (1.37) which, t a k i n g po = p
i n t o account, can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

From this equation, one can determine t h e value of t h e c r i t i c a l angular ve­

l o c i t y w, of rotor r o t a t i o n at which undamped v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e system are pos­
siblee

Equation (1.44) g i v e s t h e value of t h e product k E b a t which undarped vi­

b r a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e ; then, as now i s obvious, this formula t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
c o n d i t i o n (1.45) w i l l y i e l d t h e approximate formula (1.31).

Thus, undamped v i b r a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e only at a value of w a t which two

resonances occur simultaneously: resonance of t h e blade [ c o n d i t i o n (1.45)1 a d
resonance of t h e e l a s t i c base p = po. A t such a value of w and on s a t i s f y i n g
t h e condition (I.&), t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base can
be sustained by a variable e x c i t i n g f o r c e generated by t h e v i b r a t i n g blades,
which here a r e i n a state of resonance.

A study of eq.(1.35) shows that blade resonance i s p o s s i b l e i n two cases,

namely: when one of t h e combined frequencies (p + w ) o r ( p - w ) coincides w i t h
t h e natural frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s , i.e.,

and when

O f t h e s e two cases, we examined only t h e first. For t h e second case, a l l

derived formulas are obtained i n t h e same manner except that, i n a l l expressions,
t h e quantity w i s replaced by t h e q u a n t i t y -w, i n c l u d i n g a l s o i n eqs.(l.&).
T h i s expression shows t h a t , a t p = Ip + wI ,
undamped v i b r a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e

296
 o d y if &,Eb < 0, meaning t h a t i n this case one of t h e q u a n t i t i e s & and &,
should be negative. Consequently ground resonance i s p o s s i b l e only a t Pb =
= 1.p -
w~ and impossible a t p b = [p + w1.

L e t us next peruse t h e resonance diagram ( F i g .3.15). T h i s diagram gives /271

t h e curve of t h e natural blade frequency Pb as a f u n c t i o n of t h e angular ve­
l o c i t y w, w i t h s u p e r p o s i t i o n of t h e s t r a i g h t
l i n e s p = po + w and p = Ipo - wI .
The diagram
i s p l o t t e d f o r t h e case of Pbo < p o .
A s we see from t h e diagram, t h e r e are two
values of w a t which t h e condition Pb = po . w I - I,
corresponding t o t h e p o i n t s A and B, i s satis­
f i e d . For t h e p o i n t A, we have t h e c o n d i t i o n
Pb = po -
w and, f o r t h e p o i n t B, t h e condi­
t i o n pb = w Po -
Thus, i n t h e first case w < po and i n t h e
Fig .3.15 Resonance Diagram. second, w > po. Turning t o t h e second condi­
t i o n of t h e system (l.,!+!+-), we see t h a t it can
be s a t i s f i e d ( a t p o s i t i v e values of and n,)
o n l y f o r w > p o . Consequently, of t h e two p o s s i b l e values of w at which blade
resonance i s p o s s i b l e , only one (w > p o ) can correspond t o undamped v i b r a t i o n s
of t h e system.

Let us determine this value of w and c a l l it ( w c r ) c r i t i c a l .

eq.(1.45) r e l a t i v e t o w and d i s c a r d i n g one of t h e obtained values
find

1 + l/vF+p:, (1 - v i )
ocr=Po - ~

1- v i

At Fb, = 0 we o b t a i n t h e formula

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e value of w,, from eq.(l.46) i n t o t h e second c o n d i t i o n of

t h e system (1.&), we f i n d

where

297 '

I
 These formulas e x a c t l y coincide w i t h t h e approximate equations (1.31) and
(1.32)
The reasonings set f o r t h here, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s given

i n S e c t i o n 2, permit t o state:
--
The c o n d i t i o n q,n, >
c(1- VO) * always pro­
8 VO
v i d e s s t a b i l i t y a t t h e c r i t i c a l angular v e l o c i t y of r o t o r r o t a t i o n determined by
eq.(1.46). However, as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e graphs i n Figs.3.3 t o
3.12, this condition holds only when t h e q u a n t i t i e s nb and & are of t h e same
o r d e r of magnitude. T h i s means t h a t ensurance of s t a b i l i t y a t w = wcr does not
d e f i n i t e l y ensure s t a b i l i t y a t any w.

4. Rotor on a n I s o t r o p i c E - b s t i c Ease

The t h e o r y of s t a b i l i t y of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base presented i n this

Section holds only i f t h e number of r o t o r blades n 2 3 and i f t h e e l a s t i c base
has only one degree of freedom, namely motion along t h e Ox-axis (Fig.3.2). /272

However, a n analogous s t a b i l i t y t h e o r y can be constructed a l s o f o r t h e more

g e n e r a l case where t h e e l a s t i c base has two degrees of freedom: displacement
along t h e axes O x and 02. A s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s f o r this more complex system i s
r a t h e r cumbersome. On t h e o t h e r hand, i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n one can almost
always use t h e formulas f o r t h e case of a n e l a s t i c base w i t h one degree of free­
dom. Thus, this can be done whenever t h e natural l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l vibra­
t i o n frequencies of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing g e a r (see Sect.5) are
far apart.

It i s of i n t e r e s t t o give a f e w simple r e s u l t s , obtained i n t h e s t a b i l i t y

t h e o r y f o r a r o t o r on an e l a s t i c support w i t h two degrees of freedom i n t h e
s p e c i a l case of a so-called i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c support when t h e s t i f f n e s s and
damping of t h e e l a s t i c attachment of t h e casing t o t h e base are i d e n t i c a l i n both
d i r e c t i o n s (Ox and O z ) . I n this case, t h e e l a s t i c and damping p r o p e r t i e s of t h e
base are i d e n t i c a l i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s p a r a l l e l t o t h e plane XOZ. Therefore, such
a base o r support i s c a l l e d i s o t r o p i c .

L e t t h e s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e i s o t r o p i c base, i d e n t i c a l i n d i r e c t i o n s

of t h e Ox- and Oz-axes, be characterized r e s p e c t i v e l y by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c and
k, so t h a t t h e f o r c e s P, and P, applied t o t h e base are r e l a t e d with t h e cor­
responding displacements x and z by t h e formulas
dx

p = - C Z - I C - .dz J
dt

It i s found t h a t , i n this case, t h e r e can a l s o be i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e rot0.r

on a n e l a s t i c base. Here t h e unstable range i s c l o s e t o t h e same value of w =
= w, as before:

29 8
 1 + 1/ vi +X0(1-4) (1.49)
Wcr =Po 1- v i

At Fbo = 0, just as before, we o b t a i n a simpler formula:

-- -
-- 1- Vo
.
(1.50)

-
I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t i e s po, Pb,, and v o are determined, as usual, by
t h e formulas:

Analogous formulas are obtained f o r determining t h e required damping, but

t h e required damping i n this case i s g r e a t e r by a f a c t o r of 2.

The formula f o r t h e required damping a t which t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone con- /273

t r a c t s t o a p o i n t , has t h e form

The q u a n t i t i e s E and A are determined, as before, by eqs.(1.26) and (1.32).

S e c t i o n 2. $ t e r a l Vibrations of a Single-Rotor Helicopter

1. __
Preliminary Comments

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing gear we
can regard t h e f u s e l a g e as a p e r f e c t l y s o l i d body a t t a c h e d t o a s t a t i o n a r y base
(ground) by means of a system of e l a s t i c elements.

The c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r , a s Will be shown below,

can be reduced t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base, examined i n
S e c t i o n 1. The i n i t i a l d a t a for such a c a l c u l a t i o n ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
e l a s t i c base) are derived from a preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s
of a r i g i d f u s e l a g e on an e l a s t i c landing gear.

A h e l i c o p t e r regarded as a s o l i d body on a n e l a s t i c landing gear has six

299
degrees of freedom. However, s i n c e t h e fuselage, as a r u l e , has a plane of sym­
m e t r y , t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and lateral n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be
examined independently of each o t h e r .

For a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a n elongated fuselage, t h e lateral vi­

b r a t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y c a l c u l a t e d from t h e viewpoint of ground resonance. I n
t h e presence of l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s , t h e damping margin f o r eliminating
ground resonance i s appreciably g r e a t e r . Therefore, t o c a l c u l a t e ground reso­
nance of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r it s u f f i c e s t o examine only l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s
( s e e a l s o s e c t .5).

When examining t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s , we must t a k e i n t o account three de­

g r e e s of freedom:
1) l a t e r a l displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ;
2) r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s ( r o l l i n g ) ;
3) r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s (yawing).
Generally speaking, t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s corresponding t o t h e s e three
degrees of freedom cannot be regarded as independent. For exanple, on l a t e r a l
displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of a h e l i c o p t e r , f o r c e s are generated t h a t
cause r o l l i n g , e t c .

However, i n a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r f o r which t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f u s e l a g e
dimensions are r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e i n comparison w i t h i t s l a t e r a l dimensions ( t h i s
need not be �he case, e.g., f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of c o a x i a l and side-by-side con­
f i g u r a t i o n s ) , t h e yawing v i b r a t i o n s are weakly r e l a t e d w i t h l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s
of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and w i t h i t s r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . Therefore,
i n f i r s t appro.dmation, t h e yawing v i b r a t i o n s f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r can
be regarded as independent. Furthermore, during yawing v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i ­
copter t h e displacements of t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r i n t h e plane of r o t a t i o n are
r e l a t i v e l y small ( i n comparison w i t h l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s ) so t h a t , as a r u l e ,
yawing v i b r a t i o n s f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r are not dangerous s o far as
ground resonance i s concerned. A s we Will s e e l a t e r (Sect.S), such v i b r a t i o n s
are dangerous f o r h e l i c o p t e r s of fore-and-aft and side-by-side configurations.
Thus, i n studying t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s of a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r it i s
s u f f i c i e n t , i n first approximation, t o consider t h e f u s e l a g e as a body w i t h two
degrees of freedom:
1) lateral displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ;
2) r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axk ( r o l l i n g ) .

With such s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , t h e problem of n a t u r a l l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of ,&&

a h e l i c o p t e r can be reduced t o t h e problem of natural v i b r a t i o n s of a two-dimen­
s i o n a l s o l i d body e l a s t i c a l l y attached i n i t s own p l a n e (Fig.3.16).

2. L a t e r a l and Angular S t i f f n e s s of k n d i r w Gear.

F l e x u r a l Center

Let a r i g i d body A, simulating a h e l i c o p t e r fuselage, be mounted t o a sta­

t i o n a r y base by means of a system of s p r i n g s (Fig.3.16). We s e l e c t a f i x e d co­
o r d i n a t e system yc,z, d i r e c t i n g t h e a x i s coy along t h e a x i s of spmetry of t h e
300
body and t h e a x i s coz along t h e a x i s of t h e h o r i z o n t a l s p r i n g s c,l.

If, t o t h e body A, a f o r c e P, p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s coz a t a d i s t a n c e y from

t h e p o i n t co i s applied, t h e n t h e deformations of t h e s p r i n g s Will cause t h e
body A t o be displaced i n i t s own p l a n e s o that i t s a x i s of synadetry W i l l come
t o occupy a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n CAY'.
Let us denote by cp t h e angle of rota­
t i o n of t h e a x i s of symmetry of t h e
body ( a n g l e of roll) and by z t h e dis­
placement of t h e p o i n t c o (segment
COCA)

Let t h e s p r i n g s have l i n e a r char­

a c t e r i s t i c s . Then, as i s known, a
p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e i s al­
ways found on t h e a x i s coy (or a value
of y ) a t which t h e angular displace­
ment cp of t h e body W i l l be equal t o
zero, meaning t h a t , upon a p p l i c a t i o n
of t h e f o r c e P, a t this p o i n t , t h e
body Will undergo p u r e l y forward d i s ­
placement (cp = 0 ) . W e W i l l c a l l such
a p o i n t t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r of t h e
shock absorber system.
F i g .3 .lh Diagram of E l a s t i c Mount­
i n g of Helicopter. If, t o t h e body A, a couple With
a moment M i s applied, t h e n t h e body
W i l l undergo only angular displace-
ment - t u r n i n g about t h e flexural c e n t e r .

It i s easy t o see that, f o r t h e simplest shock absorber system, as it i s

shown i n Fig.3.16, t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y W i l l be l o c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t c 0 . The
p o s i t i o n of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e shock absorber system i s conveniently
characterized by t h e magnitude of t h e d i s t a n c e e from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c of
t h e body t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c 0 .

If, t o t h e body, a f o r c e P, d i r e c t e d along t h e a x i s of symmetry coy i s ap­

p l i e d , t h e n t h e body W i l l undergo only forward displacement y along t h e a x i s coy.
Since t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l l e l a s t i c elements of a shock absorber system are
l i n e a r , t h e f o r c e s P,, P, and t h e moment M of t h e couple are l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d
w i t h t h e corresponding displacements y, z, and cp of t h e body A.

Let this r e l a t i o n be expressed by t h e formulas:

We Will c a l l t h e q u a n t i t i e s c y , c,, and cy, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s

of v e r t i c a l , lateral, and angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber system.
 The e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e shock absorber l e g are f u l l y determined by
four parameters: p o s i t i o n of t h e flexural c e n t e r (e) and c o e f f i c i e n t s of stiff­
ness c y , c,, and ccp-

For t h e simplest shock absorber system depicted i n Fig.3.16, t h e coef- /275

f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock a b s o r p t i o n can be determined by means of t h e
formulas :

where
c: and c i = c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s of t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l
springs;
2a = d i s t a n c e between t h e axes of t h e v e r t i c a l springs (wheel
track).

n)

Fig .3 .l7 Various Landing Gear Configurations.

a - Pyramidal; b - With vertical struts.

The types of h e l i c o p t e r landing g e a r s are mainly of two v a r i a n t s :

1) pyramidal landing gear;
2) landing g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s .

The e l a s t i c shock a.bsorber systems corresponding t o t h e s e two types of land­

i n g g e a r are depicted i n Fig.3.17, a and b.

The pneumatic t i r e s i n this scheme can be considered p e r f e c t l y r i g i d , aLld

t h e i r e l a s t i c i t y can be simulated by s p e c i a l s p r i n g s w i t h s t i f f n e s s e s cpy” and

302

.. ... .._ I
cPZn, equal, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o t h e v e r t i c a l and lateral s t i f f n e s s of t h e pneumatic
tire.

The c o e f f i c i e n t of v e r t i c a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e can be determined from

t h e diagram of s t a t i c t i r e compression, which i s always available i n t h e c a t a l o g
of wheels and r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t h e magnitude of t h e f o r c e compressing t h e
t i r e toward t h e r i m s u r f a c e t o t h e magnitude of t h e corresponding t i r e compres­
sion. The l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e , i f t h e r e are no d a t a a v a i l a b l e , can
a l s o be determined experimentally. The magnitude of l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e
t i r e must a l s o be k n m f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s of shinany. Therefore, i f shimmy has
been c a l c u l a t e d f o r a given wheel, t h e magnitude of t h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s w i l l be
known. For a n approximate determination of l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of a t i r e we can
a l s o use Table 3.1.

Type of Pneumatic l i n e a r e l a s t i c element, and i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s

Tire cp/cr determined by t h e diagram of s t a t i c compression
of t h e s t r u t which g i v e s t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g on
t h e s t r u t as a f u n c t i o n of t h e s t r o k e s of t h e
Arched 0.7-0.9 strut.
Semi-balloon 0.4-0.64
I n c a l c u l a t i n g small v i b r a t i o n s , t h e s t r u t
High -p r e s s u re 0.3-0.4 can be replaced by a n equivalent l i n e a r e l a s t i c

where s S t i s t h e standing compression of t h e shock absorber.

I n a landing gear system w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s (Fig.3.17,b) t h e flexural

c e n t e r of shock absorption i s always s i t u a t e d a t t h e p o i n t c o on t h e ground sur­
face. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s of such a landing gear a r e determined by
eqs.(2.4) where c i and c! are equal, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o

For a pyramidal landing gear ( Fig .3 4.1,a ) , t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r i s always

above t h e ground surface, and i t s p o s i t i o n m u s t be c a l c u l a t e d by s p e c i a l formu­
las which we W i l l give below.
The pyramidal landing g e a r i s a s p e c i a l v e r s i o n of a more co l e x landing
g e a r system developed by t h e B r i t i s h B r i s t o l Aeroplane Co. ( R e f . 3 3 and depicted

303
 (schematically) i n Fig.3.18. T h i s landing g e a r system d i f f e r s from t h e pyrami­
d a l landing gear by t h e presence of a rocker AB and a s p e c i a l h o r i z o n t a l s p r i n g
of s t i f f n e s s c a p . I n this system, t h e height of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f l e x u r a l
c e n t e r co (i.e., t h e q u a n t i t y e) can be varied by s e l e c t i n g a c e r t a i n s p r i n g con­
s t a n t c a p . I n p a r t i c u l a r , by choosing a c e r t a i n value of c S p it i s p o s s i b l e t o
o b t a i n a p o s i t i o n a t which t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r of t h e shock absorber system co­
i n c i d e s w i t h t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . I n this case, as will be
s e e n l a t e r , t h e r e i s no coupling between t h e r o l l i n g v i b r a t i o n s and t h e l a t e r a l
v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , which permits obtaining good h e l i c o p t e r character­
i s t i c s w i t h respect t o ground resonance ( s e e Sect .4, Subsect. 3).

For t h e landing g e a r system dep5cted.i.n Fig.3.18, we can write t h e follow­

i n g formulas which can be derived e a s i l y by t h e u s u a l methods of s t r u c t u r a l
mechanics :
1
cy =

(Gp)
1
+ (5)
1
(w) ’ +

m
(2.10)

where
= d i s t a n c e between ground s u r f a c e and t h e p o i n t F of i n t e r s e c t i o n of
t h e axes of t h e shock s t r u t s ( s e e Fig.3.18);
1 = d i s t a n c e between shock absorber a x i s and t h e p o i n t A;
1, = d i s t a n c e between t h e poin5s F and A;
1, = d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t F and h e l i c o p t e r c e n t e r of g r a v i t y .

A s a s p e c i a l case, t h e derived formulas c o n t a i n t h e formulas f o r calcu­

l a t i n g t h e pyramidal landing gear ( s e e Fig.3.17,a). To o b t a i n formulas of t h e
pyramidal landing gear, i t i s necessary t o s e t c a p = i n e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 7and
) (2.8).

3. Natural L a t e r a l Vibrations of a Helicopter

Let us now t u r n t o Fig.3.16. I n studying t h e l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s , l e t us
use, f o r t h e body A, two degrees of freedom corresponding t o t h e c o o r d i w t e s cp
and z . We w i l l impose an a d d i t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n on t h e motion of t h e body A: We
will s t i p u l a t e that t h e p o i n t 0 , belonging t d t h e body A a t a d i s t a n c e ak from
t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e body remains s t a t i o n a r y . Then, t h e body A w i l l have
one degree of freedom - r o t a t i o n about t h e p o i n t 0,. The equation of natural v i ­
b r a t i o n s of t h e body A, a t t a c h e d i n this manner, w i l l have t h e form

(2.11)
where
I,, = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e body r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t 0,:

+
l o k =f , ma:; (2.12)

I, = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e body r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ;
m = m a s s of t h e body.
The c o e f f i c i e n t cok r e p r e s e n t s
t h e angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock
absorber system upon r o t a t i o n of /278
t h e body A r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o i n t 0,.
The quantity cok i s r e a d i l y deter­
mined i f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f l e x ­
u r a l c e n t e r c o of t h e shock ab­
s o r b e r a n d i t s angular s t i f f n e s s c c p
and l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s c, are
known.

Upon r o t a t i o n of t h e body
through a n angle cp r e l a t i v e t o t h e
p o i n t o k , t h e flexural c e n t e r i s
displaced by t h e amount

z=cp (ah-e) . (2.13)

I n this case, a f o r c e P, = c,z
d i r e c t e d t o t h e l e f t and a couple
of moment M = cYcp d i r e c t e d counter-
Fig.3.U Landing Gear Scheme of t h e clockwise w i l l be applied t o t h e
Eit-istol 192 Helicopter. body a t t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r . The
moment of t h e s e f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o
the point 0, i s

M=P, (Uk- e>+C,~=[[C,$C,(Ok-e!'l(p.

Hence, we o b t a i n t h e f o l b w i n g formula f o r t h e angular s t i f f n e s s c o k :

The natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e body w i t h t h e f i x e d p o i n t 0, i s

C
*&
P k = r %

Ok

or
 During v i b r a t i o n s of t h e system a t t h e p o i n t o k , a r e a c t i o n f o r c e R arises
which w i l l depend on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p o i n t 0, If we could s e l e c t a p o i n t
of attachment 0, ( a value of a k ) f o r which R = 0, this would mean t h a t such a
p o i n t 0, i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n node of a free system w i t h a movable p o i n t o k ,
and t h e corresponding frequency Pk i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of a f r e e
system.
The r e a c t i o n f o r c e R i s r e a d i l y determined: During v i b r a t i o n , t h e body A
i s loaded by t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e F f i a p p E e d a t t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and p a r a l l e l
t o t h e a x i s O,
8"= -mi, = - m"y a k 7

and a l s o by t h e couple of i n e r t i a f o r c e s . The f o r c e s exerted by t h e shock ab­

s o r p t i o n on t h e body are a l s o reduced t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e
P, = c,z = cc,p (+-e)

and t o t h e couple. Therefore, p r o j e c t i n g a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e body onto t h e

axis coz, we o b t a i n

If

then
R=[cz (a, - e) -mpia,] yoCOS pkt.

Equating this expression t o zero yields

cz (ak- e) - mpia,= 0.

From this, we o b t a i n t h e following formula r e l a t i n g t h e natural frequency /279

of t h e system w i t h t h e po.sition a, of t h e vibration.node:

(z)2
a, = e (2.16)
1- '
where

Excluding t h e q u a n t i t y pk from eqs.(2.15) and (2.16), we o b t a i n a quadratic

e m a t i o n f o r determining t h e quantity T h i s quadratic equation always has
two r e a l r o o t s a l and a 2 , which correspond t o t h e two natural v i b r a t i o n over­
t o n e s of t h e system. For each overtone, we o b t a i n a c e r t a i n n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n
frequency pk which, a t a known a k , can be determined from eqs.( 2.16) o r (2.15).

To determine t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies p k and t h e corresponding

306
 Fig.3.19 Graphs for Determining Fig.3.20 Graphs for Determining
t h e Natural Helicopter t h e P o s i t i o n of Vibration
Frequencies. Nodes.

"I I
I
p r - 215cyc/min

I
ItY V i b r a t i o n node
tone

J of f i r s t o v e r t o n e

Fig.3.21 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Vibration Modes of t h e Fig.3.22 Diagram of

First and Second Overtones. a Linear E l a s t i c Ele­
ment w i t h Damping.

307
 quarrtities ak, i t i s converLent t o reduce a l l formulas t o a dimensionless form,
introducing t h e n o t a t i o n s :
-
a , = eak .
9
( 2 3 )

The f i n a l formulas f o r determining a, (k = 1, 2) and Pk ( k = 1, 2) can be

w r i t t e n , i n such notations, i n t h e form

(2.22)
where
(2.23)

>,=I/ 1 -=;1
=k
(at R = l , 2). (2.24)

For convenience of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n nodes

of t h e f i r s t and second harmonics and t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n frequencies,
Figs.3.19 and 3.20 show graphs c a l c u l a t e d by means of eqs.(2.22), (2.23), and
(2.24)
The lower of t h e frequencies p1 and pz Will be c a l l e d t h e frequency of t h e
first v i b r a t i o n overtone w h i l e t h e higher frequency W i l l be t h a t of t h e second
overtone. The v i b r a t i o n node of t h e f i r s t overtone i s always below t h e c e n t e r
(al
of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r > 0 ) w h i l e t h e v i b r a t i o n node of t h e second
overtone i s always above t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y (a, < 0 ) .

Figure 3.21 shows t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v i b r a t i o n modes of t h e first and second

harmonics for a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a pyramidal landing gear.

4. Determination of D a m p i n g C o e f f i c i e n t s

The damping of v i b r a t i o n s ( i .e. , absorption of energy .during.v i b r a t i o n s ) i s

g e n e r a l l y small and can be neglected i n determinations of t h e n a t u r a l frequencies
and p o s i t i o n s of t h e nodes ( a s was done i n Subsect .3).

Damping of v i b r a t i o n s t a k e s p l a c e mainly i n t h e shock s t r u t s of t h e land- /281

i n g gear. Damping i n pneumatic t i r e s can be disregarded i n first approximation.

L e t us examine t h e system depicted i n Fig.3.Z. kt c e r t a i n l i n e a r e l a s t i c

elements w i t h damping be i n s t a l l e d i n p l a c e of t h e s p r i n g s . Such a n element i s
schematically shown i n Fig.3.22. Let t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g on this element and i t s
308
displacement s ( s t r o k e of t h e element) be connected by t h e r e l a t i o n

We w i l l c a l l t h e q u a n t i t i e s c and k, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of
s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e e l a s t i c element.

We w i l l denote t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and damping of t h e e l a s t i c

elements i n t h e system shown i n Fig.3.16 by c l , c:, k:, and k:, respectively?'.
The equation of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e body A r e l a t i v e t o t h e node can be w r i t t e n
analogously t o e q . ( 2 . l l ) i n t h e form

f Ok(P -tko,b+ CORY =0, (2.26)

where t h e q u a n t i t i e s I,, and c,, are determined from eqs.(2.12) and ( 2 . a ) and
t h e q u a n t i t y k o k , by t h e formula

+
ko, =2Rka2 2k: (ak- e)2. (2.27)

We w i l l c a l l this q u a n t i t y t h e angular c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e shock

absorber system upon r o t a t i o n of t h e body r e l a t i v e t o t h e v i b r a t i o n node 0,.

Equation (2.26) can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

Y 4- 2 4 4 +PtY =0 , (2.28)

where Pk ( k = 1, 2) i s t h e frequency of t h e k-th v i b r a t i o n overtone, while t h e

damping c o e f f i c i e n t nk i s determined by t h e formula

The natural v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be de­

s c r i b e d approximately by t h e l a w :

where
cpo = i n i t i a l angle of d e f l e c t i o n ;
4 = phase angle.

The natural v i b r a t i o n frequency Pk can be t a k e n as approximately equal t o

t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e k-th overtone, c a l c u l a t e d without con-

'' The manner of determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k: and k: W i l l be shown i n Subsec­

t i o n 5 of this Section, and a l s o i n Subsections 1 and 2 of Section 3.

309
 s i d e r a t i o n of danqsing .
In o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e q u a n t i t i e s k: and k,’ f o r a s p e c i f i c landing gear
system (see F’ig.3.17,a and b) it i s necessary t o determine f i r s t t h e e f f e c t of
t h e system formed by t h e shock s t r u t and t h e t i r e .

5 Combined Acti-0~n-G t h e .s;Vs&em Shock. Strut-P.ne:wa$i.c. T i r e

~

We w i l l d i s c u s s here a landing gear system w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s (see

F’ig.3.17,b). The t i r e - o l e o combination r e p r e s e n t s two s p r i n g s w i t h s t i f f n e s s e s
c B a 8and cYpn connected i n sequence.

Let us examine t h e work done by such a system f o r t h e case i n which t h e 1282

shock absorber has damping. Such a system i s shown i n Fig.3.23. Let t h e shock
absorber have a l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c analogous t o eq.( 2.25) :

After d e r i v i n g t h e equations of motion of t h e t i r e - o l e o system, it i s easy

t o show t h a t , w i t h t h e given harmonic l a w of
v a r i a t i o n of i t s t o t a l s t r o k e s w i t h a fre­
quency p, t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g on t h e shock ab­
s o r o e r i s expressed by t h e formula

ds
P=ceps+keq ’ (2.32)

Fig.3.23 Schematic Diagram of where s e s and k,, are t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

Tire-Oleo System. some e p v a l e n t l y l i n e a r shock absorber of
t h e conventional t y p e (Fig.3.22) and can be
determined by means of t h e formulas :

Thus, i n v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s a landing gear system w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s (see

Fig.3.17,b) can be replaced by t h e system shown i n F’ig.3.16, i n which t h e char­
a c t e r i s t i c s of e l a s t i c i t y and damping of v e r t i c a l s p r i n g s are s e l e c t e d accord­
i n g t o eqs.(2.33) and (2.34). A t k B e 8= 0, eq.(2.33) y i e l d s a value of c,
equal t o t h e value of c i obtained by t h e second equation of t h e system (2.8).
Consequently, i n t h e presence of damping, eq.(2.6) - g e n e r a l l y speaking - does
not hold. However, f o r a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n of natural frequencies we can
use eq. (2.6) f o r determining c:, s i n c e t h e value of c,, determined by eq.( 2.33)
i s c l o s e t o t h e value of c i found from eq.(2.6). After determining t h e natural
frequency p, t h e value of c: can be r e f i n e d by eq.(2.33), followed by r e f i n e ­
ment of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e frequency p.

For a n exact c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e natural frequencies we can use t h e method

of successive approAmations ( i n p r a c t i c e , t h e above c o r r e c t i o n equivalent t o
t h e first approximation i s s u f f i c i e n t ) or else t h e following method: Prescrib­
i n g t h e values of c: i n t h e i n t e r v a l

w e f i n d t h e natural frequencies and then, from eq.(2.33), we f i n d f o r t h e given

ce 9 = c i t h e corresponding value of ka. A s a r e s u l t of this c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e
graph of t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system can be p l o t t e d as a
f u n c t i o n of k s , a . Calculations show t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies and
modes depend l i t t l e on t h e q u a n t i t y ka. a .
Therefore, i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n
it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o c a r r y out t h e above-described approximate c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h a
subsequent s i n g l e refinement of t h e frequencies.

To c a l c u l a t e t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t n, [eq.(2.29)] we can set, neglect- /283

i n g t h e t i r e damping, i n eqs.(2.27):

For a pyramidal landing gear, t h e damping of v i b r a t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d

approximately by t h e same method; however, i n c a l c u l a t i n g k e q , t h e q u a n t i t i e s
c a s * and k a e a i n eq.(2.34) must be s u b s t i t u t e d
by t h e values of t h e so-called s t i f f n e s s and
damping of t h e shock absorber reduced t o t h e
t i r e ci:: and k;::, determined by means of t h e
formulas :

Fig .3 .& Equivalent Damping

as a Function of Shock where 1 i s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e shock ab-
Absorber Damping. s o r b e r a x i s a n d t h e p o i n t A ( s e e Figs.3.18 and
3.17,a) of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e axes of t h e
lower i n c l i n e d s t r u t s .

Let us d i s c u s s i n more d e t a i l t h e dependence of t h e equivalent damping co­

.
e f f i c i e n t ke, of t h e t i r e - o l e o system on t h e q u a n t i t y ka. a Figure 3 .& g i v e s
t h e graph of this dependence. A s i n d i c a t e d t h e r e , t h e q u a n t i t y k C Q i n c r e a s e s
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g kB.a only up t o a c e r t a i n value ks. a = k",: a t w h c h mazhum
damping kEix i s a t t a i n e d . Upon f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n ks. a , t h e damping of t h e
t i r e - o l e o system decreases.
 From eq.( 2.34) it i s easy t o o b t a i n t h e expression f o r t h e optimal value
of k: :

(2.36)

For this value of k,.,, ) (2.34) g i v e t h e corresponding values

e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 3 3and
of c : ~ and k;agx :

We s e e from t h e last formula that t h e maximum o b t a i n a b l e value of k t t x i s

g r e a t e r t h e smaller t h e r a t i o -and t h e l a r g e r cYpn.

Cs. a
Therefore, from t h e
cxn
viewpoint of damping of l a t e r a l h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s , t h e t i r e should be as
r i g i d as p o s s i b l e and t h e shock absorber should be as l i t t l e r i g i d as p o s s i b l e .
A t improper s e l e c t i o n of t h e landing gear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e
C
s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber 8.8) it may happen t h a t ground resonance i s
Y
CP n
impossible t o eliminate no matter how f a r t h e shock absorber damping i s in­
creased.

6 . Reduction of t h e Problem t o Calculation of a Rotor

on a n E l a s t i c Base

After c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground,
i.e., a f t e r determining frequencies, p o s i t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n nodes, and damp­
i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s for both natural v i b r a t i o n overtones, i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o
c a l c u l a t e ground resonance i n f i r s t approximation by reducing t h e problem t o
c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base.

It would be p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y out a n exact c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance

by deriving t h e equations of motion of t h e r o t o r blades and of t h e h e l i c o p t e r
body i n a manner similar t o that used i n S e c t i o n 1 f o r a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c
base. Then, t h e order of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation would be higher t h e more
degrees of freedom of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on an e l a s t i c landing g e a r are t a k e n i n t o
account. However it would be necessary i n each case t o perform cumbersome cal­
culations.

An approximate c a l c u l a t i o n based on reducing t h e problem t o a rotor on a

f l e x i b l e support p e r r d t s using e s t a b l i s h e d d a t a obtained for a r o t o r on a n elas­

31 2
t i c base. The accuracy of such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s adequate f o r p r a c t i c a l applica­
tion.

The essence of such a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n i s as follows: An i n d i v i d u a l

c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance i s c a r r i e d out f o r each natural v i b r a t i o n har­
monic of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground; i n this, t h e h e l i c o p t e r casing i s C O ~
s i d e r e d as a body with one degree of freedom -
r o t a t i o n about t h e corresponding
v i b r a t i o n node.

The equation of motion of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a fixed v i b r a t i o n node has t h e

form

The right-hand s i d e of this equation r e p r e s e n t s t h e moment of t h e f o r c e P

due t o t h e v i b r a t i n g r o t o r blades r e l a t i v e t o t h e v i b r a t i o n node of t h e harmonic
i n question. The q u a n t i t y h i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e plane of t h e r o t o r t o t h e
c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

We t h e n introduce a new variable x = rp(h + a ) representing t h e degree of

displacement of t h e r o t o r c e n t e r . Equation (2.39r can now be r e w r i t t e n i n a
form analogous t o t h e equation of motion [eq.(1.2)1 of a n e l a s t i c base:

where t h e q u a n t i t i e s G q , kEq, c e q represent t h e mass, damping, and s t i f f n e s s of

t h e equivalent e l a s t i c base and are c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e formulas:

Thus, t h e problem reduces t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n equivalent e l a s t i c

base whose c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s determined from eqs.(2.41), (2.42), and (2.43).
It i s easy t o demonstrate that, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance by means
of t h e formulas given i n Section 1, we require only three c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
e l a s t i c base m, = me q , no = n k [see eq.(2.8)1, and p, = Pk, which are obtained
from c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e natural l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e helicopter.

Thus, f o r each n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n overtone of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c /285

landing gear, we c a r r y out a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance by
means of t h e formulas derived f o r a r o t o r on a flexible support (Sect .1) I n
such a c a l c u l a t i o n , we can determine t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones and

313
t h e magnitudes of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e blade and landing gear, which
are required f o r e l i m i n a t i n g instabili-Ly w i t h r e s p e c t t o each v i b r a t i o n over­
tone.

7 Analysis of t h e- R e-s u l t s off'Croqd-Re.sonance- Cac.l&

$t.sg-

The r e s u l t s of ground resonance c a l c u l a t i o n s are conveniently represented

as a diagram of s a f e rpm. Figure 3.25 shows such a diagram f o r t h e Mi-& heli­
copter. The a b s c i s s a g i v e s t h e r o t o r rpm w h i l e t h e o r d i n a t e shows t h e r o t o r
t h r u s t T.

The v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e h e l i c o p t e r o n t h e ground are c a l c u l a t e d i n

two v a r i a n t s :
1) shock s t r u t s of t h e landing gear o p e r a t i v e ;
2) shock s t r u t s i n o p e r a t i v e .

Tk9

BO00

6000

4000

2000

Fig .3.25 Diagram of Safe Revolutions f o r t h e M i - 4

Helicopter.
w1 - Frequency of f i r s t v i b r a t i o n overtone w i t h s t r u t s inopera­
t i v e ; w, - Frequency of second v i b r a t i o n overtone w i t h s t r u t s
-
i n o p e r a t i v e ; v$- and w z Frequency of first and second overtones
with s t r u t s o p e r a t i v e .

T h i s must be done s i n c e t h e shock s t r u t s of t h e landing g e a r operate only

when t h e compressive f o r c e of t h e s t r u t i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e so-called f o r c e of
p r e t i g h t e n i n g of t h e shock absorber. Therefore, a t a c e r t a i n ( c r i t i c a l ) value
of t h r u s t T = T,, of t h e r o t o r , t h e f o r c e compressing t h e s t r u t becomes less t h a n
t h e f o r c e of p r e t i g h t e n i n g of t h e shock absorber and t h e s t r u t ceases t o operate.
A t T > T,,, t h e shock absorber s t r u t s behave as r i g i d rods, and t h e h e l i c o p t e r
i s a b l e t o rock only as a consequence of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e t i r e s which are vir­
t u a l l y devoid of damping. The unstable range of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e
s t r u t s .is u s u a l l y impossible t o eliminate and i s always p r e s e n t i n t h e diagram
of safe rpm (this range i s hatched i n Fig.3.25).

The boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones ard t h e zone of p o s s i b l e values of

r o t o r t h r u s t T and r p m n permitted by t h e r o t o r and engine c o n t r o l systems

3w.

.
(system pitch-gas) are p l o t t e d i n t h e diagram of safe rpm. Lf none of t h e pos­
sible combinations of t h e values of T and n come t o l i e o u t s i d e t h e boundaries
of t h e unstable range, s t a b i l i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s ensured. I n t h i s case, it
i s always d e s i r a b l e ( f o r g r e a t e r d e t a i l s , see Sect.6) t o have a c e r t a i n s t a b i l i t y
margin, i.e., s u f f i c i e n t d i s t a n c e s i n t h e diagram between t h e boundaries of t h e
unstable range and t h e boundaries of t h e p o s s i b l e T and n values.

For a s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h conventional larding-gear design &&

(pyramidal landing g e a r o r g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s ; see Fig .3.17,a and b) , t h e
frequency of t h e first v i b r a t i o n overtone g e n e r a l l y i s below t h e operating rpm
of t h e r o t o r (Fig.3.25), whereas t h e frequency of t h e second overtone u s u a l l y i s
above this rpm. Therefore, s e l e c t i o n of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s must ensure
absence of an i n s t a b i l i t y zone of t h e first v i b r a t i o n overtone w i t h t h e s t r u t s
operative. Here, a reliable damping margin i s required. The s t a b i l i t y margin
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone can be ensured i n p r a c t i c e only
W i t h r e s p e c t t o r o t o r rpm" and can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c e r t a i n quantity 7 :

where
n, ax = &mum possible rotor rpm;
n, = r p m corresponding t o t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone
of t h e second overtone.

Section 3. C h a r a c t g r i s t i c s o f D a w i l w of Landing
- Gear and Blade.
Influence on Ground Resonance
-

Determination o f t h e D-ing
1. -- coefficient^ of t h e I a n d i r q
-
Gear ShocL Absorber

In c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural frequencies of a h e l i c o p t e r we assumed that t h e

shock absorbers of t h e landing gear have l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Actually, t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e shock s t r u t of a landing gear are nonlinear as a r u l e .
However, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g small h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s (as u s u a l l y done i n t h e
t h e o r y of nonlinear v i b r a t i o n s ) t h e nonlinear shock absorber can be replaced by
some equivalent l i n e a r shock absorber, f o r which t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s
and damping depend on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency and amplitude. For a n approximate
determination of t h e s t i f f n e s s of a n equivalent l i n e a r shock absorber we have
proposed eq.(2.5). To determine t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of damping k of a n equivalent
l i n e a r shock absorber, we can suggest another s h p l e formula. This formula can
be derived i f we consider as equivalent a l i n e a r shock absorber which, p e r vibra­
t i o n period, absorbs t h e same energy as a r e a l shock absorber a t t h e same vibra­
t i o n frequency and amplitude.

The most common designs of shock s t r u t s of a given landing gear absorb

energy because of f r i c t i o n i n t h e packing glands and of t h e hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e
set q when t h e hydraulic f l u i d i s forced through small o r i f i c e s .

If we assume t h e f o r c e of hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e i n such a shock s t r u t as pro-

p o r t i o n a l t o t h e square of v e l o c i t y , t h e n t h e dependence of t h e f o r c e of resist­

ance P of t h e s t r u t on t h e rate -
ds
dt
of i t s compression can be expressed as

where Po i s t h e f o r c e of f r i c t i o n i n t h e gland, w h i l e o1 and o2 are t h e c o e f f i ­

c i e n t s of hydraulic r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s t r u t i n t h e forward and r e t u r n s t r o k e s .

Let t h e rod of t h e shock absorber execute v i b r a t i o n s according t o t h e l a w

s = so s i n p t and, consequently, s = -
d s = ps, cos p t .
dt
Let us t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e energy absorbed by t h e shock absorber under
t h e s e conditions during one o s c i l l a t o r y period. T h i s energy i s determined by
means of t h e formula

On c a l c u l a t i n g this i n t e g r a l f o r t h e case i n which t h e f u n c t i o n P ( t ) i s

given by eqs.(3.1), we o b t a i n

A =4POs, +-a3 ap2s;,

The damper w i t h l i n e a r damping (P = k *),

dt
under t h e same conditions, ab­

s o r b s t h e energy A, = rrkpso during one o s c i l l a t o r y period.

A comparison of t h e expressions f o r A and A, y i e l d s t h e following formula

f o r determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of a n equivalent l i n e a r damper:

Thus, i n a real shock absorber s t r u t , t h e q u a n t i t y k,, depends on t h e ampli­

tude s o and on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p, a f a c t t h a t must be t a k e n i n t o con­
sideration i n calculating helicopter vibrations.
 Figure 3.26 shows t h e q u a n t i t y k,, as a f u n c t i o n of t h e v i b r a t i o n arqli­
tude so. On a n i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude, t h e q u a n t i t y k,, decreases,
reaches a minimum value ktl,n a t a c e r t a i n amplitude sg and, y o n a f u r t h e r in­
c r e a s e i n amplitude, rises again.

An a n a l y s i s of eq.(3.4.) r e a d i l y yields t h e following formulas f o r determin­

i n g t h e minimum value k": and t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n amplitude sg of t h e
rod :

( 3 05)

(3 *6)

We see from eq.(3.5) that t h e minimum damping of t h e shock absorber does

not depend on t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency and amplitude. For a rough estimate of
t h e damping c a p a b i l i t y of t h e shock absorber system of t h e landing g e a r it i s
convenient t o use eq.(3.5) and t o assume, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t i r e - o l e o system,
t h a t k S s a = ktin. Here, it i s a l s o u s e f u l t o determine t h e q u a n t i t y s3 by means
of eq.(3.6).

Whenever t h e r e i s a n occasion t o make damping t e s t s on f u l l - s c a l e shock

s t r u t s , it i s suggested t o perform such t e s t s s i n c e t h e proposed formulas yield
only approximate damping c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Damping tests can be c a r r i e d out by one of two methods:

1) determination of t h e dependence of t h e f o r c e of b d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e
on t h e rate of t r a v e l of t h e rod;
2) determination of t h e energy absorbed by t h e shock absorber i n t h e
presence of harmonic v i b r a t i o n s of t h e rod.

When conducting t e s t s by e i t h e r of t h e s e methods, t h e air ( o r nitrogen) /288

should be drained from t h e shock s t r u t , s i n c e
only t h e damping f o r c e s are t o be determined i n
Y
the test.

t h e rod of t h e shock absorber under t h e e f f e c t of

F i g .3.26 Vibration AmpE-
t u d e Dependence of Equiva-
l e n t Damping f o r Shock
Absorber w i t h D r y F'riction
and Quadratic Hydraulic
Resistance.
a constant load a t v a r i o u s values.
I n t h e second method of t e s t i n g , harmonic
v i b r a t i o n s are imparted t o t h e rod of t h e shock
absorber on a s p e c i a l r i g w i t h a r o t a t i n g eccerb
t r i c . The variable axial f o r c e i n t h e shock ab­
s o r b e r i s measured a t d i f f e r e n t values of t h e
v i b r a t i o n amplitude and frequency ( r e v o l u t i o n s of
t h e e c c e n t r i c ) of t h e rod.
For a landing g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s
(Fig.3.17,b), d i r e c t tests of t h e t i r e - o l e o system should be c a r r i e d out. It i s
d e s i r a b l e t o make such tests a l s o f o r a pyramidal landing g e a r ( s e e Fig.3.17,a).
Here, t h e shock absorber connected i n sequence w i t h t h e t i r e can be t e s t e d i n
t h e same manner as that used f o r a landing g e a r w i t h v e r t i c a l s t r u t s except t h a t
a s p e c i a l t i r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t used on t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s s e l e c t e d , whose
s t i f f n e s s i s g r e a t e r by a f a c t o r of n t h a n that of t h e t i r e corresponding t o a
pyramidal landing gear. The value of n i s c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e formula

where P S a a i s t h e f o r c e i n t h e shock absorber under t h e v e r t i c a l f o r c e PYpn on

the tire.

