ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

A S E R I E S O F L E C T U R E S D E L I VE R E D

A T U NI O N C O L L E G E

C H AR LE S P R O TE U S TE I NME TZ , A M
S . .
,
PH D . 0

P AS T R S I N T
P E DE

AM E R I C A N IN ST I TU T
E OF LE C TRI C AL N I N RS
E E G EE

T H I RD DT
E I ION
R E VI S E D AN E N LAR D
D GE

E IG H T H I M R SS I N
P E O

N E W YO R
LOND O N :
""
M C G R AW—H I LL B OO
: 3 70
6 dz 8
C O M PAN Y , I N C
S E VE NT H AVE NUE
B O U VE R I E ST .
, E . c . 4
.

1 917
C O P Y RIG H T , 1 9 1 1 , 1 9 1 5

M C G R A W -H I L L B O O " A ND 1 9 1 7 B Y T HE
,

C O M P A N Y I NC
, .

P RI NT E D I N TH E U N ITE D S TAT S
E OF A M RI A
E C
 P R E FA C E T O T H I R D E D I T I O N .

I n p re p aring the third edition o f E ng i ne e rin g M athemati cs ,

besides revision an d corre ction o f the p revio u s text consi dera

,

ble new matter has been added .

The chain f ractio n has been reco gni z ed and disc u ssed as a
convenient method o f n u merical re p resentati on and a pp ro xi
mation ; a para g raph has been devoted to the diO p h ant i c e qu a
tions and a section added on eng ineerin g re p orts disc u ssin g
, ,

the di ff erent pu rp o s es f or w hich en g ineerin g re p orts are made ,

and the corres p on ding character and nat u re o f the re p ort in ,

its bearing on the s u ccess an d reco gnition o f th e e n gin eer s ’

"
w ork .

C H A R L E S PR O T E U S S T E I N M E T Z
.

C AM P M O HAW ,

S eptem b er l s t, 1 9 1 7 .
 P R E FA C E T O FI R S T E D I T I O N .

TH E follow ing work emb odies the s u bject matter of a lecture -

c ourse which I have given to the j u nior and s enior electrical

engineering st u dents o f Union University for a number of
years.

I t is generally conceded that a fair knowledge of mathe

maties is necessary to the engineer and especially the electrical
,

engineer For the latter however some branches o f mathe

.
, ,

m at i cs are o f f u ndamental importance as the algebra of the ,

general n u mber the e x ponential and trigonometric series etc

, ,
.
,

w hich are seldom adequ ately treated and o ften not ta u ght at
,

all in the u s u al te x t books o f mathemat ics or in the college

-
,

co u rse o f analyt ic geometry and calc u lu s given to t h e engineer

ing st u dents and there f ore e lectrical engin eers often possess
, , ,

little know ledge of these subj ects As the result an e lectrical

.
,

engineer even if he possess a fair kno w ledge o f mathematics

, ,

may o f ten find d iffic u lty in deal ing with problems thro u gh lack ,

of fam iliarity w ith t h ese b r a nch e s o f mathematics which have ,

become of importance in e lectrical engineering and may also ,

find diffic u lty in looking u p in f ormation on these s u bj ects .

In t he same way the c ollege st u dent when beginning the ,

st u dy of electrical engineering t heory after completing h is ,

general co u rse o f mathematics freq u ently finds himself sadly

,

deficient in the knowledge of mathe matical subj ects of w hich ,

a complete familiarity is requ ir ed for e ffective understanding

of electrical e ng mee rm g theory It was this e x perience which
.

led me some years ago to start the course o f lectures which

is reprod u ced in the f ollowing pages I have thus attempted t o
.

bring together and discuss e x plicitly with numero u s practical

,

applications all those branches of mathematics which are of

,

special importance to the electrical engineer Added thereto .

Vl l
v i ii P R E F AC E .

are a nu mber of s u bj ects wh ich e x perience has shown me

to be important for the e ff ect ive and e x peditious e x ecution o f
e lectrical engineering calc u lations Mere theoretical kn owledge
.

o f mathematics is not su fficient f or t he engineer but it m u st ,

be accompanied by abili ty to apply it and derive results — to

carry o ut n u merical calc u lat ions I t is not su fficient to kno w
.

h ow a phenomenon occ u rs and how it may be calculated b ut

, ,

very o ften there is a wide gap bet w een this knowledge and the
abilit y to carry out the calc u lat ion ; indeed f requ ently an ,

attempt to apply the theoret ical knowledge to derive numerical

resu lts leads even in si mple problems to apparently hopeless
, ,

complicat ion and a lmost endless calc u lation so that all hope ,

of getting reli able results vanishes Th us considerable space .

has been devoted t o the discussion o f methods o f calculation ,

the use of curves and the ir eval u at ion and other ki ndred ,

subj ects requ isite f or e ffe ct ive engineering work .

Thus the follow ing work is not intended as a complete

course in mathematics b ut as s u pplementary to the general
,

college cours e o f mathematics or to the general know ledge o f

,

mathematics which every enginee r and really every educated

man should possess .

I n ill u strat in g the mathematical d isc u ssion practical ,

e x amples usually taken from the field of electrical engineer

,

ing have been given and disc u ssed These are s u ffi ciently
,
.

num erous that any e x ample deal ing w ith a phenomenon

with which the reader is not yet fam iliar may be om itted and
taken up at a later time .

As appendix is given a descriptive o u tline of the intro

duction to the theory of funct ions s ince the e lectrical engineer
,

should be familiar with the general relat ions between the

di fferent fu nct ions which he meets .

ing ,
” “
I n relation t o Theoretical E lements of E lectrical E ngineer
Theory and Calc u lat ion o f Alternat ing Cu rrent Ph e
no m e na ,
and Theory and Calc u lation of Transient E lectric
Phenomena the follow ing work is inte nded as an introduct ion
,
”

and e x planat ion o f the mathematical side and the m ost e fficient ,

method of study appears to me to start with

,
E lectrical
,

E ngineering Mathemat ics and after e ntering its third

,

chapt er t o take u p the reading o f the first section o f Theo

,
”
re t ica l E lements and then parallel the study of E le ctrical
,
 P R E F AC E .
ix

M E E
“
lectr ical ”
E ngineering athematics Theoretical lements of ,

E ngineering and Theory

,
and C alc u lation o f A lternat i ng

Cu rrent Phenomena together w ith selected chapters f,

ro m
”
Theory and Calculation o f Transient E lectric Phenomena ,

and a fter this once more systemat ically go thro u gh all fo u r

,

books .

CH A R L E S P S T E I N M E T Z . .

S C H E N E C
’
I AD Y ,
‘
N Y . .
,

D e c e m be r ,
19 10 .

P R E FA C E T O S E C O ND E D I T I O N .

I N preparing the second edition o f E ngineering Mathe

m at ics , besides revision and correction o f the previo u s te x t ,

considerable new matter has been a dded m ore partic u larly ,

with regard t o periodic c u rves I n the form er edition the .

st u dy of the wave shapes prod u ced by vario u s harmonics ,

and the recog ni tion of the harmonics from the wave shape ,

“
hav e no t been treated s i nc e a short discussion o f wave shapes
is given in Alternating Cu rrent Phenomena
,

S ince h o w .
”
,

ever the periodic f u nctions are the most important in elec

,

t ri cal engineering it appears necessary to consider their shape

,

more e x tensively and this has been done in the new edition
,
.

The symbolism o f the general number as applied to alter ,

nating waves has been changed in con formity to the decision

,

o f the I nternational E lectrical Congress of T u rin a discussion ,

of the logarithmic and semi logarithmic scale of c u rve plot -

ting given etc ,

.

C H A RL E S P S T E I NME T Z . .

De ce m be r 1 9 1 4 ,
.
 CO NTE NTS .

PR E FA C E

C HAPTE R I . THE GE NE R AL NUMBE R .

A TH E SY S T E M O F NU M B E R S
. .

1 Additi on a nd S u btracti on
. . O ri g innu m b e rs Count ing a nd
Of .

m e a su ri n g . Additi on . S u btracti on a s re ve r se O pe rati o n o f

addi ti on . .

2 . L i m itati on o f s u btracti on S u bdivi si o n o f t h e ab s o l u t e nu m b e r s

.

i nt o pos itive and ne gative .

3 . Ne gative nu m b e r a m a the m atica l c on c e pti on l i ke t h e i m agi n ary

nu m be r C a se s w he re t h e ne g ative num b e r h a s a ph ys ica l
.

m e an i ng a nd ca se s whe r e it h as no t
,

4 . Mu lti p lic ati on a nd D ivi s i on Mu lti plicati o n as m u lti p l e addi .

ti on D ivi si o n a s it s r e ve r se O pe r ati on L i m itati on o f divi

. .

s i on

5 . Th e fracti on a s m ath e m atica l c on c e pti on Ca se s w h e re it h as a .

phys ica l m e ani ng a nd ca s e s w h e r e it h as no t

,

6 . I n v o l u ti o n a nd E v ol u ti on I n v o l u ti on a s m u lti p l e m u lti p lica

.

ti on E vo l uti on a s it s re ve r se O pe rati on Ne gative e x po

. .

ne nt s .

7 . Mul ti ple i nvo l u ti on le ad s t o no ne w ope rati on .

8. Fra cti ona l e x pone n t s .

9 . I rrati on a l Num b e r s L i m itati o n o f e v ol u ti on

. E ndl e ss d e ci m a l .

fracti on Rati onality o f t h e irrati onal n um b e r

. .

10 .
Q u adrat u re nu m b e r s Mu lti ple val ue s o f r oo t s S q u ar e r oo t o f
. .

ne gative q uantity r e p re s e nting q uadrat ure nu m b e r o r r o ta ,

ti on by 90 °

11 . Co m pari s on o f po sitive ne gative a nd q u adrat u re nu m be r s

,
.

Re alit yo f q u adrat u r e n u m b e r Case s w h e re it h a s a phys ical.

m e an in g a nd c as e s w h e r e it h as no t
,

12 . Ge ne ra l Nu m b e r s R p re se n ta ti on O f t h e p lane by t h e ge ne ra l
. e

num be r I t s re lati o n t o r e ctangular c oo rdi nate s

.

13 . L i m itati on O f al ge bra by t h e g e ne ral nu m b e r Roo t s o f t h e un it . .

Num be r O f s u c h r oo t s a nd the ir re lati on ,

14 . The t w o r e ve r se O pe r at i ons o f i n vol u ti on

 C ON TE N TS .

P A GE

15 . L ogarith m at io n . Re l at i on
b e tw ee n logari thm and e x pone nt o f
i nvol u ti on . Re d u c t i on to o the r ba se L og arith m o f ne g ativ e
.

q u anti ty
1 6 Q u at e rn i ons
. Ve c to r calcu l u s o f sp ace
.

1 7 Sp ac e r oto r s and the ir r e l ati on

. Supe r al ge braic n at u re o f sp ac e
.

a nalys i s .

B AL G E B R A O F T H E GE N E R AL NU M B E R O F C O M P L E X Q U A N TIT Y
. .

Re c tangul ar a nd Po lar Coo rdi n a te s

Pow e r s o f j Ordi n ary o r r e al and q u a d rat u r e o r i m agi nary
.
,

nu m be r Re lati ons
. .

1 9 Con c e pti on o f ge ne ral nu m b e r b y p o i n t o f p lane in r e ctang u l ar

. .

c oo rdin ate s ; i n pol ar c oo rdi nate s Re lati on b e twe e n re ct .

angul ar a nd po lar fo r m
Additi on a nd Su b tracti on Al ge braic a nd ge o m e trical additi on
.

and s u b tracti on Com binati on a nd r e s o l u ti on by parall e lo

.

gram law
2 1 D e notati ons
.

2 2 S i g n o f v e c t o r ang l e
. Conju gate and ass o ciate num be r s Ve c
. .

to r analysi s
2 3 I n st an c e o f s te am path O f t u rbi ne
. .

2 4 Mu lti pl i c ati on
. Mu lti pl ic ati on in r e ctangu lar c oordi nate s
. .

2 5 Mu lti p li c ati on in p ola r c oo r d i nate s Ve ct o r and ope rat o r

. .

2 6 Phys ica l m e an i ng o f r e su lt o f al ge braic O pe rati on

. Re p r e se n ta .

ti on o f re su lt
2 7 L i m itati on o f app licati on o f a lge braic O pe r ati ons t o p hys ic al
.

q u anti ti e s and o f th e graphical r e pre se ntati on o f t h e re sul t

, .

G ra p hic al r e p r e s e nt ati on o f al ge braic O pe rati ons b e t w e e n

c u rre nt v ol tage a nd i m pe dan ce
,

Re pr e s e n tati on O f v e c to r s a nd o f O pe rat o rs
2 9 D ivi s i on
. . D ivi si o n in r e ctangular c oo rdinate s
30 D ivi s i on in pol ar c oo rdi n ate s
.

3 1 I nv ol uti on a nd E v ol u ti on
. Use o f p o la r c oo rdi n ate s
.

3 2 Mu lti ple va l ue s o f t h e r e su l t o f e v o l u ti on T h e ir lo c a
. ti on i n t h e .

pl ane o f t h e ge ne ra l nu m b e r Polyp h ase a nd 77 ph a se syste m s

. .

O f nu m b e r s

33 The n va l u e s o f V1 a nd th e ir r e lati on
. .

3 4 E v ol u ti on i n r e ct angul ar c oo rdi nate s

. Co m pl e x ity o f r e su lt
.

35 Re d u cti on o f p r o d u ct s a nd fra c ti ons o f ge ne ral n u m b e r s b ypo lar

.

re pre se ntati on Instanc e .

36 E x pone ntia l r e p re se n ta t i on s o f ge ne ra l n u m b e r s
. Th e di ffe re n t .

fo rm s o f t h e ge ne ral nu m b e r
37 I n st an c e o f u se o f e x pone n tia l fo r m i n s o l u ti on o f di ffe r e n tia l
.

e q u ati on
 CON TE N TS .
xii i

P A
GE

38 . L ogarit hm at io n . Re s ol u ti on of th e logarithm Of a ge ne ra l
nu m b e r

C HAPTER II . THE POTE NTI AL SE R I ES AND EXPONE NTI AL

FUNC TI ON .

A GE N E R AL
. .

39 . i nfinite se rie s o f powe rs o f x

Th e .

40 App r ox i m a ti on by se ri e s
.

4 1 Al te rnate a nd o ne —s id e d a pp r ox i m ati on
.

42 Conv e rge nt and dive rge nt se rie s

. .

43 R ange o f c on ve rge n c y
. Se v e ra l s e ri e s o f d i ffe r e nt ran ge s f o r
.

s am e e x p r e ss i on

44 D i s c u ss i on o f c on v e rge n c y i n e ng i ne e ring a pp licati on s

45 Us e o f se ri e s f o r app r ox i m a t i on O f sm al l te r m s
. I n s tan c e o f .

e l e ctric c ir c u it

46 B i no m i al t heo r e m for d e v e l op m ent i n se ri e s

. I ns t a nc e o f i n .

d u c t i ve c irc u it .

47 Ne ce ss ityo f d e ve l o pm e n t in se ri e s
. I nst an c e o f a re o f hype rb ol a
.

48 I ns tan c e o f n um e rical c a lc u l at i on o f lo g ( 1 + 27)

.

B D IFF E RE N T I AL E Q U A T I O N S
. .

49 C haracte r o f m o s t di ffe r e n tia l e q u a t i o ns o f e l e ctri c a l e ngi ne e ri ng

. .

The ir typ ic al fo r m s
d
£ =
y . Sol ut i on by r
se i e s , by m e tho d o f Inde te rm i nate co

e ffi cie nts .

= az . Sol uti on by i nde te r m inate c o e ffici e nts

I nte grat i on constant a nd te rm i nal c onditi ons
I n v ol uti on o f s ol u ti o n E x pone nt i al f un c ti on
.

I ns tance o f ri se o f fie l d c u rr e n t in d ir e c t c u rr e n t shun t m o t o r
E va l u ati on o f i n d u ctance a nd n u m e ri c a l c a l c ul ati on
,

I ns tance o f c on d e ns e r d i s char ge t hr o ugh re si st an c e

Solu ti on of
g ay by i nde te r m inate co e ffic i e nts by e x pone nt ia l,

f unct i on .

Sol u ti on b y t ri gono m e tric f uncti ons

Re l ati on s b e tw e e n t ri g ono m e tric f unct i on s and e x pone nt ia l f unc
t i ons w i th i m aginary e x pone nt and in ve r se ly ,

I ns tance o f c on d e n se r d i s ch arge thr o ugh i n d u c tan c e Th e t w o .

i nte grati on constants and te rm in al cond iti ons

E ffe ct o f re si st ance o n t h e d i scharge Th e ge ne ra l di ffe r e n tial
.

e q u a t i on .
xiv CON TE N TS .

P A
GE

Sol u t i on
o f t h e ge ne ra l diffe r en ti al e q uati on by m e ans o f t he
e x pone n tia l fun cti on b v t h e m e th o d o f i nde te r m in ate
,

I ns tan c e o f c ond e ns e r d i s charge t hr o u gh r e si s tanc e a nd in d u c

tan ce E x pone ntial solu ti on a nd e val u ati on o f constants
. .

I m a gi n a ry e x pone n t s o f e x pone nt ial f un cti on s Re d u c ti on to .

tri gono m e tric functi ons The O s cillatin g func ti ons

.

E x pl anat i o n o f t ab l e s o f e x pone nt i al f unct i on s)

C HAPTER III . TRIGO NOME TR I C SE RIES .

A TR IG O N O M E T R I C
. FU N C TI O N S .

66 . De finiti on o f tri gono m e tric f un cti ons o n circ le a nd ri gh t triangle

67 . Si gn O f f unc ti on s i n di ffe r e nt q u adra nt s
68 . Re lati on s b e t w e e n s in c o s t an a nd c o t
, ,

69 . Ne g ati ve su pple m e nta ry a nd c o m p l e m e nt a ry angl e s

,

70 . An gle s ( x i x ) a nd

71 . Re l ati o ns be t w e e n tw o ngle s
a ,
a nd b e tw e e n a ng l e a nd d o u b le
angle
7 2 D i ff e r e n tiati on and i n te gr a t i on o f tri g ono m e t r ic f un cti on s
.

De fi nit e i nte gral s

7 3 Th e bi no m ial r e l at i on s
.

7 4 Polyp ha se r e lati on s
. .

7 5 T ri g ono m e tric f o rm ul a s O f t h e triangl e

.

B T RIG O N O M E T R I C S E R I E S
. .

76 Co nst an t tra ns i e n t a nd pe ri o di c phe no m e n a

.
,
Un ival e n t pe ri .

o d i c f unc ti on re pr e se nte d b y tri g ono m e tric se ri e s .

7 7 Al te rn atin g s ine w av e s and d i s t o r te d w av e s

.

7 8 E va l uat i on o f t h e Con s t ant s fr o m I n stantane o u s Va l ue s

. Cal .

c ul ati on o f c o nstant te rm o f se ri e s
7 9 C a l c ul ati on O f co s co e fficie nt s
.
-

80 C alc ulat i on o f s in c o e fficie nt s

.
-

8 1 I n stan c e o f calc ulati ng 1 1 t h h ar m o nic O f ge ne rat o r w ave

.

8 2 D i s cu ss i on
. I ns tance o f c o m p l e t e calc ul ati on o f p u l s ati ng c u r
.

r e nt w ave
83 Alte rn ati ng w ave s as s vmm e t ric a l w ave s
. Calc ul ati on O f sym .

m e trica l w a ve
8 4 Se p arati on o f O dd a nd e v e n har m on ic s a nd o f c on s ta nt t e r m
.

85 Se parati on o f s i ne a nd co s i ne co m pone nt s
.

8 6 Se p arati on o f w av e i nt o con s tant te rm a nd 4 c o m pone n t w ave s

.

8 7 D i s c u ssi on o f ca l c ul ati on
.

88 Me c h an i sm O f ca l cul ati on
.
 C ON TE N TS . xv

89 . o f r e soluti on o f th e annual te m pe rature curve

I nstance
9 0 Con s tan t s a nd e q u ati o n o f te m pe rat u re w av e
.

9 1 D i s c u ssi on o f te m pe rat u r e w av e
.

C R E D U C T I O N O F TR IG O N O M E TR I C SE R I E S B Y PO LY P H A S E RE LA T I O N
. .

9 2 Me th o d o f s e p arating ce rtai n cla s s e s o f har m on ic s and it s

. ,

li m itati on
9 3 I ns ta nc e O f s e parating t h e 3 d a nd 9 t h h ar m o nic o f tran s f o rm e r
.

e x citi ng c u rr e nt

D CALC U LA TI O N O F TRIG O N O M E TR I C SE R I E S F RO M O T H E R TR IG O N O
.

M E T R I C SE R I E S .

9 4 I nstan c e o f c a lc ul ati ng c u rre nt in lon g di s tan c e tran sm i ssi on l i ne

.
,

d u e t o di sto r te d v ol ta g e w av e o f ge ne r ato r L i ne con s tan t s

. . 1 39
9 5 C irc u it e q u ati on s a nd c a lcul at i o n o f e q uati on o f c u rr e nt
.
, 1 41
9 6 E ff e cti ve val u e o f c u rre n t a nd c o m p a ri s on w ith t h e c u rr e n t
. ,

p r o d u c e d b y si ne wave O f vol tage . 1 43

9 7 Vol ta ge wa ve o f r e act ance in ci rc u it o f th i s d i s t orte d c u rr e nt
. 1 45

C HAPTE R IV . MAXI MA AND MI NI MA .

98 . Max i m a a nd m in i m a b y c u rve plo tting I nstance o f m agne ti c

.

r
pe m e a bi l i ty . Ma x i m u m po we r fact o r o f i nd u cti on m oto r a s
fun cti on o f lo ad
99 . I n te rpol at i on O f m a x i m u m v al u e i n m e t ho d o f c u rve plot ting .

E rr o r i n c ase o f unsym m e tri c a l c u rv e I nstan c e o f e ffic i e n c y

.

o f s te am t urbine no zzle D i s c u ssi on

- .

1 00 . Mathe m atical m e th o d Max i mum m i ni m um and infle x io n

.
,

po i nt . D i s cussi on
101 . I ns tan c e : Spee d o f i m p ul se t urbi ne whe e l f o r m a x i m um
e ffici e ncy . Cu rre nt i n transfo rm e r f o r m a x i m u m e ffi ci e nc y .

1 02 . Effe ct Of i nte r m e d iat e variab le s I nst an c e : Max i m um p owe r

.

in re si st an c e shunti n g a con s tan t r e si s t an c e i n a c o ns tant c ur

re nt cir cu it
1 03 . Sim pl ificati on o f c a l c ul at i on by s uppr e ssi on o f unne c e ssary te r m s
e tc. Inst an c e
1 04 . I ns tance : Ma x i m u m no n i n d u ctive l o ad o n i n d u ctive t ran sm i s
-

s i on line . Ma x i m u m c u rr e n t in li ne
1 05 . D i s c u ssi on O f physic al m e aning o f m ath e m atical e x t re m um
Instance
1 06 . I nstance : E x t e rn a l r e actance givi ng m a x i m u m O u t pu t o f a lt e r
nato r at c onstant e x te rnal r e s i s tan ce a nd c onstan t e x citati on
D i s cussi on
1 07 . Ma x i m um e ffic i e n cy o f al te rn at o r o n no n in d u c t ive l o a d D is
-
.

c u ss io n O f physi c a l li m it ati ons

xv 1 C ON TE N TS .

1 08 . E xt re m a w i th ve r al i nd e pe nde nt variab le s Me tho d o f m at h

se .

e m at i ca l c a l c ulati on a nd ge o m e trica l m e an i n g
,

1 09 . Re si s tan c e a nd r e acta n c e o f l o ad t o g ive m a xi m um o u tp u t o f

t ransm i ssi on l ine at c ons t nt supp ly v o lta ge
,
a

1 10 . Di s cu ssi on o f physi c a l li m itati ons

111 . D e te rm i na i on o f e x tr e m a b y plo tting c u rve O f di ff re ntial qu o
t
e

ti e nt I ns tanc e : Max i m a O f c u rr e n t w av e o f alte rnat o r O f

.

di s t o rte d v olt age o n transm i ssi o n l ine

1 12 . Grap hical calc u lati o n o f di ffe r e n tia l c u rv e o f e m p iric al c u rve
fo r d e t e r m ining e x tr e m a
1 13 . I ns tan c e : Ma x i m u m pe r m e ability calc ulati o n
1 14 . Gr o upi ng o f batte ry c e ll s f o r m a x i m u m po w e r i n con st an t r e si s t
an c e
1 15 . Vol ta ge o f tran sfo r m e t o give m a x i m u m o u t pu t at cons tan t
r

l o ss
1 16 . Vo ltage of transfo r m e r at c ons tan t o u t p u t t o g ive m a x i m um
, ,

e ffici e ncy at f ull lo ad at half lo a d

, .

117 . Ma x i m u m val ue o f char gi ng c u rre n t o f c on d e nse r thr o ugh

i nd u ctive circ u it ( a) at lo w r e si s tan c e ; ( b ) at hi gh r e s i s tanc e .

1 18 . At wh at o u t pu t i s t h e e ffi c i e ncy o f a n i n d u c ti on ge ne rat o r a m a x

1 19 D i s c ussi on o f physical li m i tati ons Ma x i m um e ffi ci e n cy at co n

. .

s tan t c u rr e n t o u t p u t .

1 2 0 ME T H O D O F L E AS T S Q U A R E S
. Re l ati on O f n u m b e r o f O b s e rv a
.

t i ons t o n u m b e r O f c on s t ant s D i s c ussi on o f e rr o rs O f

.

o b se rvati on
1 2 1 Pr o babilit y ca l c ul u s a nd t h e m in i m u m s u m o f s q u are s o f t h e
.

e rr o r s .

1 2 2 Th e di ffe r e n tia l e q u ati o ns o f t h e s u m o f l e a s t s q u ar e s

.

1 2 3 In stan c e : Re d u cti on o f c u rve o f p ow e r o f i nd u cti o n m o t o r

.

r unni ng l i ght i nto t h e c o m pone nt lo sse s D i s c u ssi on o f

, .

re su lt s

I Z3A D i o p h a nt i c e q u a t i o n s
.

C HAPTER V . METHOD S O F APPR OXI MATION .

Fr e q ue ncy o f sm all quantiti e s in e le c tric al e ngi nee ri ng pr o b le m s .

I n s tan c e s .Appr ox i m ati on b y dr o pping te r m s o f hi ghe r O rd e r

Mu lti pl ic ati on o f t e r m s w it h sm all q u an titi e s
I ns tance o f c al c u l ati on o f po w e r o f dir e ct c u rr e n t s h unt m o t o r
Sm a ll q u antiti e s i n d e no m i n at o r o f fra cti ons
I ns tan c e o f c a lc ul ati on o f i n d u c ti on m o t o r c u rr e n t a s f un cti on
,

o f sli p
 C ON TE N TS . vi i
X

P A GE

1 2 9 Use
. o f binom i al se ri e s in app r ox i m ati ons o f powe rs a nd r oo t s
a nd i n n u m e ric al cal c u lati ons

1 30 . I ns tan c e O f calc ul ati on o f c u rre n t in a lt e rn ati ng circ u it o f lo w

i nd u ctance I nstanc e o f cal cu l ati on o f s h o rt circ u it c u rre nt
.

o f alte rnato r a s f uncti on o f spee d

,

1 31 . Use o f e x pone ntia l se ri e s a nd l o g arith m ic s e ri e s i n app ro x im a

r i ati ons o f tri gono m e tric f unc t i ons

1 3 2 App ox m
.

1 33 Mc L a u rin s a nd T ayl o r s se ri e s i n app r ox i m ati ons

’ ’
.

1 34 T ab u lati on o f vari o u s i n finit e s e ri e s a nd o f t h e a pp r ox i m a t i ons

.

d e rive d from the m

1 35 E s ti m a t i on o f ac c u r acy o f a pp r ox i m ati on
. App licati on t o .

sho r t c ir c u i t c u rr e n t o f alt e rn at o r 2 00
1 36 E x p re ssi on s w hi ch a re a pp r ox i m ate d b y ( 1 + 3 ) a nd by ( 1 — s )
. 201 .

1 37 Math e m atical i ns tan c e O f a ppr o x i m a ti on

. 2 03
1 38 E Q U A T I O N S O F T H E TR A N SM I SS I O N L I N E
. I nt e g rati on o f t h e
.

di ffe re nti al e q u ati o ns 2 04

1 3 9 S u b s ti tu ti on O f t h e t e r m i nal c on d iti o ns
. 2 05
1 40 The app r ox i m at e e q u ati ons o f t h e tra n sm i ssi o n li ne
. 2 06
1 4 1 N u m e ri cal i ns t ance
. D i s cu ss i o n o f a c cu r a cy o f a p p r o x i m a t i o n 2 0 7
. .

1 4 1 A App rox i m at i o n b y cha i n fra ct i o n

. . 20 8
1 4 1 B App r ox i m at i on b y cha i n f ract i on
. 2080

C HAPTE R VI . E MPI RI C AL C URVE S .

A G E N E R AL
. .

1 42 . Re lati on
b e twe e n e m pirical c u rve s e m p irical e q u ati o ns and
,

rati onal e q u ati ons

1 43 Physical n at u re o f p h e no m e no n
.
Po i n t s at ze r o a nd at i n fin it y
. .

Pe ri o di c o r no n pe ri o dic Constant te r m s Ch ange o f c u rve

- . .

law Sc al e
.

B NO N PE R I DI C C U RVE S
.
- O .

1 44 Po te ntial Se ri e s
. I nstance o f c o r e lo ss c u rv e
.
-

1 45 R ati on a l and irrati on al u se o f p o te ntial s e ri e s

.
I ns tan c e O f fa n .

m o t o r t o rq u e L i m itati on s o f po te n tial se ri e s
.

1 46 P A R A B O LI C AN D H Y P E R B O L I C C U RVE S
.
Vari o u s s hape s o f p ara
.

b ol as and o f hype rb ol a s
1 4 7 T h e c hara c t e ri s tic o f p arab o li c and hype rb o li c c u rve s
.
I t s u se .

a nd li m itati on b y c on s tan t te r m s .

1 48 Th e l o garith m ic ch aract e ri s tic

.
I t s u s e a nd li m itati o n
.

1 4 9 E X .
P O N E N T I A L AN D L O G A R I T HM I C C U R V E S Th e e x p on e n ti al
.

f uncti on
1 50 : C haract e ri s tic s o f t h e e x pone ntial c u rv e th e ir u s e a nd li m itati o n
,

by c onstant te rm Co m pari s on O f e x pone nti al c u rve and

.

hype rb o la
151 .
Do ub le e xponenti al f uncti ons Vari ous shape s the reo f .

1 52 . E VAL U A TI O N O F E M P I R I C AL C U R VE S Ge ne ral p ri n ciple s o f .

i nve sti gati on o f e m p iri c al c urve s

153 . I ns tance : Th e v ol t am pe r e characte ri s ti c o f t h e t ungste n lam p
-
,

re d u ce d to p arab ol a w it h e x p one n t R ati onal i z e d b y

r e d u cti on to radi ati on law
1 54 . T h e vol t am pe r e c h aracte ri s ti c o f t h e m a gne tite are re d u ce d
-
,

t o hype rb ol a w ith e x pone nt

155 .
C hange o f e l e c tric c u r re nt with c h ange o f cir cu it c ond iti ons
re d u c e d to d o u b le e xp one ntia l f unc ti o n o f tim e

1 56 . R ati onal r e d u ct i on O f c o r e lo s s c urve o f p ar ag ra ph 1 44 b y

-
,

p ar a b ol a w it h e x pone nt

157 . R e d u cti on o f m a gne ti c c hara c t e ri s ti c f or h i ghe r d e n s iti e s t o, ,

hyp e rb ol i c c urve I ns t anc e o f th e in ve st iga t i on o f a hys

.

t eres is c urve o f s ili c on s te e l

C . PE R I O DI C C U R VE S .

1 58 . D is tortio n of s i ne ave b y har m o nic s

w
159 . T hird nd a fifth harm o nic Pe a k m u lti p l e
.
p e ak fl t t p a nd, , a o

s a wtooth

1 60 . C o m bi ne d e ff e ct of t h ird a nd fifth har m o nic

161 . E v e n har m o ni c s Une qu al s ha p e and l e ng th of half w aves
.

C o m bi ne d s e co nd a nd third har m o nic

1 62 . E ff e ct of hi g h har m o ni c s
1 63 . Ri p p l es a nd nod e s cau se d b y hi g h e r har m o nic s I nc m m e n . o

s ur a b le w av es

C H APT E R VII . NU M E RI C AL C AL C UL ATI O N S .

1 64 . M E TH O D OF C AL C U LAT I O N T ab u lar for m

. of calc u latio n
1 65 I ns ta nc e of
. tr ans m iss io n li ne r e gu latio n
1 6 6 E X A CT NE SS O F C AL C U L A T I O N
. . n r e es of e x m t ne s s : m gn a it u de ,

ap p ro xi m ate , e xact
1 67 Nu m b e r of d e ci m als
.

1 68 I N T E LL I GIB I LIT Y O F E N G I N E E R I N G D A T A
. . C u rv e p lotti ng for
ho wi ng s hap e of f u nctio n and for re cord
s ,
of nu m e rical val u es 2 8 3
1 6 9 S cal e of c urves
. Pr inci p l es. . 2 86
1 70 L g arith m ic a nd s e m i log arith m i c p a p e r a nd i t s p ro p e r
. o - e us 287
1 7 1 C o m p l e t e ness of r e cord
. 2 90
1 7 1 A E ng i ne e ring R e p ort s
.

1 7 2 R E LI AB I LIT Y O F N UM E R CI AL C AL C U LAT I O N S
.
Ne c e s ity o f r lia . s e

b i lit y in e ng in e e i ng calc latio ns r u .

1 7 3 M e tho d s of ch e c k i ng calc u latio ns

. C u rv e p lotti ng .

1 7 4 So m e fre qu e nt e rro rs
.

AP P E ND IX A . N O TE S O N THE T H E O RY O F FUNC TI O N S .

A . G E N E RAL FU N C TI O N S .

1 75 . I m p licit analyt ic f u nctio n . E p x licit a nal ytic f u nctio n . Re ve rse

f u nct i o n
 E NG I NE E R I NG MAT H E MAT I C S .

C HAPTE R I .

TH E GE NE RAL NUMB E R .

A THE SYSTE M O F NUMB E R S

. .

Additi o n an d S u b tr a c t i o n .

I . From the operation of counting and meas u ring arose the

art of figuring arit h metic algebra and finally more or less
, , , , ,

the entire stru ct u re of mathematics .

Du ring the development of the h u man race t h ro u gho u t the

ages which is repeated by every child d u ring the first years
,

o f life the first conceptions o f n u merical values were vag u e

,

and crude : man y and f ew big and little large and small
, ,
.

L ater the ability to count that is the kno w ledge o f n u mbers

, , ,

developed and last of all the ability o f meas u rin g and even
, ,

up to day me as uring is to a considerable e x tent done by co unt

,

ing : steps knots etc , ,

.

From co unting arose t h e simplest arithmetical operati on

a ddi ti on Thus we mav co u nt a b u nch o f horses :
.

1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 ,

and then co u nt a second b u nch Of horses ,

1 , 2, 3 ;

now put the second bunch together w ith the first one into one ,

bunch and co u nt them That is after co u nting t he h o rs e s

,
.
,
2 E N GINE E R I N G M A THE M ATI CS .

o f the first b u nch we conti n u e to co u nt those of the second

,

bunch thus :,

1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 1— 6 1 7 ) 8 ;

which gives addition ,

or in general
, ,

a + b = a

We may take a w ay again the second bunch of horses t hat ,

means we co u nt the entire b u nch of horses and then co u nt

, ,

o ff those we take away th u s :

—
1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 7 , 6, 5 ;

which gives su b tra cti on,

8
or in general
, ,

c
-
b = w

The reverse of putting a gro u p of thi ngs together with

another gro u p is to take a gro u p away therefore s u btraction ,

is the reverse of addition .

2 I mmediatel y we n otice an essential di fference between

.

addition and s u btraction which may be illu strated by the

,

following e x amples :

Addition : 5 horses + 3 horses gives 8 horses ,

Subtraction : 5 —
horses 3 horses gives 2 horses ,

Addition : 5 horses + 7 horses gives 1 2 horses ,

—
S u btraction : 5 horses 7 horses is impossible .

From the above it follows that we can al w ays add but we ,

cannot always s u btract ; s u btraction is not al w ays possible ;

it is not when the n u mber of t hings which we desire to sub
,

tract is greater than the number of things from which we

desire to s u btract .

The same relation O btains in measuring ; we may meas u re

a distance from a starting point A ( Fig f or instance in s t eps .
,

and then measure a second distance and get the total distance ,

fro m th e s t art in g p oi nt b y addition : 5 steps from A to B . .

 TH E GE NE R AL N U MBE R . 3

then 3 steps from ,

B to C , gives the distance from A to C as ,

8 steps .

5 steps + 3 steps 8 steps ;

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

B C
FI G 1 . Additi o n .

or we may step O ff a distance and then step back that is

, , , ,

subtract another distance f or instance ( Fig , .

5 st eps —
3 steps = 2 steps ;
that is going 5 steps from A to B and then 3 steps back
, , , ,

from B to C b ri ngs u s to C 2 steps away from A

, , .

1 2 5

C 8
FI G 2 . . Su btraction .

Trying the case o f s u btraction w hich was impossible in the ,

e x ample with the horses 5 steps 7 steps = ? We go f rom the ,

-

starting point A 5 steps to B and then step bac k 7 steps ;

, , , ,

here we find that sometimes we can d o it sometimes we cannot ,

do it ; i f bac k o f the starting p oint A is a stone wall we cannot ,

step bac k 7 steps I f A is a chalk mark in the road we may

.
,

step ba c k beyond it and come to C in Fig 3 I n the latter case

,
. .
,

1 16 . 3 . S ub t r ction
a . Ne gative R e s u lt .

at C we are again 2 steps distant f rom the starting point j ust ,

as in Fig 2 That is
. .
,

5 ( Fig .

5 ( Fig .

In the case where we can s u btract 7 from 5 we get the same ,

distance from t he starting point as when we subtract 3 from 5 ,

4 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E M ATI CS .

b ut t he distance AC in Fig 3 w h ile the s a me 2 steps as .

, , ,

in Fig 2 is di fferent in character the one is to w ard the le ft

.
, , ,

the other to w ard the right That means we have two kinds .
,

o f distance u nits t h ose to the right and those to the left and
, ,

have to find some w ay to distinguish them The distance 2 .

in Fig 3 is to w ard the left of the starting point A that is

.
, ,

in that d i rection in w hich we step when subtracting and

, ,

it th us appears nat u ral t o distinguish it from the distance '

2 in Fi g 2 by calling the f ormer 2 while we call t h e dist ance

.
,
—
,

AC in Fig 2 : + 2 since it is in the direction f rom A in which

.
, ,

w e step in addi ng .

This leads to a s u bdivision o f t h e s vste m o f absolute n u mbers ,

1, 2,

into two classes positive n u mbers

, ,

+ 1, + 2, + 3,

and negative n umbers ,

— 1, —
2, —
3,

and by the introduction of negative n u mbers we can always ,

carry o ut the mathematical operation o f s u btraction :

c
— b=%

and i f b is greater than c a merely becomes a negative number

, , .

3 We m u st there f ore reali ze that the negative number and

.

—
the negative unit 1 is a mathematical fiction and not in
, , ,

u niversal agreement with e x perience as the absol ute n u mber ,

fo u nd in the operation o f counting and the negative number ,

does not alw ays represent an e x ist ing condition in practi cal -

e x peri ence .

I n the application of n u mbers to the phenomena of nature ,

we sometimes find conditions w here w e can give the negative

number a physical meaning e x pressing a relation as the ,

reverse to the positive n u mber ; in other cases we cannot do

—
7 = —2
this For instance 5 horses
. horses
,
horses has no
physical meanin g There e x ist no negative horses and at the
.
,

best we could only e press the relation by saying 5 horses 7

x —
,

horses is impossible 2 horses are missing ,

.
 TH E G E N E R AL N UM B E R . 5

In the same way an ill u mination o f 5 f oot candles lowered

,
-
,

by 3 foot candles gives an ill u mination of 2 f oot candles thus

-
,
-
, ,

5 f oot candles
- —
3 f oot candles = 2 f oot candles
- -
.

If it is tried to lo w er the ill umination o f 5 f oot candles by 7 -

foot candles it will be f o u nd impossi ble ; there cannot be a

-
,

negative illumination of 2 foot—candles ; the limit is z ero ill u mina

tion or darkness
,
.

From a stri ng o f 5 f eet len gth we can cut O ff 3 feet lea ving , ,

2 feet b u t we cannot c ut o ff 7 feet leavi ng — 2 feet o f string

, , .

I n these instances the negative n u mber is meaningless , ,

a mere imaginary mathematical fiction .

If the temperat u re is 5 deg cent above f ree zing and falls . .

,

3 d e g it wi ll be 2 deg cent above f ree z ing

,
I f it f alls 7 deg
. . . .

it w ill be 2 deg cent belo w f ree z ing The one case is j ust as
. . .

real physically as the other and in this instance we may

, ,

e x press the relation th u s :

deg cent —3 deg cent deg cent
+5 . . . . +2 . .
,

—
+5 deg cent . . 7 deg cent . .
-
2 deg cent. .
;

that is in temperature meas u rements by the conventional

,

temperat u re scale the negative n umbers have j u st as m u ch

,

physical e x istence as the positive n umber s .

The same is the case w ith time we may represent future ,

time f rom the present as starting point by positive numbers

, , ,

and past time then will be represented by negative n um bers .

But we may eq u ally well represent past time by positive num

bers and f ut u re times then appear as negative n u mbers I n
,
.

this and most other ph ysical applications the negative n u mber

, ,

t h u s appears equivalent with the positive n um be r and inter ,

changeable : w e may choose any direction as positive and ,

the reverse direction then is negative Mathematically ho w .

,

ever a di fference e x ists between the positive and the negative

,

number ; the positive unit m u ltiplied by itself remains a pos , ,

it ive unit b u t the negative unit multiplied w ith itsel f does

, , ,

not remain a negative unit but becomes positive : ,

and not
6 E N GIN E E RIN G M ATH E M ATI CS .

S tarting from 5 deg northern latitude and going 7 deg . .

so u th brings us to 2 deg southern latitude which may be

,
.
,

e x presses thus ,

deg latit u de —7 deg latit u de —

+5 . . 2 deg latitude
. .

There f ore in all cases where there are two opposite dire c
, ,

tions right and le f t on a line north and so u th latitude east

, , ,

and west lon gitude f uture and past assets and liabilities etc
, , ,
.
,

there m ay be appli cation of the negative numbe r ; in other cases ,

where there is o nly one kind or direction co u ntin g horses , ,

meas u ring ill u mination etc there is no physical meaning , ,

which wo u ld be represented by a negative number There .

are still other cases where a meaning may sometimes be f ound

,

and sometimes not ; for instance i f we have 5 dollars in o u r ,

pocket we cannot take a w a y 7 d ollars ; i f we have 5 dollars

,

in the bank we may be able to draw out 7 d ollars or we may

, ,

not depending on o ur credit I n the first case 5 dollars

,
—
7 .
,

dollars is an impossibili ty whi le the second case 5 do llars 7 ,

-

dollars 2 dollars overdraft .

I n any case ho w ever we m u st reali z e that the negative

, ,

num ber is not a physical but a mathematical conception , ,

which may find a physical representation or may not depend , ,

ing on the physical condi t ions to which it is applied The .

negative number th u s is just as imaginary and j u st as real , ,

d epending on the case to which it is applied as the imaginary ,

number x/ — 1 and the only di fference is that we have be come

, ,

familiar with the negative n u mber at an earlier age where we ,

wer e less critical and thus have taken it f or granted become

.
, ,

familiar with it by u se and u s u ally do not reali ze that i t is

,

a mathematical conception and not a physical reality When , .

w e first learned it however it was q uite a step to become

, ,

accustomed to saying 5 — 7 = —2 and not simply —

5 7 is
, , ,

impossible .

Mu lti pli c a ti o n a nd D ivi si o n .

4 .we have a bunch o f 4 horses and another bunch of 4

If ,

horses and still another b u nch o f 4 horses and add together

, ,

the three b u nches of 4 horses each w e get , ,

4 horses + 4 horses 4 horses 12 horses ;

8 E NGIN E E RIN G M AT H E M A T I C S .

Thus it is seen that the reverse O peration of multiplication ,

or division cannot always be carried o ut

,
.

5 If we have 1 0 apples and divide them into 3 we get 3

.
, ,

apples in each group and one apple left over ,

.

10
rema i nder 1,

we may now cut the left over apple into -

3 eq ual parts in ,
w hich
case ,

In the same manner i f we have 1 2 apples we can divide , ,

into 5 by cutting 2 apples each into 5 eq ual pieces and get

, ,

in each of the 5 groups 2 apples and 2 pieces ,

.

1
2

To be able to carry the operation of division through for

all n u merical values makes it necessary to introd u ce a new
,

unit smaller than the original unit and derived as a part o f it

, ,
.

Th u s i f we divide a string o f 1 0 feet length into 3 eq ual

,

parts each part contains 3 feet and 1 foot is le f t ove r O ne

, ,
.

f oot is made up o f 1 2 inches and 1 2 inches divided into 3 gives ,

4 inches ; hence 1 0 feet divided by 3 gives 3 feet 4 inches

, .

D ivision leads u s to a new form of n u mbers : the fraction .

The fraction however is j ust as m u ch a mathematical con

, ,

ce pt io n which sometimes may be applicable and sometimes

, ,

not as the negative n u mbe r I n the above instance of 1 2

,
.

horses divided into 5 gro u ps it is not applicable

, , .

12 horses
2 g horses
,

is impossible ; we cannot have fractions of horses and what ,

we would get in this attempt would be 5 gro u ps each com '

prising 2 horses and some pieces of carcass .

Thus the mathematical conception of the f raction is ap

,

plicable to those physical quantities which can be divided i nto

smaller units but is not applicable to those w hich are i ndi
, ,

visible or i ndi vi du als as we usually call them

, , .
 T HE GE N E R AL N UM BE R . 9

I nvo l u ti o n a nd E vo l u ti o n .

6 . If w e have a prod u ct o f several equal factors , as ,

4X4X4 64,
3
it is written as ,
4 64 ;

or in general
, ,

The operation of multiple multiplication of e qual f actors

th u s leads to the ne x t algebraic operation — i nvolu ti on; j u st as
the operation o f m u ltiple addition o f eq u al terms leads to the
operation o f multiplication .

The operation o f invol ution defined as multiple multiplica ,

tion requires the e x ponent b to be an integer n umber ; b is the

,

n u mber of f actors .

3
Thu s 4 has n o immediate meaning ; it would by definition
-

be 4 m u ltiplied — 3 ) times with itsel f .

D ividing contin u o u sly by 4 we get , ,

etc and if this s uccessive divi sion by 4 is carried

.
,

s till fu rther we get the following serie s

,

3
4 —
4X4
4 4
2
4 4X4
4 4

or in general
, ,
10

Thus
E NGIN E E RING IVA TH E M AT] C S

powers with negative e x ponents

" as
.

a
—b
are the
, , ,

1
reciprocals of the same po w ers with positive e x ponents b
°

7 . From the definition o f invol ution then follo w s ,

"
b n b -t- n
a x a z
a ,

beca u se a
b
means the product o f b eq u al f actors a and a
b
prod u ct of n eq u al factors a and a X e th u s is a prod u ct hav ,
" , the
.

ing b + n eq u al f actors a For instance .

,

= = 45
( 4 x 4 x 4)
3 2
4 x4 .

The q u estion now arises w hether by m u ltiple involution ,

we can reach any f u rther mathematical operation For instance .

,

may be written ,

( )
3 2 = 3 3
4 4 X 4

46 J

an d in the same manner ,

b n
(a )
'
b th
that is a po w er a is raised to the n power by m ultiplying
,

"
,

its e x ponent Thus also .

,

W )
t hat is the order of invol ution is immaterial
,
.

Therefore m u ltiple invol ution leads to no further algebraic

,

operations .

3
8 . 4 64

that is the product of 3 e qual f actors 4 gives 64

, , .

I nversely the problem may be to resolve 6 4 into a product

, ,

o f 3 eq u al factors E ach o f the f actors then will be 4 This

. .

reverse operation of invol u tion is ca lled evolution and is written ,

thus ,

x/ B
s
4 = 4;
or more general
, ,
 TH E GE N E R AL N UM B E R . 1I
-

x/b th us is defined as that n u mber a, which raised to the po w er

,

b , gives 0 ; or in other
,
w ords ,
b

thu s f ar was defined only f or integer positive

I nvol ution
and negative e x ponents and the q u estion arises w hether po wers
, ,
I n

w ithfractional e x ponents as . ch or 0 75 , have any meaning .

Writing ,

I
it is seen that c? is that n u mber ,
w hich raised to the power b,
1
b
gives c ; that is c? is x/c and the operation o f evol ution th us
,

can be e xpressed as invol ution with f ractional e xponent ,

O bvio u sly then ,

I rrati o na l Nu m b ers .

I nvol u tion
with integer e x ponents as 6 4 can al w ays 43
9 . , ,

be carried o u t I n many cases evol ution can also be carried

.
,

o ut . For instance ,

while in other cases it cannot be ca rrie d o u t For instance

'

,
.
,
,
 E NGI N E E R I NG M ATH E M ATI CS .

Attempting to calc u late ( 5 , we get ,

92 :

and find no matter how f ar we carry the calculation we never

, ,

come to an end b u t get an endless decimal fraction ; that is

, ,

no n u mber e x ists in o u r system of numbe rs w hic h can e x press ,

V2 but we can only appro x imate it and carry the approxi ma

, ,

tion to any desired degree ; some s u ch n u mbers as E have be en , ,

calc u lated up to several h u ndred decimals .

