Fatigue in pearlite structures.

TAYLOR, John G.

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 FATIGUE IN PEARLITE STRUCTURES

by

JOHN GRAHAM TAYLOR, B.Sc,

A re s e a rc h p r o j e c t c a r r i e d o u t f o r

th e degree o f D octor o f P h ilo so p h y

o f th e C ouncil f o r N a tio n a l Academic

Awards.

D epartm ent o f M e ta llu rg y ,

O c to b er, 1976
S h e f f ie ld C ity P o ly te c h n ic .
 >
s LIBRARY
A
£ V f lP ■z
H
t 0
©
' f t

77- 17552- 0 )
 SYNOPSIS

The b a s ic mechanisms o f f a tig u e f a i l u r e v/ere s tu d ie d i n a e u te c to id

carbon s t e e l . Three d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s were produced in th e s t e e l ,

th e s e b ein g c o arse p e a r l i t e , ; f in e p e a r l i t e and s p h e r o id is e d c a r b id e .

P e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e s were s e le c te d b ecause o f t h e i r p r a c t i c a l im portance

and a ls o because m u lti-p h a s e a ll o y s have, u n t i l r e c e n t ly , re c e iv e d

l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n from re s e a rc h w o rk ers.

Specimens were f a tig u e d e i t h e r in re v e rs e p la n e bending o r u n ia x ia l

te n sio n -c o m p re ssio n c o n d itio n s . I n th e l a t t e r c a s e , c o n s ta n t a m p litu d e

s t r a i n c o n tr o lle d t e s t s were perform ed u s in g a c lo s e d lo o p s e rv o -

h y d ra u lic m achine. Much o f th e t e s t i n g was conducted un d er c o n d itio n s

5
g iv in g f a i l u r e beyond 10 c y c le s o f s t r e s s .

C y clic p r o p e r tie s and changes o f d efo rm atio n r e s i s t a n c e d u rin g

t e s t i n g were d e term in e d . The m ajor em phasis was on th e o b s e rv a tio n o f

th e developm ent o f f a tig u e damage d u rin g th e l i f e o f th e p r e - p o lis h e d

specim ens. A number o f o p t i c a l and e le c tr o n m ic ro s c o p ic a l te c h n iq u e s

were used to examine damage.

F a tig u e damage ap p eared e a r ly in th e l i f e in a l l th r e e s t r u c t u r e s .

I t e x is te d a s s l i p bands in th e f e r r i t e . The f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r ­

fa c e was shown to be th e p r i n c i p a l so u rce o f m obile d i s l o c a t i o n s .

Damage was more l o c a l i s e d in c o a rse th an f in e p e a r l i t e and a l l damage

was a s s o c ia te d w ith a v ery sh allo w s u rfa c e to p o g ra p h y .

C racks ap p eared a t s l i p bands and f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e s .

In c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e th ey were d e te c te d a t up to

2^/o o f th e l i f e w hereas in f in e p e a r l i t e th e y could n o t be d e te c te d u n t i l

ab o u t 7J/° o f th e l i f e . S u rfa ce c rack p ro p a g a tio n r a t e s were g r e a t e r i n

la m e lla r than s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s . The p ro p o r tio n o f th e

f u l l f r a c tu r e zone o ccu p ied by th e f a tig u e c ra c k a r e a was g r e a t e s t

i n th e s p h e r o id is e d s t r u c t u r e and l e a s t i n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e .
 CONTENTS

Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. SURVEY OF LITERATURE k

2 .1 . Scope o f th e review A

2 .2 . A ssessm ent o f f a tig u e perform ance 6

2 .3 . Mechanisms o f f a tig u e f a i l u r e 14

2 .L . The r o le o f p l a s t i c d efo rm atio n i n f a tig u e 16

2 .3 . S tage I C rack Growth 31

2 .6 . S tag e I I Crack Growth 30

2 .7 - Summary 59

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 62

3 .1 . Choice o f m a te r ia ls 62

3 .2 . P r e p a ra tio n o f m a te r ia l 63

3.3* F a tig u e t e s t i n g 66

3 .A . M e ta llo g ra p h ic exam in atio n 70

A. RESULTS 75

^ .1 . C y clic and m onotonic p r o p e r ti e s 75

A.2 . M etallo g rap h y 80

5. DISCUSSION 9A

5*1. The dependence o f c y c lic p r o p e r tie s on s t r u c t u r e 9^

5 .2 . C y c lic h ard e n in g and s o fte n in g phenomena 100

■5.3* The in flu e n c e o f o r i e n t a t i o n o f s u rfa c e damage 107

5 . A. S tage I Crack Growth 109

5.5« S tage I I Crack Growth 117

6. CONCLUSIONS 125

7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK 127

 CONTENTS

REFERENCES

STATEMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

APPENDIX

TABLES and FIGURES

1. INTRODUCTION

A v e ry la r g e p ro p o r tio n o f s e r v ic e f a i l u r e s i n m e ta llic

m a te r ia ls i s a t t r i b u t e d to f a t i g u e . The problem o f f a tig u e h a s

been known f o r alm o st one hundred and f i f t y y e a r s . D uring t h i s

tim e th e volume o f work c a r r ie d o u t to stu d y th e problem h a s been

1 2 3 5 6
immense. E x te n siv e re v ie w s ’ ’ ’ * have managed to co v er o n ly

a sm all p ro p o rtio n o f t h i s w ork.

Much o f th e e a r l i e s t work i n t h i s f i e l d was o f an e m p iric a l

n a tu r e . F a tig u e p r o p e r ti e s such a s f a tig u e l i m i t and endurance l i m i t

were d eterm ined and t h e i r dependence on such v a r ia b le s a s m a te r ia l

s t r u c t u r e and s u rfa c e f i n i s h was exam ined. The more p o s i tiv e

approach tow ards im proving f a tig u e perform ance b a se d on s tu d ie s o f

th e fundam ental a s p e c ts o f f a tig u e d id n o t fo llo w u n t i l much l a t e r .

1 2
The e a r l i e s t s tu d ie s in to th e b a s ic mechanisms 1 d a te back to th e

b eg in n in g o f t h i s c e n tu r y . F o llo w in g th e developm ent o f s u i t a b l e

m e ta llo g ra p h ic te c h n iq u e s and equipm ent, th e volume o f work on b a s ic

mechanisms h a s in c re a s e d d r a m a tic a lly , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u rin g th e l a s t

tw enty f iv e y e a r s . T h is re c e n t work h a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y in c r e a s e d

o u r knowledge o f th e f a tig u e p r o c e s s . U n fo rtu n a te ly , t h i s in c r e a s e

i n knowledge h a s been accom panied by in c r e a s in g ly r ig o r o u s demands

on m a te r ia ls in s e r v ic e w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t f a tig u e f r a c t u r e rem ain s

th e m ost common so u rce o f s e r v ic e f a i l u r e .

Much o f th e work in to b a s ic mechanisms o f f a tig u e h a s been

fo c u sse d on sim ple m a te r ia ls b ased on F .C .C . and B .C .C . s t r u c t u r e s .

I t i s only in th e l a s t few y e a rs t h a t th e more complex m a te r ia ls

b ased on m u lti-p h a s e s t r u c t u r e s have re c e iv e d more a t t e n t i o n . As a

r e s u l t th e t o t a l knowledge o f th e more fundam ental a s p e c ts o f f a tig u e

i n t h i s im p o rta n t group o f m a te r ia ls i s s p a r s e . F o r com m ercial

1
a p p lic a tio n s where good f a tig u e perform ance i s e s s e n t i a l , i t i s

n orm ally t h i s group o f m a te r ia ls to which th e e n g in e e r lo o k s in

s e le c tio n . The need f o r a d eep er u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e f a tig u e

mechanisms in t h i s group o f m a te r ia ls i s th e r e f o r e g r e a t i f any

f u r t h e r im provem ents i n f a tig u e perform ance a r e to be a c h ie v e d .

The most w idely u sed m e ta lli c m a te r ia l i s s t e e l . The ran g e

o f m ic r o s tr u c tu r e s t h a t can be developed i n s t e e l s i s v e ry w id e.

The most common s t r u c t u r e a s s o c ia te d w ith good s tr e n g th i s t h a t

b ased on p e a r l i t e . P e a r l i t e i s composed l a r g e l y o f th e d u c til e

f e r r i t e phase c o n ta in in g ab o u t 1y/o by volume o f th e h a rd i n t e r -

m e ta llic compound, c e m e n tite . I n some s t e e l s , p e a r l i t e may c o n s ti­

t u t e alm o st th e whole s t r u c t u r e a s in th e case o f th o s e u sed f o r

ro p e s and s p r in g s . P re v io u s s tu d ie s o f b a s ic mechanisms o f f a tig u e

in s t e e l s a r e few and where m a te r ia ls c o n ta in in g p e a r l i t e have been

in v o lv e d , th e c o n s ti tu e n t h a s o ccu p ied on ly a sm all p ro p o r tio n o f

th e s t r u c t u r e . I t s in flu e n c e on th e b a s ic mechanisms h a s t h e r e f o r e

been d i f f i c u l t to e v a lu a te . T h is i n v e s t ig a ti o n was s t a r t e d to f i l l

t h i s gap i n know ledge.

I n th e work r e p o r te d h e re , th e mechanisms o f f a tig u e f a i l u r e

have been examined i n th r e e p e a r l i t i c s t r u c t u r e s ; c o a rse p e a r l i t e ,

fin e p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a r b id e . A ll have been d ev elo p ed i n

a . s t e e l o f e u te c to id carbon c o n te n t. C y clic p r o p e r t i e s and changes

o f d efo rm atio n r e s is ta n c e d u rin g t e s t i n g have been d e te rm in e d . The

m ajor em phasis h as been th e o b s e rv a tio n o f th e p ro g r e s s o f f a tig u e

damage d u rin g t e s t i n g o f p r e - p o lis h e d specim ens i n c o n d itio n s g iv in g

5 6
f a i l u r e a t betw een 10 - 10 c y c le s . A number o f m e ta llo g ra p h ic

te c h n iq u e s have been u sed f o r o b s e rv a tio n o f f a tig u e damage. These

in c lu d e b o th o p t i c a l and e le c tr o n m icroscope te c h n iq u e s . E le c tr o n

2
m ic ro s c o p ic a l te c h n iq u e s have in c lu d e d th e p ro d u c tio n o f tw o -sta g e

r e p l i c a s o f s e le c te d a r e a s on th e specim en s u rfa c e f o r ex am in atio n

and a ls o th e u se o f th e scan n in g e le c tr o n m icro sco p e. T h is h a s

been extended to in c lu d e th e p ro d u c tio n o f f o i l s from s e c tio n s o f

b o th fa tig u e d and n o n -fa tig u e d specim ens fo r e le c tr o n m icroscope

e x am in atio n .

T h is t h e s i s in c lu d e s a review o f th e a v a il a b le l i t e r a t u r e

r e l a t i n g to p re v io u s work on th e m icro sco p ic a s p e c ts and mechanisms

o f f a tig u e in m u lti-p h a s e m a te r ia l s . The r e s u l t s o f th e i n v e s t ig a ­

t io n s d e sc rib e d above a r e p re s e n te d and d is c u s s e d . F in a ll y a

number o f a r e a s have been i d e n t i f i e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e s e i n v e s t ig a ­

tio n s where f u r t h e r work i s recommended.

3
2. SURVEY OF LITERATURE

2 .1 . SCOPE OF THE REVIEjJ

F a tig u e f a i l u r e and i t s im portance i n a wide ran g e o f

m a te r ia ls h a s been re c o g n ise d fo r alm o st one hundred and f i f t y

y ears. IHiring t h i s tim e , a v a s t amount o f re s e a rc h work h as

been c a r r ie d o u t in an e f f o r t to u n d e rsta n d th e phenomenon and to

p re v e n t f a tig u e f a i l u r e . T h is work can be c l a s s i f i e d in th r e e

c a te g o rie s i-

a) th e t r a d i t i o n a l use o f t e s t i n g m achines to d e term in e

f a tig u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s m easured by such p r o p e r tie s

a s th e f a tig u e l i m i t , endurance l i m i t , e t c .

b) s tu d ie s o f th e dependence o f f a tig u e o r c y c lic b e h av io u r

on such v a r ia b le s a s th e s t r e s s o r s t r a i n a m p litu d e ,

en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s o r m a te r ia l s t r u c t u r e e t c .

c) s tu d ie s o f th e b a s ic mechanisms o f f a tig u e

The most t r a d i t i o n a l method o f q u a n tify in g f a tig u e c h a r a c te r ­

i s t i c s h as been t h a t where an S-N curve i s d e riv e d from t e s t s on

a number o f specim ens a t d i f f e r e n t lo a d s . The curve i s o b ta in e d

by d eterm in in g th e s t r e s s am p litu d e (S) f o r each lo a d and th e

number o f c y c le s (N) o f p e r io d ic lo a d changes r e q u ir e d to c o m p letely

f r a c tu r e th e specim en a t each s t r e s s a m p litu d e . A d isa d v a n ta g e

w ith t h i s ty p e o f t e s t i s t h a t th e s t r e s s may a l t e r th ro u g h o u t th e

t e s t even though th e lo a d a p p lie d rem ains c o n s ta n t. T h is a r i s e s

when a c ra ck forms in th e specim en. The tr u e s t r e s s a t th e t i p

o f th e grov/ing c rack th e n in c r e a s e s .

In th e l a s t tw enty y e a r s , ra p id improvements have been made in

th e developm ent o f f a tig u e t e s t i n g te c h n iq u e s . An im p o rta n t f i e l d

o f developm ent h as been t h a t o f m achines where b o th s t r e s s and

s t r a i n am p litu d e may be m easured c o n tin u o u s ly th ro u g h o u t a t e s t .

F u rth erm o re, d u rin g t e s t i n g th e d efo rm atio n may be c o n tr o lle d a t a

g iv e n v a lu e w h ils t th e s t r e s s i s m easured; t h i s i s r e f e r r e d to in

l i t e r a t u r e a s s t r a i n c o n tr o lle d c y c lin g . S im ila r ly , th e lo a d may

be c o n tr o lle d and s t r a i n m easured. T h is advance i n machine

d esig n and c o n tro l h a s p ro v id e d f a c i l i t i e s whereby th e dependence

o f f a tig u e b eh av io u r on s t r e s s and s t r a i n can now be r e l i a b l y

p r e d ic te d .

E vidence o f s tu d ie s in to b a s ic mechanisms o f f a tig u e d a te back

1 2.
to th e e a r ly y e a r s o f t h i s c e n tu r y . 1 * S u rfa c e o b s e r v a tio n s o f

ir o n showed s l i p bands a p p e a rin g in some g r a in s a f t e r a fev; c y c le s

2
of s tre s s . T h is r e p re s e n te d one o f th e f i r s t s t u d i e s o f th e

m ic ro sco p ic a s p e c ts o f f a t i g u e .