2. E f f e c t of Locking of t h e Shock Absorber as a Consequence

of F r i c t i o n a l Resistance of t h e Gland and Self-Excited
-~
Vibrations of t h e Helicopter

The f o r c e of f r i c t i o n Po i n t h e packing (glands) of t h e shock absorber f o r

a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes i s independent of t h e rate of motion of t h e rod [eq.(3.1)].
Therefore, t h e e f f e c t of f r i c t i o n i n t h e gland i s analogous t o t h e e f f e c t of so-
c a l l e d d r y ( o r Coulomb) f r i c t i o n .

T h i s l e a d s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t , i n t h e presence of small v i b r a t i o n s a t a
variable f o r c e P < Po, t h e shock absorber does not operate and behaves l i k e a
r i g i d rod. Therefore, a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y small v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e heli­
copter t h e shock absorbers are i n o p e r a t i v e and only t h e tires, which are v i r t u a l ­
l y deprived of damping, a c t as e l a s t i c components of t h e landing g e a r system.

If t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t o r r o t a t i o n l i e s w i t h i n t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone
of t h e h e l i c o p t e r w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e shock absorbers, t h e p o s i t i o n of equilibrium
of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , g e n e r a l l y speaking, w i l l always be unstable and small heli­
copter v i b r a t i o n s of i n c r e a s i n g amplitude are sure t o arise. Upon a n i n c r e a s e
i n amplitude of t h e v i b r a t i o n s , t h e variable f o r c e i n t h e shock absorber a l s o
i n c r e a s e s . A t a c e r t a i n v i b r a t i o n amplitude a”, t h e f o r c e P i n t h e shock ab­
sorber becomes equal t o Po. A t l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes of a > a-: t h e f o r c e
P > Po, and ( i f T < T c r ) t h e shock absorbers begin t o operate.

If t h e shock absorption damping i s p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d , self-excited vibra­

t i o n s with a c e r t a i n constant small amplitude a, g r e a t e r t h a n a’?, are generated
i n t h e system.

Thus, f o r any h e l i c o p t e r w i t h i n t h e unstable range w i t h t h e s t r u t s in­ /289

operative, t h e r e id11 always be self-excited v i b r a t i o n s caused by t h e e f f e c t of
d r y f r i c t i o n i n t h e landing g e a r shock absorbers.

Such s e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s should never be confused w i t h ground resonance

i n t h e conventional meaning of t h e t e r m . Self-excited v i b r a t i o n s are safe and
may arise even when t h e margin f o r ground resonance ( a t l a r g e displacements) i s
sufficiently great.
 In t h e most common designs of shock absorbers (oleo-pneumatic s t r u t s ) , t h e
f r i c t i o n i n t h e gland i s relatively g r e a t s o that, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e amplitude
of such s e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s , only t h e damping caused by tl6s f r a c t i o n need

-
be allowed f o r and t h e f o r c e s of
fiydraulic r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e shock
absorber can be neglected. With
P such a n a p p r o d t e c a l c u l a t i o n ,
t h e amplitude of self-excited Vi­
b r a t i o n s can only be g r e a t e r than
A t h e a c t u a l amplitude.

To estimate t h e amplitude of
F i g .3.27 Diagram of In-Series Connec- self-excited vibrations, we can de­
t i o n of Tire and Shock Absorber w i t h r i v e c e r t a i n simple formulas.
Dry F r i c t i o n .
l a n d 2 - Springs; 3 - Piston. Let us examine a system con­
s i s t i n g of two springs (1)and ( 2 )
connected i n s e r i e s , one of which
w i t h a s t i f f n e s s c;,, simulates t h e t i r e and t h e o t h e r w i t h a s t i f f n e s s c,.,, t h e
shock absorber (Fig.3.27). Some element [ p i s t o n ( 3 ) 1 w t t h d r y f r i c t i o n char­
a c t e r i z e d by t h e f o r c e Po i s connected i n p a r a l l e l with t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) .

Under t h e e f f e c t of a f o r c e P ( t ) varying i n time according t o a c e r t a i n

law, l e t t h e system execute v i b r a t i o n s such that t h e p o i n t A whose displacement
we denote by s w i l l execute t h e harmonic v i b r a t i o n s

s = ~ o c o spt. ( 3 -7)
If t h e amplitude so i s small, t h e s p r i n g (2) does not work and t h e s p r i n g
(1)w i l l suffer a deformation s1 = s varying i n accordance w i t h t h e harmonic
l a w (3.7). I n this case, t h e f o r c e P a l s o varies i n obedience t o t h e harmonic
law
p ="i". socos p t .

However, t h e work done by t h e system Will be of this type only i f P,,, < Po and

t h u s i f so < -.
10
Y
1­
A s soon as s o > 0, t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) starts moving. Here,
c:: n
CD,
t h e r e are c e r t a i n t i m e i n t e r v a l s when t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) operates [ s l i d i n g i n t h e
element ( 3 ) l and t i m e i n t e r v a l s when t h e s p r i n g does not operate.

L e t 6 = s - s1 be t h e deformation of t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) , which we w i l l consider

as p o s i t i v e i f t h e s p r i n g ( 2 ) i s compressed. Then, t h e dependence of t h e com­
p r e s s i n g f o r c e P on t h e quantity 6 can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

I n t h e presence of o s c i l l a t o r y motion, t h e dependence P = P ( 6 ) has t h e form

of a h y s t e r e s i s loop (Fig .3.28).
3 19
 When t h e q u a n t i t y 6 reaches a maximum value of a and remains constant /290
after this ( 6 = a ) , f o r c e P can t a k e any value i n t h e i n t e r v a l c,.,a - P s P I
I c,.,a + Po.

The r e l a t i o n 6 ( t ) f o r time intervals corresponding t o s l i d i n g (f,# 0) can

be determined from t h e equation

which expresses t h e e q u a l i t y of f o r c e s on b o t h elements (1)and (2).

Fig.3.28 Eysteresis h o p f o r Fig .3.29 Iaw of Time Rate of Change

Shock Absorber w i t h Dry of Forces and Displacements i n
Friction. Shock Absorber.

From this equation, we f i n d 6 ( t ) f o r t h e s l i d i n g s e c t i o n s :

For s e c t i o n s where s l i d i n g i s absent, we have 6 = fa.

Figure 3.29 g i v e s graphs of t h e t i m e r a t e of change of t h e q u a n t i t i e s s ( t ) ,

6(t), and P ( t ) f o r t h e case c S a a = c;,, and so = 2 P O -. Y

The magnitude of t h e
‘pn
v i b r a t i o n amplitude a of t h e shock absorber rod can be found from t h e expression
f o r 6 ( t ) , i f we s e t t h e r e cos p t = 1. T h i s Will y i e l d

The work done by t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e during v i b r a t i o n s can be determined

from t h e formula
320
 Ap, =4 Poa.

Let u s compare t h e system shown i n Fig.3.27 w i t h some equivalent l i n e a r

shock absorber wl-iich, at a n q l i t u d e of t h e rod so, absorbs t h e same work and
has t h e same value of f o r c e P, a x .

Equating t h e expression f o r work done by t h e l i n e a r shock absorber ( A =

= rrk,,psE) t o t h e work done by t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e AP,, we o b t a i n t h e follow­
i n g expression f o r t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t k,, of a n equivalent Linear shock /291
absorber:

(3.10)

where T l i s some dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t depending on t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude so

and determined by t h e formula

5 +- Po
-\i
-
Ceg 'CF" . ­C F n CFn.So

&+1

Fig.3.30 Dimensionless Figure 3.30 shows t h e dependence of t h e

Damping Coefficient 17 as a q u a n t i t y 17 on t h e dimensionless v i b r a t i o n a m p l i -
Function of t h e Relative tude so. The q u a n t i t y 17 reaches a maximum
-so
V i b r a t i o n Amplitudezo. value Q D L x = 2 at = 2. A t so > 2, t h e damp­
i n g drops w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n v i b r a t i o n ampli­
tude.

The maximum value of k,, = e q a Xi s equal t o

km
 A comparison of this value w i t h t h e value of k:,"x obtained f o r t h e l i n e a r
t i r e - o l e o system [ s e e eq.(2.38)1 shows that t h e shock absorber w i t h d r y f r i c t i o n
i n a system w i t h a pneumatic t i r e produces, under t h e same conditions, a m a x i ­
mum daarping lower by a f a c t o r of n/2 t h a n t h e l i n e a r shock absorber.

Thus, t h e amplitude of s e l f - e x c i t e d h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s caused by f r i c t i o n

i n t h e packing of t h e shock absorbers can be found from t h e c o r d i t i o n (3.10):

where k r e q i s t h e damping required f o r e l i m i n a t i o n of grourd resonance.

From this equation, we determined t h e corresponding value of 7 and then,

from t h e graph i n Fig.3.30, t h e corresponding value of s o .

3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade Damers and t h e i r Analysis /292

lin our p r e s e n t a t i o n of methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance, we pro­
posed t h a t t h e drag hinge dampers have l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , ;.e., that the
moment of t h e damper M i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e - a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y 5 of r o t a t i o n of
t h e blade r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge: M = kb5.

Fig.3.31 Typical C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Blade Dampers.

a - Linear dampers; b - F r i c t i o n dampers;
c -
Stepped damper.

Actually, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of blade dampers are nonlinear as a r u l e .

Two t y p e s of dampers are predominantly used:
1) hydraulic dampers;
2) f r i c t i o n dampers.

Eydraulic danpers may have d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s depending upon design.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , a hydraulic damper can be l i n e a r (so-called laminar damper, char­
a c t e r i s t i c a i n Fig.3.31). However, l i n e a r dampers are used extremely r a r e l y ,
s i n c e t h e y have s e r i o u s shortcomings.

One of t h e shortcomings i s t h e g r e a t s e n s i t i v i t y of l i n e a r dampers t o tem­

322
p e r a t u r e , which i s explained by t h e f a c t that damping i n such dampers i s pro­
p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e hydraulic f l u i d which i s g r e a t l y dependent
upon temperature.

Another shortcoming of l i n e a r dampers i s that t h e moment of such a damper

i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e blade v i b r a t i o n frequency. Actually, i f a blade executes
harmonic v i b r a t i o n s relative t o t h e drag hinge 5 = so s i n v t , . t h e n the moment
of t h e l i n e a r damper v a r i e s i n accordance w i t h t h e l a w M = kb5 = vkb5, cos v t .

T h i s causes t h e l i n e a r dampers, during forward f l i g h t of a helicopter, t o

load t h e r o o t p o r t i o n of t h e blade w i t h l a r g e bending moments, s i n c e t h e blade
v i b r a t i o n frequency i n f l i g h t i s by a f a c t o r of about 4 g r e a t e r t h a n a t ground
resonance.

T h i s drawback i s l a r g e l y absent i n t h e most widely used hydraulic dampers

w i t h a s t ped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (see F i g . 3 . 3 1 , ~ ) and a l s o i n f r i c t i o n dampers ( s e e
Fig.9.31,3. The p o i n t A on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e stepped damper cor­
responds t o t h e i n s t a n t of opening of s p e c i a l valves.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a f r i c t i o n damper ( s e e Fig.3.31,b) can be regarded as

a p a r t i c u l a r case of a stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

To c a l c u l a t e ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h nonlinear blade dampers,

t h e l a t t e r can be replaced by some l1equivalentl1 l i n e a r dampers whose c o e f f i c i e n t
of damping depends upon t h e amplitude and frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s . The
c o e f f i c i e n t k,, of such a n equivalent l i n e a r damper can be determined from t h e
condition of absorption by this damper of t h e same energy p e r o s c i l l a t o r y period,
a t a given harmonic v i b r a t i o n amplitude and frequency, as i s absorbed under /293
t h e same conditions by a nonlinear damper. For a f r i c t i o n damper, we have

where
M, = t i g h t e n i n g moment of t h e damper ( s e e Fig.3.31,b);
5, = amplitude of blade v i b r a t i o n s ;
v = frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s .

From t h e same formula, we can determine approximately t h e value of k,, f o r

hydraulic dampers w i t h a stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , i f t h e l a t t e r i s c l o s e t o t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e f r i c t i o n damper.

I n t h e gene+ case, t h e q u a n t i t y k,, can be determined from t h e known

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c M ( S ) of a nonlinear damper by means of t h e formula
r

at
E E’o -.
sin vt a n d T =2n
V

323
 For a manufactured damper, t h e q u a n t i t y k,, can be determined a l s o experi­
mentally i n s p e c i a l l a b o r a t o r y tests. I n such tests, harmonic v i b r a t i o n s are
inparted t o t h e rod of t h e damper and t h e magnitudes of t h e damper moment are
recorded on a n oscillogram.

The main shortcoming of dampers w i t h a stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and, i n par­

t i c u l a r , of f r i c t i o n dampers i s t h e presence of a so-called e x c i t a t i o n threshold
f o r h e l i c o p t e r s equipped w i t h dampers of this type.
A A h e l i c o p t e r which i s stable a t small v i b r a t i o n
amplitudes may become unstable a t l a r g e v i b r a t i o n
amplitudes exceeding t h e e x c i t a t i o n threshold.

Let u s examine this phenomenon f o r t h e example

Fig .3.32 Work Absorbed
p e r O s c i l l a t o r y Period.
as a Function of Ampli-
tude, f o r a Damper w i t h
Dry F r i c t i o n and a
Damper w i t h Linear Char-
acteristic.
of a f r i c t i o n damper. Figure 3.32 shows t h e de­
pendence of t h e work A absorbed during one o s c i l ­
l a t o r y period by f r i c t i o n dampers (curve a ) and
l i n e a r (curve b) dampers on t h e blade v i b r a t i o n am­
p l i t u d e z o ( a t constant v i b r a t i o n frequency). For
t h e f r i c t i o n damper, t h e graph A (so) i s represented
by a s t r a i g h t l i n e , whereas f o r t h e l i n e a r damper
it forms a parabola. A s r e s u l t of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e
ground resonance, l e t t h e value k y q of t h e required
damping of t h e blade be determined f o r t h e case of
a l i n e a r damper; then, t h e curve a i n Fig.3.32 cor-
responds t o this value of k,, whereas t h e curve b
corresponds t o t h e available damping of t h e f r i c t i o n
damper a c t u a l l y lashed-up t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

Let t h e s e curves i n t e r s e c t a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t c y
corresponding t o t h e amplitude s$-. Then, during blade v i b r a t i o n s with a n ampli­
tude so < tz, t h e damping provided by t h e f r i c t i o n damper w i l l be g r e a t e r t h a n
required, whereas during blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a n amplitude zo > 58, t h e damping
w i l l be inadequate. The v i b r a t i o n amplitude 5: a l s o r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x c i t a t i o n
threshold. The value of 5: can be determined from eq.(3.15):

Thus, i f t h e h e l i c o p t e r suffers some p e r t u r b a t i o n (shock) which s e t s up ,&&

v i b r a t i o n s (both of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and of t h e blade) then, i f t h e blade vibra­
t i o n a n p l i t u d e i s less t h a n sg, t h e motion will be stable and t h e v i b r a t i o n s
w i l l d i e out. Lf t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t (zo > S$), t h e n increas­
i n g h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s w i l l occur.

The presence of a n e x c i t a t i o n threshold f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h blade dampers

of stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s a s e r i o u s shortcoming.

There are quite a Pew cases known where a h e l i c o p t e r t h a t has been i n

s e r v i c e f o r a long t i m e underwent ground resonance as t h e r e s u l t of some severe
shock, u s u a l l y as a result of a rough landing w i t h only one wheel of t h e main
landing gear making contact w5th t h e grourd.
 T h i s main shortcoming of nonlinear dampers can be completely eliminated only
by using dampers t h a t provide considerable damping a t low blade v i b r a t i o n f r e ­
quencies (ground resonance) and s l i g h t damping a t a v i b r a t i o n frequency equal t o
t h e r o t o r r p m (and higher).. I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
C
such a damper can be l i n e a r . Figure 3.33 shows
t h e diagram of a l i n e a r damper of this type.
P
The damper c o n s i s t s of a n e l a s t i c element of
&..hh, -
.
\

s t i f f n e s s c and of t h e damper proper w i t h a co­

e f f i c i e n t k, connected i n series.
Fig.3.33 Diagram of Element
i n which t h e E l a s t i c Element The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s k and c of this damper
and Damper are Connected i n can be s e l e c t e d such t h a t , a f t e r ensuring ade-
Series. quate damping a t ground resonance, t h e r e are
small bending moments on t h e blade i n forward
f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ( s e e Sect.6). For t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n , such a n element can be replaced by some equivalent element of s t i f f ­
ness c,, and a damping c o e f f i c i e n t k,, determined by means of t h e formulas

These formulas are obtained i n t h e same manner as eqs.(2.33) and (2.34.).

4. E f f e c t f Flaapi-m Motion of Rotor on Ground Resonance

As a l r e a d y s t a t e d , t h e conanonly used blade dampers a r e nonlinear. The main

feature of any nonlinear damper i s t h a t , i f t h e motion of t h e blade c o n s i s t s of
two harmonic components, t h e damping of one of t h e s e componerrts will depend on
t h e amplitude and frequency of t h e o t h e r harmonic component, whereas a l i n e a r
damper absorbs t h e energy of each of t h e harmonic components r e g a r d l e s s of t h e
magnitude of t h e o t h e r .

T h i s feature of nonlinear dampers explains t h e following important phenome­

non which has long been noted i n h e l i c o p t e r tests: When a h e l i c o p t e r i s oper­
a t i n g on t h e ground, ground resonance may be caused by smooth d e f l e c t i o n of t h e
c y c l i c p i t c h c o n t r o l s t i c k from t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n . If t h e s t i c k i s t h e n re­
turned r a p i d l y t o t h e n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n , t h e v i b r a t i o n s die out. T h i s phenomenon
i s u t i l i z e d i n experimental t e s t s of h e l i c o p t e r s f o r ground resonance. The /295
phenomenon i s analogous t o t h e e f f e c t of f l a p p i n g on t h e occurrence of f l u t t e r .
Let us examine t h e mechanism of this phenomenon f o r t h e case of a f r i c t i o n damper
( see Fig -3.31, b) .
Let u s first a t t a c k t h e f o l l a v i n g a b s t r a c t problem: ht some body A s l i d e
w i t h a v e l o c i t y V along some p l a t e B ( s e e Fig.3.34) which i s executing harmonic
v i b r a t i o n s i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n according t o t h e l a w y = yo s i n w t .

325
 The body A i s forced a g a i n s t t h e v i b r a t i n g p l a t e B by a c e r t a i n normal
f o r c e N. We w i l l assume that t h e f r i c t i o n between t h e s u r f a c e of t h e body A and
t h e p l a t e B corresponds t o t h e i d e a l l a w of d r y f r i c t i o n , %.e., t h e f o r c e of
f r i c t i o n i s constant i n magnitude and e q a l t o Po = pN where p i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n .

B y=yo s i n w t

Fig .3.34 Diagram of Body Motion Fig.3.35 Law of T i m e Rate of Change

along a P l a t e Vibrating i n a i n Relative Velocity and Force of
Horizontal Direction. F r i c t i o n during Uniform Motion of
t h e Body along a Vibrating P l a t e .

The d i r e c t i o n of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e depends upon t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e rela­

t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e body A i n conparison w i t h t h e p l a t e B.

Let us assume t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e P applied t o t h e p l a t e as p o s i t i v e when

d i r e c t e d opposite t o t h e absolute v e l o c i t y of t h e body A, i.e., t o t h e r i g h t .
The displacement y of t h e p l a t e B W i l l be considered as p o s i t i v e when d i r e c t e d
t o t h e l e f t . Then t h e l a w of f r i c t i o n can be w r i t t e n as

P=
I”O - p 0 aatt vv<y.
>g;

For t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of motion of t h e p l a t e , we have t h e expression

vre1 -=v-y =v -
. 05’0 cos wt.

Figure 3.35 g i v e s t h e graph of this dependence. The r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y as a

f u n c t i o n of t i m e i s depicted by a cosine curve s h i f t e d by a n amount V along t h e
ordinate.

The graph i d i c a t e s t h a t , a t V < wy,, during one o s c i l l a t o r y period T t h e

t i m e i n t e r v a l ( T - 2T1) during which V r e l i s p o s i t i v e i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e time
i n t e r v a l 2T1 during which Vrel i s negative. Below this graph, we show a cor­
responding graph of t h e time dependence of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e P. During one os­
c i l l a t o r y period, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e f o r a c e r t a i n time i n t e r v a l 2T1 i s d i r e c t e d

326
t o t h e l e f t ( n e g a t i v e ) , w h i l e during t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l ( T - 2T,) it i s d i r e c t e d
t o t h e r i g h t , opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion.

Thus, during motion of t h e body A (see Fig.3.34) along a v i b r a t i n g p l a t e B,

t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e p e r i o d i c a l l y v a r i e s i t s d i r e c t i o n only i f V < wy,. In t h i s
case, t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e f o r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of time i s d i r e c t e d opposite t o
t h e motion s o that, on t h e average, t h e f r i c t i o n o f f e r s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e motion
of t h e body A.

For a uniform motion of t h e body A t o t h e l e f t , we must apply t o it a /296

time-variant f o r c e which, at each i n s t a n t of time, would balance t h e f r i c t i o n
f o r c e . Let us c a l c u l a t e t h e average value Pa, of this f o r c e during t h e period,
understanding by this a constant f o r c e which, during one o s c i l l a t o r y period, does
t h e same work i n a b s o l u t e displacement of t h e body A as t h e a c t u a l f o r c e of f r i c ­
t i o n . If t h e mass of t h e body A i s i n f i n i t e l y g r e a t and i f v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
body A can be neglected and i f , i n a d d i t i o n , i t s motion on t h e v i b r a t i n g p l a t e
can be assumed as uniform, t h e n t h e f o r c e P,, W i l l represent t h e a c t u a l f o r c e
needed f o r a uniform motion *of t h e body A.

The work done by t h e average f o r c e p e r o s c i l l a t o r y period of t h e p l a t e w i l l

t h e n be equal t o

A,, =Pa, VT.

The work done by t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e during one period W i l l be equal t o

Equating t h e s e two values of work A*, and A,,, we o b t a i n t h e following ex­

p r e s s i o n f o r t h e average motive f o r c e :

41
' .T
Pay=P,
[1- T

To determine t h e value of we note that

1

COS oT,=-
V .
WYO

Hence, t a k i n g i n t o account t h a t T = -w,2n we o b t a i n

Consew e n t ly,

Pa, =Po
[
2
1 --
a
cos-1 -
I) .
( o",,
327
 The obtained expression holds i f and only i f V < wyo. A t V > wy,, t h e f r i c ­
t i o n f o r c e will not, change e i t h e r magnitude o r sign, remaining equal t o Po. Tak­
i n g i n t o account t h e a f o r e s a i d and introducing t h e dimensionless average f o r c e
I

Pa, = , we o b t a i n t h e following expression f o r t h e latter:

PO

f i g u r e 3.36 gives t h e graphs of t h e dependence of Fa, on t h e dimensionless

-
velocity V = -.V
WYO
A t a low r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of t h e p l a t e , we can use a s y l i f i e d l i n e a r
dependence-F,,(V) which i s obtained if, i n t h e expansion of cos- V i n a power
series i n V, we limit o u r s e l v e s t o t h e f i r s t two terms. I n this case, we have

Thus, during slow motion of a body over a r a p i d l y v i b r a t i n g p l a t e , t h e /297

average f o r c e of f r i c t i o n can be considered approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
first power of t h e v e l o c i t y

where t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r i s

The above statements i n d i c a t e t h a t , wader t h e examined conditions, d r y f r i c ­

t i o n i s i n a sense ec@valent t o l i n e a r viscous f r i c t i o n , t h e equivalent damping
c o e f f i c i e n t being i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency and amplitude
of t h e p l a t e . T h i s important f a c t was first noted by Heinrich (Ref.41) and
checked experimentally by A.A.Krasovskiy (Ref .a).
It i s obvious t h a t , during slow harmonic v i b r a t i o n s of t h e body A over a
r a p i d l y v i b r a t i n g p l a t e B, it i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o ap roximately c a l c u l a t e t h e
damping of t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s , making use of eqs.(3.19 P and (3.20).

Thus, i f i n a n element w i t h d r y f r i c t i o n t h e r e l a t i v e motion of t h e rubbing

s u r f a c e s r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum of two harmonic v i b r a t i o n s , one low-frequency and
t h e o t h e r high-frequency, t h e n t h e dampi of t h e low-frequency v i b r a t i o n s can
be c a l c u l a t e d approximately by using eqsT3.19) and (3.20), understanding by w
and yo t h e frequency and amplitude, r e s p e c t i v e l y , of t h e o t h e r (high-frequency)
harmonic component.
 Let us now r e t u r n t o a n examination of blade v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r
equipped w i t h a f r i c t i o n damper lashed t o t h e drag hinge. Upon d e f l e c t i o n of t h e
p i t c h s t i c k during o p e r a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground, blade flapping
r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p p i n g hinges t a k e s p l a c e . A s i s known, t h e blade flapping
angle i3 w i l l t h e n vary i n t i m e according t o t h e harmonic law:
F=a, --a, cos wt- 6 , sin ut,

where
a. = coning angle;
al and bl = f l a p p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s .

During blade flapping, C o r i o l i s f o r c e s arise

' V
which cause blade v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag
1.0 hinge. The amplitude of t h e first harmonic of
blade v i b r a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge can be
determined from t h e well-known formula (Ref .48)
0.5

a0
1.0 pL E l =-
1-v2,
(3-21)
0
@Yo

F i g .3.36 Relative Aver­ AS a l r e a d y explained i n Sections 1 and 3,

age F r i c t i o n Force as a during ground resonance ( i n t h e case pbo = 0) t h e
Function of t h e Dimension­ blades v i b r a t e w i t h a frequency v o w (v, M 0.25),
l e s s Velocity of t h e Body i.e., w i t h a frequency about f o u r t i m e s lower t h a n
o v e r a Vibrating P l a t e . t h e frequency of forced blade v i b r a t i o n s caused /298
by f l a p p i n g . Therefore, i n conformity w i t h t h e
foregoing statements, t h e damping moment a c t i n g on
t h e blade a t ground resonance can be c a l c u l a t e d approximately by means of t h e
formula
M=keg E,
where
kq ; 2
= -.M o
WE1

The q u a n t i t y M, r e p r e s e n t s t h e t i g M e n i n g moment of t h e f r i c t i o n damper

(see Fig.3 31,b) .
Thus, forced v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n of a blade w i t h a f r i c t i o n
damper, caused by f l a p p i n g of t h e blade i n t h e t h r u s t plane, lead t o a n e f f e c t
equivalent t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a l i n e a r d q e r i n t h e drag hinge whose damp­
i n g c o e f f i c i e n t [eq.(3.23)1 i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e amplitude of t h e
f o r c e d blade v i b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinge. Therefore, a l l statements
o n t h e e x c i t a t i o n t h r e s h o l d of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h f r i c t i o n dampers (Subsect.3)
hold o n l y when t h e r e i s no blade flapping. T h i s u s u a l l y occurs when t h e r o t o r is
o p e r a t i n g a t low rpm. Consequently, t h e e x c i t a t i o n t h r e s h o l d must be estimated
f o r ground resonance i n terms of t h e first overtone. Equation (3.23) should be
used f o r estimating ground resonance i n t h e presence of r o t o r flapping ( a t t h e
o p e r a t i n g r o t o r r p m ) . This i s e s p e c i a l l y important when c a l c u l a t i n g ground reso­

329

I
 nance of a h e l i c o p t e r during t h e ground run, which w i l l be t a k e n up i n Section 4.

Section 4. Ground Resonance of a A e l i c o p t e r d u r i r x G r o 4 Run

In p r e s e n t i n g methods of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r natural lateral v i b r a t i o n s of a

h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground (Sect.2), it was assumed that t h e r e was no Wobbling of
t h e pneumatic t i r e on t h e ground surface.

When a t i r e wobbles i t s l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s diminishes, w h i l e t h e v e r t i c a l

s t i f f n e s s remains unchanged. A decrease i n l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e during
such rocking and a c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l damping during l a t e r a l displacements of
t h e wobbling t i r e can be determined on t h e basis of t h e e x i s t i n g t h e o r y of shimmy
of c a s t o r i n g wheels* A method of such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s given i n this Section.

Any decrease i n l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e on wobbling (decrease i n t h e

quantity c:’, see Fig.3.17) l e a d s t o a decrease i n t h e natural v i b r a t i o n fre­
quencies of t h e first and second overtones and t h u s t o a reduction of t h e bound­
aries of t h e corresponding u n s t a b l e range. A s i n d i c a t e d above (Sect.2, S u b
sect.7), f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone, corresponding t o
t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone, i s above t h e o p e r a t i n g rpm of t h e r o t o r , and t h e
margin w i t h r e s p e c t t o r o t o r r o t a t i o n s i s sometimes no more t h a n 30%. A reduc­
t i o n of t h e unstable range during t i r e wobbling may be of t h e order of 20 - 30%.
Therefore, it might happen t h a t a helicopter, which i s stable when operating i n
s i t u , becomes u n s t a b l e - d u r i n g t h e ground run. h this case, we can speak of a
c r i t i c a l ground speed of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a t which motion becomes unstable.

1. S t i f f n e s s and D a m i n e : of a Wobblilw T i r e

Let u s examine a t i r e uniformly rolling along t h e ground (Fig.3.37). Let

t h e wheel execute l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s i n obedience t o a harmonic law, such t h a t
t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n of t h e wheel remains a t a l l times p a r a l l e l t o i t s i n i t i a l
p o s i t i o n and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e ~s t o t h e ground remains constant.

We w i l l s e l e c t a s t a t i o n a r y r e c t a n g u l a r coordinate system zOs lying on /299

t h e ground surface, w i t h t h e Oz-axis being p a r a l l e l t o t h e wheel a x i s . Let t h e
l a t e r a l displacement z of t h e d i a m e t r a l plane of t h e wheel vary i n time i n ac­
cordance w i t h t h e harmonic law”:

where
zo = v i b r a t i o n amplitude;
w = angular v i b r a t i o n frequency.

Let us t h e n determine t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e P, exerted on t h e t i r e by t h e ground

during i t s motion.

% We have i n mind t h a t t h e a c t u a l displacement i s t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e i n d i ­

cated complex expression. The use of complex expressions i n deriving b a s i c for­
m u l a s permits a n appreciable s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
330

.. --- -. I
 Let h be t h e lateral deformation of t h e t i r e , i.e., t h e d i s t a n c e between
t h e diametral wheel plane and t h e p o i n t of t h e t i r e which forms t h e c e n t e r of
t h e contact area before l a t e r a l deformation. Then, t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e P, w i l l be
eqal to
P,= cFA,
Diametral p l a n e
of t i r e
where c:” i s t h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e
i n t h e absence of wobbling.

Furthermore, l e t s be t h e p a t h of t h e
t i r e reckoned from t h e l i n e of wobbling and cp
t h e angular deformation of t h e t i r e , i.e.,
t h e angle between t h e l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n of
t h e d i a m e t r a l wheel plane w i t h t h e ground
s u r f a c e and t h e tangent t o t h e m a t e r i a l l i n e
belonging t o t h e t i r e s u r f a c e and r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e d i a m e t r a l
wheel plane w i t h t h e undeformed t i r e s u r f a c e .

The q u a n t i t i e s z , A , and y are r e l a t e d by

t h e so-called conditions of wobbling which, i n
conformity w i t h M.V.KeldyshTs m o t h e s i s
(Ref.lS), have t h e form

Fig.3.37 Planview of Contact _

dz - dh
Surface and Line of T i r e ds
Wobbling. I (4.3)
cp - Angular deformation of
t i r e ; A - L a t e r a l deformation
of t i r e (lItiIt11).
Here, CY and fi are c e r t a i n constants for
a given t i r e , which can be found by conven-
t i o n a l methods.

Changing t o d e r i v a t i v e s w i t h respect t o time t and t a k i n g i n t o account t h a t

s = V t (where V i s t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e t i r e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Os-axis),
we o b t a i n

d2 dh
dt
(4.4)

Putting

and (4.5)

331

I
 and t a k i n g i n t o account eq.(4.1), we o b t a i n from eqs.(4.4) t h e following ex­
p r e s s i o n s f o r determining t h e constants h o and cpo:

+
vyo ido=iozo;
(io+pv)
yo - UVA, =.o.

Hence,

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e found value of A, i n t o t h e f i r s t equation of t h e system

(4.5) and t h e n i n t o eq.(4.2), we o b t a i n t h e following expression for t h e f o r c e P,
exerted on t h e t i r e by t h e ground:

where

We w i l l designate t h e complex q u a n t i t y

t h e l a t e r a l complex dynamic t i r e s t i f f n e s s i n t h e presence of l a t e r a l harmonic

v i b r a t i o n s of t h e wheel.

The modulus of t h e complex dynamic s t i f f n e s s r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t h e

amplitude Po of t h e lateral f o r c e t o t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude zo of t h e d i a m e t r a l
plane of t h e wheel. The argument of t h e c o q l e x q u a n t i t y D(w) r e p r e s e n t s t h e
v i b r a t i o n phase of t h e f o r c e P, w i t h respect t o v i b r a t i o n s z of t h e wheel.

Furthermore, l e t us e x a d n e some l i n e a r e l a s t i c element w i t h damping ( s e e

F’ig.3.22). The f o r c e P a c t i n g on this element and i t s deformation s ( s t r o k e of
t h e element) are connected by t h e r e l a t i o n [eq.(2.25)1

P=CS +k -
dt
.
dS

Let us introduce t h e concept of complex dynamic s t i f f n e s s of such a n ele­

ment and e s t a b l i s h i t s c o n n e c t i v i t y w i t h t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s c and k of i t s stiff­
ness and damping.

Let t h e displacement s of t h e e l a s t i c element v a r y i n time according t o t h e

332
harm0ni.c l a w s = sOeiwt . Then t h e f o r c e a c t i n g on this element w i l l vary a l s o
by t h e harmonic law:

P =(c +iwk) sOeiwt

or
P =Poeiot,

where
Po=(C +iok) so.
We d e s i g n a t e t h e q u a n t i t y

t h e co lex dynamic s t i f f n e s s of. an e l a s t i c element with damping. A s shown by

e q . ( 4 . 3 , t h e r e a l p a r t of t h e complex q u a n t i t y D(w) r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t i f f n e s s co­
e f f i c i e n t c of a spring, w h i l e t h e imaginary p a r t r e p r e s e n t s t h e damping coef- /301
f i c i e n t k of t h e element m u l t i p l i e d by w.

To c a l c u l a t e t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground i n con­

formity w i t h t h e scheme depicted i n Fig.3.16, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e l a s t i c i t y
and damping of t h e elements c: and c: must be p r o p e r l y chosen.

It i s obvious that, t o c a l c u l a t e v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r during ground

run, it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s e l e c t t h e h o r i z o n t a l e l a s t i c elements (cz" i n Fig.3.17)
such that t h e i r complex dynamic s t i f f n e s s w i l l be e q u a l t o t h e complex l a t e r a l
s t i f f n e s s of t h e t i r e i n wobbling. The c o e f f i c i e n t s of s t i f f n e s s and d a q i n g of
t h e t h u s s e l e c t e d 11equivalent~le l a s t i c element can be determined, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
as t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s of t h e complex q u a n t i t y D(w) which i s e q r e s s e d
by e q * ( 4 * 8 ) *
Separating t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s i n eq.(4.8), we o b t a i n

(5)(!?E)

The r e s u l t a n t formulas are comparatively complex and require knowledge of

t h e t i r e c o n s t a n t s CY and 8 .

The formulas f o r determining ceq and k,, can be g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d i f we

r e p l a c e M.V.Keldysh's conditions of wobbling by t h e so-called 11tiPtlI hypothesis,
according t o which t h e l a t e r a l deformation of t h e t i r e X (IItilt11) i s connected

333
 w i t h t h e angular deformation of t h e
t i r e cp by t h e simple r e l a t i o n

A-rlcp, ( 4 12)
where 7 = -
B i s t h e so-called
CY

l1tiltII coefficient.

As shown i n a paper by M.V.

Keldysh ( R e f .15), this c o e f f i c i e n t
i s approximately equal t o t h e radi­
us r of t h e undeformed t i r e
0 IO 20

ii,

0.2 (r being t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e

t i r e a x i s and t h e ground i n t h e a b
O.1 sence of compression).

0 10 20 30 Vkmlhr
I n this hypothesis, t h e first
condition of t h e system (4.4)
yields
Fig.3.38 R e l a t i v e L a t e r a l S t i f f n e s s and
Lateral Damping of Tire as a Function of

Helicopter Ground Speed 1 .

sec
).

we o b t a i n

Fig.3.39 Relative I a t e r a l S t i f f n e s s
and L a t e r a l Damping of Tire as a Func-
t i o n of Dimensionless Helicopter Ground
Speed.
On s e p a r a t i n g t h e r e a l and /_303
imaginary p a r t s i n this expression,
we o b t a i n t h e following expressions
f o r t h e s t i f f n e s s and damping co­
e f f i c i e n t s of a n equivalent e l a s t i c
element :

334
 The simp1 f i e d formulas (4.15) and (4.16) are more conver-ent f o r p r a c t i c a l
c a l c u l a t i o n s and do not require knowledge of t h e t i r e constants CY and .fi The.
accuracy of t h e approximate formulas i s f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes.
T h i s i s demonstrated by t h e comparison graphs i n Fig.3.38, which were obtained
from c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e main landing gear wheels of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r (w =
-
- 18 --
1 corresponds
sec
t o t h e frequency of t h e second overtone of v i b r a t i o n s ) ,

using Keldyshts t h e o r y and t h e tilt theory.

Thus, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of natural h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s during ground r u n it

i s expedient t o use eqs.(4.15) and (4.16). I n this case, t h e quantity w i n
t h e s e equations must be s u b s t i t u t e d by t h e frequency p of t h e l a t e r a l h e l i c o p t e r
v i b r a t i o n s . Figure 3.39 p r e s e n t s graphs of t h e dependence of t h e dimensionless

lateral stiffness (e)C ­

= ceq and damping (-) on t h e dimensionless r e l a ­

t i v e velocity V = - -
v -- -.
V A s we s e e from t h e graph, t h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s
PTI Pr
of t h e t i r e l a r g e l y depends on t h e h e l i c o p t e r speed. A t 7 = 3 (which, f o r t h e

t i r e of t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r a t p = 18 A
sec
i s about 50 km/hr), t h e l a t e r a l t i r e

s t i f f n e s s i s by a f a c t o r of 10 less t h a n t h a t of a s t a t i o n a r y t i r e .

2. Calculation of Ground Resonance and Results

The c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance during ground run can be performed i n

t h e conventional manner (Sect .2) , except that t h e values of l a t e r a l t i r e s t i f f ­
ness cZn, when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s , should be replaced by t h e
v a l u e s of ceq derived from eq.(4.15); when determining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of damp­
i n g of t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s (Sect.2, Subsect.&), t h e a d d i t i o n a l damping of t h e
h o r i z o n t a l e l a s t i c elements (see Fig.3.17) should be t a k e n i n t o account i n con­
formity e . t h eq.(d+..l6). I n this case, t h e values of w i n eqs.(4.15) and (4.16)
must be s u b s t i t u t e d by t h e values of t h e frequency p of t h e corresponding vibra­
t i o n overtone of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Such a c a l c u l a t i o n method i s completely j u s t i ­
f i e d since, a t t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones, t h e r e are p u r e l y har­
monic (undamped) v i b r a t i o n s , and eqs.(4.15) and (4.16) are derived p r e c i s e l y f o r
t h e case of harmonic l a t e r a l t i r e Vibrations. The purpose of c a l c u l a t i n g ground
resonance i s t o f i n d t h e s e boundaries of t h e unstable range.

When using t h e formula

335
i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n frequencies, .a d i f f i c u l t y i s
encountered connected w i t h t h e f a c t that, t o f i d t h e natural v i b r a t i o n fre­
quency p t h e value of cog m u s t be known which, i n t u r n , depends upon p . There­
f o r e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s (determination of p ) should be car­
r i e d out by assigning d i f f e r e n t values t o ceq i n t h e i n t e r v a l 0 C ceq < c:',
and then, a f t e r determining p, d e r i v i n g t h e corresponding value of t h e ground
run speed from eq.(4.17). Here, f o r determining this speed we have t h e formula

Based on such a c a l c u l a t i o n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o construct t h e graph of t h e

dependence of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone boundaries on t h e ground r u n speed V. Here,
F'ig.3.40 gives t h e r e s u l t s of a c a l c u l a t i o n of
tGs type-for t h e M i - 1 h e l i c o p t e r . The graph
shows t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone
corresponding t o t h e second Yibration overtone
as a f u n c t i o n of t h e ground r u n speed V.

A s i n d i c a t e d by t h e graph, t h e c r i t i c a l
r e v o l u t i o n s %r of t h e r o t o r corresponding t o
t h e onset of ground resonance appreciably de­
crease w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n h e l i c o p t e r speed. If
f o r a s t a t i o n a r y parked h e l i c o p t e r t h e rpm margin
i s 36%, this margin W i l l decrease t o 8%a t a
ground r u n speed of 60 km/hr.

1 1 I I It i s important t o note t h a t , upon a n irr­

0 10 20 30 40 VkmJhr c r e a s e i n speed V, t h e graph of n,, approaches
some asymptote. T h i s has t h e following p h y s i c a l
F i g .3.4O Lower I n s t a b i l i t y meaning:
Zone Boundary as a Function
of Ground Run, f o r t h e M i - 1 Upon a n i n c r e a s e i n V, t h e lateral stiff­
Helicopter. ness of t h e t i r e determined by t h e q u a n t i t y C,,
ncr - C r i t i c a l revolutions [eq.(4.17) 1 decreases without bounds, a p p r o a c k
corresponding t o onset of i n g zero. I n this case, t h e natural. v i b r a t i o n
self-excited vibrations; frequencies of t h e first and secorad overtones
&: - Revolutions correspond­ decrease, w i t h t h e frequency p of t h e f i r s t
i n g t o t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone overtone approaching zero and t h e frequency of
center. t h e second overtone tending t o t h e value

336
 The q u a n t i t y po r e p r e s e n t s t h e natural l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency of t h e
h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e absence of l a t e r a l t i r e s t i f f n e s s .

The v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e h e l i c o p t e r corresponding t o this frequency repre­

s e n t s t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r body about t h e p r i n c i p a l l o n g i t u d i n a l &s
of i n e r t i a . The corresponding v i b r a t i o n node (see Sect .2, Subsect .3) coincides
w i t h t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

A s i t u a t i o n of this type might occur f o r a h e l i c o p t e r standing s t i l l o r

moving over a smooth s u r f a c e of i c e , where i t can be assumed that t h e r e i s no
f r i c t i o n between t i r e and ground (here, a l s o c t n = 0).

T h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a s i m p l i f i e d ( e s t i m a t e ) c a l c u l a t i o n of
ground resonance d u r i t h e ground run, when t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency &
Y
i s determined from eq. 4.19). Here, f o r t h e m a s s of t h e equivalent e l a s t i c base
(Sect.2, Subsect.6) we have t h e formula

I
in =J .
112

For t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r we have

where H i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e ground surface t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e

helicopter.

The q u a n t i t y k,, i s deterrrrined by means of t h e formula

iv\

The q u a n t i t y k: i s t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e v e r t i c a l e l a s t i c elements

( s e e fig.3.16), which depends on t h e damping p r o p e r t i e s of t h e shock s t r u t s of
t h e landing g e a r and i s determined i n t h e same manner as that used i n Section 2,
Subsection 5.