S u ch n u mbe rs a s V ’
which cannot be e x pressed in an y
finite form b ut merely appro x imated are called i rrat i ona l
, ,

nu mb e rs The name is j u st as wrong as the name negative

.

number ,
or imaginary n u mber There is nothi ng irrational .

abo u t V2 If we draw a square with 1 foot as side the len gth

.
, ,

o f the dia g onal is feet and the len gth of the diagonal o f
,

a sq u are obvi ously is j ust as rational as the length of the sides .

I rrational n u mbers th us are those real and e x isting num be rs ,

which cann ot be e x pressed by an integer or a f raction or finite ,

decimal fraction but give a n endless decimal fraction whi ch

, ,

d oes not repeat .

E ndless decima l fractions freque ntly are met when e x press

ing common f ractions as decimals These decimal representa .

tions of c ommon fractions ho w ever are pe ri odi c decima ls , , ,

that is the n u merical val ues period ically repeat and in this
, ,

respect are different fr om the i rrational nu m ber a nd can due , ,

to their periodic nat u re be converted into a finite common

,

fraction For instance

.
,

Le t

1 000x = 2 1 3 8 7 3 87 38 7. .

s u btracting ,

999x = 2 1 3 6 6 .

H ence ,
2 1 3 66 1 184 77
2
9 99 9 990
°

5 55 5 55
 TH E GE NE RAL N U MBE R . 13

Qu a d ra tu r e Nu m b e r s .

10 . It is

b u t it als o 1 s

— 2)

Therefore V1 4 has t w o val u es ,

and and in ,

evol ution w e th u s first stri ke the interesting f eat u re that one ,

and the same operation with the same numerical val ues gives , ,

several di fferent res u lts .

Since all the positive and negative numbers are u sed up

as the sq u are roots of positive numbers the q uestion arises , ,

W hat is the sq u are root of a negative n u mber ? For instance ,

V— 4 cannot be —2 as — 2 sq u ared gives + 4 nor can it be + 2

, ,
.

—
solves itsel f into : Wha t is I? i
x i
We have derived the absol u te n u mbers f rom e xperience ,

f or instance by measuring distances on a line Fig 4 f rom a

,
.
,

st a rting point A .

0
—r
-5
i
-
-r
4 -3 -2 -
1 +1 +2 +3
—
+4 + 5
1
C A 8

FI G 4 . . Ne gative a nd P o itive
s Num be rs .

Then we have seen that we get the same distance from A ,

twice once toward the right once toward the left and this
, , ,

h as led to the subdivision of the numbers into positive and

negative numbers Ch oosing the positive to w ard the right
.
,

in Fig 4 the negative n u mber wo u ld be toward the le f t ( or

.
,

inversely choosing the positive to w ard the le f t wo u ld give

, ,

the negative toward the right ) .

I f then we take a n u mbe r as + 2 which represents a d is , ,

tance AB and m u ltiply by

,
A
we get the di s tance C = —
2
14 E N GIN E E R I NG M A TH E M A T I C S .

in opposite direction from A . I nversely , if we take AC ,

—2

and multiply by we get AB = + 2 ; that is , m u ltiplica

tion by — 1 ) reverses the direction t u rns it through 1 80 deg ,
.

I f we multiply + 2 by V: we get + 2 V — 1
a quantity , ,

o f w hich we do not yet know the meaning Mu ltiplying once .

more by V T I we get ,
V It = — 2 ; that is ,

multiplying a number + 2 t w ice by V — 1

gives a rotation o f
, ,

1 80 d e g and m u ltipli cation by

,
th u s means rotation by
half o f 1 80 d e g ; or by 9 0 d e g and + 2 V — 1 thus is the dis
, ,

FI C . 5 .

tance in the direction rotated 90 deg f rom + 2 or in q uadrat u re .

,

—
direction AD in Fig 5 and s u ch n u mbers as ,
1 th u s
are quad ra tu re nu mb e rs that is represent direction not to w ard
, ,

the right as the positive nor to w ard the le f t as the negative

, , ,

n u mbers b u t u p w ard or dow n w ard

,
.

— 1
For convenience of writing is us u ally denoted by
,

the letter j .

I I . J u st as the operati on of s u btraction introd u ced in the

negative n u mbers a ne w kind o f numbers having a direction ,

180 deg di ff erent that is in opposition to the positive nu m

.
, ,

be rs,
so the operation of evol u tion introd u ces in the q u adrat u re
n u mber as ,
a ne w kind of n u mber having a direction 9 0 deg ,
.
16 E NGINE E RING M AT H E M A T I C S .

n u mbers I n still other problems as when dealing w ith illu m i

.
,

nation o r with individ u als the negative numbers are not

, ,

applicable b u t only the absol u te or positive nu mbers

, .

J u st as m u ltiplication by the negative unit — 1 ) means

rotation by 1 80 d e g or reverse of direct ion so multiplication
, ,

by the quadrature unit j means rotation by 9 0 d og or change

, , ,

f rom the hori zontal to the ve rtical direction and inve rsely ,
.

G e n e r a l Nu m b e r s .

1 2 . By the
positive and negative numbers all the points of ,

a line co u ld be represented n u merically distances f rom a

chosen point A .

FI G 7
. . i
S mp le Ve ctor D iagram .

By the addition O f the q u adrature n u mbers all points of ,

the entire plane can now be represented as distances f rom

chosen coordinate a x es a: and that is any point P o f the ,

plane Fig 7 has a hori zontal distance OB = + 3 and a

.
.
, , ,

vertical distanc e BP = + 2j and ther efore is given by a

, ,
.

combination of the distances OB = + 3 and B P = + 2 j For ,

.

convenience t h e act o f combining t w o s u ch distanc es in q u ad

,

rat u re with each other can be e x pressed by the pl u s si gn ,

and the result of combination thereby e x pressed by OB +B P

3 + 2j .
 TH E G E N E R AL N UM B E R . 17

Such a co mbination of an ordinary nu mber and a qu adra -

t u re number is called a gene ral nu m b e r or a com plex qu anti ty .

The q u adrat u re n u mber jb th u s enormo usly e x ten ds the

field o f u se fulness o f algebra by a ff ording a n u merical re pre
,

se nt at io n of two dimensional systems

-
as the plane by the , ,

general n u mber a + 3b They are especially u se f u l and impor

.

tant i n electrical engineering as most problems o f alternating

,

c u rrents lead to vector representations in the plane and there ,

fore can be represented by the general number a + 3b ; that is ,

the c o mbinati o n o f the ordinary n u mber or hori zontal distance

a and th e q u adrat u re n u mber or ve rt ical distance jb
,
.

FI G 8 . . Ve ctor D iagram .

Analytically , points in the plane are represented by their

t wo coordinates : the hori z ontal coordinate or abscissa x and , ,

t he vert ical coordinate or ordinate y Algebraically in the

,
.
,

ge neral nu mber a + jb both coordinates are combined (1 being ,

the a: coordinate jb the y coordinate

,
.

Th u s in Fi g 8 coordinates of the points are

.
, ,

P1 : x = + 3, =
y +2 P2 2 =
y
-
2,

P3 = —3 = +2 P4 : = —
3 = 2,
y y
-
: x ,
x

and t he points a re located in the plane by the n u mbers

18 E NG I N E E RING M ATH E M ATI C S .

1 3 . Sincethe sq uare root o f negative n u mbers has

a lre a d v

e x tended the system O f n u mbe rs by giving the quadrat u re

n u mber the q u estion arises whether still f u rther e x tensions
,

o f the system o f n u mbers wo u ld res u lt f rom higher roots of

negative q uantities .

For insta nce ,

The meaning o f V 1 we
t fin d in the same manner as that

A positive n u mber a may be represented on the hori z ontal

a x is as P
Multiplying a b y {l 1 gives a i l 1 whose meaning we do
— —
,

not yet kno w M u ltiplying again and again by i

. f— 1 we get afte r , ,

f o u r m u ltiplications a H ,
‘
a ; that is in four steps we
-
,

have be en carried from a to a a rotation o f 1 80 d e g and -

, ,

1 80
V —1 thus means a rotat i on of — V
4

de g ,
therefore ,
C
—
1
4
is the point P I in Fig 9 at distance a from the coordinate.
,

center and u nde r angle 45 d e g which has the coordinates

, , ,

5 2
and y
=
i or is represented by the general number
, , ,

P1 = a

V —1
however m ay also mean a rotation by 1 35 deg to P 2
‘

, .
, ,

since this repeated f o u r times gives

,
de g , ,

or the same as 1 80 d e g or it may mean a rotation by 22 5 deg

, .

or by 3 1 5 deg Thus f o u r points e x ist w hich represent a {I —1 ;

.
,
.

the points

a, P4

There f ore {l l is still a general n u mber cons ist ing o f an

,
—
,

ordinary and a q u adrat u re n u mber and th u s does not e x tend ,

o u r system of n u mbers any f u rther .

 TH E G E N E R AL N UM B E R .
9
—
Inthe same manner 1 can be f o u nd ; it is that n u mber
,
,

which multiplied n times with itsel f , gives + 1 Th us it re pre

, .

360
sents a rotat i on by de g , or any m u lt i ple thereo f ; that is
n ,

the x coordinate is cos q>< the y coordinate sin q><

n 3 60
V +1 = cos — —
qX +j s 1n q><
n

where q is any integer number .

Ve ctor D ia gram a d ‘
FI G 9. . 1 .

There are therefore n di fferent values of a f/ + 1 w hich lie ,

equidistant on a circle with radi u s 1 as sho w n f or n = 9 in ,

Fig 1 0
. .

I4. I n the operation of addition a + b = c the problem is , , ,

a and b being given ; to find c .

The terms of addition a and b are interchangeable or

, , ,

eq u ivalent thus : ,
and addition there f ore has o nlv
one reverse operation subtraction ; c and b being given a is
, ,
—
fo u nd th u s : a c b and c and a being given b is f o u nd th u s :
=
, , , ,

b= c — a —
E ither leads to the same operation s u btraction
. .

The same is the case in m u ltiplication ; The

90 E NG I N E E R I NG . MAT HE MAT I CS .

factors a and b are i nterchangeable or e q u ivalent ; a >< b = b >< a

C C
and t he reverse operation division a = is the same as b=
d , ,
b
“
b i
I n invol u tion however o c t h e two numbers a and b
, ,
-
,
”
are no t i nterch angeable and a is not eq u al to b For instanc e ,
. .

and
Therefore invol ution has t w o reverse operatio ns
,

( a) c and b given a to be fo u nd , ,

or evolution ,

FI G 1 0 . . P oi nt s D te rm i ne d
e by

(b ) c and a given ,
b to be f o u nd
b = lo ga c;

or ,
lo ga rit h m at io n .

L o ga ri th m a t i o n .

I sLo garit hm at io n thus is one o f

. the reverse operations
of invol u tion , and the logarithm is the
e x ponent of invol ution .

Thus a logari th mic e x pression may be changed to an e x

‘

n nt ial and inversely and the laws o f lo garit h m at i on are

p o e , ,

the laws which the e x ponents obey in involution

,
.

1 Powers of eq u al base are multiplied by adding the

.

e x ponents : Therefore the logarithm of a ,

 TH E GE N E R AL N UM BE R . 21

product is the sum o f the logarithms o f the f actors thus lo g 0 >< d , o

— log c + log d
a a .

2 A po w er is raised to a power by m u ltiplying the e x ponents :

.

There f ore the logarithm of a power is the e x ponent times

the logarithm o f the base or the n u mbe r under the logarithm , ,

is raised to the power n by m ultiplying the logarithm by n : ,

log a c
n =n log a 0,

log , 1 = 0,
because d 1 I f the base a 1 log} c is positive o
.
, , ,

if c > 1 and is negative i f c < 1 but > 0 The reverse is the

, , ,
.

case if a < 1 Th us the logarithm traverses all positive and

,
.
,

negative val ues for the positive values o f c and the logarithm ,

o f a negative n u mber thus can be neither positive nor negative .

log — e ) = log c + lo g and the question o f finding

a a a

the logarithms of negative n u mbers thus resolves itself into

fi nding the val u e of log a

There are two standard systems of logarithms one with

the base e = 2 7 1 828 and the other with the base 10 is
. .

use d t he f ormer in algebraic the latter in numerical calcula

, ,

tions L ogarithms of any base a can easily be reduced to any

.

other base .

For instance to red u ce b = lo g c to t he base 1 0 : b = log c

, a a

means in the f orm o f involution : a c Taking the logarithm

,
b =
.

hereof gives b lo gl o a = lo g1 0 c hence

, , ,

lo g o 0 lo g l o 0
or lo go, c
lo gl o a
’
lo g e a

Thus regarding th e logarithms o f negative n u mbers

, ,
we
l
to consider only o g l o — 1 ) or log ,

x = lo then n
If j g, a

and since as will be seen in

,
C hapter II ,

cos x +j sin 23,

it follows that
cos x +j sin 2:

Re g ardi ng 6 , see Chapte r II, p 71 . .

22 E NGIN E E RING AI A TH E JII A TI C S .

x = 7z, or an odd mu ltiple thereo f and ,

10 ge ( I ),

where n is any integer n u mber .

Th u s lo garith m at io n also leads to t h e q u adrature n u mber

,
3 b u t to no further e x tension of the system of n u mbers .

Qu a t e m i o ns .

1 6 . Addition and subtraction , multiplication and division ,

involution and evol ution and lo gari t hm at io n thus represent all
the algebraic operations and the system of n u mbers in which
,

all these operations can be carried out u nder all conditions

is that of the general n u mber a + jb comprising the ordinary , ,

number a and the q u adrat u re number jb The n u mber a as .

well as b ma y be positive or negative may be integer f raction , ,

or irrational .

Since by the introdu ction o f the quadrature number jb ,

the application of t he system of n u mbers was e x tended from the

line or more general one dimensional q u antity to the plane
, ,
-
, ,

or the two dimensional q u antity the q u estion arises whether

-
, ,

the system o f n u mbers co u ld be still f u rther e x tended into ,

three dimensions so as to represent space geometry While

,
.

in electrical engineering most problems lead only to plai n

figures vector diagrams in the plane occasionally space figu res
, .
,

would be advantageo u s i f they co u ld be e x pressed algebra

ically . E specially in mechanics this wo u ld be of importance
when dealing with forces as Vectors in space .

I n the q u aternion calcul u s methods have been devised to

deal with space problems The q u aternion calc u l u s however
.
, ,

has not yet found an engineering application comparable w ith

that of the general n u mber or as it is f req uently called the , , ,

com ple x qu a nti ty The reason is that the q u aternion is not

.

an algebraic q u antity arid the la w s of al gebra do not u ni fo rm lv

,

appl y to it .

1 7. With the rectangu lar coordinate system in the plane ,

Fig 1 1 the x a x is may represent the ordinary nu mbers the y

.
, ,

a x is the q u adrature numbers and multiplication by ,

represents rotation by 90 deg For ins tance i f P I is a point .

,
24 E NGIN E E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

Algebrai cally this is not possible , since each o f the three quan
tities is -
1, and —1 — 1 and not
,

FI G 1 2
. . Ve ctor s i n S pac e , ihk = 1 .

Ifwe now proceed again from x in positive rotation but

, ,

first t u rn in the r e plane w e reach by m u ltiplication with k

,

z as seen in Fig 1 3
—
the negative 2 a is
x , ,
Fu rther multiplica
. .

Ve ctors in Sp a c e khf
,
:

tion by It brings us to + y and m u ltiplication by j to — x and

, ,

in this case the resu lt o f the three s u ccessive rotati ons by

 TH E GE N E R AL N UM BE R . 25

90 de g , in
the same direction as in Fig 1 2 b ut in a di ff erent .
,

order is a reverse ; that is represents

, There f ore , ,

k j
h = — 1,
and hence ,

= —
jh k l
c hj .

Thus in vector analysis o f spa ce

, ,
we see that the fundamenta l
law o f algebra ,

a Xb b X a,

does not apply and the order of the factors of a produ ct is

,

not immaterial but b v changing the order o f the factors o f the

,

product jhk its S ign was reversed

,
Thus common f actors can .

not be canceled as in algebra ; for instance i f in the correct e x ,

pressio i
n h k ,
—khj we should can cel by i h and k as could be
, , ,

done in alge b ra we wou ld get 1 — 1 which is O bvio usly wrong

, , .

For this reason all the mechanisms devised for vector analysis
in space have proven more di ffic u lt in thei r appli cation and ,

have not yet been used to any great e x tent in engineering

practice .

B . AL GE B RA OF THE GE NE RAL NU MBE R , OR C OM PL E X

QUANTITY .

R e ct ang u la r a nd Po la r C o o r d i nat e s .

The general n u mber or comple x q uantity a + jb is

1 8. , , ,

the most general e x pression to which the law s of algebra apply .

I t therefore can be handled in the same manner and under

th e same r u les as the ordinary n u mber o f elementary arit hm eti c .

The only feature which m u st be kept in mind is that j 2

1 and -
,

where in multiplication or other operations occu rs , it is re

placed by its val ue — 1 Thus for instance ,
.
, ,
'

( a jb ) (c id) ac jad jb c b
3 d
2

— b
ac j d
a jb c d
( ac b d) j ( a d b e) .

Here f rom it follows that all the higher powers of i can b e

eliminated thu s : ,

2= —1
.

I I
0

I
l ) 7

s= 6 = —1 7
i + 33 i . i
9 =
i +i .
e tc
26 E NGI N E E R I NG Iii ATH E M A TI C S

I n d istinction f rom the general nu mber or comple x q u antity ,

the ordinary n u mbers + 61 and are occasio nally called—a

, ,

sca la rs or real n u mbers The general n u m ber thus consists

,
.

o f the combination o f a scalar or real n u mber and a q u adrat u re

n u mbe r or imaginary n u mber
,
.

Since a q u adrature number cannot be eq u al to an ordinary

n u mber it follo w s that i f t w o general n u mbers are equal
, ,

thei r real components or ordinary n u mbers as well as their ,

q u adrature n u mbers or imaginary components must be e qual ,

thu s if ,

a =o and b=d .

E very e quation w ith general n u mbers th u s can be resolved

into t w o e q u ations one containing o nly the ordi nary num be rs
, ,

the other only the q u adrat u re num bers For i nstance i f .

,

33
_
5 3l)
.

x=5 and = —3
y .

1 The best way of getting a conception o f the general

9 .

number and the algebraic operations with it is to consider

, ,

the general n u mbe r as representing a point in the plane Thus .

the general n u mber may be considered as

representing a point P in Fig 1 4 w hich has the hori z ontal
,
.
,

distance from the y a x is and the vertical

,

distance f rom the x a x is ,

The total distanc e of the point P from the c oordinate center

0 then is

and the angle which thi s distanc e OP makes with the

,
2: a xi s ,

is given by
 TH E GE N E R AL N UM B E R . 27

I ns tead of repre senting the general nu mber by the tw o

components a and b in the f orm a + jb it can also be re pre
, , ,

sented by the two qu antities : the distanc e o f the point P from

the c enter 0 ,

and the angle between this distance and the 2: a x is ,

FI G 1 4
. . Re ctang lar and Polar Coordi nates
u .

Then re f erring to Fig . 1 4,

a = o cos d and b=c si n 0 ,

and the general nu mber a + jb th u s can also be w ritten in the

f orm,

(
c c os d +j si n

The form a + jb e x presses the general n u mber by its

rectangu lar components a and b and corresponds to the rect ,

angular coordi nates o f analytic geometry ; a is the x coordinate ,

b the y coordinate .

The fo rm c (co s 0 + j sin 0 ) e x presses the general number by

what may be called its polar components the radius 0 and the ,
28 E NGIN E E RI NG M AT H E M AT I C S .

angle (9 and corresponds to the polar coordinates of anal yti c

,

geometry 0 is freq u ently called the radi u s vector or scalar

.
,

d the phase angle o f the general number .

While usually the rectangu lar form a + jb is more con

ve nie nt sometimes the polar form c ( co s d + j sin 0 ) is pre f erable
, ,

and transformation from one form to the other therefore fre

q u ently applied .

Ad diti o n and Su btr a c ti o n .

20 . If j is represented by the point P I ;

this point is reached by going the hori z ontal distance d l = 6

and the vertical distance b 1 = 2 5 I f a 2 + jb 2 = 3 + 4j is re pre
. .

sented by the point P 2 this point is reached by going the

,

hori z ontal distance a 2 = 3 and the vertical distance b 2 = 4 .

The sum of the two general n u mbers + jb 2 )

( 6 + 2 5 7) + 4j) then is given by point P 0 which is reached
, ,

by going a hori z ontal distance equal to the sum of the h e r

i zont al distances of P I and P 2 : and a
vertical distance equal to the s um of the vertical distances o f
P I and P 2 : hence is given b V the ,

general nu mber
00 + 150 =
( a 1 + 0 2 ) + f(b 1 + 52 )
= 9 + 65
i

G eometrically point P 0 is derived from points P I and P 2

,
,

by the diagonal C FO o f the parallelogram 0 P 1 P 0 P 2 constructed ,

with OP I and C P 2 as sides as seen in Fig 1 5 ,

. .

Herefrom it follo w s that addition of general nu mbers

represents geometrical combination by the parallelogra m law .

I nversely i f P 0 represents t h e nu mber

,

( Lo + ] Oo “"
9 l

and PI represents the nu mber

al + jb 1 = 6 + 2 5 3,

the di fference of these n u mbers will be represented by a point

P2 which is reached by going t he di fference o f the hori z ontal
,
 TH E GE NE R AL N UM B E R . 29

distances and o f the vertical distances o f the points P0 and

PI . P 2 thu s is represented by

a2 = a — a = 9
o 1

bz bo —b =4
1 .

Therefore the di ff erence o f the t w o general n u m b ers ( a o + ib o)

,

and (d l + jb 1 ) is given by the general n u mber :

as seen in

Addition a nd Su btract i on of V ctorse .

This di fference a 2 + jb 2 is represented by one side OP 2 o f

the parallelogram OP I P OP Q which has C P 1 as the other side
, ,

and OP O as the diagonal .

Su btraction of general n u mbers thus geometrically represents

the resol ution o f a vector OP O into two components OP I and
OP 2 by the parallelogram law
,
.

Herei n lies the main advantage o f the u se of the general

nu mber in engineering calculation : I f the vectors are represented
by general n u mbers ( comple x q u antities ) combination and ,

resolution of vectors by the p arallelogram law is carried O iI t by

30 E NGIN E E RING M A T H E M A TI C S .

simple addition or s u btract i on of their general numerical valu es ,

that is by the simplest O peration of algebra

,
.

2 1 G eneral numbe rs are us u ally de noted by capitals , and

.

their rectangular components the ordinary n u mbe r and the ,

q uadrat u re num b e r by small letters th u s :

, ,

A= a1 + 711 2 ,

the distance of the point w hich represents the general numbe r A

f rom the coordinate center is called the a b solu te valu e radius ,

or scalar o f the general n u mber or comple x q u antity I t is .

the vector 0 in the polar representation o f the ge neral numbe r :

.

A = a (c os d + j si n

and is given by a = V (1 1 + a 2
2 2
.

The absol ute val u e or scalar of the general numbe r is usuallV

, ,

also denoted by small letters but sometimes by capitals and

. ,

in the latter case it is distingu i shed f rom the general n u mber b v

u sing a di ff erent t vpe for the latter or u nderlining or dotting ,

it thus
,

A = a 1 + ja 2 ; or + 311 2

or A= a 1 + ja 2 ; or A = a 1 + ja 2

or
al + ja 2 = a (cos d + i si m

al + ja 2 = A(cos 0 + j sin

22 The absol ut e val u e or scalar o f a general numbe r is

.
, ,

al ways an absolu te nu mber and p ositive that is the S ign of the

, , ,

rectangular component is represented in the angle 0 Th u s .

referring to Fig 1 6 .

A = a i + ja 2 = 4 + 3j ;

tan (9
d = 37 d e g ;

A = 5 ( c os 3 7 deg . +j si n 37 deg) .
 E NGINE E R I NG M ATH EM ATI C S .

The e x pression

d = — 37 de g . or = 1 80 de g ;

b utsince a1 =a cos d is negati ve 4 co s 0 must be negative —

, , ,

hence d ,
1 43 deg is the correct val u e and
.
,

A = 5 (cos 1 43 deg sin 1 43 de g )

. +j .

— 5( deg + j si n 37 deg )
. .

The e x pression
A= a 1 + ja 2 = —4 — 3
]

de g ; or de g ;

b utsince al = a cos d is negative 4 cos 0 m u st be negative ,

-
, ,

hence deg is the correct value and

.
, ,

A = 5 ( cos 2 1 7 deg + j si n 2 1 7 deg ) . .

— 5( cos 37 deg .
—
j si n 37 deg ) .

The fo u r general n u mbers + 4 + 4 —

3j — 4 + 3 j and
, , ,
— 4
3j have the same absol u te value 5 and in their re pre
-
, , ,

se nt at io ns as points i n a plane have symmetrical locations in

the four quadrants as s hown in Fig 1 6 ,

. .

As the g eneral number A = a 1 + ja 2 finds its main use in

representing vectors in the plane it very f requently is called
'
,

a vector q u antity and the algebra of the general numb e rvi e fl

,
-

spoken o f as vector analysi s .

Since the general numbers A = can be made to

represent the points of a plane they also may be called plane ,

nu m b e rs while the positive and negative n u mbers

,
and —a ,
‘

,
 TH E GE NE R AL N UM B E R . 33

may be called the li nea r nu m b e rs , as they represent the pOint s

of a line .

E x a m pl e : S t e a m Pa t h i n a Tu r bi ne .

2 3 . As an e x ample o f a simple operation with general nu m

bers one may calc u late the steam p ath in a t w o - w heel stage
of an imp u lse steam turbine .

FI G 1 7. . Pa th of Ste am i n a Two whe e l Sta ge of a n I m pu lse

- Tu rbi ne .

Le t Fig 1 7 represent diagrammatically a tan gential section

.

through the b u c ket rings of the t u rbine w heels W1 and W2 .

are the two revolving wheels moving in the direction indicated

,

by the arrows with the velocity s = 400 feet per se e I are

,
.

the stationary intermediate b u ckets which turn the e x haust ,

“
steam f rom the first b u cket wheel W 1 bac k into the direction ,

req uired to impinge on the second b u cket wheel W2 The .

steam jet iss u es f rom the e x pansion no zz le at the speed s o = 2 2 00

34 E NG I N E E R I NG Il/I A T H E M A TI C S .

f eet per sec and under the angle

.
,
de g ,
against the first
‘

b u cket wheel W 1 .

The e x hau st angles of the three s u ccessive ro w s o f buckets ,

W 1 I and W2 are respectively 2 4 d e g 30 deg and 45 deg

, , , ,
. .

These angles are calc u lated from the section of the b u cket
e x it required to pass the steam at its momenta ry velocity ,

and f rom the height of the passage requi red t o gi ve no steam

eddies in a manner whi ch is o f no interest here
,
.

As friction coe fficient in the b u c ket passages may be ass u med

that is the e x it velocity is l — kf = 0 88 of the entrance
,
.

velocity of the steam i n the buc kets .

FI G 1 8 . . Vec tor D i a gram of Ve loc iti e s of S te am i n Tu rbine .

Choosing the n as x a x is the direction of the tangential

-

velocit y o f the turbi ne wheels as y—a x is the a x ial direction , ,

the velocity of the s team supply f rom the e x pansion no zz le is

represented in Fig 1 8 by a vector OS O of length s o = 22 00 feet
.

per sec making an angle d o = 2 0 deg with the x—a x is ; hence

.
,
.
,

can b e e x pressed by the general numbe r or vector q uantity

S o = So (C OS 00 + j sin 00 )
— 22 00 cos 2 0 deg + sin
( j . 20 deg ) .

2 070 + 7 5 0j f t per sec . .

The velocity o f the turbine wheel W 1 is s 400 feet per second ,

and represented in Fig 1 8 by the vector OS in hori z ontal

.
,

dire ction .
 TH E GE NE R AL N UM B E R . 35

The relative velocity with whi ch the steam enters the b ucket
passage of the first t u rbine w h eel W 1 th u s is :
SI $0 “ 8
(2 07 0 7 5 03) — 400
1 6 7 0 + 7 50 j_ft . per se e .

This vector is shown as 0 S 1 in Fig 1 8 . .

The angle 0 1 u nder which the steam enters the bu cket

,

passage th u s is given by
7 50
ta na ,
1 67 0
as deg .

This angle thus has to be given to the front edge o f t he

b u ckets of t he turbine w heel W 1 .

"
The absol u te val u e of the relati ve velocity of steam j et
and turbine wheel W 1 at the entrance into the buc ket passage
, ,

18

31 7 50 2
1 830 f t per
. se e .

In traversing the bucket passages the steam velocity de

creases by friction etc f rom the entrance value 3 1 to the
.
,

e x it Val u e
X0 . 88 = 1 61 0 ft per sec
.
:
.
,

and since the e x it angle of the b u c ket passage has been chosen
as de g the relative velocity with which the steam
,

leaves the first bu c ket wheel W 1 is represented by a vector

0 S 2 in Fig 1 8 of len gth
.
,
under angle 2 4 deg The .

steam leaves the first wheel in bac kward direction as seen in ,

Fig 1 7 and 2 4 deg thus is the angle bet w een the steam j et
.
,
.

and the negative x a x is ; hence -

deg is the
, .

vector angle The relative steam velocity at the e x it from

.

wheel W 1 can th u s be represented by the vector q uantity

S z = s z (c o s 0 2 + j sin 0 2 )
— 1 6 1 0 ( cos 1 5 6 deg + j sin . 1 56 deg ) .

— 1 47 0 + 655
j .

the velocity o f the t u rbine w heel W 1 is s = 400 t he

S inc e ,

ve locity o f the steam in space after leaving the fi rst turbi ne

,
36 E NGI N E E R I NG M ATH E MA TI CS .

wheel that is the velocity

, ,
w ith which the steam enters
intermediate I is ,

53
1 :
S2 + 8
A

1 47 0 + 6 5 53) + 400
— 1 07 0

and is represented by vector OS ; inFig 1 8 . .

The direction of this steam j et is given by

tan 03 :

de g ; or ,
1 80 deg .

The latter value is correct as cos 0 3 i s negative and sin 03 is , ,

positive .

The steam j et thus enters the intermediate under the angle

of d e g ; that is the angle 1 80 ,
deg in opposite .

direction The b u ckets O f the intermediate I th u s must be

.

curved in reverse direction to those of the wheel W 1 and must ,

be give n the angle deg at their front edge . .

The absolute value of the entrance velocity int o the inter

mediate I is
655 2
1 2 55 f t per sec
. .

In passing thro u gh the bucket passages this velocity de ,

creases by friction to the val ue : ,

s4 = 3 3 (1
—
k, ) 1 2 5 5 X 0 88 . 1 1 05 ft per sec
. .
,

an since the e x it edge o f the intermediate is given the angle

d
de g the e x it velocity o f the steam from the intermediate
,

is represented by the Vector OS ; in Fig 1 8 of len gth .

,

and angle 04 = 30 d e g hence , ,

S deg + j sin
( cos 30 . 30 deg ) .

= 955 + 55 0 ft per s e e
j . .

This is t he velocity with w hich the steam j et impinges

on the second t u rbine wheel W 2 and as this wheel revolves ,
 TH E G E NE R AL N UM B E R . 37

with ve locity s = 400 the relative velocity that is the vel ocity
, , ,

with which the steam enters the bucket passages of wheel W2 is , ,

S5 —
S4 8
— 40 0
( 955 55 03)
555 + 5 5 0j ft per sec
. .
;

and is represented by vector OS 5 in Fig 1 8

~
. .

The direction of this steam j et is given by

55 0
tan 05 5 as d5 = 44 8 deg .

555
.

Therefore the entrance edge of the b u c kets o f the second

,

wheel W 2 m u st be shaped under angle 05 deg .

The absol ute value of the entrance velocity is

555 + 55 0 = 7 80
2 2
ft per s e c
. .

In
traversing the b u cket passages the velocity drops from ,

the entrance valu e S 5 to the e x it valu e ,

,

86 = s5 ( 1 — k) 6 90 ft per sec
, . .

e x it angles o f the buckets of wheel W2 has bee n

Since t h e
chosen as 45 de g and the e x it is in backward direction 06
, ,

1 80 d e g the steam jet velocity at the e x it o f t he

,

bucket passages o f the last wheel is given by the general number

S 6 = 3 6 ( cos 06 + j
sin 06 )
j
= 69 0 cos 1 3 5 de g + sin
( . 1 35 deg ).

— 487 + 487 f t per sec

j . .
,

and represented by vector 0 S 6 in Fig 1 8 . .

Since s = 4o0 is the w heel veloc ity the Velocity o f the ,

stea m a f ter leaving the last wheel W2 that is the lost , ,

”

or rej ected velocity is ,

$7 = ‘S6 + 8
— 487 + 487
)
3 + 400
487 i ft per sec
. .
,

and is represented by vector 08-

1 in Fig . 18 .
38 E NG I N E E R I NG M A T H E MA T I C S .

The direction of the e xha u st steam is given by ,

" e r
1 :
as deg ,
97

and the absolute velocity is ,

Mu lti pli c at i o n o f G e ne r a l Nu m b e rs .

2 4. I f A = a 1 + ia 2
and B = b 1 + jb 2 are tw o general O r , ,

plane n u mbe rs their product is given by m u lt iplication th u s :

, ,

AB ( C 1 + ja 2 ) ( b 1 + jb 2 )
“
a l b l + j0 4b 2 f jCI l
“
/

a nd since j 2 = —1
,

AB = (a 1 b 1 —
0 , 2 O2 ) + j (a 1 b 2 a zb l ) ,

and the product can also be represented in the plane by a point , ,

C = c 1 + jc2 ,

CI = ai b 1
“ 0 52 ,
2

0 2 = 0 1 O2 + G Q O1 .

For instance A = 2 + j m u l tiplied by

,
B=1 j gives
Cl = 2 >< 1

as shown in Fi g 1 9 . .

25 The geometrical relation bet w een the factors A and B

.

and the prod u ct C is better shown by u sing the polar e x p ression ;

hen ce s u bstituting
, ,

-
a1 =a cos a

a g = a S in a

which gives

tan a
40 E N GINE E RIN G M ATH E MA TI CS .

The multiplier B is occasionally called an o pe rator as it ,

carries out the operation o f rotating the direction and changin g

the length of the m u ltiplicand .

26 I n m u ltiplication division and other algebraic opera

.
,

tions with the representat ions o f physical q u antities ( as alter

nating c u rrents voltages impedances etc ) by mathematical
, , ,
.

symbols whether ordinary n u mbers or general n u mbers it

, ,

is necessary to consider whether the result of the algebraic

operation f or instance the prod u ct of two f actors has a
, , ,

physical meaning and i f it has a physical meaning whether

, ,

this meaning is s u ch that the prod u ct can be represented in

the same diagram as the f actors .

For instance 3 X 4 = 1 2 ; but 3 horses X 4 horses does not

,
'

give 2 horses nor 1 2 ho rse s b ut is physically meaningless

1 z
, ,
.

H owever 3 f t X 4 ft = 1 2 s q ft
, . Thus i f the n u mbers represent
. . .
,

FI G 20 . .

horses m ultiplic ation has no physical meaning I f they re pre

,
.

sent feet the prod u ct o f multiplication has a physical meaning

, ,

but a meaning which di ffers f rom that o f the f actors Thus .

,

if on the line in Fig 2 0 0 A = 3 feet 0 B = 4 fe et the product

.
, , , ,

1 2 square f eet while it has a physical meaning cannot be

, ,

represented any mo re by a point on the same line ; it is not

the point OC = 1 2 because i f we e x pressed the distances 0 A
, ,

and 0 B in inches 36 and 48 inches respectively the prod u ct

, ,

wo u ld be 36 X 48 = 1 7 2 8 s q in while the distance C C would be . .

,

1 44 inches .

27 I n all mathematical operations with physical quantities

.

it t herefore is necessary to consider at every step of the mathe

m at ical operation whether it still has a physical meaning
, ,

and if graphical representation is resorted to whether the

, ,

nature of the physical meaning is such as to allo w graphical

representation in the same dia gram or not ,
.

An instance of this general limitation of t he application of

mathematics to physica l q u antities occ u rs in the representation
of alternating c u rrent phenomena by general numbers or ,

comple x quantities .
 T HE GE N E R AL N UM B E R . 41

An alte rnating c u rrent can be a vector 0 1 re pre s e nt e d b y

in a polar di agram Fi g 2 1 in which one complete revol ution
,
.
,

or 3 60 deg represents the time of one complete period o f the

.

alternating c u rrent This vector 0 1 can be represented by a

.

general n u mber ,

= 3
I l:1 + 352 , ’

where fl is the hori z ontal ,

73
2 the vertical component of the
current vector

FI G 2 1
. . Cu rr nt
e ,
E MF. . . a nd I m pe dance Ve ctor D ia gra m .

In the same manner an alternating E M F of the same fre . . .

que nc y can be represented by a vector OE in the same Fig : 2 1 ,

and denoted by a general number ,

An impedance can be represented by a general number ,

Z = r + jx ,

where ris th e resistance and x the reactance .

I f now we have two impedances 0 Z 1 and 0 Z 2 Z 1 = r 1 , ,

and Z 2 = r2 + s their prod u ct Z 1 Z 2 can be f ormed m at h em at

,

ically but it has no physical meaning

,
.
42 E NGIN E E R I NG ItI A T H E M A TI C S .

I f we have a c u rrent and a voltage I 151 ji g and E 6 1 ,

the prod u ct o f curre nt and voltage is the power P o f the alter

nating circ u it .

The prod u ct of the two general n u mbers I and E can be

formed mathematically I E and wo u ld represent a point C , ,

in the vector plane Fig 2 1 This point C how ever and the . .
, ,

mathematical e x pression I E w hich represents it does not give , ,

the po w e r P o f the alternating circuit since the power P is not ,

o f the same f req u ency as I and E and there f ore ca nnot be ,

represented in the same pola r diagram Fi g 2 1 which represents .

,

I and E .

I f we have a c u rrent I and an impedance Z in Fi g 2 1 ,

.

I = i 1 + 3732 and Z = r + 31: their prod u ct i s a voltage and as the ,

voltage 1 8 of the same f req u ency as the c u rrent it can be repro ,

sented I n the same polar dia gram Fi g 2 1 and thus i s given by ,

.
,

the mathematical product of I and Z ,

E 1 Z = (i 1 + 1752 ) (r
—i2 x
t
( l r j (i 2 r + i 1 x ) .

2 8 . Commo nly ,
in the denotation of graphi cal diagrams by
general numbers as the polar diagram o f alternating currents
, ,

those quantities which are ve ctors in the polar diagram as the

, ,

current voltage etc are represented by dotted capitals : E I

, ,
.
, , ,

w hile those general n u mbers as the impedance admittance etc , , ,

. .

whi ch appear as operato rs that is as m u ltipliers of one vector , , ,

for i nstance the c u rrent to get an other vector the voltage are
, , ,

represented alge b raicallv by capitals without dot : Z = r + jx

impedance etc ,
.

T h is limitation of cal culation w ith the mathematical re pre

s e nt at io n o f physical q u antities m ust c onstantly be kept in
mind in all theoretical investigations .

D i vis i o n of G e ne r a l Nu m b e rs .

2 9.The division of tw o general n u mbe rs A = a 1 + ja2 and ,

B = b 1 + jb 2 gives , ,

A d l + ja 2
B b l + 21)

This f raction contains the q uadrat u re n u mber in the numer ~

a tor as well as in the denominator T he q u adrat u re n u mbe r .

 TH E G E N E R AL N UM B E R
.
" 43

can be eliminated from the denominator by m u ltiplying n u mer

ator and denominator by the conj u gate q uantity o f the denom
i at o b — b which gives
n r , l j z ,
:

—a b
(0 1 + 721 2 ) ( b l ‘

Ib zl ( albl + 0 2 52 ) + 10 s 1 i zl

I52 )
z
( b l + Ib 2 ) (b 1
— b l + 132 2

a lb l + a2b2 0 2 5 1 — 0 1 52
+2
51 + 52
2 2
(7 1 2
5
+ 2 2

f or instance ,

A 6 + 2 5j .

B 3 + 4j
—
( +
6 2 5 j) ( 3 4
j).

—4
(3 + 41) (3 f)
28

— O 66 .
j .

If desired the quadrat u re n u mber may b e eliminated from

,

the numerator and le f t in the denominator by m u ltiplying with

the conj ugate number of the numerator thus ,

(G I + 30 2 ) ( 61 1
0

(bl
2 2
(11 +02

f or instance ,

(6 (6
( 3 + 3) (
4 6 — 2 5
j) .

2 8 + 1 6 5j .

30 . as in m u ltiplication the polar re presen t ation o f

J u st ,

the general n u mber in divi s i on i s more perspic u o u s than any

other.
44 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E AI ATI C S .

L e t A = a ( cos
'
a +j sin a ) be divided by B = b (c os 8 + j ,
sin (I) ,

th u s :

"
A a ( cos a + j sin a )
I3 b ( cos fi+ j sin 3)
a ( cos a + j sin a ) ( cos fl — j sin fl )

b ( co s fl + j sin fl ) ( cos I j
? — sin Q)
a t( cos a cos fl + sin a sin fl ) + j ( sin a cos 8
,
— cos a sin fl )
b ( cos fl + sin fl )
2 2

—B +
, )
( a
j sin ( a

That is general n umbers A and B are divided by dividing

,

their vectors or absol u te val u es a and b and s u btracting thei r , ,

phases or angles a and B .

I nvo l u ti o n a nd E vo lu ti o n of G e ne r al Nu m b e rs .

31 . Since
invol ution is multiple multiplication and e volu ,

tion is invol u ti on with fractional e x ponents both can be resolved ,

into simple e x pressions by using the polar f orm of the general

number .

I f,
A = a 1 + ja 2 = a ( cos a sin a ) ,

na + j sin na ) .

For instance i f ,

A = 3 + 4j = 5 (co s 5 3 deg + j sin 53 d e g ) ; .

C = A4 = 5 4 cos 4 X 53
( deg + j sin 4 X 53 deg ) . .

= 62 5 cos 2 1 2 deg + sin 2 1 2 deg

( j ) . .

= 62 5 — cos 3 2 deg — sin 3 2 deg

( j ) . .

62 5 ( —
O S4S
.
—
O S3O j)
.

—5 29 — 33 1
j.

If, A = a 1 + j a 2 = a ( Cos a +j sin a ) then

,

C= <VA= A c os
g + j sin
n
 T HE GE NE R AL N UM BE R . 45

32in the polar e x pression o f A we increase the phase

. I f, ,

angle a by 2 7x or by any m u ltiple of 2 7r : 2 grr w here q is any

, ,

integer number we get the same val u e o f A thu s :

, ,

A = a {cos ( a + 2 q7z) + j sin ( a

since the cosine and sine repeat a fter every 3 60 deg or ,
22 .

The nt h root however is di fferent : , ,

G= VA = W cos

We hereby get n di ff erent val ues o f C f or q= 0 , ,

1, 2 . n 1
= n gives again the same as = 0 S ince it gives
q q .

a + 2 n7r a

that is an increase of the phase angle by 360 d e g w hich leaves

, ,

cosine and sine unchanged .

Th u s the nth root o f any general number has n di ff erent

,

values and these val u es have the same vector or absol ute
,

2 7:
term VB
n
b ut d i ffer from each other by the phase angle and
,
7
its m u ltiples .

For instance let A = ,

—
52 9 —
33 1 j = 62 5 (cos 2 12 deg .

j sin 2 1 2 deg ) then .

,

212 3 60q 2 1 2 + 36
C = VA = Z
—
sin 53 )
5 ( cos 5 3 + j —
3 + 4j
—
5 ( cos 1 3 + j sin 1 43 ) 5 ( c os 3 7
4 = — sin 3 7 ) + 3j
—
5 ( cos 2 33 j sin 2 33 ) 5 ( cos 53 j sin 5 3 )
+ = — — —
3 4j
—
5 ( cos 3 2 3 + j sin 3 2 3 ) 5 ( cos 3 7 j sin 3 7 )
— 4
= 5 ( cos 5 3 + sin 53 =3+4
= 5 cos 4 1 3
( sin 4 1 3 ) j ) j
The n roots of a general n u mber A = a (cos a +j sin a ) di ffer
2 7:
f rom each other by the phase angles — or l /nt h o f 3 60 deg ,
.

and si nce they have the same absol u te val u e {7 a it follo w s that , ,

they are represented by n eq u idistant p oints o f a circle with

radi us ( 7 5 as sho w n in Fig 22 f or n = 4 and in Fig 2 3 for
,
.
, ,
.
46 E NGI NE E R I NG M A T H E M A TI C S .

n= 9 . a system o f 71 eq ual vectors di ff ering in phase from

S u ch .
,

each other by l /nth of 360 d e g is called a polypha se s yste m or

, ,

an n— p ha s e s ys te m The n .roots of the general number th us

give an n—phase system .

33 For . instance Q/ T =?
,

I f A = o ( cos a + j sin a ) = 1 this means : a = 1 a = 0 ; and.

,

hence ,

FI G 22
. . B oot s of a Ge ne ral Num be r , n = 4.

and the n roots o f the unit are

3 60
—
cos 2X +1 s 1n 2X
n

3 60
=n- 1 cos ( — l) —
sm —l
q n
n
( n )

However ,
3 60 '
—
cos q7 2 + j sin q +j sin
48 E NGIN E E R I NG MA TH E M ATI CS .

S q u aring both e q u ations and adding them gives , ,

(1 1
2
+0 2
2
(0 1 2

Hence

2 — 2
and since 01 62 0 1 ;

whi ch is a rather comp licated e x pression .

3 5 Wh en representing
. physical quantities by general
numbe rs that is comple x quantities at the end of the calc u la
, , ,

tion the fi nal res ult us u ally appears also as a general number ,

or as a comple x o f gene ral numbers and then has to be reduced ,

to the absol ute val u e and the phase angle of the physical q u an
tity This is most conveni ently done by reducing the general
.

n u mbers to their polar e x pressions For instance if the resul t .

,

of the calculation appears in the f orm ,

(0 1 V01

(d l + j6 2 )
by subst i tuting

and so on .

—
(
c cos a sin a ) b (c os fl + j sin
3
( cos r + j sin
d ( c o s 8 j sin 5 ) e ( cos
2 2
e +j sin e )
—
r/2 23 e )+j sin r/2
-
25 e )l
.
 TH E G E N E R A L N UM B E R . 49

Therefore the absol ute val ue o f a f ractional e x pres s i on Is

,

t h e prod u ct o f the absol u te val u es o f the f actors o f the n u mer

ator divided by the prod uct o f the abs ol ute val ues o f the
,

factors o f the denominator .

The phase angle o f a f ractional e xpression is the su m o f

the phase angles o f the factors o f the n u merator min u s the su m ,

of the phase angles of the factors of the denominator .

For instance ,

1 4 + j s in 1 1 4) i

1 25 ( cos 3 7 + j s i n

1 14
2 x 3 0? + 45
3

+ f sin 2 X 307 + 45 + 2 x 37
"
2 63 + 3 sin 2 63 }
— O I 22
.
—
O 99 2 j }
.
—
O 7 4j
. .

36 . As will be seen in C hapt e r I I :

2 3 4
u u u

x
2
x6 2
8
cos x
_ 1
l
4

“
‘

3 5 7
x x x
srn x = r
|3 | 5 If
Here f rom f ollows by s u bstituting
, ,
ft = 0, u = 0
j ,
cos 0 +j sin 0=

a nd the polar e x pression of the comple x q uantity ,

A = a ( cos a sin a ) ,

thus can also be written in the f orm

"
,

A ae
= i
,
50 E NG I N E E R I NG M A T H E M A TI C S .

where e is the base o f the nat u ral logarithms ,

1 1 1
— +
Z
.

Since any n u mber a can be e x presse d as a po w e r o f any

other n u mber one can s u bstitute
, ,

a = e

1
2222
6
where = lo 0. and the general n u mber thus can
a0 ge
1
,

also be written in the form ,

A s
ac + ia .

that is the general n u mber or c omple x q u antity can be e xpressed

, ,

in the f orms ,

A 0 1

( cos sin )
“
a a a

—
a5 5

The last two or e x ponential forms are rarely used as they

, , ,

are less convenient f or algebraic operations They are o f .

importance however since solutio ns of di fferential eq u ations

, ,

f req uently appear in this f orm and then are reduced to the ,

polar or the rectangular f orm .

3 7 For instance the di ff erential eq u ation o f the d ist ri b u

.
,

tion o f alternating c u rrent in a flat cond u ctor or o f alternating ,

magnetic fl u x in a flat sheet of iron has the f orm : ,

d y z
— 2
.
2 10 y;
dz
"V”
y As
and is integrated by = w here ,
,

— j ) cx
y Al e :
+ (1

This e x pression red u ced to the polar f orm is

, ,

y A1
= cx
—
j sin ex ) +A cx +j sin ex ) .
 TH E G E NE R AL N UM B E R .
51

L o g ari th m ati o n .

38I n taking the logarithm o f a general numbe r the

"
.

p e nt ial e x pression is most convenient , thus :

on

loge ( a l + 3a2 ) = log ( cos sin )

“
e a. a +3 a

—
lo ge a e
log e a Ho g.
“ s
f

log e a + ja ;

or if
,
b base of the logarithm f or instance , ,
b = 10 , it IS

logb ( a 1 + ja2 ) = lo f = lo
j lo g ,
a
gb a e
gb a + a 5
;
or if b unequal
,
1 0, reduced to lo g l o ;

lo g l o a lo g l o 6
log , ( c l + ja 2 ) + 3a
lo g l o b 10 g 1 0 b
’

NO T E . mathematics for qu adrature u nit

In ,
1 is al w ays
chosen the symbol 15 Since ho w ever in engineering the symbol 1
.
, ,
.

is u niversally used to represent electric cu rrent f or the q u ad ,

rature u nit the symbol j has been chosen as the letter nearest ,

in appear ance to 75 and j th u s is al w ays u sed in engineering

,

c al cul ati ons t o denote the quadrature u it

n — 1 .
 C HAPT E R I I .

PO TE NTI AL SE RI E S AND EX PO NE NTI AL FUNC TI ON .

A . GE NE RAL .