I n th e l a s t tw enty f iv e y e a r s , th e volume o f work on th e

mechanisms and m ic ro sco p ic a s p e c ts o f f a tig u e h a s been immense.

Much o f th e work was fo c u sse d on th e sim ple m a te r ia l s , m ain ly p u re

m e ta ls o r s in g le -p h a s e a llo y s b ased on th e F .C .C . s t r u c t u r e and i n

e i t h e r s i n g l e - o r p o ly - c r y s ta l form . A number o f e x c e ll e n t
3^-56
rev iew s cover th e work in th e e a r ly s ta g e s o f t h i s p e r io d . 11

S tu d ie s o f th e more complex m a te r ia ls , f o r exam ple, m u lti-p h a s e

a llo y s and m a te r ia ls h av in g s t r u c t u r e s o th e r th a n F .C .C . were much

l e s s e x te n s iv e b u t have re c e iv e d more a t t e n t i o n i n th e l a s t fev;

y ears.

T his reviev; c o n c e n tra te s on th e m ic ro sco p ic a s p e c ts and

mechanisms o f f a tig u e in m u lti-p h a s e m a t e r i a l s . Work r e l a t i n g

to e x is t in g knowledge on th e sim ple m a te r ia ls , a s d e fin e d e a r l i e r ,

h as n o t been n e g le c te d and i s d is c u s s e d where a p p r o p r i a t e . As an

in tr o d u c tio n to th e re v ie w , c u r r e n t methods o f a s s e s s in g f a tig u e

5
 perform ance a r e d e s c rib e d . A number o f p a ra m e te rs d eterm in ed

from such t e s t i n g methods can be u sed w ith re a s o n a b le a cc u ra cy to

q u a n tify th e f a tig u e b e h av io u r o f m a t e r i a l s . These p a ra m e te rs

a re e x p la in e d and c u r r e n t view s on lin k in g them w ith m ic ro -

s t r u c t u r a l f e a tu r e s a r e d is c u s s e d .

2 .2 . ASSESSMENT OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE

The s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a m a te r ia l a s m easured in a

m onotonic te n s io n t e s t i s n o t a p p lic a b le to s i t u a t i o n s where c y c lic

lo a d in g o c c u rs because t h i s s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p v a r i e s w ith

th e c y c lic h i s t o r y . The m agnitude and r a t e o f v a r i a t i o n i n t h i s

r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e in flu e n c e d by s e v e r a l v a r ia b l e s , th e most

im p o rta n t o f which a r e th e m a te r ia l, i t s i n i t i a l c o n d itio n ( t h a t

i s a n n e a le d o r c o ld worked) and th e l e v e l o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n i n each

c y c le . I f a m a te r ia l i s s u b je c te d to c y c lic d e fo rm a tio n o f

c o n s ta n t a m p litu d e , such v a r i a t i o n i s m a n ife ste d i n a change o f

s t r e s s r e q u ir e d to m a in ta in t h i s a m p litu d e . An in c r e a s e o f s t r e s s

in d ic a te s c y c lic h a rd e n in g w h ils t a d e c re a se i n d i c a t e s s o f te n in g .

C y c lic s t a b i l i t y i s c h a r a c te r is e d by th e s t r e s s re m ain in g c o n s ta n t.

These h a rd e n in g o r s o fte n in g re s p o n se s a re r e p r e s e n te d s c h e m a tic -

7 8
a l l y in f ig .1 and exam ples e x i s t e lse w h e re . 1 Where such p ro p e rty

changes o c c u r, th e y a r e u s u a lly com pleted e a r l y on i n th e f a tig u e

l i f e o f most m e ta ls such t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p rem ain s s ta b l e

thro u g h most o f th e l i f e .

I n th e t r a d i t i o n a l S-N cu rv e, q u oted e a r l i e r , f a tig u e p erfo rm ­

ance h a s been a s s e s s e d i n term s o f th e f a tig u e l i m i t o r , i n th e

case o f m ost n o n -fe rro u s m e ta ls , th e endurance l i m i t which i s th e

s t r e s s l e v e l t h a t pro d u ces f r a c tu r e a f t e r N s t r e s s c y c le s where N

7
i s g e n e r a lly 10 . Improvem ents o f f a tig u e perform ance have i n th e

6
 p a s t been a s s o c ia te d w ith methods o f r a i s i n g th e s t r e s s

c o rre sp o n d in g to th e f a tig u e l i m i t o r , f o r th o s e a p p ro p ria te

m a te r ia ls , th e endurance l i m i t . T h is c o n c e n tra tio n on th e

f a tig u e l i m i t was j u s t i f i e d by th e predom inance i n d e sig n o f th e

concept o f i n f i n i t e l i f e . I n many s i t u a t i o n s how ever, i t h as

become b o th n e c e s sa ry and d e s ir a b le to d e sig n f o r a f i n i t e f a tig u e

g
l i f e which co u ld rang e from a fev; c y c le s to a b o u t 10 c y c le s .

Examples o f th e s e s i t u a t i o n s in c lu d e th erm al o r m ech an ical s t r a i n

c y c lin g a s e n co u n tered in n u c le a r p l a n t s , steam tu r b in e s and a i r ­

c ra ft s tru c tu re s . Under th e s e c o n d itio n s , v a lu e s f o r th e f a tig u e

o r endurance l i m i t o f te n g iv e no r e l i a b l e p r e d ic tio n o f m a te r ia l

b e h a v io u r. E x te n siv e low c y cle and h ig h c y c le f a tig u e s tu d ie s in

r e c e n t y e a rs have c o n sid e ra b ly im proved th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e

f a tig u e phenomenon. F a tig u e perform ance un d er e i t h e r low o r h ig h

cy cle c o n d itio n s can now be a s s e s s e d in term s o f a number o f

p a ra m ete rs which w i l l be d e s c rib e d i n th e fo llo w in g s e c t i o n s . If

th e s e p a ra m e te rs can be lin k e d w ith m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

th e n th e o p p o rtu n ity a r i s e s f o r d e sig n o f m a te r ia ls w ith s p e c i f i c

f a tig u e p e rfo rm an ce. T h is a s p e c t i s a ls o d is c u s s e d l a t e r .

I n o rd e r to i d e n t i f y th e s e p a ra m e te rs i t i s f i r s t n e c e s s a ry

to examine th e ways i n which f a tig u e b eh av io u r can be q u a n t i f i e d .

In a d d itio n to th e S-N c u rv e, two im p o rta n t form s o f f a tig u e

b eh av io u r p r e s e n ta tio n a r e th e c y c li c s t r e s s - s t r a i n and s t r a i n -

l i f e c u rv e s.

2 . 2 .1 . The C y c lic S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curve

T h is r e p r e s e n ts th e s te a d y s t a t e c y c lic d e fo rm a tio n

r e s is ta n c e o f a m a te r i a l. The curve i s produced by c y c l i c a l l y

deform ing s e v e ra l sam ples o f a m a te r ia l a t a ran g e o f s t r a i n

7
a m p litu d e s and jo in in g th e t i p s o f each o f th e s ta b l e h y s t e r e s i s

lo o p s o b tain ed * An a l t e r n a t i v e p ro ced u re i s th e in c re m e n ta l
- 7
s te p t e s t where a s in g le sample i s u s e d . Here th e sample i s

s u b je c te d to a programme o f c o n tin u a lly in c r e a s in g and th e n de­

c re a s in g s t r a i n l e v e l s . A c o n tin u o u s p l o t o f s t r e s s and s t r a i n

g iv e s a s e r i e s o f superim posed h y s t e r e s i s lo o p s , each o v e r a l l

lo o p b lo c k co rre sp o n d in g to one programme. A f te r s e v e r a l

r e p e t i t i o n s o f th e programme, th e m a te r ia l s t a b i l i z e s and th e

lo c u s o f lo o p t i p s i s th e c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u rv e .

F ig s . 2 and 3 show c y c lic and m onotonic s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u rv e s

7 8
f o r a number o f m a te r ia l s . I n th e e l a s t i c r e g io n , th e c u rv e s

a r e s im ila r b u t a t th e o n s e t o f p l a s t i c i t y th e c y c lic and s t a t i c

c u rv e s d iv e rg e . The v a lu e s o f flow s t r e s s and s t r a i n h a rd e n in g

c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r each m a te r ia l a s d eterm in ed from th e m onotonic

curve a r e n o t th e same a s th o se d eterm in ed from th e c y c li c c u rv e .

A com parison o f th e cu rv es d em o n strates th e n a tu re and e x te n t o f

th e c y c lic changes. F ig . 2 shows c y c lic s o f te n in g o f a s t e e l ,

f i g . 3 shows s o fte n in g a t sm all s t r a i n s b u t h a rd e n in g a t h ig h

s t r a i n s i n an a llo y s t e e l and th e n ic k e l-b a s e d W aspalloy

c y c l i c a l l y h a rd e n s a t a l l s t r a i n l e v e l s .

An in d ic a tio n o f th e l i k e l y re sp o n se to c y c lin g can be

o b ta in e d from th e m onotonic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g e x p o n en t. A h ig h

exponent o f above 0.1 i n d ic a t e s a m a te r ia l which w i l l p ro b a b ly

c y c l i c a l l y h ard en w h ils t i f th e v a lu e i s below 0 .1 , c y c lic

s o fte n in g i s l i k e l y . A v a lu e o f a b o u t 0 .1 i s i n d i c a t i v e o f a
9
c y c l i c a l l y s ta b l e m a t e r i a l. The r a t i o o f t e n s i l e s tr e n g th
y i e l d s tr e n g th
h a s a ls o been used to in d ic a te s im ila r t r e n d s . I f th is ra tio

8
 i s g r e a te r th a n 1.*f, c y c lic h a rd e n in g i s l i k e l y w h ils t i f l e s s
g
th a n 1 .2 , c y c lic s o fte n in g o c c u r s .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s t r e s s am p litu d e Ga and th e p l a s t i c

s t r a i n am p litu d e i n th e c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve can be

10
e x p re sse d in th e fo llo w in g foim :-
/

where c ie n t
/
pi = c y c lic s t r a i n h ard e n in g exponent
iA ^ I
Both | \ and f i a r e c o n s ta n ts which a r e in flu e n c e d by
9 ^
m a te r ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n a d d i t i o n ,H i s p ro b a b ly th e m ost

im p o rta n t p a ra m ete r i d e n t i f i e d so f a r a s an i n d i c a t o r o f f a tig u e

I
b e h a v io u r. The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een H and m ic r o s tr u c tu r e h a s
11
b e e n 'e x te n s iv e ly s tu d ie d High v a lu e s o f H a r e a s s o c ia te d

w ith s t r u c t u r e s which a llo w e x te n s iv e c ro s s s l i p and d is l o c a t io n

m o tio n . Low v a lu e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith th o se s t r u c t u r e s which

r e s t r i c t d is lo c a tio n m otion and have a lim it e d number o f s l i p

I
sy ste m s. T y p ic a l v a lu e s o f H f o r a number o f m a te r ia ls have
12 13
been shown to l i e w ith in th e ran g e 0 .1 0 to 0 .2 5 . A stu d y of

v a rio u s m a te r ia ls in low c y c le f a tig u e t e s t s h a s shown t h a t i n ­

c re a s e d f a tig u e l i f e f o r a g iv e n s t r a i n a m p litu d e can be

f
c o r r e la te d w ith an in c re a s e in th e v alu e o f H . T h is lin k i n g o f
l
H w ith th e m ic ro s tru c tu re and o th e r m a te r ia l p a ra m e te rs i s d i s ­

c u ssed in l a t e r s e c tio n s .

2 . 2 .2 . F a tig u e L ife D ata

I n a s s e s s in g th e f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e o f a m e t a l l i c m a te r ia l,

i t i s u s e f u l to know w hether t h i s r e s is ta n c e can b e s t be q u a n ti­

f i e d i n term s o f c y c lic s t r e s s o r c y c lic s t r a i n . Take f o r

9
exam ple, low c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s where a l i f e o f say 10 3

c y c le s may be s u f f i c i e n t f o r a m a te r ia l in c e r t a i n a p p l i c a t i o n s .

Here th e c a p a c ity f o r accommodating c y c lic s t r a i n i s more

im p o rta n t th a n i f th e same m a te r ia l i s ex p ec te d to g iv e a

lo n g e r l i f e o f say 10 c y c le s . I n th e l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n , a

s t r e s s b ased a n a ly s is may be more r e l e v a n t .

As m entioned e a r l i e r , th e S-N curve was a t one tim e th e m ost

common form o f p re s e n tin g f a tig u e perform ance d a ta . Nowadays, a

number o f d i f f e r e n t p r e s e n ta tio n s e x i s t . Three im p o rta n t ones

a re th o se which show a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een f a tig u e l i f e and:

(i) s t r e s s ( s i m i l a r to th e S-N curve)

(ii) p la s tic s tra in

(iii) to ta l s tra in

F ig . k shows a sch em atic s t r e s s - l i f e curve which h a s been

produced from a number o f lo a d c o n tr o lle d c y c li c t e s t s . I t is

b a s ic a lly an S-N curve w ith s t r e s s and l i f e p l o t t e d on lo g a rith m ic

1^f
s c a le s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s t r e s s and l i f e i s g iv e n by

CTa = CTf (2Nf ) b ------------------------------------------ 2

where CTa = tr u e s t r e s s am p litu d e

N^. = number o f c y c le s to f a i l u r e
/

f a tig u e s tr e n g th c o e f f i c i e n t which i s g iv e n

by th e i n t e r c e p t on th e s t r e s s a x is

co rre sp o n d in g to one s t r e s s r e v e r s a l

( i.e . 2Nf = 1)

b = f a tig u e s tr e n g th exponent which i s g iv e n

by th e slo p e o f th e c u rv e .
I
Both b and C^. c h a r a c te r iz e th e c y c lic s t r e s s r e s i s t a n c e o f

a m a te r ia l. S in ce b i s th e slo p e o f th e l i n e , i t h a s a n e g a tiv e

10
v a lu e b ecause l i f e in c r e a s e s a s th e s t r e s s i s re d u c e d . F o r h ig h

c y c lic s t r e s s r e s i s t a n c e , th e i n t e r c e p t on th e s t r e s s a x i s g iv in g
I
CTf sh o u ld be a t a h ig h l e v e l w h ils t th e l i n e sh o u ld have a sh allo w

s lo p e . R ep o rted v a lu e s o f b range from ab o u t -0 .0 5 to -0 .2 0

and th e most sh allo w slo p e i n t h i s ran g e i s g iv e n by -0 .0 5 * Its

10
v a lu e h a s been shown to be r e l a t e d to th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g
I
exponent n in th e fo llo w in g w ay:-

t
-U _ *" 0 -2

1 + 5»V

A d e c re a se o f fV th e r e f o r e p ro d u ces a more sh allo w s lo p e and

th u s an in c re a s e i n f a tig u e l i f e a t low s t r e s s l e v e l s . The v a lu e

1
o f th e f a tig u e s tr e n g th c o e f f i c i e n t h a s been shown to be a p p ro x i-
9 10
m ately eq u al to th e m onotonic tr u e f r a c t u r e s t r a i n . 1 Hence

th e m a te r ia l c o n d itio n s which a re l i k e l y to r e s u l t i n h ig h c y c li c

s t r e s s a r e th e com bination o f a h ig h m onotonic tr u e f r a c t u r e

s tr e n g th and a low c y c lic s t r a i n h ard e n in g ex p o n en t.