Such a n approximate c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a h e l i c o p t e r having a n unstable range

l o c a t e d above t h e operating rpm produces a small e r r o r " i n t h e s a f e t y factor11*

3. -
Ground Resonance
- on Breakiw Contact of t h e Tires
w i t h t h e Ground

A l l above methods of c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance presumed l i n e a r i t y of t h e

t i r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . However, i n r e a l i t y t h e t i r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (even approx­

337
i m a t e l y ) can be considered l i n e a r only in s i t u a t i o n s h which t h e t i r e , d u r
i n g i t s deformation, remains i n contact w i t h t h e ground s u r f a c e . I n general,
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e t i r e has a s l o p e as shown i n Fig.3.41.

Lf P, i s t h e f o r c e exerted by t h e ground on
t h e t i r e and s , i s t p e corresponding displacement,
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e t i r e has t h e form

Lf t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n covers only small vibra­

I -4 As L-
Fig .3 .l+l Nonlinear De-
pendence of t h e Force
Exerted by t h e Ground on
t h e T i r e on t h e V e r t i c a l
Displacement of t h e Wheel
Axis.
t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r near a p o s i t i o n of equilib-
r i u m corresponding t o t h e given r o t o r t h r u s t T a t
which P, = Po and s, = s o , so that t h e p o i n t of
t h e s t a t e of t h e t i r e during v i b r a t i o n s comes t o
l i e on a c e r t a i n segment AB wholly w i t h i n t h e
l i n e a r p o r t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e n a l l cal­
c u l a t i o n methods based on l i n e a r i t y of t h e t i r e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c are v a l i d ( f o r such small vibra-
tions)

However, a t l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes it may

happen that t h e p o i n t on t h e diagram d e p i c t i n g t h e state of t h e t i r e i s beyond
t h e limits of l i n e a r i t y of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Obviously, this w i l l be t h e case
whenever t h e amplitude of displacement A s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e amplitude of s t a t i c
compression s o . The extent of s t a t i c compression s o , j u s t as t h e f o r c e Po, /306
depends on t h e r o t o r t h r u s t and decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r o t o r t h r u s t T, ap­
proaching t h e magnitude of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight G. If T < G, t h e t i r e i s forced
a g a i n s t t h e ground; however, t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t which t h e
t i r e s begin t o break contact w i t h t h e ground is smaller t h e c l o s e r t h e quantity T
approaches t h e value T = G. Therefore, breaking contact of t h e t i r e s on takeoff
and landing i s most r e a d i l y achieved when t h e r o t o r t h r u s t i s l e s s t h a n t h e
h e l i c o p t e r weight but s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t l y high.

Calculation of h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s on breaking contact w i t h t h e ground i s

r a t h e r complicated. However, without a c t u a l l y performing such c a l c u l a t i o n s ,
c e r t a i n valuable but q u a l i t a t i v e conclusions can be drawn. Actually, during v i ­
b r a t i o n s on breaking contact of t h e tires, t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e p r e s e n t s a nonlinear
o s c i l l a t o r y system w i t h backlash. It i s known t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n fre­
guency of a system w i t h backlash depends on t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude and on t h e
magnitude of backlash; t h e g r e a t e r t h e backlash ( a t a given amplitude), t h e
smaller t h e frequency of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s . T h i s i s p h y s i c a l l y understandable,
s i n c e t h e presence of backlash i s equivalent t o a decrease i n t h e average (during
one o s c i l l a t o r y period) s t i f f n e s s of t h e e l a s t i c element.

Consequently, during h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s on breaking contact w i t h t h e

grourd t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies decrease, accompanied by a r e d u c t i o n i n
t h e extent of t h e unstable range. Therefore, i f t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone correspond­
i n g t o t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone i s higher t h a n t h e operating rpm of t h e
r o t o r , t h e n t h e rpm margin up t o t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone de­

338
c r e a s e s during v i b r a t i o n s on l i f t - o f f , and it may happen t h a t , a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y
l a r g e v i b r a t i o n amplitude, t h e lower boundary of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone "descends11
t o t h e operating r p m .

Thus, a h e l i c o p t e r which, i n t h e presence of small v i b r a t i o n s , has a n i­

s t a b i l i t y zone located above t h e operating r p m w i l l . be stable only a t s m a l l vi­
b r a t i o n amplitudes not exceeding a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l amplitude a"', which can be
designated as t h e e x c i t a t i o n t h r e s h o l d a t v i b r a t i o n s on Lift-off.

It i s obvious from t h e above statements that t h e magnitude of t h e e x c i t a ­

t i o n threshold i s smaller, t h e weaker t h e f o r c e s f o r c i n g t h e t i r e a g a i n s t t h e
ground, i.e., t h e more c l o s e l y t h e r o t o r t h r u s t approaches t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight.
Thus, t h e most dangerous s i t u a t i o n occurs a t t h e i n s t a n t of l i f t - o f f of t h e heli­
copter and inmediately a f t e r landing. Consequently, on occurrence of v i b r a t i o n s
during takeoff o r landing t h e r o t o r t h r u s t m u s t be reduced immediately. T h i s
causes t h e shock s t r u t s t o operate, i n h i b i t i n g v i b r a t i o n of bouncing.

It i s important t o note t h a t v i b r a t i o n s on l i f t - o f f a r e dangerous only i f

t h e unstable range i s above t h e operating rpm of t h e r o t o r . From this Viewpoint,
t h e landing gear c o n f i g u r a t i o n proposed by t h e B r i s t o l Company ( s e e Eg.3.18) i s
of i n t e r e s t . A s i n d i c a t e d above (Sect.2, Subsect.2), it i s p o s s i b l e i n this
landing gear configuration t o cause t h e f l e x u r a l c e n t e r of t h e shock absorber
system t o coincide w i t h t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r by choosing t h e
s t i f f n e s s of a s p e c i a l s p r i n g c S p i f t h e landing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e gear are
otherwise s a t i s f a c t o r y . Here t h e l a t e r a l forward v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r
and t h e angular v i b r a t i o n s about t h e p r i n c i p a l l o n g i t u d i n a l axLs of i n e r t i a of
t h e f u s e l a g e become independent.

Calculations show that i n this case t h e frequency of l a t e r a l forward vibra­

t i o n s i s approximately t h e same (somewhat lower) as t h e frequency of t h e f i r s t
v i b r a t i o n overtone of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a landing g e a r of conventional configura­
t i o n , whereas t h e angular Vibration frequency may be appreciably reduced i n com­
p a r i s o n w i t h t h e frequency of t h e second overtone f o r conventional landing g e a r s
( i n t M s case, it can even be made equal t o t h e frequency of t h e f i r s t overtone).

Thus, t h e use of a landing gear of t h e "Bristolll type permits obtaining /397

a r a t h e r low frequency of t h e second v i b r a t i o n overtone s o t h a t t h e correspond-
i n g unstable range will come t o l i e below t h e r o t o r operating rpm. Ground reso­
nance on breaking contact w i t h t h e ground cannot occur i n such a h e l i c o p t e r .

S e c t i o n 5. @ox& Resonance of Helicopters of Other Configurations

1. General Coments
As i n d i c a t e d above (Sect .2, Subsect .1), a c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s
of a h e l i c o p t e r on t h e ground must be based on t h e problem of v i b r a t i o n s of a
s o l i d body (disregarding f u s e l a g e e l a s t i c i t y ) on a n e l a s t i c base. A s o l i d body
on a n e l a s t i c base has six degrees of freedom. Accordingly t h e r e are six natu­
r a l v i b r a t i o n overtones f o r such a system, each corresponding t o a c e r t a i n vibra­
t i o n frequency and mode. For a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r w i t h a s l e n d e r fuselage,
we were able t o consider only l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s and t o d i s r e g a r d yawing o s c i l ­
l a t i o n s (Sect .2, Subsect .I).
339
 1

For a h e l i c o p t e r f o r which t h e moments of i n e r t i a of t h e f u s e l a g e r e l a t i v e

t o t h e three p r i n c i p a l axes of i n e r t i a are magnitudes of t h e same order, such a
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s impermissible. However, i f t h e r e i s a plane of symmetry of
t h e fuselage, t h e n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s can be considered as
independent. I n this case, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s must t a k e
three degrees of freedom i n t o consideration:
1) l a t e r a l displacement ;
2) angle of roll;
3) angle of yaw.
A c a l c u l a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry ( l o n g i t u d i n a l vibra­
t i o n s ) must a l s o allow f o r three degrees of freedom:
1) l o n g i t u d i n a l displacement ;
2) v e r t i c a l displacement;
3 ) angle of p i t c h .
From t h e viewpoint of ground resonance, both l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l vi­
b r a t i o n s are dangerous.

Below, we w i l l give methods of ca,lculating t h e natural v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i ­

copter which t a k e i n t o account a l l of t h e above-indicated degrees of freedom.

It should be noted t h a t t h e s e methods are a p p l i c a b l e a l s o t o a s i n g l e - r o t o r

h e l i c o p t e r and permit obtaining r e s u l t s more a c c u r a t e t h a n t h e r e s u l t s of a n ap­
proximate c a l c u l a t i o n by t h e method presented i n Section 2.

We w i l l a l s o d e s c r i b e a method of c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance i n a i r ,

caused by e l a s t i c i t y of t h e fuselage.

2. Calculation of Lateral Natural Vibrations w i t h Consideration

of Three Degrees of Freedom

Figure 3.42 shows a h e l i c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing gear. Let us choose a

r e c t a n g u l a r f i x e d coordinate system cxyz w i t h i t s o r i g i n a t t h e c e n t e r of gravi­
t y c of t h e h e l i c o p t e r . The cx-axis i s d i r e c t e d forward ( i n t h e plane of sym­
metry of t h e f u s e l a g e ) p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground, t h e cy-axis i s
d i r e c t e d upward, and t h e cz-axis i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e r i g h t , viewed i n d i r e c t i o n
of t h e cx-axis. ht z be t h e displacement of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e heli­
copter i n d i r e c t i o n of t h e cz-axis, and l e t cp, and cpy be t h e angles of r o t a t i o n
of t h e fuselage relative t o t h e cx- and cy-axes (cp, being t h e angle of roll and
cpy t h e angle of yaw).

The equations of lateral v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r can be w r i t t e n i n

t h e form

340
I

where
m = mass of t h e h e l i c o p t e r ;
I, and I, = moments of i n e r t i a of t h e fuselage r e l a t i v e t o t h e cx- and
cy-axes ;
I,, =corresponding c e n t r i f u g a l moment of i n e r t i a ;
M, and My = moments of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e fuselage r e l a t i v e t o
t h e cx- and cy-axes;
Z = p r o j e c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e fuselage a t
t h e cz-axis.

Fig.3.42 Scheme of Helicopter on a n E l a s t i c

Landing Gear.

Let us f i r s t study v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e absence of damping. I n this case, t h e

q u a n t i t i e s I$, M y and Z i n t h e presence of small natural h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s
r e l a t i v e t o t h e p o s i t i o n of equilibrium can be l i n e a r l y expressed i n terms of
t h e displacements z, cp,, and c p y . We can t h e n write t h e expressions f o r displace­
ments of t h e flexural c e n t e r s of shock absorption ( c . f l ) i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n s
1-1 and 11-11 of t h e f u s e l a g e (Fig.3.42) corresponding t o t h e f o r e and a f t land­
i n g gear i n terms of t h e q u a n t i t i e s z , cp,, cp,:

1) f o r e landing gear:
21 =Z--(Pzlll-qwl;

2) a f t landing gear:

11I
 'I

where
1, and 1,d i s t a n c e s of t h e p l a n e s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s
=
from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y c ;
e, and e2 = d i s t a n c e s from t h e cx-axis t o t h e flexural c e n t e r s of t h e
f o r e and a f t landing gears.

Knowing t h e displacement of t h e flexural c e n t e r of %he fuselage cross sec­

t i o n z i n t h e p l a n e of t h e given landing g e a r and t h e r o t a t i o n of this c r o s s
s e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e flexural c e n t e r (which f o r both c r o s s s e c t i o n s w i l l be /308
e q u a l t o cp,), we can determine t h e e l a s t i c f o r c e s and moments a c t i n g on t h e fuse­
l a g e i n this c r o s s s e c t i o n i n t h e same manner as before (Sect.2, Subsect.2) f o r
a plane body on a f l e x i b l e support. Determining t h e n t h e q u a n t i t i e s M,., My,
and Z, we o b t a i n t h e following expressions:

MX - -c e l y y + + Gz;
C,Z

mu= - c.?Y yg - C e l Y x +c,z; (5.2)

z= - c,z f C,'?, $-c l y y ,

where t h e corresponding s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined by t h e formulas

The q u a n t i t i e c z l , c z 2 , ccpl, and ccp2 r e p r e s e n t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l a t e r a l

and angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s .

The f i r s t equation of t h e system (5.2) a l s o contains t h e t e r m Gz represent­

i n g t h e moment of t h e f o r c e of t h e h e l i c o p t e r weight G r e l a t i v e t o t h e cx-axis,
generated during t h e l a t e r a l displacement 2.

S u b s t i t u t i n g eqs.( 5.2) i n t o eqs.(5.1), we f i n a l l y o b t a i n t h e following equa­

t i o n s of small l a t e r a l h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s :

Seeking t h e s o l u t i o n of this system i n t h e form

342
I

z =.zocos p t ;
'px =$9; cos p i ;
ysr=y' Y cos p t ,

where zo, cp,: cp:, and p a r e constants, we a r r i v e a t t h e following system of

l i n e a r a l g e b r a i c equations f o r determining t h e s e constants:

Equating t o zero t h e determinant of this system

and performing simple transformations, we o b t a i n t h e following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

equation f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies p of t h e h e l i ­
copter:
+ +
A p 6 f Bp4 C p 2 D =0,
(5.6)
where

hx =-e , h, =
'Ixy I X a r e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t s .
1, I Y
The p a r t i a l frequencies p z , pyx, pYy and t h e quantities p z y , P ; ~ , e t c . are
obtained by means of t h e formulas
 G
pi=-.
1,

Equation (5.6) i s a n equation of t h e t h i r d power w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e quan­

t i t y p2. It can be demonstrated t h a t i t s roots p: ( k = l, 2, 3) are always real
and p o s i t i v e . Therefore, one of t h e p o s s i b l e methods of f i n d i n g t h e n a t u r a l
v i b r a t i o n frequencies pk i s t h e graphic method i n which we construct t h e graph
of t h e l e f t - s i d e of this equation, which i s regarded as a function of t h e quan­
t i t y p. The p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n of this graph w i t h t h e a b s c i s s a give t h e
values of t h e natural frequencies ( f i g .3.43).

Let us number t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e system i n i n c r e a s i n g

order: p1 < pz < p3. Let us c a l l t h e quantities pl, p2, p j , t h e frequencies of
t h e first, second, and t h i r d overtones of t h e h e l i c o p t e r natural lateral vibra­
t i o n s . Each n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequency corresponds t o a c e r t a i n v i b r a t i o n mode
characterized by a c e r t a i n c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e amplitudes z o , cpz, cp;, which can
be found f o r a given pk ( k = 1, 2, 3) from eqs.(5.5) i f we s u b s t i t u t e t h e r e pk
f o r t h e quantity p . T h i s w i l l yield t h e expression

where'k = 1, 2, 3.

It i s easy t o show t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of a given overtone i s char­

a c t e r i z e d by a c e r t a i n s t r a i g h t l i n e lying i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry of t h e fuse­
l a g e xcy and r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e locus of t h e p o i n t s
(belonging t o t h e f u s e l a g e ) remaining s t a t i o n a r y dur­
i n g v i b r a t i o n s of this overtone.

I n f a c t , t h e displacement z,, of a c e r t a i n fuse­

l a g e p o i n t A l y i n g i n t h e p l a n e xcy and having t h e
coordinates x and y ( s e e F'ig.3.42) can obviously be
determined by t h e formula

ZA = +~ x y - ~ u % .
Fig .3 4.3 Character of
t h e Graph A = A ( p ) f o r I n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e k-th over-
Determination of t h e tone, we have
Natural Vibration F're- z=zo cos pkt;
quencies of a Heli­ yx =7; cos p J ;
c o p t e r on a n E l a s t i c
Landing Gear. '?sr =y; cos PRt.

344
 Hence,

Therefore, t h e c o n d i t i o n

r e p r e s e n t s t h e equation of t h e locus of t h e p o i n t s i n t h e plane xcy, whose vi­

b r a t i o n amplitudes are equal t o zero during Vibrations of t h e k-th overtone.
However, this i s a n equation of some s t r a i g h t l i n e .
-e Thus, t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of
t h e k-th overtone can be charac­
t e r i z e d by t h e p o s i t i o n of some
s t r a i g h t l i n e i n t h e plane xcy.
T h i s s t r a i g h t l i n e w i l l be desig­
nated here as t h e l i n e of t h e
nodes of t h e k-th overtone of
l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s . The equation
Th of t h e nodal line [eq.(T.lO)l i s
e a s i l y derived by means of eq.( 5.9)
for a given value of p k .
The r e s u l t s of natural l a t e r a l
r i b r a t i o n analyses of a h e l i c o p t e r
a r e conveniently represented as a
s k e t c h giving a s i d e view of t h e
f i g .3 .& C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Arrangement of h e l i c o p t e r and t h e nodal l i n e s of
t h e Nodal Lines of Vibrations of t h e a l l three v i b r a t i o n overtones, w i t h
first, Second, and Third Overtones. a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e correspond­
i n g frequencies (Fig .3 .&) .
The approxbnate c a l c u l a t i o n method f o r natural l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s given i n
Section 2 and based on t h e a s s m p t i o n of independence of yawing v i b r a t i o n s , /312
can be obtained as a p a r t i c u l a r case of t h e equations derived here.

If t h e cx- and cy-axes are t h e p r i n c i p a l axes of i n e r t i a (I,, = 0 ) and i f

t h e conditions

are s a t i s f i e d , t h e n eqs .( 5.4.) are resolved i n t o two i n d e p e d e n t systems of equa­

tions :
'XyX=I(G -ce)

- +
mz = czz ceyx;
z-cQxpx;
i
I
(5.10')

34-5
 --C,c?,. (5.10“)

Equation (5.10”) determines t h e independent yawing v i b r a t i o n s , w h i l e t h e

system of equations (5.10’) determines t h e lateral v i b r a t i o n s corresponding t o
t h e p h y s i c a l p i c t u r e presented i n S e c t i o n 2 ( i n this case, two of t h e nodal
l i n e s are p a r a l l e l t o t h e cx-axis, and t h e t h i r d coincides w i t h t h e cy-axis).

For a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r , t h e conditions ct = c,t = 0 and I,, = 0 are never

a c c u r a t e l y s a t i s f i e d . However, f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h a n elongated fuselage, i f
t h e angle a between t h e p r i n c i p a l a x i s of i n e r t i a cxo and t h e cx-axis i s low
( s e e Fig.3.42) and t h e mment of i n e r t i a I, i s s m a l l i n comparison w i t h t h e two
o t h e r s (I, and Iz), t h e r e s u l t s of t h e llexactll and approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s may
agree w i t h a n accuracy s u f f i c i e n t f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes

To determine t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of natural v i b r a t i o n s , one can use a n

approximate method analogous t o that presented i n S e c t i o n 2 (Subsect.4) f o r a
system w i t h two degrees of freedom. For each n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n overtone, we
t h e n determine t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e assumption that i n t h e presence of
damping t h e v i b r a t i o n s of this overtone r e p r e s e n t a l s o angular v i b r a t i o n s about
t h e nodal l i n e of this overtone. I n t h i s case, j u s t as Sefore (Sect .2, Sub-
s e c t .4), t h e equation of natural angular v i b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r about t h e
nodal l i n e can be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

where
I, t o t h e nodal
= moment of i n e r t i a of t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e l a t i v e
l i n e of t h e k-th overtone;
ccR(= PgIk = angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber system during r o t a t i o n
r e l a t i v e t o t h e n o d a l l i n e of t h e k-th overtone;
= corresponding damping c o e f f i c i e n t .
kvk

The moment of i n e r t i a of t h e h e l i c o p t e r r e l a t i v e t o t h e nodal l i n e can be

determined by means of t h e formula:

I,=mh,2+ / , c o s 2 y R + Ibrsin*yk$/,sin Zy,, (5.12)

where
hk = d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r t o t h e nodal
line;
Y k = angle made by t h e nodal l i n e w i t h t h e cx-axis (Fig.3 .&) .
The q u a n t i t i e s hk and yk are determined from t h e formulas

346
I

The c o e f f i c i e n t of angular damping kv, i s determined from t h e expression

k,, =2ki,di, +2kZ,r1,2,j - 2 (klIayf ki,a;) cos2 ykr (5 015)

where
d i s t a n c e s between t h e nodal l i n e s (F’ig.3.45) and t h e
l i n e s connecting t h e p o i n t of contact w i t h t h e ground
of t h e t i r e s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing gears;
wheel t r a c k s of t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s
( f i g 03 0 1 6 ) ;
damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l
s p r i n g s (see Fig.3.16) of t h e f o r e and a f t landing
gear, having t h e same meaning as i n Section 2 (Sub-
s e c t .IC).
After determining t h e q u a n t i t y
’i n kV,, we can d e r i v e t h e dimension­
less c o e f f i c i e n t of damping of t h e
k-th overtone :

-
a h = - !k,- . (5.16)
2zkpk

3. C a l s l a t i o n of Natural Helicopter
Vibrations i n t h e Plane of
S;v”et-ry ( t u d i n a l Vibrations)
F i g .3.45 For Basic C o r r e l a t i o n s during kt us t u r n t o fig.3.46. The
Vibrations of a Helicopter R e l a t i v e t o problem of h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s i n
t h e Nodal Wne of t h e k-th Vibration t h e p l a n e of symmetry reduces t o
Overtone. a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of o s c i l l a t i o n s of
a clamped p l a n e e l a s t i c s o l i d body
i n i t s own plane (xOy). The v e r t i c a l s p r i n g s w i t h a s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t c y l
and c y 2 simulate t h e v e r t i c a l r i g i d i t y of t h e f o r e and a f t landing gears, w h i l e
t h e h o r i z o n t a l s p r i n g s cX1 and c x 2 simulate t h e f o r e and a f t landing gears i n
t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox-ads. If t h e tires of t h e landing gears a r e not braked,
t h e n cX1 a& c x 2 = 0. I n t h e case of braked t i r e s , t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e land­
i n g gear i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox-axis i s composed of t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e
t i r e and t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e t i r e suspension system ( f o r example, f l e x u r a l
e l a s t i c i t y of t h e landing gear s t r u t s , etc.). For approximate c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e
l o n g i t u d i n a l s t i f f n e s s of one t i r e cZn can be taken as equal t o cZn 1.5 c;..
Iet t h e p o i n t M (F’ig.3.46) w i t h t h e coordinates e, and e y represent t h e
flexural c e n t e r of t h e shock absorber system at l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s . The
q u a n t i t y e y i s t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r from t h e
ground surface, w h i l e t h e q u a n t i t y e, i s ,determined from t h e expression

347
 Let x and y r e p r e s e n t displacements of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e x - 4
J
,'l/
c o p t e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ox- and Cy-axes, and l e t cpz be t h e angle of r o t a ­
t i o n of t h e f u s e l a g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e 02-&so Then, t h e equations of small v i ­
b r a t i o n s of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e p l a n e xOy i n t h e absence of damping have t h e
f om

where

Let us introduce t h e following n o t a t i o n s :

r o=c, e; +cYe: +c,; 1

L e t us a l s o s u b s t i t u t e cpz by t h e new variable

S=@*.

Equations (5.18) can t h e n be w r i t t e n i n t h e form

x = - p;x +p;e,s;
-
Y = -p2Y y - p2,e,s;
s = -p;s +p;<x - P2;
Y XY.

Seeking t h e s o l u t i o n of this system of equations i n t h e form

x=xo cos pt; y =yo cos pt; s =so cos p t , (5.23)

we arrive a t t h e following system of l i n e a r homogeneous a l g e b r a i c equations f o r

determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s x,, yo, and so:

(5.24)
 Equating t h e determinant of this system t o zero /315

we o b t a i n t h e f o l l a J i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation f o r determining t h e n a t u r a l Vi­

b r a t i o n frequencies p :

p6+ up4 +bp2 +c =0,

(5.25)

where

T h i s ecpation has t h r e e r e a l r o o t s p ” which can be found g r a p h i c a l l y by

constructing t h e graph of t h e f u n c t i o n A = A(p) = p6 + ap4 + bp” + c, similar t o
t h a t i n d i c a t e d i n Section 5 (Sub­
sect.2) for eq.(5.6) ( s e e fig.3.43).
Let us t h e n arrange t h e r o o t s of

-X
t h e eq.( 5.25) i n ascending o r d e r
p1 < pa < p3 and designate by t h e
q u a n t i t i e s p l , pa, and p3 t h e fre­
quencies of t h e f i r s t , second, and
t h i r d natural v i b r a t i o n overtones
of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e p l a n e of
symmetry, or l o n g i t u d i n a l vibra­
t i o n s . To each l o n g i t u d i n a l vibra­
t i o n overtone t h e r e corresponds i t s
Fig.3.G Scheme of Helicopter on a n own v i b r a t i o n mode of t h e h e l i ­
E l a s t i c Landing Gear, f o r Calculating copter, which is conveniently char­
Vibrations i n t h e Plane of Symmetry. a c t e r i z e d by t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e
corresponding v i b r a t i o n node 0 k
( h e r e k = 1, 2, 3 ) i n t h e p l a n e B y ,
i.e., t h e f u s e l a g e p o i n t s that remain s t a t i o n a r y during v i b r a t i o n s of this over­
tone. The coordinates of t h e v i b r a t i o n node xk and yk can be found i n t h e f o l ­
lowing manner: The v i b r a t i o n amplitude a, and a y of any f u s e l a g e p o i n t w i t h t h e
coordinates xk a d yk in d i r e c t i o n s of t h e Ox- and Oy-axes are determined by t h e
obvious formulas

where cpo = sop is t h e angular v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

349
 The coordinates xk and yk are determined from t h e conditions a, = 0 and
a y = 0, such that

The values of t h e r a t i o -
Yo and - can be found f r o r n t h e first two equa-
SO
XO
SO
t i o n s of t h e system ( 5 . a ) ) i f t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency p i s known. For vibra­
t i o n s of t h e k-th overtone, we o b t a i n

P
Y.:
(:)&=mi

Hence, we o b t a i n t h e following formulas f o r determining t h e coordinates /316

of t h e v i b r a t i o n node:

We w i l l give two p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a s i m p l i f i e d c a l c u l a t i o n of n a t u r a l heli­

copter v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e plane of symnetry.

When t h e flexural c e n t e r of shock a b s o r p t i o n M (see Fig.3.46) l i e s on t h e

Oy-axis (e, = 0), t h e equations of motion (5.B) are s i m p l i f i e d and t a k e t h e
form

my = - cYy;

Equation (5.28) d e s c r i b e s v e r t i c a l forward v i b r a t i o n s of t h e helicopter,

which a r e not of i n t e r e s t from t h e Viewpoint of ground resonance.

Equations ( 5 .a)
express l o n g i t u d i n a l Vibrations of t h e h e l i c o p t e r , which
i n this case can be regarded as a system w i t h two degrees of freedom x and cpz.
Such a system i s mechanically equivalent t o t h e system discussed i n Section 2

350
 (Subsect .3) and depicted i n Fig .3.16. Therefore, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l
frequencies of a h e l i c o p t e r , it i s here p o s s i b l e (neglecting t h e moment due t o
t h e f o r c e of t h e weight G ) t o use t h e graphs i n Figs.3.19 and 3.20 as w e l l as
eqsa(2.22), (2.23), and (2.241, p u t t i n g t h e r e

x= I,.
me; ’

The q u a n t i t y gk = - W i l l represent
Yk

e Y
t h e ;.elative d i s t a n c e between t h e vi­

b r a t i o n node of t h e k-th overtone (which here comes t o l i e on t h e Oy-axis) ard

t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

For a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r , t h e q u a n t i t y e, i s g e n e r a l l y not equal t o zero, but

u s u a l l y i s small i n coqparison w i t h t h e q u a n t i t y 1 + 1,. In most cases, a n ap­
proximate c a l c u l a t i o n i n which we set e, = 0 w i l l give natural v i b r a t i o n values
c l o s e t o t h o s e obtained by a n exact c a l c u l a t i o n and can be s u c c e s s f u l l y used as
a preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n whenever one wishes t o o b t a i n r e s u l t s quickly, with­
o u t t h e need f o r g r e a t e r accuracy.

When c a l c u l a t i o n s of l o n g i t u d i n a l Vibrations are c a r r i e d out i n t h e pres­

ence of unbraked t i r e s ( c , = 0 ) , t h e equations of motion (5.18) a g a i n are re­
solved i n t o two independent systems :

mx=O;

I n this case, we can assume x = 0 during v i b r a t i o n s s i n c e t h e r e i s no /317

p r o j e c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s onto t h e Ox-axis. One of t h e natural fre­
quencies of t h e system i s e q u a l t o zero and corresponds t o uniform motion of t h e
c e n t e r of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r along t h e Ox-axis. The two o t h e r n a t u r a l
v i b r a t i o n frequencies, as i n t h e preceding case, can be found from t h e graphs i n
Figs.3.19 and 3.20 o r from eqs.(2.22), (2.23), and ( 2 . a ) i n which we must p u t

The values of ak = -xk

e,
r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e s between t h e center

of g r a v i t y of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and t h e v i b r a t i o n nodes which, i n this case, Lie on

t h e Ox-axis.
351

I
 F i n a l l y , when t h e r e i s no t i r e braking but e, = 0, t h e simplest formulas
f o r n a t u r a l frequencies i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry are obtained:

To determine t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s of natural l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s

we can again use a n approximate method based on t h e assumption t h a t , i n t h e
presence of damping f o r c e s , t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e g i v e n overtone are angular vi­
b r a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e n o d a l l i n e of t h e given overtone which, i n this case,
r e p r e s e n t s a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e 02-axis and i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e p l a n e xOy
a t a p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinates xk and Yk [see eqs.(5.27)1. The equation of vi­
b r a t i o n s of this overtone can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form of es.( 5.11), except t h a t
t h e q u a n t i t y I, is found from t h e formula

I n determining t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t k t h e r e i s no need t o allow f o r

qk
damping of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l e l a s t i c elemerks cX1 and c x 2 ( s e e Fig.3.46) s o t h a t
o n l y damping of t h e v e r t i c a l e l a s t i c elements w i t h s t i f f n e s s e s c; and c; of
1 2
t h e f o r e and a f t landing g e a r s m u s t be considered (see Fig.3.16).

The corresponding damping c o e f f i c i e n t s k:l and ki2 a r e determined as i n d i ­

c a t e d i n Section 2 (Subsects .4 and 5).

By c a l c u l a t i n g t h e moment from t h e damping f o r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e nodal

l i n e , w e o b t a i n t h e following expression f o r determining t h e quantity kq:

The dimensionless damping c o e f f i c i e n t ?ik of t h e given v i b r a t i o n overtone i s

d e t e d ned by t h e formula

4. Reduction - of t h e Problem t o Calculation o f a Rotor

on a n E l a s t i c Base
m
After determining t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies a& modes of t h e heli­
c o p t e r on a n e l a s t i c landing gear, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance can be

352
reduced t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a flexible support, as presented i n
Section 1.

The method of c a l c u l a t i o n based on reducing t h e problem t o a r o t o r on a

f l e x i b l e support i s a n approximate method and analogous t o that given i n Sec­
t i o n 2 (Subsect.6) f o r a s i n g l e - r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r .

The essence of t h e approximate method i s as follows: A s e p a r a t e calcula­

t i o n of ground resonance i s performed f o r each natural v i b r a t i o n overtone; here,
t h e h e l i c o p t e r f u s e l a g e i s regarded as a s o l i d body w i t h one degree of freedom,
namely r o t a t i o n about t h e nodal l i n e of t h e given overtone. O f course, such a n
approximate method holds only f o r t h e case i n which t h e n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n fre­
quencies of d i f f e r e n t overtones are s u f f i c i e r r t l y llfarll from each o t h e r .

When t h e r e a r e two Ifclose11 natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies, c e r t a i n correc­

t i o n s must be introduced i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . The method of r e f i n i n g t h e cal­
c u l a t i o n Will be presented below.

Thus, f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ground resonance, t h e h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s w i t h re­

s p e c t t o each overtone are s e p a r a t e l y considered as angular v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
f u s e l a g e about some f i x e d s t r a i g h t Line: nodal Line of t h e given overtone.

It can be demonstrated t h a t , w i t h such a. s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e equations of

motion of t h e system reduce t o a system of equations analogous t o t h e system
(1.16) (Sect.1). In this case, a l l formulas of Section 1 remain i n f o r c e and
we can use t h e graphs for determining t h e i n s t a b i l i t y f r i n g e ( s e e Figs.3.3 t o
3.12); however, here t h e quantity Tto i s t o mean a dimensionless dampi coef­
f i c i e n t ?ik of t h e given v i b r a t i o n overtone determinable from eqs.(5.U? o r (5.36)
(Sect.5, Subsects.2 and 3), w h i l e t h e quantity E i s t o mean t h e quantity ek cal­
c u l a t e d f o r t h e given overtone by t h e formula

i-1

where
i = 1, 2,
s =
...,
s;
number of r o t o r s , w i t h each of t h e q u a n t i t i e s Eik determined by t h e
formula

Here,
Ik = moment of i n e r t i a of t h e f u s e l a g e ( w i t h t h e r o t o r masses concen­
t r a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r ) r e l a t i v e t o t h e nodal l i n e of t h e k-th over­
tone [see e q ~ ~ ( 5 . 1 2and ) (5.3411;
t, = d i s t a n c e between t h e c e d e r of t h e given i - t h r o t o r and t h e nodal
l i n e of t h e k-th overtone i f l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s are considered, o r
t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e nodal l i n e of t h e k-th overtone arid t h e
plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e given r o t o r i f l o n g i t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s of

353
 t h e h e l i c o p t e r are considered;
n = number of blades of a given r o t o r ;
S V a h and IVeh= s t a t i c moment and moment of i n e r t i a of t h e r o t o r blade
relative t o t h e drag ( v e r t i c a l ) hinge.

The r o t o r s can be d i f f e r e n t ; however, t h e above method i s v a l i d only i f a l l

r o t o r s have i d e n t i c a l angular v e l o c i t i e s of r o t a t i o n and i d e n t i c a l values of t h e
parameter v o [see eq.( 1.9) I.

A s i n d i c a t e d above, t h e approximate c a l c u l a t i o n method presented here

holds only i f t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies of d i f f e r e n t overtones are s u f f i c i e n t l y
a
Iffar apart". It can be demonstrated t h a t , i f t h e r e are two c l o s e natural lat­
e r a l ( o r l o n g i t u d i n a l ) v i b r a t i o n frequencies- -
f o r example, p n and p m t h e n t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e boundaries of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zones can be performed f o r one
-
overtone - f o r example, pm but i s r e f i n e d by s u b s t i t u t i r l g a c e r t a i n quantity geq
f o r n, ( f o r a g i v e n overtone, where neq < Gm), which i s determined by t h e formula

T h i s formula i s derived f o r t h e case of p n = p m yi.e., when t h e natural v i ­

b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e two overtones i n question coincide exactly. If p n #
# p m , t h e n eq.(5.39) y i e l d s a n understated value of Tieq.
If t h e r e are two c l o s e natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies pn and p m , w i t h one of
them - f o r example, p n - being t h e frequency of t h e n - t h overtone of l a t e r a l
v i b r a t i o n s and t h e other, p m , being t h e frequency of t h e m-th overtone of longi­
t u d i n a l v i b r a t i o n s , then, g e n e r a l l y speaking, a. r o t o r on a f l e x i b l e support with
two degrees of freedom must be considered (see Sect.1, Subsect.4). I n this
case, it i s p o s s i b l e t o a p p r o a t e l y estimate ( w i t h i n t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r ) t h e
required damping by eq.(1.52), f o r a r o t o r on a n i s o t r o p i c flexible s q p o r t , sub­
s t i t u t i n g i n t o it t h e q a n t i t i e s no and 8 f o r t h a t of t h e two examined over-
-
t o n e s f o r which t h e value of t h e r a t i o -
n, i s
'k
smaller.

It should be noted t h a t such a c a l c u l a t i o n i s required only i n t h e r a t h e r

r a r e case i n which, f o r both exarnined overtones, not only t h e values of t h e fre­
- ­
nIl nm
quencies p n and p m but a l s o t h e values of
-nk
- and -
CIl em
are close. If t h e quan­

tity - f o r one of t h-e overtones­ i s l a r g e r by a f a c t o r of 2.5 - 3 t h a n f o r t h e

k'
nn
other - f o r e x a q l e , - = 3
En
-
nm
- t h e n we can disregard v i b r a t i o n s of t h e
m'
n-th overtone, and examine only v i b r a t i o n s of t h e m-th overtone ( a s independent).

5. Self-Excited Vibrations i n F l i g h t of a Helicopter w i t h

an E l a s t i c Fuselage

Self-excited v i b r a t i o n s of t h e ground resonance t y p e are a l s o p o s s i b l e i n

354-
h e l i c o p t e r f l i g h t . The f u s e l a g e of a r e a l h e l i c o p t e r i s a n e l a s t i c system which
has i t s own n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies and modes. Lf t h e v i b r a t i o n mode of
any overtone of a n e l a s t i c fuselage i s such t h a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r (or
c e n t e r s of t h e r o t o r s ) during v i b r a t i o n s of this overtone i s displaced i n t h e
plane of r o t a t i o n of t h e r o t o r , t h e n ground resonance i s p o s s i b l e and t h e fuse­
l a g e w i l l execute v i b r a t i o n s w i t h t h e mode of this overtone.

The n a t u r a l v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a n e l a s t i c f u s e l a g e are u s u a l l y high

i n comparison w i t h t h e v i b r a t i o n frequencies of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h shock absorp­
t i o n of t h e landing gear, and only one o r
two low natural v i b r a t i o n harmonics a r e
Z
dangerous from t h e viewpoint of t h e pos­
s i b i l i t y of self-excited v i b r a t i o n s .

I The lower natural v i b r a t i o n frequenci.es

of t h e fuselage u s u a l l y correspond t o i t s
I x-----c, f lexural v i b r a t i o n s .
I
Figure 3.47 shows t h e v i b r a t i o n /320
mode of t h e first p a r t i a l of bending of t h e
f u s e l a g e of a Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r i n t h e hori­
z o n t a l plane. The v i b r a t i o n mode i s given
as a curve of t h e e l a s t i c l i n e u = u(x)
(u being t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e
p o i n t w i t h t h e coordinate x).
Fig.3.47 Mode of First Vibra­
t i o n Overtone of a n E l a s t i c The natural flexural v i b r a t i o n f r e -
Helicopter Fuselage. quencies and modes of a f u s e l a g e can be
found by conventional methods used f o r elas­
t i c beams of v a r i a b l e c r o s s s e c t i o n (see,
f o r example, Chapter I1 of this volume) o r can be determined experimentally ( i f
a full-scale helicopter i s available).

If t h e frequency p o and mode u(x) of any flexural v i b r a t i o n overtone of t h e

f u s e l a g e are known, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of self-excited v i b r a t i o n s w i t h t h e mode of
this p a r t i a l can be reduced t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c base,
using t h e formulas i n S e c t i o n 1 o r t h e graphs i n Figs.3.3 - 3.12. I n this case,
t h e q u a n t i t y E should be determined by means of t h e formula

E=tl+E,+.
( 5 -40)

where s i s t h e number of r o t o r s .

The q u a n t i t i e s e l ( i = 1, 2, ..., s ) are determined from

355
where

xi = coordinate of t h e c e n t e r of t h e i - t h r o t o r ;
p = l i n e a r mass of t h e fuselage ( w i t h t h e i n t e g r a l t a k e n over t h e en­
t i r e f u s e l a g e length).

The q u a n t i t y Ui(x) r e p r e s e n t s t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude a t t h e p o i n t w i t h t h e

coordinate x, r e f e r r e d t o t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e c e n t e r of t h e i - t h
r o t o r . The q u a n t i t y m e q i s t h e m a x i " value of k i n e t i c energy of t h e f u s e l a g e
during v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e mode of t h e given overtone, w i t h t h e vi­
b r a t i o n arrrplitude a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e i - t h r o t o r being equal t o unity, r e f e r r e d
t o t h e q a n t i t y p:.

The q u a n t i t y no should t h e n be e q u a l t o t h e dimensionless c o e f f i c i e n t of

damping of t h e given v i b r a t i o n overtone of t h e fuselage. It i s determined ex­
c l u s i v e l y by h y s t e r e s i s l o s s e s i n t h e f u s e l a g e design and u s u a l l y amounts t o
0.02 - 0.05.

Such a comparatively low value of E, does not permit e l i m i n a t i r g ground

resonance i n f l i g h t by means of a blade damper, and f l i g h t s a f e t y of t h e h e l i ­
c o p t e r can be ensured only a t s u f f i c i e n t
rpm margins up t o t h e lower f r i n g e of in­
s t a b i l i t y . Consequently, s e l f - e x c i t e d
v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e a i r are dangerous only
f o r h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h comparatively low
natural v i b r a t i o n frequencies of t h e
e l a s t i c f u s e l a g e . For example, f o r t h e
Mi-& h e l i c o p t e r t h e rpm margin up t o t h e
lower boundary of i n s t a b i l i t y correspond­
i n g t o t h e first v i b r a t i o n overtone of
t h e f u s e l a g e (see Fig.3.47) i s 28%.

Ground resonance i n t h e air consti­

t u t e s t h e g r e a t e s t danger f o r h e l i c o p t e r s
Fig.3.48 Mode of Lower Vibration of side-by-side c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h a long
Overtone of a Side-by-Side Heli- e l a s t i c wing (F'ig.3.48). The danger of
copter, Most Dangerous from t h e s e l f - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s f o r such heli-
Viewpoint of Ground Resonance. c o p t e r s i s aggravated by t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e r o t o r c e n t e r s coincide w i t h t h e a n t i -
nodes of t h e corresponding v i b r a t i o n har­
monic, which y i e l d s comparatively smaU values m,, [eq.( 5.42) 1 and, consequent­
l y , r e l a t i v e l y wide i n s t a b i l i t y zones.

S e c t i o n 6. S e l e c t i o n of Basic Parameters of Landing Gear and Blade

Dmers . Design Recommendations

As i n d i c a t e d by t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r y of s t a b i l i t y of a r o t o r on a n e l a s t i c

3 56
base, t h e s t a b i l i t y margin, g e n e r a l l y speaking, can be increased by i n c r e a s i n g
t h e degree of blade v i b r a t i o n damping as w e l l as t h e f u s e l a g e ' v i b r a t i o n damping,
i .eo, by i n c r e a s i n g t h e damping c a p a c i t y of t h e l a r d i n g gear.

However, t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e t y p e s of damping are quite

l i m i t e d i n p r a c t i c e , s i n c e both t h e blade damper and t h e landing g e a r have a
number of o t h e r f u n c t i o n s not related w i t h ground resonance.

The blade damper works i n forward f l i g h t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r and loads t h e

blade r o o t w i t h a v a r i a b l e bending moment which i s g r e a t e r t h e g r e a t e r t h e de­
gree of it.s damping. The mechanical s t r e n g t h of t h e r o o t p o r t i o n s of t h e blade
and hub, and consequently t h e i r weight, i s determined mainly by t h e presence of
a damper.

An extreme i n c r e a s e of t h e degree of damping of t h e landing gear without

t h e use of s p e c i a l devices l e a d s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n shock absorber s t i f f n e s s and
hence t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h e dynamic loads during landing of t h e c r a f t .

These a s p e c t s of t h e work of blade dampers and of t h e landing g e a r must be

considered i n designing a h e l i c o p t e r . It f r e q u e n t l y i s impossible t o provide a
s u f f i c i e n t margin w i t h r e s p e c t t o ground resonance without using s p e c i a l devices,
e i t h e r i n t h e blade damper o r i n t h e landing gear system.