39 . An e x press ion such as

(1)

repres ents a fracti on ; that is the res u lt o f di vision and li ke

, ,

any f raction it can b e calc u lated ; that is t he f ractional f orm ,

e liminated b v di viding the num erat or b v the denomi nator t hus :

, ,

1 — 3:

Hence , the f racti on ( 1 ) can also b e e xpressed in the f orm

1

This is an infinite series o f s u ccessive po w ers o f r,

. or a po te n

ti al s er ie s .

'

I n t he same manner by ,
di fl d ing thro u gh ,
the expression
1 o

’
1 +x

can be reduced to the in finite series ,

1 — x3 +
 P OTE N TI AL S E R I E S AN D E X P ON E N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 53

The infini te series ( 2 ) or ( 4) is another f orm o f rep rese nta

tion o f the e x pression ( 1 ) or j ust as the periodic decimal
fraction is another representation o f the common f raction
( for ins tance 0 6363 . .

4 0 As the series contai ns an infinite numbe r o f terms

.
,

in calc u lating num erical val u es from s u ch a series per fect

e x actness can never be reached : since only a finite n u mber of
terms are calc u lated the res u lt can only be an appro x imation
, .

By taking a su ffi cient n umber o f terms of th e series however , ,

the appro x imation can be made as close as desired ; that is ,

numerical val ues may be calculated as e x actly as necessary ,

so that for engineering p u rposes the in finite series (2 ) or ( 4)

gives just as e x act num erical val u es as calcula tion by a finite
e x pression ( 1 ) or provided a su fficient n umber of terms
are used I n most en gineering calc u lations an e x actness o f
.
,

pe r cent is s u fficient ; rarely is an e x actness o f per cent

or even greater req u ired as the u navoidable variations in the ,

nature o f the materials used in engineering stru ctures and the ,

acc u racy o f the meas u ring instruments impose a limit on the

e x actness o f the result .

For the val u e = o5

the e x pression ( 1 ) gives
z ,
.
y
w hile it s representation by the series ( 2 ) gives
= 1
y (5 )
and the s u ccessive appro xi mations of the numerical val ues o f
y then are :
i
u s ng o ne te rm : y= 1 1, e rror : 1
t w t e rm
o s: y= l+0 5 .

three te rm s .
y=
fo r te rm
u s . 1 87 5 ,
.

fi ve t rm e s: y
= 1+0 . 06 2 5 =

It is se en that the successive appro x imations come closer and

closer to the correct val u e y= 2 b ut In this cas e al w ays remain , ,

belo w it ; that IS the series ( 2 ) approaches its limit f rom below

, ,

as shown I n Fig 2 4 in which the s u ccessive appro x imations

.
,

are marked by crosses .

For the value x = 0 5 the approach o f the successive .

,

appro x imations to the limit is rather slo w and to get an acc u rac y ,

of per cent that is bring the error dow n to less than

, ,

requires a considerable number of terms .

54 E NGIN E E RING M AT H E M A T I C S .

For x= 0 1 . the series ( 2 ) is

=1
y
and the successive appro x i mations th u s are
1 : y= 1 ;

and as by ,
the final or limiti ng val u e is
1 10
1 9

1
+ ” t
1 a ;

FI G 2 4. . C onve rge nt Se rie s w ith O e s

n -
id e d Appr oa ch .

the fourth appro x imation already brings the error well below
per cent and su fficient acc u racy th us is reached for most
,

engineering p u rposes b y u sm g fo u r terms of the series .

=
4 1 The
. e x pression ( )
3 gi ves for x 0 5 the val u e ,
.
, ,

1 2
_ “
0 6 666
1 3
Represented by series it gives
y 1

the successi ve appro x imations are ;

l st : y= 1 1, e rror : + 0 33 3 .

2d : = 1
y
3d = 1 0 5+ 0 25 = 0 75 ;
.
y . . .

4t h : 1 25
5
-

5th =l 0 5 + 0 25 0 6 2 5 = 0 6 87
.
y . . .
,

As seen , the successive appro x imations of this series come

closer and closer to the corre ct value y= 0 6666 but in this .

case are alternately above and below the correct or limiting

v al ue that is the series (4) approaches its limit f rom both sides
, , ,

as sho w n in Fig 2 5 while the series ( 2 ) approached the limit

.
,

f rom below and still other series may approach their limit
,

from above .
56 E NG I N E E RING M AT HE M A TI C S .

while the infinite series ( 4) gives

= 1 —
2 +4 —
32 +
y
and the s u ccessive appro x imation s o f the latter th u s are
1; —1 +3; —
5; + 11 —
21 ;
;
°

he nce while the s u ccessive val u es still are alternately above

,

and belo w the correct or limiting val ue they do not approach ,

it with increasing closeness b u t more and more diverge there ,

f rom .

S u ch a series in which the values derived by the calc u la

,

tion o f more and more terms do not approach a final val u e

closer and closer is called di vergent while a series is called
, ,

c onve rgent i f the successive appro x imations approach a final

val u e with increasing closeness .

4 3 W hi le a finite e x pression as ( 1 ) or
. holds good for ,

all val u es of x and numerical val u es o f it can be calc u lated

,

w hatever may be the val u e o f the independent variable x an ,

infinite series as ( 2 ) and

, f requently does not give a finite
res u lt f or every value of x b ut only f or val u es withi n a certain
,

range For instance in the a bo ve series for — 1

,
.
,

the series is convergent ; while f or val ues of 2: o u tside of thi s

range the series is divergent and th us u seless .

When representing an e x pression by an infinite series ,

it th u s is necessary to d etermine that t h e series is convergent ;

that is approaches with increasing n u mber o f terms a finite
,

limiting val u e otherwise the series cannot be u sed Where

,
.

the series is convergent within a certain range of x diver ,

gent o u tside o f this range it can be u sed only in the rang e of

,

co nve rge nc y b u t o u tside of this ra nge it cannot be used for

,

deriving n u merical values b u t some other form of representa ,

tion has to be f o u nd which is convergent .

This can f req u ently be done and the e x pression thus re pre ,

sented by o ne series in one range and by another series in

1
y
0

another range For I n stance the e x press i on

O

.
’
1 + :c
,

l
the f orm
C

can be tten
O O

s u b st I t u t I ng , e In

=
y
 P O TE N TI AL S E RIE S AND E X P ONE N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 57

and then developed into a series by dividing the n u merator

by the denominator which gives ,

= u — u2 + u3 — u4 +
y .

or ,
re s ub st it ut ing x ,

1 1 1 1
2 3
a: x x

whi ch is convergent f or x =2
,
and for x =2 it gives
y + 01 2 5

With the su ccessive appro x imations :

which approach the final limiting value ,

=
y 0 33 3 . .

44 . An infinite series can be used only i f it is convergent .

Mat he m e t ic al methods e x ist f or determining a series w hether

is convergent or not For engineering p u rposes however
.
, ,

these methods usually are unnecessary ; for practical use it

is not sufficient that a series be convergent but it m u st con ,

—
verge so rapidly that is the s u ccessive terms of the series
,

—
must decrease at such a great rate that acc u rate numerical
results are derived by the calc u lation o f only a very f ew terms ;
t w o or three or perhaps three or f our
,
This f or instance .
, ,

is the case with the series ( 2 ) and ( 4) for x = 0 1 or less For . .

x=0 5 the series ( 2 ) and (4) are still convergent as seen in

.
, ,

5 ) and b ut are u seless for most engineering p u rposes as

, ,

the successive terms decrease so slo w ly that a large number

o f terms have to be calculated to get accurate res u lts and f or ,

such le ngthy calc u lations there is no time in en gineering w ork .

If however the successive terms of a series decrease at such

, ,

a rapid rate that all b ut the first few terms can be neglected ,

the series is certain to b e convergent .

I n a series therefore in which there is a q u estion w hether

,

it is convergent or divergent as f or instance t he series ,

1 1 1 1 1
— +
+2
1 5 6 (d 1 ve rge nt ) ,
58 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E M A TI C S .

1 1 1 1 1
y
= 1 +
3 4
( convergent ) ,

the matter o f conve rge ncv is o f little importance f or engineer

ing calculation as the ser1 es is u seless in any case ; that is does
, ,

no t g ve acc u rate n u merical res u lts w ith a reasonably moderate

i
amo u nt of calc u lation .

A series to b e usable for en gineeri ng work m u st have

, ,
.

the successive terms decreasing at a very rapid rate and i f ,

this is the case the series is convergent and the mathematical

, ,

investi gations o f convergency th u s u s u ally becomes unnecessary

in engineering work .

4 5 I t wo u ld rarely be advantageous to develop s u ch simple

.

C x pressions as ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) into infinite series s u ch as ( 2 ) and ,

since the calc ulation o f n u meri cal val u es from ( 1 ) and (3 )

is simpler than from the series ( 2 ) and even tho u gh very
fe w terms o f the series need to be u sed .

The u se o f the series (2 ) or ( 4) instead of the e x pressions

( 1 ) and (3 ) therefore is advantageo u s only i f these series con
verge so rapidly that only the first two terms are required
for n u merical calc u lation and the third term is negli gible ;
,

t hat is f or very small val u es o f x

,
Thus f or x = 0 0 1 accord.
,
.
,

ing to
=1 1
y

as the ne x t term ,
is already less than per cent o f
the val u e o f the total e x pression .

For very small val u es o f 13 there f ore by ( 1 ) and

, ,

and by (3 ) and
1
_
1 +x

a nd t h ese e x pressions ( 1 0 ) and ( 1 1 ) are use f ul and very com

mo u ly u sed in en gineering calc ulation f or simpli f ying work .

For instance i f 1 pl u s or min u s a very small q u antity appears

,

as f actor in the denomi nator of an e x pression it can be replaced ,

by 1 min u s or pl us the same small q u antity as factor in the

numerator of the e x pression and inversely , .
 P O TE N TI AL S E RIE S AN D E X P ONE N T I A L F UN C TI ON . 59

For e x ample i f a direct current receiving circ uit o f resist

,
-
,

ance r is fed by a s u pply voltage e o over a line o f lo w

,

resistance ro w hat is the voltage e at the receiving circuit ?

,

The total resistance is r + r0 ; hence the current

, ,
i

and the voltage at the receiving circ u it is

e = ri = e0

If now ro is small compared w ith r, it is

c = eo

As the ne x t term of the series would be the err0 1

made by the simpler e x pression ( 1 3 ) is less than Thus ,

i f ro is 3 per cent of r which is a f air average in interior light

,

ing circ u its ,

or less than pe r cent ;
hence is us uallynegligible
,
.

4 6 I f an e x pression in its finite form is more complicated

.

and thereby less convenient for n u merical calc u lation as f or ,

instance i f it contains roots development into an infinite series

,

freq u ently simplifies t h e calc ulation .

Very convenient for development into an infinite series

o f po w ers or roots is the b i nomi al theorem
, ,

” n—
( Ufn — Q
)

where

Thus for instance in an alternating c urrent circuit o f

, ,
-

resistance r reactance x and s u pply voltage e t he c urrent is

, , , ,
60 E NGIN E E RING III A TH E M A TI CS .

I f t his
circuit is practically no n ind u ctive as an incandescent
-
,

lighting circ u it ; that is i f x is small compared with r ( 1 5 )

, ,

can be w ritten in the form ,

and the sq uare root can be developed by the binomial th u s ,

1
I
n :
and g1ves
2

2 4
3 5
1 +
8 16

In this series if x = 0 1 r or less ; that is the reactance

.
,

is not more than 10 per cent o f the resistance the third te rm , ,

is less than per cent ; hence negligible and the

, ,
8
series is appro x imated w ith s u ffi cient e x actness by the fi rst
two terms ,

and equation ( 1 6) o f the c u rrent then gives

Thi s e x pression is simpler for n u merical calculations than

the e x pression as it contains no sq uare root .

4 7 D evelopment into a series may be come necessary

. if ,

further operations have to be carried o ut with an e x pression

for whi ch the e x pression is not suited or at least not well s u ited
,
.

T his is often the case w here the e x pression has to be integrated ,

since very few e x pressions can be integrated .

E x pressions under an integral si gn there f ore very commo nly

have to be developed into an infinite series to carry out the
integration .
 POTE N T IAL S E R IE S AN D E X PON E N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 61

E X AMP LE 1 .

Of the eq uilateral hyperbola ( Fi g .

2
lly
fi (1 ) (2 0)
the len gth L o f the arc be t w een x l = 2 a and x g = 1 0a is to be
calc u lated .

An element dl o f the arc is the hypothenuse o f a right triangle

with dx and dy as cat he t e s I t there f ore is
.
, , ,

FI G 2 6
. . E qu ilate ral Hype rbola .

and from

S u bstit u ting (22 ) in (2 1 ) gives ,

hence the length

,
L of the are , from ml to 1 2 is ,
62 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M A TI CS .

S u bstit u ting
2 = v
; that is ,
(i i : a d v, also s u bstituting

2 and v2

1
1 db .

The e x pression under the integral is inconvenient for integra

tion ; it is pre f erably d eveloped into an infini te series by the ,

binomial theorem

u and n= l )
2

1 1 1 5
8 12 16
+
2v 4
8v 1 6v 1 28v

1 1 1 5
+ 12 16
2v 4
8i 8
1 65 1 2 811
1 1 1
— av 1

f 1 1 1 l 1
w — ”
M E
C
”
56

"
l — b

17 6 1
11

and s u bstit u ti ng the n u merical val u es ,

— O I 25
(10 ( .

0) — — o 000 1
0078 (
1 76
.

a {8 8 o2 06a
. .

As seen , in this series , o nly the first two terms are appreciabl e
in val u e the third term less than
,
per cent of the total ,

and hence negli gible there f ore the series converges very
,

rapidly and n u meri cal values can easily be calculated by it

,
.
64 E NGIN E E R I NG M ATH E IV
I ATI CS .

instead of the nat u ral logarithm as used above the

If , ,

decimal logarithm is req uired the follo w ing relation may be ,

a pph e d :

lo gl o e = lo
g l os log e
. a= 0 43 43
. log . a,

lo g l ois e x pressed by log.

a a, and th u s ( 2 0 ) (2 1 ) ass u me
the form ,

10 g 1 0 ( 1 + 13) x

or appro x imately
, ,

=
10 g 1 0 ( 1 + l ) 0 43 43 x ,
’

or more acc u rately

, ,

lo g o (1 .
)
v 0 43 43x.

B . DI FF E RE NTI AL E QU ATI O NS .

49 The representation by an infinite series is of special

.

val u e in those cases in which no finite e x pression of the f unc

,

tion is known as f or instance i f the relation between a: and y

, ,

is given by a di fferential equ ation .

Di fferential equations are solved by separating the variables ,

that is bringing the terms containing the one variable y on

, , ,

one side of the equ ation the terms with the other variable a: ,

on the other side of the eq u ation and then separately inte grat ,

ing both sides of the eq u ation Very rarely ho w ever is it .

, ,

possible to separate the variables in this manner and where ,

it cannot be done u s u ally no systematic method of solving the

,

di fferential eq uation e x ists b u t this has to be done b y trying ,

di fferent f u nctions until one is f ound which satisfies the

,

e q uation .

I n electrical engineering c u rrents and voltages are dealt ,

with as f u nctions o f time The current and e m f gi ving the . . . .

power lost in resistance are related to each other by Ohm s ’

law . Current also prod u ces a magnetic field and this magnetic ,

—
field by its changes generates an e m f the e m f o f self . . . . . .

ind u ctance I n this case e m f is related to the change of

.
,
. . .

c u rrent ; that is the di fferential coe ffi cie nt o f the c u rrent and
, ,

th us also to the di fferential coe fficient o f since the e m f . . .

 POTE N TI AL S E R I E S AN D EX P ONE N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 65

is related to the c u rrent b y Ohm s law I n a condenser the ’

.
,

c u rrent and there f ore by Ohm s law the

,
’
depends u pon ,

and is proportional to the rate o f change o f the e m f impressed . . .

u pon the condenser ; that is it is proportional to the di fferential

,

coe ffi cient o f e m f

. . .

There f ore in circ u its havi ng resistance and ind u ctance

, ,

or resistance and capacity a relation e x ists bet w een c u rrents

,

and and their di ff erent ial coe fficients and in circ u its ,

having resistance ind u ctance and capacity a do u ble relation

, ,

o f this kind e x ists ; that is a relation be tw een c urrent or e m f

, . . .

and their first and second di ff erential coe fficients .

The most common di fferential eq u ations o f electrical engineer

ing thus are the relations between the f u nction and its di fferential
coe fficient which in its simplest f orm is
, ,

dy
y
dr

(2 7 )

and where t he circ u it has capacity as w el l as ind u ctance the ,

second di ff erential coe fficient also enters and the relati on in ,

its simplest form is ,

(2 9)

and the most general f orm of this most common di ff erential

e qu ation o f electrical engineering then is ,

d y 2
dy
dx 2
+ 2 c
d
-
( 30 )
The di fferential equ ations (26 ) and (2 7 ) c an easily be inte
gr ated by separating the variables b u t not so w ith eq u ations ,

(2 9 ) and the latter are pre f erably solved by trial .

5 0 The general method of sol u tion may be ill u strated with

.

the equation (2 6)
66 E NGINE E RING M A TH E M ATI CS .

To determine whether this eq u ation can b e integrated by an

infinite series choose s u ch an infinite series and then by su b
, , ,

st it u t ing it into eq u ation ascertain w hether it satisfies

the eq u ation that is makes the le f t side eq u al to t he right,

side for every val u e o f r . .

Le t ,

be an infinite series of w hich the coe fficients (t o a l a 2 a3

, , , ,
.

are still unknown and by substit u ting ( 3 1 ) into the di fferential

,

e q u ation determine whether s u ch val u es of these coe fficients

can be f o u nd which make the series (3 1 ) satis f y the e quation
,

Di ffere ntiating (3 1 ) gives ,

dy 2 3
a1 + 2 a g x + 3 a 3 4: + 4a 4r
dx

The di fferential equ ation ( 2 6 ) transposed gives ,

Substituting (3 1 ) and (3 2 ) into and arrangi ng the terms

in the order of 23 gives , ,

(a l ao ) (2a 2 al )m (3 a 3 a2 x ) 2

( a4
4 a3 r) 3
( 5as )
a4 x
4
0 .
(3 4)
then the above series (3 1 ) is a sol ution of the di fferential
If
equation the e x pression (3 4) m u st be an identity ; that is ,

must hold for every val u e o f x .

I f ho w ever it holds f or every val u e of x it does so also

, , ,

for m= 0 and in thi s case all the terms e x cept the first vani sh
, , ,

and ( 3 4) becomes ,

— ao = 0 ; a1 = a0
al (3 5 )
’
OI ,
.

To make (3 1 ) a sol u tion of the di ff ere ntial eq u atio n (a l a o)

m u st there f ore eq ual 0 This being the case the term ( l a o)
. c —
,

can be dropped in w hi ch then becomes ,

a1 ) x “
f“ "
“
1 (4 0 4 (1 9 25 3

x {(2 a g -
a1 ) ( —
3a3 a 2 x ) + = 0 .
 P OTE N TIAL S E RI E S AND E X P ON E N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 67

this eq uation m u st h old f or every valu e o f x the second

Since ,

factor of the equati on must be z ero sinc e th e first factor x is , , ,

not necessarily z ero Thi s gives .

,

( 20 2 0 1 ) ‘

f (3 0 3
'
l
G a l? )
(I 3 :IZ
2
0 .

As this eq uation holds f or ever y val ue o f i t holds also f or x,

In t hi s case however all terms e x cept the firs t vanish

, , ,

and ,

2a2 a1 0

a nd from

Contin u ing the sa me reasoning ,

3 a3 ( 12 0, 4a 4 a3 0, etc .

"
There f ore ,
if a n ex pres s i on o f s u cce ssi ve o w
p e rs o f 33 ,
su ch a s

is an i de nti ty, tha t i s , holds f or e ve ry valu e of x ,

the n all

the coe fi ci e nts of all the p owe rs of 2 m u st se

parately be zero .

Hence ,
ao O;

2a2 — a1 =0
;

3 a3 — a2 =0
;

40 4 G3 = O,

Th e re ad r
t r ali e t h diff r nce b tw n n xp r ion
e m us e z e e e e ee a e e ss as
e q atio n in x
u s b s tit tio n p rod u ct of a f n ctio n ;
, a nd a s u that i s n u u s, a a
id ntity
e .

R e gardl of t he val e of t h e coe ffi cie nt an e xp r ion ( 34) as e q ation

e ss u s s, e ss u

g iv a n m b r of e parate val e s of t h root of t h q atio n w hi ch

es u e s u x, e s e e u ,

m ak t h l e ft id of ( 3 4 ) q al
e e s ro that i olve t h q ation I f ho w e ve r
e e u ze , s, s e e u .
, ,

t h e i nfi nite ri e ( 3 1 ) i s a ol tio n of t h di ff e r ntial e q atio n

se s sthe n u e e u
th e ex pre ion ss w hich i t h r lt of s b tit ti ng ( 3 1 ) i nto s m t e e su u s u us
b e co e ct n t o nly for a li m it d n m be r of val s of
rr o w hich e th roote u ue x, ar e s
of t he e qu ation b t for all val ,
of 2 that i n m atte r w hat val i
u ue s ,
s, o ue s
chose n for x t he le ft sid e of ( 3 4) m t alw ay give t he sa m e re lt 0 th t
,
us s su , ,
a

i it m ust n t b change d b y a cha nge of

s, o e or in oth e r w ord s it m u t n t 2 , , s o
conta in z he nce all t he coe fficie nts of t he po w rs of m st b e e ro
,
e 2: u z .
68 E NG I NE E R I NG M ATH E M A TI C S .

There f ore i f the coe fficients of the series (3 1 ) a re chosen

,

by eq u ation this series satisfies the di fferential e q u ation

that is ,
2 3 4
313 x x
1 — + +

is the solution of the di ff erential equation ,

dv
da:

51 . In the same manner ,

the di ff erential e quation
dz
dx
is solved b y an infinite series ,

(40 )
and the coe fficients of this series determined b y substituting
( 40) into in the same manner as done above This gi ves .
,

(0 1 ad o) (3 613 aa 2 x ) 2

( 4
4 a — a a3 x ) 3 = 0, (41 )
and as this e qu ati on must be an identity all its coe fficients
, ,

must be z ero ; that is ,

al — aao = 0; or a 1 = aa0 ;
2
a £1
—
2 a 2 aa l = 0; or a2 = a1
— =
ao
2 2
3
a a
—
3 a3 aa 2 = 0; or a3 = a2 — = a0
3
| 3
a G4
—
4a 4 d a g =0 or a 4 = a3
- =
; a0
4
L
4
etc .
,
etc .

and the sol ution o f di fferential eq u ation (3 9 ) is ,

2 2 3
3 4 4
a x a x a r
z = ao 1 + ax +
2
H
These soluti ons (38) and
52 . o f the di fferential eq ua
,

tions (2 6 ) and are not single solutions b ut each contains ,

an infinite number of sol utions as it contains an arbitrary ,

 P OTE N TIAL S E R I E S AN D E X P ON E N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 69

constant d o ; that is a constant w hich may h ave any d esired

,

numerical val ue .

This can easily be seen since i f z is a sol ution of the di f

, ,

fe re ntial eq u ation ,

then any m ultiple or fraction o f

, ,
2, be , also is a sol ution of the
di fferential eq u ation ;

si nce the b cancels .

Such a cons tant d o which is not determined by the c oe ffi

, ,

cie nt s of the m athemati cal problem b u t is left arbitrary and , ,

requires for its determinations some further condition in

addition t o the di ffere ntial equation is called an i ntegrati on ,

cons tant .It usually is determined by some additional req u ire

ments of the physi cal problem which the di ffere ntial eq uation,

represe nts ; that is b y a se called termi nal condi ti on as f or

,
-
, ,

instance by having the val u e of y given f or some particular

,

value o f at us u ally for x = 0 or x = oc

, ,
.

The di fferential equation ,

th us is solved by the f unction

, ,

=a
y og o,

2 4
x 33
+

and the di fferential eq u ation ,

is solved by the function ,

2 0 02 0 ,

3 x3 4 4
d a st
1 ax +
I
3 lit
70 E NGINE E RING M A TH E M A TI CS .

yo and 2 0 thus are the simples t f orms o f the sol u tions 3] and z
of the di ff erential eq u atio ns (2 6) and
5 3 I t is interesti ng ne w to determine the value of
. To
raise the infinite series which represents yo to the nt h ,

power wo uld obvio usly b e a very complicated operati on

,
.

However ,

and since from (44)

by substituting ( 5 1 )

hence the same equation as

,
but with y instead o f ”
z .

Hence if yis the solution of the differential e quatio n

, ,

dy
31,
da:

then z= is the solution of the di fferential equation

n
y
dz
dr

However , the solutio n of t his di ffere ntial e quatio n from

and ( 49 ) is

= 1 + nx + +
20 0 0 0
;

t hat is i f .

2 3
x x
o

therefore the series y is raised to the nt h power by multipl y

ing the variable x by n .
72 E NGI NE E RING IlI A TH E MA TI CS .

and most f req u ently u sed methods o f solving e ngineering

problems .

E X AMP LE 1 .

a 4 pole
In 5 0 0—volt 5 0—kw direct c u rrent shunt motor
54 .
-
.
-
,

the resistance o f the field circ u it incl usive of field rheostat is , ,

2 5 0 ohms E ach fie ld pole contains 4000 turns and produces

.
,

at 5 00 volts impressed upon the field circ u it 8 m e galines o f ,

ma gnetic flux per pole .

What is the e q u ation of the field current and how m u ch ,

time a f ter closing the field s w itch is req uired f or the field cur
rent to reach 90 per cent o f its final val u e ?
Le t r be the resistance o f the field circ u it L the inductance ,

of the field circ u it and i the field current then the voltage , ,

cons u med in resistance is ,

In
general in an e l ectric circ u it the current produces a
, ,

magnetic field ; that is lines o f magnetic fl u x s u rro u nding the ,

conductor of the current ; or it is usually e x pressed i nte rli nked , ,

wi th the cu r rent This magnetic field changes with a change of

.

the current and us ually is proportion al thereto A change

,
.

of the magnetic field s u rro u nding a cond u ctor however gen , ,

e rat es an e m f in the cond u ctor and this e m f is proportional

. . .
,
. . .

to the rate of change of the magnetic field ; hence is pro ,

portional to the rate o f change o f the current or to ,

di
’
with a proportionality factor L which is ca lled the ,
i ndu ct
dt
a nce of the circ u it . This counter generate d e m f is in oppo
-
. . .

sit ion t o the current —L and thus co nsumes an

,

di
L which is called the e mf consu med b y self-i nductance,
II?
. . .

or i nd uc ta nce e . mf . .

There f ore by the ind u ctance L of the field circ uit a voltage
, , , ,

is consumed which is proportional to the rate o f change o f the

field current thus , ,
 P O TE N TI AL S E R IE S AN D E X P ON E N T I AL F UN C TI ON . 73

Since the s u pply voltage and th u s the total voltage cons u med
,

in the field circuit is e = 500 volts

, ,

or rearranged
, ,

Substit u ting herein ,

= — ri
u e ;

This is the same di ff erential eq uation as with a

and there f ore is integrated by the f unction ,

i t
u = a0 € L

therefore ,
re s ub st it ut i ng from
-
t
6 — rt = a0 £ L

This solution still contains the un kno w n q uantity ao ;

or the integration constant and this is determined by kno w
, ,

i ng the c u rrent i f or some partic u lar val u e o f the time t .

Be f ore closing the field s w itch and thereby impressing the

voltage on the field the field c u rrent o bvio u sly is z ero I n the
,
.

moment of closing the field switch the current th us is sti ll ,

z ero ; that is ,

i = 0 for t = 0 .
74 E NG I N E E R I NG AI A TH E MA TI CS .

Su bstit u ting these val ues in ( 65) gives ,

or ao + e,

is the final solution of the di fferential eq u atio n t ha t is ,

it is the val u e of the field c u rrent i as fu nction of the time t , , , ,

a fter closing the field sw itch .

After infinite time t = oo the c u rrent i ass u mes the final

, ,

val u e i o whi ch is given by s u bstituting t = oo into equation

,

th u s ,

2 amperes ;

hence by substit u ting ( 68 ) into

,
this e quation can also be
written ,

(69 )

where i o = 2 is the final value ass u med by the field current .

The time tl a f ter whi ch the field c u rrent i h as reached 90

,

per cent o f its final val u e i o is given by s u bstituting

,
0 9i o .

into thus ,

0 9i 0 = i 0 1
.
( a

e L

Taking the logarithm o f both sides ,

T
— l1 l0 g — l
;
z
 P O TE N TI AL S E RIE S AND E X PONE N TIAL F UN C TI ON . 75

55 The ind u ctance L is calc ulat ed f rom the data given

.

in the problem I nd u ctance is meas u red by the n um ber o f

.

inte rlinkage s o f the electric ci rc u it with the magnetic flux ,

prod u ced by one absol ute unit o f c u rrent in the circ u it ; that
is it equ als the prod u ct o f magneti c flu x and n u mber of turns
,

di vided by the absolute c u rrent .

A c u rrent of i 0 = 2 amperes represents absol ute units ,

since the absol ute unit o f c u rrent is 1 0 amperes The n u mber .

o f field t u rns per pole is 4000 ; hence the total n u mber of t u rns ,

The magnetic fl u x at f u ll e x citation ,

or i 0 absol ute units of c u rrent is given as 4) = 8 lines ,

of magnetic force The inductance of the field thus is

.

MD 1 6000
6 0 X 10
4 9
absolute units 64011,
02
\

the practical u nit o f ind u ctance or the henry (h) being 1 0 ,

9

absolute u nits .

Su bstit u ting L = 6 4O r = 2 5 0 a nd e = 5 00 into e q u ation ( 6 7 ) ,

and ( 70) gives

= — "
i 2( 1
‘

6 40
SCC '
2 5 0 >< o 43 43.

Therefore i t takes abo u t 6 se e be f ore the motor field has .

reached 90 per cent of its final val u e .

The reader is advised to calc u late and plot the n u merical

values of i f rom equ ation for
t= o , 3 4 5 6 8 1 0 sec , , , , ,
.

This c alculation is best made in the form o f a table th us ; ,

log e

0 3 9i log = 0 1 69 4t;

“
. .
,

5
03
N —0 1 694t . .
76 E NGIN E E RING III A TH E M A TI C S .

“° 3 9‘
The val ues o f e can also be taken directly from the
tables o f the e xponential f unction at the end o f the book ,
.

— 0 3 9t
5
.

_ — O 39t
0 1 694 t
.
— 0 1 69 4t
. 1 e
.

= N — 0 1 694t .

E X AM PL E 2 .

56 . A condenser of 2 0 m f capacity , is charged to a potential

.

of e0 = 1 0 000
volts and then discharges thro u gh a resistance
, ,

of 2 megohms W hat is the eq u ation o f the discharge c u rrent

.
,

and a fter how long a time h as

the voltage at the condenser
dropped to its initial valu e ?
A condenser acts as a reser
voir of electric energy similar ,

to a tank as water reservoir .

I f in a w ater tank Fig 2 7 A ,

.
,

is the sectional area of the tan k ,

e the height of water or water , ,

press u re and water flo w s o ut ,

of the tank then the height e ,

decreases by the flow o f water ;

FI G 2 7 W at e r R e se rvoir
. . .

that is the tan k empties and ,

the c u rre nt o f water i is proportional to the change of the

, ,

d
water level or height of w ater ,
3 5 ,
and to t he are a A of the
tank ; that is it is , ,

( 72 )

The min u s sign stands on the right hand side as for positive -
,

i; that is o ut flow the height of the water decreases ; that is

,
-
, ,

de is negative .
 P O TE N T IAL S E RIE S AN D E X P ONE N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 77 .

an electric reservoir the electric press u re or voltage 6

In ,

corresponds to the water press u re or height o f the w ater and ,

to the storage capacity or sectional area A o f the water tank

corresponds the electric storage capacit v of the condenser ,

called capacity C The current or flow o u t of an electric

.

condenser thus is , ,

i = — C

The capacity of c ondenser is ,

C = 20 mf 20 x 1 0 ‘
6
farads .

The resistance o f the discharge path is ,

r= oh m s ;
6
2 >< 1 0

hence the c u rrent taken by the resistance

, ,
r, is

and th u s

There f ore f rom ( 60 )

,

and for t= 0, e = e0 olts ; hence

v

e =e s
O

-o2 st
volts ;
of the initial val u e :
e = 01
%,
is reached at
92 sec .
78 E NG I NE E R I NG M A TH E M A T I C S .

The reader is advised to calc u late and plot the n u merical

val u es o f e from e q u ation
,
f or
t = 0 ; 2 ; 4 ; 6 ; 8 ; 1 0 ; 1 5 ; 2 0 ; 30 ; 40 ; 60 ; 80 ; 1 00 ; 1 5 0 ; 2 00 sec .

57 Wherever in an electric circ uit in addition to resistanc e

.
, ,

i nd u cta nce and capacity both occ u r the relations between ,

c u rrents and voltages lead to an eq u ation containing the second

di fferential coe fficient as disc u ssed above,
.

The simplest form o f s u ch eq u ation is :

t
I

To integrate this by the m ethod o f indeterminate coe fficients ,

we ass um e as sol u tion o f the eq uation ( 7 6 ) the infinite series ,

4
y
z
ao + a 4x + .

in which the coe fficients ao a l (1 2 , , ,

a3 , a 4 . are indeterminate .

D i fferentiating ( 7 7 ) t w ice gives ,

and s u bstit u ting ( 7 7 ) and ( 7 8 ) into ( 7 6 ) gives the identit y ,

2 3
2 a 2 + 2 X 3 a3 x + 3 >< 4a 4 3r + 4 >< 5 a s r
3
(
a a0 + a 1 x + a gx + a 3 3t + 2

or arranged in order of
,
at,

(2a 2 )+
a ao x ( 2 >< 3 a 3 aa 1 )+ x
2
( 3 X 4a 4 aa z )
— aa
g ) 0 .
( 7 9)

Sincethis eq uation ( 7 9 ) is an identity the coe fficients of ,

all po w ers of it must individ u ally equal zero This gives for .

the determination o f these hitherto indeterminate coe fficients

the eq u ations ,

—
2a 2 ae o = 0;
2 X 3 a3 — aa 1 = 0;
3 X 4a 4 — aa 2 = 0;
4 X 5a5 a a3 = 0, etc .
80 E NG I NE E R I NG MA TH E M A TI C S .

In this case instead o f the integration constants ac and a l

, ,

the t w o ne w integration constants A and B can be introd u ced

by the e q uations
a0 =A+B and

A and B
2 2
and substit u ting these into equatio n
,

b 2
x
2
5
3
13
3 b 4x 4
y=A 1 + b ll + —
3
| 4
2
2 2
53
1
5
b 4
x
4

1 b2 + +
+
2 . lg If
The first series how ever from f or
, ,
n= b is and
= — b
the second series from for n b is s ”
.

There f ore the infinite series (83 ) is

, ,

— bx
y Ae
= + bx
+ Be ;

that is it is the sum o f two e x ponential functions

, ,

a positive the other w ith a negative e x ponent

,
.

Hence the di ff erential eq u ation

, ,

2
d y
da: 2

is integrated by the f u nction ,

t bz —bx
4s + Bs
--

y
:
‘
,

b \/a .

Ho w ever if is a negative q u antity

,
a ,
b = \/ a imaginary ,

and can be represented by

where

In this case eq u ation (86 ) ass u mes the f orm

, ,

y Ae
= + 5€ f
 P OTE N TI AL S E RI E S AND E X PONE N T IAL F UNC TI ON . 81

that is if in the di fferential eq uation ( 7 6 ) a is a positive q uantity

, ,

+b 2
this di fferential eq uation is integrated by the su m o f
,

the t wo e x ponential f u nctions i f ho w ever a is a negative , ,

quantity — 0
2
the sol ution (86 ) appears in the f orm o f e x ponen
, ,

tial f u nctions w ith imaginary e x ponents

5 8 I n the latter case a form of the solution of di fferential
.
,

equation ( 76) can be derived which does not contain the

imaginary appearance by t u rning bac k to eq uation ,
and
s ubstituting therein a = —
c
2
which gives , ,

2
d y
?
d z

6
6
0 15
—a 1
y
H
o
2
I9 .

or wri ting A = a 0 and

,
B

2 2 4 4
0 33 0 23

3 3 5 15
c x 6 1
+8 cx

E I
5

The sol ution then is given by the su m of two infinite se ri es ,

thus ,

4 4
0 x 0 33 c a

5 x5
c
v(cx ) = cx
| 3
I5

y Au (c1: ) B v(cx ) .

the u series a change o f the sign

In -
,

the val u e of u ,

=u
u ( ex ) ( + cx) .

Such a f unction is called an even function .

82 E NG I NE E RING M A T H E M AT I C S .

In the v scries a change o f

-
, t he sign o f x reverses the sign
of v ,
as seen f rom

v( — c:c) — v
( + cx ) .

Su ch a f u nction is called an odd f u nction .

I t can be shown that

n ( er ) = cos ca: and v( cx )

y A
= cos +B sin
cx car, ( 98 )

where A and B are the integration constant s w hich are t o b e -

,

dete rmined by the terminal conditions o f the physical problem .

Theref o re the sol ution o f the di fferential eq u ation

,

has t wo di fferent forms an e xponential and a trigonometric

,
.

If a is p ositive ,

y Ae
= + bz bx
+ Bs
‘

If a is negative ,

y A cos
= cx +B sin cr .

In the latter case the sol ution ( 1 0 1 ) w o u ld appear as

, ex

o ne nt ia l f u nction w ith imaginary e xponents ;

p

—j oz
( 1 0 4)

As ( 1 04) obvio usly m u st be the same f u nction as it

follo ws that e xponential f u nctions w ith imaginary e x ponents
m u st be e xpressible by trigonometric f u nctions .
84 E NG I N E E RING MA TH E III ATI C S ’
.

Adding and s u btracting gives respectively ,

5
cos jv 9

0 0 6
sm v
y .

23

these equations ( 1 0 6) to
By ,
e x ponential functions
with imagi nary e xponents can be trans f ormed into trigono
metric f unctions w ith real angles and e x ponential f u nctio ns ,

w ith real e x ponents into t rigno m e t ric f u nctions with imaginary

angles and inversely
,
.

Mathematically the trigonometric f uncti ons thus do not

,

constitute a separate cl as s o f f u nctions b u t may be cons idered ,

as e xponential f u nctions w ith imaginary angles and it can b e ,

said broadly that the sol u tion of the above di fferential eq u a

tio ns is given by the e x ponential f unction b u t that i n thi s ,

f unction the e x ponent may be real or may be i maginary and , ,

in the latter case the e xpression is put i nto real f orm by intro
,

d u cing the trigonometric f u nctions .

E X AMPLE 1 .

60 . A conden s er (as an
ndergro u nd high pote ntial cable )
u -

o f 2 0 m f capacity and of a voltage o f eo = 1 0 000 discharges

.
, , ,

t hro u gh an ind u ctance o f 5 0 m h and o f negli gible resistance

.
,

What is the eq uation o f the discharge c u rrent ?

The c u rrent cons u med by a condenser o f capacity C and
potential di fference 6 is proportional to the rate of change
o f the potential di ff erence and to the capacity ; hence it is
, ,

d
f
,

C —
’
and the c urrent f rom the condens er ; or its discharge
at

c urrent is ,

i = C (11 1)
—

The voltage cons umed b v an ind u ctance L is proportional

to the rate o f change o f the c u rrent in the inductance and to t he ,

ind u ctance ; hence ,

 POTE N TI AL S E R IE S AN D E X P ONE N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 85

Di ff erenti ating ( 1 1 2 ) gives ,

de d i
2
L z’
dé dt

“
and s u bstit u ting this into ( 1 1 1 ) gives ,
'

d z
t d% 1
1 CL
E
'
dt CL 2

as the di ff erential eq uation o f the problem .

This equ ation ( 1 1 3 ) is the same as for

is solved by the e xpression ,

' t t
t = A cos +B si n 1 14
x/ L C x/ L C

and the potential di fference at the condenser or at the ind u ctance

is, by substit u ting ( 1 1 4 ) into
t i

x/ L C x/ L C

These equations ( 1 1 4) and ( 1 1 5 ) still contain t w o u nknown

constants A and B which have to be determined by the terminal
, ,

conditions that is by the kno w n conditions o f current and

, ,

voltage at some particular time .

At the moment o f starting the discharge ; or at the time ,

t = 0 the c u rrent is z ero and the voltage is that to which the

, ,

condenser is charged that is i = 0 anl e = eo

, , ,
.

Substituting these values in eq u ations ( 1 14) and ( 1 1 5 )

gives ,

hence
B 60
L y

and s u bstit uting f or A and

,
B the val u es in ( 1 1 4) and ( 1 1 5 )
gives
86 E NGINE E R I NG M A TH E M ATI C S .

Su bstit u ting the n u merical val u es , 6 0 volts C = 2 0

,

mf 20 X 1 0
.
6
farads , L 50 m h 0 05h . . . gives ,

and VEZ = 1 0 —3
;

i = 2 00 sin 1 000 t and e= 1 0 , 000 cos 1 000 t .

The discharge th us is alternating I n reality due to

61 . .
,

the unavoidable resistance in the discharge path the alterna ,

tions gra d u ally die o u t that is the discharge is oscillating

, , .

The time of one complete period is given by ,

2 7:

Hence the fre nque ncy,

1 1 000
f =_ -
1 59 cycles per second .

t r

As the circuit in addition

the ind u ctance necessarily to
contains resistance r besides the voltage cons u me d by t he
,

ind u ctance by e q uation voltage is cons u med b v t he

resistance thus ,

6 M (1 17) ,

and the total voltage consumed by resistance r and i nductance

L thus is
,

e = ri +L

D i ff erentiating ( 1 1 8 ) gives ,

dc
z
r
dt d
’
dt i2

and s u bstit u ting this into e q u ation

,
gives .

dz d i z

1 + CT —
—
‘

f
‘

CL 2
dt
as the di ff erential eq u ation o f the problem .

This di fferential eq u ation is o f the more general

6 2 The more genera l di ff e rential e q u ation
.

2
d y dy
+-
2 c
dxz
d
88 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M A TI C S .

From

or s u bstituting
, ,

V0 ? a
p,

into the eq u ation becomes ,

b at

Hence , two val u es o f b e x ist ,

b1 = —
c +p and b2 =

and there f ore the di ff erential eq u ation

, , ,

2
d z dz
1}
Z ?
20
2 i:
az 0, ( 1 30 )
”
is solved by As ; or by Ae or by any combination of ,
b”
, ,

these two sol u tions The most general sol ution is

“
.
,

2 Aus b c

that is ,

— —
y A
=1 5 ( +A 2€
( c p ) x

—c
n
—
Mm + AQ 8
-
e l e
px
}

As roots of a q u adratic eq u ation b 1 and b 2 may both b e ,

real q uantities or may be comple x imaginary and in the

, ,

latter case the sol ution ( 1 3 1 ) appears in imaginary form and

, ,

has to be red u ced or modified f or u se so as to eliminate the ,

imaginary appearance by the relations ( 1 06 ) and ,

E X AMPLE 2 .

63 . Assume , in the e x ample in paragrap h 60, the disc harge

circ u it o f the condenser o f C = 2 0 m f capacity to contain .
, ,

b esides the ind u ctance L = 0 05 h the resistance r = 1 2 5 ohms

,
.
, ,
.

The general e q u ati on o f the problem dividing by ,

C L becomes
, ,

di 2

( It
?
r di

Ea CL
+
i
“ L
 P OTE N TI AL S E R IE S AN D E X PON E N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 89

This is the eq uation for :

x t, 20 2 5 00 :

I
I

and writing
,

and since
10 and

s= 75 and p
= 7 50 .

The eq u ation o f the c u rrent f rom 13 1 ) then is ,

Thi s eq u ation still contains t w o u nkno w n q uantities the inte ,

grat io n constants AI and A2 w hich are determined by the

,

terminal condition : The val ues o f c u rrent and o f voltage at the

beginning o f the discharge or ,

This req u ires the determination of the eq uation o f the

voltage at the condenser terminals This obvio usly is the voltage
.

cons u med by resistance and ind u ctance and is e x pressed by ,

equation

e = ri +L
90 E NG I NE E R I NG AI A TH E M A TI C S .

di
hence s u b s t i t u t l ng h e re 1 n the val u e o f t and from e qu at lo n
,
7
d
’

gives
' 1
fi
—L 8
J —
gi
f s
1 t r s t T+ 3
e— r A1 c
2L
+ 42 5 + 11 {
3
A1 : 42 c
2L 2L
T

—3 —
t r s t
A1 8 2L
+ — — Ag € 2L
Q
‘

+ i t r _
__
s
i

and s ubstit uting the n um erical val u es ( 1 3 3 ) and ( 1 3 6 ) into

,

equations ( 1 3 7 ) and gives

— 2 oooz
i = Al e 5 00 1
+ A2 6
‘

_ 20 0 0 1
+ 2 5 A2 €
‘
50 0‘
e 5

At the moment o f the beginning o f the discharge ,

t = 0,
the c u rrent is z ero and the voltage is that is ,

t = 0 ; t = o; e = 1 0 , 000

Su bstit u ting ( 1 40 ) into ( 1 3 9 ) gives ,

0 = A1 + A2 , 1 0 000 = 1 00 A 1 + 2 5 A
.

There f ore the c u rrent and voltage are

, ,

t = 1 33 3 {5 .

-
2 0 00 ‘
33 33 5

The reader is advised to calc u late and plot the n u merical

val ues o f i and e and o f their t w o components f or
, , ,

3
t = o,
-
1, 2, 3, e x 1o sec .
92 E N GINE E RING M A THE M ATI CS .

Since for t = 0 , t = o and e = 1 0 000

,
volts substit u ting
into ( 1 45 ) and
and 1 o ooo = 4o ,
B 1 + 30 3 2 .

There f ore , B 1 = 0 and and by ( 1 45 ) and

,

sin 600 t ;

( cos 600 t + 1 33 . sin 60 0 i ) .

As seen , in this case t he c u rrent i is larger , and c u rrent

and e m f are the prod u ct of an e x ponential term ( grad ually
. . .

decreasing val u e ) and a trigonometric term ( alternating value ) ;

that is they consist of s u ccessive alternations of grad u ally
,

decreasing amplitude Su ch f u nctions are called osci llati ng .

fu nc ti ons Practically all dist u rbances in electric circuits

.

consist o f such oscillating c u rrents and voltages .

600 t = 2 7r gives as the time o f one c omplete period

, ,

sec .
;

and the f req u ency is

1
f T = cycles per se e .

In thi s partic u lar case as the resistance is relatively high , ,

the oscillatio ns die o ut rather rapidly .

The reader is advised to calculate and plot the n umerical

val u es o f t and e and of their e x ponential terms f or every 30
’

, ,

T T T
degrees that is , for t= 0 2 3 — -
etc for the first two
fi
.
, , , ’ , ,
12 12
peri ods and also to derive the eq u ations and calc u late and plot
, ,

the numerical val u es for the same capacity C = 20 ni f and , ,

.
,

same ind u ctance L = 0 0 5h but for the much lower resistance

“ "
, , ,
.

r = 2 0 ohms .

6 5 Tables o f e
. and e f or 5 decimals and tables of , ,
”
log a and log for 6 decimals are given at the end of ,

the book and also a table of

,
for 3 decimals For most .

en gineering p u rposes the latter is su fficient ; w here a higher

accuracy is required the 5 decimal table may be u sed and f or
, ,
 POTE N TI AL S E RIE S AN D EX PON E N TI AL F UN C TI ON . 93

highest accuracy interpolation by the logarithmic table mav be

employed For instance
.

_
6

From the logarithmic table ,

0 -6

0 -0 8

0 a mt —
9 9 9 7 95 9 ,
i nterpolated
i
,

betw een log

— 0 00 5
added 1 and log 5 -

1 3 5 84 7
6 .

From com m b n logarithmic tables ,

s
X lo
‘

5 .

NO TE mathematics f or the base of the natural log a

. In ,

ri th m s
,
is usu ally chosen the symbol 6 Since .
,

ho w ever in engineering the symbol 6 is u niversally used to

,

represent voltage f or the base o f nat u ral logarithms has been

,

chosen the symbol 5 as the Greek letter c orresp onding to e

, ,

and e is generally used in electrical engineering c alc u lations in

this meaning .
 CHAPTE R I I I .

TR I GO NO ME TR I C SE RI E S .

A TRI GONOME TRI C FUNC TI ONS

. .

66 .For the engineer and especially the electrical engineer

, .

a perfect familiarity with the trigonometric f u nctions and

trigonometric formulas is almost as essential as familiarity with
the m u ltiplication table To use trigon ometric methods
.

e fficiently it is not s u fficient to understand trigonometri c

,

form u las en o u gh to be able to loo k the m up when required ,

b ut they m u st be learned by heart and in both directions ; that ,

is an e x pression similar to the left side of a trigonometric for

,

m u la must immediately recall the right side and an e x pression ,

similar to the right side m u st immediately recall the left side

o f the formula .

Trigonometric f u nctions are defined on the circle and on ,

the right triangle .

Le t in the circle Fig 2 8 the direction to the right and

,
.
,

u pward be considered as positive to the le f t and dow n w ard as ,

negative and the angle a be co u nted from the positive hori

,

z o nt al OA counterclockwise as positive
,
cloc kwise as negative , .

The projector s of the angle a divided by the radi u s is , ,

called sin a ; the projecti on c of the angle a divided b y the ,

radi u s is called cos a

,
.

The intercept t on the vertical tangent at t h e origi n A ,

divided by the radi u s is called tan a ; the int ercept ct on the

,

hori zont al tangent at B or 90 d e g behind A divided by the

, , ,

radius is called cot a

,
.

Thus in Fig 2 8
,
.
,

CO S a

tan a = c ot a :
96 E NGI N E E RING M A TH E M A TI CS .

negative : 8 being do w nw ard 0 to w ard the le f t ; but tan ,

a and
cot a are again positive as seen f rom t and ct i n Fi g 3 1
,
. .

FI G 30 . . S e co nd Q u adrant . FI G 3 1
. . T hird Q uadrant .