15 16
The p l a s t i c s t r a i n - l i f e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s g iv e n by 1

A£p = £ p ( 2Nf )

where ^ P = p l a s t i c s t r a i n am p litu d e

= number o f c y c le s to f a i l u r e
1
= f a tig u e d u c t i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t

and c = f a tig u e d u c t i l i t y exponent

A schem atic p l a s t i c s t r a i n - l i f e curve i s shown a s p a r t o f fig « 5

where b o th s t r a i n and l i f e a r e p l o t t e d on lo g a rith m ic s c a l e s . It

h a s been produced from a number o f d e fo rm atio n c o n tr o lle d t e s t s .

/
The v a lu e s o f c and 6p c h a r a c te r iz e th e c y c li c s t r a i n r e s i s t a n c e

11
o f a m a te r ia l. The f a tig u e d u c t i l i t y exponent c i s g iv e n by

th e s lo p e o f th e l i n e and h a s a n e g a tiv e v a lu e , which can ran g e

10
from - 0 .5 to - 0 .7 • I t s v a lu e h a s a ls o been shown to be
* 10
r e l a t e d to H i n th e fo llo w in g way

(1 + 5 n )

An in c r e a s e in v a lu e o f th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g exponent

hence produces a f l a t t e r p l a s t i c s t r a i n - l i f e l i n e .
I
The v a lu e o f 6 p i s g iv e n by th e i n t e r c e p t o f th e l i n e on th e

s t r a i n a x is c o rre sp o n d in g to one s t r e s s r e v e r s a l ( i . e . 2N^ = 1 ) .

I t s v a lu e h as been shown to be ap p ro x im a te ly e q u a l to th e mono-

9 11
to n ic tr u e f r a c tu r e d u c t i l i t y . ’ High c y c li c s t r a i n

r e s is ta n c e i s th u s a c h ie v e d w ith a com bination o f a h ig h v a lu e o f

i
€p w ith a sh allo w slo p e c , in o th e r w ords, a h ig h m onotonic

f r a c tu r e d u c t i l i t y and a h ig h v a lu e f o r th e c y c lic s t r a i n

h ard e n in g e x p o n en t.

The f i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n sid e re d i n t h i s s e c tio n i s t h a t o f

t o t a l s t r a i n and l i f e . The r e s is t a n c e o f a m a te r ia l to t o t a l

s t r a i n c y c lin g i s made up o f two p a r t s , th e e l a s t i c and th e p l a s t i c

17 10
s tr a in re s is ta n c e . Morrow h a s e x p re sse d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p in

th e fo llo w in g w ay:-

A = A €e + A 6p ---------6
2 2 2

where - t o t a l s t r a i n am p litu d e

A £ e i s th e e l a s t i c s t r a i n am p litu d e and can be d e riv e d from

2

e q u a tio n 2 by d iv id in g by th e e l a s t i c m odulus. Hence:

.12
 2 E E

^ p i s th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n am p litu d e and i s g iv e n i n e q u a tio n *f.

E qu atio n 6 th e r e f o r e becomes:

Ag fc = (2Nf ) b + €p(2N f ) C 7

Z E
F ig u re 5 shows a sch e m a tic - p r e s e n ta tio n o f a t o t a l s t r a i n

a m p litu d e - lif e c u rv e . A lso in c lu d e d a re th e e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c

s t r a i n am p litu d e l i f e c u rv e s which make up th e t o t a l . I t can

be seen t h a t a s th e number o f c y c le s to f a i l u r e in c r e a s e s , th e

c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e e l a s t i c p o r tio n to th e t o t a l v a lu e in c r e a s e s .

A t lo n g l i v e s , th e e l a s t i c s t r a i n component p re d o m in a te s.

Hence, a s shown, in e q u a tio n s 2 and a h ig h f a tig u e s tr e n g th

A
c o e f f i c i e n t Oj, and a low v a lu e o f th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g

exponent H a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r good f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e a t lo n g

liv e s .

I n th e low c y c le re g io n , th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n component p r e ­

do m in ates. E q u a tio n s and 5 show t h a t d u c t i l i t y i s im p o rta n t

f o r good f a tig u e r e s is t a n c e i n t h i s l i f e ra n g e and t h i s means

h ig h v a lu e s f o r b o th th e f a tig u e d u c t i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t and
I i
H • F ig u re 6 shows th e in flu e n c e o f H on th e v a rio u s p a ra ­

m e te rs i d e n t i f i e d in s t r e s s - l i f e and s t r a i n - l i f e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

High p l a s t i c s t r a i n f a tig u e r e s is t a n c e and h ig h s t r e s s f a tig u e

r e s is ta n c e a re a c h ie v e d by opposing changes i n th e c y c li c s t r a i n

h a rd e n in g exponent, f\ • Hence, i n th e d e sig n o r s e l e c t i o n o f

a llo y s f o r good f a tig u e r e s is ta n c e based on e x i s t in g know ledge,

th e r e a re two p o s s i b i l i t i e s . F i r s t l y , one aim s f o r maximum

improvement p o s s ib le i n e i t h e r th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n o r c y c lic

13
 s t r e s s r e s is ta n c e re g im e s. A lt e r n a tiv e l y , one aim s f o r a

b a la n c e o f f a tig u e s tr e n g th and d u c t i l i t y w ith improvement sp re a d

o v er b o th th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n and c y c lic s t r e s s r e s i s t a n c e

regim es b u t l e s s th a n th e maximum p o s s ib le w ith th e f i r s t o p tio n .

The key to f u r t h e r improvements in f a tig u e perform ance may

l i e in se v e ra l a re a s . An im p o rta n t one i s t h a t o f th e d e sig n o f

a llo y s to have c y c li c s t r a i n h ard e n in g ex p o n en ts which l i e beyond

12
th e narrow range o f v a lu e s which e x i s t to d a te (0 .1 0 - 0 . 25 )*

From th e e x is t in g knowledge a much low er v a lu e f o r th e exponent

would g iv e e x c e lle n t f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e a t lo n g l i v e s , p ro v id e d

a h ig h f a tig u e s tr e n g th c o e f f i c i e n t was m a in ta in e d .

MECHANISMS OF FATIGUE FAILURE

The f a tig u e f a i l u r e p ro c e s s o f a m e ta llic m a te r ia l co m p rises

o f more th a n one s ta g e . T h is f a c t h a s been known f o r a lo n g

w h ile and a number ’o f th e o r ie s have been p ro p o sed f o r th e s e

d iv is io n s o f l i f e . A w id ely a c c e p te d view i s t h a t th r e e d i s t i n c t

s ta g e s e x i s t , th e s e b e in g :-

a) th e i n i t i a t i o n o f a c ra ck

b) p ro p o g a tio n o f a c ra c k in to th e m a te r ia l

c) th e a tta in m e n t o f a c r i t i c a l c ra c k s iz e a t which th e

m a te r ia l th e n co m p letely f r a c t u r e s i n a r a p i d m anner.

On t h i s b a s is , good f a tig u e r e s is ta n c e i s a c h ie v e d by

r e s t r i c t i n g c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n , re d u c in g th e c ra c k p ro p o g a tio n r a t e

and in c r e a s in g th e c r i t i c a l c ra c k s iz e f o r r a p id f r a c t u r e .
18
A s im ila r approach i s t h a t due to F o r s y th . Here f a tig u e

f a i l u r e ta k e s p la c e by two s ta g e s o f c ra c k in g . S ta g e I in v o lv e s

c ra ck grow th from an i n i t i a t i o n s i t e and grow th i s a lo n g p la n e s o f

maximum re s o lv e d s h e a r s t r e s s . S ta g e I I fo llo w s and in v o lv e s

 grow th alo n g p la n e s a t 90° to th e t e n s i l e a x i s . R apid f r a c t u r e

o c c u rs when a c r i t i c a l c ra c k s iz e i s re a c h e d . F ig . 7 shows a

sequence o f th e c ra c k s ta g e s .

An u n d e rly in g f e a tu r e o f b o th s ta g e s i s t h e i r dependence on

p l a s t i c d e fo rm a tio n . F o r exam ple, c y c lic s l i p dom inates th e

d ir e c tio n o f S tag e I c ra c k g row th. F u rth erm o re , c y c lic s l i p and

a t e n s i l e s t r e s s a re n e c e s sa ry f o r S tag e I I . I n th e rem ain in g

p a r t o f t h i s su rv ey d e a lin g w ith f a tig u e f a i l u r e mechanism s, th e

approach o f F o r s y t h ^ h a s been a d o p te d . F a ilu r e i s c o n sid e re d i n

term s o f two s ta g e s o f c ra c k grow th and th e dependence o f each

s ta g e on m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s d is c u s s e d . Because o f

i t s im p o rtan ce, a s e c tio n on p l a s t i c d efo rm atio n p re c e d e s th o s e on

th e c ra ck grow th s ta g e s .

I n th e fo llo w in g s e c tio n s , m ention w i l l o f te n be made o f low

and h ig h c y c le f a t i g u e . A number o f d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e s e two

c o n d itio n s have been e n c o u n te re d . The most w idely u sed term i s

th e t r a n s i t i o n f a tig u e l i f e 19 and t h i s v a lu e i d e n t i f i e s th e boundary

betw een th e two c o n d itio n s . I t s v a lu e can be d e fin e d by re f e r e n c e

to th e l i n e s shown i n f ig .5 » The -point o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f th e

e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c s t r a i n l i n e s i d e n t i f i e s th e t r a n s i t i o n and th e

c o rre sp o n d in g v a lu e on th e h o r iz o n ta l a x is g iv e s th e t r a n s i t i o n

f a tig u e l i f e . Low c y c le f a tig u e r e f e r s to th o se c o n d itio n s o f

s t r e s s o r s t r a i n am p litu d e which g iv e f a i l u r e i n l i v e s l e s s th a n

th e t r a n s i t i o n f a tig u e l i f e . Here th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n component

p re d o m in a te s. High c y c le f a tig u e g iv e s f a i l u r e beyond th e t r a n s ­

i t i o n f a tig u e l i f e and un d er th e se c o n d itio n s , th e e l a s t i c s t r a i n

component becomes p re d o m in a n t. S tu d ie s o f a number o f m a te r ia l s

P0
in c lu d in g s t e e l s have shown t h a t S tag e I I o c c u p ie s m ost o f th e

15
 l i f e i n low c y c le f a tig u e b u t f o r h ig h c y c le f a t ig u e , S tag e I

dom inates th e l i f e *

2.*f. THE ROLE OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION IN FATIGUE

P l a s t i c d efo rm atio n p la y s an im p o rta n t r o l e i n a l l th e s ta g e s

which le a d up to f a tig u e f a ilu r e * I n o rd e r t h a t f a tig u e damage

may accum ulate and su b seq u en t f a i l u r e o c c u r, p l a s t i c d e fo rm a tio n

must ta k e p lace* F o r such d efo rm atio n to o c c u r, th e s t r e s s

a p p lie d m ust exceed a c e r t a i n v a lu e which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h a t

m a te r ia l under th e c y c lic c o n d itio n s . T h is v a lu e i s c a l l e d th e

m ic ro -c y c lic y i e l d s t r e s s 13 and f o r most m a te r ia ls i t i s w e ll below

th e s t r e s s a t which y ie ld in g o c c u rs i n a te n s io n t e s t u n d er

s im ila r c o n d itio n s , i .e * te m p e ra tu re , s t r a i n r a t e . An e x c e p tio n

i s t h a t o f germanium whose m ic ro -c y c lic y i e l d s t r e s s e q u a ls t h a t o f

21
i t s f r a c tu r e s t r e s s . I f germanium i s t e s t e d a t a c y c lic s t r e s s

a m p litu d e such t h a t p l a s t i c d e fo rm a tio n can o c c u r, f r a c t u r e o c c u rs

w ith in th e f i r s t r e v e r s a l . A lo w e rin g o f s t r e s s a m p litu d e to

p re v e n t im m ediate f r a c tu r e and so en ab le s t r e s s c y c lin g , does n o t

th e n produce f a tig u e f a i l u r e and t h i s i s a t t r i b u t e d to th e ab sen ce

21
o f p l a s t i c d e fo rm a tio n .

The dependence o f p l a s t i c d efo rm atio n i n f a tig u e on such

f a c t o r s a s s t r a i n a m p litu d e , s t r a i n r a t e , te m p e ra tu re and m a te r ia l

c o n d itio n h a s been w id ely s tu d ie d . S i m i l a r i t i e s have b een shown

to e x i s t in d efo rm atio n p ro c e s s e s betw een c y c li c and u n i d i r e c t i o n a l

10
t e s t i n g f o r many s in g le phase m a t e r i a l s . F o r t h i s su rv e y ,

a t t e n t i o n h as been fo c u sse d on th e e f f e c t o f m a te r ia l c o n d itio n .

The r e s u l t s o f p a s t work can be b ro a d ly c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two

a re a s. F i r s t l y , th o se r e l a t i n g to ex am in atio n o f th e m icro ­

s t r u c t u r e s produced by f a tig u e and th e mechanisms le a d in g to t h e i r

16
 form ation* S econdly , m easurem ents o f change in d efo rm atio n

r e s is ta n c e and t h e i r dependence on and a s s o c ia ti o n w ith changes

o f m ic ro s tru c tu re *

2 * 4 .1 . Mechanisms o f D eform ation in F a tig u e

The two m ost im p o rta n t mechanisms o f p l a s t i c d e fo rm atio n in

c r y s t a l l i n e m a te r ia ls a r e s l i p and m ech an ical tw in n in g . ^he

o p e ra tiv e mechanisms i n c y c lic d efo rm atio n a r e s im ila r to th o se

in u n id i r e c t i o n a l d efo rm atio n f o r a wide number o f m a t e r i a l s .

I n F .C .C . and most B .C .C . m a te r ia ls s tu d ie d , s l i p i s n e a r ly

alw ays th e o p e ra tiv e mechanism. F o r exam ple, i n th e e a r ly work

22
o f F o rsy th on a F .C .C . silv e r-a lu m in iu m a l l o y s l i p was dom inant

a t low s t r e s s a m p litu d e s j u s t above th e f a tig u e l i m i t , b u t a t

h ig h e r s t r e s s a m p litu d e s, k in k -ty p e d efo rm atio n bands w ere

o b se rv e d . Both s lip p in g and m ech an ical tw in n in g have been

23
o b serv ed i n s e v e r a l C .P.H . m a te r ia ls such a s magnesium and
24
< X -titan iu m , d u rin g c y c lic t e s t i n g . I r o n - s i l i c o n a l l o y s norm­

a l l y c y c l i c a l l y deform by s l i p b u t a t c e r t a i n s i l i c o n c o n te n ts ,
25
m echanical tw in n in g was a ls o o b se rv e d . I n th e work o f Modlen
« 26
and Sm ith , s l i p was o b serv ed d u rin g c y c lic , d e fo rm a tio n o f

f e r r i te - c e m e n tite s t r u c t u r e s .