For h e l i c o p t e r s of single-rotor and fore-and-aft configuration, ground r e s &

nance during t h e ground r u n may prove t h e most dangerous. Therefore, this i s
conveniently considered t o be t h e design case f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e parameters of
b l a d e and landing gear damping. For s i m p l i c i t y , we can consider that t h e h e l i ­
copter o s c i l l a t e s about t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s going through i t s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y
which i s a s u f f i c i e n t l y v a l i d assumption at high t a x i i n g speed( Sect.4,Subsect .2$.
A s shown above, we derived very simple c a l c u l a t i o n formulas [eqs.(4-.18)-(4.21)1
f o r this case and w e r e able t o determine t h e required c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of land- & 2
i n g gear and blade damper by t h e simplest method. However, a f t e r having s e l e c t e d
t h e parameters f o r landing gear and blade dampers, a complete c a l c u l a t i o n of
ground resonance f o r a l l p o s s i b l e cases i s required, including ground resonance
during t h e ground run, followed by p l o t t i n g a diagram of s a f e rpm ( s e e Fig.3.25).
If necessary, t h e s e l e c t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e landing gear and hub can t h e n
be corrected.

S e l e c t i o n of Blade Da.mer C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
1. - ~~~

The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e work of a blade damper i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

natural blade frequency ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c frequency f o r ground resonance) i s al­
ways by a f a c t o r of about 3 - ,?+ lower t h a n t h e frequency of forced blade vibra­
t i o n s i n forward f l i g h t .

I n f a c t , i n f l i g h t a blade executes forced Vibrations r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l a p ­

p i n g and drag hinges w i t h a frequency u) e q u a l t o t h e r o t o r r p m whereas t h e natu­
r a l blade v i b r a t i o n frequency i s p b = wow. Usual*, w o = 0.25 - 0.3; i n any
case, t h e angular v e l o c i t y u) of r o t o r r o t a t i o n a t ground resonance cannot be
g r e a t e r than t h e angular v e l o c i t y of r o t o r r o t a t i o n i n f l i g h t

357
 T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c explains, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e unsuitability of using
danpers w i t h a l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (Sect.3, Subsect.3) i n View of t h e f a c t
t h a t a l i n e a r damper, a t constant v i b r a t i o n amplitude, w i l l generate a moment
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency.

The simplest dampers producing a moment independent of t h e v i b r a t i o n fre­

quency are f r i c t i o n dampers and hydraulic dampers w i t h stepped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ,
where this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c should be as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of t h e f r i c t i o n damper ( s e e Fig.3.31,b). A stepped hydraulic damper of this type
i s suitable for heavy h e l i c o p t e r s s i n c e it i s l i g h t e r i n weight t h a n a similar
f r i c t i o n damper, t h e g a i n i n weight of t h e damper i n c r e a s i n g w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n
i t s power.

When using ordinary d a q e r s , t h e moment M, of t h e damper i s s e l e c t e d from

b l a d e s t r e n g t h considerations, w h i l e i t s damping c o e f f i c i e n t i s determined from
eq.(3.23). Here, t h e damping margin f o r ground resonance can be ensured o n l y
by proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e landing gear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . When this i s -0s­
sible, s p e c i a l designs of blade dampers might be needed, which would produce
l a r g e blade damping a t low v i b r a t i o n frequencies ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r ground reso­
nance) and small blade damping a t v i b r a t i o n frequencies corresponding t o h e l i ­
c o p t e r f l i g h t . One of t h e simplest t y p e s of such a damper i s one connected i n
series w i t h a n e l a s t i c element (see F'ig.3.33). Figure 3.49 shows one of t h e
p o s s i b l e design versions of such a damper. Let u s designate this type of damper
a Itspring damper11".

Fig.3 .49 Damper w i t h Series-Connected E l a s t i c EXement

- -
1 E l a s t i c elements (rubber); 2 Casing; 3 Safety -
.
valve; 4 - Rod; 5 - Adjusting needle.

To estimate t h e advantages of a s p r i n g damper, we Will conpare it with a

conventional f r i c t i o n damper. Let t h e h e l i c o p t e r undergo ground resonance dur­
i n g t h e ground run s o t h a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone coincides w i t h t h e
operating rpm of t h e r o t o r . Furthermore, l e t t h e maximum moment i n f l i g h t ,
permissible with r e s p e c t t o s t r e n g t h considerations of t h e blade, be equal t o M,.

>L
" The design of a s p r i n g blade damper for elirninati.ng ground r6sonance w a s pro­
posed by engineers 0 .P.Bakhov, L.N.Grodko, I.V.Kurova, and M.A.Leykand (Patent
No. Ii343.42)

358
Then t h e equivalent damping c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h a f r i c t i o n damper i s detemnined
by t h e following formula (3.23):

where si i s t h e amplitude of t h e f i r s t harmonic of blade v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e p l a n e

of r o t a t i o n .

When using a s p r i n g damper, t h e corresponding equivalent damping coeffi­

c i e n t i s detemnined from eq.(3.17)

where p b i s t h e frequency of blade v i b r a t i o n s a t ground resonance, which can be

considered e q u a l t o t h e product vow.
Pb=VQO.

The moment produced by t h e s p r i n g damper i n f l i g h t can be determined by

means of t h e formula

which, i n t h e presence of harmonic blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h a frequency w, gives

t h e following value of t h e amplitude of t h e moment M [ s e e eqs.(3.17)1:

Iet us now pose t h e following question: If we s e l e c t t h e values of c and k

f o r a s p r i n g damper such t h a t it produces i n f l i g h t t h e same moment M, as t h e
f r i c t i o n damper, t h e n w h a t i s t h e mx3" value of k : t r i n g obtainable by varying
t h e q u a n t i t i e s c and k ? Here, we w i l l consider t h a t t h e amplitude of blade vi­
b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e first harmonic i n f l i g h t and during t h e ground
run of t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s t h e same.
The r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n damping when using a s p r i n g damper i s conveniently
characterized by t h e q u a n t i t y .a&

359
 S u b s t i t u t i n g i n this formula p b = vow and taking i n t o account t h e c o n d i t i o n
M = M,, we o b t a i n

where t h e dimensionless q u a n t i t y i s

Thus, t h e r e l a t i v e advantage gained-from using t h e s p r i n g damper depends

e x c l u s i v e l y upon s e l e c t i n g t h e value of k. Figure 3.50 ives a graph of t h e de­
pendence $(E7 f o r t h e case vo =
= 0.25. A s we see from this graph,
a n i n c r e a s e i n k causes t h e quan­
t i t y $ t o i n c r e a s e first and t h e n t o
decrease, a t t a i n i n g a $ =
-
- ,$,, a t a c e r t a i n value k = k o p t
which we will c a l l optimal.

Equating t o zero t h e d e r i v a t i v e

-
d$
dk ’
we f i n d

‘U
Fig.3.50 Dependence Jr = f ( k ) f o r
VO = 0.25.

-
A t v o = 0.2.5, we o b t a i n kept = 3.74, = 3.24.
Thus, t h e use of a s p r i n g damper permits i n c r e a s i n g t h e damping a t ground
resonance by a f a c t o r of more t h a n 3, w h i l e keeping t h e moment loading t h e blade
i n f l i g h t constant

However, this does not exhaust t h e advantage of a s p r i n g damper as com­

pared t o a customary damper. I n f a c t , a s p r i n g damper g i v e s 1lelasticityt1 i n t h e
drag hinge ( c , ~ ) , and t h e presence of such e l a s t i c i t y , as i s showi.1 i n Section 1,
Subsection 2, reduces t h e e x t e n t of t h e necessary damping [see eq.(l.31) and
t h e graph i n Fig.3.131.

Calculations show t h a t w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l l above statements, t h e

damping margin at ground resomnce can be i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 5 -
6 while
keeping unchanged t h e moment a c t i n g on t h e blade i n f l i g h t .
2. Rotor w i t h I n t e r b l a d e E l a s t i c Elements and DamDers

So f a r we discussed only t h e case where t h e e l a s t i c element and damper i n

t h e drag hinge a r e lashed up between t h e blade and t h e hub casing s o t h a t t h e
moment a c t i n g on t h e blade depends e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e motion of t h e given blade
and i s independent of t h e motion of t h e
o t h e r blades. Occasionally, hub designs
w i t h so-called i n t e r b l a d e coupling a r e
used. The diagram of such a hub i s shown
i n Fig.3.51. Let us assume t h a t each such
i n t e r b l a d e element has a c e r t a i n s t i f f ­
ness c and a damping characterized by t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t k, so t h a t t h e f o r c e P a c t i n g
on such a n element i s connected with t h e
v a r i a t i o n of i t s l e n g t h s by t h e r e l a t i o n
(L
< ds
p===cs+k-.
dt

I n this case; t h e moment exerted on a

given (k-th) blade by t h e i n t e r b l a d e e l e ­
ments will depend not only on t h e motion of
Fig.3.51 Diagram of Rotor Hub this blade characterized by t h e angle s k ( t )
w i t h I n t erblade Coupl i n g . but a l s o on t h e motions of t h e two adjacent
blades 5.k--1 ( t ) and < k + i ( t )
A t small v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinges, t h e moment
a c t i n g on t h e k-th blade W i l l be expressed by t h e formula
. .
M=cO(Ek-Ek--l)$CO (Ek-Ek+l)$-kO (ik-Ck-1) kO ( E k - E k f l ) ,

whence
co =ch2;
k, =kh2,

where h i s t h e a r m of t h e i n t e r b l a d e element ( s e e Fig.3.51).

Therefore, t h e equations of motion of blades i n this case have t h e follow­

i n g form [compare w i t h eq.(1.8)1:

where
&.=1,2,3,. . .n.

361
 If t h e r o t o r s h a f t vibrates harmonicalQ (326
x=xo cas p t ,

w e can f i n d t h e forced v i b r a t i o n s of t h e blades. The right-hand s i d e s of

eqs.(6.8) i n this case have t h e form

Equations (6.$) t h e n permit a s o l u t i o n of t h e form

Let us c a l c u l a t e t h e e l a s t i c moment exerted on t h e k-th blade by t h e i n t e r -

blade e l a s t i c elements during blade v i b r a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o some one of t h e s e
harmonics - f o r example, t h e harmonic (p w) = p b . W -
e have

MeL =ci) (Ek- Ek-1) f cO (kk - Ekfl) =CO (2Ek -Ek-l -�&+I).

Moreover,
tk=bl sin

where

Using t h e s e expressions, we o b t a i n

Taking i n t o account t h a t

(
sin y k - - 2i)=sinykcos 2n
--cOsyksin
n
2n
-,
n

we f i n a l l y o b t a i n t h e following expression:

362
 n

I n t h e case of ordinary e l a s t i c elements of angular s t i f f n e s s ceq located

between t h e blade and hub casing, we would have

Thus, t h e i n t e r b l a d e e l a s t i c elements f o r t h e given blade are equivalent t o

one ordinary e l a s t i c element of s t i f f n e s s

We can a l s o e s t a b l i s h e x a c t l y t h a t t h e i n t e r b l a d e dampers f o r t h e given /327

blade a r e equivalent t o one ordinary damper lashed up between t h e blade and hub
casing and having a damping c o e f f i c i e n t

(6.10)
n

Consequently, c a l c u l a t i o n of ground resonance of a h e l i c o p t e r with e l a s t i c

i n t e r b l a d e coupling and dampers can be c a r r i e d out by conventional formulas,
t a k i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e damper as equal t o k e g and t h e s t i f f n e s s c o e f f i ­
c i e n t i n t h e drag hinge as e q u a l t o ceq .
TABU3 3.2 Table 3.2 p r e s e n t s t h e values of t h e
quantity
Number
of

Blades 12 I 1 1 I
3 4 5 6 co ko
2x
n (6.11)

co ko f o r r o t o r s w i t h a d i f f e r e n t number of blades.

One of t h e shortcomings of a r o t o r w i t h
i n t e r b l a d e dampers l i e s i n t h e f a c t that,
during simultaneously d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e blades r e l a t i v e t o t h e drag hinges ( a l l
t o one s i d e and by t h e same angle) which might occur i n t r a n s i t i o n f l i g h t regimes
and during run-up of t h e r o t o r , such dampers do not operate.

I n e d s t i n g hub designs, this drawback i s sometimes eliminated by using

composite designs i n which t h e e l a s t i c elements are made i n t h e form of i n t e r -
blade couplings w h i l e t h e dampers are made s e p a r a t e l y f o r each blade, i.e., a r e
mounted between blade and hub casing.

363
 3. S e l e c t i o n of S t i f f n e s s and D a m i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r landing Gears3$

After choosing t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e blade dampers, t h e b a s i c parame­

ters of t h e landing g e a r can be s e l e c t e d . For h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e u s u a l single-
r o t o r and fore-and-aft configurations t h e wheel t r a c k 2a (see fig.3.17) should
be s e l e c t e d such t h a t t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency p p n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r dur­
i n g t h e ground r u n ( r o t a t i o n about t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis going through t h e
c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ) w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e s t r u t s ( o n l y t h e t i r e s are operative) i s ap­
p r o d m a t e l y 20% higher t h a n t h e operating r p m of t h e r o t o r . T h i s i s given by
t h e condition (4.19):

If t h e landing g e a r i s of t h e four-wheel type, t h e q u a n t i t y 2cP,"a2 i n t h e

above formula must be replaced by t h e quantity cy, = c = c [ s e e eq.( 5.3)l.
v1 y2
Since t h e t i r e s are s e l e c t e d i n terms of a standing load, t h e quantity c;,
i n t h e given formula can be considered as known; t h e r e f o r e , i t w i l l y i e l d t h e
corresponding value of a.

The s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorbers and t h e i r damping can be s e l e c t e d by

assuming t h a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone during t h e ground run (during
v i b r a t i o n s w i t h o p e r a t i v e s t r u t s ) coincides w i t h t h e operating r p m of t h e r o t o r .
Such a n approach i s s u e s from t h e following considerations: If t h e s t i f f n e s s 1328
of t h e shock absorbers i s s e l e c t e d such t h a t t h e unstable range during t h e
ground run i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e operating rpm, ground resonance might occur a t
t h e i n s t a n t of becoming a i r b o r n e ( s e e Sect .4, Subsect .3) s i n c e , during v i b r a t i o n s
of t h e h e l i c o p t e r on l i f t - o f f of t h e t i r e s , t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone can lldescendll
t o t h e operating r p m . It i s u s u a l l y impossible t o make t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone
lower t h a n t h e operating r p m (with t h e exception of t h e landing gear of t h e
B r i s t o l system whose design, however, i s r a t h e r complex) s i n c e this would re­
quire a n unfeasibly l o w s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorbers. On t h e o t h e r hand, i f
t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone i s located d i r e c t l y a t t h e operating r p m and t h e damping
margin i s s u f f i c i e n t , no ground resonance on breaking contact w i t h t h e ground
can occur since, during l i f t - o f f of t h e t i r e s , t h e i n s t a b i l i t y zone w i l l be lower
t h a n t h e operating rpm. This w a s checked i n numerous c a l c u l a t i o n s and program­
ming on a n e l e c t r o n i c computer of ground resonance on t i r e l i f t - o f f , performed
by engineer Yu.A.Myagkov.

For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t us assume that t h e landing gear i s equipped w i t h v e r t i ­

c a l shock absorber s t r u t s (see Fig.3.17,b). A s shown i n S e c t i o n 2, Subsection 5,
t h e maximum damping of t h e t i r e - o l e o system obtainable i n choosing t h e optimal

damping of t h e shock absorber depends on t h e r a t i o -.C8. a

Making use of
CYPn
ac
"
The method of s e l e c t i n g t h e landing g e a r parameters proposed here was developed
by engineer Yu.A.Myagkov.

364
eqs.(2.37) and (2.38) and considering that, during t h e ground run,

we can o b t a i n t h e following formula which determines t h e maximum p o s s i b l e coef­

f i c i e n t of available h e l i c o p t e r damping during t h e ground run:

(6.12)
where

T h i s means t h a t t h e maximum p o s s i b l e damping c o e f f i c i e n t which can be Ob­

t a i n e d during t h e ground r u n by varying t h e q u a n t i t y ks. a depends exclusively on
the ratio .
Therefore, knowing t h e damping required f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n
cypn
of ground resonance, it i s easy t o determine t h e necessary s t i f f n e s s of t h e
.
shock absorber c a a a If t h e blade damping i s known, t h e r e c p i r e d damping no
can be determined by eq.( 1.31)

where ?fn i s t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e blade i i b r e f e r r e d t o t h e n a t u r a l vi­

b r a t i o n frequency p p n of t h e h e l i c o p t e r during t h e ground run w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e
s t r u t s (using only t h e t i r e s ) :

F'' i s t h e natural v i b r a t i o n frequency of a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h operative s t r u t s

a t optimal damping, r e f e r r e d t o t h e quantity p p n :
a

It i s required t o provide a damping margin of

 Using eqs.(6.12), (6.&), and (6.16), we o b t a i n

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p can be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e f o l ­
lowing manner:

where

After s e l e c t i n g t h e blade and t i r e character­

i s t i c s and designating t h e necessary d
margin 1, t h e left-hand s i d e of eq.(6.18
Knowing t h e quantitycu, it i s easy t o f i d t h e quan­
Ti%
i s known.

t i t y u from eq.(6.19) and t h e n t h e necessary s t i f f ­

ness ce. * of t h e shock absorber. For convenience
Fig.3.52 Graph of t h e of determining 3.1, Fig.3.52 g i v e s t h e graph of t h e
Dependence of t h e Coef- dependence CY(.).
f i c i e n t CY on N.
To s e l e c t t h e s t i f f n e s s c S e a by t h e i n d i c a t e d
method. we can t a k e TI = 1 s i n c e t h e l ~ k i n e m a t i cdam­ ~~
i n g of t h e t i r e during t h e ground A n i s disregarded i n t h e formulas [see
eq.(k.Z)I. The a c t u a l damping margin 1w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this a d d i t i o n a l
damping should be a t least 1.5 - 2%.

After t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e shock absorber i s found, i t s optimal damping co­

e f f i c i e n t can be determined by eq.(2.36), namely

where

Since, i n r e a l i t y , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e shock absorber damping i s gen­

e r a l l y nonlinear (Sect.3, Subsect.l), we must understand by t h e quantity k!:
t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t of a n equivalent l i n e a r shock absorber.

’’ It should be r e c a l l e d here t h a t t h e case without kinematic danping i s obtained

during v i b r a t i o n s of a h e l i c o p t e r on i c e , when t h e r e i s no f r i c t i o n between t i r e
and ground (see Sect.4, Subsect.2).
 One of t h e b a s i c d i f f i c u l t i e s i n designing a landing gear i s t h e complex­
i t y of providing t h e necessary damping of t h e shock s t r u t . If t h e s i z e of t h e
o r i f i c e s through which t h e b­
d r a u l i c f l u i d p a s s e s when t h e
shock absorber i s operative i s
s e l e c t e d from t h e condition of
ground resonance, then, as a
r u l e , t h e work of t h e shock at+
s o r b e r during landing w i l l be
u n s a t i s f a c t o r y ( t h e f o r c e s Will
be t o o g r e a t when making contact
w i t h t h e ground). If this s i z e
i s s e l e c t e d from t h e conditions
“ t r n ; t a n t of v a l v e opening of landing, t h e n we o b t a i n t o o
small a damping during h e l i c o p t e r
l a t e r a l v i b r a t i o n s , which i s
completely i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r
avoiding ground resonance.

T h i s d i f f i c u l t y can be over­
come by two methods (Ref .B) :
I. 1) i n c r e a s e i n damping
S on t h e backstroke of
t h e shock absorber;
2) i n s t a l l a t i o n of spe-
V a l u e opens o n l y on l a n d i n g a, t t h e c i a l valves i n t h e
i n s t a n t of maximum o v e r l o a d
design of t h e shock
absorber.
O r i j i c e s f o r damping of
ground resonance
The first of t h e s e methods
i s t h e simplest and involves t h e
following: The s i z e of t h e o r i ­
f i c e s through which t h e hydraulic
f l u i d i s forced during t h e f o r ­
ward s t r o k e of t h e shock absorber
Fig.3.53 Shock S t r u t w i t h Valve. (compression) i s s e l e c t e d from
t h e landing conditions, w h i l e
t h e s i z e of t h e o r i f i c e s through
which t h e hydraulic f l u i d p a s s e s during t h e r e t u r n s t r o k e of t h e shock absorber
(extension) i s s e l e c t e d from t h e ground resonance conditions. T h i s i s p o s s i b l e
because of t h e f a c t that, during h e l i c o p t e r v i b r a t i o n s , one of t h e shock s t r u t s
( r i g h t or l e f t ) executes a backstroke a t each i n s t a n t of t i m e . Therefore, m
g e n e r a l l y speaking, t h e necessary damping c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e h e l i c o p t e r a t ground
resonance can be secured only by damping i n t h e backstroke of t h e shock ab­
sorbers.

However, damping i n t h e backstroke can be increased only within certain

limit’s. An extreme i n c r e a s e of damping i n t h e backstroke (very small o r i f i c e s )
l e a d s t o a very slow Ifemergencell of t h e shock absorber s t r u t s from a compressed
s t a t e a f t e r touchdown. Therefore, i n heavy r o l l e d landing on rough ground when

367
t h e first touchdown my be followed by f u r t h e r impacts, such a method of increas­
i n g t h e danqsing might be unacceptable.

The second method does not have this shortcoming and involves t h e follow­
ing: A s p e c i a l s p r i n g valve i s placed i n t h e shock absorber, which opens only
when t h e compressive f o r c e i n t h e shock absorber exceeds ( a t touchdown) a c e r t a i n
c r i t i c a l value P",'.,. A t P,. '., < Pip'.,, t h o s e o r i f i c e s whose s i z e had been se­
l e c t e d from conditions of ground resonance w i l l be o p e r a t i v e w h i l e a t Pa.a >
> Pfi"."'., t h e o r i f i c e s of l a r g e r diameter whose s i z e had been based on conditions
of l i m i t i n g t h e landing overload become o p e r a t i v e . Figure 3.53 shows a design
scheme and a diagram of dynamic compression of such a shock absorber.

Another important f a c t o r t o be allowed f o r i n designing a landing gear i s

t h e i n e v i t a b l e presence i n any shock absorber of p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e s (Sect.2,
Subsect.7), i.e., f o r c e s i n whose presence t h e shock absorber begins t o operate.
For a h e l i c o p t e r landing gear, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o have t h e smallest p o s s i b l e pre­
loading f o r c e s Po since, a t high r o t o r t h r u s t , t h e f o r c e s P on t h e landing g e a r
decrease and since, a t P < Po, t h e shock absorbers do not operate. I n this case,
ground resonance may develop w i t h i n o p e r a t i v e shock absorbers on e l a s t i c t i r e s
which a r e v i r t u a l l y without damping. For h e l i c o p t e r landing gears, t h e s t r u t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must be chosen such t h a t t h e p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e w i l l not be more
t h a n 10% of t h e standing load on t h e shock absorber a t zero r o t o r t h r u s t .
 CHAPTER I V

THEDRETICAL PRINCIPLES OF CALCULATING BEARIES

OF MAIN HELICOPTER COMFONENTS

The s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e main Components of a h e l i c o p t e r depends i n many re­

s p e c t s upon t h e performance of t h e i r bearing assemblies, which means t h a t con­
s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o problems of t h e t h e o r y of c a l c u l a t i n g a n t i -
f r i c t i o n bearings i n h e l i c o p t e r engineering.

A s known, t h e l i f e expectancy of general-purpose a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings

may vary w i t h i n wide limits owing t o various f a c t o r s of a m e t a l l u r g i c a l and tech­
n o l o g i c a l nature. I n this r e s p e c t , t h e necessary r e l i a b i l i t y of bearing assem­
b l i e s i n g e n e r a l machine c o n s t r u c t i o n i s achieved by introducing suitable s a f e t y
f a c t o r s , i.e., some overestimate of design loads. It i s l o g i c a l that, i n this
case, t h e requirement f o r accuracy of c a l c u l a t i o n of bearings can be reduced s u b
s t a n t i a l l y . O f course, f o r a i r c r a f t components, where an increase i n r e l i a b i l i t y
should be a t t a i n e d by improving t h e design without i n c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e and weight
of t h e bearing assemblies, such a procedure i s unacceptable. T h i s i s a l l t h e
more s o s i n c e a i r c r a f t bearings are manufactured from high-quality materials,
have high p r e c i s i o n , and are subjected t o very s t r i c t i n s p e c t i o n i n production,
as r e s u l t of which t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e i r s e r v i c e l i f e i s noticeably reduced.
A i r c r a f t bearings, including t h o s e used i n h e l i c o p t e r s , should be c a l c u l a t e d as
a c c u r a t e l y as p o s s i b l e w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e i r loading
and s e r v i c e .

I n recent years, thanks t o s t u d i e s by Soviet and f o r e i g n researchers, con­

s i d e r a b l e advances have been made i n p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r a n t i f r i c ­
t i o n bearings; nevertheless, t h e s e a r e by no m e a n s always s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate.
T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of bearings working under complex combinations of ex­
t e r n a l loads and v i b r a t i o n s w i t h small amplitudes; t h e s e are t h e cases of
g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t f o r h e l i c o p t e r engineering. The lack of r e l i a b l e c a l c u l a t i o n
methods f o r a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings working under t h e above-indicated conditions,
handicaps t h e design of reducing gears, p i t c h c o n t r o l s , and hubs of t h e main and
t a i l r o t o r s of h e l i c o p t e r s . We can c i t e many examples where t h e s e v i t a l l y im­
p o r t a n t components f a i l e d prematurely due t o t h e f a i l u r e of improperly s e l e c t e d
bearings.

I n this Chapter, we w i l l attempt t o report t h e r e s u l t s of t h e o r e t i c a l and

experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s which had t h e purpose of r e f i n i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
methods f o r bearings of h e l i c o p t e r components. A s shown i n p r a c t i c a l use, t h e
methods of c a l c u l a t i o n given below permit a f u l l e r u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e load-carry­
i n g capacity of t h e bearings. Such methods, i n designing bearing assemblies,
have f r e q u e n t l y made it p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t l y compact and l i g h t s t r u c ­
t u r e s capable of operating r e l i a b l y f o r p r o t r a c t e d p e r i o d s of t i m e a t relative­
l y high loads.

369
 Section 1. Equations of S t a t i c EafLlibrium of Radial and Radial-Thrust
B a l l B e a r i m s under Combined h a d

The r e l a t i o n s used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of bearings are based on r e s u l t s of

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of external loads over t h e r o l l i n g bodies.

We will construct equations from which we can d e r i v e t h e pressure on t h e

b a l l s i n t h e g e n e r a l case of load­
i n g of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t
b a l l bearings.

kt a single-row b a l l bearing,
after landing, have a r a d i a l p l a y
2 A on t h e shaft and i n t h e housing
at a n e s t a b l i s h e d operating temper­
ature regime of t h e assembly.

Iet us t a k e a r e c t a n g u l a r co­
o r d i n a t e system x y z w i t h i t s o r i g i n
at t h e c e n t e r 0 of t h e outer race.
The x-axis i s d i r e c t e d along t h e
axis of r o t a t i o n of this r a c e ( s e e
Fig.4.1 Scheme of Displacements of In- Fig .4 .1) .
ner Race of Bearing under a n A r b i t r a r y
W e r n a l Load. Upon applying a n arbitrary ex­
t e r n a l load t o t h e bearing, t h e
c e n t e r of t h e i n n e r r a c e i s s h i f t e d
t o a p o i n t 0' w i t h coordinates s, t, and u, w h i l e i t s a x i s of r o t a t i o n x' i s de­
f l e c t e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e x-axis through some angle -S whose p r o j e c t i o n s onto t h e
p l a n e s xOy and XOZ are e q u a l t o 9, and S z , r e s p e c t i v e l y (Fig.4.l).

Let us assume t h a t t h e b a l l whose c e n t e r Ob, l i e s i n t h e plane P1 which,

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p l a n e xOz, makes t h e angle $ i s a c t e d upon by normal f o r c e s P,)
i d e n t i c a l i n magnitude and d i r e c t e d along a common s t r a i g h t l i n e passing through
t h e c e n t e r s O o u t and 0,, of t h e cross s e c t i o n s of t h e raceways of t h e o u t e r and
i n n e r r a c e s and t h e p o i n t Ob, (Fig.4.2). A s i s comon i n t h e theory of a n t i -
f r i c t i o n bearings, we w i l l d i s r e g a r d any displacement of t h e c e n t e r of t h e con­
t a c t area of t h e b a l l w i t h t h e inner r a c e from t h e p l a n e P1 as w e l l as t h e tan­
g e n t i a l f o r c e s arising a t t h e p o i n t s of contact of t h e b a l l w i t h t h e races.

According t o t h e well-known H e r t z formula, we have

Here, 6,) i s t h e convergence of t h e raceways of t h e r a c e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n O o u t O i n

due t o e l a s t i c deforma.tions a t t h e contact zones.

For b a l l bearings with t h e usual i n t e r n a l geometry, we can put .La4

370

I
where
v = f a c t o r depending on t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e r a d i i
routand Tin of t h e raceways of t h e o u t e r and i n n e r
r a c e s and t h e diameter of t h e b a l l d b a ;
d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t s Oout and O,, a t t h e mo­
merit of contact of t h e b a l l w i t h t h e r a c e s (when 64 =
= 0).

If t h e diameter d,, i s expressed i n millimeters and t h e f o r c e s i n kilo­

grams, t h e n a t a modulus of e l a s t i c i t y E = 2.08 x 10" kg/cm2, of t h e material of
t h e r a c e s and b a l k , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t B,
i s ecpal t o 62.

The f a c t o r v has values i n d i c a t e d

i n Table 4.1.

TABI.E L.l

- rocos (i)

It follows from t h e conditions of

s t a t i c equilibrium of t h e bearing ele-
Fig.4.2 Polygon of Forces Act- m e n t s that t h e external f o r c e s and mo­
ing on t h e Ball. ments applied t o t h e i n n e r r a c e can be
w r i t t e n as ( s e e Fig.4.2)

A= P , sin Fc;

R, = - 4 P, cos pc sin 9:
Y,= P P, cos p,+cos (J;
&A

M,=r, 2 P, sin Pc cos $;

M, =ro r] P , sin &, sin 9. I

Here,
Q = angle of contact between b a l l and r a c e s ;
ro = r a d i u s a t which t h e c e n t e r s of t h e balls are located. The s i g n C
extends over a l l loaded balls.

Let us assume that t h e r a c e s have a p e r f e c t l y r e g u l a r geometric shape which

does not change when a load i s applied. I n this case, t o determine t h e conver­
gence of t h e raceways 6~ and t h e angle of contact 89 we can use t h e formulas
 Having e q r e s s e d , i n eqs.(l.b) and (1.5), a l l l i n e a r q u a n t i t i e s i n f r a c ­
t i o n s of t h e d i s t a n c e g, we can rewrite them i n t h e form

where Po = cos
- * i s t h e so-called i n i t i a l angle of contact (angle of co%
g
t a c t i n p u r e l y axial displacement of t h e r a c e s due t o t h e operating r a d i a l
p l a y 2a).
In eqs.(l.6) and (l.”), t h e terms Fl and F2 denote t h e q u a n t i t i e s a1- PO
g
and a,----.
r0

g
It should be borne i n mind t h a t t h e o p e r a t i v e axial p l a y of t h e bearing so
i s connected w i t h t h e angle B O by t h e following r e l a t i o n :

2so=2gsin Bo
or, changing t o relative q u a n t i t i e s ,

The r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s are denoted everywhere by t h e same l e t t e r s as t h e

a b s o l u t e q u a n t i t i e s but w i t h v i n c d i .

These equations d e s c r i b e t h e conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium of r a d i a l and

r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball bearings under any combinations of external loads. They per­
mit f i n d i n g a l l parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s between in­
d i v i d u a l b a l k . However, it should be remembered that, due t o t h e conplexity of
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e q u a n t i t i e s ~ J Iand B.J, and t h e r e l a t i v e displacement
of t h e races, p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e equations involves a l a r g e calcula­
t i o n volume. I n engineering c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e s e are u s u a l l y replaced by various
approximate c o r r e l a t i o n s . One of t h e most convenient v a r i a n t s of such correla­
t i o n s , w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t l y high accuracy, i s described below.

An a n a l y s i s of t h e operating conditions of bearing assemblies of various

t y p e s shows t h a t , i n most cases, t h e r e s u l t a n t r a d i a l f o r c e R = (R; + R,”)”” and
t h e r e s u l t a n t moment M = M; + M,”)1’2 absorbed by t h e bearing a c t i n o n u n d t h e
same plane. I n conformity w i t h this, by laying out t h e p l a n e of t h e coordinates
xOz such t h a t it coincides w i t h t h e plane of a c t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l loads ap­
p l i e d t o t h e bearing, we can write

372
 R, =R;
M,=M; (1.9)

As shown by c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n depends l i t t l e on t h e angu­

lar arrangement of t h e set of balls. Taking this i n t o account, we can assume
t h a t t h e b a l l s are arranged symmetrically w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e plane xOz. Under
this condition, we have
-
t=O;

(1.10)

- eq.(1.6) i n a
Keeping i n mind t h e e q u a l i t i e s (l.lO), we t h e n expand /336
Maclaurin s e r i e s i n t h e neighborhood of u
= 0 and F2 = E = 0. E m i t i n g our­
s e l v e s t o l i n e a r terms we obtain, a f t e r easy transformations,
-
E+=E+ C
;(OS p +;sin 9) cos +. (1.11)
In t h e e q u a l i t y (l.ll), we have
-
+
6 = (3 cos2 p0>”2 -1 (1.12)
and

The q u a n t i t i e s and i3 are none o t h e r t h a n t h e relative convergence of t h e

raceways and t h e angle of contact i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n Q = 90’.

A s follows from eq.(1.7),

sin p,+= ­

cos p* = - cos --isin 6 + Ucos6 i

Treating t h e equalities (1.a)

i n t h e same manner as eq.(1.6.), d i s c a r d i n g
all nonlinear terms, and making appropriate trsnsformations, we o b t a i n

373
 Having p u t

we can represent eqs.(l.ll) and (1.15) i n t h e form

The q u a n t i t y determining t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l whose c e n t e r l i e s i n

t h e plane xOy can be expressed i n terms of t h e angles $ and B o :

-E=---. cos80
cos $

The lgading zone of t h e bearing, as i s known, can be found from t h e condi­

t i o n t h a t 6 4 = 0 at i t s boundaries.

S e t t i n g FQ = 0 i n t h e e q u a l i t y (1.17), we o b t a i n t h e following expression

e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e boundaries of t h e loading zone:

The r e l a t i v e convergence of t h e raceways of t h e r a c e s

- FQ
a t t a i n s a maxi-
mum 6 0 a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e loading zone, which
i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n Q = Q o = 0,
if cos p + s i n f3 = 6h > 0, and i n t h e c r o s s
s e c t i o n Q = qD = BO', If ii cos p + S s i n p =
= 6A < 0 (Fig.4.3).

I n t h e case Jlo = 0, 0 < $to 5 180' and

$io = - $ t o , and i n t h e case 4' = 180°, 180' <
< Qfo 5 360' and $io = 360' - $2,
Fig.4.3 Loading Zone of It i s understandable t h a t eq.( 1.20) holds
Bearing. only i f t h e parameter h exceeds u n i t y i n abso­
1
l u t e magnitude. If hl s 1, t h e n t h e loading
zone w i l l be 36c0, i.e., a l l balls w i l l c a r r y a
load i n t h e bearing; i n this case, t h e q u a n t i t y 6 i s always p o s i t i v e and t h e
s i g n of h coincides w i t h t h e s i g n of cos Q o . The l a t t e r means that, f o r bearings
i n which a l l balls are loaded 0 S h 5 1 a t Qo = 0, and -1 5 h < 0 a t Qo = 1 80'.

374
 Having t a k e n Q = Q o i n t h e e q u a l i t y (l.l7), we f i n d
-
6, =q 1+ A cos q0). (1.21)

~y means of eq.(1.2), (1.17), and (LZl), r e c a l l i n g that FQ = A,we can

g
reduce e q . ( l . l ) t o t h e form

(1.22)

Equations (1.19) and (1.21) show that i n t h e case X = 0 3 , i.e., a t a 180'

loading zone 6 = 0 so t h a t f3 = Bo i s independent of t h e loading l e v e l .

Let us introduce i n t o t h e examination t h e sum

J k = z (1 + a1C O S +0)3/2 ~ ( 1 $ ~ c o s * ) 3 ' ~ C O S k -*,~

(1.23)

where
R= 1, 2, 3.

Here, as i n ' a l l preceding e q u a l i t i e s , t h e angle $ can assume only t h e d i s ­

c r e t e values t h a t determine t h e angular p o s i t i o n of t h e loaded balls.

Let us next transform eqs.(l.3) by means of t h e obtained expression.

After s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t h e s e equations P+, s i n B$, and cos f+, by t h e i r values
from eqs.( 1.22) and (1.18) i n conformity w i t h t h e e q u a l i t i e s (1.9) and (1.23)
and t a k i n g eq.(1.21) i n t o account, we o b t a i n

-- - B@2 cos pJ2X

rvdg,

375

I I I I 1 I I
 Equations (1.19) and (1.a)y i e l d t h e following expression f o r t h e angle B :

The e q u a l i t i e s (1.24) and (1.25) c o n s t i t u t e r e l a t i o n s which, i n engineering

c a l c u l a t i o n s , can r e p l a c e t h e 1lexactIl equations of s t a t i c equilibrium of r a d i a l
and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings. A s s h m by a c t u a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e e r r o r
produced by this s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t h e end results u s u a l l y does not exceed a f e w
percent

When changing t h e number of balls, t h e sums (1.23) vary only s l i g h t l y . This

permits expressing them i n terms of t h e i n t e g r a l s

which are a f u n c t i o n of t h e product h cos Jlo. Here, k = 1, 2, 3.

It i s easy t o demonstrate that, w i t h t h e u s u a l number of balls, we have

J =cosk--l $o jk. (1.27)

The values of t h e i n t e g r a l s j, are given i n Table 4.2.

- Table 4.2

A C O S lJl0 iz 11 12
~~ ~­ ~~

0 1 .ooo 0,000 0.500' 1.000 3.33 0.323 0.247 0.210 0.612

0.1 0.868 0.065 0.435 0.875 5 0.309 0,242 0.207 0.605
0.2 0.766 0.114 0.385 0.804 10 0,294 0.236 0.203 0.596
0.3 0.686 0.151 0.346 0.757 20 0.286 0,233 0.201 0.59
0.4 0,622 0.180 0.316 0.726 f m 0.279 0.229 0.199 0.587
0.5 0.570 0,202 0.292 0.705 -20 0.271 0.225 0,197 0.583
0.6 0.528 0,220 0.273 0.690 -10 0.262 0.221 0.194 0.578
0.7 0,494 0.233 0.258 0.676 -5 0.247 0.212 0.188 0.5G7
0.8 0.466 0,243 0.246 0.670 -3.33 0.229 0.201 0.18.1 0.558
0.9 0.443 0.250 0.237 0.663 -2.5 0.211 0.189 0.172 0.543
1 0.425 0.255 0.231 0.657 -2 0.192 0.175 0.162 0.528
1.111 0.409 0.257 0.226 0.651 -1.667 0.171 0.159 0.149 0.512
1.25 0,395 0.258 0.223 0.645 -1.429 0.147 0.140 0.133 0.488
1.429 0.380 0,258 0.220 0.639 -1.25 0.120 0.116 0.112 0.459
1.667 0.366 0.256 0.218 0.633 -1,111 0.084 0.083 0.080 0.414
2 0.352 0.254 0.215 0.626 -1 0.000 O.OO0 0.000 1 0.000
2.5 0.338 0.251 0.212 0.619
376
S e c t i o n 2. Calculation o f Radial and Radial-Thrust B a l l BeariIws
-
un&r Combined -$ads, f o r Absence of M i s a l i a m e n t
of the Races

- - on Balls
1. Pressure

If t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e bearings i s l a r g e i n comparison w i t h t h e dia­

metral dimensions of t h e bearings and i f a l l components of t h e bearing assembly
have a high r i g i d i t y , then, i n c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l i n g
bodies, we can d i s r e g a r d t h e misalignment of t h e r a c e s under load and t a k e i n t o
account only t h e i r displacements i n r a d i a l and axial d i r e c t i o n s .

Let us introduce t h e q u a n t i t i e s To and A i n t o eq.(1.22) which determines

t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k i n r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings.

Equations (1.a)
and (1.25) which connect t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l
loads applied t o t h e bearing, i n t h e absence of m i s a l i g m e n t of t h e r a c e s , i.e.,
i n t h e case 8 = 0, can be represented i n t h e form

We will not w r i t e out t h e expression f o r t h e moment s i n c e , a t 19 = 0, it

does not p l a y a n independent r o l e and i s not used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

We w i l l assume, f o r convenience, that t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e z-axis coincides

w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r a d i a l load R. Under t h i s condition, t h e r a d i a l d i s ­
placement u i s p o s i t i v e , and hence t h e angle $ o i s e q u a l t o zero. This f a c t i s
t a k e n i n t o account both i n eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) and i n a l l subsequent r e l a t i o n s .

It should be noted that t h e case @ = 0 i s fundamental i n t h e theory of a n t i -

f r i c t i o n bearings. Usually, when no s p e c i a l s t i p u l a t i o n s are made as t o design
and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of loading a bearing assembly, this i s t h e case applicable.
Basic i n v e s t i g a t i o n s (Refs.22, 23, 29, and 4.2) have been c a r r i e d out t o r e f i n e
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings working under combined loads.

The s t a t i c load c a p a c i t y of a b e a r i n g i s characterized by t h e magnitude of

maxi" p r e s s u r e on t h e rolling body.

According t o eq.(1.22) t h e maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l i s

For p r o t r a c t e d s t a t i c loads on a nonrotating bearing, t h e bearing

377
stress o m a xon t h e t r a c k of t h e i n n e r r a c e caused by this p r e s s u r e should not
exceed ,!+O,OOO kg/cm2. If t h e s t a t i c loads a c t i n g on a nonrotating bearing c r e a t e
g r e a t e r contact stresses, t h e n n o t i c e a b l e t r a c e s of r e s i d u a l deformations, i n
t h e form of depressions made by t h e b a l l s , will appear on t h e t r a c k .

The i n d i c a t e d p e r m i s s i b l e value of omaxi s s e l e c t e d from t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t

t h e e x t e n t of r e s i d u a l deformation (permanent s e t ) of t h e t r a c k i s not more
t h a n one micron p e r centimeter of t h e ball's diameter. I n this case, t h e smooth­
ness of t h e bearing r o t a t i o n i s not d i s t u r b e d and t h e bearing c a p a c i t y i s not
lessened.

I n t h e r e l a t i o n s required t o c a l c u l a t e t h e l i f e expectancy of bearings, t h e

quantity

appears, where m i s t h e exponent of t h e load i n t h e l i f e expectancy formulas.

By means of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (1.22) and (2.3), we reduce t h e expression (2.4)

t o t h e form

p,,= mP,. (2.5)

The c o e f f i c i e n t w here i s equal t o

We note t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y P,, i s t h e constant p r e s s u r e PJI = const, a t which

t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a t i g u e f a i l u r e of t h e r o t a t i n g r a c e under t h e given s e r v i c e
conditions i s t h e same as f o r t h e a c t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s between t h e
balls. T h i s j u s t i f i e s denotins it as t h e equivalent p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l f o r a
rotating race.

It should be borne i n mind that, i n some cases, i t i s impossible t o relate

t h e q u a n t i t y P,, t o t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e t r a c k as i s done i n eq.(2.4), but
only t o t h e loaded zone $yo - $io.
At m = 3.33, as i s adopted i n Soviet p r a c t i c e ,

x (1 + A cos +0)5 (2.7)

378
 For p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of eqs.(2.6) and (2.7) it must be remembered that,
f o r t h e s e l e c t e d d i r e c t i o n of t h e z-axis, t h e a n g l e eo
i s equal t o zero. The
angles JI;, and $lo i n eq.(2.7) are t a k e n i n r a d i a n s . The values of t h e coef­
f i c i e n t w found by this formula are given i n Table 4.2, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e values
.
of t h e i n t e g r a l s j,

The p r e s s u r e s Po and P,, at t h e given external loads R and A can be calcu­

l a t e d i n two ways.