Inthe fourth quadrant Fig 32 sin a is negative as s is ,

.
, ,

downward but cos a is again positive as c is toward the right ;

, ,

tan a and cot a are both

negative as seen from t and ,

c t in Fig 3 2 . .

I n the fi f th quadrant all

the trigonometric functions
again have the same val u es
as in the first quadrant Fig ,
.

2 8 t hat is 3 60 d e g or 2 a , , , ,

or a m u ltiple thereof can be ,

added to or s u btracte d from ,

the angle a witho u t changing ,

the trigonometric f u nctions ,

Fm 3 2 Fo u rth Q u adra nt
. .
b ut these functions repeat
.

a f ter every 3 60 de g or 2 71 ; ,

that is have 2 7: or 3 60 deg as their period

,
. .

S I G NS O F FU NC TI O NS
 TRI GON OM E TRI C S E RI E S . 97

68 . Re l a t i o ns b e tw e e n s in a a nd c o s a . Between sin a and

cos a the relation ,

si n
2
a
+cos 2
a 1,
e x ists ; hence ,

cos a
— sin 2
a .

E quation (4) is one of thos e which is f requ ently u sed in

both directions For instance 1 may be s u bstit uted f or the
.
,

s u m o f the sq u ares o f sin a and cos a while in other cases ,

sin 2 a
+ cos a may be s u bstit u ted f or 1 For instance
' 2
,
.

1 sin 2
a cos 2
a

cos 2
a cos ~
a

Re lat i o ns b e tw e e n S i ne s a nd Ta nge nts .

S in a
tan a
00 8 a

c ot (r

hence
cot a

tan a

As tan and c ot a are f ar less convenient for t rigono m e t ric

a

calc u lations than sin a and cos a and therefore are less fre ,

quently applied in trigonometric calc u lations it is not ne ce s ,

sary to memori z e the trigonometric form u las pertaining to

tan a and cot a b ut where these f u nctions occ u r sin a and
, ,

and cos a are s u bstit uted for them by e q u ations and the
calc u lations carried o ut with the lat ter f u nctions and tan a ,

or cot a re su b s t it u t e d in the final result i f th e latter contains ,

S in a
or 1t s re c 1 pro c al .

cos a

In
electrical engineering tan a or cot a freq u ently appears
‘

as the starting—point o f calc u lation of the phase o f alternating

currents For instance i f a is the phase angle of a vector
.
,
98 E NGINE E RING M A TH E M ATI C S .

quantity tan a is given as the ratio of the vertical component

,

over the hori z ontal component or o f the reactive component ,

over the power component .

I n this case if ,

tan a :

and cos a

cot a
'

c
and cos a =
V0 2
+d
2

The secant f u nctions and versed sine f u nctions are so

,

little used l n engineering that t hey are of interest onl y as

,

c u riosities They are defined by the follow ing e qu ations :

.

1
se e a
cos a

0 0 86 0 a

s in vers a 1— sin '

a,

cos vers a 1— cos a .

69 . Ne gative Angl e s
From the circle diagram o f the
.

trigonometric functions follows as shown i n Fig 33 that when ,

.
,

changing from a positive angle that is co u nterclockwise , ,

rotation to a negative angle that is cloc kwise rotation s t

, , , , , ,

and ct reverse their direction b ut c remains the same ; that is

, ,

S in a
~

— a
) = + cos a ,

tan — a
) — tan a ,

cot — a
) —
cot a
,

cos a th u s is an even f u nction ,

while the three others are
odd f unctions .
”
1 00 E NGI NE E R I NG MA TH E M A TI C S .

70 . Angl e ( a Adding or s u btracting

to an angle a ,
7: ,

gives the same numerical val u es o f the trigonometric f u nctions

FI G 3 5
. . ctio n of C
Fu n s o m p le m e n FI G . Fu n t c ion of An gl
s es P l us
tary An gl es . or Min u s 7r .

as a as seen in Fig 3 6 b ut the direction o f s and

,
.
,
c is reversed ,

while t and ct remain i n the same direction th u s , ,

Sin ( i = —
a n ) sin a ,

— C OS
l
C OS ( Od i n ) a
'
,

tan ( a = + tan
i n ) a
'
,

cot ( a i n ) + 0 0 1; a .

Fun ctio ns of Angle s + 75 . FI G 3 8

. . Fu n ctions of An gl es Mi nu s 9

1
3: Adding g ,
or 90 d og . to an angle a , inter
changes the functions ,
8 and c, and t and ct, and also reverses
 TRIG ON OM E TR I C S E R I E S . 1 01

the direction of th e cosine tangent and cotangent b ut leaves

, , ,

the sine in the same direction since the sine is positive in the
,

second qu adrant as seen in Fig 3 7

,
. .

g
'

S u btracting ,
or 90 deg f rom angle
. a ,
interchanges the
f u nctions 8 and c and t and ct and also
, , ,
reverses the direction ,

e x cept that o f the cosine which remains,

in the sa me dire ction ;
that is o f the same si gn as the cosine
, ,
is positive in the first
and f o u rth qu adrant as seen in Fig 38
,
. . There f ore ,

+ cos a ,

— cot a ,

—
tan a

—
cos a ,
'

+ 8 111 a ,

tan a — cot a ,

cot a tan a .

Nu m e ri ca l Valu e s From the circl e diagram Fig

.
,
2 8, etc .
,

f ollows the n u merical val ues :

cot 0 °
= co

cot
cot
—1 cot 1 3 5 ° — 1
( 1 2)
e tc .
1 02 E NG I NE E R I NG M ATH E M ATI C S .

7I . R e lat i o ns b e tw e e n Tw o An g l e s
The f ollo w ing relations .

are developed in te x t books o f trigonometry -

sin ( a + 6) = sin or cos 8 + cos

,
a sin fl ,

sin ( a — = sin cos fl cos sin (1

fl) a
— a ,

cos ( a + 6) = cos a cos fl— sin a sin 5 ,

cos ( a — fl) = cos a cos fl + sin a sin (9 ,

Herefrom f ollows by combining these e quations ( 1 3 ) in

,

pairs :
( ( er —
cos cos cos + cos fl)
—
a
{ a

sin a sin ( a -
fl) -
cos
sin a ( a + fl) + sin ( at — ml ,

cos a s in fl = l
s in
{
—
sin ( er — ml .

By substituting for and £1 f or (

d l
a —
fi)
equations gives the e qu ations

sin a 1 + sin ,8 1 = 2 sin

S in d l
— sin 81 =
‘

cos cos = cos

a 1 + fi1 2

cos a l — cos fi1 = — 2 sin

These three sets of equ ations are the most important trigo
no m e t ric form u las Their memori z ing can be f acilitated by
.

noting that cosine f un cti ons lead to prod u cts o f equ al f unc
tions sine f u nctions to prod u cts of u nequal f u nctions and
, ,

inve rs ely prod u cts of equ al f u nctions resolve into cosine

, ,

products of u neq u al f unctions into sine f unctions Also cosine .

functions show a reversal o f the sign th us : the cosine of a ,

su m is given by a di fference o f prod u cts the c osine o f a di ff er ,

ence by a sum for the reason that with increasin g angle

,

the cosine function decre ases and the cosine o f a su m o f angles ,

thus wo u ld be less tha n the cosine of the single angle .

1 04 E NGIN EE RING IlI ATH E rlI A TI C S .

sin a da =0
;

cos a d a = 0;

sin a d a = 1;

cos a do +1 .

73 . B in o m i al . One
of the most frequent trigonometric
operations in electrical engineering is the trans f ormation of the
binomial a cos a + b sin a i nto a single trigonometric function
, , ,

by the substit ution a = c cos p and b = c sin p ; hence

, ,

p) ,
a c os a +b sin a =c cos ( oz —

whe re

or , by the trans f ormation ,

d = c sin q and b=c cos (
1,

a cos a +b sin a = c sin

where

74 . Polypha se Re lat i on s .

11

X
i
1
t cos a + a zt

z 1
i sin ,
a +a i

where m and n are integer n u mbers .

Proof The points on the circle which defines the trigo

.

no m e t ri c f u nction by Fig
,
. 2 8, of the angles + a +
 TR I G ON OM E TR I C S E R I E S . 1 05

are corners of a reg ular polygon inscribed in the circle and ,

therefore having the center o f the circle as center of gravit y .

For instance f or n = 7 m = 2 they are sho w n as P I P 2

, , ,
P7 , , ,

in Fig 3 9 The cosines o f these angles are the proj ections on

. .

the vertical the sines the proj ections on the hori z ontal diameter
, , ,

and as the sum of the proj ections of the corners of any polygon ,

FI G 3 9
. . P ypol ha se Re lations . FI G 40
. . T i ng r a le .

on any line going thro u gh its center of gravity is z ero both , ,

sums o f e qu ation ( 2 3 ) are z ero .

a +a+ cos a +bi cos ( a -

t) ,

a + a 3t sin a +b+ cos (a — b ) , ( 2 4)

a +ai cos a +bi sin (a — b ) .

These e quations are proven by s u bstit uting for the produc t s -

the single fun ctions by e qu ations and substit uti ng them

in e q u ations
7 5 T r i a ngle
. I f in a triangle a fl and r are the angles
.
, , ,

opposite respectively to the sides a b c Fig 40 then , , ,

.
, ,
1 06 E NGIN E E RING M ATH E M A TI CS .

2= 2 2 —
0 a + b 2 ab cos 7 .

2
c sin a sin 6
2 S in 7

B . TRI GONOME TRI C SE RI E S .

76 . phenomena usually are either constant

E ngineering ,

transient or periodic Constant for instance is the terminal

,
.
, ,

voltage of a storage battery and the current taken f rom it

-

through a co nstant resistance Trans ient phenomena occur .

during a change in the condition of an electric circuit as a ,

change o f load ; or disturbances entering the circui t from the

,

o u tside or originating in it etc Peri o d ic phenomena are the

,
.

alternating currents and voltages pulsating c u rrents as those ,

produced by rectifiers t he distribution o f the magnetic flu x

,

in the air gap of a machine or the distri b u tion of volta ge

-
,

around the comm u tator o f the direct current machine the -

,

motion of the piston in the steam —engine cylinder the variation ,

o f the mean daily temperature w ith the seasons of the year etc ,
.

The characteristic o f a periodic f unction is that , ,

at cons tant intervals o f the independent variable x call ed ,

cycles or pe riods the same val ues of the dependent variable 3]

,

occur .

Most periodic f unctions of engineering are f unctions of time

or o f space and as such have the charact eristic of univalence ;
,

t hat is to anv val u e o f the independent variable a: can corre

,

spond o nly one value of the dependent variable y I n other .

words at any given time a nd given point of space any physical

, ,

phenomenon c an have one numeric al value only and there f ore ,

mu st be rep resented by a u nivalent f u nction o f t ime and spac e .

Any u ni v al ent p e ri odic f unc tion ,

y
1 08 E N GIN EE RING M ATH E MATI CS .

Theoretically obvi o u sly this condition can never be perfectly

,

attained an d freq u ently the deviation from sine shape is su ffi

,

cient to require practical consideration especially in those cases , ,

where the electric circ uit contains electrostatic capacity as is ,

f or ins tance the case with long distance transmission lines

,
-
,

u ndergro u nd cable systems high potential trans f ormers etc , ,

.

H o w ever no matter how m u ch the alternating or other

,

periodic wave di ffers f rom simple sine shape that is however —

,

much the wave is distorted it can always be represented ,

by the trigonometric series

As ill ustration the follo w ing applications o f the trigo
no m e t ri c series to engineering problems may be considered :

( A) The determination of the eq uation o f the periodic

f u nction ; that is th e evolution of the constants a and b of
, n n

the trigonometric series i f the numerical val u es of the periodic

,

function are given Th u s for instance the w ave of an

.
, ,

alternator may be taken by oscillograph or w ave meter and -

,

by measuring from the oscillogr aph the n u merical val u es o f ,

the periodic f u nction are derived for every 1 0 degrees or every ,

5 degrees or every degree dependi ng on the accuracy required

, , .

The problem then is from the n u merical val ues of the wave, ,

to determine its e qu ation While the oscillograph sho w s the .

shape of the wave it obvio u sly is not possible there f rom to

,

calc ulate other q u antities as f rom the voltage the c u rrent ,

u nder given circ u it conditions i f the wave shape is not first ,

represented by a mathematical e x pression I t therefore is of .

importance in engine eri ng to t ranslate the pict u re or the table

o f n u merical val ues o f a periodic f u nction into a mathematical
e x pression thereof .

( B ) I f one o f the engineering quanti ties as the e m f o f ,

. . .

an alternator or the magnetic fl ux in the air gap of an electric -

machine is given as a general periodi c f u nction in the form

,

of a trigonometric series to determine there f rom other engineer ,

ing quantities as the c u rrent the generated

,
etc , .

A E valu at i o n o f th e C o nstan t s o f t h e Tri go no m e tri c S e r i e s f ro m

.

t h e I nstanta ne o u s Va l u e s o f th e P e ri o di c Fu nc ti o n .

7 8 Ass u ming that the n u merical val u es of a univalent

.

periodic f unction y=fo ( 0) are given ; that is f or every val u e ,

o f d the corresponding val u e o f y is kno w n either by graphical

, ,

re pre s e nt at lo n Fig 41 ; or in tab u lated f orm Table I but

,
.
, , ,
 TRIG ON OM E TRI C S E R I E S . 1 09

the equ ation o f the periodic f unction is not kno w n . It can be

represented in the f orm ,

= a +a cos 0 + a2 cos 2 0 + a3 cos 30 + + an cos n0 +

y o 1 .

+ b1 sin 0 + b2 sin 2 0 + b3 sin 30 sin n0 + .

(7)
and the problem no w is to determine the coe fficients
,
d o, or

(1 2 01 , Oz

FI G 4 1
. . Pe riodic Fu n ction s .

T AB L E I .

I nte grate the e q uati on ( 7 ) between the limits 0 and 2 7:

d 0 =o d0 + a 1 0d 0 + cos 2 0d 0 +
g

cos n 0d 0 + . . + b1 sin 0d 0 +

sin 2 0d 0 + . sin n 0d 0 +
1 10 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E M A TI C S .

Allthe integrals containing trigonometric f unctions vanish ,

as the trigonometric f u nction has t he same val ue at the upper

limit 2 7: as at the lo w er limit 0 that is , ,

— co s cos 0 ) = 0 ;
7L
( 2 n7:

( s in 2 77 7: sin 0 ) 0,
fi
and the res ult is

yd fi (1 0

hence

yd 0 is an element of the area o f the c urve y, Fig . 41 , and

yd 0 th u s is the area o f the periodic f u nction y, for one

period ; that is ,

where A = area of the periodic f u nction f or one period ;

that is f rom ,
to
A
2 7: 1s the hori z ontal Wi dth of th 1 s area A and th u s 1s
5: ,

th e area divided by the w idth o f it ; that is it is the average ,

height o f the area A o f the periodic f u nction y; or in other ,

words it is the average val u e o f y Therefore

,
.
,

de = av e ( y) .
.

The first coe fficient ao th u s is the average val u e o f the

, , ,

instant aneo u s val u es o f the periodic f unction y bet w een ,

and 0 = 2 7r .

There f ore averagi ng the val ues of y in Table I gives the

, ,

first constant a o .

7 9 To. determine the coe f

f icient a n m u ltiply e q u ation (7) ,

b v cos n 0 and then integrate f rom 0 to

,
for the p u rpose o f
making the trigonometric f u nctions vanish This gives .
1 12 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E M A TI C S .

the instantaneous val ues of y are m u ltipli ed w ith cos n0

If .

and the prod u ct g = ycos n0 plott ed as a curve ycos n 0d 0 is

u ,

an element o f the area o f t his c u rve sho w n f or n = 3 in Fig 42

,
.
,

and th u s ycos n 0d 0 is the area o f this curve ; that is ,

FI G 42
. . Cu rve of y c o s 30 .

where An is the area of the curve ycos n0, bet w een and
0 = 2m
A
As 2 7: 1s t h e W i dth o f th 1 s area An ) t
) ”
is the average h e l gh t

1
of this area ; that is is the average val ue o f
, y cos 71 0, and :I A
,,
»

th u s is twice the average value o f y cos n0 ; that is ,

z”
ou = 2 avg ( ycos
. n0) o

FI G 4 3
. . Curve of y sin 30 .

The coe fficient a n of cos n0 is derived by m u ltiplying all

the instantane o u s val u es of y by cos n0 and taking t w ice t he ,

average o f the instantaneous val ues o f this prod u ct ycos n 0 .

 TR I G ON OM E TR I C S E R I E S . 1 13

80 . is determined in the analogo us manner by m u ltiply

bn
ing y by sin n 0 and integrating f rom 0 to by the area o f the
c u rve y sin 71 0 shown in Fig 43 f or n = 3
,
.
, ,

y sin n 0d 0 a sin n 0d 0 + a sin n0 cos 0d 0

sin n0 cos 2 0d 0 + an sin n0 cos n 0d 0

sin n0 s in 0d0 bz sin n0 sin 2 0d 0

2
i
s n n 0d 0

sin n 0d 0 + 77 1
"m + sin ( n
513 ( 77
.

[sin (n + 2 ) e + sin (
% n — 2 ) 0]d 0

%sin 2 n0d 0

+b (n —
cos

+b } [oos
v
(n —
cos

cos 2 n0]d 0

= b n7r
5
=d 0 ;

hence ,

y sin n 0d 0

where An ’
is the area o f the c u rve y n
’
ysin n0 . H ence ,
2 7:
bn = 2 avg ( ys1 n n0)
.
o
1 14 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

and the coe ffic i ent o f sin n 0 th u s is derived by multiplying the

instantaneo u s val u es of y w ith sin n 0 and then averaging as ,
,

twice the average of ysi n n0 .

8 1 Any u nivalent periodic f u nction of w hich the n u merical

.
,

val ues y are kno w n can th u s be e x pressed n u merically by the

e q uation ,

= a + a 1 cos 0 + a cos cos n 0 +

y o 2 .

+ b1 sin 0 + b2 sin sin n0 + .

( 1 7)

where the coe fficients d o, (1 1 , o z, bl, bg are calc ulated

as the averages :

a = av
o s

d l =2 avg (ycos 0)
. bl = 2 avg ( ysin 0) .

a2 = 2 avg ( y cos
. 2 0) b2 = 2 avg ( ysin . 2 0)

an =2 avg (ycos
. n0 ) bn = 2 avg ( ysin . n0)

Hereby any individual h armonic can be calc u lated , witho u t

calc ulating the preceding harmonics .

For instance let the generator e m f w ave Fig 44 Table

, . . .
,
.
,

I I col u mn 2 be impressed u pon an underground cable system

, ,

Ge ne rator e m . . f w . av e .

of s u ch constants (capacity and inductance ) that the natura l ,

f req u ency o f the system is 6 7 0 cycles per second w hile the ,

generator f requency is 60 cycles The natural frequency of the .

1 16 E NGINE E R I NG M A TH E M ATI CS .

hence its e ff ective val u e is

.

while the e ffective val u e of the total generator wave that ,

is the sq uare root o f the mean sq uares of the inst a nt a

,

neo us val u es y is ,

e= 30 5 ,
.

thus the 1 l t h harmonic is per cent o f the total voltage ,

and w hether su ch a harmonic is sa f e or not can now be deter ,

mined f rom the circuit constants m ore partic u larl y its resist ,

a nce .

8 2 I n general the successive harmonics decrease ; that is

.
, ,

with increasing n the val u es o f a n and b become smaller and

, n ,

when calculatin g a n and b n by eq u ation f or higher val ues

of 11 they are deri ved as the small averages of a num b er of
large q u antities an d the calc ulation then becomes incon
,

ve nie nt and less correct .

Where the entire series of coe fficients a n and b is to be n

calculated it th u s is preferable not to use the comp lete peri odic

,

function y b ut only the resid u al le ft a fter s u btracti ng the

,

harmonics which have alre ad v been calc u lated ; that is after ,

a o has been calc u late d it 1 s s u btracted f rom y and t h e di ffer

, ,

e nce 1111 = y— a o is u sed for the calc u lation of a l and b l

, ,
.

Then 0 1 cos 0 + b 1 sin 0 is s u btracted f rom y] and the ,

di fference ,

y a
=
y i
—
( a i cos 0 + b 1 sin 0)
—
y (a 0 + a 1 cos 0 + b1 sin

is u sed for the c alculation of G 2 and b 2 .

Then G 2 cos 2 0 + b 2 sin 2 0 is s u btracted from yz and the rest , ,

y g u,
sed f or the calc u lation of and b 3 etc ,
.

I n this manner a higher acc u racy is derived and the cale u ,

lation simplified by having t h e instantaneous val u es of the

f unction o f the same magnitude as the coe fficients a n and
As ill ustration is given in Table I I I the calc u lation o f t he
,

first three harmonics o f t h e pulsating current Fig 4 1 Table I : , .

,
 TR I G ONOM E TR I C S E RI E S . 1 17

83 . In
electrical engineering the most important periodic ,

functions are the alternating c u rrents and voltages D ue to .

the constru ctive feat u res o f alternating current generators -

,

alternating voltages and c u rrents are almost al w ays sym m e t

rica l w aves ; that is the periodic f u nction consists o f alternate
,

half w aves which are the same in shape b ut opposite in dirce

-
, ,

tion or in other w ords the instantaneous val u es f rom 1 80 deg

, , .

to 3 60 deg are the same numerically b ut opposite in sign

.
, ,

f rom the instantaneo us val ues betw een 0 to 1 80 d e g and each ,

cycle or period th u s consists of two eq ual b ut opposite half

cycles as shown in Fig 44 I n the earlier days o f electrical
,
. .

en gineering the frequ ency has f or this reason frequently been

,

e x pressed by the n u mber of hal f w aves or alternations -

.

I n a svm m e trical wave those harmonics which prod uce a ,

di fference in the shape of the positive and the negative hal f

wave cannot e x ist ; that is their coe fficients a and b m u st be
, ,

z ero . Only those harmonics can e xist in which an increase o f

the angle 0 b v 1 80 d e g o r reverses the sign o f the f u nction
, .

This is the case with cos n0 and sin n0 i f n is an odd number , .

If h o w ever n is an even n umber an increase o f 0 by 7: increases

, , ,

the angle n0 by 2 7: or a m u ltiple thereo f th us leaves cos n0 ,

and sin n0 with the same sign The same applies to ( t o There . .

f ore symmetrical alternating w aves comprise o nlv the odd

,

harmonics b ut do not contain even harmonics or a constant

,

term and th u s are represented by

,

= al cos 0 + a3 cos 3 0 + a 5 cos

y
~

+ b1 sin 0 + b3 sin 3 0 + b 5 sin

When calc u lating the coe fficients a and b of a symmetrical ,, 1,

wave b y the e xpression it is s u fficient to average from 0

to 7: that is over one hal f wave only I n the second hal f w ave
,
-
.
-
,

cos n0 and sin n0 have the opposite sign as in the first hal f—w ave ,

i f n is an odd n u mber and since y also has the opposite sign

,

in the second hal f wave yco s n0 and ysin n0 in the second

-
,

hal f wave traverses again the same val u es with the same sign
-
, ,

as in the first hal f w ave and their average th u s is given by

-
,

averaging over one hal f w ave only -

.

There f ore a symmetrical u nivalent periodic f unction as an

,
1 18 E NG I N E E RING MA TH E MATI C S .

T AB L E

y1
= _
y 00 11 , CO "
"0 11 1 5 111 0
Ci =0 1 00 8 0
0
=
Uz ll n
“ ci

— 111

D ivi de d
1 20 E NGI NE E R I NG M A T H E M A TI CS .

alternating voltage and c u rrent u u s ally is can be represent e d

,

by the e x pression ,

= a cos 0 + a3 cos 3 0 + a5 cos 5 0 + a7 cos

y r

+ b1 S lll 0 + bg S in 3 0 + O5 S in 5 0 + b 7 sin 7 0 ‘

l
‘

a1 =2 avg ( y cos 0)
. bl = 2 a .
(ysin
a3 =2 avg ( y cos
. 3 0) b3 =
avg ( y sin 3 0)
2 .

a5 =2 avg ( y cos
. 5 0) b 5 = 2 avg ( y sin 5 0)
.

a7 = 2 avg (y cos
. 7 0) b7 = 2 avg ( y sin
.

84 .From 1 80 deg to 3 60 d e g the even harmonics have

.
.

the same b ut the odd harmonics the opposite si gn as from 0

,

to 1 80 deg Therefore adding the numerical values in the

.

range from 1 80 deg to 3 60 deg to those in the range f rom 0

. .

to 1 80 d e g the odd harmonics cancel and only the eve n har

, ,

m oni cs remain I nversel y by subtracting the even harmo ni cs

.
, ,

cancel and the odd ones remain

,
.

Hereby the odd and the even harmonics can be separated .

I f y= y( 0) are the numerical val u es of a periodic function

’
from 0 to 1 80 d e g and y = y( 0 the numerical values of
,

the same function f rom 1 80 deg to 3 60 d e g .

,

atW ) + 9 09 + 7r) (22 )

is a periodic f u nction containing only the even harmonics and ,

9 1 0? ( 23 )
is a periodic f unction containing only the odd harmonics ; that i s

y1 ( )
0 = a1 cos 0 + a3 cos 30 + as cos 5 0 +
+ 51 sin 0 + b3 sin 3 0 + b5 sin 5 0 +

yw
= ao + cos 2 0 + a4 cos
e) 61 2

+ 62 sin 2 0 + b4 sin
and the complete f u nction is
M) =
y (
i 0> + y )
z ( 0
 TR I G ON OM E TR I C S E R I E S . 12 1

By this method it is convenient to determine w hether even

harmonics are present and if they are present to separate
, ,

them f rom the odd harmonics .

B e f ore separating the even harmonics and the odd har

m oni cs it is us u ally convenient to separate the constant term
,

a o from the periodic f unction y by averaging the instantaneo u s ,

val u es o f y f rom 0 to 3 60 deg The average then gives a o .

,

and subtracted from the instantaneo u s val ues o f y gives ,

—
fi (2 7 )
yof ) y( )
= 9 Go

as the instantaneous valu es o f the alternating component o f the

periodic f unction ; that is the componen t yo contains o nlv the ,

trigonometric f u nctions b ut not the constant te rm yo is ,

.

t hen resolved into the odd series yl and the e ven series yg ,
.

8 5 The alternating w ave yo consists o f the cosine components

.

u ( )
0 = a1 cos 0 + a2 cos 2 0 + a3 cos 3 0 + a4 cos ( 2 8)

and the sine components :

= bl sin 0 + bz sin 2 0 4- O3 S 111 3 0 + 04 sin 40 + (2 9)
that is ,

0 0 ( )
0 11 0 (30 ) =u

The cosine f u nctions retain the same sign f or negative

a ngles as for positive angles ( w hile the sine f u nctions
reverse their sign ; that is ,

( u 0) + u ( 0) (3 1 )
and v( 0) -
v( 0)

There fore i f the val u es o f yo for positive and f or negative

,

angles 0 are averaged the sine f u nctions cancel and only the
, ,

cosine f u nctions remain while by s u btracting the val ues of ,

yo f or positive and f or negative angles only the sine f u nctions ,

remain ; that is ,

— =
yo fi) + 3/o f
f 0 ) 2 u f9) ;

y ( 0) y(o 0) o
—

hence the cosine terms and the sine terms can be separated
,

f rom each other by combining the instantaneo us val u es of yo

for positive angle 0 and f or negative angle th us :
u ( 0) + 90 (

— — 0
yo ( ) f
1 22 E NG I N E E RING M A TH E MA TI C S .

Us u ally be f ore separating the cosine and the sine terms

, ,

a and first the constant term 0 0 is separated as disc u ssed ,

above ; that is the alternating f uncti o n y0 y ao u sed I f

,
= —
.

the general periodic f u nction y is used in e q u ation t he

constant term a o of this periodic f u nction appears in the cosine
term a th us : ,

u ( 0) + y( = a + a1
o cos 0 + a2 cos 2 0 + a s cos
w hile v( 0) remains the same as when using yo .

8 6 B e f ore separating the alternating f u nction yo into the

.

cosine f u nction u and the sine f u nction it us u ally is more

convenient to resolve the alternating f unction yo i nto the odd
series yl and the even series 312 as disc u ssed i n the preceding
, ,

paragraph and then to separate yl and yg each into the cosi ne

,

and the sine terms :

y1 ( ) y1 (
0 — sin 3 0+ b 5 sin 5 0+

+ y2 ( = a
2 cos 2 0 + a4 cos

v3 0)
( —
y2 (
= b2 sin 20 + b4 sin

the odd f u ncti ons u l and 171 a change from the negative
In ,

angle 0) to the s u pplementary angle ( 7: 0) changes the angle

o f the trigonometric f u ncti on by an odd m u ltiple of 7: or 1 80
d e g that is by a m u ltiple o f 2 7: or 3 6 0 d e g plus 1 80 de g
, , , ,

w hich signifies a reversal o f the f u nction th us

“
°

109 i ll/d w yd —
fl
—
fi) l
,

v1 ( 0) — mi
How ever , in the even functions and 172 a change from the uz

negative angle 0) t o the s u pplementary angle (7: chan g es

the angles o f the trigo nometric f unction by an even m ultiple
of that is by a m u ltiple o f 27: or 3 60 d e g ; hence leaves
,

the sign o f the trigonometric f u nction u nchanged th u s : ,

1 24 E NGINE E R I NG IlI ATH E M A TI CS .

analogously 11 4 is the cosine term o f,

t he even f uncti on a f ter
,

subtracting the term cos 2 0

u4 = u2— ag cos 2 0,

and in the same manner ,

u5 = u3 — a 3 C OS 3 0,
ue = u4
—
a 4 cos 4 0,

and so forth v1 v2 vs 17 4 etc are the corresponding sine

‘

, , , ,
.
,

terms .

When calc u lating the coe fficients a and b by averagin g over n n

90 d e g or ove r 1 80 deg or 3 60 d e g it m u st be kept in mind

, .
,

that the terminal val u es o f y respectively o f u or that is ,

the val ues for and deg ( or deg or 3 60 . .

deg respecti vely ) are to be taken as one —half only since t hey
.
,

"
are the ends o f the meas u red area o f the c u rves a cos n0 and n

"
b sin n 0 w h ich area gives as t w ice its average height the val u es
,
.

a n and b as disc u ssed in the preceding

,
.

I n resolvin g an empirical periodic f u ncti on into a t rigono

metric series j ust as i n most engineering calc u lations the
, ,

most impo rtant part is to arrange the work so as to derive the

res u lts e x peditio u sly and rapidly and at the same time ,

acc u ratel y By proceedi ng f or instance imm e d iat e lv by the

.
, ,

general metho d eq u ations ( 1 7 ) and ,

the w ork become s so
e x tensive as to be a serio u s was te of time w hile b v the system ,

atic resol utio n into simpler f u nctions the work can be gre at lv
red u ced .

88 I n resolving a general periodic function y( 0) into a

.

trigonometric series the most convenient arrangement is :

,

1 To separate the constant term a o by averaging all the

.
,

instantaneo u s val ues o f y( 0) from 0 to 3 60 deg ( co u nting t h e .

end val u es at and at deg one hal f as discussed .

,

above )
a
o
avg .

and then subtracting a f rom y( ,

0 ) gives the alternating f u nc

“
o
tion ,

ye w) W?) 0 °
 T RI GON OM E TRI C S E R I E S . 1 25

2 .resolve the general alternating f unction

To yo )
f0 int o
the odd f unction y1 ( 0) and the even f unction y2 ( ,

(2 3 )
9M ) (22 )
3 . resolve To y1 ( 0) gnd y2 ( 0) ) into the cosine terms u and
the sine terms 17 ,

9) l
'

y1 (
—

u2 ( 0) + yz (

vz lfi) i f9 2 W) —
yz ( 9) l
4 . To
calc u late the constants al, (lg, a3 . b l , Oz, b 3 .

by the averages ,

an 2 avg (u n cos n 0)
.

n
=2 avg . sin n 0) o

Ifthe periodic f u nction is known to c ontain no even har

monies that is is a symmetrical alternating wave steps 1 and
, , ,

2 are omi tted .

M arc h

FI G 4 5 . . Me a n D ail y Te m pe rat u re at S che ne ctad y .

89 . As ill ustration o f the resol ution of a general periodic

"
wave mav be sho w n the resol ution of the observed mean daily
temperat u res o f Schenectady thro u gho u t the year as shown ,

in fi g 45 up to the 7 th harmonic
.
,
.

1
Th e rical value s of t e m pe rature c annot clai m any gre at ab sol u t e
nu m e

a cc ur ac y as th y a e ave rage d ove r a r lative l y m ll nu m b e r of ye ars o nl y

,
e r e s a ,

and ob rve d b y in tr m e nts of onl y m ode rate accuracy For t he p u r p ose

se s u .

of illu trati ng t he re solution of th e e m p irical curve i nto a tri go no m e tri c

s

se ri e s thi s i s no t e sse nti al ho we ve r

, , .
1 26 E NGI NE E RING M ATH E M A TI CS .

T A B LE I V

Sep t . 2 40

D ivid e d b y 3 6
128 E NGIN E E RING M ATH E M A TI C S .

a m m w
m S m m m
m o o o m
d d
. .

c c d
l l + + r
r

« w m m
8
8

n 8 m a
8
h
2 8 8 8 o ~
.
m
d d
.

8 8 8 o 8 8 o
1 1 1 + 1 + + + l

m m .

la w fi ‘ h m
m

Uf ls 0C
TRI GONO ME TRI C S E RI E S . 1 29
 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M A TI C S .

T A B LE V I II .

C O SI NE SE R I E S u, .

(3) (4) (5 ) (6) (7 ) (8 ) a s c os 60

na c o s 20 a2 co s 20 m cos 40 (1 4 co s 40 14 6

o + 9 15 + 9 31
19 — 9 10 —9 10
29 — 9 03

30
40 + 9 30 + 9 05 + 9 30 — 9 29
— 9 21
50 + 9 22 + 9 22

60 + 9 92 + 9 02
79 + 9 05 — 9 04 + 9 05 + 9 91
80 — 9 10 — 9 08
+ 9 09
90

— 9 002

T AB L E I X .

S I NE S E RI E S

(3 ) (4) (6 ) (7)
172 s i n 20 b e s in 2 0 0 4 sm 40 bl s in 40

10 + 9 20 + 9 07
20

+ O 30 .

-
9 37

— o s4 .

-
9 95

T otal
D ivid d
e by 9
D ivid e d by 2
1 32 E NGINE E RING M A TH E M A TI CS .

Since to an angle any m u ltiple o f 27 : or 3 60 deg may .

3 60
be added any m u ltiple of
,
n
may be added to the angle
2 7

and thus the angle

F
i
fi may be made positive etc ,

91 . The eq u ation o f the temperat u re wave th u s becomes

= cos ( 0 cos
y 8 75 .

cos cos
cos cos
cos

or transformed to sine f u nctions by the substitution

, ,

cos w = — sin
=8 7 5 + 1 3 69 sin ( 0 + 0 6 02 sin
y .

+ 0 35 9 sin sin
sin sin
sin

The cosine form is more c onve m e nt for some purposes ,

the sine form for other purposes .

Substit u tin g fi= 0 or these tw o

,

e q uations ( 0 ) and (b) can be trans fo rme d into the form ,

y c os 0— 0 6 2 cos 2 ( 0 ,
cos 3 ( 0
cos cos
cos c os
and

y sin a+ 9 002 sin 2 01 + + 9 359 sin

+ 9 41 0 sin + 9 91 sin
+ 9 1 84 sin + 0 0 85 sin (d )
The periodic variation of the temperat u re y as e x pressed ,

by these eq uations is a res u lt of the periodic variation of the

,

thermomotive force ; that is t he solar radiation This latte r

, .
 TRI GONOM E TRI C S E R I E S . 1 33

is a minim u m on De c 22 d that is 9 ti m e degrees be f ore the

.
, ,
-

z ero o f 0 hence may be e x pressed appro x imately by

’

c = c —h cos
or s u bstit u ting 0 respectively 0 for 0:

z = c — h cos

—
e + h sin

This means : t he ma x im um of y occ u rs deg after t he .

nza x im u m of z ; in other words the temperat u re lags de g , ,

or abou t +3 peri od behind t he thermomotive f orce

1
, .

Near all the sine f u nctions in (d) are increasing ; that

is the temperat u re wave rises steeply in spring
,
.

Near d e g the sine f u nctions of the odd angles are

,

decreasing o f the even angles increasing and the decrease of

, ,

the temperature wave in f all thus is smaller than the increase

in spring .

The fu ndamental wave gr eatly preponderates with ampli ,

tude c l = 1 3 69 . .

I n spring f or 5 = ,
de g all the higher harmonics ,

rise in the same direction and give the su m ,

or
per cent o f the f undamental I n fall f or 0 = the
.
,

even harmonics decrease the odd harmonics increas e the ,

ste epn e ss and give the sum

,
or per cent .

There f ore in spring the temperat u re rises

, ,
per cent
faster and in aut u mn it falls
,
per cent slo w er than c orre
s po nds to a sine wave and the di ff erence in the rate o f tempera
,

ture rise in spring and temperat u re fall in a ut u mn th us is

,

per cent .

The ma x im u m rate of temperat u re rise is 90

deg behind the temperat u re minim u m and
.
,

deg behind the minim u m o f the thermomotive force

. .

As most periodic f u nctions met by t h e electrical engineer

are symmetrical alte rn ating f u nctio ns that is contain only , ,

the odd harmonics in ge neral the w ork o f resol ution into a

,

trigonometric series is very m u ch less t han in above e x ample .

Where su ch red u ction h as to be carried o ut freq u ently it is ,

advisable t o memori ze the trigonometric f u nctions f rom 1 0 ,

to 1 0 d e g u p to 3 decimals : that is w ithin the acc u racy o f

, ,

the slide rule as t h e re b v the necessity o f looking u p tables i s

,
1 34 E NGIN E E R I NG M A TH E M ATI C S .

eliminated and the work therefore done m u ch more e x pe

d it io u sly I n general the slide r u le can be used for the calc u la
.
,

tions .

As an e x ample of the simpler red u ction of a symmetrical

alternating wave the reader may resolve into its harmonics
, ,

u p to the 7 t h the e x citing c u rrent o f the trans f ormer of which

, ,

t he numerical val ues are given from 1 0 to 1 0 deg in Table X ,

. .

C . RE D UCTI ON OF TRI GONOME TRI C SE RIE S BY POLY

PHASE RELATI ON .

92 . In
some cases the reduction of a general periodic func
tion as a comple x wave into harmonics can be carried o ut
, ,

in a m u ch q u icker manner by the use of the polyphase equation ,

C hapter I I I Part A E specially is this true if the com

,

ple t e e q u at ion of the trigonometric series which represents the ,

periodic f u nction is not req u ired but the e x istence and the
, ,

amo u nt o f certain harmonics are to be determined as for ,

instance whether the periodic f u nctio n co ntain even harmonics

or third harmonics and how large they may be ,
.

This method does not give the coe fficients a n b o f the . n

individ u al harmon ics b ut derives from the numerical val u es ,

of the general wave the n u merical val ues of any desired

harmonic This h armonic ho w ever is given toget h er with all
.
, ,

its m u ltiples ; that is when separating the third harmonic , ,

in it appears als o the 6th 9t h 1 2t h etc , , ,

.

I n separating the even harmonics yg f rom the general

wave y in paragraph 84 by taking the average of the values
, ,

o f y f or angle 0 and the val u es of y for angles ( 0

,
this
method has already been u sed .

Ass u me that to an angle 0 there is successively added a

constant quantity a thus : 0 ; 0 + a ; 0 + 2 a ; 0 + 3a ; 0 + 4a
, ,

etc u ntil the same angle 0 pl us a multiple of 2 7 is reached ;

.
,
:

that is ,
a or in other w ords
, ,
71

l /n of a multiple of Then the su m of the cosine as

as the sine f unctions o f all these angles is z ero :
cos 0 + cos ( 0 + 2 a ) + cos ( 0 + 3 a )
+
ce s ( 0 + [n
1 36 E NGINEE RING M A TH E M ATI C S .

gives the t hird harmonic together with its m u ltiples the 6t h

, , ,

9 t h etc
,
.

This method does not give the mathematical e x pression

o f the harmonics b ut their n u merical val u es Thus if the
, .
,

mathematical e x pressio ns are req u ired each of the component ,

harmonics has to be red u ced from its n u merical values to

the mathe m ati cal e qu ation and the method then u s u ally off ers
,

no advanta g e .

I t is especially s u itable ho w ever w here certain classes of

, ,

harmoni cs are desired as the third together w ith its multiples

,
.

I n this case from the n u merical val u es t h e e ffective val u e ,

that is the e qu ivalent sine wave may be calc u lated

,
.

9 3 As ill u stration may be investigated the separation o f

.

the third harmonics f rom the e x citing c u rrent of a transforme r .

TA B L E X

In table X A are given in columns 1 3 5 t h e angles 0

, , , , , ,

from 1 0 deg to 1 0 d e g and in col u mns 2 4 6 the correspond

.
, , , ,

ing val u es o f the e x citi ng c u rrent i as derived by calc u lation

,

from the hysteresis cycle o f the iron or by meas u ring f rom the .
 TR I GON OAI E TR I C S E R I E S . 1 37

photographi c film of the oscillograph Col u mn 7 then gives .

one third the su m o f col u mns 2 4 and 6 that is the third har
-
, , , ,

monic with its overtones ,

To find the 9t h harmonic and its overtones i g the same ,

method is now applied to i 3 for angle 3 0 This is recorded

,
.

in Table X B .

I n Fig 46 are plotted the total e x citing current i its third

.
,

harmonic i 3 and the 9th harmonic i g

,
.

This method has the advantage of showing the limitation

of the e x a ctness of the res u lts resulting f rom the limited num

ber of n u merical valu e s of i on which the calc u lation is based

, .

Th us in the e x ample Table X in w hich the valu es o f i are

, , ,

given for every 1 0 d e g val ues o f the third harmonic are derived
,

for every 30 d e g and f or the 9 th harmonic for every 90 de g ;

,

that is for the latter only t w o points per hal f wave are deter
, ,

minable from the n u merical data and as the two points pe r hal f,

wave are j u st s u fficient to locate a sine wave it f ollows that ,

within the accuracy o f the given n u merical val u es o f i the ,

9t h harmonic is a sine wave or in other w ords to determine

, ,

wheth er sti ll higher harmonics than the 9 th e x ist requ ires f or ,

i more n u merical val u es than f or every 1 0 deg .

As f urther practice the reader may separate from the gen

,
1 38 E N GINE E RING M ATH E MATI C S .

eral wave o f c u rrent ,

io in Table XI, the even harmoni cs i z,
by above method ,

i a= i 0 ( 0) + i o ( 0 + 1 80 deg ) .

and als o the su m o f the odd harmonics as the resid u e , ,

ii Co
”

then from the odd har moni c s il may be separa ted the third
harmonic and its m u ltiples ,

and i n the same manner from i 3 may be separ ated its third
harmoni c ; that is i g ,
.

Fu rthermore in the su m o f even harmoni c s f rom i z may

, ,

again b e separated its sec ond harmoni c i 4 and its m u ltiples , , ,

and there f rom i s and its third harmo nic i s and its multiples
, , , , ,

th u s gi ving all the harmonics u p to the 9 th with the e x ception ,

o f the 5th and the 7 t h These latter two would req u ire plotting
.

the curve and taking numerical val u es at di ff erent intervals ,

so as to have a n u mber of n u merical val u es divisible by 5 or 7 .

I t is f u rther recommended to resolve this u ns ymmetrical

e x citing c u rrent o f Table X I i nto the trigonometric series by
calc u lating the coe ffi cients a and b u p to the 7 th in the man
n n, ,

ner discussed i n paragraphs 6 to 8 .

T AB LE X I
1 40 E NG I NE E R I NG M A T HE M ATI C S .

value and the ma x im u m val ue of the f u ndamental voltage

,

wave thus is : volts or 3 6 kv ; that is ,

.
,

and
e = 3 6 sin 9 — 9 1 2 sin — sin ( sea
§ ( se 9 23
+ 9 13 sin ( 7 7) (2 )
would be the voltage s u pplied to the transmission line at the
high potential term i nals of the step —u p trans f ormers .

From the wire tables the resist ance per mile of No 0 B

,
S -
. . .

copper line wire is ro ohm .

The inductance per mile o f wire is given by the f orm u la

ls
LO log 0 0805m h ,
7;
.

where l is the distance bet w een the wires and l the radius o f
, , ,

the wire .

I n the present case this gives 1 5 ft 60 in

,
l = 0 1 62 5 in 8 . .
,
.

m h and herefrom it follows that the reactance at

.
, , ,

f 60 cycles is
= 2 7: L 0 ohms per mile
$0 f .

The c a pa c it v per mile o f w ire is given by the f orm ula

hence in the present case C0

, ,
ru f .
,
and the c o nd e ns ive

reactance is derived h erefrom as :

1 6 6 000 ohms ;

60 miles o f line then give the c o nd e ns i ve reactance ,

2 7 70 ohms ;

30 miles or hal f the line ( f rom the generating station to the

,

middle o f the line w here the line capacity is represented by a

,

sh u nted condenser ) give : the resistance r = 30 r0 = ohms ; ,

 TRI GONOM E TRI C S E RIE S . 1 41

the inductive reactance x = 30 xo = 22 5 ohms and the e quiva

,
.
,

lent circ uit o f the line now consists o f the resistance r ind u cti ve ,

reactance x and c o nd e nsive reactan ce w in series wi t h each e,

other in the circ u it o f the s u pply voltage 6 .

05 I f.i = c u rrent in the line ( charging c u rrent ) the voltage

cons umed by the line resistance r is r i .

The voltage consumed by the ind uctive reactance a: is a

:

the voltage co ns u med by the con d e ns i ve reactance at , is r e i d 0,

and therefore ,

di
e =x— + ri + rc i d0 .

d0

Di fferentiating this eq uation f or ,

t he p u rpose o f eliminating
the integral gives ,

de
( 10
“S
d i
EE
2

H
di
—
dé
fl fl »

i di
+2 7 7 9
F
.

The voltage 6 is given by w hich eq uation by resolving ,

the trigonometric f unct i ons g 1ve s ,

e = 36 sin 0 sin 30 sin 50 sin .

70
cos 30 cos 50 cos 70 ; (9)

hence di fferentiating
, ,

36 cos 0 cos 30 cos 50 cos 70

sin 30 sin sin 70 .

( 1 0)

Ass u ming now for the c u rrent i a t 1 igo no m e t ric series with
indeterminate coe fficie nt-s ,

i = al cos 0 + a3 cos 3 0 + a 5 cos 5 0 + a 7 cos 7 0

b l sin 0 + b 3 sin 3 0 + b 5 sin 5 0 + b 7 sin 7 0,
1 42 E NGINE E RIN G M ATH E M ATI CS .

substit u tion o f ( 1 0 ) and ( 1 1 ) into e q uation ( 8) must give an

identity f rom which e q u ations for the determination o f a and
, n

b n are derived ; that is since the prod u ct o f s u bstit u tio n m u st

,

be an identity all the factors of cos 0 sin 0 cos 3 0 s in 3 0

, , , , ,

etc must vanish and this g1ve s the eight e q u ations :

.
, ,

—
36 2 7 70 a 1 + 1 5 6b l
. 22 5 a 1 ;
.

0 2 7 70b 1 22 5 b i ;
.

46 8 b 3
. 2 02 5 a 3 ;
.

0 5 4 = 2 7 7 0b 3
.

= 2 7 7 Oa + 78b 5 5 62 5 a 5
5 .

= 2 7 7 0b 7 8a 5 5 6 2 5 b5 ;
5 .

= 2 770 0 + 1 09 2 b — 1 1 0 2 5 a
7 7 .
7; .

= 2 7 70b 7 — 1 1 02 5 07 .

Resolved , these equations give

I
I

I
I

i = 13 12 . 00s 0 - 5 03 . cos 3 0
sin 0 sin 30 sin 50 sin 70

cos ( 0 cos ( 3 0
cos ( 5 0 cos ( 7 0
1 44 E NGIN E E RIN G M ATH E M ATI C S .

kv .amp to 1 62 0 kv amp or
-
. times and while with a sine
.
-
.
,

wave o f voltage one of the 7 5 0 kw generators w ould easily be

,
-
.

able to supply the charging current o f the line due to the ,

z =1 5 0 -j ( 22 5n
. .

wave shape distortion more than two generators are required

,
.

I t would there f ore not be e conomical t o u se these generators

, ,

on the transmission line if they can be used for any other

,

purposes as short—distance distrib u tion

,
.

InFigs 47 and 48 are plotted the voltage wave and t h

.
e

c u rrent w ave f rom e qu ations ( 9 ) and ( 14) respectively and

, ,
 TRIG ON OM E TRI C S E R I E S . 1 45

the n u merical val ues from 1 0 deg to 1 0 d e g recorded in

,
.
,

Table X I I .

I n Figs 47 and 48 the fundamental sine wave of voltage

.

and c u rrent are also shown As seen the distortion of c u rrent .

,

is enormo us and the higher harmonics predominate over the

,

f undamental Su ch waves are occasionally observed as charg

.

ing currents o f transmission lines or cable systems .

9 7 Assuming now that a reactive coil is inse rted in series

.

with the tra nsmission line betw een the step —u p trans f ormers ,

and the line what w i ll be the voltage at the terminals o f this

,

reactive coil with the distorted wave of charging current

,

traversing the reactive coil and how does it compare with the ,

voltage e x isting with a sine wave of charging c u rrent ?

L et L = ind uct ance th u s sc = 2 7rfL = re act ance o f the coil
, ,

and neglecting its resistance the voltage at the terminals of ,

the reactive coil is given by

Substituting herein the e qu at ion o f c u rrent ,

gives
'=
e x al{ sin 0 + 30 3 sin 3 0 + 50 5 sin 5 0 + 70 ; sm 7 0

—b cos 0 — 3b3 cos 3 0 — 5 b 5 cos 5 0 — 7 b 7 cos

1

hence s u bstit u ting the n u merical val u es

,

=x 70 l
’
e { sin 0 sin 30 sin 5 0 + 1 35 1 sin
cos 0 cos 3 0 cos 5 0 cos 7 0 }
sin ( 0— 9 3) 0
sin ( se
sin ( 5 0 + 1 39 1 sin ( 7 0
This voltage gives the e ffective val u e

while the e ffective val u e with a sine wave w o u ld b e f ro m

hence the voltage across the reactance x has been increased

,

times by the wave distortion .