2 .4 .2 . E f f e c t o f C y clic D eform ation on M ic ro s tru c tu re

S tu d ie s o f m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l changes d u rin g c y c li c d e fo rm a tio n

have c o n s is te d o f : -

a) s u rfa c e o b s e rv a tio n s by o p t i c a l and e l e c tr o n m icroscopy u s in g

ta p e r s e c tio n s , r e p l i c a s and in te r f e r o m e tr i c te c h n iq u e s

b) tra n s m is s io n e le c tr o n m icroscopy to examine d i s lo c a ti o n

s t r u c t u r e s b o th n e a r th e s u rfa c e and w ith in th e sam p le.

A number o f v a r ia b le s such a s s t r a i n am p litu d e and tem p era­

17
 tu r e in flu e n c e th e changes b u t th e most im p o rta n t v a r ia b le is

th e m a te r ia l c o n d itio n . Three' f e a tu r e s a s s o c ia te d w ith a

m a te r ia l c o n d itio n , have been i d e n t i f i e d a s hav in g an im p o rta n t

e f f e c t on the m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l changes and f a tig u e b e h a v io u r.

These a r e : -
27
(i) mode o f s l i p which i s r e l a t e d to s ta c k in g f a u l t energy

(ii) hom ogeneity o f s l i p ^ ’ ^

11
(iii) re v e rs ib ility o f s lip

A ll th r e e a r e dependent on th e co m p o sitio n o f a m a te r ia l and

i t s m ic r o s tr u c tu r e . The mode o r c h a r a c te r o f s l i p h a s been

27
d e sc rib e d in term s o f e i t h e r p la n a r o r wavy g l i d e . P la n a r

g lid e i s l a r g e ly tw o -d im en sio n al w hereas wavy g lid e d e s c rib e s th e

sp re a d in g o f g lid e to a th r e e d im en sio n al form . T h is s p re a d i s

in flu e n c e d by th e ease o f c r o s s - s l i p o f.s c re w d is lo c a ti o n s which

in tu r n i s r e l a t e d to th e s ta c k in g f a u l t e n e rg y . Aluminium and

ir o n a r e exam ples o f h ig h s ta c k in g f a u l t energy ( S .F .E .) m a te r ia ls

and r e a d ily c ro s s s l i p d u rin g p l a s t i c d e fo rm a tio n . A llo y in g can

2
a l t e r th e S .F .E . v a lu e a s i n th e case o f copper (kO erg s/cm )
2
whose v a lu e i s low ered to 1 .5 ergs/cm when a llo y e d w ith 7*5 wt$

o f a lu m in iu m .^

Homogeneity o f p l a s t i c d e fo rm atio n i s in flu e n c e d when a

m ic ro s tru c tu re i s a l t e r e d from s in g le to m u lti- p h a s e . A s in g le

phase m a te r ia l i s homogeneous in co m p o sitio n u n d er p ro p e rly con­

t r o l l e d c o n d itio n s and some degree o f hom ogeneity o f p l a s t i c

defo rm atio n can be e x p e c te d . I n a m a te r ia l c o n ta in in g p h a se s

whose p l a s t i c d efo rm atio n p r o p e r tie s d i f f e r , hom ogeneity can n o t

be e x p e c te d . T his s i t u a t i o n i s d is c u s s e d in th e fo llo w in g

s e c tio n s .

18
 31
Gough h a s shown t h a t s l i p in f a tig u e o c c u rs on th e same

s l i p system s a s u n d er s t a t i c lo a d in g f o r many m a te r ia ls h av in g

F .C .C ., B .C.C . and C .P.H . s t r u c t u r e s . In o C -iro n , th e o p e ra tiv e

p la n e s a r e (1 1 0 ), (112) and ( 123 ) w ith a < 111> d i r e c t i o n . In

s t a t i c lo a d in g , th e s l i p bands formed a t th e s u rfa c e have a

s te p c o n to u r w hereas th o se in f a tig u e do n o t . I n s te a d , a

s u rfa c e d evelops which i s a s e r i e s o f g ro o v es and r id g e s , th e

f e a tu r e s o f which a r e v e ry dependent on th e ease o f c ro s s s l i p

and r e v e r s i b i l i t y o f s l i p . I f s l i p o c c u rs on many p la n e s a s

a r e s u l t o f easy c ro s s s l i p th e n th e s u rfa c e topography shows

shallow grooves and r i d g e s . I f s l i p i s r e s t r i c t e d to o n ly a

few p la n e s , a s h a rp ly d e fin e d n o tc h peak topography can d e v e lo p .

In th e work o f F o rsy th on p a r t i a l l y ag e-h ard e n e d alum inium

-ty/o copper a llo y , th e s u rfa c e topography a f t e r f a tig u e showed

f in e to ngues o f m e ta l e x tru d e d from s l i p b a n d s. These were

c a ll e d e x tr u s io n s . I n t h i s a l l o y th e y were shown to be v e ry

t h i n and ab o u t 10^u.metres h ig h . T h is phenomenon h a s s in c e been

33 3k
ob serv ed i n a n n e a le d co p p er, o C -b ra ss, ir o n and s i l i c o n -

i r o n . 35

The r e v e rs e p ro c e s s to e x tr u s io n fo rm a tio n , namely i n t r u s i o n s

36 37
have a ls o been o b serv ed a t th e s u rfa c e a f t e r f a tig u e ’
3k
These a re c re v ic e s and can grow in to c ra c k s .

The im portance o f th e s u rfa c e i n f a tig u e h a s lo n g been

r e a l i s e d , even b e fo re s l i p bands were o b se rv e d . S e v e ra l e x p e r i­

m ents have been conducted where p e r io d ic rem oval o f th e damaged

s u rfa c e by p o lis h in g h a s shown to in c re a s e th e f a tig u e l i.f 3e . 3

The in c r e a s e i s a t t r i b u t e d to th e rem oval o f many o f th e s l i p

bands a lth o u g h some do rem ain and th e s e a re c a l l e d p e r s i s t e n t

19
 s l i p b a n d s. The s tr u c tu r e o f th e s l i p bands h a s been s tu d ie d

in o rd e r to u n d e rs ta n d th e f a tig u e mechanism. Much o f t h i s

work h a s in v o lv e d an ex am in atio n o f th e d is lo c a t io n s t r u c t u r e s

a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s l i p b an d s.

2 .* f.2 .1 . The Development o f S u rfa c e S li p Bands

The o n s e t o f f a tig u e damage a t room te m p e ra tu re in a

v a r ie ty o f s in g le phase m a te r ia ls i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e

developm ent o f f in e s l i p bands on th e s u r f a c e . F u r th e r

c y c lin g le a d s to a c o n c e n tra tio n o f s l i p i n c e r t a i n bands and

e v e n tu a lly c ra c k s may develop i n th e s e b a n d s. I t i s w ith in

th e s e a r e a s t h a t e x tr u s io n s and in t r u s i o n s have been o b serv ed

in many m a t e r i a l s . I n th e case o f a n n e a le d co p p er, th e f in e

s l i p d evelops d u rin g an i n i t i a l s ta g e i n which r a p id h a rd e n in g

38
o c c u rs . F i g .8 i s a sch em atic r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e change

i n s t r e s s re q u ir e d to m a in ta in a c o n s ta n t s t r a i n a m p litu d e and

shows t h i s h ard e n in g fo llo w ed by a s a tu r a ti o n s ta g e where th e

s t r e s s rem ains c o n s ta n t. As m entioned e a r l i e r , n o t a l l

m a te r ia ls show t h i s h ard e n in g s t a g e . Some may show s o f te n in g

and o th e r s show no change a t a l l .

S li p c o n c e n tra tio n o c c u rs w ith in th e s a t u r a t i o n s t a g e .

The bands showing i n t e n s i f i e d s l i p a re c a l l e d p e r s i s t e n t s l i p

bands and may e x ten d w ith in th e specim en f o r s e v e r a l m ic ro n s.

L ig h t e le c tr o p o lis h in g removes th e f in e homogeneous s l i p bands

b u t th e s e i n t e n s i f i e d s l i p bands p e r s i s t , hence t h e i r name. 33

30 Aj-0 A l
E x te n siv e s tu d ie s o f th e s e bands ’ ’ have shown t h a t th e y

p o s se ss c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which may d i f f e r from th e m a trix , f o r

exam ple,

a) th e y a re s o f t e r

_20
b) t h e i r s t r a i n h a rd e n in g r a t e i s low er and

c) th e y have a h ig h e r c a p a c ity f o r s l i p r e v e r s i b i l i t y

I n a d d itio n th e y have a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s lo c a tio n

s t r u c t u r e i n which th e d is lo c a t io n s a re a rra n g e d i n c e l l u l a r

form ty p ic a l o f h ig h s t r e s s a m p litu d e . T h is a s p e c t i s d i s ­

cu ssed f u r th e r i n th e fo llo w in g s e c t io n . T h e ir fo rm atio n i n

s in g le phase m a te r ia ls i s e x p la in e d in term s o f a mechanism

k2
b ased on d e b ris h a rd e n in g . I n i t i a l l y th e m a te r ia l h a rd e n s

u n ifo rm ly and once f i l l e d w ith d e b ris th e l o c a l s t r e s s b u ild s

up such t h a t th e d e b r is s t r u c t u r e becomes u n s t a b l e . T h is

l o c a l i s e d s o fte n in g due to d e b ris breakdown le a d s to s t r a i n

c o n c e n tra tio n which i s an u n d e s ir a b le f e a tu r e where c ra c k

i n i t i a t i o n r e s is ta n c e i s r e q u ir e d .

I n s in g le phase m a te r ia ls , a re d u c tio n i n S .F .E . p ro d u ces

a more homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s l i p and hence th e fo rm atio n

k3
o f P .S .B f s i s d e la y e d . Lower te m p e ra tu re s g e n e r a lly p ro -
19 Wh
duce a s im ila r e f f e c t . T e s tin g i n a vacuum and a l s o h ig h
k5
freq u en cy c y c lin g encourage a more homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n

of s lip .

I n th o se m u lti-p h a s e m a te r ia ls s tu d ie d , f a tig u e p ro d u ces

f in e s l i p in d u c tile p h a se s which th e n becomes l o c a l i s e d i n a

few i s o l a t e d re g io n s r e s u l t i n g in p e r s i s t e n t s l i p b a n d s.

These become s i t e s f o r l o c a l s t r a i n a s d e s c rib e d ab o v e. How­

e v e r, a d d itio n a l s o f t zones may form due to c y c li c in d u ced

m ic ro s tru c tu re changes and th e se produce inhomogeneous s t r a i n .

F or example, second phase p a r t i c l e s may be lo c a t e d in th e

m a trix such t h a t d is lo c a tio n s p e n e tr a te them d u rin g c y c lic

s tre s s in g . The s h e a rin g a c tio n re d u c e s th e p a r t i c l e s iz e and

 th e s i t u a t i o n can a r i s e where th e p a r t i c l e d is s o lv e s i n th e

m a tr ix . The s tre n g th e n in g e f f e c t o f t h a t p a r t i c l e i n th e

l o c a l i s e d a re a i s th e r e f o r e l o s t and th e r e s u l t a n t s o f t zone

a c t s a s a s t r a i n c o n c e n tr a tio n . T h is h a s been o b serv ed i n a

number o f a llo y s in c lu d in g low carbon s t e e l and n ic k e l- b a s e

k7
s u p e r a llo y s . The o p e ra tiv e mechanisms have been s tu d ie d m

a range o f s o lu tio n t r e a t e d and aged alum inium -copper a l l o y s .

To prom ote homogeneous s l i p , one must th e r e f o r e develop a

s t r u c t u r e where th e second and o th e r p h a se s a r e s ta b l e a g a in s t

moving d is lo c a tio n s and y e t th e r e a re numerous d is lo c a tio n

s o u rc e s w ith in . T h is was th e b a s is o f th e recom m endations

k6
made from s tu d ie s o f iro n -c a rb o n a l l o y s . Therm om echanical
I j.g cq
tre a tm e n ts o f alum inium a l lo y s * have shown t h a t s t r u c t u r a l

developm ents f o r prom oting homogeneous s l i p have im proved

f a tig u e p r o p e r tie s i n b o th h ig h and low a m p litu d e c o n d itio n s .

2 .* f.2 .2 . C h a r a c te r is tic s o f D is lo c a tio n S tr u c t u r e s

The d is lo c a tio n arran g em en ts produced by c y c li c s t r e s s i n g

o f a number o f s in g le phase m a te r ia ls may be c l a s s i f i e d in t o

two g ro u p s, th e s e b e in g :-

a) a c e l l o r s u b -g ra in boundary s t r u c t u r e (fig .9 A )

b) a banded s t r u c t u r e c o n ta in in g lo o p s and ta n g le s o f

d is lo c a tio n s (fig .9 B )

The s tr u c tu r e d ev elo p s w ith in th e i n i t i a l s ta g e o f th e

curve shown i n f i g . 8 which a s m entioned e a r l i e r , c o rre sp o n d s to

r a p id h ard e n in g f o r many m a t e r i a l s . The ty p e o f arran g em en t

depends on th e e ase o f c r o s s - s l i p . A h ig h s t r e s s a m p litu d e

o r S .F .E . promote easy c r o s s - s l i p o f screw d is lo c a ti o n s and

fa v o u rs th e c e l l ty p e s t r u c t u r e . 51 An in c r e a s e o f te m p e ra tu re

22
in c r e a s e s th e c e l l s iz e and a l t e r s th e ty p e s o f d i s lo c a tio n s

found w ith in th e c e l l w alls# D iffic u lty in c ro s s -s lip r e s u lts

i n a banded s t r u c t u r e o f d is lo c a tio n s and t h i s i s found

g e n e r a lly a t low s t r e s s a m p litu d e s and i n m a te r ia ls w ith low

S .F .E . v a lu e s .