The first c o n s i s t s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e q u a n k i t i e s by megns of eqs.(2.3)

and (2.5), making use of t h e values of 6, and A obtained
from a d i r e c t s o l u t i o n of eqs.( 2.1) a d (2.2).
‘i Since e q ~ ~ ( 2 . 1and
) (2.2) have a complex s t r u c t u r e ,
it i s l o g i c a l that this procedure encounters g r e a t d i f f i ­
c u l t i e s . These are s t i l l l a r g e , even when t h e problem is
solved approximately.

The second way, more acceptable f o r p r a c t i c a l use i n

determining t h e p r e s s u r e s Po and P,, i s based on t h e f o l ­
lowing considerations :

If t h e angle of contact of a l l b a l l s i s t h e same &

p,j = p = const, t h e n

Fig ./+
./+Resultant
of Force Applied
t o Bearing.
The r e l a t i o n s (2.8) d i f f e r from eqs.(2.1) i n t h a t t h e y
do not c o n t a i n terms allowing f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n angle
of contact a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e b a l l relative t o t h e plane x h .

For a 180° loading zone, when half of t h e b a l l s a r e o p e r a t i v e i n t h e bear­

ing, we have A = &m so t h a t p = Bo, j , = 0.279, j, = 0.229 and w = 0.587.

For t h e given case, eqs.(2.8) yield

such t h a t
p R R .
0- -4.37 ___
z cos pjz z cos p0 ’

P -wP0=2.57 R (2.10)
PQ- 2 cos pfi *

379

I
 ~

10" 20" 30" 40" 50' 600 70" 80" 90"

__ . ­ ..

0.02 1.000 0,889 1.070 1.210 1.308 1.380 1.422 1.428 1.398 1.308
0.04 1.ooo 0,890 0.966 1.091 1.146 1.196 1.212 1.192 1.152 1.080
0.07 1.000 0.880 0.924 1.014 1.078 1.116 1.116 1.094 1,050 0.976
0.11 1.ooo 0.920 0.880 0.958 1.010 1.034 1.030 1,000 0.950 0.874
0.14 1.ooo 0.926 0.873 0.933 0.974 0.994 0.984 0.952 0.906 0.826
0.21 1.ooo 0.936 0.858 0.898 0.930 0.938 0.916 0.880 0,830 0.750
0.35 1.000 0.948 0.856 0.858 0.676 0.872 0.850 0.804 0.746 0.667
0.53 1.ooo 0.956 0.874 0.636 0.842 0.828 0.798 0.750 0.686 0.602
0.70 1.ooo 0.961 0,862 0.824 0.822, 0.802 0.748 0.718 0.648 0.566
1.oo 1.ooo 0.967 0,893

Bo = 12"
0.02 1.399 1.171 0.839
0.04 1.249 1.109 0.642
0.07 1.184 1.077 0,847
0.11 1,136 1,046 0,853 0.841
0.14 1.114 1,034 0.860 0.831 0.859 0.862 0.647 0.809 0.754; 0.6S1
0.21 1.066 1.018 0 , S7C 0.816 0.833 0.833; 0.809 0.771 0.713' 0.636
0.35 1,056 1.008 0.68s 0.603 0.606 0.799 0.781 0.721 0.655 0.579
0.53 1.038 i.002 0.89s 0.602 0.789 0.772 0.734 0.688 0.623 0.538 1
0.70 1.028 0.995 0.90E 0.610
1.oo 1.020 0.983 0.912 0.813

Bo = 18"
1.628 1.476 1;001 0.785 0.804 0.813 0.804 0.770 0.718 0.647
0.02
1.453 1.338 0.961 0.818 0.797 0.799 0.789 0.759 0.697 0.623
0.04
0.07 1.327 1.238 0.961 0,786 0.780 01782 0.766 0.727.. 0.672 0.597
1.252 1.172 0.951 0.781 0.777 0.770 0.749 0.707 0.649 0.572
0.11
1.217 1.140 0.948 0.782 0.771 0.761 0.741 0.696 0.637 0.560
0.14
1.169 1.108 0.941 0.784 0.763 0.749 0.719 0.675 0.612 0.534
0.21
1.108 1.058 0.932 0.789 0.748 0.730 0.694 0.646 0.582 0.496
0.35
1.073 1.027 0.924 0.789 0.739 0.717 0.671 0.618 0.554 0.466
0.53
1.056 1.018 0.926 0.797 0.736 0.707 0.661 0.604 0.536 0.455
0.70
1.035 1.008 0.915 0.806 0.732 0.682 0.647 0.590 0.518 0.429
1 .oo
380
\
T A B U 4.3 (corrtfd)

- 0" 10" 20" 30" 40" 50" 60" 70" 80" 90"

I
0.02 1,914 1.815 1.478 0.872 0.692 0.6G7 0.641 0.594 0.530 0.454
0.04 1.609 1..528 1.321 0.865 0.692 0.665 0.635 0.587 '0.523 0.447
0.07 1.483 1.415 1.218 0.858 0.692 0.661 0.629 0.577 0.514 0.440
0.11 1.389 1.326 1.150 0.850 0.692 0.656 0.621 0.566 0.504 0.431
0.14 1.336 1.279 1.119 0.847 0.692 0.655 0.618 0.560 0.500 0.424
0.21 1.249 1,204 1.OG9 0.845 0.692 0.650 0.611 0.551 0.492 0.413
0.35 1.175 1.125 1.011 0,837 0.693 0.647 0.600 0.544 0.460 0.396
0.53 1.121 1.078 0.975 0.828 0.696 0.642 0.593 0.535 0.466 0.383
0.70 1.087 1,051 0.955 0.826 0.698 0.639 0.589 0.527 0.455 0.373
1.oo 1.051 1,016 0.932 0.819 0.701 0.632 0.580 0.515 0.440 0.358

Bo = 36"
0.02 2.171 7,051 1.823 1.426 0.795 0.580 0.507 0.455 0.368 0.310
0.04 1.815 1,756 1.574 1.242 0.777 0.575 0.507 0.453 0.388 0.307
0.07 1.G29 1.567 1.403 1,132 0.757 0,574 0.514 0.453 0.385 0.304
0.11 1.496 1.425 1.272 1.052 0.746 0.578 0.514 0.451 0.380 0.299
0.14 1.445 1.359 1.205 1.011 0.742 0.578 0.514 0.449 0.379-0.299
0.21 1.144 0.970 0.736 0.578 0.510 0.449
1
0.3751 0.299
1.343 1,262
0.35 1.207 1.156 1.060 0.913 0.724 0.578 0.510 0.445 0.370 0.291
0.53 1.129 1.086 0.999 0.870 0.714 0.578 0.509 0.444 0.364 0.285
0.70 1.098 1.053 0.967 0.848 0.707 0.578 0.506 0.440 0.364 0.283
1.oo 1.053 1.006 0.925 0.821 0.696 0.5781 0.502 0.434 0.356, 0.275

Values o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k

0.02 1.ooo 0.995 1.297 L.520 1.710' 1.682: 2.0301 2.150 2.230, 2.270
0.04 1 .ooo 0.962 1.150 1.350 1.502 1.655 1.758 1.825 1.870 1.900
0.07 1,000 0.950 1,055 1.212 1.355 1.475 1.540 1.608 .1.680 1.710
0.11 1.000 0.968 1.005 1.130 1.232 1.325 1.400 1.452 1.477 1.490
0.14 1,000 0.966 0.985 1.093 1.190 1.275 1.330 1.375 1.395 1.408
0.21 1.ooo 0.963 0.952 1.045 1.d20 1.175 1.225 1.260 1,275 1.283
0.35 1.000 0.970 0.937 0.979 1.041 1.082 1.107 1.122 1.133 1.140
0.53 1.ooo 0.972 0,934 0.944 0.986 1.015 1.025 1.032 1,030 1.029
0.70 1.ooo 0.977 0.934 0.928 0.952 0.973 0.976 -0.972 0.968 0.966
1.oo 1.ooo 0.982 0.935 0.907 0.919 0.926 0.922 0.905 0.896 0.890

0.02 1,237 1.090 0.929 1.039 1.190' 1.301 1.384 1.438 1.480 1.489
0.04 1.125 1.OS1 0.919 0.991 1.142 1.235 1.299 1.333 1.369 1.377
0.07 1.093 1.034 0.913 0.979 1.082 1.159 1.213 1.257 1.270 1.280
0.11 1.065 1.014 0.913 0.963 1.040 1.100 1.146 1.181 1.188 1.197
 --
\
TABU3 4.3 ( c o d td)
-
-
\
zvda,

0.14
0"

1.053
10" 20" 30"

-
40" 50"

~~
60"

1-
70" 80"

1
90"

1,006 0.914 0.951 1.017 1.071 1.111 1'.136 1.149 11152

0.21 1.037 0.999 0.916 0.921 0.981 1.02: 1.051 1.057 1.082 1.077
0.35 1.017 0.994 0,923 0,897 0.937 0.95: 0.983 0.986 0.991 0.989
0.53 1.010 0.988 0.929 0.885 0.911 0.92; 0.931 0.925 0.918 0.917
0.70 1.006 0.982 0.931 0.883 0.891 0.895 0.892 0.885 0.877 0.869
1.oo 1.001 0.976 0.933 0,873 0.870 0.864 0.851 0.834 0.626 0.812

0.02 1.336 1.260 0.972 0.879 0.944 1.003 1.048 1.070 1.091 1.102
0.04 1.231 1.175 0,962 0.873 0.931 0.979 1.008 1.036 1.056 1.062
0.07 1.170 1.115 0.952 0.866 0.915 0.957 0.981 0,999 1.017 1.013
0.11 1.125 1.077 0.941 0.860 0.899 0.933 0.957 0.965 0.973 0.965
0.14 1.104 1.057 0.937 0.856 0.889 0.920 0.942 0.944 0.951 0.942
0.21 1.067 1.033 0.932 Q .856 0.872 0.894 0.9OG 0.906 0.913 O.SO6
0.35 1.041 1.011 0.935 0.856 0.856 0.865 0.865 0.865 0.858 0.856
0.53 1.024 0.996 0.934 0.856 0.837 0.846 0.836 0.825 0.810 0.808
0.70 1.013 0.986 0.932 0,856 0.830 0.830 0.818 0.799 0.780 0.780
1.oo 0 * 999 0.974 0.929 0,856 0.819 0.806 0,789 0.770 0.751 0.737

0.02 1,451 1.411. 1.227 0.863 0.775 0.778 0.782 0.778 0.775 0.767
0.04
0.07
0.11
1.285
1.215
1.182
1.249
1.195
1.159
1.132
1.078
1.034
0.863
0.859
0.856
0.773
0.772
0.769
0.776
0.769
0.762
0.773
0.764
0.754
0.772
0.7611
0.749'
' I
0.767
0.754
0.741
0.759
0.747
0.732
0.14 1.150 1.120 1,011 0.854 0.768 0.758 0.749 0.7411 0.732 0.722
0.21 1.096 1.071 0.980 0.850 0.766 0.755 0.741 0.729 0,719 0.705
0.35 1,043 1.021 0.959 0.847 0.764 0.746 0.728 0.707 0.692 0.678
0.53 1.016 0.992 0.936 0.841 0.764 0.737 0.714 0.690 0.668 0.652
0.70 1.005 0.971 0.923 0.836 0.764 0.732 0.705 0.678 0.652 0.634
1.oo 0.989 0,953 0.905 0.836 0.764 0.728 0.701 0.658 0.6341 0.615

0.02 1.525 1,480 1.363 1.149 0.566 0.540 0.526

0.04 1,367 1.333 1.124 1.060 0.%66 0.536 0.525
0.07 1,269 1,233 1.141 0.990 0.756 0,638 0.600 0.564 0.534 0.521
0.11 1.195 1,157 1.076 0.942 0.748 0,637 0.599 0.558 0.531' 0.518
0.14 1,157 1,120 1.045 0.922 0.746 0.638 0.599 0,557 0.527 0.514
0.21 1.098 1.066 0.996 0.888 0.744 0.639 0.597 0,554 0.520 0.508
0.35 1.035 1.012 D.946 0.858 0.736 0.639 0.592 0.550 0.511 0.498
0.53 0.993 0,970 3.910 0.832 0.728 0.639 0.589 0.544 0.502 0.491
0.70 0.970 0.946 D,890 0.815 0.723 0.639 0.585 0.540 0.500 0.485
0,945 0.914 3.863 0.798 0.718 0.639 0.582 0.5341 0.4931 0.473

3 82
 Equations (2.10) are known i n t h e theory of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings as IlSt;*i­
beck formuhstt

For t h e case
sented as
-
A # 1.217 t a n Bo t h e p r e s s u r e s Po
R
and P,, can be repre­

P,=4.37 KOF '

z cos i?lo '

P =2.57 ~,h'F (2.11)

e% z c o s 90

where F = (R2 + i s t h e r e s u l t a n t load on t h e bearing (Fig.4.4).

T h i s same form of n o t a t i o n can a l s o be r e t a i n e d when t a k i n g account of t h e

v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e angle B 4 .

After s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values of Po and P,, from t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.3) and

(2.5) i n t o eq.(2.11), we o b t a i n

(2.12)

The c o e f f i c i e n t s ko and k are unique r e d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s r e f e r r e d t o

t h e r e s u l t a n t load F. It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e y can be found from eqs.(2.1) and
(2.2) by d i f f e r e n t i n d i r e c t methods which preclude t h e need f o r d i r e c t s o l u t i o n
of t h e s e equations.

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and k f o r bearings w i t h i n i t i a l angles

of contact Bo = 0 , 12, 18, and 36', obtained from eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) by t h e
p a p h o a n a l y t i c method (Ref.30), a r e given i n Table 4.3.

Irrtroduction of t h e t a b u l a t e d r e d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s and k g r e a t l y
f a c i l i t a t e s f i n d i n g t h e p r e s s u r e s Po and P,,, p e r m i t t i n g t h e use, f o r this
purpose, of r a t h e r simple and convenient formulas [eqs.( 2.11)l.

The c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and k are given i n Table 4.3 as a f u n c t i o n of t h e

quantity , which c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e l e v e l of t h e load received by t h e

ZVd? B
bearing, and of t h e a n g l e cy = tan-'
r e s u l t a n t .;?I
- A which determines t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e
R'

% I n calculating t h e quantities and a l s o as w e n as

A
zv d i a Wd2ba zvdza '
t h e diameter d,, i s always expressed i n m i l l i m e t e r s ­

383
 2. Reduced Loads

Let us denote by Q t h e r a d i a l f o r c e which, i n combination w i t h t h e axial

force A = 1.217 t a n Bo& a t a constant contact angle between balls and races
@$ = B o = const, c r e a t e s t h e same equivalent p r e s s u r e P,, as t h e a c t u a l combina­
t i o n of e x t e r n a l loads applied t o t h e bearing.

The f o r c e Q i s commonly c a l l e d t h e llreduced dynamic load".

Along with t h e concept of reduced dynamic load, t h e concept of "reduced

s t a t i c load11 i s widely used i n t h e t h e o r y of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings. By reduced
s t a t i c load we mean t h e r a d i a l f o r c e Qo which, under t h e i n d i c a t e d conditions,
e x e r t s a maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l Po equal t o t h e a c t u a l pressure.

The replacement of a c t u a l loads by reduced loads, determined as i n d i c a t e d

above, permits using d a t a from c a t a l o g s and handbooks of r a d i a l l y loaded bear­
ings, when c a l c u l a t i n g bearings operating under combined loads.

A comparison of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.10) and (2.11) shows t h a t

I n o t h e r countries, and r e c e n t l y a l s o i n domestic use, a formula of t h e

following type i s o f t e n used t o determine t h e reduced loads:

Q =xR+yA.
Different sources g i v e d i f f e r e n t values of t h e r e d u c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s x and
y, s o t h a t t h e reduced loads c a l c u l a t e d f o r one and t h e same case may d i f f e r
substantially.

Since a l l c a l c u l a t i o n met hods f o r r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t hrust b a l l bearings

under combined loads, used i n p r a c t i c e , a r e based on t h e same i n i t i a l equations
[eqs.(l.l) - (l.?)] and b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r only by t h e assumptions used f o r sin­
p l i f y i n g t h e i r s o l u t i o n , one of t h e p r i n c i p a l c r i t e r i a of t h e q u a l i t y of one o r
another c a l c u l a t i o n method i s t h e closeness of t h e reduced loads calculated on
i t s basis t o t h e "exact'! value of t h e s e loads obtained from t h e i n d i c a t e d equa­
tions.

Figure 4.5 g i v e s a comparison of t h e reduced loads determined by means of

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of Table 4.3 w i t h t h e reduced loads found as t h e r e s u l t of t h e
"exact" s o l u t i o n of eqs.( 1.1)t o (1.7). The same diagram shows t h e reduced
l o a d s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Standards Organization (ISW
r e c e n t l y adopted i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s and c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method of M.P.Belyan­
4@
chikov (Ref .&) which i s now being recommended f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of general-
purpose bearings.
~~ -
-x- Draft of recommendations f o r c a l c u l a t i n g dynamic load-carrying capacity of
b a l l and r o l l e r bearings, I s , No.278, 1960.

I
 A s we see from Fig.4.5, t h e re­
duced loads obtained by using t h e
d a t a of Table 4.3 are c l o s e s t t o
t h e i r Ilexact 11 values .
Use of t h e IS0 method, under
c e r t a i n conditions w i l l overestimate
t h e reduced loads by 20 -
30%which
i s n a t u r a l l y impermissible f o r bear­
i n g assemblies of a i r c r a f t com­
ponents.

S u f f i c i e n t l y accurate .values of
t h e reduced loads are obtained with
t h e method developed by M.P.Belyan­
chikov f o r c a l c u l a t i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t
b a l l bearings w i t h contact angles of
Bo 2 26'. However, a t smaller con­
t a c t angles, t h e accuracy of t h e
method decreases s t e e p l y . For i n ­
stance, i n t h e case of contact
angles of Bo = 12 - 1 8', t h e e r r o r
i n t h e reduced load may go as high
as 40%. For contact angles l e s s
than 1 2', this method i s g e n e r a l l y
unacceptable.
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Q 0 a2$
3. S t a t i s t i c a l Theory of Eynamic
Fig.k.5 Comparison of Various Methods Load-Carrying Capacity
f o r Calculating Reduced Loads on a
Bearing. I n c a l c u l a t i o n s of l i f e ex­
pectancy we g e n e r a l l y use t h e prin­
ciDles of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l theorv of
f a t i g u e of metals, which assumes t h a t f a i l u r e bf t h e m a t e r i a l under t h e effLct
of a l t e r n a t i n g loads i s a random process of accumulation of f a t i g u e cracks having
various p r o b a b i l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Such a n approach t o t h e problem of l i f e
expectancy i s highly u s e f u l f o r any machine component operating under a l t e r n a t ­
i n g s t r e s s e s , including a n t i f r i c t i o n s bearings which f a i l as a consequence of
f a t i g u e chipping of t h e t r a c k s or rolling body.

S t a t i s t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , underlying modern methods of determining t h e

s e r v i c e l i f e of a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings, were developed mainly by Weibull (Ref.43)
and Lundberg and Palmgren (Ref .a). I n v e s t i g a t i o n s by Harris ( R e f .45) and
o t h e r s were devoted t o t h e development of t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o r small proba­
b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e .

The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t h e o r y of t h e dynamic load capacity

of r o l l e r bearings can be formulated i n t h e f o U a J i n g manner:

Let qbe be t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e bearing, r o t a t i n g a t a n rpm of n, works

h hours without s i g n s of f a t i g u e .

385
 On t h e basis of t h e theorem of &thematical s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e product of
independent events, disregarding t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e r o l l e r by
v i r t u e of i t s smallness i n comparison w i t h t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e of t h e
t r a c k s , we can write
%e= qlvtqrr 1

(2.W
where qro and qst a r e t h e corresponding p r o b a b i l i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e reli­
a b i l i t y of t h e r o t a t i n g and s t a t i o n a r y r a c e s .

Taking i n t o account t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s t a t e of stress under t h e

e f f e c t of contact l o a d s and t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e primary f a t i g u e microcracks
formed i n r o l l e r bearings, h n d b e r g and P a b g r e n introduced t h e following d i s ­
t r i b u t i o n determining t h e p r o b a b i l i t y FA of t h e appearance of t r a c e s of f a t i g u e
on & p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k of l e n g t h A L a f t e r N r o l l e r s loaded by a constant
f o r c e P have r o l l e d along it:

Here,
H, = c o e f f i c i e n t depending upon m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , s u r f a c e f i n i s h , and
p r e c i s i o n of manufacture ;
T~ = maximum tangential stress a c t i n g i n areas p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e of
t h e area of contact s t r a i n ;
zo = depth a t which this s t r e s s arises;
AV = s t r e s s e d volume.

A t m2 = 0, which might occur when t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e introduced by

each element of volume does not depend upon i t s l o c a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e surface,
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n (2.15) changes t o t h e customary Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n .

The s t r e s s T~ and t h e depth zo can be expressed, r e s p e c t i v e l y , by t h e m d ­

mum bearing stress o0 a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e area of contact s t r a i n and t h e semi-
minor a x i s b of this a r e a :

(2.16)

The s t r e s s e d volume AV, i n f i r s t approximation, can be taken as equal t o /348

A V =2az0AL , (2.17)
where a i s t h e semimajor a x i s of t h e area of contact s t r a i n .

A s follows from t h e t h e o r y of contact s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s , f o r r a d i a l and

r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings,
 I n t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.18) t h e following 'notations are adopted:

The c o e f f i c i e n t s H,, aT, and CY,, s t r i c t l y speaking, are not constants; how­
ever, for a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes this can be disregarded s i n c e t h e limits w i t h i n
which t h e i r values vary (depending on t h e r a t i o b/a) a r e q u i t e n e g l i g i b l e .

It i s easy t o prove t h a t

where A$ i s t h e c e n t r a l angle corresponding t o t h e examined p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k *

By means of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.l-6) - (2.19) we can reduce eq.(2.l5) t o t h e

fo m

- H N , c o s & Pm'N'
nllc -
:A).

dba
(2.20)

The number of balls contacting each p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k during h hours of

work of t h e bearing w i l l be
N=30.~nh( 1 f q ) . (2.21)

S u b s t i t u t i n g this value i n t o eq.( 2.x)), we f i n a l l y o b t a i n

- H3zl cos $i(nh)'

o -- (2.22)

The exponents m and c are expressed i n terms of t h e exponents ml, m2, and
i n t h e following manner:

387
 According t o t h e d a t a of f o r e i g n bearing manufacturers, which are gen­ &
J
!'/
e r a l i z e d i n t h e recommendations of t h e ISO, m = 3 and c = 1.8 ( a t d,, < 25 m).

The p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k of t h e s t a t i o n a r y r a c e l o c a t e d a t t h e azimuth JI
when t h e balk, r o l l along it, i s loaded each t i m e by t h e same f o r c e P t . S e t t i n g ,
i n conformity w i t h this, P = P\Ir i n eq.(2.22), we o b t a i n f o r this p o r t i o n

It follows from eq.(2.&) that t h e p r o b a b i l i t y q,, , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e re­

l i a b 5 l i t y of t h e s t a t i o n a r y r a c e as a whole, i s equal t o

where

During a s u f f i c i e n t l y long time i n t e r v a l , each element of t h e t r a c k of t h e

r o t a t i n g r a c e w i l l contact t h e balls a t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l azimuths.

Accounting f o r this f a c t and considering t h e hypothesis of l i n e a r swmnation

of damageability t o be v a l i d , eq.(2.22) w i l l y i e l d f o r each p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k
of t h e r o t a t i n g r a c e

Subsection 1.

The p r o b a b i l i t y c&,, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e e n t i r e r o t a t i n g
r a c e i n conformity w i t h eq.(2.26) w i l l t h e n be

388
 The c o e f f i c i e n t H3, f i g u r i n g i n t h e above e q u a l i t i e s , can be represented a s
t h e product of a c e r t a i n constant H, and t h e q u a n t i t y

2m,+m,-2
3
H, = (2.28)

which i s a f u n c t i o n of 7 and 0 , i.e., parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e i n t e r i o r

geometry of t h e bearing. '

Let us assume t h a t t h e i n n e r r a c e r o t a t e s . For this, eqs.(2.%), (2.25),

and (2.27) w i l l y i e l d

The i n d i c e s Ilin11 and IroutIl (eq.0 = equivalent o u t e r ) as w e l l as t h e .Lis

upper and lower s i g n s i n eqs.(2.18), (2.19), (2.211, and (2.28), p e r t a i n , re­
s p e c t i v e l y , t o t h e inner and o u t e r r a c e s of t h e bearing.

At 7 = 0.2, 0 = 0.52 and h = let

Furthermore, l e t us introduce t h e q u a n t i t i e s Co a.nd f, over t h e formulas

where
1

and

' .. .. ... . ..... . _-_.....

 Using eqs.(2.30) and (2.3l), we transform eq.(2.29) such t h a t

Having expressed here P,, i n terms of t h e equivalent dynamic load Q, we

obtain
-
1 1
-
Q(n/i) = C f q m ,
(2.33)
where

c = c, (cos Po) (1- Aj

I n l i k e manner, we can examine t h e case where t h e o u t e r r a c e r o t a t e s .

Combining t h e formulas o f l i f e expectancy for r o t a t i o n of t h e i n n e r and

o u t e r r a c e s and introducing t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and kt which t a k e i n t o account
t h e e f f e c t of t h e type of load and temperature regime of t h e bearing on t h e load-
c a r r y i n g capacity, we f i n a l l y have

Here k, = 1i f t h e i n n e r r a c e r o t a t e s , and

i f t h e outer race rotates.

I n t h e s p e c i f i c numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball /351

bearings on t h e basis of t a b u l a t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and k, t h e values of t h e kine-

Pig.4.6 Kinematic Coefficient k,.

390
 matic c o e f f i c i e n t k k can be determined approximately as a f u n c t i o n of t h e guan­

t i t y w = 0.587 - from t h e graph i n Fig.4.6.

k0
I n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of u t i l i z a t i o n C, and
C u s u a l l y t a k e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f ' as e q u a l t o 150 - 200.

Calculations show that, a t a given e, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f // depends mainly

on 7 . A t m = 3, C = 1.8, and 1 = 1.11which corresponds t o t h e IS0 recommenda­
t i o n s , this c o e f f i c i e n t has t h e values i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4.4.

For general-purpose bearings, t h e l i f e expectancy h,, a t which t h e proba­

b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i s equal t o lo%, i s considered t o be t h e r a t e d l i f e .

Since we have a t q = 0.9 a value of f , = 1, it follows t h a t

Comparing t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.34.) and (2.36), we f i n d

h
-= f,. (2.37)
h1o

It follows from eqs.(2.37) and (2.31) t h a t t h e average l i f e expectancy of

r o l l e r bearings i s determined from t h e expression

where I? i s t h e g a m a f u n c t i o n of t h e argument (1 + +).

The r a t i o of t h e median l i f e expectancy hS0, corresponding t o t h e r e l i a b i l ­
i t y q = 0.5, t o t h e r a t e d l i f e hlo will t h e n be

Equations (2.38) and (2.39) show t h a t t h e main parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g

t h e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e l i f e expectancy of r o l l e r bearings i s t h e exponent 1 .

In most cases, t h e r a t i o -h50

hl0
varies w i t h i n limits from 4.08 t o 5. At

39 1

I
-
bo = 4.O$,
hl0
1 = 1.34 and - = 4.95.
hl0
-
A t h50 - 5, 1 = 1.1'7 and ha, = 6.5.
h10
-
h10
A s experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e , t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
d e s c r i b e t h e d i s p e r s i o n of l i f e expectancy a t q,, 2 0.9. Noticeable d e v i a t i o n s
are observed i n t h e region of small p r o b a b i l i t i e s of f a i l u r e . These devia­ /352
t i o n s can be t a k e n i n t o account if, f o r this region, eq.(2.3?) i s replaced by
t h e following:

Here, ho i s some t h r e s h o l d of l i f e expectancy, p r i o r t o which t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of

f a i l u r e i s equal t o zero.

Since we have f , w C ~ O ( I- qbe)ll't at qbe < 0.9, eq.(2.40) can f i n a l l y be

w i t t e n i n t h e form

According t o Harris' d a t a (Ref.45), t h e r a t i o f o r b a l l bearings i s ­

h0
h 10
0.045. T h i s means that, t o ensure 100%r e l i a b i l i t y , a r a t e d l i f e margin of
t h e order of 22 i s required which corresponds t o a load margin of 2.8.

The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e s t a t i c t h e o r y of dynamic load c a p a c i t y of radial

and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings have been presented above. The corresponding
s t a t i c t h e o r i e s of dynamic load c a p a c i t y can be developed i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n
f o r bearings of o t h e r types

The main r e s u l t s of s t a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e l i f e expectancy of r o l l e r

bearings have been applied both i n f o r e i g n and domestic p r a c t i c e . However, it
should be borne i n mind here t h a t some of t h e fundamental r e l a t i o n s used i n pre­
p a r i n g our own c a t a l o g s and manuals have a form d i f f e r i n g from that i n o t h e r
countries. le, our c o e f f i c i e n t s of u t i l i z a t i o n Co and C are not calcu­
For
l a t e d from eqs.(2.30 and (2.33) but are t a k e n as e q u a l t o

For general-purpose bearings, f = 65. We r e c a l l t h a t , i n Soviet p r a c t i c e ,

t h e exponent m i s considered as e q u a l t o 3.33.

The l i f e expectancy of two-row bearings as w e l l as of r o l l e r bearings con­

s i s t i n g of several i d e n t i c a l bearings which can be regarded as one multirow bear­
ing, i s determined by t h e expression

392
 1
0.39 K , , K ~ Zcos P0egj( t ~ h , , ) ~ C=
The equivalent p r e s s u r e e n t e r i n g here i s

where P,,, and k, are t h e equivalent load and kinematic c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e

s
j - t h bearings.

Equations (2.43) and (2.44.) follow d i r e c t l y from t h e r e l a t i o n s given above

f o r i n d i v i d u a l bearings.

If a l l bearings are loaded i d e n t i c a l l y , t h e n

A s shown by a n a n a l y s i s of t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s f Ni n Table 4 . 4 ,m

t h e performance of r o l l e r bearings l a r g e l y depends upon ll. I n eqs.(2.42) this
important f a c t i s not t a k e n i n t o account, which i s t h e i r e s s e n t i a l shortcoming.

A s i s known, f o r high-precision a i r c r a f t bearings manufactured from p a r t i c u ­

l a r l y high-grade m e t a l , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of u t i l i z a t i o n have much l a r g e r values
t h a n those obtained from eq.(2.42) f o r f = 65.

Therefore, using t h e d a t a of machinery c a t a l o g s and handbooks f o r calcula­

t i o n s of a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s , it can be expected t h a t , i n r e a l i t y , t h e r a t e d
l i f e h,, w i l l not correspond t o t h e 10%p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e but w i l l be ap­
p r e c i a b l y smaller i n value. With this approach t o a determination of t h e s e r v i c e
l i f e of bearing assemblies of a i r c r a f t components, this l i f e expectancy i s o f t e n
i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e required lifetime. I n p r a c t i c e , this i s achieved by replac­
i n g h,, i n eqs.(2.36) and (2.43) by h, understanding by h t h e l i f e expectancy a t
which t h e l e v e l of r e l i a b i l i t y of bearings f o r a i r c r a f t components i s ensured.

4.. E f f e c t of-Axial Load on Bearing Performance

Let us d i s c u s s t h e manner i n which a n axial load a f f e c t s t h e performance of

r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings.

Figures 4.7 and 4.8 show t y p i c a l graphs of t h e r e l a t i o n 2

R
= f(*) for

-
R = const, p l o t t e d from d a t a of c a l c u l a t i o n s performed i n compiling t h e
md2ba
tables of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k, and k.

393
 As we see from t h e s e graphs, f o r each load level t h e r e i s a range of values
of -
A i n which 3 < 1. Its boundaries are given i n Table 4.5.
R R
TABLlI 4.5

R I Values of A/R a t Different Contact h g l e s Bo

deg.
zvdk I O 1 1 2 1 1 8

0.02 0-0.15 0.26-0.38 0.39-0.56 0.56-0.82 0.84-1.20

0.11 0-0.28 0.25-0.45 0.37-0.60 0.55-0.84 0.76-1.21
0.35 0-0.37 0.22-0.47 0.35-0.63 0.47-0.85 0.38-1.21
1.00 0-0.43 0.04-0.49 0.00-0.65 0.00-0.86 0.00-1.22

A t values of -
A as i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4.5,
R
t h e axial load not only w i l l

not reduce t h e load c a p a c i t y of t h e bearing but even i n c r e a s e it somewhat. It

i s t r u e that this i n c r e a s e i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t , s i n c e t h e p o s s i b l e decrease of t h e
reduced dynamic load i s s e v e r a l percent.

In r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, t h e balk are a c t e d upon by C o r i o l i s f o r c e s

which tend t o make them r o t a t e about axes perpendicular t o t h e contact surfaces.
F r i c t i o n f o r c e s a r i s i n g a t t h e p o i n t s of contact w i t h t h e r a c e s prevent such
11spinningf1 of t h e balls. If t h e r e i s an unloaded zone i n t h e bearing, t h e n
this zone contains no f r i c t i o n f o r c e s that would prevent rlspinning" of t h e b a l k ,
and t h e b a l k begin t o s l i d e r e l a t i v e t o t h e raceways of t h e r a c e s ; a t high
rates of r o t a t i o n , t h i s w i l l lead t o overheating and r a p i d wear of t h e bearings.
It i s l o g i c a l t h a t , i n designing high-speed bearing assemblies with r a d i a l - t h r u s t
b a l l bearings, it i s always necessary t o have a l l b a l k s h a r e t h e load. I n
p r a c t i c e , this i s achieved e i t h e r by i n s t a l l i n g t h e bearings a t suitable contact
angles o r w i t h some a u x i l i a r y axial load produced by preloading.

The magnitude of t h e loading zone depends on t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between axial

and r a d i a l loads applied t o t h e bearing. The g r e a t e r t h e r a t i o A/R, t h e l a r g e r
this zone. A s i n d i c a t e d earlier, a t Q o = 0 t h e loading zone i s 360' i f 0 5 h < 1.
The value h = 0 corresponds t o t h e case of axial loading of t h e bearing i n which
t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k are i d e n t i c a l . The value A = 1 determines t h e mini­
mum magnitude of t h e r a t i o A/R a t which a l l balls are loaded. T h i s , i n p a r t i c u ­
lar, follows from eq.(1.22) which shows that, i n t h e case q 0 = 0 and h = 1, t h e
f o r c e absorbed by t h e b a l l located a t t h e azimuth Q o = 180' vanishes.

Taking i n t o account t h a t , a t h = 1, we have j, = 0.425, j, = 0.225, and

j, = 0.231, we f i n d from eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) that

394
 Fig.4.7 Graphs of t h e

Relation 3
R
= )
+
(
f at

Certain Constant Values

of and@, = o
zvd:,
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 . Ag ~

Fig.4.8 Graphs of t h e Relation = f(+) at Certain

R
Constant Values of and B o = 36'.
zvd2ba

A
0 0.2 0.4
o*8 & 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2vdL

Fig.4.9 Dependence of t h e Ratio Fig.4.10 Dependence of t h e Ratio

(L) on Load Level. (A) on Load Level.

\ R ~ = 1 R \=I

395
 sin2 PO +To+
A
-- - 1.666
R,, -1) cos Po

where t h e r a d i a l load R i s determined by t h e expression

w h i l e t h e r a t i o is
' = 0.5025 2 +%o
- sinzpo +so+" 52--
4
*

1 + 0.905- 2+30
60
cos2 po
-_

A s we s e e from t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.46), (2.47), and (2.481, t h e values of

depend on t h e i n i t i a l contact angle as w e l l as on t h e level

and (+)
X=1
o f t h e load received by t h e bearing.

For t h e most f r e q u e n t l y encountered i n i t i a l contact angles Bo = 0, 12, l8,

26, and 3 6 O , we p l o t t e d i n figs.4.9 and 4.10 on t h e basis of eqs.(2.46), (2.47),
A
and (2.48) curves determining t h e values and as a f u n c t i o n of
R
zvdi,
For s m a l l loads,

A
With a n i n c r e a s e i n load, t h e q u a n t i t i e s will a l s o in- /356

crease. For instance, f o r t h e angle Bo = 23' at = 1, we have

zvd;,

A s shown above, i n t h e case of a constant contact angle between b a l k and

3 96
r a c e s f o r a loading zone of 180' and a parameter h = *m, the r a t i o A =
= 1.217 t a n B o . R
The values of t h e r a t i o A with c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n C O ~
( ~ ) lm =
t a c t angle as a function of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e b a l l r e l a t i v e t o t h e plane XOZ
can be found from t h e curves i n Fig.4.U. Figure 4.12 shows curves by means of

which t h e corresponding values of t h e r a t i o (2)

R
can be
x=m
determined. '

Fig.4.11 Dependence of t h e Ratio Fig.4.12 Dependence of t h e Ratio

on t h e b a d Level. on t h e b a d Level.
<+)\= m (+)I=,

The graphs i n Figs.4.11 and 4.12 are constructed by means of t h e formulas

which follow from eqs.(2.1) and from t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.12) and (2.13).

These d a t a permit estimating t h e e f f e c t of t h e axial load on t h e load ca­

p a c i t y of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings. With t h e i r a i d , one can estab­
l i s h t h e optimal ~ a preloading
l w i t h which t h e bearings should be mounted i n
t h e assembly and s e l e c t t h e most r a t i o n a l values of t h e i n i t i a l contact. angle Bo
f o r d i f f e r e n t combinations of r a d i a l and axial loads.

5 . Approximate -Solutions of Equations (2.1) and (2.21

It should be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e angle Bo i s determined by t h e r a d i a l c l e a r ­
ance 20. present i n t h e bearing a f t e r f i t t i n g t o t h e shaft and i n t h e housing a t
a n e s t a b l i s h e d operating temperature of t h e component, and a l s o by t h e a c t u a l , &.
J
i
'

397
d i s t a n c e g between t h e c e n t e r s 0, and 0, of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n s of t h e raceways
of t h e r a c e s [see Fig.4.2 and eq.(1.7)1.

Because of t h e e f f e c t of s h a f t - f i t t i n g t o l e r a n c e s , nonuniformity of heating

of i n d i v i d u a l elements of t h e assembly, and p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e values
of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of l i n e a r expansion of t h e s h a f t and housing, t h e clearance
2A may d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y from t h e i n i t i a l r a d i a l clearance i n a self-contained
bearing. Deviations of t h e radii of t h e raceways and b a l l diameter may have a
noticeable e f f e c t on t h e magnitude of t h e d i s t a n c e g. I n t h i s connection, when
c a l c u l a t i n g highly loaded r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b d l bearings t h e angle Bo
cannot always be replaced by t h e r a t e d i n i t i a l contact angle i n d i c a t e d i n a
catalog. T h i s f a c t must not be disregarded i n designing v i t a l bearing assem­
b l i e s of h e l i c o p t e r u n i t s and of o t h e r a i r c r a f t .

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ko and k f o r r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l

bearings w i t h i n i t i a l contact angles Bo d i f f e r i n g from standard can be obtained
by i n t e r p o l a t i o n of t h e d a t a presented i n Table 4.3. A t t h e same time, a number
of cases exist i n which it i s more convenient not t o r e s o r t t o this method but
t o solve t h e problems i _ n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of such bearings by a d i r e c t determina­
t i o n of t h e q u a n t i t i e s 6, and h from eqs.(2.1) and (2.2), using t h e following
approximate methods.
A , i.e'., i f a l l bearings share t h e load, t h e i n t e g r a l s can
R
be found from t h e expressions

The right-hand s i d e s of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.50) r e p r e s e n t t h e f i r s t terms of

power s e r i e s i n which t h e products j k ( l + have been expanded f o r $, = 0
and 0 I h 5 1. I n v i e w of t h e r a p i d convergence of t h e s e series i n t h e i n d i ­
cated region, t h e terms containing t h e parameter h i n a power higher t h a n t h e
t h i r d are discarded here.

Solving eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.5O),

successive approximations w i l l yield t h e working formulas

398
 3
14-Di
16
A=D2
1 ’ (2.52)
l - - D32
i

where -
A=- A
Bo rvdg, ’

The c o e f f i c i e n t s D1, D,, D, are correspondingly equal t o /358

D --.-4 R (sin2 Bo
-_ +
2D,)’I2
‘-3 A
COSZBO 1+ D, (2-53)
1
1--DO2
32
3
16

If -
A
R
(L 2 ) , the
R /x=1
formula f o r t h e e m u m p r e s s u r e on t h e balls can be

represented i n t h e f o r m

It follows from eqs.(2.3) and (2.51) t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cAA’ i n eq.(2.54)

can be equated t o

It i s obvious t h a t , i n t h e examined case, t h e reduced loads Q o and Q can be

expressed i n t h e following manner:

399
 A comparison of t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.56) and (2.13) y i e l d s , f o r t h e given case,

~,,=0.229Gh~)cos &sin a;
(2.57)
K =0.390w2hA) cos i3, sin a.

If t h e r a d i a l load i s R = 0 then, i n conformity' w i t h t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.53),

we have D, = 0 and D, = 1. S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t o eq.(2.55), we o b t a i n
t h e following f o r t h e case of p u r e l y axial loading:

Figure 4.13 g i v e s graphs of t h e dependence g;) 26)(A),= obtained from

t h e i n i t i a l equations of s t a t i c equilibrium of r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l
bearings without s' l i f y i n g assumptions. There, t h e s i g n ~ 1 denotes 1 t h e values
of t h e c o e f f i c i e r l t 3 ; ) c a l c u l a t e d by eq.( 2.58) , f u r n i s h i n g graphic proof of i t s
completely s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy.

The described method of determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s To and h can be used

only when t h e r e are no unloaded balk i n t h e bearing.

Now l e t t h e loading zone be l e s s t h a n 360'.

For a loading zone less t h a n 360°, t h e quan­
t i t y h can vary w i t h i n limits from t o 1 and
from -a t o some negative value h+ corresponding
t o t h e case where t h e bearing absorbs a p u r e l y
r a d i a l load. I n t h e absence of an axial load,
t h e c e n t e r of t h e contact area llslidestl t o t h e
middle of t h e raceway and t h e angle B vanishes.
If, i n e q . ( l . l 9 ) , t h e angle B i s equated t o
zero and a t r a d i a l loading of t h e bearing, we
obviously have
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 2 ­
&=cos Po- 1. (2.59)
Fig.4.13 _Gra hs _of t h e De­
pendence';:k = k00
(A) (A). Let us introduce t h e n o t a t i o n s

(2.60)

The values of E as a f u n c t i o n of h are given i n Table 4.6.

-6 =
At cos B o - 1and B = 0, t h e second equation of t h e system (2.1) can be

4.00

1 ....
represented as

where

We r e c a l l that, i n conformity w i t h the-accepted d i r e c t i o n of t h e z-axis,

t h e angle B o = 0 and t h u s h cos Jlo = h and h 0 = 6(1 + A ) .

TAUWE 4..6
-1
- El E2 E3 E4 E4
h
. .

1 1.244 1.125 1.666 0,600 -0.1 -0,304 2.670 1.185 -8.441

0.9 1.173 1.149 1.594 0.697 -0.2 -0.704 3.126 1,164 -4,296
0.8 1.097 1.187 1,532 0.816 -0.3 -1.248 3.146 1.139 -2.927
0.7 1.017 1,242 1,476 0.968 -0.4 -2.021 4.597 1.115 -2.243
0.6 0.930 1.317 1.430 1,166 -0.5 -3.191 5,899 1,093 -1,829
0.5 0.831 1,409 1.386 1.443 -0.6 -5.111 7.998 1.075 -1.550
0.4 0.717 1.522 1.346 1.857 -0.7 -8.663 11.74 1.051 -1.360
0.3 0.586 1.662 1,309 2.546 -0.8 -16.91 20.23 1.032 -1.210
0.2 0,429 1.836 1,277 3.915 -0.9 -47.49 52.48 1.015 -1.094
0.1 0.238 2.055 1,247 8,021 -1 --w 03 1 --I
0 0 2.321 1,217 00

It follows from t h e e q u a l i t y (2.62) that 1,: should s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n

A
- < - , we proceed
To s o l v e eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) i n t h e case of
R (“
R ~X=I
in

t h e f o l l o w i r g manner: A s s u m i n g -the parameter A as known, i t e r a- t i o n of t h e second

e q u a t i o n of t h e system (2.1) w i l l f u r n i s h t h e q u a n t i t y 6 = 60
1 + h
. Replacing

t h e trigonometric f u n c t i o n s of t h e angle f3 by t h e corresponding values from

eq.(2.2), we t a k e t h e following as a n approximate value of 6 :
 where

It should be borne i n mind t h a t , s i n c e eq.(2.63) i s approz&mte, t h e value

of 6 determined from this expression f o r A = Will d i f f e r somewhat from t h e
value corresponding t o eq.( 2.59).