1 46 E NG I N E E R I NG MA TH E AI A TI C S .

'
The i ns tant aneous val ues of the voltage e are given in t h e
last column of Table X I I and plotted in Fig 49 for
,
.
,

As seen f rom Fig 49 the fu ndamental wave has practically

.
,

vanished and the voltage wave is the seventh harmonic modi

, ,

fie d by the fifth harmonic .

TA B L E X I I

0 -
0 -1 0 17 2 7 -4 1 — 200
10 — 1 00
+ 2 23 40 3 1 -7 7 + 29 1 9
20 3 + 1 19

30 + 131 + 1 82
40 1 7 -3 5 + 3 9 39 — 1 10 — 3 8 -7 9 93
50 30 90

+ 1 07 — 1 38
+ 1 59 31
3 2 -87 54 54

4 -1 5 — 2 00 1 80 17
1 48 E NGIN E E RING M A THE M ATI CS .

a: and y that is t h e f unction

, ,
is un known or if the ,

f unction is so comp licated as to make the mathematical ,

calculation o f the e xtrema impracticable As e x amples of .

this method the following may be chosen :

FI G 5 1
. . Ma gne ti z ation Cu rve .

E x am pl e I . D etermine
that magnetic de nsity B at which ,

the permeability 71 of a sample of iron is a ma x imum The .

re lation between ma gnetic field inte nsity H magnetic dens ity ,

B and permeability 77 cannot be e x pressed in a mathematical

e quation and is therefore us u ally given in the form of an
,

FI G 52
. . r
Pe m e ability C rve u .

empiri cal c u rve relating B and H as sho w n in Fig 5 1 From

, , . .

this c u rve corresponding valu es o f B and H are taken and their

, ,

ratio that is the perm eability 71

, ,
g , plotted against B as abscissa .

This is done in Fig . 52 . Fig . 52 then shows that a ma x imum

 M AX I M A AND M I NIM A . 1 49

occurs at point pm for B = “

kilo li ne s p = 1 3 40 and m i n 1ma
,

at the starting point P 2 f or B = 0 p = 370 and als o for B = oo

-
, ,

, , ,

where by e x trapo lation n= 1 .

E xam pl e 2 Find that out put o f an ind u ction motor

.

which gives the highest po wer f actor While theoretically -

.

an e q uation can be f o u nd relating o utp ut and po w er f actor -

of an ind uction motor the e quation is too complicated f or u se

,
.

The most convenient way of calc ulating ind u ction motors is

to calculate in tab u lar f orm f or di fferent values of S lip 8 the ,

torque o u tput current pow er and volt ampere input e fficiency

, , ,
-
, ,

power f actor etc as is e x plained in

-
, .
,
Theoretical E lements
of Electrical E ngineering third edition p 3 63 From this ,
”
,
. .

FI G 53
. . P weo r factor Max i m um of I nd uction Motor
- .

table corre s ponding val ues o f p ow er o u tput P and power

factor cos 0 are taken and plotted in a c u rve Fig 5 3 and the ,
.
,

ma x im u m derived from this curve is P = 4 1 2 0 cos 04 , - .

For the p u rpose of determining the ma x im u m obviously ,

not the entire curve needs to be calc u lated but only a short ,

range near the maxim u m This is located b y trial Th us . .

in the present instance P and cos 0 are calc u lated for s = 0 1

,
.

and s As the latter gives lo w er po w er f actor the ma x im u m -

,

po w er f actor is be low 8
-
Then 8 is calculated and gives
a higher val ue o f cos 0 than s = 0 1 ; that is the ma x im u m is .
,
.

below s = o l Then s = 0 02 is calc u lat ed and gives a lo wer

. . .
,

val u e of cos 0 than s = 0 05 The ma x im u m val u e of cos 0 . .

th us lies between s = o o2 and s = 0 1 and only the part of the

. .
,

c u rve between s = o 02 and s = 0 1 needs to be calc u late d for

. .

the determination of th e ma x imu m of cos 0 as is done in Fig 53 , . .

99
. When de t ermining an e x tremum o f a f u nction =
y f (x ) .

by plotting it as a c u rve the valu e o f x at w hich t he e x treme

, ,
15 0 E NG I NE E RING M A TH E M ATI C S .

occurs is more or less inaccurate since at the e x treme the

, ,

c u rve is hori z ontal For instance in Fig 5 3 the ma x im u m

.
,
.
,

of the c u rve is so flat that the val u e o f po w er P for which ,

cos 0 became a ma x imum may be anyw here between P = 4OOG ,

and P = 4300 within the acc u racy o f the c u rve

,
.

I n such a ca s e a higher acc u racy can frequ ently be reached

,

by not attempting to locate the e x act e x treme b ut two points ,

o f t h e same ordinate on each side of the e x t reme Thus in , .

Fig 5 3 the p o w er P 0 at w hich the ma x im u m power factor

.
,

c os 0 = 0 904 is reached is somewhat u ncertain The val u e o f

.
, .

power factor somew hat below the ma x im u m cos

-
, ,

is reached be f ore the ma x im u m at P 1 = 3 400 and a fter the , ,

ma x imum at P 2 4840 The ma x imum then may be calculated

,
.

as half way between P 1 and P 2 that is at

-
, ,

4 1 2 0 watts .

This method gives us u ally more acc u rate results b ut is ,

based on the ass u mption that the curve is symmetri cal on

both sides of the e x treme that is falls o ff from the e xt reme , ,

val u e at the same rate for lo w er as for higher val u es of the

abscissas Where this is not the case this method of inter
.
,

p o la t i o n does not give the e x act ma x im u m .

E xam pl e 3 The e fficiency of a steam t u rbine no zz le

.
,

that is the ratio of the kinetic energy o f the steam j et to the

,

energy of the steam available betw een the two press u res between
which the no z z le operates 1 8 g1ve n m Fig 5 4 as determined b y ,
.
,

e x periment As abscissas are u sed the no z zle mouth opening

.
,

that is the widest part of the no z zle at the e x haust en d as

, ,

fracti on of that corresponding to the e x ha ust press ure while ,

the no z zle throat that is the narrowest part o f the no zz le is

, , ,

ass u med as constant As ordinates a re plott e d the e fficiencies

’

. .

This c u rve is not svmm e t rical b ut f alls o ff f rom the ma x im u m , ,

on t h e sides of large r no z z le mo u th far more rapidly than on ,

the side of smaller no z z le mo u th The reason is that with .

too large a no z zle m o u th the e x pansion in the no zz le is carried

below the e x ha u st pre ssiI re pg and steam eddies are prod u ced ,

b v this overe x pansion .

The ma x im u m e fficiency of per ce nt is fo und at the point

P 0 at w hich the no z z le mo u th corresponds to the e x haust
,

press u re If however the ma x im u m is determined as mid

.
, ,

wav between two points P I and P 2 on each side o f the ma x im u m , ,

1 52 E NG I N E E R I NG M ATH E MATI CS .

Thus in apparat u s design when determining e xtrema of ,

a f u nction to select them as operating condition ,

co ns ideration m ust be given to the shape of the curve and ,

where t he c u rve is unsymmetrical the most e ffi cient operating ,

point may not lie at the e x treme but on that sid e o f it at which ,

the curve falls o ff slo w er the more so the greater the range of
,

variation is which may occ u r d u ring operation T his is not

, .

always reali zed .

100 I f the f u nction

. is plotted as a c u rve Fig ,
.

50 at the e x tremes o f the f u nction the points P I P 2 P3 P 4

, , , , ,

of c u rve Fig 50 the tangent on the c u rve is hori z ontal since

.
, ,

FI G 5 5. . S t ame Tu rbine No le E ffici ncy; De te rm i nation of Max im

zz e um .

at the e x treme t h e fu nction changes f rom rising t o decreas ing

( ma x im u m P 1 and P 2)
,
or f rom decreasing to increasin g ( min
,

im u m P3 and P 4) and there fore for a moment passes thro u gh

, ,

the hori z ontal direction .

I n general the tangent of a c u rve as that i n Fig 5 0 is the

, , .
,
”
line which connects t wo points P and P of the c u rve which ’
,

are infinitely close together and as seen in Fig 5 0 the angle , , .

,

0 which this tangent P P makes with the hori z ontal or X —

” ’
,
a xis ,

t hus is given b v

tan 0
 M AX I M A AN D M I NI M A . 1 53

At the e xtreme , the tangent on the c u rve is hori z ontal ,

that is A 0 = O and there f ore it f ollo w s that at an e xtreme

, , , ,

o f the f u nction ,

y
dy
_ 0
dx

The reverse ho w ever is not , ,

ne ce ss arlly the case ; that is ,

d
if at a p0 1nt x , y: th 1s po i nt may not be an e x treme ;
that is a ma x im u m or minim u m but m a y be a hori z ontal
, ,

in fl ection point as points P5 and P 6 are i n Fig 5 0

,
. .

With increasing as when passing a ma x im u m ( P I and P 2 , ,

Fig .
y rises then stops rising and then decreases again
, , .

When passing a minim u m ( P3 and P 4) y decreases then stops ,

decreasing and then increases again When pas sing a hori z ontal
,
.

in fl ection point y rises then stops rising and the n starts rising
, , ,

again at P5 or y decreases then stops decreasing but t hen

, , , ,

sta rt s decreasing again (at P 6 ) .

The points o f the f unctio n y= f (x ) determined by the con

d
dition ,
d Z =0
,
thu s re qu lre further 1 nve st 1 gat 1 o n, whether t he v

represent a ma x im u m or a minim u m or merely a h e li zo nt a l , ,

in fl ection point .

This can be done mathematically : f or increasing at when ,

passing a ma x im u m tan 0 changes f rom positive to negative ;

,

that is decreases , ,
or in other words (tan Since

13
=
Z
Z ,
it th u s f ollo w s that at a ma x im u m
33
1 0 . I nversely ,

at a minimum tan 0 changes f rom ne g t ive to positive hence

ig ,

increases that is , ,
—
dr
(tan 0) 0; or
ii
—
x
2
0 . When passing
a hori zontal in fl ection point tan 0 first decreases to zero at
the inflection point and then increases again ; or inversely
, ,

tan 0 first increases and then decreases again that is tan 0

, , ,

has a ma x im u m or a minim u m at the in fl ection point and ,

=0 at the inflection point .

1 54 E NG I N EE RING M A TH E AI A TI CS .

In engineering problems the investigation ,

whether the
solution of the condition of e x tremes ,
represents a
mini mum or a ma x imum or an in fl ection point is rare lv
, , ,

requ ired b ut 1t is almost always obvio u s f rom t h e nature o f

,

the problem whether a ma x im u m of a min im u m occ u rs or ,

neither .

For instance i f the problem is to determin e the S peed at

,

which the e ffi cien cy of a motor is a max imum the sol ution : ,

speed = 0 obviously is not a m a mm um b ut a mi mim urn as at

, ,

z ero speed the e fficiency is z ero If t he probl em is to find .

,

the current at w hi ch the o u tput o f an alternator is a ma x im u m ,

the solution i = 0 obvio u sl y is a mini mum and of the other ,

two solutio ns i 1 and i 2 the larger value i g again gives a

, , , ,

mini mu m z ero o u tp u t at S hort —circuit current while the inter

, ,

mediate value i 1 gives the ma x i m u m .

10 1 The e x tremes of a f u nction t h ere f ore are determined

.
, ,

by equ a ti ng its di fferential qu otient to z ero as is illu strated ,

by the following e x amples

E xam pl e 4 I n an imp u lse t u rbine the speed of the j et
.
,

( steam j et or water jet ) is S 1 At what peripheral speed S 3 is.

the outp u t a ma x im u m .

The impu l e force is proport ional to the relative speed o f

s
“
the j et and t he rotating imp u lse w heel ; that is t o ( 8 1 ,
7

The power is impulse force times spe ed S 2 ; hence ,

P —S
kS g (S 1 g ) ,

P
and 1s an e x treme f or the val u e o f S2, g i ven by
22 = 0; hence ,

_
S r
—
8 1 2S 2 = 0 and Sz ,
2

that is when the peripheral speed of the imp u lse wheel e quals
,

half the jet ve lo cit v .

E x am pl e 5 I n a tr ans f ormer of constant impressed

.

e m f e o = 2 300 volts ; the constant loss t hat is loss w hich

. . .
, ,

is indepe ndent o f the o utp u t (iron loss ) is Pi = 5 00 watts The ,

.

i nternal re u st ance ( primary and secondary combined ) is r = 2 0

1 56 E NGIN E E RING M ATHE M ATICS .

is shunted by a resistor of resistance r What m ust be the .

resistance of this shunting re 81 stor r to make the pow er con ,

s u med in r a ma x im u m ? ( Fig
,
.

Le t i be the current in the sh u n ting resisto r r The po w er .

consumed in r the n is ,

P ri
2
( 9)
The current in the resistor is i —i and there f or e the ro
0 ,

voltage cons umed by ro is r0 (i o — i ) and the voltage cons u med ,

by r is ri and as these two volt ages m u st be e q ual since both

,
-
,

FI G 5 6 . . S hunte d Re s i stor .

resistors are in shunt with each other thus receive the same ,

voltage ,

ri = ro i 0 - i
( ),
and here f rom it f ollows that
, , ,

Su bstituting this in eq u ation ( 9) gives ,

dB
and thi s power is an e trem e f or x — 2
0; hence
fir

( 2 ( 7 “i“To)
0

2 2 '
r 77 0 1 0

( T

‘
7 To ;

that is the power consumed in r is a ma x im u m i f the resistor

, ,

r of the sh u nt eq u als the resistance ro .

 IlI AX I M A AN D M I NI MA . 1 57

The c u rrent in r then is by e qu ation ,

and the power is ,

1 03. I f, after the function (the e quation ( 1 1 ) in

e xample has be en derived the di fferentiation ,
is
immediately carried out the calc u lation is very f re qu ently
,

much more complicated than necessar y I t is there f ore .

, ,

advi sable not to di fferentiate immediately b u t first to simpli f y ,

the function y=f (x) .

I f y is an e x treme any e x pression di ff ering t h e re fo rm by

,

a constant term or a constant factor etc also is an e x treme

, ,
.
, .

So also is the reciprocal of y or its squ are or sq u are root etc

, , ,
.

Thu s before di fferentiation constant terms and constant

, ,

factors can be d ropped fractions invert ed the e x pression

, ,

raised to any power or any root thereof taken etc ,

.

For instance in the preceding e x ample in equation

, ,

22
rr 0 i o

(r re )
the val u e o f r is to be found ,
w hich makes P a m ax im u m .

If P is an e x treme ,

(7
‘

which di ffers I re m P by the omission of the constant factor

2
r0 i 0
,
2
also is an e x treme .

The reverse o f y, ,

is also an e x treme (yg is a minim u m where yl is a ma x imum

.
,

and inversely ) .

Therefore the equation ( 1 1 ) can be simpli fied to the form

.

r + r0 ) 2
r
2

r
1 58 E NG I NE E RING M ATH E M ATI C S .

and leaving
,
o ut the constant term 2 r o, gives the final form ,

=r+
y3

This di fferentiated gives ,

T = T0 .

1 0 4. E x am ple 7
From a source of constant alternating
.

e m f 0 power is trans mitted over a line of resistance r o and

. . .
,

reactance 350 into a non inductive load -

What m u st be the .

resistance r o f this le ad to give ma x im u m power ?

I f i = cu rre nt transmitted over the line the power deli vered ,

at the load of resistance r is

P ri
g
.

The total resistance o f the circuit is r + ro ; the reactance

is 2 0 ; hence the current is
e
2
2
(r $0

and by s u bstituting in eq u ation

,
the power is
2
re
2 ”
( r + r o) + 500

e x treme , omitting 6
2
and i nverti ng ,

(r ro ) z
+ x0 2

T+ 2 To

is also an e x treme and li kewise , ,

32
1
r

is an e x treme .
1 60 E NGIN E E RING IlI A TH E M A TI C S .

dropping the constant term ro gives

= r
y5 ;

that is the curre nt i is an e x treme when y5 = r is an e x treme

, ,
~

and this is the case for r = 0 and r = oo r = 0 gives ,

as the ma x im u m val u e o f the c u rrent and ,

r = oo gives

as the mi nimum val ue o f t h e c u rrent .

With some practice from the original e quation

,
imme
diat e ly or in very fe w steps the simpli fied final eq u ation can
, ,

be derived .

105
. I n the calculation of ma x ima and minima of engineer
ing qu antities x y by di fferentiation o f the f u nction
, ,

it m u st be kept in mind that this method gives the values of

x for w hich the qu antity yof the mathematical eq u ation y f ( 33)
,

becomes an e xt reme but w hether this e xtreme has a physical

,

mea ning in engi neering or not re quires fu rther investigation ;

t h at is the range of numerical values o f a: and y i s unlimited
,

in the mathematical e q u ation but may be li mited in its engineer

,

ing application For i nst ance i f a: is a resistance and the

.
-
, ,

di ff erentiation o f y=f (23) leads to negative val u es of it these ,

have no engineering meaning ; or i f the di fferentiation leads,

to val u es o f x whi ch s u bstit uted in y=f ( x ) gives ima ginary or

, , , ,

negative val u es of y the res u lt also mav have no engineering

,

application I n still other cas es the mathematical res u lt

.
,

may give values w hich are s o far b e vo nd the range of i nd u s

,

t rially practicable nu mer i cal val ues a s to be inapplicable .

For ins tance :

E x am pl e 9 I n e x ample
. to determine the resist ance
r,
which gives ma x im u m current transmitted ove r a trans
mission line the equation
,
 M AX I M A AND M INIM A . 161

immediately di ff erentiated gives as condition of the e x tremes

,

dl:
dr

hence either
,
r ro = O;

+ r0 ) + =
(
2 2
r xo co

the latter equ ation gives r = oo hence t = 0 the m i n i mum val u e

,

o f c u rrent .

The f ormer e q u ation gives

To, (2 4)
as t ne val ue o f the resistance w hich gives ma x im u m c u rrent
, ,

and the c u rrent wo u ld then be by s u bstit uting ( 2 4) into ,

The sol u tion however has no engineering meaning , ,

as the resistance r cannot be negative .

Hence m at he m e t ically there e x ists no ma x imum val u e

, ,

o f 75 in the range o f r w hich can occ u r in engineering that is , ,

within t he range O< r < 00 ,

.

I n s u ch a case where the e x treme falls outside of the range

,

o f numerical values to which the engi neering quantity is

,

limited it follows that within the engineering range the q u an

,

tity contin u o u sly increases toward one limit and contin u ously
decreases toward the othe r limit and that there fore the two ,

limits of the engi neering ra nge of the q u antit y give e x tremes .

Th u s r = 0 gives the ma x im u m r = oo the minim u m of c u rrent

, .

1 06 E x a m pl e 1 0
. An alternati ng c u rrent generator
. of -
,

generated e m f e = 2 500 volts internal resistance ro = 0 2 5

. . .
, .

ohms and synchrono u s reactance xo = l 0 ohms is loaded by

, ,

a circ uit comprising a resistor of constant resistance r = 2 0

ohms and a reactor o f reactance x in series with the resistor
,

r. Wh at val ue o f reactance x gives ma x im u m outp ut ?

If f = ourre nt of the alternator its power output is ,

'

P n 2
2 01 ; 9
1 62 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

the total resistance is r + ro = 2 0 2 5 ohms ; t h e total reactance .

is a: + sco = 1 0 + 1 ohms and t here f ore the c urrent is

,

and the power outp u t by s u bstituti ng ( 2 7 ) in ,

2
re 20
'

( 1 0 + x)
2
( r + r0 )
2
( a: + x o) 2

Simpli fied , this gives

( r + r0 ) ( a: + wo)
2 z
y1 ;

=
y2 ( x i -
23 0 2
5

+ 330 ) = 0 ;

o t '

that is a negative or c onde nsive reactance of

, ,

power output would then be by substituting ,

2 2
re 20 2 5 00
watts = 305
(r + r 0 ) 2

I f,
however a c ond e nsive reactance is e x cluded that is
, , ,

it is assumed that 3: > 0 no mathematical e xt reme e x ists in the

,

ra nge of the variable x w h ich is permissible and the e x treme

, ,

is at t h e end of the range m= 0 and gi ves , ,

2
T6 0
2 45 kw .

7
10 . E x am ple
a 500 kw alternator at volt a ge
1 1 . In -
.
,

e = 2 500 the friction and windage loss is

,
Pw = 6 kw the iron .
,

loss P¢ = 2 4 kw the field e x citation loss is Pf = 6 kw and the

.
,
.
,

armat u re resistance r = 0 1 ohm At what lo ad is the e ffi cie ncy

. .

a ma x im u m ?
1 64 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

is a f u nction of two independent variables u and s u ch a

pair o f val u es of u and of v is to be found which makes y a ,

ma x imum or minim u m
,
.

Choosi ng a ny val u e no o f the independent variable u , ,

then a val u e o f 1) can be f o u nd which gives the ma x im u m ( or ,

minim u m ) valu e of y which can be reached f or u = u o T h is

,
.

is done b v di ff erentiating y= f over thus

df ( u o, v)
dv

From this e quation a val u e ,

v =fl ( u 0 ) )

is derived which gives the ma x im u m val u e o f y for the given

, ,

val u e of no and by s u bst ituting ( 3 9 ) into

,

y = f2

is obtained as t h e equ ati on which relates the di fferen t e x tremes

,

o f y that correspo nd to the di fferent valu es o f no with u o

, , .

Here f rom then that val u e o f u o is fo u nd which gives the

, ,

ma x im u m of the ma x ima b v di fferentiation : ,

df9 ( u 0 )
d UO

G eometrically mav be represented by a surf ace

,

in space w ith the coordinates y u v y f

, t h en represents , ,
.
,

the c u rve of intersection o f this s u rface with the plane u 0 =

constant and the diffe re nt at ion gives the ma x im u m point
,

o f this intersection curve y f 2 ( uo) then gi ves the curve

= .

in space which connects all the ma x ima of the various inter

,

sections with the u o planes and the second di fferentiation ,

gives the ma x imum o f this ma x im u m c u rve or the

m a x imum o f the m a x i ma ( or more c o rre ct lv the e x treme of ,

the e x tremes ) .

I nversely it is possible first to di fferentiate over u , thus

, ,
and thereby get
( 43 )
as the val u e o f u w hich makes y a ma x imum for the given
,

val ue o f v= vo and s u bstit uting ( 43 ) int o

,
-

y (44)
is obtained as the e quation o f the ma x ima ,
w hich di fferentiated
over v0 thus , ,

gives the ma x imum of the ma x ima .

G eometrically this represents the consideratio n of the

,

intersection curves o f the su rfac e with t he planes v= const ant .

H o w ever equ ation s (38 ) and (41 ) ( respectively (42 ) and

,

give an e x tremu m only if both equations repr e sent ,

max ima or both m ini ma I f one o f the equ ations rep resents
,
.

a max imum the other a mi ni m u m the point is not an e x t re

, ,

m u m b u t a saddle p oint so called f rom the shape of the su r

, ,

f ac e y= f (u v) near this point

,
.

The working of th is will b e plai n f rom the following e x ample

1 09 E x am ple 1 2
. The alternating voltage e = 30 000 is
.
,

impressed upon a transmission line of resistance r o = 20 ohms

and reactance x 0 = 50 ohms .

What sho u ld be the resistance r and the reactance x o f the

receivi ng circ u it to deliver ma x imum power ?
"
Le t i = cu rre nt delivered i nto the receiving circuit The .

total resistance is ( r + r o) ; the total reactance is (2: hence ,

the curren t is

+ ro z ) (1:
The po w e o u tp u t is r P r 2
i ;

henc e s u bstitu ting

,
gives
re z

“
.

( T l (x + x 0 )
” 2

(a) Fo r any given val u e o f r, the reac tanc e x, w hich

P
max i mum p o w e r ,
is d eri ved by
fi x
 E NGIN E E RIN G M ATHE M ATI CS

P simp lifi ed , gives y1 henc e ,

dy1
+ x0 ) = 0 and a:
d z:

that is for any chosen resistance r the power is a max imum

, , ,

i f the reactance of the receiving circuit is chosen e qual to that

o f the line b ut of opposite si gn that is as co nde nsive reactance
, , ,
.

Substituting ( 49 ) into (48 ) gives the ma x imum po wer

available for a chosen value o f r a s : ,

or , simp li fied ,

and gg
= r+

and r To,

and by substituting ( 5 1 ) into the ma x im u m power is ,

2
0

( b ) Fo r any given value of x, the resistance r which ,

dP
ma x i mum power IS gi ven by
,
E '

P simp lified gives ,

( r + 0
33 2
.

31
r r

r /
x ro2
(x x0 ) 2
, ( 53 )
which is the value o f r that for au v given val u e o f 13 gives
, ,

ma x imum power and this ma x im u m power by s u bstit u ting

,

( 53 ) into (48) is ,
i

l2 2
V ro
z
(I I o €

[ x/ ro2 ( x + x o)
2
ro ( a:
2
6
1 68 E N GINE E RING M A TH E M A TI CS .

and the voltage at the receivi ng end o f the li ne would be

that is the voltage at the receiving end wo u ld be far hi gh er

,

than at the ge nerator end the current e x ce ssive and the e fficiency
, ,

of trans mission only 5 0 per cent This e x treme case th u s is .

hardly practicable and the concl u sion wo u ld be that by the

,

us e of negative reactance in t h e receiving circ ui t an amo u nt ,

of po w e r co u ld be delivered at a sacrifice of e fficiency far , ,

greater than economical trans mission wo u ld permit .

I n the case where capacity was e x cl u ded from the re ce iv

,

ing circuit the ma x imum power w as given by equ ation ( 5 6 ) as

,

6 1 0 0 kw .

I I I . o f engineering q u antities
E xt remes x, y, are u sually
determined by di ff erentiating the f u nction ,

y
and from the e quation ,

deriving the values o f x whi ch make y an e x treme ,

.

Occasionall y ho w ever the e quation ( 5 8) cannot be solved

, ,

f or as b ut is either o f higher order i n x or a transcendental

, ,

e qu ation I n this cas e e quation ( 58) may be solved by appro x

.
,

imation or pre fe ra b lv the function

, , ,

is plotted as a c u rve the val u es of 36 taken at which z = 0

, , ,

that is at w hich the c u rve inte rsects the X —axis For inst ance :
,
.

E x am pl e 1 3 The e m f w ave o f a three phase alternator

. . . .
-
,

as determined by oscillograph is represented by the e quation , ,

e= 3 6000 lsin 0 sin (23 —

) sin ( 5 0
0 —
0 2 3 23
sin ( 7 0
 M AX I M A AND M I N I M A . 1 69

T his alternator connected to a long distance transmission line

,
-
,

gives the charging c u rrent to the line o f .

i = cos ( a c os (3 0 cos ( 5 0
— 99
cos ( ) (3 1 )
0
+ 1 9 59 7 0

(see Chapter I I I paragraph ,

What are the e x treme values of this current and at what ,

phas e angles (9 do they occ u r ?

The phase a ngle 0 at which the current 3 reaches an e x treme
,

value is given b y the e quation

,

FI G 5 7. .

Su bstituting ( 6 1 ) into ( 62) gi ves ,

d
— 1 sm ( ta sm si n
z ‘

da
+ 1 51 2 (3 0 + 93 3

(50 sin ( 7 0 = 0 .

This e quation cannot be solved f or 0 Therefore z is .

plotted as f u nction of 0 by the curve Fig 5 7 and from this , .

,

c u rve t h e valu es o f 0 taken at which the c u rve intersects the

z ero line T h ey are :
.

°
47
1 70 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

For these angles 0 the corresponding values of

,
13 are calculated
by equation and are :
i

to = + 9 ; —1 9
+3 ; — 30 ; + 30 ; — 42 ; +4 amperes
; .

The current t hus has d u ring each period 1 4 e x trema o f ,

which the highest is 42 amperes .

1 12 I n those cases where the mathematical e x pression

.
,

of the f u nction y=f (x) is not known and the e xtreme val ues ,

therefore have to be determined graphically frequently a greater ,

accuracy can be reached by plotting as a curve the di ff erential

of y=f (x) and picking out the zero val ues instead of plotting
= x) and picking out the highest and the lowest points
y f( ,
.

I f the mathematical e x pression o f y= f ( x) is not known o b vi ,

o u sly the e qu ation of the di fferential curve z =—

Z
Z ( 64) is usually
not known either Appro x imately however it can fro
.
, ,

quently be plotted f rom the numerical val ues of y=f ( x ) as ,

follows
If x 1 , x2 , x 3 are s u ccessive numerical values of x,

and y1 , y2 , y3 the corresponding n u merical values of y ,

dy
a p p ro x i mat e po m t s o f the d i ff erent i al curve are gi ven
by the corresponding valu es :

as abscissas

— — —
yz yl 92 y4 t/3
as ordinates : . ,

232 — 331 233 — 1132 1134 — 1133

1 1 3. E x am ple
the problem 1 4, In
the ma x imum permea
b ilit y point of a sample of i ron of whi ch the B H curve is given , ,

as Fi g 5 1 was dete rmined by taking from Fi g 5 1 corresponding

.
,
.

val ues of and H and plotting n

B ,B in Fig 5 2 = 2 again s t
,
H
. .

A considerable inaccuracy e x ists in this method in locating ,

the value of B at w hich p is a ma x imum due to the flatness

, ,

of the cu rve Fig 5 2 , . .

 1 72 E NGI NE ERING M ATHE M A TI CS .

E x am ple A storage
battery o f n = 80 ce lls is to be
15.

connected so as to give ma x im u m power in a constant resist

= 0 1 E ach battery cell has the e m f co = 2 l
ance r ohm . .
. . . .

volts and the internal resistance ro = 0 02 ohm How must . .

the cells be connected ?

Assu ming the cells are connected with r in parallel hence .
,

in se ri es . The internal resistance of the battery then is

71
ohms and the total resistance o f the circ uit i s
,

FI G 58
. . irst D i ffe re ntial Q u otie nt of
F B ,p Cu rve
n n
The e m f acting on the circ u it is 6 0’ since cells of e m f
5
. . . . . .

6 0 are in se ri es . There f ore the c u rrent d elivered by the battery

,

is ,

and t he po wer which this c u rrent prod u ces in the resistance

r, is )

P = ri 2
 M AXI M A AND M I NI M A .
1 73

T hi s i s an e x treme if ,

is an e x t reme hence ,

that is x = 4 cells are conn ected in multiple and

, ,

cells in series .

51 1 . E x am pl e
an alternating current transformer the
1 6, In -

loss of po w er is li mited to 9 00 watts by the permissible temper

at u re rise The internal resistance of the trans f orme r w inding
.

( primary pl us secondary red u ced to the primary ) is 2 ohms

, ,

and the core loss at 2 000 volts impressed is 400 watts and , ,

varies with the ] 6t h power of the magnetic density and there

.

fore of the voltage At what impressed voltage is the outp ut

.

of the trans f ormer a ma x im u m ?

I f e is the impressed e m f and i is the c u rrent input the . . .
,

po w er inp ut into the trans f ormer ( appro x imately at non ,

ind u ctive load ) is P = e i .

I f the o utput is a ma x im u m at constant loss the input P , ,

also is a ma x im u m The loss of power in the windi ng is

.

ri = 2
2 i 2
.

The loss of power in the iron at 2 000 volts impressed is

400 watts and at impressed voltage e it therefore is
,

and the total loss in the transformer there f ore is , ,

PL = 2 1 2 + 4
0
1 74 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

he re from , It f ollows that ,

'

and substit u ting into

, ,
P = e1 :

P= e 4 5 0 — 2 00

Simplified , this gives ,

and di ff erentiating
, ,

dy
de

Hence .

and e = 2 300 volts ,

which . s ubstit u ted gives ,

52 kw .

1 1 6. 7 E xam pl e 1 . I n a 5—kw
alternating current transformer .
-
,
2
6 i
at 1 000 volts impressed the core loss is 0 watts the r lo ss
, ,

1 5 0 watts How must the impressed voltage be changed

.
,

to give ma x imum e fficiency ( a) At full load o f 5—kw ; ( b ) at ,

half load ?
The core loss may be ass u med as varying with the l 6t h .

power of the impressed voltage I f e is the impressed voltage .

,

2 5 00
i =— is the current at f ull load and ,
fl is the current at
e 6

half load then at ,

1 000 volts impressed the f u ll load c u rrent is
,
-

M =5 amperes and since the

,
i 2
r loss is 1 50 watts this , gives
8
1 76 E NGIN E E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

( b ) Anadditional resistor of resistance r = 2 l O ohms is ’

then inserted in series making the total resistance o f the con

,

denser charging circuit r = 2 50 ohms What is the ma x im u m

,
.

val u e o f the charging c u rrent ?

The e q u ation o f the charging current of a condense r through
a circuit of low resistance is ( Transient E lectric Phenomena
,
“ ,

”
and Oscillations p ,
.

where
-
=
q C

and the e quation of the charging c u rrent of a condenser th rough ,

a circ u it o f high resistance is Transient E lectric Phenomena

,
”
and Oscillations p ,
.

where

S u bstit u ting the n umerical val ues gi ves

( )
a i= sin 980 t ;
= 6 6 67 s
( b) i {
5 OO‘
‘

Simplified and diff ere ntiated this gives ,

'

dz
d ; cos 980 t — s 1n 980t 0;

hence tan 980 t

°
980 i 68 5

+ n7c
'

90 8

2 00 0 z_ 500 :
4
~

€ 5
 M A X I M A AND M I NI M A . 177

s
+ l 500 t =4
,

—
l og 4
1 5 00 t
lo g e

t = 0 00092 . sec .
,

s u bstituting these val u es o f t into equations o f the

gives the ma x imum val ues

( a) i = 10 e
1 20 +
. n 7r
64
- " ampe res ;
that is an infinite number of ma x ima of grad u ally decreasing
, ,

values : etc .

46 1 -34
b
( )
-
) amperes
‘

e .

11 8 . E xam pl e 1 9 I n an i nd u ction generator , the fric

.

tion losses are P, = 1 00 kw ; the iron loss is 200 kw at the ter

. .

minal voltage of e = 4 kv , and may be assumed as proportional

.

to the 1 6th power o f the voltage ; the loss in the resistance

.

o f the cond u ctors is 1 00 kw at i amperes o u tp u t and mav .

,

be ass u med as proportional to the sq u are o f the current and ,

the losses resulting f rom stray fields due to magnetic saturation

are 1 00 kw at e = 4 kv and may i n the range considered be
. .
,

ass u med as appro xi mately proportional to the 3 2 th power .

o f the voltage Under what conditions of operation regard

.
,

ing output voltage and c u rrent is the e fficiency a ma ximum ?

,

The losses mav be s ummari zed as f ollows :

Friction loss ,
Pf :
1 00 kw :

I ron loss ,
P

loss ,
PC 1 00

Sat u ration loss ,

P3 1 00

hence the total loss is PL Pf P, PC P8

1 78 E NGINE E RIN G M A TH E M ATI CS .

The output is =
P e i ; h e nce ,
'
percentage o f los s is

The e fficiency is a ma x imum if the percentage loss I is a ,

minimum For any valu e of the voltage 6 this is the case

.
,

all
—
at the current i, given bv 0: hence simplifying and di ffer
di
,

e nt iat ing I,

i = 300

then substituting i in the e x pression of

,
11, gives

and 11 is an e xt reme i f the simplified e xpression

, ,

1 2 1
= + + 33
y 2 4 1 6 9 4
°

c 1
6

is an e x treme at ,

dy 2 .
2
3 1 -6 1 ;
de e 4 e

2+
m 6

and e= 5 5 0 kv
. .
,

and by substituti on the follo w ing val u es are obtained : 11

,

e fficiency per cent ; current i = 8000 amperes ; o u tput

P = 44, 000 kw .

1 1 all probability this o u tp u t is beyond the capacity

9 . In ,

o f the generator as limited by heating The foremost limita

,
.

tio n pro bably will be the 15 7 heating of the cond u ctors ; that is
2 :

,
1 80 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E M A TI CS .

is a f u nction having t h e cons tants a b , ,

c and the f orm of
the f u nction ( 1 ) is kno w n f or instance , ,

= a + b r + 0 132
y , (2 )
and the constants a b c are not kno w n b ut t he n u m erical , ,

valu es o f a n u mber o f corresponding val ues o f x and yare given ,

"
for instance by e xperiment ,
x3 x 4 and y1 y2 y3 y4 , ,
. .
, , ,
.

then f rom these corresponding n u merical valu es and y

the constants a b c can be calc ulated i f the numerical
, , ,

val ues that is the observed points o f the c u rve are s u fficiently
, , ,

n u mero u s .

I f less points x l y1 x 2 y2 are obs erved then the e qu a

, ,
.
,

tion ( 1 ) h as constants o b vio uslv these co nstants cannot be ,

calc u late d as not s u fficient data are available therefor

,
.

I f the n u mber o f observed poi nts e qu als the n u mber o f con

s t a nt s they are j u st s u fficient to calc u late the constants
,
For .

instance in eq u ation ,
i f three corresponding valu es x 1 y; ; ,

1 2 yo ; x 3 y; are observed by s u bstit u ting these i nto e quation

, , ,

three eq u ations are obtai ned :

= a + b x 1 + er 1 2
yl ;

y2
= a+ b x 2 + CI 2
2
;

y3 as b i: 0 x3
2
,

which are j u st s u fficient f or the calc u lation o f the three const ant s
a, b, 0 .

Thre e observations wo u ld there f ore be s u ffi cient f or deter

mining three c onstants i f the observations w ere absol utely ,

correct This ho w ever is not the case b ut the observations

.
, , ,

always contain e rrors of ob serva ti o n that is u navoidable inac , ,

c u racies and constants calc u lated by u sing onl y as many

,

o bservations as there are con s tants a re not very acc u rate , .

Th u s in e x perimental work al w ays more observations

, ,

are made than j ust n ecessary for the determination o f the

c onst ants f or the p u rpose of getting a higher acc u racy Th u s

, .
,

for instance i n astro nomy for the calc u lation of the orbit of
, ,

a comet less than f o u r observations are t h eoretically s u fficient

, ,

b u t i f possible h undreds are taken to get a greater accuracy ,

in the determination of the constants of the orbit .

 M AXI M A AND M I NI M A . 181

If,then for the determination o f the constants a b c of

, , ,

equ ation s i x pai rs o f correspondi ng val u es o f x and y were

determined any three of these pai rs wo u ld be s u fficient to

,

give a b c as seen above but u sing di fferent sets o f three

, , , ,

obs ervations wo u ld not give the same val ues o f a b c ( as it

, , ,

sho u ld i f the observations were absol utely acc u rate ) b ut

, ,

di fferent values and none o f these val u es w ould ha ve as high

,

an accuracy as can be reached f rom the e x peri mental data ,

si nce none of the values uses al l observations .

12 1 . If (1)
is a f unction containing the constants a b c w hich are still , ,

u n kno w n and x 1 y1 ;
,
x2 y2 ; etc are c orresponding
, ,
.
,

e x perimental va l u es then i f these valu es w ere absol utely cor

, ,

rect and the correct val u es of the constants a b c

,
chosen , , ,

=
y1 f ( x 1 ) wou ld be true ; that is ,

f ( 171 )

f( )r2
.
y
o
= 0, etc .

Du eto the errors of observatio n this is not the case b ut , ,

even i f a b c are the c orrect val ues

, , ,

y ¢ 1 f( x1) etc .
;

that is a small di ff erence or error e x ists th u s

, , , ,

instead of the correct val ues of the constants a b c

If , , ,

other val ues w ere chosen di fferent errors 5 1 5 2 would , ,

obvio u s l y res u lt .

From probability c a lc u lation it f ollows that i f the correct , ,

val ues of the constants a b c are chosen the s um o f the , , ,

squ ares of the errors ,

is less than f or anv other value o f the constants a, b, c

is it is a minim u m
,
.
1 82 E NGINE E R I NG M A TH E M ATI CS .

The problem of determinin g the constants a b c

1 22 .
, ,
.

th us consists in finding a set o f constants which makes the ,

sum of the s qu ares of the errors 5 a mi ni mu m ; that is ,

3 25 2
minim u m , ( 9)
is the requ irement which gives the most acc u rate or most
,
'

probable set o f val ues o f the constants a b c , ,

.

Since by 3 =f ( x ) — y it f ollo w s f rom ( 9 ) as the condi

,

tion which gives the most probable val u e o f the constants

,

a, b, c

z 2 y}
?
minim u m ; ( 1 0)
least su m o f the squ ares o f the errors gives the most
t hat is , t h e
probable val u e of the constants a b c , ,
. .

To find the val u es o f a b c w hich f u lfill e qu ation

, ,

the di ff erential q u otients o f ( 1 0 ) are e qu ated to zero and give ,

2
l
jjf
d’
2 (fi x) yi

df
2
Z iao —
y;
5
( 0
0; etc .

This gives as many e q u ations as there are constants a b c , ,

and there f ore j u st s u ffices for their calc u lation and the val u es ,

so calculated are the most probable that is the most accurate , ,

values .

Where e xt remely high acc u racy is re quired as for ins tance ,

in astronomy when calculating f rom observations e xt endin g

over a fe w months only the orbit of a comet which possibly
,

lasts tho u sands o f years the method of least sq u ares m u st be

,

used and is freq u ently necessary also in engineering to get

, ,

f rom a limited n u mber of observations the highest accuracy

of the c onstants .

123 As instance the method of least squ ares may be applied

.
,

in separating from the observations of an ind u ction motor ,

w hen runni ng light the component losses as friction hysteresis

, , , ,

etc .
1 84 E N GIN E E RIN G M ATH E M A TI C S .

as indicated by the abrupt rise of curre nt and of power b ey ond

47 3 volts This obviously is d ue to beginning ma gneti c s atura
.

tion of the iron stru ct u re Since with be ginni ng saturation

.

a change o f t h e magnetic distrib u tion m u st be e x pected that ,

is an increase o f the ma gnetic stray field and thereby increase

,

of e dd v current losses it is probable that at this point the con

,

FI G 5 9
. . Ex citatio n Po we r of I nd ction Motor
u .

st ant sin e quatio n ( 1 3 ) change and no set of constants can be

,

e x pected to represent the entire range of observa tion For .

the calcula tion of the constants in th u s only the observa

tions below the range of magnetic saturation can safe lv be used ,

that is up to 47 3 volts
,
.

From e quation ( 1 3 ) follows as the error o f an indivi dual

observation of e and po z
—
po ;
 III AX I M A AN D MI MI MA . 1 85

hence
= 1 6 2 — 2 =
z 25 2 =
E fa + b e °

+c e
p oi mi ni m um, ( 1 5)

+ be — =
p ol
l '6 2
E {a . + ce 0:

=
E fa + b e l 6
+ 2—
j 1 '6
0;
°

ce po e

Z {a + b e l '6
+ ce 2

and i f n is the n u mber o f observations used ( n = 6 i n this

,

instance from e = 1 48 to e = 47 3 ) this gives the f ollowing

, ,

e quations :
na +b2e 1 '6
Z
+c e 2
2 po = 0 ;

Ze l '6
+b2e 3 3
+ c Ee 3 '6
Ee 1 '6 = 0;
°

a po

a2e +b2e
2 3 '6
2
+0 e 4
2 e2 p0 = 0 .

Su bstituting in ( 1 7 ) the n u merical val u es f rom Table I gives ,

a + 11 7 b . c

a + 14 6 b . c 1 0 = 1 s30 ;
3

a + 15 1 b . c l o = 1 880 ;
3
j
a= 5 40 ;

= 2
po 5 40 6 .

The values of po calculated from e quation

, are given
i n the si x th col u m n of Table I and their di fferences from the
,

observed val u es in the last c ol u mn As seen the errors are in .

,

bo th directions f rom the calc u l ated val u es e x cept for the thr ee ,

highest voltages in w hich the observed val u es rapidly increase

,

beyond the calc u lated d ue probably to the appearance o f a

,
1 86 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E M ATI CS .

loss w hi ch does not exist at voltages the eddy c u rrentslo w er —

cau sed by the mag netic stray field o f sat u ration .

This rapid diverg ency o f the observ ed f rom the calc u lated
val u es at hi g h voltages sho ws that a calc u lation o f the constants ,

based on all observations w o u ld have led to wrong val u es , ,

and de m onstrates the necessity first to critically revie w the , ,

series o f observations be f ore u sing them f or deriv ing constants

, ,

so as to e x cl u de constant errors or u nidirectional deviation I t .

m u st be reali z ed that the method o f least sq u ares g ives the most

probable val u e that is the m ost accu rate resu lts derivable
, ,

f ro m a series o f observations only so f ar as the accidental ,

errors o f observations are co ncerned that is su ch errors which , ,

f ollo w the g eneral law o f pro b ability The method o f least .

s q u ares
,
ho w ever cannot eli m inate constant errors that is
, , ,

deviation o f the observations w hich have the tendency to be

in one direction as cau sed f or instance by an instru ment reading
, , ,

too high or too lo w or the appearance o f a ne w phenomenon

, ,

in a part o f the observation as an additional loss in above ,

instance etc Against su ch constant errors only a critical

,
.

revie w and stu dy o f the m ethod and the means o f observa

tion can g u ard that is j u dgment and not mathematical
, , ,

f ormalism .

The method o f least square s gives the highest accu racy

available w ith a g iven n u mber o f observations b u t is freq u ently ,

very laborio u s especially i f a n u mber o f constants are to be cal

,

c u la t e d
. I t there f ore is mainly employed w here the n u mber o f
, ,

observations is li m ited and cannot be increased at w ill ; b ut w here

it can be increased by taking some more observations as is —

g enerally the case w ith e x perimental engineering investigations

—the same acc u racy is u s u ally reached in a shorter time by

taking a fe w more observations and u sing a simpler method

o f calc u lation o f the constants as the EA method described in ,
-

parag ra phs 1 53 to 15 7 .

D i oph anti c E qu ati o ns .

I 23 A
.
—
The method o f least sq u ares deals with the case ,

w hen there are more eq u ations than u nkno w n q u antities In .

this case there exists no set o f val u es o f the u nkno w n q u antities

, ,

w hich e x actly satisfies the eq u ation s and the problem is to find , ,

1 86b E NGIN E E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

hence
— — 2s
15 +

since y m u st be an integ er n u m ber ,

m u st also be an

i nte g er n u mber . C all this a, it is

l — u

since a: m u st be an integ er n u m b er m u st also be an integ er

n u m ber that is :
,

u 3 1)

h e nce , su bstit u ted into ( 4) and ( 2 )

x = l — 4v
y = 13 + 1 1v
z = 2 — v

( 7 ) th u s are the sol u tions o f the eq u ations ( 1 ) where v is any

integer n u mber .

As seen mathe m atically there are an infinite n u mber o f

, ,

sol u tions .

S u bstit u tin g no w f or v inte g er n u m bers

v = + 2 + 1 0 1 2
a: 7 — 3 + 1 + 5 + 9
y = + 35 + 24 + 13 + 2 — 9

z 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4

As seen there are only t wo sol u tions f or v O and v

,
l , ,

w hi ch g ive f or x y and z t h ree inte g er positive val u es and w hich

, , , ,

th u s satis f y the physical restri ction .

v 0 ; a: 1 y 13 z 2 is e x cl u ded by engin e ering con

, ,

sideration as nobody w o u ld consider thirteen exciters w ith one

,

g enerator and th u s there remains only one a p p licable sol u tion :

,
 M AX I M A AND M I NI M A . 1 86c

W e thus have here the case o f two equ ations w ith three u n
kno wn q u antities which have only one sin gle set o f these u n
,

kno w n qu antities satis f yin g the p roblem and th u s g ive a definite

,

sol u tion tho u g h mathe m atically indefinite

,
.

This ty p e o f equation has first b e e n st u died by D io ph ant e s

o f Ale x andria
.
1 88 E NGINE E RING M A TH E M ATI CS .

po wers of such quant ities may be dropped and the e x pression

thereby s implified ; or if the q u ant ities are not qu ite as small
,

as to permit the neglect of the ir squares or where a h igh ,

acc u racy is requ ired the fir st and second po w ers may be retained
,

and on ly the cube s and higher powers dropped .

The most common method of proced u re is to resolve the ,

e x pression into an infinite series of successive pow ers o f the

small quantity and then retain of this se ries only the first
,

term or only the first t w o or three terms etc depending on the

, , .
,

smallness of the qu ant ity and the req u ired acc u racy .

125 The fo rms most freq u ently used in the red u ct ion of
.

e x pressions containing small quant ities are m u ltiplication and

d ivision the b inomial series the e x po nent ial and the logarithm ic
, ,

series the sine and the cosine series e t c

, ,
.

D enoting a small q u ant ity by s and w here several occur , ,

by 3 1 3 2 3 3
,
the follow ing e x pression hold s
,

= 1 zt
$ 82 ) S i : i: 8 2 $ 81 82 ,

and since 3 1 3 2 is small compared w ith the small quantities

,

3 1 and 3 2 or as usually e x pressed

, ,
3 1 3 2 is a small q u antity of ,

higher order ( in th is case o f second order ) it may be neglect e d , ,

and the e x pression w ritten :

(1 i sl ) ( + 2) 1 + 8 1
1 3 =

This is one of the most u sef u l simplifications : the mult iplica

tion of terms containing small qu ant ities is replaced by the
s imple addit ion of the small qu ant ities .

I f the small qu antities 3 1 and 3 2 are not added ( or s u btracted )

to 1 but to other finite that is not small quant it ies a and b
, , , ,

a and b can be taken o u t as f actors th u s , ,

Ii = ab I i

81 82
where and m u st be small q u ant i t i es
71 5
.