Almost a l l th e e a r ly work on d is lo c a tio n s t u d ie s was

c a r r ie d o u t on copper and alum inium to g e th e r w ith t h e i r r e s p e c t ­

iv e sim ple a l l o y s . Much o f t h i s h a s been co v ered i n re v ie w s,

3 5 6
p u b lis h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . ’ ’ S tu d ie s o f cC - i r o n have
52 53
however shown t h a t s im il a r d is lo c a tio n a rra n g em en ts e x i s t *

I n th e s ta g e co rre sp o n d in g to r a p id h a rd e n in g , a low s t r e s s

am p litu d e produces an in n e r s u b s tr u c tu r e o f d is l o c a tio n ta n g le s

w hereas a c e l l s t r u c t u r e d ev elo p s a t h ig h a m p litu d e . The

5k
banded s t r u c t u r e found i n o C -iro n shows s i m i l a r i t i e s w ith

t h a t found in F .C .C . m a te r ia ls o f h ig h S .F .E ., e . g . co p p er,

which a re t e s t e d a t low a m p litu d e s . Both show bands con­

ta in in g d is lo c a tio n jo g s and lo o p s ; th e band dim ensions a r e

ap p ro x im a te ly e q u a l. I n o C -iro n , th e band d i s lo c a tio n s a r e

m ainly screw c h a r a c te r w h ils t th o se in co p p er a r e p re d o m in a n tly

edge d is l o c a t i o n s .

I n th e re g io n shown in f i g . 8 , c o rre sp o n d in g to s a t u r a t i o n

h a rd e n in g , s in g le phase m a te r ia ls shov; no m ajo r change o f

arrangem ent i n th e in n e r d i s lo c a t io n s t r u c t u r e a t low s t r e s s

a m p litu d e s and no in c re a s e o f d is lo c a tio n d e n s ity . T h is may

n o t alw ays be th e case w ith h ig h a m p litu d e s ;. f o r exam ple, th e

c e l l w a lls in p o ly c r y s ta l lin e copper can become more s h a rp ly

d e fin e d in t h i s s ta g e . 51 D iffe re n c e s betw een s u r f a c e and

i n t e r i o r s t r u c t u r e s have been o b serv ed i n b o th F .C .C . and B .C.C .

23
m a te ria ls . I n zone r e f in e d ir o n 5 5 , low a m p litu d e c y c lin g

c o n d itio n s g iv e r i s e to i s o l a t e d c l u s t e r s o f d is lo c a tio n s

and s c a tte r e d lo o p s i n th e c e n t r a l p o r tio n o f th e specim en b u t

n o t so in re g io n s w ith in 2^jjlm e tre s o f th e s u r f a c e . H ere th e

s t r u c t u r e c o n ta in s bands o f in te n s e d i s lo c a tio n ta n g le s and

a r r a y s o f p a r a l l e l rows o f d is lo c a tio n lo o p s . Such a r r a y s

a re o f te n a s s o c ia te d w ith th e in te n s e s u r f a c e s l i p b a n d s.

These o b s e rv a tio n s do n o t however co rresp o n d w ith th o s e

a s s o c ia te d w ith th e p e r s i s t e n t s l i p bands (P .S .B .) found a t th e

s u rfa c e o f so many f a tig u e d m a te r ia ls i n th e s a t u r a t i o n s ta g e .

The d is lo c a tio n s t r u c t u r e w ith in th e se bands i s composed o f

c e l l s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w hether th e m a trix i s banded o r c e l l u l a r .

Such a s t r u c t u r e i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h ig h s t r a i n f a tig u e and

e x te n s iv e c ro s s s l i p . A number o f t h e o r ie s have been p ro p o sed

to e x p la in th e c e l l s t r u c t u r e a s s o c ia ti o n w ith P .S .B ’s ^ ’ ^ b u t

a s y e t no com plete e x p la n a tio n i s a v a i l a b l e . The im p o rtan ce

o f th e r o le o f P .S .B * s i n th e f a tig u e f a i l u r e mechanism i s w e ll

e s ta b lis h e d and f u r t h e r work i s needed i n t h i s a r e a to o b ta in

a more c o n cise e x p la n a tio n o f th e a s s o c ia te d d i s l o c a t io n

s tru c tu re .

I n m u lti-p h a s e m a te r i a ls , th e lim it e d amount o f work does

show t h a t on c y c lic s t r e s s i n g , th e r e s u l t i n g a rran g em en t o f

d is lo c a tio n s i s in flu e n c e d by a d d iti o n a l p h a s e s . The p r e c is e

n a tu re o f th e arrangem ent i s in flu e n c e d by th e amount o f

th e s e a d d itio n a l p h ases and t h e i r s iz e and s h a p e . I n an i r o n -

carbon a llo y (O.OS^C) c o n ta in in g o n ly a m inute amount o f

p e a r l i t e , h ig h am p litu d e c y c lin g p roduces a s i m i l a r arran g em en t

to t h a t o f pure ir o n un d er th e same c y c lin g c o n d itio n s .

2k
W ith a h ig h e r amount o f p e a r l i t e , a s in a n o rm a lise d ir o n

- 0 .2 % carbon a l l o y , th e e x te n t o f d i s lo c a tio n jo g s and lo o p

fo rm atio n i s f a r l e s s th a n i n th e low er carbon a l l o y s . At

in te rm e d ia te and h ig h a m p litu d e s, s u b -g ra in b o u n d a rie s a re

ob serv ed b u t no c o n tin u o u s c e l l s t r u c t u r e i s form ed. S im ila r

o b s e rv a tio n s have been o b ta in e d in th e same a l l o y d u rin g c y c lic

t e s t i n g a f t e r h e a t tre a tm e n t which tra n s fo rm s th e la m e lla r

c e m e n tite to s p h e r o id a l form . These fin d in g s confirm th e

in flu e n c e o f c e m e n tite a s r e s t r i c t i n g d i s lo c a tio n m o b ility in

th e f e r r i t e m a tr ix . I f th e a llo y i s quenched and aged a t

room te m p e ratu re to g iv e a f in e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f sm all c a rb id e

p a r t i c l e s i n f e r r i t e , th e e f f e c t o f c y c lic t e s t i n g on th e d i s ­

lo c a tio n arrangem ent i s q u ite d i f f e r e n t . I n th e f i r s t c a s e ,

th e re i s an alm o st com plete rem oval o f th e c a rb id e p a r t i c l e s ;

t h i s i s a t t r i b u t e d to t h e i r s h e a rin g by moving d is lo c a ti o n s

and e v e n tu a l r e s o l u t io n in th e f e r r i t e . S eco n d ly , th e s t r u c ­

tu r e shows dense c l u s t e r s o f d i s lo c a tio n jo g s and p r is m a tic

lo o p s which s u g g e s ts c o n s id e ra b le d i s lo c a t io n m o b ility * The

su p p ly o f d is lo c a tio n s i s a t t r i b u t e d to two s o u r c e s :-

i) quenching s t r e s s e s d u rin g h e a t tre a tm e n t which in c r e a s e

th e d is lo c a tio n d e n s ity and,

ii) r e s o lu tio n o f c a rb id e p a r t i c l e s in th e f e r r i t e .

D is lo c a tio n m o b ility th e r e f o r e a p p e a rs to be in c re a s e d i n t h i s

a llo y when th e a d d i tio n a l phase i s f in e ly d i s t r i b u t e d .

*f8
V/ork on an aluminium -W copper a l l o y h a s shown t h a t th e

n a tu re o f th e a d d itio n a lp h a s e and i t s s iz e in f lu e n c e th e

arrangem ent o f d is lo c a tio n s a f t e r c y c lin g . Where th e

s t r u c t u r e c o n ta in s a phase which i s p e n e tr a b le by moving

25
 d is lo c a tio n s , b o th h ig h and low am p litu d e have a s im ila r

e f f e c t* A homogeneous d is p e r s io n o f frag m en ted d is l o c a tio n s

w ith dense bands o f d is lo c a tio n s i s p ro d u ced . I n a d d itio n ,

where th e phase h a s an o rd e re d s t r u c t u r e , d i s l o c a t io n m otion

d is tu r b s th e atom ic arrangem ent w ith in th e phase and c o n se q u e n tly

d e s tro y s th e o rd e rin g *

I f th e a d d itio n a l phase i n th e alum inium -copper a l l o y i s

n o t p e n e tr a te d by d i s lo c a t io n s , a d i f f e r e n t arran g em en t i s

produced by c y c lic t e s t i n g . I t i s dependent on th e sp a c in g

o f th e phase i n th e m a trix and th e s t r e s s am p litu d e* A t low

a m p litu d e s, d is lo c a tio n s a r e s to r e d a t th e i n t e r f a c e s o f th e

p a r t i c l e s i n b o th th e f in e and c o a rse s tr u c tu r e * W ith a f in e

s t r u c t u r e , s in g le d is lo c a tio n s ex ten d w ith in th e m a trix betw een

th e p a r t i c l e s b u t a r e a b se n t i n th e c o a rse s tr u c tu r e * A t h ig h

a m p litu d e s, d is lo c a tio n s may accum ulate a t th e p a r t i c l e i n t e r ­

fa c e i n b o th c o a rse and f in e s t r u c t u r e s . Where th e p a r t i c l e

sp ac in g i s wide (i.e.'^H yU .m ) d is lo c a tio n c e l l w a lls a r e form ed

i n th e m atrix*

A ll th e o b s e rv a tio n s o f d is lo c a tio n arra n g em en ts m entioned

so f a r have r e f e r r e d to th e e a r ly s ta g e s o f th e f a tig u e l i f e .

A few s tu d ie s have been conducted o f th e s t r u c t u r e s produced in

th e v i c i n i t y o f a f a tig u e c ra c k a s i t grov/s th ro u g h th e

m a te ria l* These s u g g e st t h a t i n th e few m a te r i a l s s tu d ie d ,

ex trem ely h ig h p l a s t i c s t r a i n s e x i s t i n th e re g io n im m ed iately

ahead o f th e c ra c k . A f in e s u b - c e ll s t r u c t u r e i s o b serv ed i n
57
copper , aluminium -¥/o copper and a tita n iu m -alu m in iu m

vanadium a l l o y ^ a l l h av in g h ig h S .F .E . v a lu es* I n c o p p er,

th e c e l l d iam eter d e c re a se d a s th e c ra c k t i p was ap p ro ach ed ,

26
 59
and a d ia m e ter o f 0.1 jmm h a s been m easured. T h is i s much

s m a lle r th a n e v e r o b serv ed in b u lk d efo rm atio n where a c e l l

s t r u c t u r e i s p ro d u ced . I n an 18-8 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l (low

S .F .E .) a c e l l s t r u c t u r e i s formed b u t c < -m a rte n s ite h a s a ls o

been d e te c te d a t th e c ra ck t i p . ^

2 .^ .3 . Changes i n D eform ation R e s is ta n c e during; C y c lic T e s tin g

C y c lic t e s t i n g p ro d u ces a change o f m ech an ical p r o p e r tie s

i n th e e a r ly s ta g e s o f th e f a tig u e l i f e f o r a l l m e ta ll ic

m a te r ia ls s tu d ie d to d a te . T h is phenomenon h a s been known f o r

a lo n g tim e and was f i r s t d e te c te d by i n t e r r u p t i n g th e t e s t and

s u b je c tin g th e c y c le d specim en to e i t h e r a h a rd n e s s , t e n s i l e o r

some o th e r s u ita b le t e s t . Nowadays such changes can be m easured

w ith o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n to th e c y c lic t e s t u s in g modern c lo s e d -lo o p

fa tig u e machines. W h ils t such changes have g e n e ra lly been

s tu d ie d d u rin g th e e a r ly s ta g e s o f f a tig u e , th e y a r e a ls o known to

o ccu r on a h ig h ly l o c a l i s e d s c a le a t th e t i p o f a c ra c k a s i t

grows thro u g h th e m a t e r i a l.

C y c lic te s tin g o f s in g le phase m e ta llic m a te ria ls produces

h a rd e n in g o r s o fte n in g i n th e e a r ly s ta g e s which th e n le a d s on to

a s a tu r a ti o n s ta g e . F i g . 8 i s a sch em atic r e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f

c y c lic h ard e n in g fo llo w ed by s a t u r a t i o n . A nnealed m a te r ia ls

u s u a lly show h a rd e n in g and th e s a tu r a ti o n s ta g e i s re a c h e d w ith in

10
10 - 20^ o f th e f a tig u e l i f e . Cold worked m a te r ia l s u s u a ll y

s o f te n a lth o u g h th e y can h ard en when th e s t r a i n a m p litu d e i s

e q u al to o r g r e a te r th a n th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n r e q u ir e d i n i t i a l l y to
61
c o ld work th e m a te r ia l. Where s o fte n in g o c c u rs , a s a t u r a t i o n
10
s ta g e i s re a ch e d w ith in *f0 - 5^$ o f th e l i f e .

M a te ria l c o n d itio n i s n o t th e on ly f a c t o r in f lu e n c in g th e

27
 changes o f d e fo rm atio n r e s i s ta n c e d u rin g c y c lic t e s t i n g .

T em perature, freq u en cy o f t e s t i n g , number o f c y c le s and s t r e s s

y\Q ^
o r s t r a i n a m p litu d e have a ls o been shown to be im p o rta n t. ’

The m ajor c au se s o f c y c lic h a rd e n in g in s in g le phase

m a te r ia ls i s a t t r i b u t e d to an in c r e a s e o f d is l o c a t io n s and t h e i r

i n t e r a c t i o n w ith each o th e r and w ith p o in t d e f e c t s . I n F .C .C .

m a te r ia ls , a model o f h ard e n in g h a s been d e riv e d from t r a n s ­

it
m issio n e le c tr o n m icroscopy s t u d i e s . T h is work h a s shown

t h a t la r g e numbers o f d is lo c a tio n lo o p s o r d e b r is a r e produced

on c y c lic t e s t i n g . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a tu r e s o f t h i s d e b r is

h a rd e n in g model a re t h a t h ig h e r h ard e n in g r a t e s a r e produced i n

th e r a p id h a rd e n in g s ta g e when c o n d itio n s fa v o u r e asy c r o s s ­

s lip . S o fte n in g o f c o ld worked m a te r ia ls i s a t t r i b u t e d to

r e le a s e o f d is lo c a tio n s from ta n g le d netw orks and to d is lo c a tio n

a n n ih ila tio n . Where good o v e r a ll f a tig u e perform ance i s

re q u ire d c y c lic h a rd e n in g i s o f te n p r e f e r a b le to s o f te n in g
12
p a r t i c u l a r l y where lo a d c a rry in g a b i l i t y i s im p o rta n t.

I n r e c e n t y e a rs th e r e h a s been c o n s id e ra b le stu d y o f changes

in d efo rm atio n r e s is ta n c e i n m u lti-p h a s e m a t e r i a l s . The changes

a r e in flu e n c e d by th o se s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich c o n tr o l

th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m obile d is lo c a tio n s u n d e r th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n
63
and a ls o by th e b a r r i e r s which o b s tr u c t t h e i r movement.

Such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in c lu d e g r a in s iz e and th e n a tu re and d i s -

trib u tio n o f p h ases. A r e c e n t stu d y h a s co nfirm ed some o f

th e s e fin d in g s i n th e case o f an alum inium - k% copper a l l o y .