.
i;wt hermore, f ram e qs ( 2.1) we have

Prescribing A , we t h e n use eqs.(2.63) and (2.65) f o r p l o t t i n g t h e graph of

t h e dependence -
A = F ( h ) (Fig.k.l&). From this graph, knowing t h e r a t i o -, A
R R
we f i n d t h e value of h which c o n s t i t u t e s a n approximate s o l u t i o n of eqs.(2.1)
and (2.2), Using t h e obtained value of h , we c a l c u l a t e by eq.(2.63) t h e a c t u a l
value of 6 and t h e n f i n d z0 from it.

A s shown by numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e accuracy of eqs.(2.63) and (2.65),

j u s t as of eqs.(2.51) and (2.52), i s completely s u f f i c i e n t f o r engineering ap­
so
p l i c a t i o n s . The d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e values of and h c a l c u l a t e d by t h e indi­
cated formulas from t h e corresponding IIexactII values determined by eqs .( 2.1) and
(2.2) f o r i n i t i a l contact angles of Bo 2 4.5' a r e u s u a l l y no more t h a n 3 - 4%.

On t h e basis of eq.(2.63), we can w r i t e

(2.66)

1
Recalling that E, = and E= ,we f i n d t h e following /361
A (1 + ~ ) j g ' ~ B,md2,*
f o r t h e case -
R
< (A) :
R /x=1

Here,

4.02
 A comparison of t h e equalities (2.l-l) and

*'-H
R
1 (2.67) r e a d i l y shows that t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ko i n
this case can be expressed as

l~,=0.229~,jR)
COS a.

Accordingly,
0 1 -
I -r ~ = 0 . 3 9 0 . ~ ~ 6cos
" ) a.
Ae A A

Fig.4.a Auxiliary Graph

f o r Approximate Solution 6. Relative Displacements of Races
of Eqs.(2.1) f o r a Load­
i n g Zone less t h a n 360'. For c e r t a i n u l t r a - p r e c i s i o n high-speed bearing
asseniblies, a proper determination of t h e r e l a t i v e
displacements of t h e bearing races under load i s
of importance. When combined loads are absorbed by r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t
b a l l bearings, this problem i s solved i n t h e fOllOwbg manner:

Equations (1.13) and ( l . l 6 ) , i n t h e absence of mutual misalignment of t h e

r a c e s (F = t~ 3 = 0), indicate that

g

On t h e basis of eq.(1.19), we f i n d

-
A
R *
A . Under this condition, disregarding t h e quantity x2
owing t o i t s smallness i n t h e e q u a l i t i e s (2.42), t h e following expr_ssions_ are
obtained from eqs.'(2.51) and (2.52) f o r t h e r e l a t i v e displacements s and u:

403
 s
It i s easy t o d e f i n e t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e displacements and w i t h any &&
change i n t h e r a t i o s of r a d i a l and axial loads on t h e example of a 36207 bear­

ing, f o r which t h e c u r v e s u = �2
md?, )
-\ a d ;=s' \ md?,
)
are p l o t t e d by means

of eqs.(2.71) i n Fig.4.15 f o r a constant value of t h e axial load f A -­

\ zvd2ba
= 0.53). For comparison, t h e s i g n IlxII i n d i c a t e s t h e exact values of displace­

ments s and ;c a l c u l a t e d by eqss.(1.3), (1.6), and (1.7) f o r t h e cases X = 0 and

h = 1, which determine t h e limits of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of eqs.(2.71).

A s follows from t h e presented data, t h e equation of moments does not e n t e r

i n t o t h e system of equations by means of which we i n v e s t i g a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
of t h e load i n r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t
b a l l bearings operating without misalign­
ment of t h e races. Therefore, t h e assump­
t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of t h e r a d i a l f o r c e
and moment i n one plane, which was used
.
i n d e r i v i n g eqs ( 1.&) , introduces no
a d d i t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t would narrow
t h e range of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e afore­
mentioned method of c a l c u l a t i n g such
bearings.
R
D 0.1 0 2 0.3 o,c 0.5 0.6 0.7 z
Zvdba U n t i l now, we had assumed t h e r a d i a l
and &a1 loads a c t i n g on t h e bearing as
Fig.4.15 Curves of u u:' =
R '\
md:, i given.

and
(:
=
zvd:,
a t a Constant The r a d i a l loads on bearings are
found from t h e equations of equilibrium
Value of t h e Axial Load. of t h e s h a f t t o which they are f i t t e d .

A t l a r g e d i s t a n c e s between t h e i n d i ­
v i d u a l supports, a determination of such loads i s not d i f f i c u l t since, i n this
case, t h e y depend l i t t l e on t h e moments absorbed by t h e bearings s o t h a t t h e s e
can be disregarded i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n .

Often, considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s are encountered i n c a l c u h t i n g a x i a l loads.

S t r i c t l y speaking, t h e axial load can be considered as known only i n t h e case i n
which t h e bearing i n question absorbs t h e e n t i r e &a1 f o r c e applied t o t h e
s h a f t , as t a k e s p l a c e i n bearing assemblies w i t h one bearing f i x e d i n a n axial
direction.

O f course, i f t h e equations of equilibrium of t h e s h a f t are not s u f f i c i e n t

f o r f i n d i n g t h e loads a c t i n g on i t s supports, it i s impossible t o make a s e p a r a t e
c a l c u l a t i o n of bearings mounted on s e p a r a t e supports. I n such cases, t h e pres­
sures on t h e balls can be determined only by solving t h e equations of equilibrium
of t h e s h a f t simultaneously w i t h t h e equations of s t a t i c equilibrium of a l l bear­
i n g s f i t t e d t o this s h a f t .
S e c t i o n 3 . Certain Problems i n Calculating Radial-Thrust B a l l
B e a s x s w i t h Consideration of Misalignment of

1. Basic R e l a t i o n s h b s

In a number of h e l i c o p t e r units, narrowly spaced r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bear­

i n g s absorb combined loads i n which t h e moment plays. a n appreciable i f not t h e
main r o l e . It i s understandable t h a t , i n determining t h e parameters character­
i z i n g t h e performance of such bearings, it i s imper­
m i s s i b l e t o d i s r e g a r d t h e misaUgnment of t h e r a c e s as
had been done i n t h e preceding Section; t h i s g r e a t l y
complicates t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n .

-! The absence of reliable methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g

1
r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings receiving appreciable mo­
ments a t c l o s e spacing of t h e supports i n t e r f e r e s with
t h e d e s i g n of numerous bearing assemblies, i n p a r t i c u ­
lar t h e assembly of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l swashplate which
i s one of t h e most s t r e s s e d and v i t a l elements of a
helicopter.

kt us examine c e r t a i n problems i n t h e calcula­

F i g .4.% Diagram of
Loading of Two Ball
Bearings by Radial
and M a l Forces and
Moment.
moment M a c t i n one and t h e same plane.
t i o n of r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, w i t h considera­
t i o n of misalignment of t h e i r r a c e s under load. The
r e s u l t s obtained i n s o l v i n g t h e s e problems y i e l d an­
s w e r s t o t h e b a s i c questions a r i s i n g i n t h e designing
of bearing assembxes f o r h e l i c o p t e r u n i t s which have
t o absorb l a r g e moments.
kt t h e bearing assembly, c o n s i s t i n g of two
r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings, absorb a combined load i n
t h e form of a r a d i a l f o r c e R applied i n t h e middle be-
tween t h e supports, a n a x i a l f o r c e A, and a moment M
(Fig.4.U). It i s assumed t h a t t h e f o r c e R and t h e

L e t us a s s i g n t h e index 1 t o t h a t bearing of a given assembly for which t h e

p r e s s u r e s on t h e balls caused by t h e a c t i o n of t h e f o r c e R and t h e moment M are
cumulative. A l l q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h i s bearing Will be w r i t t e n w i t h this
index. The index 2 i s given t o t h e second bearing i n this assembly and t o a l l
q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o it.

Let us d i r e c t t h e axes of t h e coordinates f o r t h e bearings 1 and 2 as shown

i n Fig.4.16. It i s obvious that, i n t h e coordinate system xlylzl, t h e f o r c e R
and t h e moment M always have p o s i t i v e values whereas t h e axial f o r c e A can be
e i t h e r p o s i t i v e or negative

The conditions of equilibrium of t h e shaft t o which t h e bearings are mounted

reduce t o t h e following system of equations:

405
 where L i s t h e d i s t a n c e between supports.

Since t h e moments M, and M, a t smitll d i s t a n c e s between t h e supports are not

only cammensurable w i t h t h e moments R,

2
-
L and % L b u t may even appreciably
- 2

- - -
u,=u${c;
i2=sinBo+Z P->; (3.2)
- ­
u2= -u+c;. I

3$All r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s , as before, are expressed i n f r a c t i o n s of t h e d i s t a n c e

g = rout + r i n -
 I n bearing assemblies of t h e type i n question, we g e n e r a l l y use r a d i a l -
t h r u s t b a l l besrings w i t h l a r g e i n i t i a l contact angles, f o r which t h e r e l a t i v e
-
d isplac_ements 6 1 and x2 r a r e l y exceed 0.25 s i n 2 Bo. For t h e i n d i c a t e d values of
6, ‘and S2, t h e e q u a l i t i e s (3.3) can be replaced by t h e following approxk”ae re­
lati o n s :

For t h e s e l e c t e d d i r e c t i o n of t h e axes of t h e coordinates, t h e angle J l o de­

termining t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e most loaded b a l l i n t h e bearing l i s always equal
t o zero. The angle q O 2 c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e most loaded b a l l i n
t h e bearing 2, depending upon t h e r a t i o of t h e r a d i a l f o r c e R t o t h e moment M,
may have e i t h e r a value of zero ( f o r t h e p r e v a i l i n g moment) o r may be e q u a l t o
.
B O o ( f o r t h e p r e v a i l i n g r a d i a l load)

Bearing i n mind t h e l a t t e r circumstance it becomes p o s s i b l e by means of

t h e e q u a l i t i e s (1.&), (1.25), (1.211, (1.27j, and (3.4), t a k i n g t h e comments
made on t h e order of t h e q u a n t i t i e s 6 , and 6 , i n t o account, t o represent t h e
f o r c e s and moments t a k e n by t h e bearings 1 and 2 as follows:
 The f o l l u h n g n o t a t i o n s a r e adopted i n eqs.(3.5)

) (1.13), we have
A s follows from e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 2and

Since, a t 6S 0.25 s i n 2 Bo, we can p u t approximately t a n p = t a n B +

-
+ 6 t h e last expression will y i e l d
s i n Bo cos Bo
j 1+i2=2iprsin Po.
Using t h e e q u a l i t y (1.21), we f i n a l l y have /366

The r e l a t i o n s (3.5), (3.6), and (3.7) t o g e t h e r w i t h e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 1make

) it pos­
s i b l e t o determine a l l parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t he performance of r a d i a l - t h r u s t
b a l l bearings f o r c l o s e l y spaced supports, when misalignment of t h e r a c e s under
load cannot be disregarded. A s shown by numerical calculations, t h e accuracy of
t h e s e r e l a t i o n s obtained on t h e assunption t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s 6, and 6, do not
exceed 0.25 s i n 2 B o a t i n i t i a l contact angles of Bo> 26O, w i t h which we usually
d e a l i n bearing assemblies intended f o r absorbing l a r g e moments, i s s u f f i c i e n t .

We will next analyze t h e b a s i c c a l c u l a t i o n cases encountered when designing

bearing assemblies of this type f o r h e l i c o p t e r units.

.
 - ~­
2. case-of llPuretl Moment

If a bearing assembly consisting of two i d e n t i c a l r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bear­

ings absorbs a IlpurelJ moment (Fig.k.l8), then by v i r t u e of t h e i d e n t i c a l loads
on both bearings we must have �2, = R,, A, A,, 2nd M, = M,
i n this case, JrOz = Jrol = 0 , A l = h 2 , and 6,, = h o 2 .
.
It i s l o g i c a l t h a t ,

Fig.4.18 Diagram of h a d i n g of Two Fig.4.19 Effect of Preloading on

B a l l Bearings by a IIPurell Moment. t h e Loading Zone.

- -
A s indicated i n eq.(3.7), a t JrOz = 0, X 1 = A z , and 6 0 1 = bo,, we have

Consequently, under t h e e f f e c t of a llpurell moment,

-
6 01
It i s understandable t h a t t h e r a t i o
s i n BOApr
-
should always be g r e a t e r

t h a n unity. T h i s becomes obvious when taking i n t o account t h a t t h e product

s i n BOKp;,, represents t h e r e l a t i v e convergence of t h e raceways caused by t h e pre-
loading, ?.e., t h e relative approach of t h e raceways present before applying 1367
a n e x t e r n a l load t o t h e assembly.

Equation (3.9) determines t h e loading zone as a f u n c t i o n of t h e l e v e l of

t h e load and t h e preloading. This r e l a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , shows t h a t , t o have
a l l balls share t h e load, t h e bearing should be mounted w i t h a r e l a t i v e preload­
- Eo 1
ing a p r s i n Bo
409
 The e f f e c t of t h e preloading on t h e loading zone i s shown i n Fig.4.19.

Frequently, t h e preload is not given as a relative axial displacement

b u t as a corresponding axial load A p r , determined by t h e expression
zp,

Since, under t h e e f f e c t of a rlpurell moment, we have R, = R, and A, = A,,

t h e first two equations of t h e system (3.1) are i d e n t i c a l l y s a t i s f i e d . The
t h i r d equation of t h e system, f o r t h e case of a I'pure11 moment, can be transformed
by means of eqs.(3.5), (3.6), and (3.7) in t h e following manner:

Using eqs.(2.3), (2.5), (3.9), and (3.111, it i s easy t o construct t h e

graphs of t h e r e l a t i o n s 7-
vdba - Fo(&)
and *=F
vdi,
(A),
rOzvd&
from which we can

f i n d t h e maximum and equivalent p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l l s . The curves shown i n

Fig.4.20 can s e r v e as a t y p i c a l example of such graphs. They were obtained on
t h e assumption t h a t Bo = 36', 6 = 0, and Epr s i n Bo = 0.01.

Let us now represent t h e maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l Pol i n t h e form

zhM)M 4 . 37zAM)M
-
Po, =
2j21A-_roz s i n PO (1 + c cot pol + c cot BO)
2roz s i n PO (1 (3 012)

Acc,ordingly, we p u t

It i s necessary t o note t h a t under t h e e f f e c t of t h e llpure11 moment,P,, = Po,

and P,, = P,, 1.

It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t i s

I
 A t zero preloading when A I = w according t o eq.(3.9), we o b t a i n from /368
eq43.a)

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t kLM) corresponding t o eq.(3.15) can be d e t e r ­

mined from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.21. Here, t h e a b s c i s s a gives t h e q u a n t i t y M =
-~ 1
zvdta s i n Bo( 1+ 6 c o t Bo) ro
M
-. The q u a n t i t y p = I 1-6 t a n Bo
t a n Bo + 6
1 i s taken as

a parameter.

1.2

Po 1
Fig.4.20 Values of and Fig.4.21 Values of t h e Coef­
vd2,Ea f i c i e n t kb''as a Function of
M t h e Parameters p and M.
as a Function of
Vd2ba rozvdta
f o r Bo = 36'.

The g r a hs i n �5 s.4.22 and 4.23 show t h e mode of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e coef­

f i c i e n t s kiMP and k(MFas a f u n c t i o n of preloading when Bo = 36' and 6 = 0. The
curves 3.ndicate t h a t t h e preloading should be s e l e c t e d such that t h e parameter h l
l i e s w i t h i n t h e limits of 1t o 1.25. A t such a s e l e c t i o n tif t h e preloading, t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t kAM)and hence t h e maxi" p r e s s u r e on t h e b a l l drop by 10 - l-2%. I n
this case, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t k( and, t o g e t h e r w i t h it, t h e equivalent p r e s s u r e on
t h e b a l l w i l l keep approximately t h e same magnitude as i n t h e case Without pre­
loading. Analogous conclusions can be drawn from a study of o t h e r combinations
of t h e q u a n t i t i e s B o and 5 .

It i s extremely important t o estimate t h e e f f e c t of preloading on t h e angu-

l a r s t i f f n e s s of t h e bearing assembly. T h i s i s e a s i l y done by means of t h e
second equation of t h e system (3.4) which, f o r t h e case of a ~ t p u r emoment, ~~ can
be represented i n t h e form

Equation (3.16) shows t h a t a change from h l = CD t o h l = 1 1.25 l e a d s t o a -

decrease inmisalignment of t h e r a c e s of t h e bearings by a f a c t o r of 2.2 t o 2.

It i s obvious from t h e a f o r e s a i d that, i n i n s t a l l i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l

bearings w i t h a n optimal preloading corresponding t o values of t h e parameter h l
from 1 t o 1.25, t h e s e r v i c e conditions of t h e bearing assemblies loaded by a
moment improve noticeably.

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 &slnpO

-Fig.4.22 Values of t h e Coef­ Fig.4.23 Values of t h e Coef­

f i c i e n t k i M ) versus Preloading f i c i e n t k(M) versus Preloading
f o r Certain Constant Values f o r Certain Constant Values
M M
of of
r,zvdt, r, zvdz,

The preloading a t which t h e parameter A I = 1t o 1.25, i n p r a c t i c a l calcula­

t i o n s , can be coqmted from t h e approx-te formula
- (1.96- 1 . 9 4 ) X
A =
1 + H [(1.96 - 1.94)31]2'3 (3.1-7)
where

I n this case, t h e q u a n t i t i e s Pol and Pcq I a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y equal t o

l+ =(0.657 -0.645) Pol. 1

I

3. Simul&anecus Action
-- o f o m e n t and M a l Force /370
In t h e presence of simultaneous a c t i o n of moment and &a1 f o r c e (Fig.&.&),
t h e loading conditions of t h e bearings 1 and 2 are d i s s i m i l a r , which g r e a t l y
complicates t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r determining t h e ball p r e s s u r e s . To f i n d t h e
q u a n t i t i e s Pol, P e q l , P o z , and P e q 2 , a number of a u x i l i a r y graphs must be con­
s t r u c t e d . The sequence of p l o t t i n g such graphs i s e a s i l y understood from t h e
following example:

Let t h e i n i t i a l contact angle be Bo = 36’. For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t us assume

t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e preloading i s xpr= 0 and t h e r e l a t i v e base 5 = 0, i.e., l e t us
study t h e case d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e bearings of t h e p i t c h con­
t r o l ,maskplate, f o r wMch t h e s e assumptions are s u f f i c i e n t l y v a l i d .

Fig.4.a Diagram of h a d i n g Two Fig.4.25 Typical Graph of T o , =

B a l l Bea?.-ings by Moment and Axial = 6,,(u, A ) f o r R = R 1 - R, = 0.
Force.

- -According t o eqs.(3.5) f o r a r a d i a l load of R = R1 = Rz = 0, t h e q u a n t i t i e s

601, So,, A l , and A z are c o r r e l a t e d by t h e following r e l a t i o n s :

In t h e e q u a l i t y (3.19), as i n a l l subsequent r e l a t i o n s , we have t a k e n i n t o

account t h a t -
during t h e simultaneous a c t i o n of moment and axial f o r c e - we
have llroa = q O l = 0, j u s t as In t h e case of a c t i o n of a llpurel1 moment.

From eq.(3.7) a t zero preloading we o b t a i n

 &om this follows

-
602
Henceforth, t h e r a t i o 7 wi l l be denoted everywhere by N.
6
.
1
Making use of- t h e e q u a l i t i e s (3.6), (3.191, (3.231, and (3.21), l e t us p l o t
t h e curves go, = F I ~ ~ ( U A, , ) s a t i s f y i n g the-condition R = R1 R, = 0 (Fig.4.25). -
I n t e r s e c t i n g t h e obtained curves by l i n e s 6, = const, we f i n d t h e values of N. /371
corresponding t o t h e s e l e c t e d values of 6,, f o r t h e given values of h (from m
t o 0 ) . Furthermore, t a k i n g A , as a parameter, we can use eqs.(3.1), [3.5), and
A M
t h e preceding e q u a l i t i e s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e q u a n t i t i e s , and
the ratios - -
’02
-
u3/2 ad pe, 2 = %3/2 -.
w2
zvd?, ’ rozvdta

1Po pe, 1 W1
The r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e presented graphically, as i s done i n

Figs.4.26 - 4.28. F’igure 4.26, from t h e given v a . h e s of A . and

M
zvd?, romd:a ’
p e r m i t s determining t h e q u a n t i t i e s Fol
and h l ; when t h e s e are known it becomes
easy t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d u m and equivalent p r e s s u r e s Po and P,, 1. From

Figs.4.27 Po 2 and
and 4.28, we f i n d t h e r a t i o s
Po 1
- -
pe,
pe,
2
and t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e
1

maximum and equivalent p r e s s u r e s Po, and P e s 2 .

--% The case nPr = 0 and 6 = 0 was

rozvdb& analyzed above. For a r b i t r a r y values
of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s and a l s o f o r
0.7 o t h e r i n i t i a l contact angles Bo, de­
0.6 t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e s Po l,
0.5 Peql, Poz, and P,,, i s made i n t h e
0.4 same manner as i n t h e example under
study. I . should be remembered t h a t ,
0.3
i n t h e presence of preloading, t h e
0.2 q u a n t i t y FOl cannot be l e s s t h a n
0.1 sin .
A
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2-
ZVdh - We should note t h a t t h e case of
APr = 0 and 5 = 0 i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
Fig.4.26 Dependence of on not only f o r bearings of t h e p i t c h
rOzvdt, c o n t r o l b u t a l s o f o r many large-
A , f o r C e r t a i n Constant Values diameter r o l l e r bearings used i n
Z V ~ ?a - r o t a r y devices of modern machines and
mechanisms.
of 601 and A,.
 It i s obvious from t h e presented material that, f o r t h e p r e v a i l i n g moment
when h l =- 1, t h e bearing 2 i s u s u a l l y t h e most loaded, although a t f i r s t glance
t h e s e r v i c e conditions of t h e bearing 1, toward which t h e axial load A i s di­
rected, seem more severe.

The presented method of c a l c u h t i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a n bearings under t h e

combined a c t i o n of moment and axial f o r c e requires a l a r g e volume of c a l c u l a t i o n s
and constructions. Therefore, i t s use i s warranted only i n s p e c i a l s t u d i e s hav­
i n g t h e purpose of determining t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n &
bearing assemblies w i t h c l o s e l y spaced supports, and a l s o f o r p l o t t i n g a w d l i a r y
graphs f o r c a l c u l a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l standard s t r u c t u r e s . If such graphs have not
been constructed beforehand, t h e engineering c a l c u l a t i o n s should use t h e simpli­
f i e d procedure based on c r i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s obtained f o r t h e case of small loads,
when t h e f o r c e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d between t h e balls i n t h e most unfavorable manner.

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4- 1 a 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 1
A1 a1

Fig.4.27 Dependence of t h e Fig.4..28 Dependence of t h e

Ratio -
Po,
Po 1
1
on -,
11
f o r Cer- Ratio -on -,1
peq 2

pe, 1 11
f o r Cer­

t a i n Constant values of Zol. t a i n Constant Values of Sol.

4 . Wt Dependences on--Small Loads

In t h e presence of small loads, it can be assumed that t h e contact angles

of a l l b a l l s are approximately i d e n t i c a l and e q u a l t o Bo.

After discarding i n eqs.(3.5) a l l terms-that al&w f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n con­

t a c t angles and s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e q u a n t i t i e s ,&, and bo, by t h e maximum p r e s s u r e s
on t h e b a l l s Po, and Poz, which i s more convenient f o r small loads, we have

K , =zP,, cos 8, j z l ;
A,=zP,, sin pojll;
M,=r,zP,,sin~,j,,; (3.22)
R2=zPOzcos Pojz2;
A,=zP,,sin Poj,,;
M2=rozPozsin ~ o j 2 2 .
 S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e dependences (3.22) i n t o eqs .( 3 .I), we o b t a i n

R=zPol cos Po ( j 2 1- x 3 / 2 j Z zcos qO2);

A=#,, sin 3 0 ( j ~ l - x 3 ~ 2 j ~ 2 ) ;
M =rozPolsin Po (1+ C c o t Bo) ( j Z +l x 3 / 2 j 2 2 cos qO2),
-
I (30 2 3 )

- i-)Po, 2/3 ,
where, as before, u = T -
601 Po,
Since i n this case t h e angle Jroa need not be e q u a l t o zero, t h e e q u a l i t y
( 3 . 7 ) , under c o n s i d e r a t i o n of this circumstance, Will yield

Let us examine t h e system of equations L222

It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t t h e values of A l , A,, and u f o r zero pre­

loading, s a t i s f y i n g equations (3.251, a l s o s a t i s f y e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 2 3and
) (3*2&>,if we
set

It m u s t be r e c a l l e d that, i n t h e first case, t h e angle qOz i s equal t o zero

and i n t h e second, t o 180°.
 If t h e axial f o r c e p l a y s t h e major r o l e i n t h e e x t e r n a l load, t h e n t h e
p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n i n t h e form

If t h e moment predominates, it i s g e n e r a w acceptable t o use t h e form of

n o t a t i o n given e a r l i e r :

According t o eqs .( 3 .a),we have

As regards t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ki‘) , k(:), kL’), and khA), t h e s e are equal t o

KIM)=&
0.587
” ( M ) . “(A)*
O1 ’ w “(AI;
01
“ ( M ) = A
2
“(M);
0.587 0’
~b(’ d ) = w2 “ (02A ) .

It should be noted that, between t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k p ) and dM)

, there ex­
i s t s t h e following r e l a t i o n :

4.17
 T

-0.4

-0.8

- II. 9
Y

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 -x!­

Fig .4.a Nomograms f o r Approximate Calculations of Bearings

Loaded by Axial and Radial Forces and Moments.

The s o l u t i o n of t h e system (3.25) can be represented i n t h e form of graphs

shown i n Fig.4.29. From t h e s e graphs, knowing T and v, it i s easy t o f i n d t h e
values of u and h l , from which we c a l c u l a t e t h e roduct h cos ( t o z and t h e n /375
c a l c u l a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kd\) , k i A ), , kiAP, o r
kpi kbIf9
k y ) , k&!) , k i M )
After this, it i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t t o determine t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e
.
balls.

The graphs i n Fig.4.29 are i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t n e i t h e r t h e angle fi nor 6

f i g u r e s i n them. Thus, we have a r r i v e d a t a r a t h e r convenierrt approximate method
of c a l c u l a t i n g r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h l a r g e i n i t i a l contact angles i n
t h e most common case of t h e i r loading. The preloading, as a l r e a d y demonstrated
by a study of bearing assemblies loaded by a Ilpurell moment, mainly has a n e f f e c t
on t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e system but l e a v e s t h e c a l c u l a t e d values of t h e maximum
and equivalent b a l l p r e s s u r e s p r a c t i c a l l y unchanged. Thus, t h e presented approx­
imate method of determining t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s , based on t h e a s s q t i o n t h a t t h e
preloading i s e q u a l t o zero, can be used f o r solving a r a t h e r wide range of
problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h
l a r g e i n i t i a l contact angles i n s t a l l e d i n bearing assemblies, with c l o s e l y spaced
supports and absorbing a n a r b i t r a r y combined load. I n simpler loading cases,
when examLning t h e c r i t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s between b a l l s correspondhg
t o s m a l l loads, it i s r e l a t i v e l y easy t o allow f o r t h e preloading i f necessary.
 L e t t h e assembly be loaded o n l y by t h e moment and t h e axial f o r c e . I n t h e
absence of a r a d i a l load, as follows from eqs.(3.23), we have j,, - x W 2
j,, cos JIo2 = 0. M a k i use of this r e l a t i o n , we reduce t h e expressions f o r t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t s k(') and TA)
t o t h e form

Equations (3.32) are v a l i d a l s o i n t h e presence of preloading.

The c o e f f i c i e n t s kbr) , d:),

ki'), and k(Z') determined from eqs.(3.32) f o r
zero preloading can be found from t h e graphs i n F'igs.4.30 and 4.31. Since, a t

small val6es of t h e r a t i o 1,
t h e c o e f f i c i e r . t s kk')
7
and k C Mf) o r t h e bearing 2

a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n f o r t h e bearing 1, t h e question n a t u r a l l y arises

whether we can equate t h e i r values by proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e preloading. With­
out dwelling on t h e transformations r e l a t e d w i t h t h e s o l u t i o n of this problem,
s i n c e t h e y are s u f f i c i e n t l y obVious from t h e foregoing, we w i l l d i r e c t l y give t h e
t h e f i n a l s o l u t i o n . Figure 4.33 p r e s e n t s curves giving t h e values of t h e r a t i o
-
A,, s i n Bo
- a t which i d e n t i t y of t h e s t a t i c and dynamic loads of t h e bearings 1
60 1
and 2, <.e., e q u a l i t y of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kdy) and kiz)
o r ky) and kbM), can be
t h e o r e t i c a l l y secured. The values of t h e s e a d j u s t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e shown i n
Figs .4.30 and 4.31 as broken l i n e s .

For assemblies which should have high r i g i d i t y , it i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t a l l /376

bal ls i n both bearings be loaded. T h i s problem i s a l s o e a s i l y solved by proper
choice of t h e preloading. Since, under t h e combined a c t i o n of moment and axial
f o r c e , t h e loading zone i n t h e bearing 1 i s always g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e bearing 2,
t h e c o n d i t i o n of complete loading of t h e balls of both bearings i s t h e inequal­
i t y h , 2 1. The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t G!),
kb;) , k(lM) , and k(,M) and t h e
Epr s i n Bo
ratio - , corresponding t o t h e case h , = 1, are a l s o given i n F'igs.4.31
601
and 4.32. Figure 4.33 shows t h a t , w i t h a preloading which ensuresloading of a l l
b a l h of both bearings, t h e angular s t i f f n e s s of t h e assembly i n c r e a s e s by a
f a c t o r of more t h a n 2, which causes t h e max5" and equivalerrb p r e s s u r e s on t h e
b a l k t o i n c r e a s e by about 10 15%. -
The l i m i t dependences obtained f o r t h e case of small loads are r a t h e r con­
venient f o r p r a c t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , s i n c e t h e y s u b s t a n t i a l b l e s s e n t h e labor­
iousness of determining t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e balk. It must only be remembered

419
 F'ig.4.30 Values of t h e Coef­ F'ig.4.31 Values of t h e Coef­

f i c i e n t kbM) = kp)(-$) for f i c i e n t k(M)= k ( M(l?

) fop
\I-/

t h e Case of Simultaneous Action t h e Case of Simultaneous Action

of Moment and M a l Force. of Moment and Axial Force.

0.4 0.8 1.2 71

0 0.4 4 8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

Fig 4.32 Values of Preloading Fig.4.33 E f f e c t of Preloading

f o r Ensuring t h e Conditions (Condition h 2 = 1) on Angular
k (1M ) = k2 , kby) = ko 2 and S t i f f n e s s of t h e Assembly.
h z = 1.

t h a t t h e use of t h e s e l i m i t dependences l e a d s t o a c e r t a i n overestimation of t h e

r a t e d b a l l pressures. For contact stresses of t h e order of 20,000 kg/cm",
this amounts t o 15 - 25% f o r t h e angle Bo = 26' and t o 2 - 17% f o r t h e angle
Bo = 60'. Allowing f o r this f a c t i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r a t e d loads of a given bear­
i n g assembly w i t h t h e use of t h e above c r i t i c a l dependences, t h e values of t h e
s a f e t y f a c t o r can be reduced considerably.

On t h e basis of t h e dependences presented above, we can determine t h e pres­

sures on t h e b a l k of e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded double-row t h r u s t b a l l bearings. Here
we must remember t h a t f o r a n i n i t i a l contact angle of Bo = 90' a t zpp = 0,
eqs.(3.32) y i e l d t h e Itexact11 values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g e q ~ ~ ( 3 . 2 8and
)
(3.29). We note t h a t i n this case t h e q u a n t i t y T r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e l a t i v e eccen­

tricity ­
e
( F i g -4=34)
r0
 If a single-raw t h r u s t b a l l bearing t a k e s a n e c c e n t r i c a l l y applied &a1
force, t h e n

where

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k g ) and k ( A ) are found from t h e curves

p l o t t e d i n Fig.4.35. These curves are obtained from t h e values of h correspond­
j
i n g t o t h e equation 4 = which, i n turn, i s obtained d i r e c t l y from t h e con-
Ji
d i t i o n s of s t a t i c equilibrium

0 92 0.4 0.6 0.8 P

Fig .4.34 Double-Row Thrust Ball F’ig.4.35 Values of t h e Coef­

Bearing Loaded by M a l Force and f i c i e n t kp) and k C Aas
) a
Moment ( E c c e n t r i c a l l y Applied Function of T .
k a l Force).

D i s t r i b u t i o n of hag between Raws

5. - of Balls
- of Double-Row
Radial-Thrust
- - - B a l l Bearings

Radial-thrust b a l l bearings w i t h i n i t i a l contact angles of 26 and 3 6 O ,

having a small preloading, are widely used i n h e l i c o p t e r components designed f o r
t a k i n g simultaneously a c t i n g radial and &a1 loads (Fig.4.36).

We w i l l attempt t o e s t a b l i s h t h e manner i n which t h e load i s d i s t r i b u t e d

over t h e rows of balls of such bearings, working under conditions precluding t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of a n o t i c e a b l e misalignment of t h e i r races.

Keeping i n mind t h a t a small preloading has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e b a l l /378

p r e s s u r e s , we Will use t h e limit dependences given i n t h e preceding Subsection

421
 Fig .4 .36 Double-Row Radial-Thrust Fig.4.37 Values of and of t h e
B a l l Bearing Loaded by Radial and C o e f f i c i e n t s k g > a s a Func-
Axial Forces.
t i o n of -.
1
I

f o r a n approximate s o l u t i o n of t h e problem.
-
Setting G =
- o and Apr = 0 i n t h e e q u a l i t i e s (3.4) and
­ (5.7) and r e c a l l i n g

that 6, =
60,
and 5,
1
=
+ A,
602
cos JlO2
, we f i n d h 2 = hl. The index I ' l l 1 i s
1+ hl
g i v e n t o t h e row of balls toward which t h e axial f o r c e i s d i r e c t e d . Since, i f
t h e bearing i s loaded by r a d i a l and &a1 f o r c e s , t h e angle will be JrOz = 180'
and thus cos JlO2 = -1, s o that eqs.(3.23) W i l l y i e l d , f o r t h e case under study,

The dependences determining t h e , p r e s s u r e s Po and Po, f o r double-row r a d i a l -

t h r u s t ball bearings can be w r i t t e n i n t h e following manner:

where

422

I
 The e q u i v a l e n t . p r e s s u r e s f o r both rows of b a l k are, respectively, e q u a l
to

The values of t h e parameter A, and of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t e;) as a f u n c t i o n of

t h e quarrtity 1 - -
- A cot B o can be found from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.37.
T R

Fig.4.38 P i t c h C o n t r o l of Helicopter Rotor.

A s shown by c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e f i r s t row i s always more loaded. For -

1 2
r
2 1.67 a t h l < 1, this row c a r r i e s t h e entire load applied t o t h e bearing. We
note t h a t , f o r T = 0.6, t h e r a t i o
A
R
-
= 1.67 t a n Bo.

I n t h e presence of predominantly axial loads, when one row of b a l l s i s

operative, more accurate r e s u l t s are obtained by using t h e dependences i n Sec­
t i o n 2 f o r c a l c u l a t i n g double-row r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings of a l l types, i r h
cluding t h o s e examined i n this Subsection.

I
6. & w l e s of Calculation
Ekamle 1. Let us determine t h e r a t e d l i f e of t h e bearings of t h e s w a s k
p l a t e of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l (Fig.4.38) loaded by t h e moments M = 150 kg-m and
r o t a t i n g a t 240 rpm. The bearings have t h e following parameters: Bo = 3 6 O ,
d b a = 9.525 m, z = 4-2,ro = 79 m a

Relative base 5 = 0.1, preloading A p r = 0. m

Since t h e bearing has zero preloading, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kbM) and k(’)
needed f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l o a d s on t h e balls are determined by means of Fig.4.21.

We t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e q u a n t i t i e s

- 1 M
M= .-=
r v d i * sin Bo (1 -!- C C O t B O ) to

- 1 150
.- 0.744.
42*lr9.5252~0.588(1 + 0. l a 1.376) 0,079

r l n (out)
Since = 0.515, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t v i s t a k e n as e q u a l t o unity.
db*
According to Fig.4.21, t h e value kh‘) = 0.912 corresponds t o t h e obtained
values of p and M.

Thus, t h e maxi” p r e s s u r e s on t h e b a l k i n both bearings W i n be

- 4 . 3 7 ~ 0 . 9 1 150
2~
- 134.7 kg.
2*0.079a42.0.588(1 + 0.1~1.376)
~

I n t h e examined case, A l = A 2 = a. Consequently,

pT1 =eF2= WA,,Po, =0.587* 134.7 =79.1 kg.

The equivalent p r e s s u r e Peg *, determining t h e Life expectancy of t h e as­

sembly, can be found from eq.(2.&). Taking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n that, a t A , =
= A z = CO, k,, = k,, = 1.2 ( s e e Fig.4.5), this equation w i l l y i e l d

-
1

p
TS
e’
=23*33‘ I C , ~ 1.2 1x 1.2 79.1 = 1 14.8 kg.

Here, we assume t h a t 1 = -.9

10
 For bearings with t h e i n d i c a t e d dimensions, according t o eq.(2.42) t h e co­
e f f i c i e n t of u t i l i z a t i o n w i l l be

A s a r e s u l t of s t a n d tests, f o r bearings of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l cam p l a t e t h e

product of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k,k,kw = 1.1.

I n conformity w i t h this, eq.(2.43), considering t h a t h = hlo, w i l l f u r n i s h

(nh)Oe3 C -
- 67,794
=40.5.
0.39x~b#&zPeg-~C O S Bo 0.39%1 . 1 ~ 4 12 1~4 . 8 ~ 0.809

Hence,

E x a l e 2. kt us c a l c u l a t e t h e maxi" and equivalent p r e s s u r e s on b a l l s

i n bearings examined i n example 1 when they absorb a moment of M = 60 kg-m and
a n axial f o r c e of A = 500 kgf.

Since t h e r e l a t i v e base 5 i s small, Figs.4.26 - 4.28 w i l l be used f o r /381

determining t h e i n d i c a t e d p r e s s u r e s .

From t h e q u a n t i t i e s

-- M
roz vd:,
60
42x 1x9 S252
0,079~
=0.1993 kql"

and from
--A - 500
-0.1312 kq/" 2
zvdta 42h 1~9.5252

by means of Fig.4.26 we f i n d Kol = 0.055 and A l = 0.7.

Furthermore, l e t us c a l c u l a t e Pol and Peq 1. Since A 1 = 0.7 corresponds t o
t h e value w = 0.678, t h e n according t o eqs.(2.2) and (2.6) we have

Po,=B , ~ d ~ 6 ~ ' ~ = 6r9.5252~0.055~/2=72.5

2xl k9 ;
p =~P,-,l=49.2 kg.
CP'

From t h e graphs i n Figs.4.27 and 4.28 we f i n d t h e values of Pes2/Pe, and

PO2/Pol. Using t h e s e %lues, we o b t a i n
Po2~1.085Pol=78.7 kq;
eq2=o.875p091 =43 kcj.

425
Section 4. Calculation of Tapered R o l l e r Bearings u_nder- Comgned Loads

1. Calculation of Single-Row Tapered R o l l e r Bearings

Methods w e r e presented above f o r . c a l c u l a t i n g r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball

bearings absorbing combined loads. &t us now examine t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of cal­
culating' tapered r o l l e r bearings working un­
d e r conditions of a complex load.
c r o s s s e c t i o n a t angle II
to p l a n e o f l o a d i n g
First, l e t us g i v e t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e
problem of determining t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on
t h e r o l l e r s of a single-row tapered r o l l e r
bearing a t given values of t h e r a d i a l and
axial loads applied t o it (Fig.4.39).

The normal f o r c e s PJ' and PIG exerted on

t h e r o l l e r by t h e o u t e r and i n n e r r a c e s are
c o r r e l a t e d by t h e r e l a t i o n

cos (y - yr)
P;= p,. (4 1)
cos r,

For t h e u s u a l values of t h e angles y

F'ig.4.39 Diagram of h a d i n g and y t , we c a n consider f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l
of Tapered R o l l e r Bearing by purposes t h a t
Radial and Axial Forces.
Pi= P,. (4.2)
I n conformity w i t h t h e Hertz theory, it i s p o s s i b l e t o s e t , f o r t h e case of
l i n e a r contact and w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy,

P, =B6,, ( 403 1
where 6 4 i s t h e convergence of t h e r a c e s i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n located a t a n
angle J' t o t h e loading plane.
~

/382
I n t h e absence of rriisalignment of t h e r a c e s under load, t h e convergence 6 4
i s determined by t h e expression

ba =s sin +
f3 u cos p cos I). ( 4*4)
Here,
u and s = r a d i a l and axial displacements of t h e i n n e r r a c e r e l a t i v e t o
t h e o u t e r race, reckoned from t h e p o s i t i o n a t which t h e clear­
ances i n t h e bearing a r e s e l e c t e d ;
p = angle of t a p e r of t h e o u t e r r a c e .
Having p u t
U
- cot ? S A ,
S
(4.5)

426
we o b t a i n from eqs.(4.3) and (4.4)
P + = B s sin,@(1 +h cos 9).
(4.6)
If t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r a d i a l load coincides w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n
,
of t h e z-axis ( R > 0) t h e n t h e displacement Will. be u > 0 . I n t h i s case, t h e
c e n t e r of t h e loading zone l i e s i n t h e cross s e c t i o n Q = q 0 = 0. If t h e r a d i a l
load a c t s i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n ( R < O), t h e n t h e displacement Will be u < 0,
i n which case t h e c e n t e r of t h e loading zone i s s i t u a t e d i n t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n
Q = $0 = UOO.

According t o eq.(4.6), t h e maximum value of t h e f o r c e PQ i s e q u a l t o

Po=B s sin @ ( 1 +h cos $ 0 ) . (4.7)

Using t h e e q u a l i t y (4.7), we f i n a l l y have

P - (1 +A cos +).
+- l+Acos$o

A s follows f r o m t h e conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium,

R=l+)icos+o cos p
(1+ k cos +) cos +;

+A cos +).
1 (4.9)
A=
l+Acos$o
sin (1
I
For t h e usual number of r o l l e r s , eqs.(4.9) can be replaced by t h e r e l a t i o n s

R =Poz cos flj z cos q0;

A =Pozsin flj l . I (4.10)

Here,

"=2n (1+ A cos $ 0 )

J .(1 +Acos+ocosqJ)dqJ=
 ,

The boundaries of t h e loading zone $o

; and $ ' are determined i n t h e same
lo
manner as f o r t h e r a d i a l and r a d i a l - t h r u s t ball bearings [see eq.(1.20) and t h e
explanation t o it].

Equation (4.10) Will yield, if f o r s i m p l i c i t y we s e t R > 0 and t h u s Jlo = 0,

Po= --
1 R
12 rcosp'

The equivalent p r e s s u r e ' P,, f o r a tapered r o l l e r bearing can be repre­

sented i n t h e form

P =wPo,
eP (4.13)
where

The values of t h e q u a n t i t i e s j,, j,, and w as a f u n c t i o n of h cos Q0 are

given i n Table 4.7.