As seen in th is case 3 1 and so need not necessar ily be a b s o

, ,

lu te ly small q u ant ities but may be qu ite large provided that

, ,

a and b are still larger in magnit u de ; that is 8 1 m u st be small ,

compared with a and 3 2 small compared w ith b For ins tance

, .
,
 M E TH ODS OF APPROXI M ATI ON . 1 89

in astronomical calc u lations t h e mass o f the ea rth ( w hich

absol utely can certainly not be considered a small quanti ty )
is neglec ted as small q uantity compared wi th the mass o f the
sun Also in the e ff ect o f a lightning stroke on a primary
. .

distrib ution c irc u it the normal line voltage o f 2 2 00 may b e

,

neglected as small compared w ith the voltage impressed b v

lightning e t c , .

1 26 E xam ple
. I n a direct c u rrent shunt motor the im
.
-
,

pressed voltage is e 0 = 1 2 5 volts ; the armature resi st a nce is

r o = 0 0 2 ohm ; the field resistance is r 1 = 5 0 ohms ; the power
.

consumed by frict ion is pf = 300 watts and the pow er consumed ,

by iron loss is p i = 400 watts Wh at is the power o utput of .

the motor at to 50 1 00 and 1 50 amperes inp u t ?

,

The power prod u ced at the a rmature cond u ctors is the

product of the voltage 6 generated in the armat u re cond u ctors ,

and the current 17 through th e armat u re and the power output ,

at the motor p u lle yis ,

P ei —
pf 17.

The current in t h e motor field is and the armature current

there fore i s,

where is a small q u ant ity compared w ith to

7l , .

The voltage co n su med by the arma ture resistance is rot,

and t he voltage ge nerated in the motor armat u re thus

e = 60

where r ot
is a small qu antit y compared w ith e o .

Su bst it u ting herein for i the val u e ( 4) gives ,

c = e o — ro To

S ince the second term o f (6 ) is small compared w ith 60,

e9
—
C 0 O

and in th i s sec ond term the second term ,

-
is small com
r1

pare d w ith to, it can be neglected as a small term o f h igh e

1 90 E NGINEE RING M A TH E M A TI CS .

order ; that is as small compared w ith a small term and

, ,

e x pression ( 6 ) simp lified to

e eo r ota .

Substituting ( 4) and ( 7 ) into ( 3) gives ,

10 (6 0 r oi o ) Pi Pi

1 pj pi .

(8) conta ins a prod u ct of two terms w ith small

E xp ression
quant ities wh ich can be multiplied by e quat ion
,
and t he re b v
g i ves ,

e 0 50 1
’

P Pi Pi

To o
2
t pj pi

Subst itut ing the n u merical val u es gives ,

p 1 2510 300 400

1 2 60 appro x imately ;

thus for f0 = 5 0 1 00 and 1 5 0 amperes ; p = 4940

, , , and ,

watts respect ively .

1 27 E x pressions contain ing a small qu a n

. t ity in the denom
inat o r are freq u ent ly s implified b v bringing the small quant ity
in the n u merator by div ision as d isc u ssed in Chapter II para
,

graph 3 9 that is by the series

, , ,

1
2 3
1+ x + x i + r
42
F1 5
( 1 0)
l i q:

w hich series if ,
x is a small qu antity 3, can be appro x imated
by '

H
1 92 E NGIN E E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

o f the primary c irc u it the generated e m f o the secondary

,
. . .
f

c ircuit is sE .

S ince 131 is the reactance of the secondary c irc u it at full

f requency at the f raction 3 of f u ll frequency the reactance
,

of the secondary c irc u it is 3 1131 and the impedance o f the sec

,

o nd ary c irc u it at slip 3 therefore is r 1 + jsx 1 ; hence the

, ,

secondary current is ,

r1 + js r 1.

the e x c iting current is neglected the primary current

If ,

e quals the secondary current (ass u m i ng the secondary o f the

same number o f t u rns as the primary or reduced to the same ,

n umber of turns ) ; hence the current input into the motor is

,

S E
71 + j8 131

The second term i n the denom inator is small compared

with the first term and the e x pression ( 1 6 ) thus can be
,

appro x imated b v

The voltage E generated i n the primary c ircu it equals t he

impressed voltage e o m inu s the vo ltage cons u med b v the
,

current I in the primary impedance ; r0 + j co thus is .

E = eo

Subst ituting ( 1 7 ) into ( 1 8) give s

In
e x pression the second term on the righ t hand side -
,

wh ich is the impedance drop in the primary c irc u it is small ,

compared w ith the first term c o, and in the factor

of t h is small term the small term j

, can thus be neglected
 M E THODS OF APPROXI M ATI ON . 1 93

as a small term of higher orde r and e quat io n ( 1 9 ) abbreviated

,

to

From ( 20 ) it f ollo w s t h at

and by

E = 60 1

Su bst itut ing (2 1 ) int o ( 1 7 ) gives

88 °
i ( ro + xo)
1 j
and by
S

}
r O + 3: 1
—
.

— s
.

l ] s
rl

— '
then I
If , t is the e x c it ing current ,

current input i nto the motor is appro x imately , ,

I
o
= 1 + 100
86 0
1 +s 33 + 10 31 0 .

1 29. of the most important e x pressions used for t he

One
red uct ion of small terms i s the binom ial series
n(n —1 ) n( n — —
l ) ( n 2)
2

n(n — 1 ) ( n — 2 ) ( n — 3)

If r
. i s a small term 3, this gives the appro x ima t ion ,
1 94 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

or us ing the second term also it gives

, ,

i ns +

In a more general f orm thi s e x pression gives,

( j; s)
a
"" a 1

the binom ial higher po w ers o f terms containing small

By ,

q uantities and ass u m ing n as a fract i on roots containing

, , ,

small q u antities can be eliminate d for instance

, ,

N ai s ( a i s )
1 1

an l i i
"V"
2
5 li
a na

One of the most common u ses of the binom ia l series is for

the e liminat ion o f sq uares and square ro ots and very fre ,

quently it can be conven iently applied in mere numerica l ca lcu

lat i ons ; as f or ins tance
, ,

1 1

1 —
7 9 00 1 = 900
1 50

_
_
1
V 10V 1

1 1 1
etc
m
.
1 96 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

or i f for c onven ience the fract ion

, ,
is denoted by a, the n
S
a = and e = ae o,
So

where a is the ratio o f the actua l speed to that speed at which ,

the generated vo ltage is co .

I f r is the resistance of the alternator armature fro the ,

s vnc h rono u s reactance at speed S o the sy nchrono u s reactance ,

at speed S is x = axo and the c u rrent at short circuit then is

,

V 2
r + 33 2 \/ r2 + 2
a ro
z

Usually r and x 0 are of such magn itude that r cons u mes

at fu ll load abo u t 1 per cent or less o f the generate d vo ltage ,

whi le the reactance voltage of i s of the magn itude of from

20 to 50 per ce nt Thu s r is small compared w ith mo and if
.
,

a is not very sm a ll equat ion (2 9 ) can be appro x imated by

,

Then if xo = 2 0 r, the follow ing relat ions e x ist

That is the short c ircu it current of an alternator is pract i

,
-

cally const ant independent of the speed and begins to decrease ,

o nly at very low speeds .

1 31 E x ponential f u nct ions logarithms and trigonometric

.
, ,

f unctions are the ones freq u ently met in e lectri cal engineering .

The e x po nential function is defined by the series ,

? 3 5
at x x
 M E THOD S OF AP PROXI M ATI ON . 97

and i f x is a small q u ant ity 3 the e x ponentia l f unct ion may

, , , ,

be appro x imated by the eq uation ,

4
5
3
1i s;

or by the more general eq uat ion

“
, ,

f
s 1i as ;

and i f a greater acc u racy is req u ired the second term may
, ,

be inc luded thus, ,

e
i 8 = 1 313 8 +

and the n
e
i as = 1i ds —
l

The logarithm is defined by log e x =

log ( 1 ie x ) 21
:

1
Reso lvm g i nto a seri es by ,
and the n i ntegrat i ng ,

2 3 4 5
x x x 1
" i f i i
3 4 s

This logarithmic se ries (36) leads to the appro x imation ,

logs i s;

i nc luding the second term it gives ,

lo g (1 i s) s— 3
2
. i ,

and the more general e xpression is l e S pe c t i ve ly,

‘

+ log : t gai
a
, (3 9 )
1 98 E N GINE E RING M ATH E M A TI CS

and more accur ately

, ,

2
s 3
log ( a i s) = log a i
e

S i nce logl o N = log 1 0 e X lo ge N log; N equations ( 39 )

,

and (40) may be w ritten thus ,

lo g l o ( 1 i 0 4343 8 ,
.

9
= 3
lo g l o (a i ) s log 10 a

1 The trigonometric funct ions are represented by

32 . t he

“
infin ite series :
x4 x6
2
x
_1" —
FE T
M
9:
3 x5
x x7

if ié 1
S ‘W f ‘ ‘

7
d

w h ich when 3 i s a s m all qu ant ity may be appro x imated ,

cos s =1 and sin s = s;

or they may be represented in closer appro x imation by

,

cos 3 1

s in 3 s

or by the more general e x pressions

, ,

cos a s 1 and cos a s = 1

sin as = as a nd sin as as

1 33 . f unctions contai ning small terms may f reque ntly

Other
be appro x i mated by T aylor s series or its special case ’
, ,

Mac Lauri n s s eries ’

.

Mac Laurin s series is written thus

’

f ( r ) f (0) + xf f0) 0)
’
.
=
2 00 E NGIN E E RING M A TH E M ATI CS .

The first appro x imat io ns derived by neglecting all higher ,

terms b ut t he first power of the small quantity x = s in these

series are :
,

l
1 1 3

(1 -l f 718 ;

e
i 8 =1 + s;

10 8 6 i s ) :
i s

cos s = 1 ;

s in s = s ;

f f ) f (0 ) 3 =

tb ) ;
’
sf
f (5 i

in add ition hereto is to be remembered the multiplication

(1 1 8 00 + 82) 1 1 81
( 52 )
1 The acc u racy of the appro x imati o n can be est i mated
35 .

by calc u lating the ne x t ter m beyond that whi ch is used .

This term is given in brackets i n the above equati ons ( 50 )

and
Th u s when calc u lati ng a seri es of numeri cal val u es by
,

ap pro x imat ion for the one val ue for whi c h as seen by t h e
, , ,

nature o f the problem the appro x imation is least c lose the , ,

ne xt term is c alculated and if this is less th a n the perm iss ible

,

lim its of accurac y the appro x imat ion is sat isfactory

, .

For instance in E x ample 2 of paragraph 1 30 the appro x i

, ,

mate val ue o f the short c ircu it current was found i n as -

 M E TH ODS OF APPROX I M ATI ON . 2 01

The ne xt term in the parenthesis of equation by the

n n — l
binom ial wou ld have been
,
s u bst i t u t i ng n

the ne x t be comes + The smaller the a the

8 ,

less e xa ct is the appro x imation .

The smallest valu e o f a considered in paragraph

,
1 30 ,
was
3
a= 02
. . For xo = 2 0r , this gives as the
val ue o f the first neglected term and i n the acc u racy of the,

2 2
9 2
res u lt th is is of the magn it ude o f o ut of X
3 0

the val ue g iven in paragraph 1 30 ; that is the appro x imat ion

,

0 0 1 46
2
.

gives the resu lt correctly W i th i n or W i th i n one

0 3680
si x th of one per cent which is su fficient ly c lose for all engineer
,

ing p u rposes and with large r a the values are still c loser
,

appro x imation s .

1 36.I t is interesting to note the di fferent e x pressions ,

which are appro x imated by and by ( 1 Some o f

them are given in the following :

1
202 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

14 0 g
. (1
S
1 + 71 lo g
. 1 -

—
l n lo ge 1

l— sin s;

I— n s in
2 04 E NGINE E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

3 /2
4a 1+

8
a 1

1 38 . As further e x ample may be considered the equations

of an alternating current electric c ircu it contain ing distribu ted
-
,

resistance i nductance capac ity and shunted conductance f or

, , , ,

instance a lo ng distance transm ission line or an underground

,
-

high pote nt ial cable

-
.

E qu ati o ns of th e Transm i ssi o n L i ne .

Le t I be the d istance along the line from some start i ng ,

point ; E , the vo ltage ; I ,the curre nt at po int I e x pressed as ,

vector quant ities or general n u mbers ; Z o = ro + jxo the line ,

impedance per u nit len gth ( for instance per m ile ) ; Y0 = g0 + jb 0 ,

line ad mittanc e shunted per uni t length ; that is r o is the

, , ,

ohm i c effect ive resistance ; fro the se l f i nduct ive reactance ; ,

-

b o t he co nde ns i ve susceptance that is w at t-less chargin g

, , ,

c u rrent divided b y volts and go = e ncrgy component o f adm it

,

tance that is e nergy compo nent of charging current divided

, , ,

by volts per un it lengt h as per m ile

, , , .

Considering a line e lement dl the vo ltage d E consumed , , ,

by the impe d ance is Z oI dl and t h e current ( II cons u med b y

'

, , ,

the admitta nce is YoE dl; hence the follo w i ng re lation s may be ,

wr itte n
 M E TH ODS O F APP ROX I M A TI ON . 2 05

Di ff erent iat ing and s ubst it ut ing (2 ) there in gives

(1
2
13
ac

and from ( 1 ) it -
f ollows that ,

1 dE
'

Z0 dl

E qu atio n 3 ) is integrated bv

E 4

and ( 5 ) s u b s t ituted in (3 ) gives

= /
B i \ Z UYO ;

hence f rom ( 5 ) and

,
it f ollo w s

{4 18
+ vm 01
A2 e

Ne x t as s
u me
l = lc, entire len gth o f line ;
'

the

Z = loZo, the total line impe dance ;

Y = ZO Y0 , the total line adm ittance ;
then su bst ituting ( 9 ) into ( 7 ) and
,
the fo llow ing e x pressions
are obtai ned :

{A1 5
+ VZ Y Ag e
—
VZ
T’
}

as the voltage and cu rre nt at the generator end of the line .

1 39 .I f now E 0 and I 0 respectively are the c u rrent and

vo ltage at the step —do w n end of the line f or l = 0 by sub , ,
s

t i t ti n l = 0 into ( 7 ) and
s u g
4 +4 =
1 2 EM

i
{i
206 E NG I N E E RING M ATH E M ATI CS .

Substitut ing in f or the e x ponent ial f unct ion the series , ,

ZY Z YV Z Y Z2 Y2 Z2 Y2 V Z Y
s
i zy —
l i V ZY l -
j:
2 6
ZY Z Y 2 2 —
1 + + i x/Z Y
T

and arrangi ng by ( I + 4 2 ) and ( l A2 ) , and substit uting

A 1 A —
h e re fo r the e x pressi ons gives
ZY Z Y 2 2
ZY Z Y 2 2

E 1 = E° 1 +
i 9 24
+ ZI O 1 +
6
+
1 20

ZY Z Y 2 2 f ZY Z Y 2 2

l
1 1 = lo 1 + + YE ° l + +
0
24 6 1 20

When l = —
lo that is for E 0 and I 0 at the generator s ide and
, , ,

E 1 and I I at the step down side of the line the sign o f the-
,

second term of e quations ( 1 3) merely reverses .

1 40 From the foregoing it f ollo w s that if Z i s the total

.
, ,

impedance ; Y the t otal sh u nted adm ittance o f a transm ission

,
'
line E 0 and I o the voltage and current at one end ; E 1 and I 1
, , ,

the voltage and current at the other end of the tra nsm ission

" "
line ; then ,

ZY Z2 Y2 ZY Z 2
Y 2
EF E 1+ i zl 1 +
2 24 6 1 20

ZY 2 2 17 2 ZY Z2 Y2
i YE O 1 + +
2 24 0 1 20

where the pl us sign applies i f E 0 I 0 is the step down end ,

-
,

the m in us sign if E 0 I 0 is the step —up end o f the tra nsmission

, ,

li ne .

pract ically all cases the q u adrat i c term

In ,
ca n be neglected ,

and the eq uations simplifie d th us ,

ZI O 1 +

A = a, 1 + i n} , 1 +

and the error made hereby is of the magn it u de o f less than

2 08 ENGI NE E RI NG M A TH E M ATI CS .

The u ra cy o f the preceding appro x imat io n can b e est i

acc

m ate d by cons idering the physical meaning o f Z and Y : Z

is the line impedance ; hence ZI the i mpedance voltage and ,
°

21
u = the i mpedance voltage of the l i ne fract i on of total
-
as
E , ,

vo ltage : Y is the shunted adm ittance ; hence YE the charging

’

YE
c u rrent and v= — the chargi ng cu rrent of the kne as fract i o n
,
7 ,

of total c u rrent .

Multiplying gives u v= Z Y ; that is t he cons tant Z Y is the ,

produ ct of impedance voltage and charging current , e x pressed

as fractio ns of fu l l vo ltage and fu l l current respect ive ly I n , .

any economically feas ible power trans mission i rrespect ive of ,

its length both of these fractions and espec i ally the first
, , . ,

must be relat ively sma ll and their product t h erefore is a smal l

,

qu ant ity and its higher pow ers negligible

,
.

In any economically feasible constant potent ia l transm ission

line t he precedi ng appro x im at ions a re therefore perm issible .

Appr o x i m ati on b y C h ai n Fracti on .

A —
A convenient method o f approx imating n u merical
1 4 1 .

val u es is o f ten a ff orded by the chain f raction A chain f raction .

is a f raction in w hich the deno m inator contains a f raction

, ,
w hich
ag ain in its deno m inator contains a f raction etc Th u s : ,
.

O nly integ er chain f raction s that is chain f ractions in which

, ,

all n u merators are u nit y are o f interest ,

.

A com m on f raction is converted into a chain f raction th u sly

 APP ROX I M A TI ON B Y CH AI N FRAC TI ON .
z08a

3 1

That is to convert a common f raction into a chain f racti o n

, ,

the n u merator is divided into the deno m inator the resid u e

,

divided into the divisor and so o n u nt il no resid u e remains

, ,
.

The s u ccessive qu otients then are the s u ccessive den omi nator s
o f the chain f raction
.

For instance
20 86 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS

511
1 1 52

2
1 0 22
1 30 /5 1 1 3
3 90
1
12 1
13
9
31
27
2
8

hence

I nversely , the chain f raction is converted into a common

-

f racti on by rolling it u p f rom the end

,

1 9
4 4

1 9
4
zo8d E NG I N E E RI NG M ATH E M ATI C S .

di ff erence

0 5 64

428 5 7

4 4 44 4 00 08 6

4 43 548 0 000 2 8 00 68

1 1
13

4 43 5 80 . 00 0004 0 00 9
2 1
3 1

443 57 6
 APP ROX I M ATI ON B Y CH AI N FRAC TI ON . 2 o8e

Aseen s u cces s ive a pp roxi m ations are alternately above and

s ,

belo w the tr u e val u e and the ap p roach to the tru e val u e i s

,

extremely ra p id I t is the latter f eatu re w hich makes the chain

.

f raction val u able as w here it can be u sed it gives very ra p idly

, ,

convergin g a pp roxi m ations .

I 4I B C hain f raction re p resentin g irrational n u m bers as

.
-
,

7r 6,
etc may be endless Th u s
,
.
,
.

v
r = 3 + 1

1 1

3 + l

7 +

The first three a pp roxi m ations o f this chain f raction o f 1r are

di ff erence :

—
3

(2 ) 3 1
3 0 0 00 83 2 00 2 6 %

(3 ) 3 l 3 00000 0 3
7 1
15 1
1

As seen , the first a p pro ximation , 3 1 7 , is already s u fficiently

clo s e f or most practic a l p u r p oses and the third a p p roximati on
,

o f the chain f raction is correct to the 6 t h deci m al .

I 44 —Freq u ently irrational n u m bers

. s u ch as sq u are roots , ,

can be expressed by periodic chain f ractions and the chain ,

20 8 f E NG I NE E RI NG M ATH E M A TI CS .

f raction o ffers a convenient o f ex p ressin g n u merical val ues

way
contai ni n g sq u are roots and deriving their appro x i m ations
, .

For instan ce :
R esolve x/ E i nto a chain f raction .

As the chain f raction is 1 x/E has to be e x p ressed in the f or m

,

v6 = 2 + t¢ 6 —
m a)
and the latter term : ( x/ E w hi ch is < 1 ex p ressed as chai n ,

f racti o n

“
.

To rationali z e the n u merator w e m u lti ply n u merator and

,

denominator by ( x/é 2)

(v s — 2x ¢ o+ a 2 1
( fl —
m
v 6 + 2 v e+ z v6 + 2
2

is it is ag ain resolved into

v 6 = 2 + 1

contin ui ng in the same manner

—
x/ 0 2 ( x/ 6 2 1
2 fl v t + 2) mv t + 2> v6 + 2

hence
v %: 2 + 1
2 l

v6 + 2

— m
hence
 C HAPT E R VI .

E MPI R I CAL C U RVE S .

A G e n e ra l
. .

1 42 The res u lts of observat ion or tests usually are p lotted

.

in a c u rve Su ch curves f or in s tance are given by the core

.
, ,

loss of an electric generator as f u nct ion o f the voltage ; or , ,

the c u rrent in a c irc u it as f unction of the t ime etc Wh en

, ,
.

plott ing from n u merical observations the c u rves are empirical , ,

and the first and most important problem which has to be

solved to make s u ch curves us e f ul is to find equ at ions for the
same that is find a f unction y= f (x ) which represents the
, , , ,

curve As long as the equ ation of the c u rve is not known its
.

u tility is very limited Wh ile n u merical valu es can be taken

.

from the plotted curve no gene ral concl u sions can be derived
,

from it no gene ral invest igat ions based on it regarding the

,

condit ions of e fficie ncy o utp u t etc An illustrat ion hereof is

, ,
.

a ff orded by the comparison of the e lectric and the magnet ic

c irc u it I n the electric c irc u it the relation between e m f and
.
,
. . .

e
t =
0 0

g i ven by Ohm s law

o o 0
’
current is ,
and calc u lat i o ns are uni
r

ve rsally and easily made I n the magnetic c ircuit however .

, ,

the t e rm corresponding to the resistance the relu ctance is not , ,

a constant and the re lation between m m f and magnet ic flu x

,
. . .

cannot be e x pressed by a general law b ut only by an emp irical ,

curve the magnetic characterist ic and as the res u lt calcula

, , ,

tions of magnetic c irc u its cannot be made as conveniently and

as general in nature as calc u lat io ns of electric c ircu its .

I f by obs ervation or test a number o f correspond ing va lues

o f the independent variable x and the dependent variable yare

"
determ ined the problem is to find an e quation y=f ( x) which
, , ,

represents these c o rresponding values : 1131 x , and ,

y1 y2 ya
, , yn appro x imatel y that is w ithin the e rro rs o f
, , ,

observation .
210 E NGI N E E RI NG AI A TH E M A TI CS .

The mathemat ica l e x pression which represents an empir ical

c u rve may be a rat ional equ ation or an emp irical eq u at ion .

I t is a rat ional equat ion if it can be derived t h e o re t i ca llv as a

concl usion from some general law o f nature or as an appro x im a ,

t ion thereof but i t is an e mpiric al equation i f no theoretical

,

reason can be seen f or the part icular form of the e qu ation .

For insta nce when represent ing the dy ing out of an elec trica l
,

c u rrent in an ind u ct ive c irc u it by an e xponential f u nct ion o f

t ime we have a rat ional equation : the ind u ced voltage and
, ,

there fore by Ohm s law the c u rrent varies pro po rt ionallyt o the
,
’
, ,

rate o f change o f the current that is its di ff erential qu ot ient , , ,

and as the e x ponent ial fu nction has the characteristic of being

propo rtional to its differential qu otient the e xp onential function ,

th us rat ionally represents the dying out o f the c u rrent in an

ind u ct ive c ircuit On the other hand the relat ion be tween the
.
,

loss by magnet ic hysteresis and the magnet ic d e ns it v : W 9B = W

,

is an empirical e qu at ion since no reason can be seen for this

law o f the l 6th power e x cept that it agrees with the observa
.
,

t ions .

A rational e qu at ion as a ded u ct ion from a general law of

,

nat ur e app lies un iversally w ithin t h e range o f the observa

, ,

t ions as w e ll as beyond it w hil e an emp irical e qu ation can w ith

,

certainty be re li ed upon only w ithin the range of observat ion

from which i t i derived and e xt rapolat ion beyond this range
s
,

becomes incre as ingly u ncerta in A rat ional e qu at ion there .

fore is f ar pre f erable to an empir ical one As regards the .

acc u racy of represent ing the observat ions no materia l di fference ,

e x ists be twe en a rat ional and an emp irical e qu ation An .

emp irical e qu at ion f requ ent ly represents the observat ions w ith
great accuracy wh ile inversely a rat iona l e qu ation usually
,

does not rigidly represent the o b servat ion for the reason that s
,

in nat u re the conditions on which the rat ional law is bas ed are
rarely per f ectly fulfilled For in s tance the representat ion o f a
.
,

decaying c ur rent by an e x ponential f unct ion i s bas ed on the

ass u mption that t h e res istance and the i nd u ctance of the c ircuit
are constant and capac ity absent and none of these cond it ions
, ,

can ever be perfect ly satisfied and th u s a deviat ion occurs from ,

the theoret ical condition by what is called second ary e ffects

, .
”

1 43 To derive an e quat ion w hich re presents an emp irical

.
,

c u rve care f u l cons iderat ion sho u ld first be given to the physica l
,
2 12 E NG I NEE RI NG M ATH E M ATI CS .

instead of decreasing as result of the friction le ad when the

, ,

voltage is so low that the mechan ical fri ct ion cons t itute s an
appreci able part o f the motor output ; Th us empirical curves ,

can be represented by a single e quat ion on ly when the physica l

conditions remain constant w ithin the range of the obs ervat ions .

From the shape of the curve then frequent ly w ith some ,

e x perience a g uess can be made on the probable f orm of the

,

e quat ion w hich may e x press it I n t h is connect ion therefore .

, ,

it is o f t he greatest assistance to be familiar w ith the shapes of

the more common forms of curves by plott ing and studying ,

various forms of e q u ations y=f

By changing the scale in which ob s ervat ions are plotted
the apparent shape of the curve mav be mod ified and it is ,

there f ore desirable in p lott ing to use such a scale that the
average slope of the curve is abo ut 45 deg A much greater or .

m u ch lesser slope sho u ld be avoided s ince it does not show the ,

character of the curve as well .

B . No n-P e ri o d i c C u rve s .

The most c ommon non periodic c u rves are the potent ial
1 44 . -

series the parabol ic and hyperbolic curves and the e x ponenti a l

, ,

and logarith m ic curves .

TH E PO T E N T I AL SE R I E S .

Theoret ically any set of observat ions can be represented

,

e x act ly by a potent ial series of any one o f the f ollow ing forms

y = a0

“
3
.r I

y +
6

a:
a2

x
2
+
a

x
3

if su ffic ient ly large number o f terms are chosen

a .

For in tance i f 71 correspond ing numerical val u es of x and y

s
,

are given 2 1 yl ; 2 2 yo ;
, , they can be represented
,
 E M PI RI C AL C URVE S . 213

by the series when choosing as many terms as requ ired to

give 71 co nstants a
= a o + a 1 x + a2 2 2
y
By substitut ing the corresponding val ues x 1 y1 ; y2 , ,
.

into e quat ion there are obta ined 1 1 equations which de ,

term ine the n constants ao a l a 2 , , ,

Usually however s u ch representat ion is irrational and

, , ,

there fore meaningless and useless .

T AB L E I .

1
- —2x 5

2
6
5

L
98 2 89
76 6 13

Le t , f or instance the first col umn o f Table

,
I represent the
e
volt age
- =x in hundreds of volts and the second column
,
1 00
,

the core loss p y in kilowatts of an 1 25 volt 1 00 h p d irect

, , , ,
- -
.

c u rrent motor S ince seven sets of observations are given

.
,

they can be represented by a potential series w ith seve n con

st ant s thus
, ,

=a ( 6)
y o

and by s ubstit uting the observat ions in and calculat ing the
const ants a f rom the seven equat ions derived in this manner,
there is obtained as emp irical e x pression of the core loss o f
the motor the equation ,

— 2 :r5 —
(7 )
6
y :
+ 2 :z: 1 -
1 :c
-

“
This e x pression however while e x actly representing ,

the seven observat ions has no physical meaning as easily

, ,

seen by plott ing the individual terms I n Fig 60 y appears . .

,
214 E NGI NE ERI NG M A THE M ATI CS .

as the resultant of a number of large posit ive and negat ive

terms E i rt he rm o re if one of the observat ions is om itted
.
, ,

and the potential series calc u lated from the remaining s ix

values a series reaching up to
,
would be the result thus , ,

5
+ a sa ,
‘

FI G 6 0 . . r
Te m s of E m piri cal E xpre ssion of E x cit ation Powe r .

but the constants a in (8) wou ld have ent irely di fferent numer
ical values from those in t hus showing that the equ ation
( 7 ) h as no rat ional meaning .

1 45 The potent ial series ( 1 ) to ( 4) th us can be u sed to

.

represent an emp irical curve only under the fo llow m g condi

tions :
1 I f the s u ccessive coe ffic ie nts a o a t (1 2
. decrease in
, , ,

val ue so rapidly that w ithin the range of observation the

h igher terms be come rap idly smaller and appear as mere
secondary terms .
21 6 E NGI NE E RI NG M ATH E M ATI CS .

The values of column 4 can now be represented by the same

form of equation nam e lv , ,

y1 00 + 02 10 + 0
?
3 17
3
, (12)
in which the co nstants b o Oz b 3 are calculated by the method, ,

of lea s t squares as describe d in paragraph 1 2 0 o f Chapter I V

, ,

and give
2
y1 0 0 93 27

( 1 3 ) added t o ( 1 1 ) gives the final appro x imate

E quation
equat ion of the torq ue as , ,

yo ( 1 4)
The e quat ion ( 1 4) probably is the appro x imat ion of a
rational e quat ion since the first term ,
represents the ,

bea ring f rict ion ; the second term (w hich is the largest ) , ,

represents the work d one by the fan in mo ving t he air a ,

resistance proportional to the square of the speed and the ,

third term appro x imates the decrease of the air res istance due
t o the churn ing mot ion o f the air created by the fan .

I n general the potential series is of lim ited usefu lness ; it

,

rarely has a rat ional meaning and is mainly used where the ,

curve appro x irnat e lv follows a simp le law as a straight line , ,

to represent by small terms the deviation from this simple law ,

that is the secondary e ffects etc I ts use th u s is often

, ,
.
, ,

temporary giv ing an empirica l appro x imat ion pending the

,

derivation of a more rat ional law .

Th e Pa ra b o li c a nd t h e H pe r y bo l ic C u rve s .

1 46 . o f the most u seful c lasses o f c u rves in engineering

One
ar e those represe nted b v the e q u at ion ,

or , the m ore general e q u ation ,

b —
=a x
y (
E quation ( 1 6 ) di ffers from ( 1 5 ) only by t he co nsta nt terms b
and c; that is it gives a di fferent loc ation to the coordinate
,
 E M PI RI C AL C UR VE S . 217

center but the curve shape is the same so that in d is cuss m g

, ,

the general shapes only equ ation ( 1 5 ) need be co nsidered

, .

I f n is positive the curves y = a x n

are parab olic cu rves
, ,

pass ing through the origin and increasing w ith increasing 2 .

If n > 1 y incre ases w ith increasing rapidity if n < 1 yincreases

, , ,

w ith decreasing rapidity .

If the e x pone nt is nega tive , the c u rve s = ax "= n

y
hyperbo lic curves starting from y= 00 for x = 0 and de creasing
, ,

to y 0 = for x = 00 .

m
a 1 gives the straight line through the origin n = 0 and ,

n = 0 0 give respectively straight hori z ontal and vertica l lines

, , .

Fi gs 6 1 to 7 1 give various curve shapes correspo nding t o

. ,

di ff erent values of n .

Parab oli c Cu rves .

Fig 61 n= 2 = 232 the common parabola

. .
y ; .

Fig . 62 . n 4; the biq uadrat i c parabola .

Fig 63 n= 8: = rs
. .
y .

Fig . 64 . n y V5; again the common parabola .

Fig . 65 . n t he biquadrat ic parabola .

Fig . 66 . n

Hype rb oli c C u rve s .

Fig . 67 . n= 1; y the equila teral hyperbola .

Fig . 68 . n=

1
Fig . 69 . n= — 4; y 4
°

13

Fig . 70 . n

Fi g 7 1. . n=
21 8 E NGI NE E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .
220 E NG I NE E RI NG M ATH E M A TI CS .

FI G 6 6
. . Parabolic C rve u .

FI G 6 7
. . H yp e rbolic Cu rv e ( E q u ilate ral H ype rbola ) .
y
 EIV
I PI RI C A L C URVE S . 22 1

FI G 6 8
. . H ype rbolic Cu rve .
=
y

FI G 6 9. . H yp e rbolic C rve
u .
y
2 22 E N GI N E E RI N G M A TH E M ATI CS .

FI G 7 0
. . H ype rbolic Cu rve .
y

FI G 7 1
. . H yp e rbolic Cu rve .
y
22 4 E NG I NE E RI NG MA TH E M ATI CS .

becomes more di ffic u lt ; that is vario u s val u es o f c and of

,
b
are to be tried to find one w hich gives t he proport ionality .

FI G 7 2
. . araboli c and
P H ype rbolic Cu rve s .
y
=2n
~
.

1 48 . Ta king the logarithm of eq u ation ( 1 5 ) gives

log g = log a + n log 2 ;
 E M PI RI CAL C UR VE S . 225

that is a straight line ; hence a p arabolic or h y

,
perbolic cur ve can
,

be recogni zed by plott ing the logarit hm o f g aga ins t the l e gal
r it h m o f x If this gives a straight l ine the c u rve is paraboli c
.
,

or hyperbolic and the slope o f the logarithm ic c u rve tan B= n

, , ,

is the e x ponent .

FI G 7 3
. . arabolic Cu rve s
P .
= xn
y .

This again app lies on ly if the c u rve contain no cons ta nt

term If constant terms e x ist the logarithm ic line is c u rved
.
, .

There f ore by trying di ff erent constants c and b the c u rvat u re

, ,

of the logarithm ic line changes and by interpolat ion su ch ,

constants can be fo u nd which make the logarithmic line straight

, ,

and in this way the constants c and b may be eval uated I f

, .

only one const ant e x ist that is only b or only c the process is
, , ,

re lat ive ly simple b ut it becomes rather complicated w ith both

,
22 6 E N G I NE E RI N G M A TH E M ATI CS .

c ons tants This fac t makes it all the more d esirable to get
.

from the physic al natu re o f th e problem some id ea o n th e

e x i stenc e and the val u e of the c ons tant terms .

Differentiating equation ( 2 0 ) gives :

that is in a paraboli c o r hyperboli c c urve the p erc ent u al

, ,

change or vari ati on of y is n times the p erc entual c hange

, , ,

or variation o f x if n is th e e x ponent
,
.

Here f rom follows :

that is in a parabolic or hyperbolic c u rve the

, ,
rati o o f va ri ati o n,
dv

y
m= is a c ons tant and equ als th e e x p onen t n
E;
.
, ,

3:

Or , inversely
I f i n an empiric al c urve the ratio of variation is c o nstant
the cu rve is — within th e range i n which the ratio o f variation
,

is c onstant a parabo li c o r h yperboli c cur ve w hich has as

—
,

e x ponent the ratio of variation .

I n the range ho w eve r in which th e ratio of var iation is

, ,

not c ons tant it is not th e e x ponent and w hile the empiric al

, ,

cu rve mi ght be e x pressed as a parabo lic or hyperbolic c u rve

with changing e x p onent ( or c hanging c oefficient ) in this c ase ,

the e x ponent may be very di ff erent from the ratio of v ar ia

tion and the c hange of e x ponent freq u ently is very muc h
,
.

smaller than the change of the ratio of variation .

Thi s rati o o f vari ati on and e x ponent of th e p araboli c or

hyperbolic appro x imation of an empi ric al c u rve m u st not be
mi s taken f or each other as h as occ asionally b e e n d o ne in
,
'

r ed u cing hysteresis curves or radiation cu rves

,
They c oincid e .
2 28 EN GI N EE RIN G IVATH E fi/I A TI C S .

The c u rve y e = +
has t h e same shape e x cept that the
x
, , ,

posit ive and the negative side ( right and le ft ) are interchanged .

I nverted these e quat ions ( 2 1 ) to (2 4) m ay a lso be written

thus ,
nx log

n ( x — c) log

— 3/
nx = lo Co ,
a

;r = — log y;
that is as logarithmic c u rves
,
.

FI G 7 4 E xp one ntial Function = e —x

. . .
y .

1 50 characterist ic o f t he e x ponential f unct ion ( 2 1 ) is

. The ,

that an i ncrease of a: b y a constant term i ncreases ( or in ( 2 3 ) ,

and decreases ) y b y a cons tant f ac tor .

Th u s if an empirical curve y=f ( r ) has such c h aracterist ic

, ,

that
constant for constant,
(1 ,
 E MP I RIC AL C UR VE S . 2 29

the curve is an e x ponent ial f unct ion , and the followm g

e q uation may be written

f ( r q)
“
.

f (x) as

Hereby the e x ponential f u nction can easily be recogni z ed ,

and dist ingu ishe d f rom t h e parabolic c u rve ; in the former a
constant term in the latter a constant factor of x causes a
,

change of y by a constant fac tor .

As res u lt hereof the e xponential curve with negat ive

,

e x ponent vanishes that is becomes negligibly small w i th f ar

, , ,

greater rapidit y than the hyperbolic curve and the e x ponent ia l ,

FI G 7 5
. . H yp e rbolic and E xp o ne ntial Cu rve Com pari son
s .

fu nct ion with positive e x ponent reaches practically infinite

values far more rap idly than the parabolic c u rve This is .

ill ustrated in Fig 7 5 in which are sho w n s uperimposed

"
.
,

the e x ponent ial curve y= e and t he h yperbolic curve

,
z
, ,

which co inc ides w ith the e xp onent ial c u rve

( so l
at x = and at x = 1
0 .

Taking the logarithm of e quatio n ( 2 1 ) gives log g = log a +

nx lo g e that is log y is a linear f u nction of x and plott ing
, , ,

lo g y against x gives a straight li ne This is characteris tic o f .

2 30 ENGINEERING M A TH E MATI CS .

the e x ponential functio ns and a convenient method of recog

,

ni z ing them
.

Ho w ever both of these characterist ics app ly only if x and y

,

contain no cons tant terms With a single e x ponent ial f unct ion
.
,

o nlv the c onstant term o f y needs considerat ion as the cons tant ,

term of a: may be e liminated E q u at ion (22 ) may be writte n

.

thus
_ = ( — )
y b ae
n z c

m n'
s
e

where A= a? “i a c onstant
s .

e x ponent ia l function w hich conta ins a constant term b

Am

wo u ld not give a straight l ine when plott ing log y agains t 33 ,

FI G 7 6
. . x one ntial
E p Fu n ction s .
 ENGIN EERING M A T HE M A TI CS
“
2 32 .

Fig . 76 gi ves the followi ng combinations of e

x
and r

—2 1 »

0 5
—2
x
+0 z
;

35
y 5
:
>

—
_
f
O5s
.

J”

FI G ; 7 8 . Hype rbolic Functions .

 EM PIRI C AL C URVE S . 2 33

—o
Fig . 77 gives the follow ing combi nat ion of e
x
and s
.

(1) y =

(2 ) y =

( 3) = —
01
-
10 “
y
7

3 3
5 6

“x
( 4) y
=

Fig . 78 gives the h vpe r b o lic f unctio ns as combinations

a” and th u s
x
e

= c os h “
y s

= s inh
y )
‘

x
e .

C . E va l u ati o n of E m pi ri c al C u rve s .

1 52 . In
attempt ing to solve the problem of find ing a mathe
m at i ca l e qu at ion y= f (x ) for a series o f observations or tests
, , ,

the correspond ing values of x and y are first tabulate d and

plotted as a curve .

From the nature of the physical problem w hich is re pre ,

sented by the numerical values there are derive d as many ,

data as possible concerning the nat u re o f the c u rve and of t he

fu nct ion which represents it especially at the z ero values and ,

the values at infinity Freq u ently hereby t he e x istence or

.

absence of constant terms in the e quation is indicated .

The log 17 and log yare tab u lated and c u rves p lotted between
23 y log 50 log y and seen whether some of these c u rves is a
, , , , ,

straight line and thereby indicates the e x ponential function or ,

the parabolic or hyperbo lic f unction .

If cross section paper is ava i lable having both coord inates

-
,

d ivided in logarithm ic scale and also cross section paper having,

-

one coord inate divided in logarithmic the other in common ,

sc ale as and y c an be direc tly plotted on these tw o f orms of

,

loga rith m ic c ross— s ec tion paper Us u ally not mu ch is saved .

thereby as fo r the numeric al c al cu lation o f the c onstants the

,

logarithms still have to b e tab u lated .

2 34 ENGINEE RING IlI ATH E M ATI CS .

If ne ither of the fou r c u rves : x y; 33 log y; log x y; log x , , , ,

log y is a straight line and from the physical condition the

,

absence of a constant term is ass u red the fu nction is ne ither ,

an e x ponent ial nor a parabolic or hyperbolic I f a constant .

term is probable or possible curves are plotted between at , ,

b log log ( b ) for various val u es of b and if hereby

y ,
s y , ,

one of the c u rves straighte ns out then by interpolation , , ,

that value of b 1s found which makes one of the cur ves a straight
,

line an d thereby gives the c ur ve law A c onvenient way of

,
.

d oing thi s is : if the c urve with log y (c urve 0 ) is c u rved by angl e

a o ( a o being for instance the a ngl e b etween the tangents at the

two end points of the c u rve or the di ff erence of the s 10 pes at the
,

t w o end points ) use a val u e b , and pl ot the c ur ve with l og

, ,

— b
( y l ) ( c urve an d observe its c urvat ure a t Then inter .

po la t e a val u e b 2 between b 1 and 0 in proportion to the c urva

, ,

t ures a , an d (X0 and plot c urve with l og (y— b g ) ( c ur ve

,
and
again interpolate a val ue b 3 bet w een b 2 and either b 1 or O which ,

ever c urve is nearer in slope t o c urve 2 contin u e until either th e ,

c urve with l og (y— b ) b ecomes a straight line or an S c urve and ,

i n this latter case sho w s tha t the empir ical c urve cannot be
represented in this manner .

I n this w ork logarithmic paper is very useful as it permits

, ,

plotting the c ur ves witho u t first looking u p the logarithms the ,

latter being done only when the last appro x imation of b is

fo u n d I n the same manner i f a constant term is s u spected in
.
,

the x the val u e (ac — c) is used an d c urves plotted for various

,

values of c Freq u entl y the e x istenc e and the character o f a

.

constant term is indicated by the shape o f the cur ve ; for

instance i f one of the c urves plotted between x y log 33 l og y
, , , ,

approaches straightness for high or for l ow values of the a h ,

s ci ss as b u t c u rves considerabl y at the other end

,
a c onstant ,

term may be suspected w hich becomes l ess appreciable at one

,

end of the range For instance the e ff ect o f the c onstant c in

.
,

— c decreases with increase of x

( c
c ) .

Sometimes one of the curves may be a straight line at one

end but curve at the other end This may indicate the presence
,
.

of a term which vanishes for a part of the obs ervat ions I n

,
.

this case only the observat ions of the range which gives a
straight line are used for deriving the c u rve law the curve ,

calc ulated there from and then the d ifference between th e

,

calculated c u rve an d the observations further investigated .

 E NGI NE E RING M A TH E M A TI CS
i

2 36 .

Fig 7 9 .I n the thir d and four th column o f Table I II are

.

g iven log 6 and log t I n Fig 7 9 then are pl otted log 6 i as

. .
, ,

curve H ; e log 13 as curve I I I ; l og e log 15 as cur ve I V

, , , , .

As seen fro m Fig 7 9 curve I V is a straight line that is

.
, ,

=lo
2 .

f ge
log 13

ve sti gation of Volt-am pe re Characte ri stic of te n a

"
FI G . 79 . In T ungs L mp
ilam e nt
F .

log or i i = A + n lo e = ae
g ; ,

which is a p ar abolic cu rve .

The constants a and 71 may now be calc ulated from .

the n u merical d ata of Tabl e I I I by th e me thod of least

sq u ares as d iscussed in Chapter I V p aragraph 1 2 0
, Whi le , .

this meth o d gives the most acc ur ate res ults i t is s o laborious ,

as to be seldom used in engineering ; generally val u es o f the ,

constants a and n su fficiently accurate for mo st practical

,
 E M P I RI CAL C UR VE S . 237

pur poses are derived by the s o called E A method w hich

,
-
, ,

w ith proper tab u lar arrangement of the n umerical values gi ves ,

high acc u racy with a minim u m of work .

T AB L E I II .

VOLT-AMPE RE CH ARACTE RI STI C OF 1 1 8 VOLT TU NGS TE N L AMP - .

+ 0 8 10 g
. e

+ 0 -0 0 3

a vg .
00 3
4 7 per
. c e nt

4-
42 2

-
6

—
1 3 5 51 = f
£ 95 4

lo g 0 lo g 6 a nd

The fourteen sets of observations are divided into two

groups of seven each and t h e sums of log 6 and log i formed
, .

They are indicated as 2 7 in Tabl e I II .

Then subtracting the two groups 2 7 from each other ,

e liminates A and divi ding the two di fferences A gives the

, ,

e x ponent n = O 60 1 1 ; this is so near to

,
. that it is reasonable
to assume that n = o 6 and this value then is u sed
.
, .

No w the sum of all the val u es o f log 6 is formed given as ,

2 1 4 in Table I I I and multiplied with n

,
and t he p roduc t
2 38 E NGI N E E RI NG M ATH E M ATI CS

subtracted from the s um o f all the log 75 . The di ff erence A

then eq uals 1 4A and divided by 1 4 g ives , , ,

A = lo g a= 8 21 1 ;
.

hence a = 0 0 1 62 5 and the volt ampere characteristic of this

,
.
,
-

t ungsten lamp th u s f ollow s the eq u at ion ,

log i = 8 2 1 1 . +O6 . log 6 ;

From e and i can be derived the po w er inp u t = ei and the

p ,

e
re s 1 st a nce r
l
=
p

and , e li m inating e f ro m these two e xpressio ns gives ,

5 4
p 0 0 1 62 5 1 1 1 35 r
.
4

that is t he po w er inp u t varies w ith the fourth po wer of t he

,

resistance .

As suming t h e resistance r as proport ional to the absol ute

"
temperature T and considering that the power input int o the
,

lamp is radiated from it that is is the power of radiat ion P , , T

the e quation between p and r also is the e quation between P ,

and T thus , ,

P, = 1m

that is the radiat ion is propo rt ional to the fourth power of the
,

absolute temperat u re This is the law o f blac k body radiation .

,

and above e quat ion o f the volt —ampere characterist ic of the

tungsten lamp t h u s appears as a conc lusion from the radiat ion
law t h at is as a rational e qu ation
, ,
.

1 54 E x a m pl e 2
. I n a magnet ite a re at constant arc length
.
, ,

the voltage cons u med by the are e is observed for di fferent , ,

“
val u es o f c u rrent i To find the e q u ati on of the volt ampere
.
-

characteristi c o f the magnetite arc

240 E NGI NE E RI NG M ATH E M ATI CS .

Proceed ing in Table I V in the same manner w ith log i

and log (e — 30) as was do ne in Table III w ith log 6 and log t ,

gives
n= and a = 90 4 ; .

FI G 8 0
. . ve sti gation of Volt am pe re Charact e ri stic of Magne tite
In - Arc .

hence
log (e 30 ) log 5;
”

e = 30 +
 E M PI RI C AL C URVE S . 2 41

which is the e qu ation o f the magnetite arc volt ampere charac -

t e rist ic .

1 55 . The change of current res u lt ing from a

E x am pl e 3 .

change o f the cond itions o f an e lectric c irc u it containing resist

ance ind uctance and capac ity is re corded by osc illograph and
, ,

gives the c ur ve reprod u ced as I in Fig From this c u rve .

FI G 8 1 ve sti gatio n of Curve of Curre nt Change

In in E le ctric Circ u it

"
. .
.

are taken the n u merical val ues tab u lated a s t and 13 in the first
two col umns o f Table V I n the third and fourth col umns are
.

given log t and log 0 and c u rves then plotted in the u sual
,

manner Of these curves only the one between t and log ?

.

is shown as I I in Fig 8 1 since it gives a straight line for the

, .
,

higher val ues o f t For the higher val ues of t there f ore
.
, ,

log i = A — nt ; or ,

that is it is an e x ponent ial f unct ion

, .
2 42 E NGI NE E R I NG M A TH E MATI CS .

T AB L E V .

TR ANS I E NT C URRE NT C H ARAC T E RI S T I C S .

t 1. l gt
o lo g z 2 A

0 0
+00 2

02 0

0-
8 0 -90 3 0 -
30 1 0 -8 8 -9 54

0 0

22 —o s .

A=
>< m lo g e - lo g a2

41 a2= 2 85
.

lo g i z = 0 4 00 — 3 0 4 t lo g
. . e

= — 3 -8 4t
a ,= 4 94. i2 2 055 .

lo g .
69 3 1 0 7 t lo g
. 0

21 =
°
—1 07 t
4 9 4e
~
.

i c = 4 94¢ — 3 8 4t
85
°

. . 6

To calc u late the const ants a and n the range o f val u es is ,

us ed in which the curve I I is straight ; that is from t = 1 2

, , .

to t = 3 As these are five observat ions they are grouped in two

.
,

pai rs the first 3 and the last 2 and then f or t and log one
, , ,

third o f the sum of the first 3 and one half o f the sum o f the ,
-

last 2 are taken Subtract ing this gives

.
, ,

At = 1 1 5 ; A log i = .

S ince , however the eq u at ion , ,

when logarit hm at e d ,
g1 ve s
2 44 E NGI NE E RI N G M A TH E M ATI CS .

1 56 . As further e x ample may be considered the resolutio n

of the core loss c urve o f an ele ctric motor which had been ,

e x pressed irrationally by a potential series in paragraph 1 44

and Table I .

T AB L E VI .

CORE LO SS CU R VE .