A f te r tre a tm e n t to produce a f i n e l y spaced o rd e re d p r e c i p i t a t e i n

a d u c tile m a trix , th e p r e c i p i t a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n was such t h a t d i s ­

lo c a t io n s p e n e tr a te d them d u rin g c y c lic t e s t i n g . W ith a s t r a i n

28
 3
a m p litu d e g iv in g f a i l u r e i n a b o u t 10 c y c le s , c y c lic h a rd e n in g

i n i t i a l l y o c c u rre d due to accu m u latio n o f d is lo c a tio n s and th e

f r i c t i o n s t r e s s e x e r te d by th e p r e c i p i t a t e s . Beyond a b o u t 1%

o f th e l i f e , h a rd e n in g was re p la c e d by s o fte n in g u n t i l f r a c t u r e .

A s im ila r e f f e c t o c c u rs i n a n ic k e l-b a s e a l l o y c o n ta in in g a
lf7
f in e ly d is p e rs e d o rd e re d p r e c i p i t a t e . The s o f te n in g i s

a t t r i b u t e d to a d is o rd e rin g e f f e c t on th e p r e c i p i t a t e by th e

movement o f d i s l o c a t i o n s . I t does n o t however o c cu r i n aged

iro n -1 mj/o copper a llo y s which have been t r e a t e d to g iv e s ta b l e

6k
n o n -c o h e re n t p r e c i p i t a t e s o f copper . On c y c lin g t h i s

m a te r ia l in th e low c y c le re g io n , h ard e n in g i n i t i a l l y o c c u rs

and i s fo llo w ed by s a t u r a t i o n . Maximum h a rd e n in g i s o b ta in e d

w ith a f in e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s . The p a r t i c l e s o b s tr u c t

d is lo c a tio n movement and no re v e r s io n o f copper i s o b serv ed in

th e f e r r i t e . T h is a l l o y shows ty p i c a l f e a tu r e s o f an a n n e a le d
kS
s in g le phase m a t e r i a l . I t h a s been concluded t h a t where p r e ­

c i p i t a t e s a re n o t o rd e re d , b u lk s o fte n in g does n o t o c cu r on

c y c lic t e s t i n g . T h is may n o t alw ays be th e case s in c e p r e c i p i ­

t a t e s can be s h e a re d and re a c h a s iz e where r e s o l u t i o n i n th e

k6
m a trix o c c u r s . T h is h a s been o b serv ed i n a number o f a l l o y s *
k7 65
1 and h as a lre a d y been d is c u s s e d in r e l a t i o n to s u rfa c e s l i p

band developm ent and th e a s s o c ia te d l o c a l i s e d s o f te n in g .

I n th e case o f aluminium -k% co p p er, a l t e r i n g th e ty p e and

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r e c i p i t a t e pro d u ces a change in th e re sp o n se to

kB
c y c lic d e fo rm a tio n . YJhere th e p r e c i p i t a t e s iz e and d i s t r i b u ­

tio n a llo w movement o f d i s lo c a tio n s betw een them w ith o u t p e n e tr a ­

t i o n , c y c lic h ard en in g and s a tu r a ti o n a re o b serv ed a t a m p litu d e s

g iv in g f a i l u r e w ith in 10
3 to 10 5 c y c le s . H ardening i s due to

29

V
an accu m u latio n o f d is lo c a tio n s and t h e i r m utual i n t e r a c t i o n .

A number o f p l a i n carbon and a llo y s t e e l s have been s tu d ie d

under c y c lic c o n d i t i o n s ^ ’ 66»67*68^ s ome show s o fte n in g a t low

s t r a i n a m p litu d e s b u t h a rd e n in g a t h ig h a m p litu d e s . O th e rs

show s o fte n in g o v er a wide range o f a m p litu d e s . I n p la i n carbon

s t e e l s , th e range o f carbon c o n te n ts s tu d ie d e x te n d s up to 0.55$*

W ith a carbon c o n te n t o f ab o u t 0.1%, a n o rm a lise d s t e e l shows

s o fte n in g fo llo w ed by h ard en in g and th en s a t u r a t i o n u n d er a m p li-

tr C-7 C jj
tu d e s g iv in g l i v e s g r e a t e r th a n 10 c y c le s . ’ The i n i t i a l

s o fte n in g i s due to th e u n p in n in g o f d i s lo c a tio n s which a r e th e n

f r e e to move w ith in th e s t r u c t u r e . The r a t e o f u n p in n in g and

movement o f d is lo c a tio n s in c r e a s e s w ith s t r e s s am p litu d e and

hence s o fte n in g i s com pleted w ith in a lo w er number o f c y c le s .

The h a rd e n in g which fo llo w s , a r i s e s from th e o b s tr u c tio n s to

d is lo c a tio n m otion which ta k e th e form o f v a c a n c ie s and d i s ­

lo c a tio n lo o p s .

G rain s iz e and carbon c o n te n t in flu e n c e th e d e fo rm a tio n

66 67
r e s is ta n c e o f th o se p la in carbon s t e e l s m entioned ab o v e. 1

G rain s iz e h as been s tu d ie d i n a n n e a le d sam ples o f a 0.11% carbon

s t e e l h aving 0.0011% n itr o g e n . C ycling a t a m p litu d e s g iv in g

f a il u r e between 10
5 - 10 7 cyc les , produces so fte n in g in f in e

grained but hardening in coarse g rain ed s t e e ls . S im ila r c y c lin g

conditio ns produce i n i t i a l so fte n in g then some hardening and sub­

sequent s a tu ra tio n in a norm alised 0 , 5 % carbon s t e e l . The

exte n t o f hardening i s f a r le s s than observed i n low er carbon

s te e ls . Furtherm ore, s a tu ra tio n i s reached e a r l i e r i n the l i f e

w ith the h ig h er carbon s te e ls . No exp lan atio n o r m e ta llo g ra p h ic

67
evidence have been p re s e n te d to e x p la in th e s e o b s e r v a tio n s .

30
 They can however be e x p la in e d u s in g a th e o ry p ro p o sed from th e

r e s u l t s o f re s e a rc h work d e sc rib e d in t h i s t h e s i s . T h is i n ­

v o lv e s th e r o le o f an i n t e r f a c e w ith in th e s t r u c t u r e . I n th e

s t e e l s m entioned above, i n t e r f a c e s e x i s t a t b o u n d a rie s betw een

g r a in s and p h a s e s . The m ajor p h ases a r e f e r r i t e and c e m e n tite ,

th e p ro p o rtio n b ein g in flu e n c e d by carbon c o n te n t. These

i n t e r f a c e s a r e s o u rc e s o f m obile d is lo c a ti o n s and s in k s f o r many

o f th e p o in t d e f e c ts produced by moving d i s l o c a t i o n s . I n b o th

th e f in e g ra in e d and h ig h carbon s t e e l s , th e r e i s a g r e a t e r

e x te n t o f i n t e r f a c e a re a th a n th e c o a rse g ra in e d and lov; carbon

s te e ls re s p e c tiv e ly . Hence th e r e i s an in c re a s e d a v a i l a b i l i t y

o f m obile d is lo c a tio n s f o r p l a s t i c s t r a i n . F u rth erm o re , th e

b u ild up o f p o in t d e f e c ts to oppose d is lo c a tio n movement i s l e s s

e x te n s iv e . Both f a c t o r s d isc o u ra g e any h a rd e n in g d u rin g c y c lin g

and hence may acco u n t f o r th e o b s e rv a tio n s o b ta in e d .

S e v e ra l h ig h s tr e n g th s t e e l s have been shown to c y c l i c a l l y

68
s o f te n . These in c lu d e an 18% n ic k e l m araging s t e e l and a p la in

carbon s t e e l i n th e quenched and tem pered c o n d itio n . An

ausform ed a llo y s t e e l c y c l i c a l l y s o f te n s i n com pression b u t

c y c l i c a l l y h a rd e n s in te n s io n . ^h ese d e fo rm a tio n r e s i s t a n c e

changes can be p r e d ic te d u s in g th e m onotonic b e h a v io u r a s o u t-

11
lin e d p r e v io u s ly . A v a lu e above 0 .1 0 f o r th e s t r a i n h a rd e n in g

c o e f f i c i e n t in d ic a te s c y c li c h a rd e n in g v /h ils t below t h i s v a lu e ,

s o fte n in g i s e x p e c te d . The ausform ed s t e e l h a s a lo w er m onotonic

s t r a i n h a rd e n in g c o e f f i c i e n t i n com pression th a n i n te n s io n and

t h i s a c c o u n ts f o r th e d if f e r e n c e in c y c lic re s p o n s e .

2 .5 . STAGE I CRACK GROWTH

F or t h i s rev iew , th e above term d e s c r ib e s th e p e rio d from th e

31
f i r s t a p p lic a tio n o f lo a d up to th e p o in t a t which a c ra c k b e g in s

i t s grow th on a p la n e a p p ro x im a te ly norm al to th e d i r e c t i o n of- th e

maximum t e n s i l e s t r e s s . T h is i s shown in ^ ig .7 * I t in c lu d e s

th e p e rio d o f c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n and a ls o t h a t where th e c ra c k grows

alo n g a p la n e o f h ig h s h e a r s tr e s s * I n a d d it io n , i t in c o r p o r a te s

changes in d e fo rm atio n r e s i s ta n c e which have been d is c u s s e d in

s e c tio n 2 . ^ . 3 . C rack i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s and s h e a r mode c ra c k grow th

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a re s e p a r a te ly d is c u s s e d b u t no a tte m p t h a s been

made to s e p a ra te c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n and s h e a r mode c ra c k g ro w th .

In one review ^ t h i s s e p a r a tio n i s j u s t i f i e d on th e grounds t h a t

c ra c k grow th a lo n g p la n e s o f h ig h s h e a r s t r e s s i n to th e m a te r ia l

r e q u ir e s a h ig h e r s t r e s s th a n c rack i n i t i a t i o n a t th e s u r f a c e .

However, th e re g io n on a f r a c t u r e s u rfa c e c o rre sp o n d in g to S t a g e 'I

cra c k grow th i s v e ry s m a ll; i n most c a s e s, i t o c c u p ie s o n ly a fev;

m icrons o r g r a in d ia m e te rs and i s hence d i f f i c u l t to o b s e rv e .

F u rth erm o re, th e s h e a r mode c ra c k can be c o n sid e re d a s an e n la rg e d

in itia tio n s ite . S e p a ra tio n o f th e two i s th e r e f o r e v e ry d i f f i c u l t

from m e ta llo g ra p h ic o b s e r v a tio n s .

I n h ig h c y c le f a tig u e , a s d e fin e d e a r l i e r , where th e e l a s t i c

s t r a i n component i s pred o m in an t, a la r g e amount o f th e l i f e can be

sp e n t in S tag e I c ra c k g ro w th . F o r an u n -n o tc h e d and la b o r a to r y

s iz e d specim en i t can be a s h ig h a s 9 o f th e t o t a l l i f e . For

an ex trem ely la r g e s iz e d component in th e u n -n o tch ed s t a t e , th e

number o f c y c le s r e q u ir e d f o r S tag e I I c ra c k grow th can be h ig h

and th e p ro p o rtio n o f l i f e s p e n t i n S tag e I grow th i s th e n n o t a s

h ig h a s 9CP/o.

I n low c y c le f a tig u e , o n ly a sm all amount o f th e l i f e i s

s p e n t i n S tag e I , th e m a jo rity b ein g s p e n t i n Stage. I I , i . e .

32
 t e n s i l e mode c ra c k gro w th . I n s h a rp ly n o tch ed specim ens, S ta g e I I

c ra ck grow th may b eg in im m ediately on th e f i r s t a p p lic a tio n o f

lo a d .

2 .5 * 1 - I n i t i a t i o n S i t e s f o r F a tig u e C racks

I n th e absence o f s u b -s u rfa c e d e f e c ts , a f a tig u e c ra c k

i n i t i a t e s a t a fre e su rfa c e . F u rth erm o re, i t i n i t i a t e s a t

re g io n s o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n c o n c e n tra tio n . Such s i t e s in c lu d e

s l i p bands, g r a in b o u n d a rie s, tw in s , r a ic r o s tr u c tu r a l d e f e c ts

and, in th e case o f m u lti-p h a s e m a te r ia ls , in te r - p h a s e

b o u n d a rie s and p r e c i p i t a t e f r e e z o n e s. The s i t e s a t which

f a tig u e c ra c k s i n i t i a t e a r e dependent on m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l

f e a tu r e s and t e s t i n g c o n d itio n s . F o r exam ple, g r a in b o u n d a rie s

.a re p r e f e r r e d s i t e s a t h ig h s t r a i n a m p litu d e s (above 0 .0 1 )

o r h ig h te m p e ra tu re s . 71 Some a llo y s have shown an i n i t i a t i o n

72 73
s i t e dependence on th e t e s t i n g fre q u e n c y . 1 Second phase

p a r t i c l e s in th e form o f in c lu s io n s can in flu e n c e th e c ra c k

in itia tio n c h a ra c te ris tic s . T h is h a s been shown i n a com m ercial

h ig h s tr e n g th aluminium copper magnesium a l l o y . Here th e

p re sen c e o f a uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n o f sm all in c lu s io n s encouraged

homogeneous s l i p and th e fo rm atio n o f a s u f f i c i e n t l y h ig h s t r e s s

c o n c e n tra tio n f o r c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n re q u ire d a l a r g e r number o f

s t r e s s c y c le s th an in th e same a llo y c o n ta in in g a non-homogeneous

d is p e r s io n o f in c lu s io n s .

Over th e y e a r s , much a t t e n t i o n h as been g iv e n to s l i p band

i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s a s a r e s u l t o f th e e a r ly work b e in g fo c u sse d on

s in g le phase m a te r ia ls in e i t h e r s in g le - o r p o l y - c r y s t a l form .

In r e c e n t y e a rs where more a t t e n t i o n h as been d i r e c te d to m u lti­

phase m a te r ia ls , s l i p bands have rem ained an im p o rta n t s i t e .

33
 The fo llo w in g s e c tio n c o n s id e rs each o f th e above m entioned

s i t e s f o r c rack i n i t i a t i o n a t room te m p e ra tu re and o u tli n e s th e

p o s s ib le m echanism s.

2 .5 .1 .1 . S li p Bands

C rack i n i t i a t i o n a t s l i p bands i s a common o c c u rre n c e in

many s in g le phase m e ta llic m a te r ia ls u n d er h ig h c y c le f a tig u e and

room te m p e ratu re c o n d itio n s . T h is h a s been w id ely r e p o r te d i n

re v ie w s. 3 ^ 5’ . S e v e ra l m u lti-p h a s e m a te r ia ls show s im ila r

c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s under th e same ty p e o f t e s t i n g

c o n d itio n s and exam ples in c lu d e low carbon s t e e l s , 26*52,66,75*76

77 7k 78
h ig h a llo y s t e e l s , aluminium a l lo y s and tita n iu m a l l o y s .