TABU 4.7
A cos $0 12 W A cos $0

0 1 0.5 1 2.000 0.405 0,268 0.698

0.1 0.909 0.454 0.913 2.500 0.389 0.267 0,692
0.2 0.833 0.417 0.853 3.333 0.371 0,264 0.686
0.3 0.769 0.385 0.806 5.000 0.354 0.261 0,679
0.4 0.714 0.357 0.773 10.000 0.336 0.256 0,670
0.5 0.667 0.333 0.751 0.318 0.250 0.660
0.6 0.625 0.312 0,738 -10.000 0.300 0.242 0.648
0.7 0.588 0,294 0.729 -5.000 0.281 0.234 0.634
0.8 0.555 0,278 0.725 -3,333 0.261 0.222 0.617
0.9 0.526 0.263 0.722 -2.500 0.240 0.210 0.598
1.o 0.500 0.250 0.720 -2.000 0.218 0.196 0,575
1.111 0.479 0.258 0.718 -1.667 0.194 0.178 0.548
1.250 0.460 0.264 0.714 -1.428 0,167 0.156 0.518
1.428 0.440 0.266 0,708 -1.250 0.136 0.130 0.484
1.667 0.424 0.268 0.704 -1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Calculation f o r tapered r o l l e r bearings, j u s t as f o r r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l

bearings, i s u s u a l l y tal-ried out by means of reduced s t a t i c and dynamic loads.
These loads are found from t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t

428
 A comparison of t h e e q u a l i t i e s ( 4 . a ) w i t h eqs.(4.12) and (4.13) y i e l d s ,&&

where

I n conformity w i t h eqs. &.lo), t h e values of t h e parameter X needed f o r de­

termining t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s k6.l and k C Rshould
) s a t i s f y t h e condition

Since we have = 0.5 a t h = 1, t h e value of I- should not exceed 0.5 f o r

J2
a l l r o l l e r s i n a single-row tapered r o l l e r bearing t o be loaded.

A t I- 2 0.5, t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s kAR) and k ( R ) can be determined

from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.40. These graphs were p l o t t e d on t h e basis of t h e
e q u a l i t i e s (4.16) and (4.17).

If I- i 0.5 and t h u s X i 1, t h e expressions f o r t h e i n t e g r a l s j, and j, t a k e

t h e form
1 .
1­

.
J2"-
l h
-
2 1 t A

From eqs.(4.17) and (4.18), we f i n d

A =A; \
1 (4.19)
J2

Thus, f o r T < 0.5 when a l l r o l l e r s s h a r e t h e load, we have

429

I
 A s follows from t h e e q u a l i t y (4.20), for a l l loaded rollers,

Q0=0.5R+0.25A cot.8;
Q=0.76~l?+0.38wAcot 8.

The values of w as a f u n c t i o n of T are conveniently determined from t h e

curves shown i n Fig.4.41.

These r e l a t i o n s f u r n i s h an answer t o a l l b a s i c problems a r i s i n g i n calcu-.

l a t i n g tapered r o l l e r bearings t h a t t a k e combined loads, provided t h e misalign­
ment of t h e i r r a c e s can be neglected.

Fig.4.40 Values of t h e Coef- Fig.4.41 Values of w as a

f i c i e n t s kp) and k ( R ) as a Function of T .
Function of T .

A s shown b Fig.4.40, i n t h e region T = 0.6 -

0.8 t h e curves of ke) =
= khR)( T ) and kE) = k ( R )( 7 ) have a r a t h e r well-defined minimum. T h i s i n d i c a t e s
t h a t proper choice of t h e contact angle B y f o r a given combination of r a d i a l
and axial loads, w i l l ensure maximum and equivalent p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l e r s
having a minimum value. The optimal contact angles a t which t h e conditions Po =
= Pgin and P,, = * ::P a r e s a t i s f i e d are determined from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.42.

These graphs were p l o t t e d on t h e basis of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e r e l a t i o n s zpo -

- R
= Fo ( L )
Ri
and -
zpe q
R
= F A\
(R/'
for a number of contact angles i n t h e range from

0 t o 30'.

430
2. Remazk-s on Calcul&ion of B e a r - m Assemblies of Two
Taxered R o l l e r Bearirvrs

If a bearing assembly c o n s i s t i n g of two tapered r o l l e r bearings i s loaded

by a moment a c t i n g i n combination w i t h r a d i a l and axial f o r c e s (l”ig.4.43), t h e
following system of equations can be used f o r i t s c a l c u l a t i o n :

R=zPol cos B (izl

i
- x j z 2 cos qO2);
A =zPol sin p (ill
-x i l 2 ) ;
M =rozfols in B (1 +C cot p) ( j Z +l j 2 ?cos +,& ’
x
(4.23)

which i s analogous t o t h e system of equations (3.23) and (3.24) describing t h e *

conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium of bearing assemblies w i t h two r a d i a l - t h r u s t
b a l l bearings, on t h e assumption t h a t t h e contact angles of a l l balls are i d e n t i ­
c a l and equal t o t h e i n i t i a l angle.

It should be noted. t h a t eqs.(l+..23) a r e I1exactl1s i n c e , i n tapered r o l l e r

bearings, t h e contact angles a r e a c t u a l l y constant and do not change under load;
t h e s e equations are v a l i d i n both absence or presence of misalignment of t h e
races.

I n eqs.(4.23) t h e quantity M. i s used i n p l a c e of t h e quantity Thisis

Po, -
explained by t h e f a c t t h a t , f o r tapered r o l l e r bearings, we have - -
Po 1
-
- 602 = M..
601
I n t h e case of zero preloading, t h e values of h l and M. s a t i s f y i n g J386
eqs.(4.23) a r e found from t h e graphs i n Fig.4.44.. The q u a n t i t i e s T and v here
have t h e same meaning as f o r t h e r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings [ s e e eqs.(3.26) and
( 3 = 2 7 )I

Fig.4.42 Values of t h e Optimal Fig.4.43 Diagram of h a d i n g of Two

Contact Angle as a Function of Tapered R o l l e r Bearings by Radial
t h e R a t i o A/R. and Axial Forces and Moments.
 From t h e found values of A l and H, we t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e c p a n t i t y A,
cos $02..

The maximum and equivalerrt p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l e r s i n t h e bearings 1 and

2 are determined from t h e expressions

Here,

S e t t i n g B = 90’ i n t h e system (4.23)> we arrive a t t h e following equations

d e s c r i b i n g t h e conditions of s t a t i c equilibrium of double-row t h r u s t r o l l e r
bearings :

The methods of s o l v i n g eqs.(4.26) a r e obvious from t h e preceding; conse­

quently, we need not f u r t h e r d i s c u s s t h e s e here.

If we assume u = 0 i n eqs.(4.26) t h e y Will t a k e t h e form .Lis

A =zPo j l ;
M =rozP0j z . (4.27)

Equations (4.27) c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n single-row t h r u s t

r o l l e r bearings.

The values of t h e maximum Po = k p ’ A and t h e equivalent P,, = k(A)A

Z z

432
 fig.&.& Nomograms f o r Calculating Bearings h a d e d
by Radial and h a 1 Forces and Moments.

p r e s s u r e s on t h e r o l l e r s a t i s f y i n g eqs.(4.27) a r e conveniently found by means of

t h e curves kbA) = k(,A) ( T ) and k C A )= k ( A )( 7 ) given i n fig.4.45.

A t A s 1, when a l l r o l l e r s are loaded i n t h e bearing, t h e i n t e g r a l s j , and

j , are determined from eqs.(L+..l$).

It i s easy t o demonstrate t h a t i n this case which t a k e s p l a c e when T =

- -
M
r0A
< 0.5, we have
h=2q
1
KyA)=-= 1+ A = 1f2.r.
h
Section 5. Ca&uhtion-of
- Vibrating Ekariws

In designing h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e proper s e l e c t i o n of bearings f o r t h e hubs of

433
t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s preserrts appreciable d i f f i c u l t i e s . These bearings, as
i s known, operate under s p e c i f i c conditions of v i b r a t i o n . They do not f a i l be­
cause of contact f a t i g u e but as a consequence of l o c a l wear of t h e r a c e t r a c k s ,
which has come t o be known as !*false brinellingll. It i s understandable t h a t t h e
u s u a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r such bearings are inap­
pxcable.
/(y,
p)
5 The p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t have a s u b s t a n t i a l
4
e f f e c t on t h e performance of v i b r a t i n g bearings. Prac­
t i c e has shown that r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n of many Soviet
3 bearing assemblies f o r h e l i c o p t e r s i s p o s s i b l e only
2
when using s p e c i a l o i l s and l u b r i c a n t s . Therefore, i n
h e l i c o p t e r engineering s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d
1 t o problems of s e l e c t i n g t h e l u b r i c a n t s f o r a n t i f r i c ­
t i o n bearings. T h i s r i m a r i l y p e r t a i n s t o bearings f o r
0 L?Z 0.4 0.6 0.8 T t h e axial (feathering7 hinges of t h e hubs of t h e main
and t a i l r o t o r s , which absorb appreciable axial loads
Fig.4.45 Values of generated by t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s of t h e blades.
t h e Coefficients k g )
and k ( * ) as a Func- The complexity of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e bearings of hubs
t i o n of T . of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
r e l a t i v e l y low r i g i d i t y of t h e i r b a s i c components,
e s p e c i a l l y on heavy h e l i c o p t e r s , may lead t o n o t i c e a b l e
deformation of t h e races, which i s d i f f i c u l t t o t a k e i n t o account when determin­
i n g t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e r o l l i n g bodies. So f a r it has been i n p o s s i b l e t o
develop g e n e r a l c a l c u l a t i o n methods t h a t would allow f o r t h e e f f e c t of a l l fac­
t o r s determining t h e load c a p a c i t y of bearings i n t h e hubs of t h e main and t a i l
rotors However, a v a i l a b l e experimental d a t a permit c e r t a i n recommendations as
t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of p e r m i s s i b l e loads and determination of t h e l i f e expectancy
of t h e most common t y p e s of bearings used i n t h e s e complex and v i t a l u n i t s . T h i s
i s t h e same f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e bearings i n t h e hinges of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l
and c o n t r o l mechanisms of h e l i c o p t e r s which, j u s t as t h e hub bearings, operate
under v i b r a t i o n s . Here, it i s merely necessary t o t a k e i n t o account t h a t t h e
loads absorbed by most of t h e s e bearings have a dynamic c h a r a c t e r .

1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Mechanism of Wear of- & t i f r i c t i o n Bearings

under Vibration Conditions

Let us examine t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e mechanism of wear of a n t i f r i c t i o n

bearings i n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n s .

A t s m a l l v i b r a t i o n amplitudes, when contact of t h e r o l l i n g body w i t h t h e

races t a k e s p l a c e only a t some s p o t s on t h e t r a c k s , d e n t s from t h e b a l l s o r
grooves from t h e r o l l e r s W i l l form i n t h e bearing which, as t h e i r s u r f a c e s chip,
change t o deep p i t t i n g (Fig.4.4.6). F a i l u r e of t h e r o l l i n g bodies i n most cases
begins only a fte r appreciable damage t o t h e r a c e s .

An a n a l y s i s of t e s t r e s u l t s shows t h a t , i n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n , t h e
wear of bearings i s l a r g e l y determined by o d d a t i o n processes and s p e c i a l l u b r i ­
c a t i o n conditions i n t h e zones of contact of t h e r o l l i n g bodies w i t h t h e r a c e s .
 Fig.4.46 Races of Thrust B a l l and Roller Bearings
a f t e r M e n d e d Service i n t h e Presence of Vibra­
t i o n s of Small Amplitude.

I n t h e contact zones t h e r e i s i n t e n s e f r e t t i n g corrosion. The o x i d a t i o n

products of i r o n formed i n this case mix w i t h t h e l u b r i c a n t and produce a unique
p o l i s h i n g compound which causes r a p i d wear of t h e t r a c k s . The r o l l i n g motion
of t h e r o l l i n g bodies c r e a t e s l u b r i c a t i o n Ilbarriersll ahead of t h e contact area,
while j e t s of l u b r i c a n t a f t of this area tend t o fill t h e space behind t h e mov­
i n g body (Fig.4.47). If t h e l u b r i c a n t i s t o o s t i f f and does not have t i m e t o
fill t h i s space immediately, t h e p o r t i o n of t h e t r a c k d i r e c t l y adjacent t o t h e
contact area i s coated only by a t h i n f i l m of l u b r i c a n t . Naturally, a t t h e i n ­
s t a n t of change i n d i r e c t i o n , t h e r o l l i n g body Will p a s s this poorly l u b r i c a t e d
p o r t i o n sooner t h a n t h e l u b r i c a n t Will be a b l e t o reach it. T h i s causes t h e ap­
pearance of p r e s s u r e peaks leading t o a c c e l e r a t i o n of wear a t t h e periphery of
t h e contact area between r o l l i n g elements and r a c e s , where t h e change i n direc­
t i o n t a k e s place. A t very low v i b r a t i o n amplitudes, when t h e contact a r e a s i n
t h e extreme p o s i t i o n of t h e r o l l i n g body overlap, disturbance of t h e l u b r i c a n t
l a y e r may be constant. I n this case, t h e p r e s s u r e peaks i n c r e a s e even more and
t h e l i f e expectancy of t h e beaTings decreases noticeably. An i n c r e a s e i n mo- /390
b i l i t y of t h e l u b r i c a n t w i l l improve t h e s e r v i c e Conditions of v i b r a t i n g bear­
i n g s . Nevertheless, even when using highly f l u i d o i l s , t h e s e r v i c e conditions
of such bearings s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r from those of bearings r o t a t i n g i n a s i n g l e
direction.

It i s obvious from t h e a f o r e s a i d t h a t , i n bearing assemblies operating i n

t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n , o i b r a t h e r t h a n grease should be used i n a l l cases
where this i s p o s s i b l e r e l a t i v e t o design considerations. When grease i s used,
t h e load c a p a c i t y of v i b r a t i n g bearings drops s t e e p l y .

2. -
Lubrication of m g h l y Loaded Vibratiw Bearings i n t h e Presence
~

of splall Vibration A m l i t u d e s

Since t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t have a. considerable e f f e c t on t h e l i f e

expectancy of v i b r a t i n g bearings, one can d i s c u s s t h e p e r m i s s i b l e loads f o r such
bearings only i n conjunction w i t h t h e l u b r i c a n t s used.

43 5
 Helicopter bearings s u b j e c t t o v i b r a t i o n s can be divided i n t o two b a s i c
groups :
1) Bearings i n t h e hubs of t h e main and tail r o t o r s , p i t c h c o n t r o l s , and
c e r t a i n c o n t r o l elements operating at vi-bration amplitudes up t o 1 0
'.
For t h e s e bearings, t h e t o t a l number of v i b r a t i o n s between two major
overhauls, during which t h e y are replaced, u s u a l l y amounts t o less
t h a n 10 m i l l i o n .
2) Bearings of t h e c o n t r o l mechanisms which execute a l i m i t e d number of
v i b r a t i o n s (up t o 100,000) w i t h amplitudes of more t h a n 20'. We
s t i p u l a t e t h a t no overlap of adjacent contact areas exists i n this
case.

P r a c t i c e has shown t h a t bearings of t h e second group Will operate satis­

f a c t o r i l y on high-quality greases. This i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t appreciable
grooving by t h e r o l l i n g bodies can be permitted
on t h e t r a c k s of such bearings, s i n c e t h e i r
1 U b i I c a t Lon performance i s u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e magnitude
barrier
of t h e p e r m i s s i b l e moment of f r i c t i o n .

I n bearings of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l and con­

t r o l elements belonging t o t h e f i r s t group,
t h e use of grease r e s u l t s i n a noticeable drop
in load-carrying capacity; however, because of
design considerations this i s a n unavoidable
e v i l and t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t l u b r i c a t i n g q u a l i t y
Fig.4.47 Diagram of Lubrica­ of t h e g r e a s e must be compensated by some re­
t i o n i n t h e Presence of d u c t i o n of t h e permissible loads. Since t h e
Vibration. p e r m i s s i b l e w e a r of t h e t r a c k s of t h e hub bear­
ings of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s i s not g r e a t ,
prolonged o p e r a t i o n a t high contact stresses i s
p o s s i b l e only i f o i l s w i t h a c e r t a i n complex of physicochemical p r o p e r t i e s are
used.

The l i f e expectancy of v i b r a t i n g bearings depends l a r g e l y on t h e q u a l i t y

of t h e s e a l of t h e bearing u n i t s . I n t h e presence of f a u l t y seals t h a t permit
p e n e t r a t i o n of atmospheric oxygen i n t o t h e assemblies and a l s o a t small l u b r i ­
cant volume and l a r g e a i r volume, t h e l i f e expectancy of v i b r a t i n g bearings de­
c r e a s e s noticeably. A r a t h e r e f f e c t i v e means f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of
bearings s u b j e c t t o v i b r a t i o n s i s p r e s s u r e f e e d of t h e l u b r i c a n t and, especial­
l y , use of o i l c i r c u l a t i o n which continuously s u p p l i e s f r e s h unoxidized o i l /391
t o t h e contact zones and c a r r i e s o f f products of w e a r .

Let us d i s c u s s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e problems of s e l e c t i n g o i l s f o r t h e hubs

of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r s , s i n c e t h e s e problems are v i t a l f o r h e l i c o p t e r engi­
neering.

O i l s f o r the f e t - h e r L L . A s shown
i n numerous experiments, t h e bearings- of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges, which absorb
r a t h e r l a r g e axial loads due t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s of t h e blades, are espe­
c i a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e physicochemical p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t . The o i l s
f o r such assemblies, whose s e r v i c e l i f e u s u a l l y determines t h e o v e r a l l lifetime
of t h e main and t a i l r o t o r hubs, should meet t h e following b a s i c requirements:

436
 First, t h e o i l s shoiild not cause a step-up i n t h e o d d a t i v e processes
t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e contact zones.
Second, t h e o i l s should r e t a i n high f l u i d i t y i n t h e e n t i r e operating
temperature range and should provide s u f f i c i e n t o i l - f i l m s t r e n g t h over
t h e whole of t h e contact area.

The permissible v i s c o s i t y l e v e l of t h e o i l i s l i m i t e d a l s o by t h e permis­

s i b l e magnitude of t h e f r i c t i o n moment of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge. Based on our
experience w i t h operating t h e M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s , we can s t i p u l a t e that
- a t minimum oDeratirvz tenmeratme - t h e kinematic v i s c o s i t y should not exceed
90,000 c e n t i s t o k e s . Tests show t h a t , i n this
case, t h e r e i s no n o t i c e a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e
moment of f r i c t i o n and no decrease i n s e r v i c e
0.005
l i f e of t h e bearings due t o decreased f l u i d i t y
of t h e oil. It should be noted t h a t MS-& o i l
0.004 which works s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g
0.003
hinges of t h e main r o t o r hubs of t h e M i - 1 and
Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s a t temperatures as low as
0002 -25'C, reaches t h e i n d i c a t e d kinematic vis­
0.001
c o s i t y a t a temperature of -2.0'~.

0
By v i r t u e of t h e s p e c i f i c operating con­
d i t i o n s of v i b r a t i n g bearings, s e l e c t i o n of
t h e o i l s and greases f o r t h e s e u n i t s should be
Fig.4.4.8 F r i c t i o n Coefficient based exclusively on t e s t r e s u l t s during vi­
of Thrust B a l l Bearings as a b r a t i o n . The standard procedure of t e s t i n g
Function of B r i n e l l i n g Mark o i l s and greases on a f o u r - b a l l t e s t e r i s
Depth i n Races. completely u n s u i t a b l e here. The l u b r i c a t i n g
q u a l i t y of o i l s and greases f o r f e a t h e r i n g
hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs i s prefer­
a b l y checked i n t h r u s t b a l l bearings, s i n c e t h e y operate a t higher contact
stresses. Experiments show t h a t l u b r i c a t i n g materials w i t h optimum performance
i n such bearings are a l s o b e s t f o r v i b r a t i n g bearings of o t h e r types, including
t h r u s t bearings w i t h ~ ~ s l e w er d o l~l ~
e r s which a r e p r e s e n t l y used with success i n
t h e main r o t o r hubs of a l l series-produced Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s , and a l s o f o r
multi-row r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings used i n t h e main and t a i l r o t o r hubs of a
nmber of h e l i c o p t e r s i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . Since t h e load i n t h r u s t b a l l bear­
i n g s is d i s t r i b u t e d uniformly over t h e b a l l s , each contacting region of t h e t r a c k
during v i b r a t i o n can be regarded as a n iwiependent t e s t o b j e c t .

An e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r i n t e s t i n g o i l s and greases f o r bearings of f e a t h e r i n g

hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs i s a proper e v a l u a t i o n of t h e condition of
t h e t r a c k s . Even at very moderate contact stresses, b r i n e l l i n g marks made by
t h e balls appear on t h e t r a c k a f t e r brief o p e r a t i n g p e r i o d s . If t h e appearance
of such d e n t s , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r depth, i s considered as a s i g n of i n c i p i e n t
failure of t h e bearing, t h e n bearings which otherwise might s t i l l operate r e l i ­
a b l y f o r a long t h e m u s t be r e j e c t e d . The curves i n Fig.4.48 i n d i c a t e t h e man­
n e r i n which t h e depth of t h e dent a f f e c t s t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of a t h r u s t
b a l l bearing. A t a b r i n e l l i n g depth of 7 - 10 p , t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t irr­
c r e a s e s by 30 - 40%. An i n c r e a s e i n f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h i n such limits i s
u s u a l l y not p e r c e p t i b l e i n s e r v i c e . Therefore, t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h r u s t b a l l
b e a r i r g s a t a depth of t h e dent up t o 10 p should be r a t e d as l ~ s a t i s f a c t o r y l ~ .
Such a b r i n e l l i n g depth can be permitted a l s o i n r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings.

Tests have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e MS-20 o i l i s one of t h e best for v i b r a t i n g

bearings. I n conformity w i t h this, this o i l can be adopted as a standard f o r
estimating t h e l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of o i l s and g r e a s e s intended f o r s e r v i c e
i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g Mnges of main a d t a i l r o t o r hubs. The r e s u l t s of t e s t i n g
t h r u s t b a l l bearings running on MS-20 o i l are given i n Fig.4.49 as a curve of
t h e l i f e expectancy o = o(nh) e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e contact
stress o and t h e product nh of t h e number of v i b r a t i o n s p e r minute and d u r a t i o n
of operation i n hours. The tests were c a r r i e d out a t a v i b r a t i o n amplitude of
t h e revolving r a c e of 'go = 4.5', frequency of n = 240 cycle/min, and oil-bath
temperature of 20 - 40 C.
'

Fig.4.49 Curve of W f e Eipectancy K g .4.50 Curve of X s t r i b u t i o n

o = cr( nh) f o r Thrust Ball A: ,"t
Bearings. of t h e Ratio
A:: 8 t

For t h e values o f t h e contact stresses determined by t h e curve of l i f e ex­

pectancy p l o t t e d i n Fig.4.49, ?% of t h e b r i n e l l i n g marks on t h e t r a c k s have a
depth not exceeding 10 p.

It should be noted t h a t a d e f i n i t e s t a t i s t i c a l r e l a t i o n exists between t h e

maximum Amtax and average A ? depth of t h e d e n t s . This r e l a t i o n i s e s t a b l i s h e d
AFa ATa
by t h e experimental curve of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n F 0.f t h e ratio -,
(.av
Atest) A: 8 t
which, as 5s seen i n Fig.4.50, i s c l o s e t o t h e Maxwellian d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t e n en­
countered i n engineering.

A n a n a l y s i s of t h e l i f e expectancy curve i n Fig.4.49 permits proposing 0 9

2
t h e following regime of a c c e l e r a t e d s e l e c t i o n tests of o i l s and greases f o r t h e
f e a t h e r i n g hinges of t h e main r o t o r hubs: d u r a t i o n 100 hrs, number of v i b r a t i o n s
&O/mi n, v i b r a t i o n amplitude 4.5', contact s t r e s s e s 34,000 kg/cm2. T h i s regime
permits comparing t h e l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e t e s t e d o i l w i t h those of t h e
MS-20 o i l .

One must remember that, w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t e s t i n g time, t h e r o l e played

by oxidative processes i n t h e contact zones i n c r e a s e s i n importance. Neverthe­

438
less, p r e s e l e c t i o n tests of o i l s and greases f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinge bearings can
be c a r r i e d out by t h e above a c c e l e r a t e d program, s i n c e a c c e l e r a t e d tests fre­
guently permit t h e immediate r e j e c t i o n of many s q l e s . .

Under conditions of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e MS-20 o i l possesses e x c e l l e n t l u b r i c i t y .

However, it can be used only i n summer. During t h e winter, t h e MS-20 o i l i s
u s u a l l y replaced by MS-a o i l whose l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s are a l s o completely
s a t i s f a c t o r y . Since t h e MS-I& o i l s o l i d i f i e s a t a temperature of -30°C, it can­
not be used a t lower temperatures, which g r e a t l y i n t e r f e r e s w i t h wintertime
operation of h e l i c o p t e r s . Replacemerrt of t h e MS-l.4 o i l by general-purpose o i l s
w i t h low pour p o i n t s does not yield favorable results. T e s t s have shown that
t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main r o t o r hubs f a i l r a p i d l y when operating on ordinary
low-congealing o i l s , j u s t as when operating on greases. T h i s problem must be
discussed i n some d e t a i l , s i n c e t h e r e g u l a r i t y of this r e s u l t has long been d i s ­
puted by c e r t a i n s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e f i e l d of l u b r i c a n t s , which has handicapped
s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of l u b r i c a t i n g t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main r o t o r hubs
a t low temperatures.

E k p e r h e n t s have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t o i l s used f o r t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of

main and t a i l r o t o r hubs, a t a temperature of 100°C, should have a kinematic
v i s c o s i t y of not l e s s t h a n 9- 10 c s t . Increased wear of t r a c k s as w e l l as chip­
ping and d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e r o l l i n g bodies a r e observed when working w i t h low-
viscosity oils.

Luw pour p o i n t o i l s of high Viscosity i n t h e p o s i t i v e temperature range

g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t of a low-viscosity m i n e r a l o r s y n t h e t i c base and a high-poly­
mer thickening agent. I n most cases, t h e thickeners and t h e base i t s e l f have
low l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s . Theref ore, s p e c i a l antiwear a d d i t i v e s containing
s u l f u r , chlorine, phosphorus, o r c e r t a i n combinations of t h e s e chemically a c t i v e
elements are added t o such o i l s . I n zones of high contact temperatures, t h e
a d d i t i v e s r e a c t w i t h t h e s u r f a c e of t h e metal, forming films of s u l f i d e s , chlor­
i d e s , and phosphides of i r o n which prevent a d i r e c t contact of t h e rubbing
bodies and t h u s reduce w e a r .

According t o d a t a obtained w i t h t h e standard f o u r - b a l l t e s t device, t h e lu­

b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of low pour p o i n t thickened o i l s w i t h antiwear a d d i t i v e s by
f a r exceed t h e l u b r i c a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of t h e MS-20 and MS-& o i l s . Neverthe­
less, t h e y a r e completely unsuitable f o r working under v i b r a t i o n conditions.
T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t that, under t h e e f f e c t of antiwear a d d i t i v e s , o x i d a t i v e
processes are stepped up i n t h e contact zones; t h e s e p l a y a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n
t h e mechanism of w e a r of Vibrating bearings. Here one must a l s o consider t h a t
most high-polymer compounds used i n o i l s of low pour p o i n t r e a d i l y decompose un­
d e r mechanical action, w i t h t h e formation of polymers of lower molecular weight.
Decomposition of t h e thickening agent l e a d s t o a decrease i n v i s c o s i t y of t h e
o i l . In bearing assemblies worldng i n t h e presence of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e average
decomposition of t h e o i l u s u a l l y i s n e g l i g i b l e . However, s i n c e only small /394
volumes of o i l d i r e c t l y adjacent t o t h e r o l l i n g bodies are s u b j e c t t o t h e mechan­
i c a l action, l o c a l decomposition w i t h a consequent drop i n Viscosity i n t h e con­
t a c t zones may r e a c h appreciable magnitudes and l e a d t o noticeable l o s s of
s t r e n g t h of t h e o i l f i l m .

Contradictory r e s u l t s are o f t e n obtained when t e s t i n g o i l s w i t h antiwear

439
 a d d i t i v e s . T h i s shows t h a t t e s t i n g of such o i l s should be c a r r i e d out on a suf­
f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of samples and t h a t t h e i r l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s cannot
be judged by s o l i t a r y favorable r e s u l t s .

It follows from t h e a f o r e s a i d t h a t t h e o i l s f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main

and t a i l r o t o r hubs should c o n t a i n no antiwear a d d i t i v e s o r degrading thick­
eners. T h i s explains t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s e r v i c e of such assemblies w i t h any of
t h e conventional low pour p o i n t o i l s , i n whose development t h e above f a c t s w e r e
not taken i n t o account .
Guided by t h e above d a t a on t h e performance of l u b r i c a t i n g materials under
conditions of v i b r a t i o n , t h e A,n-Union Research I n s t i t u t e f o r Petroleum and G a s
Conversion arid Production of Syrrthetic Liquid Fuel (VNII NP) has proposed t h e

hubs (Ref .28) .

low pour p o i n t o i l VNII "-25 f o r t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge of main and t a i l r o t o r

The o i l VNII NP-25 contains a low-viscosity petroleum f r a c t i o n w i t h a pour

p o i n t of -67OC and a high-viscosity thickener d i s t i n g u i s h e d by extremely high
mechanical and thermal s t a b i l i t y . Under t h e e f f e c t of high temperatures of
f r i c t i o n , t h e petroleum f r a c t i o n i n t h e contact zones may evaporate; however,
contact of t h e r o l l i n g bodies w i t h t h e races cannot t a k e p l a c e because of t h e
presence of a f i l m of t h e thickener which has r e l a t i v e l y high adhesive proper­
t i e s . The high thermal arid mechanical s t a b i l i t y of t h e thickener and t h e o ~ d a ­
t i o n i n h i b i t o r only n e g l i g i b l y changes t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e oil VNII "-25 dur­
i n g service.

The basic p r o p e r t i e s of t h e o i l VNII "-25 are given i n Table 4.8.

TABLE 4.8

Extent of Corrosion

I
L ubr i ca t i ng Capacity
Kinema t i c on Four-Ball i n Pi nkev i ch D ev i ce
Viscosity ,

1B$g;'."5"
1
( a t a Temperature of + 70°C
-
Pour cat for 50 hrs)
Point,
OC Critical Width Steel *'lo' Brass
Load P,,, of Wear 30KhGSA LS-59
kg Spot, "
-56 I 10.2 I 23660 64 1 0.85

As t h e t e s t r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e , t h e o i l VNII NP-25 i s c l o s e t o t h e MS-X) o i l

with respect t o l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s during v i b r a t i o n .

Bearings of a l l types working on t h e o i l VNII NP-25 show l i t t l e wear both

a t p o s i t i v e and negative temperatures.
An improvement i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of o i l s may c o n s t i t u t e a n im­
p o r t a n t f a c t o r promoting a pronounced i n c r e a s e i n t h e lifetime of main and t a i l
r o t o r hubs of h e l i c o p t e r s . Therefore, studies i n this d i r e c t i o n w i l l acquire a n

- .~
ever g r e a t e r scope. I n such i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , c o n s i d e r a t i o n should be given t o
t h e above-described c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e mechanism of wear and l u b r i c a t i o n COG
d i t i o n s of highly loaded v i b r a t i n g bearings.

s for
O i l- - n e g s e bearims of flappi-w a.nd drag hinges. These bearings, as
a r u l e , are less loaded than t h e bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges, so t h a t they a r e
not as sensitive t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t . The s e l e c t i o n of lubri­
c a t i n g materials f o r needle bearings of t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges of r o t o r
hubs i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e f a c t that s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of t h e l u b r i c a n t when t h e
r o t o r i s i n o p e r a t i v e l e a d s t o no unfavorable consequences. I n t h e flapping and
drag hinges ( i f t h e y are p r e s e n t ) of t a i l r o t o r s , t h e l u b r i c a n t cannot be per­
mitted t o s o l i d i f y s i n c e increased moments of f r i c t i o n i n t h e s e assemblies may
r e s u l t i n shaking of t h e h e l i c o p t e r .

A t p r e s e n t , 11hypoidll l u b r i c a n t s are used i n t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges of

t h e main and t a i l r o t o r hubs of Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s . P r a c t i c a l experience w i t h
h e l i c o p t e r o p e r a t i o n has shown t h a t hypoid o i l s , d e s p i t e t h e i r content of f r e e
sulfur a t ordinary s p e c i f i c pressures, ensure a s u f f i c i e n t l y long l i f e for v i ­
b r a t i n g needle bearings. maid l u b r i c a n t s , just as o t h e r o i l s w i t h antiwear
a d d i t i v e s , are unsuitable f o r f e a t h e r i n g hinges.

F’ig.4.51 Feathering Hinge of Rotor Hub.

m o i d o i l has high t a c k i n e s s alad hence provides t h e necessary l u b r i c a t i o n

f o r c o n t a c t i n g elements even i f t h e hubs are not completely t i g h t . The replace­
ment of hypoid oil by greases (which i s sometimes r e s o r t e d t o i n t a i l r o t o r s of
h e l i c o p t e r s operating a t e s p e c i a l l y l o w temperatures) greatly shortens t h e
s e r v i c e l i f e of needle bearings i n f l a p p i n g a& drag hinges.

3 . -_
Calculation
.- of- Hub B e a r i m s i n Main and T d l Rotors

Bearirgs of f e a t h e r i m himes. Figure 4.51 shows a t y p i c a l d e s i g n of

f e a t h e r i n g hinges f o r t h e main r o t o r hubs of Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s .

I n c a l c u l a t i o n s of bearings f o r t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs, it i s

common t o take i n t o account t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of t h e blade N and t h e moment
i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n M, c r e a t e d by t h e damper.

4-41
 I n f e a t h e r i n g hinges manufactured according t o t h e scheme shown i n F'ig.4.51,
t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e of t h e blade i s absorbed by t h e t h r u s t bearing (1). The
moment of t h e danper i s absorbed i n p a r t by t h e same bearing and i n p a r t by t h e
radial bearings (2) and (3).

The loads on t h e r a d i a l bearings (2) a d ( 3 ) i n f l i g h t are comparatively

s m a l l ; consequently, t h e y are usually s e l e c t e d from s t a t i c considerations based
on t h e weight moment of t h e blade t r a n s m i t t e d t o them when t h e h e l i c o p t e r i s
standing, t h e r o t o r i s not r o t a t i n g , and t h b blades .abut t h e coning stops. As
/396
shown i n p r a c t i c a l use, t h e loads on t h e r a d i a l bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges
due t o t h e weight moment of t h e blade may go as high as 100
s t a t i c load c a p a c i t y c a t a l o g r a t i n g .
-
IlO% of t h e i r

hr

Fig.4.52 Thrust Bearing w i t h Slewed Fig.4.53 Curve of W f e Ekpectancy

R o l l e r s ; Recording of Motion of t h e o = o(nh) f o r Thrust Bearings w i t h
Bearing Cage during Vibration. Slewed Rollers.

The l i f e expectancy of t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges i s c a l c u l a t e d

on t h e basis of t h e experimental r e l a t i o n CT = o ( n h ) obtained from tests w i t h t h e
proper types of bearings under v i b r a t i o n conditions a t p u r e l y axial load. For
t h r u s t b a l l bearings, t h e curve of l i f e expectancy o = o(nh) i s p l o t t e d i n
Fig 04.49

A s mentioned before, thrust bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s are being used i n

t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs of a l l series-produced Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s .
The b a s i c diagram.of such bearings i s shown i n Fig.4.52. Thanks t o arrangement
o f t h e seats of t h e cage a t a n angle t o t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n i n bearings of this
type, t h e cage not only vibrates t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e revolving r a c e but a l s o shifts
continuously, although very slowly, i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n . T h i s continuous d i s ­
placement of t h e cage preyents flbrinellingl' of t h e r a c e t r a c k s and l e a d s t o a
s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e of t h e load-carrying c a p a c i t y of t h e bearing.

Tests have e s t a b l i s h e d that t h e l i f e expectancy of t h r u s t bearings w i t h

slewed r o l l e r s l a r g e l y depends on t h e rate of displacement of t h e r e t a i n e r . T h i s
r a t e i s commonly characterized by t h e time T,, during which t h e cage t u r n s
through a n angle of 360'. The optimal values of t h e time T, f o r t h e v i b r a t i o n
amplitudes and frequencies a t which t h e t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges
-
operate are 4.0 80 min. When T, > 80 min, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of failure of t h e
bearing due t o s p a l l i n g of t h e metal on t h e r o l l e r s increases. Despite continu­

44.2
ous displacement of t h e cage, t h e same s u r f a c e areas of t h e r o l l e r s are i n con­
t a c t w i t h t h e races. Therefore, failure of t h r u s t bearings w i t h slaved r o l l e r s
begins i n most cases w i t h damage t o t h e r o l l e r s . It should be mentioned that,
a t T, = 2.5 t o 6 hrs, t h e d u r a b i l i t y of t h e r o l l e r s drops by a f a c t o r of about 2.
When T, < 40 min, f r i c t i o n l o s s e s and w e a r of t h e t r a c k s i n c r e a s e noticeably.

The curve of l i f e expectancy u = ~ ( n h )f o r t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l ­

lers having a n optimal r a d i a l displacement of t h e cage of T, = 40 - 80 min i s
shown i n Fig.4.53. T h i s curve has been p l o t t e d from t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h several
batches of such bearings and MS-X) o i l a t a n a n p l i t u d e of t h e revolving r a c e
cpo = 4.5’ and a frequency n = 240 cyc/min, i.e., under conditions analogous t o
t h e test conditions whose r e s u l t s w e r e used i n constructing t h e r e l a t i o n u =
= o(nh) i n Fig.4.49.

Bench tests and operating experience i n d i c a t e that t h e curves of l i f e ex­

pectancy p l o t t e d Yn Figs.4.49 and 4.53 can be used f o r determining t h e r a t e d
s e r v i c e l i f e of r o t o r hub thrust bearings f o r a l l operating conditions t h e s e units
encounter under r e a l conditions.

A s we see from figs.4.49 and 4.53, t h e equation of t h e l i f e expectancy

curves 0 = ~ ( n h )f o r v i b r a t i n g bearings has t h e same form as f o r bearings r o t a t i n g
i n one d i r e c t i o n :
am* (n/z)=const,

where we have d+ = 10 f o r t h e case of p o i n t contact and m” = 6.66 f o r t h e case of

l i n e a r contact.

Let us t a k e f o r t h e base t h e product nh = 120,000, which corresponds ap­

proximately t o a 50O-ho~r operating l i f e of h e l i c o p t e r s of t h e M i - 1 type. A t
nh = 120,000 t h e permissible contact stresses are 29,000 kg/cm” f o r t h r u s t b a l l
bearings and 18,800 kg/cm” f o r t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s . Let A, de­
note t h e axial f o r c e which, i n a bearing w i t h uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r c e s
over t h e r o l l i n g bodies, sets up contact stresses equal t o t h o s e permissible a t
nh = lX),OOO. Then, i n conformity w i t h eq.(3.l) t h e permissible f o r c e on t h e
b a l l will be

Here we have t a k e n i n t o accourrt that f o r ball bearings t h e contact stresses

are p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e cube r o o t and f o r r o l l e r bearings, t o t h e square r o o t
of t h e load.

S p e c i a l experiments have e s t a b l i s h e d that t h e moment which m u s t be t a k e n

i n t o account i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of a thrust bearing f o r f e a t h e r i n g
hinges i s about 25 - 50% of t h e mane& of t h e damper, depending on t h e d e s i g n
features of t h e assemb* and on t h e clearances. Here t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s per­
formed i n terms of t h e instantaneous maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e r o l l i n g body,
meaning that t h e moment a c t i n g on t h e thrust bearing of t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinge i s
a r b i t r a r i l y considered as constant i n magnitude and d i r e c t i o n .
 The “ u m p r e s s u r e on t h e r o l l i n g body of a t h r u s t bearing, loaded by a n
axial f o r c e and moment, can be represented i n t h e form

Comparing this e q u a l i t y w i t h eq.( 5.2), we o b t a i n t h e following expression

f o r determining t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e of t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges
f o r r o t o r hubs :

As follows from Sections 3 and 4, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t khA) depends on t h e rela­

t i v e e c c e n t r i c i t y of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e axial force, which i n this case i s
equal t o

~=(0.25-0.5)-. Md
r0N ( 5 *4)

For t h e u s u a l c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e moment of t h e damper and t h e

c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e , T does not exceed 0.1; t h e r e f o r e , a l l r o l l i n g elements are
m
always loaded i n t h e t h r u s t bearings of f e a t h e r i n g hinges$’.

For thrust r o l l e r bearings i n which a l l r o l l e r s share t h e load, we have

K6A) = 1 +27. (5.5)

For small values of T, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ~ A for
) t h r u s t ball and r o l l e r
bearings p r a c t i c a l l y coincide. T h i s permits use of eq.(5.5) even f o r calcula­
t i o n s of t h r u s t ball bearings.

From eqs.(5.4.) and (5.5), we f i n a l l y find

It should be noted t h a t t h e c d c u l a t i o n of r a d i a l - t h r u s t bearings of d i f ­

f e r e n t types intended f o r s e r v i c e i n f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r
hubs can a l s o be performed by means of eqs.(5.3) and (5.5) i f t h e permissible
&a1 loads A, corresponding t o t h e value nh = 120,000 are predetermined f o r
t h e s e bearings. Here it i s assumed that t h e moments a c t i n g on t h e bearings a r e
known from c a l c u l a t i o n s o r experiments.

It must be remembered t h a t t h e values of A, which were not obtained from

” It i s known that t h e r e l a t i v e e c c e n t r i c i t y at wbich unloaded r o l l i n g elements
occur i s 0.5 f o r thrust r o l l e r bearings and 0.6 f o r t h r u s t ball bearings.

w
t h e complete curve of l i f e expectancy cr = o(nh) r e l a t i v e t o a c e r t a i n probabil­
i t y of failure of t h e bearings but from a recomputation based on r e s u l t s of ex­
periments c a r r i e d out a t some value of nh f o r a n i n s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number of
test specimens, may be i n c o r r e c t ; apparently, this i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an ap­
p r e c i a b l e d i s p e r s i o n of t h e l i f e expectancy, which i s d i f f i c u l t t o e l i c i t a t a
s i n g l e load level.

Fig.4.54 Feathering Knge of Rotor Hub, on Multi-Row

Radial-Thrust Bearing.

Multi-raw r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings w i t h contact angles of Bo = 4.5' and

a reduced r a t i o of t r a c k r a d i u s t o b a l l diameter a r e being s u c c e s s f u l l y used i n
t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs of c e r t a i n h e l i c o p t e r s ( s e e
Fig.4.54). T h i s r a t i o i s u s u a l l y e q u a l t o 0.515 i n a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings. I n
t h e mentioned multi-row bearings it has been reduced t o 0.510, which leads t o a
decrease i n contact s t r e s s e s by about 7% and t h u s t o a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e d
s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearings by a f a c t o r of 2. It i s l o g i c a l t h a t such a way of
i n c r e a s i n g t h e load-carrying c a p a c i t y of r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings i s u s e f u l
mainly f o r t h e case of v i b r a t i o n s , s i n c e a reduction i n t h e r a t i o of t r a c k radi­
us t o b a l l diameter i n c r e a s e s t h e l e n g t h of t h e a r e a of contact s t r a i n due t o
which t h e f r i c t i o n l o s s e s i n c r e a s e noticeably. Test r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t , i n
t h e case of high-quality manufacture ensuring a s u f f i c i e n t l y uniform d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l load over t h e bearings of t h e assembly, t h e permissible
contact s t r e s s e s on whose basis t h e axial f o r c e must be c a l c u l a t e d are here
&,OOO kg/cm2 f o r multi-row r a d i a l - t h r u s t b a l l bearings.

Available d a t a on t h e p e r m i s s i b l e contact s t r e s s e s i n r a d i a l - t h r u s t r o l l e r
bearings f o r s e r v i c e under v i b r a t i o n conditions are s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t l y veri­
fied.

The above values of p e r m i s s i b l e contact stresses p e r t a i n t o cases of t h e

s e r v i c e of f e a t h e r i n g hinges i n main and t a i l r o t o r hubs w i t h o i l s not i n f e r i o r
i n l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s t o t h e o i l s MS-20 and M S - z . If this requirement i s
n o t m e t , t h e s e values must be reduced accordingly.