A _l g } )

P 1; k w . lo g P 1; lo g 6
f 1 6lg o 6

2 563 7 -2 3 6 0 -7 0
2 -8 4 5 7 2 89 1 -34 + 0 -0 2
a vg . + 0 -0 6
3 -20 0 7 277 7 2 82 3 -03 —0-
03
3 326 7 -2 6 8 4 -0 5 — 0 -1 2
3 4 34 7 -8 60 5 20 + 1 02
3 526 7 -40 8 84 3 + 2 -1 6

£ 3 P2= 1 in w a t ts

1 -0 7 1

A= O -2 785
0 44 5
1 59 0 2 1 0
0 -2 7 8 5

The first two columns o f Table VI give the observed val ues
of the voltage e and the core loss P in kilowatts The ne x t , .

two columns give log 0 and log P i Plotting the curves shows .

that log e log P is appro x imately a straight line as seen in

, , ,

Fig 82 with the e x ception o f the two highest points of the

.
,

curve .

E x cluding therefore the last two points the first five o b se r ,

vat io ns give a parabolic curve .

The e x ponent o f this c u rve is found by Table VI as

n = 1 598 ; that is with s u fficient appro ximation as n = 1 6
.
, , . .

To see how far the observations agree with the curve as ,

give n by the e quati o n ,

3
1 ,

in the fifth c olumn log 6 is recorded and in the si xt h column , ,

A = log a = lo g P , log e As seen t h e first and the last .

,

t wo val u es of A di ff er from the rest The first val u e corre .

 E M PI RI CAL C UR VE S . 2 45

sp e nds to s u ch a lo w val u e of P as to lo w er the acc u racy o f

,

the observation Averaging then the fo ur m iddle val ues

.
,

A henc e ,

log P i = log e ,

Pi = 1 . 9 14e l 6'
in watts
°

FI G 82
. . In ve sti gation of Ou vre s .

This equation is calc u lated as P and plotted i n Fig 82

, C, . .

The observed val u es of P are marked by circles As seen

, .
,

the agreement is satis factory with the e x ception of the t w o

,

highest values at w hich apparently an additional loss appears

, ,

which does not e x ist at lo w er voltages This loss probably is .

d ue to eddy c u rrents ca u sed by the increas ing magnet ic stray

field res ulting f rom magnetic sat uration .
2 46 E N G I NE E RI NG MA TH E MA TI CS .

1 57 .
m
As a f u rther
may be c o n e x am
sid ered the resol u tion e

of t he m agnetic characteristic plotted as c ur ve I in Fig 83 ,

.
,

and given in the first two colum ns o f Table VI I as H and B .

T AB L E VI I .

MAGNE TI C CH AR ACTE R I S TI C .

B
kilo li nes
lo g H lo g B

“ 0 -1

=b

I B= 26 3 1 5 -0 2 0
2 63 X 0 33 4
-

4 = 1 -6 8 6
0 -2 1 1 = a

2 1 1 + 0 0 5 07
.
H and B=
0 2 1 1 + 0 0 50 7
. .
H

Plott ing H B log H log B against each other leads to no

, , ,

resu lts n e ither does the introduct ion of a constant term do

,

this Thus in the fi fth and s i xt h columns o f Table VI I are

.

calcu lated
5 and 1
5
and are plotted against H and against
, B .

H
Of these fo u r curves only the curve o f against H is shown
B ,

in Fig 83 as 1 1 This c urve is a straight line w ith the e x cept ion

.
,
.

of the lowest values ; that is

a +b H .
 48 E N G I NE E RI N G J I A TH E MA TI CS .

Th e d ifferenc e between the observed valu es of

g ,
and the
value give n by above e qu ation which is appreciable u p to ,

H 6 c o u ld now be fu rther i nvestigated and w ould be fou nd

, ,

t o appro x i mately follow an e x ponential law .

As a final e x ample may be c onsid ere d the investigation of

a hysteresis c u rve of silic on steel of which the nu meric al valu es ,

are given i n c olumns 1 and 2 of Table V I II .

The first c ol u m n gives the magnetic d ens ity B i n li nes o f ,

magnetic forc e per e m ; the sec ond c olu mn the hysteresis loss
f

w i n ergs per cycle per kg ( specific d ensity

,
Th e third
.

c olu mn gives log B and the fo u rth c olumn log w

, .

Of the f our c u rves bet w een B w log B log w o nly the , , , ,

c u rve relating log w to logB appro x imates a straight li ne and ,

is given i n the upper part of Fig 84 Thi s cu rve is not a . .

straight li ne througho u t its enti re length bu t o nly two sections ,

of it are straight from B = 50 to B = 400 and f rom B = 1 600 to

, ,

B = 8000 but the cu rve bends between 500 and 1 2 00 and above
, ,

8000 .

Thu s tw o empirical formulas o f the form : w = aB n are , ,

c alculated i n the usual mann er in Table VI I I

,
The one , .

appli es f or lo w er d ensities the other fo r med i u m dens ities

,

-1 1
L ow d e nsity : B 400 : w = 0 003 4l
.

Medi u m d ensi ty : 1 600 s B s 8000 : w 60

-

In Table VI I I the val u es for the lower range are d enoted

by the i nd e x 1 for the higher range by the inde x 2
,
.

Neither of these empiri c al formulas appli es strictly to the

range : 400 < B < 1 600 and to the range B > 8000 They may
, .

be applied within these ranges by ass u ming either the c oe fficient,

a as varyi ng or the e x ponent n as v a rying that is applying a

, , ,

c orrection fac tor to a or to n ,

.

Thu s i n the range : 400 < B < 1 600 the loss may be repro
, ,

sented by :
( 1 ) An e x tension of the low d ens ity f ormula :
2 11
w a1B w = 0 0034 a
°

. 1.

( 2 ) An e x tension of the medi u m d ensity f orm u la

= l 6
w a qB '
or w = G 1 096 B
.
 E M P I RI C A L C UR VE S . 2 49

by giving tables or c u rves of a respectively 22 S uch tables are

.

most c onveniently given as a perc entage c o rrec tion .

FI G 84
. .

The pe rcentage c orrec tion w hic h is to be applied to a l and

,

respectively to nl and n2 to make the formul as applic able

, ,
2 50 E N GI N E E RI N G MATH E M ATI CS .

T AB L E V I II .

H YS T E RE SI S O F SI L I C O N S TE E L .

4 4m
1 1

lo g B lo g w a2 m 1 22

1 5 44 + 0 4 0

1 50
245
3 94
571
1 02 5

1 01 0
2 320 — o s7.

40 30
0 1 50
0 0 00

1 60 0
2 00 0 2 1 00 0
2 500 3 03 00
3 0 00 4 0 500

4 00 0 0 3 4 00
50 00 9 0 0 00
60 0 0 1 2 0 00 0
8 0 00 1 941 0 0

1 0 0 00 2 02 5 00
1 200 0 3 9 7 500
1 4000 00 9 5 0 0
1 60 0 0 90 7 5 0 0 5 9 50
zs=
£ s = 1 1 9 02
.

4=

_
5
2 11

I .o= 2 1 44 1 .

4 lo g w = 7 5 3 3 + 2 1 1 10 0 8
. .

10 2.
w = 0 0 0 34 I B
.

a .= 0 0 03 41
.

4= 2 5 02
.

2 = 1 599
.

1 60 2
.

1 60 X 2 8 3 6 2
. .

' lo g m = e 0 40 + 1 00 lo g
. . B
c
t
1 on
o4 0 = lo g a: w = 0 1 09 6 3
.

H0 9 6
2 52 E N GI NE E RI NG M ATH E M ATI CS .

n log B = log w log a o;

n log B log w— log a o

no no lo g B no log B

log w— log ao —n log B

0

72 0 10 g B

by these equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) the c orrection factors in c olumns

5 to 8 o f Table V I I I are c alculated by using f or a o and no the
,

values o f the lo w e r range c u rve i n c olumns 5 and 7 and the

, ,

val u es of th e medi u m range cu rve i n c ol u mns 6 and 8

, .

Thus for instanc e at B =1 000 the loss c an be c alculated

, , ,

by the equation ,

w = alB

b y applying to al the c o rrection f ac tor

per cent at c onstant : n1 that is ,

a1 = 0 003 4 1 ( 1
.

or by applying to nl the c orrection factor

per c ent at c onstant : al that is ,

n1 = 2 . 1 1 (1

Or the loss c an be c alc u lated by the equation

"
,

w 5 CLQ B
' 2
,

by applying to the c o rrection factor :

per cent at c onstant : n2 = 1 . 60, that is ,

az
 E M PI RI C AL C URVE S . 2 53

or by applying to nz the c orrection factor :

per cent at c onstant : az= 0 1 09 6 ,
. that is ,

nz 1 1

and the loss may th u s be given by either of the fou r ex

pressions
-08 6

As seen , the variation o f the e x ponent requ i red to e x tend 72,

the u se o f the parabolic eq u ation into the range f or which i t

d oes not stric tly apply any more is m u ch less than the varia ,

tion o f the c oe fficient a and a fa r greater acc u racy is thus ,

secured by c onsidering the e x ponent n as c ons tan t for

medi u m and high values o f B and making the correction in
c oe fficient a outside o f the range where the 1 6 th power law
,
.

holds rigidly .

I n the last c ol u mn of Table V I II is rec orded the rati o of

A log w
vari ation 772 ,
as the averages each of tw o successive
A log B
val u es As seen 772 agrees w ith the e x ponent n within the
.
,

tw o ranges where it is c onstant b u t di ff ers f rom it o u tside

, , ;

o f these ranges For instanc e if B changes f rom 1 600 down

.
,

wa rd the ratio o f variation m inc reases w hile the e xponent

, ,

nslightly d ec reases .

I n Fi g 84 are show n the pe rc entage c orrection of the

.

c oefficients a l and a 2 and also the tw o e x ponents nl and 722

, ,

t ogether with the ratio o f variation 772 .

The ratio o f va riation 772 is v ery use f u l i n c alc u lating the

change of loss resulting f rom a s mall change o f magnetic d ensity ,

as the perc entual change o f loss w is m times the percentual

( small ) change o f d ensi ty .

As f u rthe r e x ample the read e r may red u ce to empirical

,

e quations the series of obse rvations given i n Table I X This .

table gives
A The c andl e po w er L as f u nc tion of th e po w er i n
.

.
-
put p, ,

of a 40—watt tungsten filament incandesc ent lamp .

B The loss of powe r by c o rona ( discharge into the ai r) p

.
, ,

i n kw i n .
,
km of c ond u ctor as f u nction o f the voltage
.
,

0 ( in kv ) betwee n c onducto r and return c ond uc tor

. for the ,
2 54 E N GI NE E RI N G M A THE M ATI CS .

TAB L E IX .

A . L um i no s i t y c h a ra c t e ri s t i c of 40
-w at t t un gt s en i nc a nd e s ce nt la m p .

L h o ri zo n t a l c a nd e p o l w e r.

p w a t ts i np u t .

B . C o r o na lo ss o f g
h i h -v o t a l g e t r a ns m i s s i o n li ne ; at 00 c yc e s l
1 89 5 In l g th
en o f co nd u c t o r .

3 10 m . d i s t a nc e b e t w e e n c o nd u c t o rs .

No 0 0 0 . s e v e n-s t r and c a b l e, cm . d i am e t e r .

"1 3 °
C 76 2 . cm . b ar o m e t e r ; s un s h i ne .

e = k i lo v o lt s b e t w e e n co nd u c t o r s , e fi e c t iv e
'
.

p ki lo w a t ts lo s s .

ob 0 1
1 81 . 0 221 0 .
8 70
. 6 44
.

o b 00 1 86 . 2 2 2 7 -0 1 0 66 219 0 8 31
o -
. . .

a
0 1 92 6 1 3 -2 5
-
f 1 .

o 0
0 a

f 20 0 . 6 1 89 0 .
2 10
.

o fie 0
1

20 8 . 6 1 95 0 .

o i n00 21 6 . 0 2 03 8 .

C . Vo l um e -p re s s u r e c h ara c t e ri s t i c o f d ry s t e am at i t s b o iling —
p o i nt .

t = d e gr e e s C .

P = p r e ss ur e , i n k g p e r c m . .
2

V= vo lu m e , i n m 3 p e r kg . .

0 61 2
.

0 3 79
.
0 1 67
.

0 319
.
256 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

( G) .
(The phase di ff erences here are re f erred to the ma x imum
o f the f un damental : with waves o f di ff erent freq u encies the ,

phase di ff erenc es natur ally change f rom point to point and in ,

speaking of phase di fference the reference point on the wave

,

Th i r d H arm onic

FI G 85
. . E ff e ct of S m all T hird H ar m o nic .

must th u s be given For instan ce in C the third harmonic is

.
,

in phase with the f undamental at the ma x im um point of the

latter but i n O pposition at its z ero point )
,
.

The equati ons o f these waves are :

A: y= 1 00 c os B ,

C : y= 1 00 cos {1 + 1 0 cos
E : y= 1 00 cos cos (3fi+ 9 0 deg ) .

G: y= 1 0 0 cos fi+ 1 0 cos (3 B+ 1 80 deg )

,
.

1 00 c os fl — 1 0 c os
 E M P I RI CAL C UR VE S . 2 57

y
= 1 00 cos fi+ 3 0 c os 3 5
y = 1 00 cos
fl + 3 0 c os ( 38 4 -
45 deg ) .

y= 1 00 cos
fi + 3 0 cos (3 04 -
90 deg ) .

y = 1 00 cos fl + 30 cos deg )

y = 1 00 cos
fi + 30 cos deg ) .

— —
1 00 c os fl 30 cos 38

Th i r d Harm onic

FI G 86
. . E ff e ct of L arg e T hird H ar m o nic .

In all these waves one cycle O f the tri ple harmonic is given in
,

dotted lines to indicate its relative position and intensity and

, ,

the ma x ima o f the harm onics are indicated by the arrows .

2 58 E NGI N E E RI NG M A T H E M A TI CS .

As seen with the harm onic in phase or in o pposition ( C and

,

G ) the waves are symm etrical ; with the harmoni c ou t of phase

,

the waves are unsymmetrical of the s o called saw tooth ,

-
“ ,
”

type and the saw tooth is on the rising side of the wav e with a
,

lagging on the decreasing side with a leading triple harmonic

, .

Th i r d H ar m oni c Fla t Ze r o Re v e rsa l

FI G 87
. . lat Ze ro
F a nd Re v e rs al b y T hird H arm o nic .

The latter are sho wn in I) E F ; the former have the sam e shape
, ,

b ut reversed that is rising and decreasing side of the wave

, ,

interchanged and there f ore are n ot shown

,
.

The tri ple harmonic in phase w ith the f u ndamental C gives , ,

a pea ked wa ve with flat ze ro and the peak and the flat z ero
,
2 60 E NGI NE E RI N G M A TH E M A TI CS .

At 0,the w ave is entir el y h ori z ontal at th e z ero that is remains , ,

z ero for an appreciabl e time at the reversal I n t h is fig ur e the

.
,

three harmoni cs are sho w n separately in dotted lines in their ,

relative intensities .

A tri pl e harmoni c in opposition t o the f u ndamental (Figs .

85 and 86 C ) is c haracteri z ed by a flat t o p an d steep z ero an d ,

Fi f t hH ar m o ni c

'
E fi e ct Of L arg e Fi fth H arm o n ic .

w ith the increase of the th ird harmonic the flat t op devel ops ,

into a do u bl e peak (Fig 86 C ) w hi le steepness at the point o f

.
,

reversal increases .

The si m ple s aw to oth prod u c ed by a tri ple harmoni c in

,

q u adrat ur e w ith the f u ndam ental is sho w n in Fig SSE With . .

increasing tri ple harmoni c the h u mp of the saw tooth bec omes
,
 E M PI RI CAL C UR VE S . 261

more prono u nced and c hanges to a secon d an d l ower peak as ,

sho w n in Fig 86 This figur e gives the variation of the saw

. .

tooth shape f rom 45 to 45 deg phase di ff erence : With the phase.

o f the third harmoni c s hi fting from i n phase to 45 deg l ead the -

.
,

fl at z ero by m o ving u p on the wave has f ormed a h u m p or saw

, ,

tooth low down on the decreasing ( and with 45 deg lag on the .

increasing ) side of the w ave At 90 deg l ead t h e saw tooth has

. .
,

moved up to the middl e of the down branch o f the wave and ,

with 1 3 5 deg lead has moved still further up forming pr ac t i

.
, ,

,
8
cally a second lo wer peak With 0 deg lead or opposition
1 — . .

o f phase— the h u m p of the saw tooth has moved u p t o the

top and formed the second peak— or the flat top with a lower
, ,

third harmonic as in Fig 85 G

,
. .

Figs 88 and 89 give the e ff ect of the fifth harmonic super

.
,

imposed o n the f u n damental of 5 per cent in Fig 88 and of 2 0 ,

.
,

per cent in Fig 89 Again A gives the f u ndamental sine w ave

. .
,

C the e ff ect of the fi fth harmoni c in opposition w ith the f u nda

mental E in q u a d rat ure (lagging ) and G i n phase One cycl e
,
.

of the fifth harmonic is sho wn in dotted lines and the max ima ,

of the harmo ni cs indicated by the arrows .

The equations of these waves are given b y

s = 1 00 cos 3
y
g y = 1 00 c os 3 — 5 c os 5 3

a y = 1 00 cos 3 — 5 cos deg ) .

g = 1 00 c os c os 5 3
y

s = 1 00 cos 3
y
a = 1 00 cos 3 20 cos 5 3
y
w .
y=
— 1 00 cos 3 20 cos deg ) .

G : y= 1 00 cos c os 5 3

In the distortion caused by the fif th harmoni c (in opposi

tion to the f u ndamental ) flat top (Fig 880 ) or do u ble peak (at .

higher val u es of the harmonic Fig is accompanied by flat,

.

z ero ( or at very high val u es o f the fi f th harmonic doubl e rever

, ,

sal at the z ero similar as in Fig 87 d) while i n the dist ortion

,
.
,

by the t hird harmonic it is accompani ed by sharp z ero .

With the fi f th harmonic in phase w ith the f undamental a ,

peaked wave res ults with steep z ero Fig 88G an d the transi ,
.
,
2 62 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

tion from the steep z ero to the peak with larger val ues o f th e
,

fifth harmoni c then devel ops into two additional peaks thus
, ,

givi ng a trebl e peaked wave Fig 88G with steep z ero The
,
.
, .

be ginning of trebl e peakedn ess is n otic eabl e already i n

88 G with only 5 per c ent of fi f th harmonic
,
.

Th i r d H ar m oni c
t o
fi f h H arm ni c

T hird a nd F ifth H arm o n ic .

With the seventh harmoni c the trebl e peaked wave would

,
-

be acc om panied by fiat z ero and a q u a d r u pl e peaked wave

,
-

wo uld give steep z ero (Fig .

The fi f th harmonic o u t o f phase with the f un damental again

gives saw tooth waves Figs 88 and 89 E b u t the saw tooth
-
,
.
,
2 64 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M ATI CS .

While characteristic of th e e ffect of the fifth h arm onic is

C oin cidenc e of peak with stee p z ero or trebl e peak of flat
, ,

to p or do u ble peak with flat z ero or d ou ble reversal and do u bl e ,

saw tooth
-
.

Th i rd H arm o nic
Fi f t h H arm oni c

FI G 9 2
. . T hird a nd i th
Ff H ar m o nic .

Bythus combining thir d and fi f th harmoni cs o f proper

val ues they can be made to ne utrali z e each other s e ff ect in any
,
’

one of their characteristics but then accentuate each other in

,

the other characteristic .

Th u s peak and flat z ero o f the tri ple harmonic combined w ith
peak and st eep z ero of the fifth harmoni c gives a peaked wave ,

with n ormal sin u soidal appearanc e at the z ero val u e ; c om b in

 EM PI RI CAL C UR VE S . 2 65

ing the flat tops or do u bl e peaks o f both harmonics the flat ,

z ero o f the on e neutrali z es the steep z ero o f the other an d we ,

get a flat top or do u bl e peak wi th n ormal z ero Or by com .

bining the peak o f the t hi rd harmonic with the flat top of the
fifth we get a w ave w ith n ormal t op b u t steep z ero an d w e get a , ,

wave with n ormal top b u t flat z ero or do u ble reversal by com

, ,

bining the triple harmonic peak wi th the fi fth harmonic flat top .

Th u s any of the characteristics can be prod u c ed separately

by the combination o f the thir d and fi fth harm o ni c .

B y combining third and fi f th harmonics o ut o f phase w ith

f unda e nt al such as give single or do u ble saw tooth shapes the
m — -
,

vario u s other s aw tooth shapes are prod u ced and still f ur ther
-
,

saw tooth shapes by combining a symmetrical (in phase or i n

-
,

opposition ) thir d harmonic with an o ut of phase fi f th or ,

inversel y .

These shapes produc ed by the s u perposition under di fferent ,

phase angles of fi f th and third harmonics on the f u ndamental

, ,

and their grad u al change into each other by the shifting in

phase of one o f the harmonics are shown in Figs 90 9 1 and 9 2 ,
.
,

for a third harm onic O f 1 0 per cent and a fi f th harmoni c of 5 ,

per cent of the fundamental .

I n Fig 9 0 the third harmonic is in phase in Fig 9 1 in q u adra

.
,
.

ture lagging and in Fig 92 in opposition w ith the f undamental

,
. .

A gives the fundamental B the f u ndamental w ith the third har ,

monic only and C D E F the w aves resulting from the s u per

, , , , ,

position o f the fi f th harmo ni c on the combination of funda

mental and third harmoni c given as B I n C the fi f th har monic ,
.

is in opposition in D in quadrat ure lagging in E in phase and

, , ,

in F in q u adrature leading .

We see here ro u nd tops with flat z ero (Fig nearly .

triangular waves (Fig 90E ) appro x imate half circles (Fig

.
,
.

9 2 E ) sine waves with a dent at the top ( Fig 9 2 C ) and vari

,
.
,

o us di fferent forms of saw tooth .

The eq u ations of these waves are :

s = 1 00 c os 3
y
a = 1 00 c os 3 + 1 0 cos 33
y
g y
= 1 00 c os c os 33 — 5 cos 53
a y = 1 00 c os c os 33 — 5 c os deg ) .

s = 1 00 cos 3 + 1 0 c os c os 5 3
y
2 66 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

= 1 00 c os
y 3
— 10
y
= 1 00 c os 3 c os deg .
)
= 1 00 c os — 10 c os 5 3
y 3 cos deg .
) —5

= 1 00 — 10
y c os 3 c os deg .
) — 5 c os
= 1 00 — 10
y cos 3 cos deg .
)+5 c os 5 3
= 1 00 c os — 10 c os deg ) +5 cos
y 3 .

s = 1 00 cos
y 3
w y = 1 00 c os —
3 10 c os 33
c = 1 00 c os — 10 c os 33 — 5 c os 5 3
y 3
b y= 1 00 cos 3 10 -
cos 33 — 5 c os deg ) .

m y
= 1 00 cos 3 — 10 cos c os 5 3

E VE N H ARM O N I c s .

1 61 . o f the wave —shape dis tortion of even har

Characteristic
monies is that the wave is not a symm etrical wave b u t the ,

two half waves have di fferent shapes and the characteristics ,

of the negative hal f w ave are O pposite to those of the positive .

This is to be e x pected as an even harmo ni c whi ch is in phas e

, ,

with the positive hal f wave of the f undamental is in O pposition ,

with the negative ; when l eading in the positive it is lagging ,

in the negative and inversel y ,

.

Fig 93 shows the e ffect of a sec on d harmoni c of 30 per c ent

.

o f the f u ndamental A s u perim posed in q u adrat ure 60 deg

, ,
.

phase displ ac ement 3 0 deg displ acement and in phase in

,
.
,

B C D and E r espectively
, ,
.

The equations of these waves are :

A: y= 1 0 0 c os 3 an d y = 3 0 c os (2 3 — 90 ) ’

B : y= 1 00 — 90
c os c os ( 3
2 )
— 60
C : y= 1 00 cos c os ( 3
2 )
— 30
D : y= 1 00 c os cos ( 3
2 )
E : y= 1 00 cos c os 23

Q uadrat ur e c ombination (Fig 93B ) gives a wave where the .

risi ng side is flat the decreasing side stee p an d inversel y with

, ,

the other hal f wave C and D give a peaked w ave for the on e a
.
,

saw tooth for the other hal f wave an d E c oincidenc e of phas e , ,

of f undamental an d secon d harmonic gives a c om bination of ,

on e peaked hal f w ave with on e flat top or double peaked wave - -

.
2 68 E NGI N E E R I NG M A TH E M A T I CS .

of a wave in w hich the on e hal f wave is a sh ort high peak the

,
,

other a l ong flat top by the s u perposition o f a second harmoni c

,

of per cent and a third harmoni c of 1 0 per cent both in

,

phase with the f u ndamental .

A gives the f undamental sine wave B and C the second and ,

third harmonic D th e combin ation of f u ndamental an d second

,

S e c o nd Th i rd Har m o ni c

FI G 9 4
. . Pe ak a nd lat T
F op b y Se co nd a nd T hird Harm o nic .

h armo ni c giving a do u ble peaked negative hal f wave and E the

,
,

addition o f the third h armoni c to the wave D Thereby the .

do u bl e peak of the negative hal f wave is fiat t e d to a l ong flat

top and the peak o f the positive half wave intensified an d
,

shortened so that the positive ma x im u m is abo ut two and one

,
~
 E M P I RI CAL C UR VE S .

half times the negative ma x im u m and the n egative half wave ,

nearly 7 5 per cent longer than the positive half wave .

The eq u ations of these waves are given by :

A: y= 1 00 c os 3
B: y cos 2 3
C : y= 1 0 cos 33
D : y= 1 00 cos cos 23
E : y= 1 00 c os c os c os 33

H I G H HA R M O N I C S .

1 62Comparing the effect of the fi f th harmonic , Figs 88 and

. .

89 , with that O f the t h ird harmonic , Figs 85 and 8 6, it is seen .

1 0 if S e v e nt h Harm o n i c

E ff e ct Of Se v nth H ar m o nic
e .

that a fi f th harmonic even if very small is f ar easier distin

, ,

g u is h e d that
,
is merges less,
int o the f u ndamental than the third

harmonic S till m ore t his is the case with the seventh har
.
‘

monic as shown in Fig 95 in phase and in O pposition of 1 0 per

,
.
,

cent intensity Thi s is to be e xpected : sine waves which do not

.

di ffer very m u ch in freq u ency s u ch as the f u ndamental and

,

the secon d or third h arm onic merge i nto each other and form a
,

res u ltant shape a distorted wave of characteristic appearance

, ,
2 70 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

whil e sine w aves o f very di ff erent freq u encies as th e fund am e n ,

tal and its el eventh harmoni c in Fig 9 6 when s u perimposed ,

.
, ,

remain distinct from each other ; the general shape of the w ave
is the f undamental sine and the high harm onics appear as ri p
,

pl es u pon the fundamental th us gi vi ng what may be called a ,

corr ugated sine wave B y co u nting the n u mber o f ripples per

.

FI G 96 . . W ave i n w hi ch E le ve nth H arm oni e Pre dom i na te s .

compl ete wave or per hal f wave the order of the harmo ni c
, ,

can then rapidly be determined For instan ce the wave sho w n .

,

in Fig 96 contains mainl y the eleventh harmonic as there are

.
,

eleven ripples per wave The wave sho w n by the oscillogram .

Fig 97 shows the twenty third harm onic etc

.
-
,

FI G 9 7. . C D 2 35 1 0 . Alt e rnator W av e w i t h S i ng l e H i g h H arm o nic .

Very f requently high harm onics appear in pairs o f nearly the

same freq u enc y and intensity as an eleventh and a thirteenth ,

harmonic etc I n this case the ri pples in the wave shape sh o w

,
.
,

ma x ima w here the t w o harmonics c oincide and n odes w here

, , ,

the t w o harmonics are in opposition The presence o f n odes .

makes the c o u nting o f the n u m ber o f ri pples per c om plete w ave

more d i fficult A c onvenient meth od o f proc ed ure in this c ase
.
272 E NGI N E E RI NG M ATHE M ATI CS .

72
t wo freq u encies : f —l— and f
g and as one of these f req u encie s
is the impressed engine f req u ency thi s a ffords a check
,
.

Wh ere the two high harmonics of nearly eq u al order as the ,

el eventh and the thir teenth in Fig 9 8 are appro x imately eq u al

.
,

in intensi t y at the n odes the ripples practically disappear

, ,

and between the nodes the ri pples give a freq u en cy intermediate

between the two c omponents : Appar ently the twel fth harm onic
in Fig 98 I n this case the two c onstituents are e asily deter
. .

mined : 1 2 — 1 = 1 1 an d ,

Where of the two c onstituent s one is greater than th e other

the wave still sh ows n odes but the rippl es d o n ot entirel y d is a p
, ,

pear at the n odes b u t merel y decrease that is the wave sh ow

, , ,

a sine with ri ppl es which increase an d decrease al ong the waves

FI G . 1 00 . C D 2 35 1 1 . Al te rnat or W av e w ith T W O Ne arl y E q u al H i g h

H ar m o n ic s .

as shown by the oscillograms 9 9 and 1 00 I n this case one o f .

,

the t w o high freq u encies is given by c o u nting the total number

of ripples b u t it may at first be in do u bt wh ether the other
, ,

c om ponent is higher or lo w er by the number of nodes The .

decision then is made by c onsidering the length O f the ri ppl e at

the n ode : I f the l ength is a ma x im u m at the n ode the secondary ,

harm onic is of higher frequen cy than the predominating on e ;

i f th e length o f the ri pple at the n ode is a minim u m the sec ond ,

ary freq u ency is l ower than the predominating one This is .

ill u strated in Fig 1 0 1 I n this fig u re A an d B re present th e

. .
,

tenth and twel fth h ar m Onic of a wave respectively ; C gives ,

their s u perposition with the lo w er harmonic A predominating ,

w hile B is only of hal f the intensity of A D gives the s u pe r pos i

.

tion o f A and B at eq u al intensity and E gives the s u per ,

position with the higher frequency B predominating That is .

,

the respective equations would be :

 E M P I RI CAL C UR VE S . 273

A : y= cos 1 03
B : y= eos 1 2 3
C : y= eos c os 1 23
D : y= eos 1 03 + cos 1 23
E : y= 0 5 c os 1 03 + c os 1 2 3
.

As seen in C the hal f wave at the node is abnormally long

, ,

showing the preponderance of the l ower frequency in ,

E ab h or
S u pe r pos it i on o f Hig h Har m oni cs

FI G 1 0 1
. . Su pe p r o itio n of T w Hi g h
s o H arm o n ic of Vario u s I nt e ns iti e s
s .

mally short s h owing the preponderance O f the higher f req u ency

,
.

I n alternating c ur rent and voltage waves the appearance o f

-
,

two s u cc e ssive h igh harmonics is q u ite f requent For instance

'

if an alternating c ur rent generator c ontains 72 sl ots per pol e ,

this prod u ces i n the voltage w ave the t w o harm onics o f orders
 E NGI N E E R I NG M A T H E M A T I CS .

2 72 — 1 and 2 a + 1 S uch is the origin o f the harmonics in the

.

oscillo grams Figs 99 and 1 00 . .

The nature o f the increase and decrease of the ripples and the
formati on of the n odes by the s u perposition of two a dj acent
high harmonics i s best seen by c ombining their e x pressions trig
o no m e tr i cally .

Thus the harmonics :

y, ( 2n= c os

a nd yz (
= c os 2 n + 1
)3
c ombined give the res ultant :
y = y + y2 1
—c os ( 2 n c os (2 n
—2
c os 3 c os 2 n3

that is give a w ave of frequency 2 n times the fundamental :

,

c os 2 n3 but w hich is n ot c onstant b u t varies in intensity

, ,

by the factor 2 c os 3 .

No t in f req u ently wave shape distorti ons are met which are
-
,

not due t o higher h arm onics o f th e fundamental wave but are ,

inc ommens u rable there w ith I n this case there are two entir ely
.

unrelated f req u encies This for instance occ urs i n the sec ond
.
, ,

ary c ircuit of the single phase inducti on m otor ; two sets o f

-

c urrents of the f req u encies f an d ( 2f — f ) e x ist ( where f is the

, , ,

primary freq u ency and f the frequency of sli p ) Of this natur e

, .
,

freq u ently is the distortion produced by s ur ges oscillations

, , ,

arcing grounds et c in electric circui ts ; it is a combination of

,
.
,

the natural freq u ency o f the circ ui t with the impressed fre
q u eney Tel ephonic currents comm only show such m ultiple
.

freq uencies whi ch are n ot h arm oni cs of each other

, .
2 76 E NGI NE E RI NG M A T HE M A TI CS .

The ne x t then in c ases where c onsiderable nu merical c ale u

,

lati o ns are required is the metho d of c alc u lation ,

The most .

c onveni ent one us u ally is the arrangement i n tabular form .

As e x ample c onsider the problem of c al c u lating the regu la

,

tion o f a —volt transmission line o f r = 60 ohms resist

,

anc e x = 1 3 5 ohms ind u ctive reactance and b = 0 00 1 2 c ond e n

, ,
.

sive su sceptance f or various values of non inductive ind u c tive

,
-
, ,

and c ond e nsive load .

S tarting wit h the c omplete equations of the long distanc e -

transmission line as given i n Theory and Calc u lati on of

,

Transient E lectri c Phenomena and Oscillations Section I I I , ,

paragraph 9 and c onsidering that f or every one o f the vario u s

,

power factors lag and lead a su fficient number of values

-
, , ,

have to be calculated to gi ve a curve the amount of work ,

appears hopelessly large .

However witho u t loss of engineering e x actness the e q ua

, ,

tion of the transmission line can be simplified by appro x im a

tion as discussed in Chapte r V paragraph 123 to the form
, , , ,

E 1 = E0 1+ ‘

l Z IO
‘

1 +

I1 :
10 1+ + YE O 1 +

where E 0 ,
Io are voltage and current respectively at the step ,

down end ,
E 1 1 1 at the st ep —u p end of the line ; and
,

'

Z r+ jx 60 1 3 53 is the total line impedance ;

Y = g + jb + 0 00 1 2 j . is the total shunted line admittance .

Herefrom follow the n u merical val ues

5 15
2 2
1 + 0 0 36j
.

1 00 27
 N UM E RI CAL CAL C UL A TI ONS .

Z
l
1

y 1 + 0 00 1 2 j)
. + o o1 2 j).

0 00 1 1 68j
.
-
l

hence s u bstit uting in

,
the f o llow ing eq u ations may be
w ritten

A+8 ;
1
'

0 03 03) E o =
E1 =
(0 9 1 9 (2 )
. .

11 C— D .
)
_
1 65 o
Now the work of calc u lating a series of n u merical
val ues 1 s cont in u ed in tab u lar f orm as f ollows : ,

1 . 1 00 P E R C EN T PO W E R -
FAC T O R .

E 0 = 60 kv . a t s t e p -d o w n e nd o f li ne .

A + 2 2 j kv
. .

D= 1 1 68 1 ) E 0 1 0 = am
°

3
. 7o l i
.
p .

E1 = + e
I o am p . B kv . e1 2 + 0 22 = e z .
— = t an e .

0 2 2j. 3 03 6 +
- 3 1 58 + l
2 6j.
l 4 Bi ‘ '

5 3j. 329 5 +
58 5 + 1 0 1j
. .
+ 0 l 73
.

4 5 + 1 0 5j
. . 5 9 6 + 1 2 7j
. .

+ 14 2
°

5 7 + l 3 2j
. . 41 + 0 2 53
6 8 + 1 5 8j
. . 6 1 9 + 1 8 0j
. .

t am
C am p .
42

— 90 1 49 1 5
j .

+ 90 9
20 1 7 5 + 70 8j
. . 50 1 3 + 30 6 = 5 3 1 9
40 36 8 + 1 4 j
. . 3 5 9 + 7 1 5j
. . 64 0 1
60 55 l + 2 2 j
. . 54 2 4-72 3 5 8165
80 73 5+ 2 9j
. .
+73 0j .

00 91 9 + 3 6j
. .
+ 0 811
20 1 10 3 + 4 3j
. .
+ 74 4 ] + 0 68 0 4
2 78 E NGI NE E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

ci = 6o kv . a t s t e p - u p e nd o f li ne .

Re d . Fa c t o r ,

am p .
Po w e r - Fa c t o r .

C u rve s of 20 , c
o,
21 . cos 0, p l o t t ed i n Fi g . 86 .

2 . 90 PE R CE N T PO W E R F AC T O R -
,
LAG .

c os sin
0- j s in 0)

E1
(0 9 1 9 + ( 1 00 5 + A+B ’

1 1 08310 0 1 0 3
-

I1 (0 9 1 9 +
'
e D .

and now the table is calculated i n the same manner as under 1 .

Then correspo nding tables are calculated in the s ame ,

manner for power facto r

,
and respectively lag
-
, , ,

and for power factor - lead ; that is for ,

cos 0 + j s in -
0 6j ;
.

0 9+
O S + 0 6j ;
. .

O7+ .

The n curves are plotted for all seve n values of p owe r factor -
,

from lag to lead .

From these curves for a number of value s of 20 for ins tance

, , ,

40 60 80 1 00 numeric a l values of 21 ea cos 0 a re

, , , , , , ,
280 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

( a) E stimation of the magn itude of an e ffect ; that 13 ,

determ ining appro x imate numerical val u es w ithin 2 5 50 or , ,

1 0 0 per ce nt Very f requ ently s u ch very ro u gh appro x imation

.

is su fficient and is all that can be e x pected or calc u lated

,
.

For instance when invest igat ing the short c irc u it current o f an
,
-

electric generat ing system it is of importance t o know whether ,

this current is 3 or 4 t imes normal c u rrent or whether it is ,

40 to 50 times normal current but it is immaterial whether ,

it is 45 to 46 or 50 t imes normal I n st u dying lightn ing .

phenomena and in general abnormal voltages in electri c

, , ,

systems calculat i ng the di scharge capac ity of lightn ing arres

,

ters etc the magnit u de o f the qu ant ity is often su fficient In

,
.
,
.

calc u lat ing the crit ical speed of tur bine alternators or t he ,

natural period of osc illat ion of synchrono u s machines the ,

same applies since it is o f importance o nly to see that these

,

speeds are s u fficient ly remote f rom the normal operating speed

to give no tro u ble in operat ion .

( b ) Appro x imate calc u lat ion re quiring an accuracy of one ,

or a few per cent only ; a large part of engineering cale u

lat ions fall in this class especi a lly calc u lati ons in the rea lm o f
,

des i gn Altho u gh freq u ently a h igh er acc u racy co u l d be

.
, ,

reached in the calc u lation proper it wo u ld be o f no val u e , ,

s ince the data on which the cal c u lat ions are based are s us
ce pt i b le to variations beyon d control due to vari ation in the ,

material in the mechanical dimensions etc

, ,
.

Th us for instance the e xc iting c u rrent of i nduct ion motors

, ,

may vary by several per cent due to variations of the lengt h ,

of a ir gap so small as to be beyon d the lim its o f constr u ct ive

,

acc u racy and a calc u lat ion e x act to a fraction o f o ne per cent
, ,

w hile theoret ically possi b le th u s wo u ld be pract ically u se less

, ,

The calc u lation of the ampere —t u rns requ ire d f or the sh unt
fie ld e x c itat ion or for the series field of a dire ct c u rrent
,
-

generator needs on ly moderate e x actness as variat ions in the ,

magnet ic material in the spee d re gulat ion of the driving

,

power etc prod u ce di fferences amo u nt ing to severa l per

,
.
,
»

cent .

(0 ) E x act engineering calc u lat ions as for instance the , , ,

calc u latio ns o f the e fficiency o f apparat us the re gu lat ion o f ,

transforme rs the characterist ic c u rves of ind u ct ion motors

, ,

etc These are determ ined w ith an acc u racy f req uent ly amount
.

i ng to one tenth of one per cent and even greater

-
.
 N UM E RI CAL CAL C UL A TI ONS . 2 81

e x act e ngi ne erm g calc u lat io ns the accurac y

E ven for m os t ,

of th e slide rule is
u s u ally su fficient i f intelli gently used t hat , ,

is used so as to get the greatest accuracy For accurate caleu

,
.

lations pre f erably the glass slid e sho u ld not be used b u t the
, ,

res u lt interpolated by the eye .

Thereby an acc u racy w ithin 4 pe r cent c an easily be main

t aine d .

Fo r most engineering c alc u lations logarithmic tables are ,

su fficient for th ree decimals i f intelligently u sed and as s u ch

, ,

tables c an be c ontained on a single page their use makes th e ,

c alc u lation ve ry m u ch mo re expeditio u s than tables o f more

d ec imals The same applies to trigonometric tables : tables
.

of the trigonometric functions ( not their logarithms ) of three

d ecimals I find most c onveni ent for most c ases given f rom ,

degree to d egree and u sing d ecimal f ractions of the d egrees

,

( not mi nu tes and

E x pedition in engineering c alc u lati ons t h u s requires the u se
of tools of no higher acc u racy than requ ired i n the result and ,

such are the slid e rules and the three d ecimal logarithmic and
,

trigonometric t ables The u se of these h ow eve r make i t

.
, ,

necce ss a ry to g u ard in the c alc u lation against a loss of accu rac y .

Su ch loss o f accu racy occ u rs i n s u btracting o r dividing tw o

terms w hi ch are nearly equ al in som e logarithmic operations , ,

sol u tion o f equ ation etc and i n s u ch c ases either a higher

, ,
.

acc u racy o f calc u lation m u st be employed — seven d ecimal

logarithmic tables e tc o r the O peration w hich lowe rs the
,
.
~

acc u racy avoid ed The latte r c an us u ally be d one For

,
. .

ins tance in divid ing 2 97 by 2 83 by the slide rule the proper

, ,

way is to divid e 2 97 by 283 and add the resu lt ,

to 1 .

I t is in the methods of c alc u lation that e xpe rienc e and j udg

ment and skill in e fficiency o f arrangement o f nu meric al c ale u
lati o ns is m ost marked .

1 67 While the c alc u lations are u nsatis f actory if not carried

.
,

out with the d egree o f exac tness w hich is f easible and d esirable ,

it is equ ally w rong to give nu merical val u es w ith a nu mber o f

T hi s O bvious ly do e s no t app ly to so m e cla e of e ngi n ri ng w ork ss s ee ,

in
w hi ch a m ch hi gh e r acc racy of tri g o no m e tric f u nctio ns i s r e qui r e d
u u
, as

tri go nom e tric surv e yi ng e t c , .

2 82 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

c iphe rs greater than the method or the p urpose of the calcu la

t ion w arrants For ins tance i f in the des ign o f a d irect cur rent
.
,
-

generator the calc u lated fie ld ampere t u rns are given as 97 38

,
-
,

such a numeri ca l val ue destroys the confidence i n the work o f

the calculator or designer as it implies an acc u racy greater
,

t han poss ible and there by sho ws a lac k of j u dgment

,
.

The number o f ciphers in whi ch the result o f calc ulation is

given should signify the e x actness I n this respect t wo
.

systems are in use :

( a ) Num erical values are given w ith one more decimal
than warranted by the probabl e error of the re su lt ; that is ,

the dec imal be f ore the last is correct but t he l ast dec imal may
,

be wrong by several u nits This method is us ually employed

.

in astronomy physics etc

, ,
.

(b ) Num erical val ues are given with as many dec i ma ls as

the acc u racy O f the ca lc u lation warrants ; that is the last ,

dec imal is probably correct within half a unit For ins tance .
,

an e ffici ency of 86 per cent means an e ffic iency between

and pe r cent ; an e ffic iency of per cent means an -

e ffic iency between and per cent etc This system ,

.

is generally used in engineering calculat ions To get accuracy .

of the last dec imal o f the res u lt the calc ulat ions then must
,

b e carried o ut for one more decimal t han given i n the res u lt .

For ins tance when calculat ing the e ffic iency by adding the
,

vario us percentages of losses data l ike the following may b e

,

g i ven :

Total
E ffic i e nc v 1 00
Appro x i mate ly

is obvio us that t hro u gho ut the same calculat io n the

It
same degree of acc u racy mus t be observed .

I t follows herefrom that the val u es

2 4;
2 84 E NGI N E E RI NG M A THE AI A TI C S .

po ints near the desired val ue so as to get at least a short piece

,

o f curve i nc luding the desired point .

The main advantage and f oremost p u rpose of c ur ve plott ing

,

thu s is to show the shape of the f u nct ion and thereby give ,

a c learer concept ion of it ;

b ut for recording n u merical
val ues and deriving n u mer
,

ical val ues from it the plotted

,

c u rve is in f erior t o the table ,

d ue t o the limited acc u racy

possible in a plotted c u rve ,

and the f u rther inacc u racy

res u lt ing when draw i ng a
curve thro u gh the p lotted cal
c ulat e d po ints . To some
e x tent the nume rical val ues
,

as taken f rom a plotted c u rve ,

depend on the partic u lar

kind of c u rve ru le used in FI G 1 03 Com p ound ing Cur ve
. , .

p lotting the c u rve .

I n general c u rves are used f or t w o di ff erent purposes and

, ,

on the p urpos e for which the curve is plotted sho u ld depend ,

the method of plotting as the scale the z ero val ues etc
, , ,
.

When c u rves are used to

illustrate the shape of the
f unct ion so as to show how ,

m u ch and in what manner a

q u antity varies as function
of another large divisions of ,

incons pic u ous cross sect ion -

ing are desirable but it is ,

essential that the cross

sectioning sho u ld e xtend to
the z ero val ues o f the func
t ion even if the numeri cal
,

val ues do not e xtend so

FI G 1 04
. . Com p ounding Cu rve far S ince O therwise a wrong
. ,

impression wo u ld be con
f erred As ill ustrations are plotted in Figs 1 03 and 1 04 the
. .
,

compo u nding c u rve o f a direct c u rrent generator The arrange

-
.
 N UM E RI CAL C ALC UL A TI ONS . 2 85

ment in Fig 1 03 is correct ; it shows t h e relative variation

.

of voltage as f u nction o f the load Fi g 1 04 in which the

. .
,

cross sectioni ng does not be gin at t h e scal e z ero con f ers the
-
,

FI G 1 0 5
. . Cu rve Plotte d to s how Cha racte ri stic S hape .

FI G 1 06. . Cu rve Plot t e d for U se as D e s i gn D ata .

wrong impression that the variation o f voltage is far greater

than it really is .

When c u rves are used to record n u me ri cal val u es and

derive them from the c u rve as f or i nstance is commonly the
, , ,
2 86 E NGI NE E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

c ase with magneti zation curves it is unnecessary to have the z ero ,

o f the f unction co inc ide with the z ero of the cross sec t ioning but -
,

rather pre ferable not to have i t so i f thereby a better sc ale of ,

the cur ve can b e sec u red I t is desirable however to us e su ffi

.
, ,

c i e nt lysmall cross secti oning to make it possible to take num er

-

ical values f rom the curve with good accura cy This is ill u s .

tra t e d by Figs 1 05 an d 1 06
. B oth sh ow the magnetic charac .

teris t ic of so ft steel f or the range a b ove B

, 8000 in which it is ,

usually employed Fig 1 0 5 shows the proper way O f plotting for

. .

showing the shape of the function Fig 1 06 the proper way o f ,

.

plotting for use of the cur ve to derive num erical values there from .

FI G 1 0 7
. . a
S m e Fun ctio n Plotte d to D i ffe re nt S cale s; I is corre ct .

1 69 . Curves
shou ld be p lotted in such a manner as to sho w
the q uant ity which they represent and its variat ion as well as , ,

possible Two features are des irable h e re for

.

1 To use such a scale that the average slope o f the curve

.
,

or at least of the more important part o f it does not di ffer

"
,

much from 45 deg H ereby variat ions of c u rvature are best

.

show n To i llustrate this the e xp onential f u nct ion y= c

.
,
is c

pl otted in thr ee diff erent scales as c u rves 1 II II I in Fig 1 0 7 , , , , . .

C ur ve I has the proper scale .

2 To us e such a scale that the t otal range of ordinates is

.
,

not m u ch di fferent from the total range of abscissas Th u s .

when plotting the power factor of an ind u ctio n motor i n -

,

Fig 1 08 curve I is pre f erabl e to c ur ves II or I I I

.
, .
28 8 E N G I N E E RI N G M A TH E M A TI CS .

pa p er b u t not log 23 or (P or logarith m ic paper u sed etc as

, , , , .
,

this w o u ld not sho w the shape o f the relation U s in g

f or instan ce se m i logarithmic pa p er that is w ith lo ga ri t h
-
, ,

mi c absciss ae and ordinary ordinates the plotted c u rve w o u ld ,

sho w the shape o f the relation y=f ( lo g etc The u se o f .

lo g arithmic p a p er or the u se o f y or x/E as coordinate etc is

,
2
, ,
.
,

j u stified only w here the p u rpose is to sho w the relation bet w een
y and lo g 23 or bet w een y and x or bet w een y and et c as is
2
.
, , ,

the case w hen inve s ti g atin g the e qu ation o f an e m p ir cal c u rve ,

or w hen intendin g to sho w some p artic u lar f eat u re o f the relation

y f Th u s f or instance w hen p lottin g the p ow er p cons u med
by corona in a hi g h p otential transm ission line as f u n ction o f the ,

line volta g e e by u sin g x/ f) as ordinate a strai g ht line res ults

, ,
.

Also w here so m e p art i c u lar f u nction o f one o f the coordinates ,

as lo g 23 gives a more rational relation it m a y be u sed instead

, ,

o f it Th u s f or instan ce in radiation c u rves or w hen ex p res sin g

.
,

velocity a s f u nction O f w ave len g th or f re qu enc y or ex p re ss in g ,

atten u ation o f a w ireless w ave etc the lo g o f w ave len g th or

,
.
,

f req u en cy that is the g eo m etric s ca le ( a s u s ed in the theory o f

, ,

so u nd w ith the octave as u nit ) is more rational and there f ore

,

pre f erable .