As m entioned e a r l i e r in 2 . ^ . 2 . th e s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e

a s s o c ia te d w ith s l i p band fo rm atio n i n c y c li c lo a d e d specim ens

d i f f e r s from t h a t found i n s t a t i c lo a d in g . On c y c lic t e s t i n g ,

th e s u rfa c e topography dev elo p s to show a s e r i e s o f g ro o v es

and r id g e s . Some m a te r ia ls show th in f o ld s o f m a te r ia l which

a r e pushed o u t o f th e s u rfa c e a t s l i p bands and th e s e a re

32
c a ll e d e x tr u s io n s . They a re g e n e r a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith sm all
36 37
c re v ic e s c a ll e d i n t r u s io n s ’ which p e n e tr a te s l i p b a n d s.

T h is s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e c r e a te s a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s

and th e grooves and in tr u s i o n s become s i t e s o f s t r e s s con­

c e n tr a ti o n . C racks develop w ith in them . I f , th e r e f o r e , th e

e x te n t o f th e s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e can be m inim ised, th e r e s i ­

s ta n c e to c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n can be in c r e a s e d . The s e v e r i t y

o f th e s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s b u t th e

most im p o rta n t ones r e l a t e to s l i p c h a r a c te r . The e a se o f

c r o s s - s l i p , r e v e r s i b i l i t y and hom ogeneity o f s l i p each

in flu e n c e th e s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e on c y c li c lo a d in g . I n th e

3k
extrem e, i f s l i p in a l t e r n a t e c y c le s co u ld be e x a c tly

re v e rs e d i n th e same atom ic p la n e s , th e r e would be no s u rfa c e

d is tu rb a n c e and th e c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n r e s i s ta n c e would be

in fin ite . An in c r e a s e i n th e degree o f s l i p r e v e r s i b i l i t y

in a copper-alum inium a llo y h a s been shown to red u ce th e

s e v e r ity o f s u rfa c e n o tc h in g and in c re a s e c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n

r e s i s t a n c e . 79

M a te ria ls h avin g h ig h S .F .E . v a lu e s r e a d i l y c ro s s s l i p

and promote s l i p band fo rm a tio n . The r e s u l t i n g s u rfa c e

n o tc h in g i s f a r more se v e re th a n in th o se m a te r ia ls which show

d i f f i c u l t c ro s s s l i p . I n th e l a t t e r , d i s l o c a tio n s a r e con­

s t r a i n e d to move i n a more p la n a r manner and t h i s r e s u l t s in

27
more homogeneous s l i p . Hence p l a s t i c s t r a i n i s d i s t r i b u t e d

more u n ifo rm ly th ro u g h o u t th e s t r u c t u r e and th e fo rm atio n o f

re g io n s having p l a s t i c s t r a i n c o n c e n tra tio n l e v e l s s u f f i c i e n t

f o r c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n i s d e la y e d . T h is i s f u r t h e r d is c u s s e d

i n a s e c tio n d e a lin g w ith m u lti-p h a s e m a t e r i a l s .

A number o f d is lo c a tio n mechanisms have been p ro p o sed to

acco u n t f o r th e s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e s produced by c y c lic lo a d in g .

However, th e r e i s n o t one mechanism v/hich a lo n e s a t i s f i e s a l l

th e e x p e rim e n ta l o b s e r v a tio n s . S e v e ra l o f th e s e mechanisms

a re c o n sid e re d in th e l i t e r a t u r e reviev/s r e f e r r e d to e a r l i e r *
A 5.
’ For t h i s rev iew , two mechanisms a r e c o n s id e re d , th e s e
So 81
b ein g by M ott and May. T h at pro p o sed by M ott in v o lv e s th e

c r o s s - s l i p o f screw d is lo c a tio n s v/here an e x tr u s io n form s by

th e m otion o f screw d is lo c a ti o n s in one d i r e c t i o n a lo n g a p la n e

and t h e i r r e t u r n in a n o th e r p la n e to com plete a c lo s e d c i r c u i t .

The mechanism assum es t h a t d is lo c a tio n m otion i s n o t r e v e r s i b l e .

35
I t does n o t acco u n t however f o r i n t r u s i o n fo rm atio n and th e

appearance o f e x tru s io n s w ith in th e ' v ery e a r ly s ta g e s o f

§2
fa tig u e . The mechanism h a s been su b se q u e n tly m o d ified and

now in v o lv e s th e g e n e ra tio n o f b o th edge and screw d i s l o c a t i o n s .

I n a s in g le s t r e s s c y c le , hundreds o r th o u san d s o f screw d is ­

l o c a t io n s can be g e n e ra te d and t h i s can a cc o u n t f o r th e v ery

e a r ly ap pearance o f e x tru s io n s and i n t r u s i o n s . W h ilst d is ­

lo c a tio n s may move a lo n g a c lo se d c i r c u i t a s i n th e e a r ly

m odel, i t i s n o t e s s e n t i a l i n th e m o d ified o n e . I t i s however

n e c e s sa ry t h a t th e r e e x i s t s a p a th d is c r im in a tio n betw een

p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e d i s l o c a t i o n s . The p a ssa g e o f screw d i s ­

lo c a t io n s le a v e s a c o n c e n tra tio n o f p o s i tiv e and n e g a tiv e edge

d is lo c a tio n s and t h i s i s s u f f i c i e n t to produce e x tr u s io n s and

in tru s io n s .
81
May proposed t h a t th e s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e i s a t t r i b u t e d

to a p ro c e ss o f random re v e rs e d s l i p . D is lo c a tio n s move on

p a th s under one h a l f c y c le o f s t r e s s b u t r e t u r n a lo n g p a th s

which a r e s h i f t e d in a random fa s h io n w ith r e s p e c t to p re v io u s

p a th s . T h is random d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s l i p rou g h en s th e s u r f a c e

and r e d i s t r i b u t e s s t r e s s so t h a t th e s l i p te n d s to c o n c e n tra te

i n th e v a lle y s and th u s th e y a re deepened. The mechanism

co u ld o ccu r e q u a lly w e ll in m a te r ia ls where c ro s s s l i p i s easy

or d if f ic u lt. I t does n o t e x p la in how th e random s li p p i n g i s

i n i t i a t e d n o r does i t e x p la in how e x tr u s io n s can develop i n

r e l a t i v e l y few c y c le s . On th e o th e r hand m a th e m atica l d ev elo p ­

ment o f th e m odel, w ith c e r t a i n a ssu m p tio n s, h a s l e d to v a lu e s

f o r c y c le s to f a i l u r e w ith th e r i g h t o rd e r o f m ag n itu d e.

36
2 .3 « 1 « 2 . G rain B oundaries

C rack i n i t i a t i o n a t g r a in b o u n d a rie s h a s been o b serv ed in

6
many m e ta llic m a te r ia ls u nder c o n d itio n s o f h ig h c y c lic s t r a i n .

St udi es^’ o f alum inium , copper and n ic k e l showed t h a t f o r

5
l i v e s above 10 c y c le s , c ra c k s i n i t i a t e d a t s l i p bands b u t f o r
3
l i v e s l e s s th a n 10 c y c le s , th e y i n i t i a t e d a t g r a in b o u n d a rie s .

O th er m a te r ia ls in c lu d in g 70:30 b r a s s , copper-alum inium a llo y s

8b
and s t e e l s showed a s im ila r tr e n d .

I n h ig h s t r a i n f a tig u e , l o c a l i s e d s u rfa c e ru m p lin g o c c u rs

and produces grooves a t g r a in b o u n d a rie s . The s t r e s s con­

c e n tr a tin g e f f e c t o f th e grooves pro d u ces f u r t h e r deepening and

th e c re v ic e s become th e n u c l e i i f o r f a tig u e c ra c k g ro w th .

S u rfa c e rum pling i s a t t r i b u t e d to th e s t r a i n d i s c o n t in u ity a t

g r a in b o u n d a rie s and th e lo c a l i z e d in c re a s e s , i n s u rfa c e a r e a

d u rin g oiie h a l f c y c le which a r e n o t re c o v e re d d u rin g th e o th e r

h a l f c y c le . A m odel, developed to e x p la in t h i s b e h a v io u r, and

85
based on th e p l a s t i c i n s t a b i l i t y , g iv e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een

th e number o f c y c le s re q u ire d to i n i t i a t e a c ra c k and th e

p l a s t i c s t r a i n ra n g e . T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s been shown to

s a t i s f y r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from t e s t s on co p p er, alum inium and

n ic k e l.

G rain boundary c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n o c c u rs i n m a te r ia ls a t

h ig h te m p e ra tu re s . C y c lic t e s t i n g a t a te m p e ra tu re T le a d s to

c ra c k in g i n th e s e s i t e s in m a te r ia ls o f m e ltin g p o in t T , where

th e r e la tio n s h ip T/Tm i s g r e a te r th a n 0 . 3 . (T and Tm

m easured i n °K) A t ro o m 'te m p e ra tu re , t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s

exceeded in such low m e ltin g p o in t m a te r ia ls a s le a d and t i n .

Lead was shown

86 to develop s e r r a t e d g r a in b o u n d a rie s d u rin g

31
the e a r ly stages o f c y c lic t e s t in g . The form ation o f cracks

w ith in th e g r a in b o u n d a rie s was a t t r i b u t e d to g r a in boundary

s lid in g . I n t e s t s a t h ig h te m p e ra tu re s , two a d d iti o n a l

m a te r ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , namely creep and e n v iro n m en tal a t t a c k ,

a re superim posed on th e f a tig u e b e h av io u r and i n some c a s e s

may e n t i r e l y dom inate th e m a te r ia l b e h a v io u r. I t th e n becomes

d i f f i c u l t to i s o l a t e th e tr u e e f f e c t s o f te m p e ra tu re on f a tig u e

b e h a v io u r. A d is c u s s io n o f th e s e o th e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s

beyond th e scope o f t h i s re v ie w . They a r e however d is c u s s e d

19
m s e v e r a l re v ie w s, i n p a r t i c u l a r a c o m p arativ ely r e c e n t one

which d is c u s s e s th e s i g n i f i c a n t developm ents in f a t ig u e a t h ig h

te m p e ratu re and th e p r e d ic tio n o f l i f e i n s e r v i c e .

G rain boundary c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n i s a ls o o b serv ed i n some

m a te r ia ls a t room te m p e ratu re and a t c y c lic s t r e s s e s g iv in g

lo n g f a tig u e l i v e s (above 10 c y c le s ) . I t h a s been r e p o r te d

87
i n ir o n c o n ta in in g 0 .1 % phosphorus and ir o n s c o n ta in in g 0.027$
88
and 0.0003$ o f oxygen. The p r in c ip a l cause i n th e s e

m a te r ia ls i s im p u r itie s a t g r a in b o u n d a rie s w hich le a d to

d eco h e sio n . I n th e l a t t e r two m a te r ia ls , oxygen s e g r e g a tio n

i n th e form o f ir o n oxide p a r t i c l e s was r e v e a le d a t g r a in

b o u n d a rie s, th e volume f r a c t i o n b e in g g r e a t e r i n th e h ig h e r

oxygen a l l o y . The e m b r ittlin g e f f e c t o f th e p a r t i c l e s was

a c c e n tu a te d by c y c lic s t r e s s . F o r exam ple, th e a l l o y con­

ta in in g 0 . 0003$ oxygen showed g r a in boundary e m b rittle m e n t

under c y c lic t e s t i n g b u t n o t u n d er t e n s i l e t e s t i n g .

An a d d itio n a l f a c t o r c o n sid e re d re s p o n s ib le f o r g r a in

boundary c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n in th e above a l l o y s h a s been t h a t o f

e l a s t i c a n is o tro p y o f th e B.C.C. s t r u c t u r e o f i r o n . Its

33
c o n tr ib u tio n i n ir o n however i s th o u g h t to be f a r l e s s th a n i n

th e case o f - b r a s s which i s a ls o B .C .C ., where th e f a c to r i s

c o n sid e re d to be th e p r i n c i p a l cause o f c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n a t

g r a in b o u n d a rie s a t room te m p e ra tu re . S tu d ie s o f f a tig u e o f

89 90
^ -b ra ss ’ have shown g r a in b o u n d a rie s to be th e p r in c i p a l

s i t e s f o r c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n . I n te r g r a n u la r film s were n o t

d e te c te d and i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s co u ld n o t be c o r r e l a te d w ith

in c lu s io n s i n th e w ork. I n s te a d th e m a te r ia l shows a marked

a n is o tro p y , f a r g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o f i r o n . The f ig u r e s below

show t h i s i n th e v a r i a t i o n s o f e l a s t i c m oduli w ith c r y s t a l l o -

g ra p h ic d i r e c t i o n .

-b ra ss: E <111) / E <100) = 8 .9 ^

. -iro n : E ^11^/ E <10c£> = 2 .1 6

89 90
D uring c y c lic s t r e s s i n g , i t i s su g g e ste d ’ t h a t h ig h

s t r e s s c o n c e n tra tio n s develop a t g r a in b o u n d a rie s r e s u l t i n g

from t h i s h ig h e l a s t i c a n is o tr o p y . The h ig h s t r e s s i s th e n

r e lie v e d by c ra c k fo rm atio n a t th e boundary and t h i s form s th e

Oq
n u c le u s o f th e i n i t i a t i n g c ra c k . A t 78 K, work showed

fa tig u e c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n m o stly a t s l i p bands in s te a d o f g r a in

b o u n d a rie s in s p i t e o f th e in c re a s e d e l a s t i c a n is o tro p y and

g r a in boundary w eakness a t t h i s te m p e ra tu re . T h is was a t t r i ­

b u te d i n one case to th e fo rm atio n o f a m a r t e n s i t i c s t r u c t u r e

i n l o c a l i s e d a r e a s w ith in th e m a trix a t t h i s te m p e ra tu re and

89
t h a t c ra c k s i n i t i a t e d a t th e i n t e r f a c e betw een th e two p ro d u c ts •

In th e o th e r c a s e , c ra c k in g was a t t r i b u t e d to a low c le a v a g e

s t r e n g t h ^ o f th e m a te r ia l a t 78°K s in c e no m a r t e n s i ti c p ro d u c t

co u ld be d e te c te d w ith th e c ra c k s . These f in d in g s c l e a r l y

dem onstrate th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a number o f p o s s ib le f a c t o r s i n

39
d e term in in g th e s i t e s f o r f a tig u e crack i n i t i a t i o n .