445
 .. .. ... .. .. - - --- -. .. .. . . - . . .._-..

The p e r m i s s i b l e contact s t r e s s e s are noticeably a f f e c t e d by t h e s i z e of

t h e r o l l i n g elements s o t h a t , when using l a r g e bearings, a c e r t a i n c o r r e c t i o n
should be introduced f o r t h e scale f a c t o r . A s shown by t e s t results, t h e values
of t h e p e m i k s i b l e stresses given above can be considered binding f o r bearings
w i t h b a l l s up t o 25 m i n diameter and r o l l e r s ug t o 15 m i n diameter. On
changing from r o l l e r s w i t h a diameter of 15 m t o r o l l e r s w i t h a diameter of
& mm, t h e p e r m i s s i b l e contact stresses f o r t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s
drop ‘by about 10%.

Needle Bearings of F l a p_p _ i w. a -+ Drag K n g ~ . In most r o t o r hubs, needle

bearings a r e used f o r t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges.

The performance of needle bearings i s u s u a l l y estimated i n terms of t h e

magnitude of s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e p e r u n i t area of p r o j e c t i o n of t h e t r a c k of t h e
inner race.

I n c a l c u l a t i o n s of needle bearings f o r drag hinges it i s g e n e r a l l y assumed

t h a t t h e load i s uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e l e n g t h of t h e needles ( s e e
Fig.4.55,a). I n conformity w i t h this, t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e f o r bearings i s
t a k e n as equal t o

q=- N
Dl, ’ (5.7)

where
D = diameter of t h e t r a c k of t h e i n n e r r a c e ;
12 = t o t a l working l e n g t h of t h e needles.

Needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g hinges, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e

of t h e blade N, t a k e a c e r t a i n moment M (Fig.4.55,b) whose constant component Ma
i s determined w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by t h e expression

Here,
Mrot = t o r q u e of t h e r o t o r ;
zrOt = number of blades of t h e r o t o r ;
a lldriftll of t h e middle of t h e f l a p p i n g hinge from t h e a x i s of
= ,/lJ
rotation;
1, = d i s t a n c e between f l a p p i n g and v e r t i c a l hinges;
t V e h = IIoffsetII of drag hinge.

The v a r i a b l e component M, of t h e moment M y when calculahing needle bearings

of t h e f l a p p i n g hinges of rotor hubs, i s disregarded s i n c e it has l i t t l e e f f e c t
on t h e i r l i f e expectancy. It i s customary t o assume that t h e load i n f l a p p i n g
hinges manufactured i n conformity w i t h t h e scheme i n Fig.4.55,b i s d i s t r i b u t e d
over t h e l e n g t h of t h e bearings according t o t h e t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e . I n this case,
t h e loaded state of t h e bearings i s characterized by t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q1
and 92 on t h e o u t e r edges of t h e r a c e s caused by t h e combined a c t i o n of t h e

44-6
f o r c e N and t h e moment M a . These p r e s s u r e s are c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h e f o r ­
mula

where B i s t h e working width of t h e bearing assembly.

S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(5.9) t h e value of M,, we reduce it t o t h e form

A s design d a t a i n d i c a t e , proper choice of t h e 11driftIl a permits approach­

i n g t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q, and g, s u f f i c i e n t l y close t o t h e average s p e c i f i c

p r e s s u r e q, = -
N i n thebasic powered f l i g h t regimes. We note t h a t t h e
DtC
!*drift11 of t h e middle of t h e f l a p p i n g hinge from t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n by a d i s ­
t a n c e a i s equivalent t o r o t a t i o n of tinis hinge through a n angle S h S h =

= tan-' -
a
(see ~ig.4.55).
tv. h

_--

/Fa
Fig.4.55 For Calculation of Needle Bearings of Flapping
and Drag Hinges of Rotor Hubs.

According t o eq.(5.10), t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q1 and qa depend on t h e cen­

t r i f u g a l f o r c e N and on t h e torque M r o t . Therefore, t h e s e can be regarded as /lLo1
c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s of t h e r o t o r rpm and power. After using eq.(5.10) f o r p l o t ­

447
I I I llulllLlllllI~lIlIIIIIII IIIIII IlIlIll1ll11l1 I I I I III

t i n g t h e graphs of q, = ql(N,,, ) and q, and Q ( N r o t ) f o r t h e most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

r o t o r rpm, as i s done i n Fig.4.56, i t becomes easy t o determine t h e values of
t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s q, and q, i n t h e main f l i g h t regimes of a h e l i c m t e r and
a l s o t o estimate t h e correctness of- s e l e c ­
t i o n of t h e lldriftll a and, i f necessary,
t o i n t r o d u c e .suitable c o r r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e
r o t o r hub design.

If t h e f l a p p i n g hinges are made i n t h e

form of two independent s q p o r t s whose spac­
i n g L s u b s t a n t i a l l y exceeds t h e diameter of
t h e t r a c k D (Fig.4.57), it can be assumed
that, w i t h i n each support, t h e s p e c i f i c
p r e s s u r e s i n t h e bearings are constant.

I n this case, t h e r a t e d s p e c i f i c pres­

sures determining t h e l i f e expectancy of t h e
needle bearings i n t h e f l a p p i n g hinges are
equal t o

Fig.4.56 S p e c i f i c Pressures q,
and q, as a Function of Rotor
Rpm and Power.
NC,ht = r o t o r r p m and power
i n c r u i s i n g regime; nLot , N:?
= r o t o r r p m and power at c r u s ­
i n g speed; .,";;, N:; = rotor
rpm and power i n takeoff regime;
n;: t, NJ,"~ = r o t o r rpm and
power i n a u t o r o t a t i o n regime.
Fig.4.57 For Calculation of
Widely Spaced Needle Bearings
of Flapping f i n g e s .
deformation of t h e p a r t s under load, t h e a c t u a l s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s on t h e edges
of t h e needle bearings of f l a p p i n g hinges may a t times exceed t h e r a t e d pres­
s u r e s p o s s i b l y p l a y s a d e f i n i t e r o l e here.
=
where tc i s t h e t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e needles
i n both bearings.
When using hSrpoid l u b r i c a n t s , t h e per­
m i s s i b l e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s i n well-sealed
needle bearings corresponding t o a l i f e ex­
pectancy of 1000 hrs a t 24.0 cyc/min a r e a t
least 350 kg/cm2 f o r t h e flapping hinges and
400 kg/cm" f o r t h e drag hinges. The r e l a ­
t i v e l y small value of t h e permissible speci­
f i c p r e s s u r e s i n f l a p p i n g hinge bearings
can be explained i n p a r t by t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e y work at v i b r a t i o n amplitudes of 2 t o 6O,
whereas t h e v i b r a t i o n amplitude of t h e drag
hinge bearings u s u a l l y does not exceed 1 '
.
Although this c o n t r a d i c t s e s t a b l i s h e d opin­
ions, p r a c t i c a l use has shown t h a t , a t v i ­
b r a t i o n amplitudes t o lo, t h e l i f e expect­
ancy of needle bearings i s higher t h a n a t
amplitudes of 2 - 6 '
. The f a c t t h a t , due t o

Many years of a c t u a l s e r v i c e experience confirm that, i n s e l e c t i n g t h e /4.02

448
s i z e of needle bearings f o r t h e f l a p p i n g and drag hinges of r o t o r hubs of l i g h t
and medium h e l i c o p t e r s , t h e above-indicated values of permissible s p e c i f i c pres­
sures can be used as a r e l i a b l e guide. For heavy h e l i c o p t e r s whose u n i t s gen­
e r a l l y have a r e l a t i v e l y lower r i g i d i t y , t h e s e f i g u r e s can be used as guide only

Fig .4.59 F a i l u r e of Needle Bearing

due t o I n s u f f i c i e n t R i g i d i t y of
the Structure.

Fig 4..58 E f f e c t of S t i f f ness

of P i n and F l e x i b i l i t y of Races
on t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of S p e c i f i c
Pressures over t h e Length of
Needle Bearings i n a Flapping
Hiwe.
a - I n i t i a l version; b - Effect
of p i n of increased s t i f f n e s s ; Fig .4.60 For Calculation
c - E f f e c t of ~ ~ f l e x i b l ends
el~ of Needle Bearings i n
of bearing r a c e s . T a i l Rotor Hubs.

i f s p e c i a l measures a r e t a k e n t o ensure a uniform load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e drag

hinge bearings and i f t h e diagram of t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f l a p p i n g
hinges approximates a t r a p e z o i d a l diagram ( s e e Fig.4.55,b). A s a r u l e , a satis­
f a c t o r y load d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e l e n g t h of needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g and
drag hinges can be obtained by p r o p e r l y choosing t h e s t i f f n e s s of r i n g s and p i n s
and a l s o by s u i t a b l y r a i s i n g t h e f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e ends of t h e r a c e s . T h i s i s
shown s p e c i f i c a l l y i n fig.4.58 which contains experimental diagrams of t h e vari­
a t i o n i n d i s t a n c e between t h e g e n e r a t r i c e s of t h e o u t e r and i n n e r races, f o r

449
t h r e e design versions of t h e f l a p p i n g hinge i n t h e r o t o r hub of a heavy heli­
copter. It should be noted that inadequate mechanical s t r e n g t h of t h e r i n g s and
p i n s i n f l a p p i n g and drag hinges may not only result i n l o c a l i n c r e a s e s of t h e
depth of b r i n e l l i n g marks a t t h e edges of t h e t r a c k s but a l s o i n s p a l l i n g of
l a r g e p o r t i o n s of t h e i r s u r f a c e and sometimes even i n breakage of t h e needles
(Fig.4.59)

Calculation of needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g hinges of t a i l r o t o r hubs /4-03

(Fig.4.60) i s appreciably more d i f f i c u l t t h a n c a l c u l a t i o n of needle bearings f o r
f l a p p i n g hinges of main r o t o r hubs, s i n c e they g e n e r a l l y absorb a r a t h e r l a r g e
a l t e r n a t i n g moment which cannot be disregarded i n estimating t h e i r performance.
T h i s moment i s created by a l t e r n a t i n g aerodynamic and i n e r t i a ( C o r i o l i s ) f o r c e s
a c t i n g on t h e blades of t h e t a i l r o t o r i n t h e p l a n e of r o t a t i o n . I n rough cal­
c u l a t i o n s , t h e loaded s t a t e of needle bearings i n t a i l r o t o r flapping hinges i s
usually characterized by t h e instantaneous maximum s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e s e t up on
t h e edge of t h e t r a c k . On t h e assumption t h a t t h e load i s d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e
l e n g t h of t h e -bearings i n accordance w i t h t h e t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e , this p r e s s u r e
i s equal t o

L \ D l I

where
Mt,r = torque of t a i l r o t o r ;
z t S r = blade number of t a i l r o t o r ;
M, = amplitude of v a r i a b l e moment loading t h e f l a p p i n g hinge.
The values of t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s s u r e g c a l c u l a t e d from eq.(5.l2) f o r t a i l
r o t o r s of l i g h t and medium h e l i c o p t e r s a t c r u i s i n g speed should not exceed
300 - 350 kg/cm". When hypoid l u b r i c a n t s a r e used i n t h e f l a p p i n g hinges, it
can be expected t h a t t h e l i f e expectancy of t h e bearings w i l l be a t l e a s t
1000 hrs.

Finally, t h e l i f e expectancy of needle bearings f o r f l a p p i n g and drag

hinges of main and t a i l r o t o r hubs i s determined from tests of such u n i t s on
special rigs.

4. Calculation of B e a r i w s f o r t h e P i t c h C o n t r o l and
Control Mechanisms

The permissible loads on t h e bearings of t h e pitch-control hinges and t h e i r

connecting c o n t r o l elements g e n e r a l l y a r e determined by experiment. For this,
endurance t e s t s a r e performed on s p e c i a l r a t h e r complex i n s t a l l a t i o n s which per­
m i t simulating a l l t y p e s of f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l i n f l i g h t .
The loads on t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l a r e of a dynamic nature. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y
c l e a r from t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h i n Fig.4.61, f o r t h e blade hinge moment M, and t h e
f o r c e s P l o n g and P l a t i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l rods connecting

450
t h e corresponding rockers of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l w i t h t h e hydraulic boosters.

It i s l o g i c a l t h a t , w i t h such a complex c h a r a c t e r of loading, any recom­

mendations as t o t h e design of bearings for p i t c h c o n t r o l hinges w i l l of neces­
s i t y be only conditional. Nevertheless, c e r t a i n suggestions might guide t h e
designer i n problems of t h e s e l e c t i o n of bearings f o r t h e s e v i t a l u n i t s ; i n this
respect, we w i l l b r i e f l y d i s c u s s t h e s e .

I
~
t
t

Flig.4.61 Oscillograms f o r Blade Fig.4.62 Load on Bearings

Hinge Moment and Forces i n of P i t c h Control Hinges.
Longitudinal and L a t e r a l
Control Rods.

If we t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t , i n conventional r o t o r designs, only t h e

a b s o l u t e magnitude of t h e blade hinge moment changes and t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
between t h e amplitudes and phases of i t s i n d i v i d u a l harmonics remains constant,
t h e n t h e s e l e c t i o n of bearings f o r such hinges of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l based on t h e
same design configuration can proceed from t h e m a x i m u m value of t h e absorbed load
P, a x (Fig.4.62).
For p i t c h c o n t r o l s c l o s e i n design t o t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l s of M i - 1 and Mi-4
h e l i c o p t e r s ( s e e Fig.4.38) w i t h all-metal r o t o r blades of r e c t a n g u l a r planform
and using greases of t h e type TsIATIM-201, t h e permissible load P",:, can be de­
termined from Table 4.9. T h i s t a b l e w a s compiled from r e s u l t s of stand t e s t s
w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p r a c t i c a l experience i n operating p i t c h c o n t r o l s .

The values of t h e permissible loads P:zrm given i n t h e Table f o r a r o t o r &

rpm of 24.0 correspond t o a Life expectancy of 1000 -
1200 hrs. For o t h e r r p m ,
t h e l i f e expectancy i s found from t h e expression

240,000
h=-, (5.13)
n

where n i s t h e r a t e d r o t o r r p m .
 TABWE 4.9
-
P e r m i s s i b l e V al u es P,"::, ( k g ) for
Various Bearings
Site
of Ball. I R o l l er, Hinge
I n s t a l 1a t i o n
of Type
ShS
and T h r u s t
-~ .. .
H i n g e s of s w a s h p l a t e , 2 Dl
t u r n r o d , and l e v e r s
of b l a d e
B e a r i n g s of u n i v e r s a l 0.8 Qst
joint
Bearings of rockers 2 DI
o f l o n g i t u d i n a l and
l a t e r a l controls
B e a r i n g s of l o n g i t u d i n a l Db
and l a t e r a l c o n t r o l r o d s
connecting t h e rockers
w i t h o u t e r r a c e of Cardar

1
joint
B e a r i n g s of c o l l e c t i v e Qst Qst 2 DI
pitch lever

Qs, = p e r m i s s i b l e s t a t i c l o a d on a n o n r o t a t i n g b e a r i n g , g i v e n i n
c a t a l o g s an d manuals;
D = d i a m e t e r of i n n e r r a c e t r a c k of n e e d l e b e a r i n g or s p h e r e s
of h i n g e d b e a r i n g , i n mm;
b = wid th of o u t e r r a c e of h i n g e d b e a r i n g , i n nun;
1 = working l e n g t h of t h e n e e d l e s , i n nun.

I f t h e n a t u r e of t h e loads d i f f e r s from t h a t of t h e p i t c h c o n t r o l s of t h e
M i - 1 and Mi-4 h e l i c o p t e r s with all-metal r o t o r blades, t h e n t h e permissible
values P;:, should be r e f i n e d as a r e s u l t of a p p r o p r i a t e stand and s e r v i c e
tests.

Above, we have examined v i b r a t i n g bearings t h a t execute a l a r g e number of

v i b r a t i o n s (more t h a n lo7) during t h e r a t e d s e r v i c e l i f e .

The permissible loads on t h e bearings of t h e c o n t r o l mechanism of a i r c r a f t ,

f o r which t h e t o t a l number of v i b r a t i o n s does not exceed 100,000 and t h e vibra­
t i o n amplitude i s equal t o 20' and more, should be determined - according t o
VNPP - by t h e following experimental formuh?:

( 5 *a>
2
&Perm =awmzdh.

The values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c y p e r m f o r c e r t a i n types of bearings operating

on greases a t v i b r a t i o n numbers 25,000 and 100,000 a r e given i n Table 4.10.

% It i s assumed t h a t t h e contact areas of adjacent r o l l i n g elements do not over­

lap =
 TABLE: 4.10

,.
TvDe I I Inside ] V a l u e o f C o e f f i c i e n t ODerm
of
i { ~ b ~ 1 t:b:ons
~ ~ n s

I
Be ari n g

l 2
700::
t o 50
200 5

B a l l , radial -
900000
1
__
e":: 9
4 I 1.6

980000 5
4 1 2
1.6

981000
- I
above 9 2'25 I 2
1.6

1000 I to 10 4 2.8

B a l l , spherical
- -.
1200
-
1 to50 4
_-
2.8

I
I
971000
1300 i 4.7 3.3

Section 6. Theory
- - and S e l e c t i o - n o f Basic-Parsmeters of Thrust
Bearings
_ _ - w i t h ltSlewed11 Rollers

A s i n d i c a t e d i n previous Sections, t h r u s t bearings with c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r s

arranged a t an angle t o t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n are being used with success i n t h e
f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs of Soviet h e l i c o p t e r s . The high load-carrying
c a p a c i t y of such bearings, known as t h r u s t bearings w i t h llslewedlf r o l l e r s , i s ex­
p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e cage, during v i b r a t i o n s , not only v i b r a t e s t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e revolving r a c e but a l s o shifts continuously i n one d i r e c t i o n . The time
of r o t a t i o n of t h e cage T, through a n angle of 360", c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e r a t e of
this displacement, i s determined by a number of f a c t o r s . It i s dependent on
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n between r o l l e r a & races, v i b r a t i o n ampli­
tude and frequency of t h e revolving race, and on a number of geometric parame­
t e r s of which t h e angles of slope of t h e cage seats p l a y a major r o l e . It i s
l o g i c a l t h a t t h e s e angles should be s e l e c t e d such that t h e t h e T, dl1 be with­
i n optimal limits ensuring a long l i f e expectancy of t h e r o l l e r s a t acceptable
wear of t h e t r a c k s . A t h e o r y i s presented below by means of which this problem
can be solved.
1. Determination of t h e Time T,

In t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s , t h e r a t i o of angular v e l o c i t y of

t h e cage t o angular v e l o c i t y of t h e revolving r a c e A = -

w,
w
depends upon t h e

d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . T h i s causes a continuous displacement of t h e cage, which

i s observed i n such bearings during v i b r a t i o n .

The values of t h e r a t i o A corresponding t o counterclockwise and clockwise

r o t a t i o n of t h e bearing are found i n t h e following manner:

The f o r c e s of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n a r i s i n g a t t h e p o i n t s of contact of t h e
r o l l e r w i t h t h e r a c e s a r e reduced t o t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e s Fly, F,, , F z y < F Z x ,
and t h e moments MI, , M,, (Fig.4.63). A t a constant c o e f f i c i e n t of s h d i n g f r i c ­
t i o n p, between r o l l e r s and races, t h e magnitudes of t h e s e f o r c e s and moments can
be c a l c u l a t e d with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by t h e formulas

Here,
P = f o r c e absorbed by t h e r o l l e r i n question;
y1 and y, = coordinates of t h e contact p o i n t s a t which t h e r e i s no s l i d i n g
i n a d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e r o l l e r axis;
d, = diameter of t h e r o l l e r ;
1 = working l e n g t h of t h e r o l l e r .

I n deriving eqs.(6.1), i t was assumed t h a t t h e normal loads q, and q2 L4.97

are d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e r o l l e r l e n g t h according t o t h e l a w

p
where
q1=

92- -- P i
(1 --K

1+K-,
+);
;) I
4.54
 Such a d i s t r i b u t i o n of normal loads i s due t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e moment
(Fly + G;) d 2 which t e n d s t o turn t h e r o l l e r about t h e axLs 0,x. Since t h e

u s u a l b a d concentration a t t h e edges of t h e r o l l e r has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e

time T,, we will d i s r e g a r d it t o s i m p l i f y t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . I n View of t h e
smallness of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e p c ( F l x -
F Z x ) we consider that

The c o e f f i c i e n t s e n t e r i n g e q ~ ~ ( 6 . 1a )r e determined by t h e e q u a l i t i e s

1
=
Mobile fG All

Fig.4.63
\a;
Forces and Moments
Rotor

where
Acting on 11Slewedlt R o l l e r s . p=- I
rosin y

From t h e kinematic r e l a t i o n s and t h e equations of moments r e l a t i v e to /ko8

t h e a x i s O,y, we can o b t a i n t h e following expressions":

1 All

% It i s assumed that t h e q u a n t i t y pc(2A -

1) can be neglected f o r Unity. The
i n e r t i a momerrt of t h e r o l l e r - i s disregarded.

45 5
 (ZC? - 1).

I n t h e s e expressions,

where
f,, = c o e f f i c i e n t of r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n ;
M, = moment t a k i n g i n t o account t h e f r i c t i o n a t t h e ends of t h e r o l l e r
and t h e f r i c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e l u b r i c a n t ;
p, = c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n between t h e r o l l e r s and cage.

The upper s i g n s r e f e r t o t h e case of F,, - F,, > 0, while t h e lower s i g n s

i n d i c a t e t h e case of F,, - F,, < 0.

The angle of s l o p e y i s considered p o s i t i v e i f t h e r o l l e r can be placed i n

a r a d i a l p o s i t i o n by t u r n i n g about t h e p o i n t 0 , counterclockwise. Under this
condition, t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d i n f i g .4.63 correspond t o p o s i t i v e values
of t h e f o r c e s c a l c u l a t e d by eqs.(6.1). The s i g n s of t h e angles of slope o f . t h e
r o l l e r s and t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n are determined when viewing t h e r o l l e r
from t h e s i d e of t h e movable r a c e .

A r o l l e r w i t h a n angle of s l o p e y generates t h e following moment, r e l a t i v e

t o t h e &s of r o t a t i o n of t h e cage:

M-= ( F I X -F,,)r,cos y+(F1,- F 2 , ) r 0 s i ~~ ~ - ( h f , ~ - - M ~ ~ ) .

AS Shawn by c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o r o l l i n g and t h e f r i c t i o r ; of t h e
r o l l e r a g a i n s t t h e cage and l u b r i c a n t have p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t on t h e magni­
tude of this moment. I n c o n f o r d t y w i t h this, t a k i n g f = p, = 0 i n t o account
and considering that i n real designs t h e angle i s y < 6' and hence cos y w 1,
t h e last e q u a l i t y , by means of eqs.(6.1), (6.3), and (6.4), can be transformed
such t h a t

M =pPt,B, (6.5)
where
-= 2 p ~ ~ A , , - 2 A , , ~ ( 2 A -1).
M
21

Table 4.11 g i v e s t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,, and All as a function

of t h e q u a n t i t y l/p.

456
 -
1 0 10.05
Values o f t h e C o e f f i c i e n t . A10 and A 1 1 a t U p

1 0 . 1 0 10.15 10.20 1 0 . 2 5 10.30 1 0 . 3 5 10.40 10.45 10.50

I n t h e case of negative values of p, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,, and A,, can be

determined by me ns of t h e r e l a t i o n

AI0 (-PI= - AI0 (PI

and
(6=6)
&(-P)=All(P).

These r e l a t i o n s follow d i r e c t l y from eqs .(6.3).

A t small v i b r a t i o n amplitudes, when t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s can be disregarded,

t h e equation of motion of t h e cage of t h e bearing w i t h 11slewed" r o l l e r s reduces
t o t h e condition
M,1 -Mf,= 0. (6* 7 )
Here ,
M,i = CM = t o t a l moment of t h e s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n f o r c e s exerted on t h e rol­
l e r s by t h e bearing r a c e s ;
M,, = moment of f r i c t i o n .

L e t u s assume t h a t t h e cage has z seats, i n each of which a r e s r o l l e r s .

The angles of s l o p e of t h e cage seats, a t a n average r a d i u s r, a r e denoted i n
terms of y,, ,
and t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s i n terms of yi, The sub­ .
s c r i p t i denotes t h e number of t h e cage seat, w h i l e t h e s u b s c r i p t k i n d i c a t e s
t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e r o l l e r i n i t . Usually, i n each seat t h e r e are two r o l l e r s .
The load on a r o l l e r w i t h a w o r k i n g l e n g t h l i k i s e q u a l t o

where
tc = t o t a l working l e n g t h of t h e r o l l e r s i n one seat;
N = axial f o r c e applied t o t h e bearing.

A change i n d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of t h e bearing i s equivalent t o a change

i n signs of t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s . Bearing i n mind this f a c t , we
o b t a i n t h e f o l l o h i n g expression from eqs.(6.5), (6.6), and (6.8):

4-57

I--
where A,, (pik ) ard A,, (pik ) are t h e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s A,, and A,, for

For d e f i n i t i v e n e s s , we w i l l consider that t h e s i g n s of t h e angles of /k10

s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s are given f o r t h e case of counterclockwise r o t a t i o n of t h e
bearing. After s u b s t i t u t i n g eq.(6.9) i n t o eq.(6.7), we obtain:
f o r counterclockwise r o t a t i o n :

1 1
A- (6 .lo)
nt=l+l

f o r clockwise r o t a t i o n :

Knowing t h e q u a n t i t i e s A' and A", it i s easy t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t i m e T,. From

Fig.4.52 it follows that, during each half-period of v i b r a t i o n s , t h e cage i s
displaced by a n angle Acp, = (A' -
AN)cpo. Consequently, t h e t i m e of r o t a t i o n of
t h e cage through a n angle of 360' Will be

360
T,=
2 I A' - A" I 'pori '

where n = -
1 i s the
TO
number of v i b r a t i o n s of t h e revolving r a c e p e r minute.

Since t h e moment of f r i c t i o n Mi, of t h e cage should be indepeladent of t h e

d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n , we w i l l have, i n conformity w i t h t h e above c o r r e l a t i o n s ,

458

. , ....... . . ... . - I
 T , =-180 , .~~

I 2 s - I

IEE 2
VOW (6.12)
i-1 k­ 1 (pik)l

+.(20-30)
I
- (30-40) . - (45-55) of experiments s e t up t o determine t h e time T,
a t low temperatures, when, owing t o a n i n c r e a s e

O i l VNII NP-25 ( v = 10 c e n t i s t o k e s 2. S e l e c t i o n of Angles of Slope

a t t = +lOOOC and u = 50,000 c e n t i - of Cage S e a t s
s t o k e s a t t = -4OOC)

A p r e s c r i b e d rate of displacement of t h e
cage i s ensured by proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e
angles of s l o p e of i t s s e a t s . I n this case, not only t h e r a t e d values of t h e
angles but a l s o t h e allowances f o r manufacture, which have a n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t
on t h e t i m e T,, must be kept i n mind. The remaining geometric.parameters of t h e
bearing, i n f l u e n c i n g t h e time T,, are s e l e c t e d on t h e basis of design considera­
tions.
Manufacturing deviations of t h e angles
of s l o p e of t h e cage seats, even w i t h up-
to-date t e c h n o l o a and rigorous q u a l i t y con­
t r o l of t h e f i n i s h e d a r t i c l e s , go as high as
-
7 10'. If no s p e c i a l measures are t a k e n
i n t h e manufacture of bearings, such devia­
t i o n s may r e a c h 20 - 30'.

The time T, depends a l s o on t h e c l e a r ­

a that t h e r o l l e r s , w i t h equal p r o b a b i l i t y ,
Fig.4.64 D e t e k n a t i o n of t h e
Values of p w i t h Clearance be-
tween Rollers and Cage.
ance between r o l l e r s and cage. I n t h e pres­
ence of clearance, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e rol­
l e r s i n t h e seats of t h e cage and hence t h e
a c t u a l angles of slope of t h e r o l l e r s are
determined by t h e f o r c e s of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n
exerted on t h e r o l l e r s by t h e races. Since,
i n t h e g e n e r a l case, a determination of
t h e s e f o r c e s i s d i f f i c u l t , we w i l l assume
can occupy any of two p o s i t i o n s shown i n
Fig .4 .64 :
i n p o s i t i o n I:

459
 i n p o s i t i o n 11:

Iik z lik
P i , = -- ' ­

r c s i n ye.-
'
e.
2
2
rcsin ( yci- 4)
2rC
'

It i s obvious from t h e s e e q u a l i t i e s t h a t t h e e f f e c t of clearance on t h e

t i m e T, can be t a k e n i n t o account by i n c r e a s i n g t h e design d e v i a t i o n s of t h e
angles of slope of t h e cage seats t o t h e q u a n t i t y

where 5 , is half of t h e manufacturing allowance, while e m a xi s t h e maximum

clearance.

The most g e n e r a l case of arrangement of t h e cage seats of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r ­

e s t i s t h e case where t h e cage contains z1 seats w i t h a n angle of slope y 1 f
5 (yl > 0 ) and z 2 seats w i t h a n angle of s l o p e 0 f 5 .
To s i m p l i f y f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s , l e t us assume t h a t 1 i k = 1 = const. /k12
If t h e q u a n t i t y 5 i s such t h a t t h e difference A ' - A " i s p o s i t i v e , then, pro­
vided t h a t t i k = 1 = const, t h e time T, can change from a c e r t a i n

t o a certain

Here ,

x,3 and v = k-1

21

k-1
 The c o e f f i c i e n t v i s u s u a l l y c l o s e t o unity ( v = 0.98 -
1). his i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t h e time T, depends l i t t l e on t h e number of r o l l e r s s i n one seat.

I n t h e expressions f o r Timax) and T L m i n ) , t h e minimum and maxi” values

of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n p are denoted by p ’ and p ”
l u b r i c a t i o n , we have p‘ x 0.05 and p ” x 0.08.
.
With good

kt t h e upper and lower Emits of t h e range of optimal values of T, be

e q u a l t o T: and TZ r e s p e c t i v e l y . As follows from t e s t r e s u l t s , t h r u s t bearings
with slewed r o l l e r s operating i n t h e f e a t h e r i n g hinges of r o t o r hubs Will have
a t i m e T/, = 80 min and TZ = 40 min. It has been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t , t o determine
t h e maxi“ s t a b i l i t y of t h e rate of displacement of t h e cage, t h e q u a n t i t i e s y 1
and x should be s e l e c t e d such that, at a g i v e n value of 5 , TLmaX)Willbe e q u a l
t o TO. A t Timax)= TO, t h e q u a n t i t i e s yl, x, and 5 are c o r r e l a t e d by a d e f i n i t e

relation. Setting T L ~ ~ = T i i n eq.(6.13), this r e l a t i o n can be g r a p h i c a l l y

represented as a family of corresponding curves$:‘ Figure 4.65 which gives a
family of such curves shows t h a t t h e condition TLmax) = TL imposes c e r t a i n l i m i ­
t a t i o n s on t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e q u a n t i t i e s y 1 and 5 . Thus
= 80 min, t h e r a t i o x should not exceed 1.28 f o r 5 = 0 and 0.
and t h e angle y 1 should not be l e s s t h a n some m i n i m u m angle 1 + 5
(where y i s t h e value of y P i n , f o r x = 0 and 5 = 0 ) . The range of time r a t e
of change of cage displacement i s characterized by t h e r a t i o = T(,min)/T(cmax) .

Fig.4.65 Curves of y 1 = y l ( x ) f o r Fig.4.66 Dependence of t h e Ratio ll

Different Values of t h e Deviation on t h e Deviation of 5 f o r
of 5 . D i f f e r e n t Angles of y 1.

Figure 4.66 contains t h e curves of r\ = r\(F) f o r t h e angles y 1 = 5’ and

y 1 = 30‘, p l o t t e d on t h e assumption t h a t TLmax = TL. J3gb-e 4.66 shows t h a t
t h e r a t i o r\ depends mainly on t h e quantity 5 . The angle y 1 has a r a t h e r minor
e f f e c t on 7 . Thus, from t h e viewpoint of s t a b i l i t y of t h e r a t e of cage displace­
ment, d i f f e r e n t combinations of t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e s e a t s are approxi­
mately equivalent, provided t h e y s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s T(cmax) = T i . According

>c
” Everywhere where no s p e c i a l s t i p u l a t i o n s have been made, it i s assumed t h a t
T: = 80 min. Here, a l l s p e c i f i c numerical values p e r t a i n t o t h e case d, = 9 mm,
r c = 40 mm, 1 = 8 mm, v = 1, cp, = 4.5’, n = 24.0 cyc/min, p = 0.06.

4.61
 t o Fig.4.66, t h e d e v i a t i o n of E at which T:min) = Tfl = 40 min and t h u s 1=
= &- = 0.5, i s about 5'. Hence, even with t h e most c a r e f u l manufacture of
80
cages, t h e r e might be cases i n which t h e t i m e T, w i l l exceed t h e limits of t h e
optimal range.

I n p r a c t i c e , we encounter two variants of arranging t h e cage seats. I n t h e

first, a l l s e a t s have a n i d e n t i c a l angle of slope not exceeding ' 1 w h i l e i n the
second, s e v e r a l seats are arranged a t a n angle of 3 - 6' with a l l o t h e r s e a t s
being r a d i a l . Let us compare t h e s e v a r i a n t s f o r t h e following examples.

kt us examine a bearing f o r which y 1 = 45 ', x = 0, d, = 9 mm, r, = 40 mm,

1 = 8 mm, e m a x= 0.2 nun, 5, = 7', and s = 2; t h e bearing operates at 'po = 4.5'
and n = &O cyc/min.

If a l l r o l l e r s have a n angle of slope equal t o y, we have

where

Figure 4.67 gives t h e curves of T, = T,(y), showing t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e

time T, as a f u n c t i o n of t h e angle y f o r p = p ' = 0.05 and p = p " = 0.08. We
d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e curves of T, = T,(y) a r e g i o n bounded by v e r t i c a l

straight lines y = y 1 -t 5, + -emax

3,
= 60' and y = y1
3,
- 5, - -
em ax
= 30'.
The

a c t u a l values of t h e t i m e T should l i e w i t h i n this region. It i s easy t o note

t h a t , f o r such a bearing, TCmax) = 74 min and T L m i n ) = 31 min. These values are
r a t h e r close t o optimal. Results of experiments set up t o determine t h e time T,
f o r s e v e r a l hundreds of bearings with t h e indicated parameters have shown t h a t
t h e a c t u a l values of T, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes do not extend beyond t h e
limits of t h e i n d i c a t e d range, being grovqed about average values of T i a v ) =
= 50 - 60 min.

Now l e t t h e bearing have t h e following parameters: y 1 = 5', x = 5, d, =

= 5 ", r, = 28'm, 1 = 4.2 nun, e m a x= 0.2 mm, f , = 7', s = 2 and l e t it oper­
a t e a t rpo = 4.5 and n = 300 cyc/min.

We assume t h a t t h e a c t u a l angles of slope of t h e r a d i a l seats a r e equal &

to 5. Then,

(6.16)
where
I I
P1=- and pZ=-.
rc sin Y1 rc sin E
 Figure 4.68 which g i v e s t h e curves of T, = T,(S) p l o t t e d from eq.(6.16)
shows t h a t , a t 5 = 0, t h e time i s T, = 163 - 261 m5.n depending on t h e f r i c t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t p . If 5 NN - 5 ' , t h e n t h e t h e T, Will tend t o i n f i n i t y . I n o t h e r
words, at small negative d e v i a t i o n s of t h e angles of slope of t h e r a d i a l seats,
t h e cage may s t o p moving. Such cases are o f t e n observed when t e s t i n g bearings
w i t h l a r g e values of x.
1,- min

0 l"30' y

Fig.b.67 The Time T, as a Func- Fig.4.68 The Time T, as a Function

t i o n of t h e Angle of Slope of of t h e Deviation of 5 .
t h e Cage Seats y .
A t IJ. = 0.08 and 5 = -
5 , + emax
3,
- 15', we have T, = 4.7 min. Consequently,

i n t h e case i n question t h e time T, may vary from T i m a x ) = OJ t o TO"") = 47 rin.

These examples i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y t h e first v a r i a n t of p o s i t i o n i n g t h e cage
seats enables t h e bearings t o operate under conditions c l o s e t o optimal.

Positioning of t h e seats of t h e cage a t i d e n t i c a l angles W i l l a l s o reduce

t h e f r i c t i o n l o s s e s ard t h e nonuniformity of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e normal load
along t h e contact l i n e s .

3. -
F r i c t i o n Losses
...

F r i c t i o n l o s s e s i n t h r u s t bearings w i t h ~lslewedllr o l l e r s depend both on t h e

463
r a t e of t h e displacement of t h e cage and on t h e mode of s e l e c t i o n of t h e quanti­
t i e s y and x which provide cage displacement a t a given rate.
The moment of f r i c t i o n of t h e bearing i s u s u a l l y w r i t t e n as L&

where f f , i s t h e reduced f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t .

Using t h e r e l a t i o n s obtained i n t h e preceding subsections, a f t e r a number

of transformations we f i n d

(6.18)

Here,
f,, = c o e f f i c i e n t of r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n ;
f,t = c o e f f i c i e n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g l o s s e s due t o s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n .

The c o e f f i c i e n t f , 1 can be represented i n t h e form [ s e e (Ref .27)1

where

angle of s l o p e of t h e r o l l e r s , t h e r a t i o

reaching, a t y = sin-'
A l l (PI
'
On hand of Table 4.10 it i s easy t o demonstrate that, w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n

first i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y ,

0.57 t/r,, a value e q u a l t o unity. Upon a f u r t h e r in­

crease i n t h e angle, t h e r a t i o 'A1o(p)' W i l l n o t change. T h i s means t h a t t h e
A,l(P)
quantity T,(O) r e p r e s e n t s t h e m i n i m u m time obtainable a t a given value of t h e
f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p [ s e e eq.( 6.15) 1.

Figure 4.69 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , at t h e same r a t e of cage displacement, t h e f r i c ­

t i o n l o s s e s decrease w i t h decreasing angle yl. Hence, t h e minimum f r i c t i o n
l o s s e s a c t u a l l y occur when a l l cage seats are p o s i t i o n e d a t

the radial direction. A t optimal rates o f cage displacement

464
non-observance of this arrangement of seats may lead t o a n i n c r e a s e i n s l i d i n g
f r i c t i o n l o s s e s by a f a c t o r of 1.5.

4. Additional Consideratiog-of -Ct*-aL T h r x t Bearing Design

w i t h r1Slgwedtt R o l l e r s

According t o t h e above formulas, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e non­

uniformity of b a d d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e r o l l e r length, i s equal t o

Since 12BloI 2 1p -
d r
B,
y1 - I, we can consider w i t h s u f f i c i e n t ac­
2 21 1
curacy t h a t K = Up- Bl0. Thus, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K depends only on t h e
21
a n g l e y . It follows from t h e curve of K = K(y) p l o t t e d i n Fig.4.70 t h a t , on
changing from an angle of 5' t o a n angle of 45' which corresponds t o t h e posi­
t i o n i n g of a l l seats a t i d e r r t i c a l angles, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K w i l l decrease from
0.35 t o 0.14..

The arrangement of a l l cage s e a t s a t equal angles i s p r e f e r a b l e a l s o i n

View of t h e following considerations: If t h e angle of s l o p e of t h e seats i s
i d e n t i c a l , t h e f o r c e s FIX - Fzx d r i v i n g t h e r o l l e r s a g a i n s t t h e i r l a t e r a l
s u r f a c e s are very small. If Mf, = 0 and s = 1, t h e s e f o r c e s a r e t h e o r e t i c a l l y
absent.

k
a3
0.2
0. I

0 1 2 J r'
Fig.4.69 Losses Due t o S l i d i n g Fig.4.70 Coefficient K as a Func-
Friction. t i o n of t h e R o l l e r Angle of Slope.

A t d i f f e r e n t angles of s l o p e of t h e seats, when t h e Ilslewedll r o l l e r s must

overcome t h e r e s i s t a n c e of r a d i a l l y arranged r o l l e r s , t h e f o r c e s Flx -
Fzx may
a t t a i n s u b s t a n t i a l magnitudes (up t o 0.1 pP) and cause wear of t h e cage (espe­
c i a l l y a t l a r g e x).

465
 So f a r , it has been assumed that a l l r o l l e r s are of i d e n t i c a l length. Now
l e t us see what happens a t a n a l t e r n a t i o n of long and s h o r t r o l l e r s i n staggered
sequence.

Table 4.13 shows that, i n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e t i m e T, and t h e reduced co­

e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n f f , vary negligibly, whereas t h e c o e f f i c i e n t K f o r s h o r t
r o l l e r s i n c r e a s e s by a f a c t o r of 3 . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t it i s expedient t o use
r o l l e r s of t h e same l e n g t h i n t h r u s t bearings w i t h slewed r o l l e r s .

TABLE 4.13
EFFECT OF DISTRIBUTION OF ROLLER LENGTH ON T,, f f , , AND K

~- -

R o l l e r s of i d e n t i c a l length
(l,=f2=8 mm ) I 48
0.00616 0.14

i
Long and s h o r t r o l l e r s a1 t e r n a t i n g 0.MI674 0.43
i n s t a g g e r e d sequence (for short
(l1=11 m m , f2=5 mm ) rollers)
45*7

Inestimating t h e e f f e c t of a nonuniform load d i s t r i b u t i o n caused 'by t h e

d
a c t i o n of t h e moment ( F l y + F Z y ) 2 on t h e l i f e expectancy of a bearing, one
2
must not l o s e s i g h t of t h e f a c t that t h e load a t each contact p o i n t does not re­
main constant but changes w i t h any change i n d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . I n p a r t i c u ­
l a r , a t t h e ends of t h e r o l l e r s t h e normal load v a r i e s i n accordance with t h e
law

A s a consequence, t h e nonuniformity of load d i s t r i b u t i o n caused by t h e /4.17

e f f e c t of t h e a'bove moment should not excessively reduce t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e
bearing.

The u s u a l concentration of load on t h e ends of t h e r o l l e r s , which we have

disregarded assuming t h a t q = const a t y = 0, i s of importance. To l e s s e n t h e
d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t of t h e l a t t e r , it i s p r e f e r a b l e t o use r o l l e r s w i t h a camber.

5. Ekaniple of Calculating a Thrust Bearing w i t h IISlewedIl R o l l e r s

In conclusion, l e t us give a n example of c a l c u l a t i n g a t h r u s t bearing w i t h
If slewed 11 r o l l e r s .
 Given: axial load N = x),OOO kg, v i b r a t i o n amplitude of revolving r a c e cpo =
= 4..5', frequency n = 180 cyc/min.

For t h e given conditions, we s e l e c t a bearing w i t h t h e following parame­

ters: d, = 12 m, r, = 61 mm, 1 = 10.5 mm ( t o t a l l e n g t h of r o l l e r s : 1 ' = 12 m),
z = 20, and s = 2.

Wanted: t o determine t h e angles of s l o p e of t h e cage seats t h a t w i l l en­

sure o p t h a 1 rate of displacement and maxi." s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearings.

We c a l c u l a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t v:

Let us assume that a l l s e a t s have a n i d e n t i c a l angle of slope. After sub­

s t i t u t i n g i n t o eq.(6.15) cpo = 4.5", n = 180 cyc/min, v = 0.99, and p = p ' =
= 0.05, we will construct t h e curve of T, = T.(y) by means of Table 4.11. From
t h e curve we f i n d t h e value y' of t h e angle y a t which T, = Ti = 80 min. I n
our case, y' = 46'. Taking 5 , = 7' and emax= 0.18 mm, we determine t h e devia­
t i o n of 5 :

E=7+57.3~60 O*=12'.
2x61

The normal value of t h e angles of slope of t h e seats of t h e cage i s

y =y'f E= 4 64- 12 = 58'.

The contact s t r e s s e s i n t h e bearing are

a=860 1/" --- - 860

zsxd, 1
/ 2oJooo
2 0 ~ 2 ~ 11.05
.2~
= 17 000 kq Jcm .

According t o Fig.4.53, nh = 27 X 1O4 corresponds t o this value of 0. Con­

sequently, t h e s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e bearing i s

h=-- 27x lo4- 1500 hr5.

180

4.6 7
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Translated f o r t h e National Aeronautics and Space Administration by t h e

0 .W.kibiger Research Laboratories, Inc.