S ometi m es the val u es o f a relationshi p extend over s u ch a

w ide ran g e as to make it i m p o ss ible to re p re s ent all o f the m in
one c u rve and then a n u m ber o f c u rves m ay have to be u s ed
, ,

w ith di ff erent scales I n s u ch ca s es the lo g arith mi c scale O f ten

.
,

b rin g s all val u es w ithin one c u rve w itho u t i m pro p erly cro w din g ,

and es p ecially w here the p u r p o s e o f c u rve plottin g is not so

m u ch to sho w the s ha p e o f the relation as to record f or the p u r ,

p ose o f takin g n u m erical val u es f ro m the c u rve the latter ar ,

ran g ement that is the u se o f lo g arithmi c or semi lo g arith m ic

, ,
-

p a p er may be de s ira b le Th u s the mag neti c characteristi c o f

.

iron i s u sed over a ran g e o f field inten s ities f ro m very fe w a m

p ere t u rns per c m in tran s f or m ers
. to tho us ands o f a m p ere ,

t ur ns in tooth den s itie s o f rail w ay m otor s and the m a g neti c

, ,

characteristic th u s is either re p resented by three c u rves w ith

di ff erent scales o f ratio s 1 ,
as sho w n in Fi g 1 09 or .
,

the lo g o f field intensity u sed as absci s s as that i s se m i lo g arit h , ,

-

mic p a p er w ith lo garith m ic scale as ab s ciss ae and re g ular scale

, ,

as ordinate s as sho w n in Fi g 1 1 0
,
. .

I t m u st be reali z ed that the lo g arith m ic or g eometrical s c a le

N UM E RI CAL CAL C UL A TI O NS . 89

FI G 1 09
. .

FI G 1 1 0
. .
2 90 E NG I NE E RI NG M ATH E M ATI C S .

—
in eq u al divisions re p re s ent not eq u al val u es o f the
whi ch
u antity b u t eq u al f ractions o f the u antity — is some w hat
q , q
less easy to read than co m mon scale H o w ever as it is the same .
,

scale as the slide r u le thi s is n ot a serio u s obj ection

,
.

A disadvanta g e o f the lo g arith m ic scale is that it cannot

extend do w n to z ero and relations in w hich the entire range
,

do w n to z ero req ui res consideration th u s are not well s ui ted ,

f or the u se o f lo g arith m i c scale .

1 71 Any en g ineerin g calc u lation on w hich it is w orth

.

w hile to devote any ti m e is w orth being recorded w ith s u ffi,

cient com p leteness to be g enerally intelli g ible Very o f ten in .

makin g calc u lations the data on w hi ch the calc u lation is bas ed ,

the s u bj ect and the p u r p ose o f the calc u lation are g iven i nco m
p le t e ly or not at all since they are f a m iliar to the calc u lator a t
,

the time o f calc u lation The calc u lation th u s w o u ld be u nin

.

t e llig ib le to any other en g ineer and u s u ally becomes uni nt e lli

,

g i b le even to the calc u lator in a fe w w eeks .

I n addition to the na m e and the date all calc u lations sho u ld ,

be acco m p anied by a complete record o f the O bj ect and p ur pose

o f the calc u lation the apparat u s the ass u mptions made the
, , ,

data u sed re f erence to other calc u lations or data employed

, ,

et c in short they sho u ld incl u de all the in f ormation req ui red

.
, ,

to make the calc u lation intelli g ible to another en gineer w itho u t

f u rther in f orm ation besides that contained in the calc u lations ,

or in the re f eren ces g iven therein The small a m o u nt o f ti me .

and w ork req u ired to do this is ne g li g ible compared with th e

i ncreased u tility o f the calc u lation .

Tables and c u rves belon g in g to the cal c u lation sho u ld in

the same w ay be co m p letely identified w ith it and contain
s u fficient data to be intelli g ible .

1 7 1 A E n g ineering investi g ations evidently are of n o val u e

.
,

u nle s s they can be co m m u nicated to those to w hom they are o f

interest Th u s the en g ineering re p ort is an essential and i m

.

portant p art o f the w ork I f there f ore occasionally an en g ineer

.

w ork that he hates to

,
w aste
,
“
or scientist i s met w h o is so m u ch interested in the investi g atin g
the time o f m aki n g p roper and
”

com p lete re p orts this is a very f oolish attit u de since in general

, ,

it destroys the val u e o f the w ork .

As p ractically every en g ineerin g investi g ation is O f interest

and i m portance to di ff erent classes o f people as a r u l e not one , ,
2 92 E NG I NE E RI NG MATH E M ATI CS .

( c) The general re p ort This sho u ld g ive the results that is

.
, ,

ex p lain w hat the matter is abo u t in p lain and practically non ,

techni cal langu ag e addressed to laymen that is non -en gineers

, , , .

I n other w ords it sho u ld be u nderstood by any intelligent non

,

technical man .

S u ch g eneral report w o u ld be materially shorter than the

g eneral en g ineering report as it w o u ld omit all details and , ,

merely deal with the g eneral problem p u rpose and sol u tion , .

I n g eneral it is advisable to combine all three reports by

, ,

havin g the scientific record preceded by the general engineerin g

rep ort and the latter p receded by the g eneral re p ort R o u g hly
, .
,

the general report w o u ld u su ally have a len g th o f 20 to 40 p e r

cent o f the g eneral en g ineerin g report the latter a le ngth of 1 0 ,

to 2 5 p e r cent o f the co m p lete scienti fic record .

The bearin g o f the three classes o f reports may be u nderstood

by ill u stration on an investi g ation w hi ch appears o f commercial
u tility and there f ore is s u b m itted f or ind u strial develo p m ent to
,

a man ufact u ring corp oration ; the financial and general adm inis
t ra t i ve p o w ers o f the cor p orations to w ho m the investi g ation is
,

s u bmitted w o u ld read the g eneral re p ort and i f the matter

,

appears to them o f s u ffi cient interest f or f u rther consideration ,

re f er it to the en g ineerin g de p artm ent The general re p ort th u s .

m u st be w ritten f or and intelli g ible to the non -e n g ineerin g

,

ad m inistrative heads o f the or g ani z ation The administrative .

en gineers O f the en g ineering departm ent then per u se the g eneral

en g ineerin g report and this report t h u st m u st be an en g ineerin g
,

report b u t g eneral and not req u ire the kno w led g e o f the s p ecialist
,

in the p artic u lar field I f then the concl u sion derived by the
.

ad m inistrative en g ineers f rom the readin g o f the g eneral en gineer

i ng re p ort i s to the e ff ect that the matter is w orth f u rther con
sideration then they re f er it to the specialists in the field covered
,

by the investi g ation and to the latter finally the scientific record
,

o f the investi g ation a p peals and is st u died in makin g final report

on the w ork .

I nversely w here nothing b u t a lengthy scientific report is

,

s u bmitted as a r u le i t w ill be re f erred to the en g ineerin g de p ar t

,

ment and the general engineer even i f he co u ld w ade thro u gh

, ,

the len g thy re p ort rarely has i m mediately t im e to do so th u s

, ,

—
lays it aside to st u dy sometime at his leis u re and very O f ten
this time never co m es and the entire matter drops f or lack of
, ,

p roper repre s entat i on .

 N UME RI C AL CAL C UL ATI ONS . 2 93

Th u s it is o f the u t m ost i m portance f or the en g ineer and th e

s cienti s t to be able to p resent the res u lts o f his w ork no t only by
,

elaborate and len g thy scientific report b u t also by report o f ,

moderate len g th intelli g ible w itho u t di ffic u lty to the g eneral

,

en gineer and by short statement intel li g ible to the non -en gineer
, .

d . R e li ab ility of Num e ri cal C al cu l ati ons .

1 72 The mo s t i m p ortant and essential req u irement o f

.

n u merical en g ineerin g calc u lations is their absol u te reliability .

W hen makin g a calc u lation the most brilliant ability theo , ,

r e t i ca l kno w led g e and practical experien ce o f an en g ineer are

made u seless and even w orse than u sele ss by a sin g le error in

, ,

an im p ortant calc u lation .

R eliability o f the n u merical calc u lation is o f vastly g reater

i m p ortan ce in en g ineerin g than in any other field I n p u re .

mathe m atics an error in the n um erical calc u lation o f an

e x am p le w hich ill u strates a g eneral p ro p osition does not detract ,

f ro m the interest and val u e o f the latter w hi ch is the main ,

p u r p ose ; in physics the g eneral la w w hich is the s u bj ect o f

,

the investi g ation re m ains tru e and the investi gation o f interest ,

and u se even i f in the n um erical i ll u stration o f t he la w an

,

error is made With the most bril liant en g ineerin g desi g n

.
,

ho w ever i f in the n u merical calc u lation o f a sin g le str u ct u ral

,

m e m ber an error has been made and its stren g th thereby cal e u ,

lated w ron g the rotor o f the machine flies to p ieces by ce ntri f ugal
,

f orces or the bridge colla p ses and w ith it the re p u tation o f the
, ,

en g ineer The essential di ff erence bet w een engineerin g and

.

p u rely scientific c a clu la t i o ns is the ra p id check on the correct

ness o f the calc u lation w hich is u s u ally a fforded by the pe r
,

fo rm a nce o f the calc u lated str u ct u re— b u t too late to correct

errors .

Th u s ra pidity of calc u lation w hile by itsel f u sef u l is o f n o , ,

val ue w hatever com p ared w ith reli ability— that is correctness ,

.

O ne o f the fir s t and m ost im p ortant req u ireme nts to sec u re

reliability is neatness and care in the e x ec u tion o f the calc u la
tion If the calc u lation is m ade on any ki nd o f a sheet o f
.

p a per w ith lead p encil w ith f req u ent striki n g o u t and correct
, ,

i ng o f fig u res etc it is p ractically hopeless to e x pe ct correct

,
.
,

re s u lts f ro m any m ore extensive calc ulations Th us the w or k .

2 9 3a E NGI N E E RI NG MATH E MATI CS .

sho u ld be done w ith pen and ink on w hite r u led pa per ; if ,

chan g es have to be made they sho u ld pre f erably be made by

,

erasin g and not by striking o u t I n general the appearance o f

,
.
,

the w ork is one o f the best indications o f its reliability The .

arran g e ment in tab u lar f orm w here a series o f val u es are cal e u
,

lated Off ers considerable assistance in improving the reliability

,
.

1 73 E ssential in all extensive calc u lations is a complete

.

system o f checking the res u lts to ins ur e correctness ,

.

O ne w a y i s to have the same calc u lati on made independently

by t wo di ff erent calc u lators and then compare the resu lts ,
.

Another w a y is to have a fe w points o f the calc u lation checked

by so m ebody el s e Neither w ay is satis f actory as it is not
.
,

alw ays p os s ible f or an en g ineer to have the assistance O f another

en g ineer to check his w ork and besides this an engineer sho u ld
, ,

and m u s t be able to make n u meri cal calc u lations so that he can

absol u tely rely on their correctness witho u t somebody el s e
assistin g him .

I n any more i m p ortant calc u lations every o peration th u s

sho u ld be per f ormed t w ice pre f erably in a di fferent ma nner
, .

Th u s w hen m u lti p lying or dividing by the slide r u le the m u lti

, ,

plication or division sho u ld be repeated mentally a ppro x i ,

mately as check ; w hen adding a col u mn o f fig u res it sho uld be

, ,

added first do w n w ard then as check u p w ard etc

, , .

W here an exact calc u lation is req ui red first t h e magnit u de ,

o f the q u antity sho u ld be estimated i f not already kno w n , ,

then an a pp roxi m ate calc u lation made w hich can f req u ently ,

be done m entally and then the exact calc u lation ; or inversely

, , ,

a f ter the exact calc u lation the res ul t may b e checked by an

,

a pp roximate m ental calc u lation .

W here a series o f val u es is to be calc u lated it is advisable ,

first to calc u late a fe w individ u al points and then entirely , ,

independently calc u late in tab u lar f orm the series o f val u es

, ,

and then u se the previo u sly calc u lated val u es as check O r .

,

inversely a f ter calc u latin g the series o f val u es a fe w points

,

sho u ld inde pendently be calc u lated as check .

W hen a series o f val u es is cal c u lated it is u s u ally easier to ,

sec u re reliability than w hen calc u lating a sin g le val u e sin ce ,

in the f ormer case the di ff erent val u es check each other There .

f ore i t is al w ays advisable to calc u late a n u mber o f val u es ,

that is a short c u rve branch even i f only a sin g le point is

, ,
 APPE ND I X A .

NOT E S O N T H E T HE O R Y O F FU NCTI O NS .

A G e n e ra l Fu n c ti o ns
. .

1 75 . The most general algebraic Ox pression of powers of

2: and y,

.
)y

)
y
" =
(1)
is the i mplici t f u nc ti on I t relates y and at so t ha t to
a nalytic .

eve ry value of 2: there correspond n val ues of y and to every ,

value of y there correspond m values of x if m is the e x ponent ,

o f the h ighest power of a: in

As suming e x press ion ( 1 ) solved for y (which us u ally cannot

be carried out in final form as it requires the solution of an ,

equa tion of the nt h order in y with coe fficients which are ,

e x pressio ns of x) the explici t ana lyti c fu ncti on

, ,

y (2 )
is obtained I nversel y solv ing the imp li cit fun ction ( 1 ) for
.
,

at that is from the e xp lic it f unction

, ,
e x press in g 2: as
funct io n o f y gives the reverse fu ncti on o f
,
that is
x (3 )
the general algebraic f unct ion in its implicit f orm
In ,

or the e x pli cit f orm or the reverse f unc tion x and y

are ass u med as general num bers ; that is as comple x qua n ,

ti ties ; thus ,

x= zrl + s ;

=
u yi + 79 2 .

and likew ise are the coe fficients coo, am

 APPE N D I X A . 2 95

I f all
the coe fficients a are real and x is real the corre , ,

s po nd ingn val ues of y are e ither real or pairs o f conj u gate ,

comple x imaginary q uantities : yl + jy2 and yl jyg .

1 76 For n = 1 the implicit f u nct ion ( I ) solved f or y gives

.
, , ,

the rati onal fu ncti on ,

2
a oo + a o 1 r + a og x
-
11 1 1 1 23

and if in this f u nct ion (5 ) the denominator contains no a

s, the
i nteger fu nc ti on ,

=a + a 2 25 2
+ am x m
y o .
,

is O btained .

For n = 2 t h e implicit fu nction ( 1 ) can be solved for y as a

q u adratic eq u at ion and thereby gives ,

a l lx + a 1 2x
2 ““
l kt "
v
y a ns:
2

tha t is t h e e x p licit f orm (2 ) o f equ ation ( 1 ) contains in this

,

case a square root .

For n > 2 the e x plic it form y= f (2 ) e ither becomes ve ry

,

complicated for n = 3 and n = 4 or cannot be produced in

, ,

finite form as it re qu ires the sol ution o f an eq u ation of more

,

than the fourth o rder Nevertheless y is still a f u nction of .

,

x and can as such be calc u lated by approx imation etc

, ,
.

To find the valu e yl which by f u nct ion ( 1 ) corresponds t o ,

x = xl
’

,
Taylo r s theorem o ffers a rapid appro x imation Sub .

s t it ut ing 2 1 in f u nction ( 1 ) gives an e x pression which is of

the nt h order in y thus : and the problem now is to

,

find a val u e y] which makes F =0 .

,

Ho w ever ,

h?
F( r l , y1 ) + 11 "
l“
dy d y 2 2
.

wh ere b = yl — y is the di ff erence between the correct val u e y;

and any chosen val u e y .
2 96 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI C S .

Neglecting the higher orders of the small q u antity

a nd cons idering that F( x l y1 ) = 0 _
,
gi ves ,

F( I 1
'
7 y)
dF( I y)
,
17

dy

and he refrom is obt ained y1 = y+ h as first appro x imation , .

Us ing this value o f y1 as y in ( 9 ) gives a second appro x imation ,

which u s ually is s u fficiently c lose .

1 77 Ne w f u nctions are defined by the integrals of the

.

analyt ic f u nctions ( 1 ) or and by the ir reverse f u nct ions .

They are called Ab eli a n i ntegrals and Abeli an fu ncti ons .

Thu s in the most general case the e x plicit f u nction

corresponding to ( 1 ) being

9
the inte gral ,

f ( O dd s

then is the general Abelian integral and its reverse function , ,

the general Abe lian f u nct ion .

= 1 function 2 gives the rational f u nction

( )
a I n the case n , , ( )
f5 ) and its special case the inte ger f u nct ion
,

Fu nction ( 6 ) can be integrated by po w ers of x ( 5 ) can be .

resolved into part ial fract ions and t her eby leads to inte grals
,

of the follow ing forms

2 98 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A T I CS .

and as reverse f u nct ions thereo f there are obtained the , tri go
nome tr ic fu ncti ons .

x = s in 2 ,

I n the case of the pl us sign integral ( 1 6 ) gives

,

— log {V 1 l arc sinh

=
2—
+ 11 x r
.
,

and reverse f unct ions thereo f are the hyperb oli c f u nc ti ons ,
_z
€
—
s 1 nh z :

cosh z .

The trigonometric f unctio ns are e x pressed by the series

sin z= z

a 2
4
z
“
e 14 19 .

as seen in C hapter I I paragraph 5 8,

.

The hyperbolic f u nct ions by subst itut ing ,

the series can be e x pressed by the series :

3 5
2 2 27

2 4 6
z: 2 2

In the ne x t case =3 or 4,
1 79 .
, p

Co d

already leads beyond the elementary f u nct ions that is ( 2 3 ) , ,

cannot be inte grated by rationa l logarithmic or are functio ns , ,

 APP E N D I X A . 2 99

b ut gives a new class of f unctions the elli pti c i ntegrals and , ,

the ir reverse f unctions the elli ptic fu nc ti ons so called becau se

, , ,

they bear to the ellipse a rela tion similar to that which the ,

trigonometric f u nctions bear to the c ircle and the h yperbolic

functions to the equilateral hyperbola .

The integral (23 ) can be resolved into elementary functions ,

and the three classes o f elliptic integrals :

I
I

di :

( 23 — x
) (1

(These t hr ee classe s o f integrals mav be e x pressed in several

di fferent forms ) .

The rever e fu nctions of the elliptic integrals are given by

s

the elliptic functions :

x/ E= sin am u , c
( );
V1— r = eos

);
c l
known respectively as sine amplitude cos ine amplitude delta
, ,
-
,
-
,

amplitude .

E lliptic f unctions are in some respects similar to trigo

no me t ric functions as is see n b ut they are more general
, , ,

depend ing as they do not only on the variable cc b ut a ls o on

, , ,

the constant c They have the interes ting property of being

.

d ou b ly peri odic The trigo nometric f u nctions are periodic w ith

.
,

the periodicity 2 77 that is repeat the same val u es after e very

, ,

change of the angle by The elliptic functio ns have t wo

periods p ; and 292 that is , ,

sin am (u + u p 1 + mpg c) = sin ,

am u , c
( ) etc
, .
(2 6)
hence increasing the variable u by any m u ltiple of e ithe r
,

period p 1 and pg repeats the same val ues

,
.
3 00 E NGI NE E RI NG M A THE M A TI CS .

The two periods are given by the equations ,

I
dr
I

2 Vr ( 1 x) (1 e z
z
)

dr
'

2 V r (1 — zr
e )
1 80 . E llipt ic f u nctions can be e x pressed as ratios of two
infin ite series and these series which form the n u merator and
, ,

the de nom inator of the elliptic f u nction are called theta fu nc ,

ti ons and e x pressed by the symbol (9 th u s ,

sin (
am u , c )

cos am u, c
( )

Aam ( a , )
c ill —
0
2

and the fo u r 0 f u nctions mav be e x pressed by the series

30 (:c) 1 — 2q cos 2x + 2q 4
cos 42 — 2g9
cos
25
01 0 3) = 2ql /4
sin 12
— 2q9 /4
sin 3 2: + 2 9? sin 5 2:
25
=
02 05 ) 2 q1 /4
c os 2: cos 3 a3 + 2 g7 cos
03 (x) 1 + 2 q cos 2 x 2
+ q4
cos 42: + 2 99 cos 6x
w here

q
“and
e a
P2
( 30 )
PI
the c ase o f inte gral f u nction
In where p > 4 similar ,

inte grals and their reverse f u nctions appear more comple x ,

302 E NGI N E E RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

TOevery point P = x y of the e llipse then corresponds a ,

point P 1 = 2: yl on the circle w hich has the same absci ssa r

, , ,

and an angle 3 = AOP 1 .

The a re of the ellipse from A to P then is given by the , ,

integral ,
— z l
( 1 c z dz

where

z sin 2
0 and c

is the e ccentricity of the e llipse .

FI G 9 3 . . Re ctification of E lli ps e.

Thus the problem leads to an e lliptic integral of the first

and of the second class .

For more complete disc u ssion o f the elliptic inte grals and
the elliptic f u nct ions re i e re nce mus t be made to the te x t books
,
-

o f mathematics .

B . Spe c i a l Fu ncti o ns .

1 83 . Numerous special f unctions have been derived by the

e x igencies o f mathematical problems ma inly of astronomy but , ,

in the latter decades also of physics and o f engineer ing Some .

o f them have already been disc ussed as special cases of the

general Abelian integral and its reverse f u nction as the e x po ,

ne nt i al, tri gonometric hyperbolic etc f u nctions

, ,
.
,
.
 AP PE N D I X A 3 03

Fu nctions may be represented by an infinite series of terms ;

that is as a s um o f an infinite nu mbe r o f terms w hich pro
, ,

gressively decrease that is approach z ero The denotation of

, , .

the terms is comm only represented b v the s ummation sign 2 .

Thus the e x ponentia l functions may be written when ,

defi ning ,

m=l
; M = 1 X2 X3 X4 X H . X n,

2 00 ”
$ fl?
e
x =1 Zn
,
0 0
,
0

0 n

wh ich means that terms are to be added f or all val ues of n

I
,

from n = 0 to n = oe
The trigonometric and hyperbolic f unctions may be w ri tten
in the form

fi n x = 2

w ig
”

cos h x=
I}
. I
4
IE
Functions also may be e x pressed by a series of factors ;
that is as a prod u ct o f an infinite series o f factors which pro
, ,

gre ss ive ly approach unity The product series is commonly

.

represented by the symbol

Thus for instance the sine fu nct ion can be e x pressed in the
, ,

form ,

sin x=x 1
l
l

1 84 . I nte gration of known f u nctions frequ ent ly leads to new

func tions . Thus from the ge n er al algebraic funct ions w ere
304 ENGI NEE RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

derived the Abelian f u nctions I n physics and in e ngineering

.
,

integration o f special f u nctions in this mann er frequ ently leads

to new special f unct ions .

For instance in the st u dy of the propagation through space

, ,

of the ma gnet ic field o f a cond u ctor in w ireless te le graphy, ,

lightning protection etc we get new f u nctions I f i = f (t)

,
.
,
.

is the current in the conductor as function o f the t ime t at a

, ,

d istance a: from the conductor the ma gnetic field lags by the

x
t ime tl )
whe re S is the speed of propagation (velocity of
S
light ) . Since
the field inte nsity decreases inversely propor
t io na l to the distance x it th u s is proportional to
,

and t he total magnetic flu x then is

If the current is an alternating current that is f (t) a , ,

trigonometric fu nct ion o f time e q u ation (42 ) leads to the

,

f u nctions ,

If
the current is a d irect current rising as e x ponent ial ,

function of the t ime equat i on (42 ) leads t o the f u nction

, ,
 ENGI NEE RI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

The definite integral ,

Z f (x ,
u , 1) ) dx ,

is no t a function of at but st ill is a function of,

u, v
may be a new funct ion .

1 86 For instance let

.
,

“ —l
y e q ;
then the integral ,

fl
s
x
x
u
dx,

is a new function of u called the gamma fu ncti on

,
.

S ome propert ies of this function may be derived by part ial

integration thus ,

if n is an integer number ,

—1 — —n
) (u ( u n) (
F u ),
and since

if u is an integer n u mber then , ,

'
I (u ) =
| u — 1 .

C . E xpo ne nt i al , Tri go no m e tri c a nd Hype r b o l i c Fu n cti o ns .

(a) FUN C T I O N S OF RE AL V ARI AB L E S .

The e x ponential trigonometric and hyperbolic func

1 87 .
, ,

tions are defined as the reverse f u nct ions of the integrals ,

arc s in x;
 APPEN D I X A . 30 7

x = sin u ,

sinh u ;

cosh u .

From ( 5 7 ) and ( 58 ) it follows that

sin 2
u + cos 2
u = 1 .

From ( 60) and (6 1 ) it follows that

cos 2
hu — sin 2h
u 1 .
( 63 )
— :r —u
Substit u ting ) for a: in gives ) instead of u,

and therefrom ,

— sin u ( 64)

Substit ut ing -
u ) f or u in reverses the sign of 32,

that is ,
—u —
sinh ) sinh u .

Su bstituting ) f or x in ( 58) and

— x
does not change
the value o f the square root that is , ,

cos —
u ) = cos u,

cosh u ) cosh u ,

Which sign ifies that cos u and cosh u are e ven fu nc ti ons
sin u and sinh u are odd fu ncti ons .

Adding and s u btractin g (60 ) and gives

e
i u = c o sh u t sinh u .
3 08 ENGI NEERI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

(b ) FU N CT I O N S OF I M AG I NAR Y V AR I AB L E S .

= x gives
x8 8 . Su bst it u t ing in ( 5 6 ) and
,
sr = jy th,
u s y j ,

u u

x = s in u x = s inh u =
—
; 7

he nce , j u hence ju ,

y sinh ju y sin ju ;

1— y
2 = cos
ju ;

Resu b st it ut ing x in both

e
‘

“
f
= s 1 nh u
x = s 1n u x

—
V1 x
2 =
c os u = c o sh ju
514 ?”
5 + f
2

Add ing and subtract ing ,

“
= c os h
e
i fu = c o s u t
f s in u ju i s i nh ju
= cos
s c o Sh u i s inh u ju iF j S in ju .

( ) F
c U N C T I O N S OF CO M PL E X V AR I AB L E S
1 89 . It is :
cu i w u
s e
i zv e
u
( cos vi j s in v) ;
310 ENGI NEERI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

e
i “ = cosh u i s i nh

e
i fv = c o s v
i j sin v = co sh jvi j sinh jv;
5
“
(cos vi i sin v) ,

sin jv j sinh v j

sin ( u j; j v) = sin u cosh vi —

j cos u sinh v
”
‘

v
S

“
sm
.

u t ] co s u ;
2

“
f
?

"
s A
cos u = cosh J u =

a”
”
e
cos j v = cosh v
2

( u i j v) = cos u cosh vZF S in u j sinh v

—v v _ _v
e s €
cos u ? 7
2 2

sinh u

sinh j v j sin I)
2

sinh (u j: jv) = sinh sin v

“
u cos 1) i f cosh u
u _ _u
€ e
cos 1) j: 7
2

c osh u cos ju ;

cosh jv cos v

c osh (u i jv) cosh u cos 1) j: j sinh u sin 1)

cos vi ]
2
 APPEN D I X A . 311

And f rom (b ) and (d ) , respect ively (c) and ( c) , it follows that

sinh (u i jo) = j sin ( i v— ju ) i j s in ( o t ju ) ;

cos h (u j: jv) cos ( I) ? ju )
.

Tables o f the e x ponential funct ions and the ir logarithms,

and of the hyperbolic fu nct ions w ith real variables are given ,

I n the followi ng Ap p endi x B.

 APPE NDIX B .

TW O T AB L E S OF E XP O NE NT I AL AND H YPE R B O L I C
FU NCT I O NS .

T AB L E I .

e= 2 7 1 83
.
, lo g e =0 . 4343 .

—3
X 10 X X

0 95 1
314 ENGI NEERI NG M A TH E M A TI CS .

T AB L E I I — C onti nu ed .

E X PO NE NTI AL AND H Y PE R B O L I C FU NCTI O NS .

b g e+
z lo g mnh . z

O 20. 0 0 8 6 8 59
. 9 9 13 14 1
. O 8 1873 0 20 134
.

—
H 28 40 3 H 0 3 1 42 0 2 5 26 1
O 25. 0 1 085 7 4
.
D
C . 89 1 4 2 6 . O 7 7 88 0
. . .

869 7 1 2 O 7 4082
—
H 0 45 3 4
‘

O 30. 0 1 3 0 2 88
.
D
C . b . 3 4 9 86 . . 0 3 0 45 7
.

—
O 35 O 84 7 99 7 H 4 190 7 O 7 04 69 0 6 1 88 0 357 19
‘

. 0 1 5 200 3
. . . . b . .

—
O 8 2 6 28 2 O 67032 H 08 1 08 0 4 107 6
‘
O 40. 0 1 737 18
. . t . 4 9 1 83 . . .

D 8 04 5 6 7 H 56 83 1 O 63 7 63 0 4 65 34
‘

O 45. 0 1 9 5 43 3
. ( . . . b . 1 0 29 7 .

O 0 2 1 7 1 47
. O 5 2 108
.

. 4 3 4 29 4

N0 . 8 6 8 5 89 0 1 3 5 34
.

n
c H 0 8573 6 o
o 9 14 2 6 4 1 2 1825
. 0 0 8 20 8 5 6 1 3 23 wU ‘

—
. . .
.

i
>
H 3 0 28 8 3
.
o
o . 69 4 1 1 7 2 0 0 85 5
. 0 049 7 9 7
.
1 0 06 7 7
. 10 0 178
. wO
v o
3 3 1 1 54 wM
‘

b D . 5 2 00 3 0 o . 47 99 7 0 . 0 0 30 1 9 7
. 16 571 8
. 1 6 54 2 6
.

:
t H 7 37 1 78
.
o
o . 2 6 282 2 . 59 8 3 0 0 1 83 1 6
.
2 7 3083
. 27 . h O
i

H 9 54 3 2 5 h M
o
u
C . o . 04 5 6 7 5 . 0 170 0 0 1 1 109
.
45 0 1 4 1
.
4 5 0030
. t

“
0 O . 1 7 1 47 2 . 203

. 7 13

. 3 42 9 4 5

. 6 8 5 8 90
 I ND E X

Ab e lia n int e g ral s a nd fu nctio n s, 3 05 B a e of lo g arithm 2 1

s ,

Ab s ol u t e nu m b e r , 4 B i no m ial se ri s w ith s m all q u a nti

e

val of fractio nal e xp re io n 49

ue ss ,
ti e s 1 9 3 ,

of g ne ral nu m b e r 3 0
e ,
th ore m i nfinit e se ri e s 5 9
e , ,

Acc rac y lo ss of 2 8 1
u , ,
of tri g o no m e tric fu nctio n 1 0 4 ,

of a pp ro xi m atio n sti m ate d 2 00 e ,

B iq adratic p arabola 2 1 9
u
,

of calc latio n 2 7 9
u ,

of cu rv q uatio n 2 1 0
e e ,

of transm i s io n li n q u atio n 20 8
s e e s,

Additio n 1 ,
C alc u latio n acc u rac y , ,
2 79
of g e ne ral nu m b e r 2 8 ,
ch e cking of 2 9 1 ,

a nd s u btractio n of tri g o no m tric e nu m e rical 2 58 ,

f nctio ns 1 02
u ,
r e liability 2 7 1 ,

Al g e bra of g e ne ral n m b r or c m u e o C ap acity 6 5 ,

p l e x qu a ntity 2 5 ,
C hain fractio n 2 08 ,

Al g braic e xp r ss io n 2 9 4
e e
,
C ha ng e of c u rv e l w 2 1 1 2 3 4 a , ,

functio n 7 5 ,
C haract e ris tic s of e xp o ne ntial cu rv e s ,

Alt e rnati ng c u rr n t a nd volta g ve e e c 228

tor 4 1 ,
of p arabolic a nd hyp rbolic c u rv e es ,

fu nctio ns 1 1 7 1 2 5 , ,
223
w av e s 1 1 7 1 2 5
, ,
C harg i ng c u rr e nt m axi m u m of con

Alt e rnatio ns 1 1 7 ,
d e ns r 1 7 6 e ,

Alt e rnator hort circ u it c u rr nt p

s e ,
a C h e cki ng calc u latio n 2 9 3 a s,

p ro x i m a t e d , 1 9 5 C i p h e rs nu m b e r of in calc u latio n
, ,
s,

Anal ytical calc u latio n of xtr e em a ,

2 82
1 52 C ircl e d e fin ing tri g o no m e tric fu nc
f nctio n 2 9 4
u , tio ns 9 4 ,

Ang l e s e e al o P has e a ngle

,
s . C o ffici e nts nk no w n of i nfinite
e ,
u ,

App ro x i m atio n calc latio n u ,

2 80 s e ri e s 6 0 ,

b y chai n fractio n 2 0 80 ,
C o m bin atio n of e xpo ne ntial f nc u

App ro xi m atio n g ivi ng ( 1 s s ) a nd tio ns 2 3 1 ,

(1 s ), 201 of g e ne ral nu m b e rs 2 8 ,

of infin it e e ri e s 5 3 s ,
of v ctors 2 9
e ,

m e thod s of 1 87 ,
C o m p ariso n of e xp o n ntial and h y e

Arbitrary co ns tant of s ri s 69 7 9 s e e
, , p e b o lic c u rv s 22 9
r e ,

Ar e a of tria ng l 1 06 e, C o m p l m ntary ang l e in trig o no

e e s

Arra ng e m e nt of nu m e rical calc la u m e tric fu nctio ns 99 ,

tio ns 2 7 5 ,
C o m p l e x i m ag i nary q u antiti es s e e ,

Attack m e thod of 2 7 5
, , Ge ner al nu mb e r .
3 16 I N DE X
‘

C o m p l e x qu antity , ,
17 De c i m al s ,
nu m b e r of ,
in calc u latio ns ,

alge bra ,
27 2 82
see Ge nera l nu mb er . inlo g a rithm ic tabl e 2 8 1 s,

C o nju g at e nu m b e rs 3 1 ,
D e fi nite i nte g rals of tri g o nom e tric
C o ns ta nt arbitrary of s e ri e s
, ,
6 9, 7 9 fu nctio ns 1 03 ,

erro rs ,
1 86 De g re es of acc u racy 2 79 ,

factor ith p arabolic a nd h yp r

w e D e lta am p litu d e 2 99
-
,

b lic c u v e s 2 2 3
o r ,
D i ff re ntial e q u atio ns 64
e ,

p h e no m e na 1 0 6 ,
of e l ctrical e ng i ne e ring 6 5 7 8 86
e , , ,

t rm s of c u rv e e qu atio n 2 1 1
e , of s e co nd ord e r 7 8 ,

of m p irical c u r ve 2 3 4
e s, D iffe re ntiatio n of tri g o no m e tric
i n e x p o ne ntial c u rv s 2 3 0 e ,
functio ns 1 03 ,

w ith e x p o n n tial c u rv 22 9 e es, D i ph a nt ic e qu atio ns 1 8 6

o ,

i n p arabolic a nd h yp e rbolic D is tort d l e ctric w ave s 1 08

e e ,

c u rv es 22 5 , D i tortion of w ave 1 39
s ,

C o nve rg e nc y d e te rm in atio ns of D ive rg e nt s e ri e s 5 6 ,

p ot e ntial s ri e 2 15 e s, D ivi s io n 6 ,

of se ri e s 5 7 ,
of g e ne ral nu m b e r 42 ,

C o nv r g nt s e ri e s 5 6
e e , w ith s m all qu a n titi e 1 90 s,

C ore l es s b y p ote ntial s e ri e s 2 1 3 ,

D o bl e ang l es in tri g o no m e tric
u

c u rve e valu ation 244 ,

fu nctio ns 1 03 ,

C o se cant fu nctio n 9 8 , p e ak d w av e 2 5 5 2 6 0 2 66
e , , ,

C o s h f unctio n 3 05 , p e riodicity of e lli p tic fu nctio n s,

C o sine am p lit d e 2 9 9
-
u ,
2 99
co m p o ne nts of w a v 1 2 1 1 2 5 e, , s cal e ,
2 89
fu nctio n 9 4 ,

s e ri e s 8 2 ,

ve rse d fu nctio n 9 8 ,

C otang e nt fu nctio n 9 4 ,
e, 21
C ou nti ng 1 ,
E ff ici e nc y m axim u m of alt rnator e ,

C u rre nt change c u rv e e val u atio n 1 62

241 of i m pu l e tu rbi ne 1 5 4 s ,

of di tort e d voltag w av e 1 69
s e ,
of i nd u ctio n g e ne rator 1 7 7 ,

i npu t of ind u ctio n m otor ,

ap of tra ns form e r 1 55 1 7 4 , ,

p ro x i m a t e d , 1 9 1 E l e ctrical e ng i ne e ri ng di ff r e ntial ,
e

m axi m umof alt r atin g tra ns

e n e q atio ns 65 7 8 8 6u , , ,

m i s io n circ u it 1 59
s ,
E lli p s e l e ng th of arc 3 01
, ,

C u rv e s ch e cking calc u latio ns 2 93 b

, ,
E lli p tic i nt e g ral s and fu nctio n 2 99 s,

e m p irical 2 09 ,
E m p irical c u rv e s 2 09 ,

law cha ng e 2 3 4
, ,
e val u atio n 2 3 3 ,

ratio nal e q u atio n 2 1 0 ,

e q u atio n of c u rv e 2 1 0 ,

u se of 2 84 ,
E ng i ne e rin g di ff e r e ntial e q u atio ns ,

re p orts 2 9 0 ,

E q u ilat e ral h yp e rbola ,

2 17
Data o n calc u latio ns and c u rv e s ,
27 1 E rrors co ns tant 1 8 6
, ,

d e rive d fro m c u rve ,

2 85 n m e rical 2 9 3 b
u ,

De ci m al e rror 2 9 3 b ,
of ob s e rvatio n 1 80 ,
3 18 I N DE X
In co m m e nsu rabl e w ave s 2 5 7 , Lo g a ri t h m at io n, 2 0
I nd t e rm inate co e ffici nt
e m e thod e s, ,
of g e ne ral b rs 5 1
nu m e ,

71 L o g a rith m ic c u rve s 22 7 ,

In d e t e rm i nate co ffici nts of infi e e functio ns 2 9 7 ,

nit e s e ri e s 6 0 , p ap e r 2 33 2 87
, ,

I ndivid u al 8 s, s cal e 2 88
,

I nd cta nc e 65
u ,
tabl e s nu m b e r of d e c im al s in 2 8 1
, ,

I nfinit e se ri e 52 s, L o s of c u rv e i nd u ctio n m otor 1 8 3

s ,

val e s of c u rv e s 2 1 1
u ,

of e m p irical c u rv e s 2 33 ,

I nfl ctio n p oi nt s of c u rv e
e 1 53 s,

I m p e da nc e v e ctor 4 1 ,
M ag ne tic characte ris tic o n se m i
I m p licit a nal ytic fu nctio n 2 9 4 ,
log arithm ic pa pe r 2 88 ,

I nt g ral f u nctio n 2 9 5
e ,
M ag ne tit e arc volt am p e re charac ,
-

I nt e g ratio n co ns ta nt of s ri 69 7 9 e es, , t e ri s t ic , 2 39
of di ffe r ntial e q atio n 65
e u ,
characte ri tic e val u atio n 2 46
s , ,

b y i nfinit e s ri s 6 0 e e ,
M a g nit u d e of e ff ct d t e rm i natio n e ,
e
,

of tri g o no m e tric fu nctio ns 1 0 3 ,

2 80
I nt lli g ibility of calc u latio n 2 83
e s, M ax i m u m , se e E x tr e m u m .

I nt e rc e p t s d e fini ng ta ng e nt a nd c o
,
M axi m a , 1 47
tang e nt fu nctio ns 9 4 ,
M c L au ri n s s e ri e s w ith sm all
’
qu an
I nvol u tio n 9 ,
titi e s 1 9 8 ,

of ge ne ral nu m b e rs 44 ,
M chanis m of calcu lati ng e m p irical
e

I rratio nal nu m b e rs 1 1 ,
cu r ve s 2 37 ,

I rratio nality of r e p r e e ntatio n b y s M thod s of calc u latio n 2 7 5

e ,

p ot e ntial s e ri e s 2 1 3 ,
of i nte rm e diate co e ffici e nts 7 1 ,

of l e as t s qu ar e s 1 7 9 1 86 , ,

of attack 2 7 5 ,

M i ni m a 1 47 ,

M i ni m u m se e E xt e mu m
,
r .

M lti p l e fr e qu e nci s of w av es 2 7 4
u e ,

M u lti p licand 3 9 ,

M lti p licatio n 6
u ,

Le a t s q u are s
s ,
me thod of 1 7 9 , ,
1 86 of ge ne ral nu m b e rs 39 ,

L i m itatio n of m ath e m atical r e p re w ith s m all q u a ntiti e s 1 88 ,

s e nt a t io n, 40 of tri g ono m e tric fu nctio ns 1 02 ,

of m e thod of l e as t s qu are 1 8 6 s, M u lti p li e r 39 ,

of p ot e ntial se ri e s 2 1 6 ,

L i m iti ng val u e of in finite e ri e 54 s s,

L i ne ar n m b e r 33
u ,

s ee Pos i ti ve a nd Nega ti ve nu m b er . Ne g ative ang l e s i n tri g o no m e tric

L i ne calc u latio n 2 7 6 ,
functio ns 98 ,

q u atio ns app roxi m at e d 2 04

e , ,
e xp o ne nt s 1 1 ,

L o g arith m of e x p o ne ntial c u rv e 22 9 ,
nu m b e r 4 ,

asi nfi nit e s e ri e s 63 ,
Nod e s i n w av e s hap e 2 5 6 2 7 0 , ,

of p arabolic and hyp e rbolic c u rve s , No n p e riodic c u rv e s 2 1 2

-
,

22 5 N o l e e ffi ci e nc y m axim u m 1 50
zz , ,

w ith sm all q u a ntiti e s ,

1 97 Nu m b e r g e ne ral 1
, ,
 I NDE X 3 19

Nu m e rical calcu lations 2 7 5 ,

Plott ing of c u rve s 2 1 2 ,

val ue s of tri g onom e tric functio ns , p ro p e r a nd i m p ro p r 2 86 e ,

1 01 of e m p irical c rv e 2 34 u ,

Polar c o ordi nat es of g e ne ral

- nu m
b e r, 2 5 , 2 7
e xp re ss io n of g e ne ral nu m b r e ,
2 5,
O b s e rvati on e rrors 1 80 , ,

O ctav e as lo g arith m ic s ca le ,
2 88 ol hase re latio n r e du ci ng tri g o
P yp ,

no m e t i c se ri e s 1 3 4
'

O dd fu nc t o ns , 8 1 , 9 8 305 ,
r ,

riod c
pe ,
1 22 of tri g o no m e tric fu nctio n 1 0 4 s,

har o ic s
m n in sym m e trical w ave , s y t m of p oi nt s or v e ctor s 4 6
s e ,

1 17 Po itiv e nu m b e r 4
s ,

aratio n 1 2 0 1 2 5 1 3 4
sep , , ,
Pot e ntial se ri e s 5 2 2 1 2 , ,

O m iss io n in calc latio ns 2 9 3 b

s u , Po we r factor m ax i m u m of in d u ctio n
O p e rator 40 ,
m otor 1 49 ,

O rd e r of s m all q u a ntity 1 88 ,
m ax i m u m of alt e rnati ng tra ns
Os cillati ng fu nctio ns 9 2 ,
m i ss io n circ it 1 58 u ,

Ou tpu t see Po we
,
r. of g e ne rator 1 6 1 ,

of h u nt e d r e si tanc e 1 5 5
s s ,

of s torage batt e ry 1 7 2 ,

of transform e r 1 7 3 ,

“ of transm iss io n li ne 1 6 5
5 add e d a nd s ubtracte d i n
,
a nd
no t ve ctor p rod u ct 42
7
,

tri g o no m tric fu nctio n 1 00 e ,

of hu nt m otor a ppro xi m at e d 1 89
s , ,

a pp roxi m ate d b y chai n fractio n ,

w ith s m all q a n titi e s 1 9 4 u ,

2 0 80 Probability calc u latio n 1 8 1 ,

P airs of hi g h harm o nic 2 7 0 s, Prod u ct s e ri e s 3 0 3 ,

P arabola co m m o n 2 1 8
, ,
of tri g o no m e tric f nctio n 1 02 u s,

Parabolic c u rv e s 2 1 6 ,
Pro je ctio n d e fi ni ng co i n f nctio n
,
s e u ,

Parall e lo g ram la w of g e ne ral nu m 94

be r 2 8 s, P roje ctor d e fin i ng s i ne fu nctio n
, ,
94
of ve ctors 2 9 ,

P ak e d w av e 2 5 5 2 5 8 2 6 1 2 6 4
e , , , ,

P n d u l u m m otio n 30 1
e ,

P rc e nta g e cha ng e of p arabolic a nd

e Q u adrants , s i g n of tri go no m e tric
h yp e rbolic c u rve s 22 3 ,
fu nctio ns 9 6 ,

P riodic c u rv e s 2 5 4
e , Q u adratu r e nu m b e rs ,
13
d e ci m al fractio n 1 2 , Q u art e r s cal e 2 89 ,

p h e no m e na 1 0 6 , Q u ate rnio ns 2 2 ,

Pe riodicity do bl e of e lli p tic f nc

,
u ,
u

tio n 2 99 s,

of t ri g o no m e tric functio ns 9 6 ,

P rm e ability m ax i m m 1 48 1 7 0
e u , ,
Ra u s div e ctor of g e ne ral nu m b r 2 8 e ,

Pha se a ng l e of fractio nal xp r s io n e e s ,

R a ng e of co nve rg e nc y of s e ri 5 6 e s,

49 R atio of variatio n 2 2 6 ,

of ge n ral n e um b r e ,
28 R atio n al e qu atio n of c u rv e 2 1 0 ,

Plai n nu m b e r ,
32 fu nctio n 2 9 5 ,

see Gener al nu mb er . Ra tio nality of p ot e ntial s e ri es 2 1 4 ,

320 IN DE X
Re al nu m b e r 2 6 , S ha p e of c u rv e s 2 1 2 ,

R e cta ngu lar c o ordi nat e s of g e ne ral p ro p e r i n p lotti ng 2 86

-
,

nu m b e r 2 5 ,
of e xp o ne ntial c u rv e 22 7 2 30 , ,

Re d u ctio n to ab s ol u t e val u s 4 8 e ,
of functio n b y c u rv e 2 84
, ,

R latio ns of h yp e rbolic tri g o no

e of hyp e rbolic fu nctio ns 2 32 ,

m e tric and e xp o ne ntial f u nc of p arabolic and h yp e rbolic c u rve s,

t i Ons , 309 2 17
Re lativ e ne ss of sm all q ua ntiti e s 1 88 ,
S harp ze ro w av e 2 55 2 6 0 2 6 5 , , ,

Re liabilit y of nu m e rical calc u latio ns , S hort circ u it c u rr e nt of alte r nator ,

2 93 app ro xi m ate d 1 9 5 ,

Re p orts e ng i ne e ri ng 2 90
, , S i g n e rror 2 9 3 0,

R s i s ta nc e 65
e ,
of tri g o no m e tric fu nctio ns 9 5 ,

R e s ol u tio n of v e ctor 2 9 s, S ilico n s t e e l i nv e s ti g atio n o f h ys t e re

,

Re v e r s al b y ne g ative u nit 1 4 , s is c u rv e 2 4 8 ,

do u bl e at e ro of w av 2 5 8 2 6 1
,
z e, , S i m p lificatio n b y a pp ro xi m ati on 1 8 7 ,

R e ve rse fu n ctio n 2 9 4 , S i ne a m p lit u d e 1 9 9

-
,

R i g ht tria ng l e d e fi ni ng t ig o no m e t r co m p o ne nt of wave 1 2 1 1 2 5 , ,

ric fu nctio ns 9 4 ,
f unctio n 9 4 ,

R i pp l s in w av e 45
e ,
s e ri e s, 82
b y hi g h har m o nic s 2 7 0 ,
v e rsu s fu nctio n 9 8 ,

R oots of g e ne ral nu m b e rs 45 ,
S i ne f u nctio n 305 ,

e xp r es s d b y p e riodic chai n frac

e S lid e r u l e acc u rac y 2 8 1 ,

tio n 2 086 ,
S m al l qu a ntiti e s a p p ro x i m atio n 1 8 7
, ,

w ith s m all q u a ntiti e s 1 9 4 , S p cial f u nctio ns 3 0 2

e ,

of u nit 1 8 1 9 46 , , , S q u ar e s l e a s t m e thod of 1 7 9 1 8 6
, , , ,

R otatio n b y ne g ativ e u n it 1 4 , S t e a m p ath of t u rbi ne 3 3 ,

b y q u adrat u re u nit 1 4 , S ubtractio n 1 ,

of g e ne ral nu m b e r 2 8 ,

of tri g o no m tric fu nctio ns 1 02

e ,

S u m m atio n s e ri s 3 03 e ,

Su p e r p o s itio n of hi g h harm o nic s 2 7 3 ,

Saddl e p oi nt 1 6 5 , Su pp l e m e ntary a ng l e s i n tri g o no

S w tooth w av
a - 2 46 e, ,
2 5 5 , 2 58 , 2 6 0 , m e tric f u nctio ns 99 ,

2 65 S u rg i ng of s ynchro nou s m achi ne s,

Sc alar 2 6 2 8 3 0
, , , 3 01
S cal e i n c u rv e p lotti ng p ro p r nd ,
e a Sym m e trical c u rv e m axi m u m ,
1 50
i m pro p e r 2 1 2 2 86 , , p riodic f u nctio n 1 1 7
e ,

fu ll do uble half e t c 2 8 7
, , ,
.
, w av e 1 1 7
,

S ci e ntific e ng i ne e ri ng r e cord s 2 9 1 ,

Se ca nt f u nctio n 98 ,

Se co nd har m o nic e ff ct of 2 66 ,
e ,

Se co ndary e ffe cts 2 1 0 ,

T ab u lar form of calc latio n 2 7 5 u ,

p h e no m e na 2 34 ,
T a ng e nt fu nctio n 9 4 ,

Se m i lo g arith m ic p a p e r 2 8 7 T a ylor s s e ri e s w ith s m all q u a ntiti e s

’
-
, ,

Se ri e s e xp o ne ntial 7 1
, ,
199
i nfinit e 52 ,
T e m pe ratu re w av e 1 3 1 ,

tri go no m e tric 10 6 ,
T e m p orary u s e of p ot e ntial se ri e s ,

S e v e nth harm o nic 2 62 ,

2 16