G rain b o u n d a rie s have a ls o been shown to be p r in c ip a l

s i t e s f o r c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n in molybdenum, 91 a n o th e r B.C.C.

m a te r ia l, on c y c lic t e s t i n g a t s t r e s s l e v e l s g iv in g f a tig u e
2 6
l i v e s in th e ran g e 10 - 10 c y c le s . O th e r s i t e s in c lu d e d

s l i p bands and re g io n s o f impingement o f g r a in b o u n d a rie s by

s l i p b a n d s. A t th e h ig h e r s t r e s s e s , th e predom inance o f g r a in

boundary .crack in g in c r e a s e d . No mechanism was pro p o sed f o r

th e o b s e rv a tio n s in th e w ork. I t was however shown t h a t on

t e n s i l e t e s t i n g , th e r e was no g r a in boundary e m b rittle m e n t;

in s te a d , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c y i e l d drop and uniform d efo rm atio n

were o b serv ed g iv in g a d u c tile f r a c t u r e . A p o s s ib le re a s o n f o r

th e b e h av io u r o f molybdenum may be t h a t o f g r a in boundary

im p u r itie s based on o x id e s o r n i t r i d e s . These would th e n

88
cause decohesion s i m ila r to t h a t i n th e ir o n a l l o y s vrhere,

i n th e case o f th e lo w e st oxygen c o n te n t, th e e m b r ittlin g

e f f e c t i s a c c e n tu a te d by c y c lic s t r e s s . A n a ly s is showed th e

molybdenum to c o n ta in oxygen and n itr o g e n b u t a t e x tre m ely low

l e v e l s , th e s e b e in g 40 and 10 p a r t s p e r m illio n r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The in c id e n c e o f c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n a t g r a in b o u n d a rie s i n

s in g le phase F .C .C . m a te r ia ls i s r a r e a t room te m p e ra tu re and

low c y c lic s t r e s s e s . I t h a s been o b serv ed in p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e

92 3k
alum inium and o C -b ra ss. The e f f e c t o f boundary m is-

o r i e n t a t i o n on g r a in boundary c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n h a s been s tu d ie d
3k 93 9k
by s e v e r a l w orkers 1 ’ and th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d a r e n o t

c o n s is te n t. I n copper t r i - c r y s t a l s , 93 sm all m is o r ie n ta tio n

a c r o s s a g ra in boundary was a s s o c ia te d v/ith c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n

a t th e boundary. Under th e s e c o n d itio n s , s l i p bands c ro s s e d

**0
 g r a in b o u n d a rie s w hereas a t h ig h m is o r ie n ta tio n s , s l i p bands

te rm in a te d a t some d is ta n c e from th e b o undary. The i n t e r ­

a c tio n o f s l i p bands w ith g r a in b o u n d a rie s a t sm all m is-

o r i e n t a t i o n s was th o u g h t to c r e a te a s u f f i c i e n t number o f

v a c a n c ie s to i n i t i a t e a c ra ck in th e b o undary. I n a n o th e r
9k
stu d y o f b i - c r y s t a l s o f copper and c^-co p p er-alu m in iu m

a l l o y s , a d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t was o b serv ed . C racks i n i t i a t e d a t

g r a in b o u n d a rie s where m is o r ie n ta tio n was h ig h . T h is con­

t r a d i c t i o n o f r e s u l t s h as been d i f f i c u l t to e x p la in . The

p r in c ip a l cause proposed h as been t h a t o f th e more complex

s i t u a t i o n re g a rd in g m is o r ie n ta tio n between g r a in s t h a t e x i s t s

in th e p o ly - and t r i - c r y s t a l specim ens th a n in th e b i - c r y s t a l l i n e

specim ens.

2 .5 -1 - 3 - Twin B oundaries

M echanical tw in n in g i s a p r i n c ip a l mode o f p l a s t i c

defo rm atio n in C .P.H . m a t e r ia ls . S tu d ie s o f p re -tw in n e d

m e ta ls such a s cadmium, z in c , magnesium and o C -tita n iu m have

shorn c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n a t i n t e r f a c e s betw een m ech an ical tw in s

and the: m a trix , on c y c lic t e s t i n g a t s t r e s s l e v e l s g iv in g l i v e s

k 5 23
o f 10 - 10 c y c le s and a t room te m p e ra tu re . In t h i s work

c y c lic s t r e s s i n g was shown to produce s e r r a t i o n s a t tv/in

i n t e r f a c e s and a ls o fragm ent s u ita b ly o r ie n te d tw in s in to

s m a lle r tw in s . C racks i n i t i a t e d from th e s e i n t e r f a c e s b e fo re

2.y/o o f th e f a tig u e l i f e had e la p s e d . S tu d ie s o f f a tig u e

Zk 95
b e h av io u r ’ in o C -tita n iu m have shown t h a t w h ils t m ech an ical

tw inning h as an im p o rta n t e f f e c t on i t , th e ty p e s o f tw in s

tw in s were observed to predom inate

k']
was alm o st e x c lu s iv e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith ty p e tw in s

a lth o u g h n o t a l l such m echanical tw in s showed damage# The

damage o c c u rre d a t d is c r e te re g io n s alo n g th e tw in m a trix

in t e r f a c e and was found to o ccu r when tw in s were s u b je c te d to

a s h e a r s t r e s s g r e a t e r th a n a c r i t i c a l v alu e# The tw in s were

c o n sid e re d a s b a r r i e r s to d is lo c a tio n movement so t h a t where

s l i p bands in th e m a trix i n t e r s e c t e d tw in b o u n d a rie s, th e

l o c a l i s e d d is lo c a ti o n b u ild -u p produced d e co h e sio n .

C rack i n i t i a t i o n a t tw in b o u n d a rie s h a s been found to

o ccu r i n B.C.C. m a te r ia ls u n d er c e r ta in c o n d itio n s . Hempel 75

showed t h i s in Armco ir o n on t e s t i n g a t 93°K and s t r e s s l e v e l s

5 25
g iv in g l i v e s o f u n d er 10 cy cles# An ir o n -k% s i l i c o n a l l o y

showed s im ila r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t room te m p e ra tu re and low

c y c lic s t r e s s e s b u t only'w hen i n th e p re -tw in n e d c o n d itio n .

When f u l l y a n n e a le d and untw inned, s l i p band c ra c k in g o c c u rre d

and some m echanical tw in n in g was s u b se q u e n tly o b serv ed c lo s e

to e x is t in g s l i p band c ra c k s . I t was co ncluded from t h i s work

t h a t a h ig h l e v e l o f s t r e s s was re q u ire d to produce m ech an ical

tw in n in g . Such a h ig h l e v e l was p o s s ib le a r i s i n g from th e

l o c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n tra tio n s aro u n d s l i p band c r a c k s .

S tu d ie s o f s in g le phase F .C .C . m a te r ia ls in c lu d e work on

copper where th e r o le o f a n n e a lin g tw in s a s c ra c k in g s i t e s have

96
been s tu d ie d under a range o f c o n d itio n s . The c ra c k in g

tendency a t such s i t e s was shown to be dependent on th e tw in /

m a trix in t e r f a c e o r i e n t a t i o n w ith r e s p e c t to th e a p p lie d

s tre s s . C racks ap p eared a t th e in t e r f a c e when i t was p a r a l l e l

to th e prim ary s l i p p la n e . Where th e p la n e and i n t e r f a c e

were n o t p a r a l l e l , th e r e was o n ly o c c a s io n a l cra ck in g # Under

bZ
 c o n d itio n s o f p a r a l le l is m , th e i n t e r f a c e showed in te n s e

d efo rm atio n and th e s u rfa c e developed e x t r u s io n s . T h is

in te n s e d e fo rm atio n was a t t r i b u t e d to th e p re se n c e o f s te p s

o r le d g e s in th e tw in in te r f a c e which a c te d a s d is lo c a tio n

s o u rc e s and s t r e s s c o n c e n tra tio n p o i n t s .

Tv/in boundary c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n h as been shown to o ccu r i n

97
m u lti-p h a s e tita n iu m a llo y s and n ic k e l-c h ro m iu m -c o b a lt a l l o y s .

S lip band i n i t i a t i o n was a ls o found in th e tita n iu m a l l o y .

In th e case o f th e n ic k e l a l l o y , th e s tu d ie s a p p lie d o n ly to

c y c lic t e s t i n g un d er low c y cle f a tig u e c o n d itio n s where th e

p l a s t i c s t r a i n a m p litu d e was h ig h . The re a s o n s f o r such

c ra c k in g were n o t e x p la in e d .

I n te r - p h a s e B oundaries

Much o f th e work done so f a r on such s i t e s h a s been b ased

on in c lu s io n s i n such m a te r ia ls a s s t e e l s and alum inium a l l o y s .

The im portance o f n o n -m e ta llic in c lu s io n s a s f a tig u e c ra c k

i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s h as been known f o r a lo n g w h ile and ex -

98 99 100
' te n s iv e ly documented. 1 1 I t i s o n ly i n r e c e n t y e a r s

t h a t th e mechanisms re s p o n s ib le f o r c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n have been

u n d e rs to o d .

S tu d ie s o f aluminium a llo y s i n h ig h c y c le f a tig u e 99

showed c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n a t th e in c lu s io n - m a tr ix i n t e r f a c e .

There was no v i s i b l e s ig n o f s l i p i n th e r e g io n . C ontinuous

exam ination o f th e s u rfa c e d u rin g f a tig u e showed th e ap p ea ra n ce

o f tin y v o id s a t th e i n t e r f a c e . These opened up d u rin g f u r t h e r

c y c lin g to become p ro p a g a tin g f a tig u e c ra c k s . S im ila r

r e s u l t s were o b ta in e d i n h ig h s tr e n g th s t e e l s " ^ and a m odelof

c rack i n i t i a t i o n h as been proposed based upon e x p e rim e n ta l

*3
o b s e rv a tio n s and t h e o r e t i c a l s t r e s s a n a ly s is * T h is model

p r e d i c t s debonding a t th e in c lu s io n - m a tr ix i n t e r f a c e i n th o s e

re g io n s ly in g ab o u t 90° to th e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s a x is*

Debonding p ro c e ed s alo n g th e i n t e r f a c e and m ic ro c ra c k s grow

in to th e m a trix a s a r e s u l t o f a b u ild -u p o f p o in t d e f e c t s .

F a tig u e c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n a t b o u n d a rie s o th e r th a n th o se

betw een a m a trix and in c lu s io n s have been s tu d ie d in o n ly a

few m a t e r i a l s . These in c lu d e tita n iu m a llo y s c o n ta in in g th e

78
o C (H .C .P .) and |3 (B .C .C .) p h a se s, a com m ercial zirco n iu m
101
a llo y c o n ta in in g zirconium h y d rid e s in th e m a trix and a
102 78
number o f com posite m a t e r i a l s . In th e tita n iu m a l l o y

c ra c k s i n i t i a t e d a t th e i n t e r f a c e s betw een th e 06 and ^3 p h a se s

on c y c lic t e s t i n g a t room te m p e ra tu re and s t r e s s e s g iv in g h ig h

c y c le f a i l u r e . S li p bands co u ld n o t be d e te c te d . I f th e

s t r e s s o r te m p e ra tu re was r a i s e d , c ra c k s i n i t i a t e d a t s l i p

bands w ith in th e -p h a se v e ry e a r ly in th e l i f e . C rack in g

a t th e i n t e r f a c e was a t t r i b u t e d to debonding b u t no damage

mechanism was proposed to a cc o u n t f o r th e phenomenon. In

101
th e zirconium a l l o y , a low i n t e r f a c e coherency betw een th e

zirconium h y d rid e s and th e m a trix acco u n ted f o r c ra c k i n i t i ­

a tio n a t such i n t e r f a c e s . However, e i t h e r f r a c t u r e o f h y d rid e

p l a t e s o r v o id fo rm atio n a t th e h y d rid e /m a trix i n t e r f a c e were

a ls o re s p o n s ib le f o r c ra ck in g a t th e s e s i t e s .

The e f f e c t o f i n t e r f a c e s tr e n g th on c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n h as
102
been s tu d ie d in two com posite m a te r ia ls , th e s e b e in g an

,fi n - s i t u n v a r ie ty formed by u n i d ir e c tio n a l s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f

th e e u t e c t i c a llo y A1 - A1^ N i, and a m an u factu red v a r i e t y

b ased on A1 - B. The i n t e r f a c e i s much s tr o n g e r i n th e

 e u t e c t i c a llo y th an in th e com posite o f aluminium and b o ro n .
5
C y c lic t e s t i n g a t le v e l s g iv in g f a i l u r e s in ab o u t 10 c y c le s

showed a d iff e r e n c e o f b eh av io u r between th e tv/o c o m p o sites.

In th e A1 - A1^Ni com posite, s l i p bands developed in th e m a trix

away from f i b r e s and b o th e x tr u s io n s and c ra c k s formed w ith in

th e f i r s t 1CT/o o f th e l i f e . The i n t e r f a c e between f i b r e and

m a trix showed no b re a k up u n t i l th e f i n a l s ta g e s o f th e f a tig u e

life . In th e A1 - B system , th e weaker i n t e r f a c e showed th e

developm ent o f c ra c k s from th e v ery e a r ly s ta g e s o f c y c lic

te s tin g . The c y c lic s t r e s s re q u ire d to m a in ta in a p r e - s e t

s t r a i n am p litu d e d e crea se d th ro u g h o u t th e t e s t w hereas fo r

th e A1 - A1_Ni m a te r ia l th e re was an in c re a s e o f s t r e s s up to
3
th e f i n a l s ta g e s o f f a i l u r e . From th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s work,

any method prom oting i n t e r f a c i a l s tr e n g th betw een p h ases sh o u ld

reduce th e p ro p e n s ity o f c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n from such i n t e r f a c e s .

2 . 5 * 1 P r e c i p i t a t e F ree Zones

Such zones may e x i s t i n th o se m u lti-p h a s e m a te r ia ls

s tre n g th e n e d by p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f a d d itio n a l p h a s e s . They a r e

re g io n s a t which s t r a i n c o n c e n tra te s and prom otes e a r ly c ra c k

i n i t i a t i o n a t s l i p b an d s. The mechanism o f c ra c k in g i s

s im ila r to t h a t d e sc rib e d f o r s l i p bands, in 2 .5 - 1 .1 .

There a re two re a so n s f o r th e fo rm atio n o f such z o n e s.

F i r s t l y , th ey may develop d u rin g a h e a t tre a tm e n t p r o c e s s .

S econdly, th ey can develop d u rin g c y c lic t e s t i n g where d i s lo c a ­

tio n s re p e a te d ly s h e a r a p a r t i c l e down to a s iz e a t which i t can

r e v e r t in to s o lid s o lu t io n . T h is p r e c i p i t a t e r e v e r s io n th e n

le a d s to p r e c i p i t a t e f r e e z o n es. The r e v e r s io n b e h a v io u r h as
A6
been observed in a number o f m a te r ia ls in c lu d in g s t e e l s and
72 105 1OA
v a rio u s aluminium a l l o y s . ’ ’ b u t in m a te r ia ls c o n ta in in g
 p r e c i p i t a t e s which o b s tr u c t th e d is lo c a tio n m otion, t h i s

r e v e r s io n does n o t o c c u r.

2 .5 . 1 . 6 . M ic r o s tr u c tu r a l D e fe c ts

T y p ic a l d e f e c ts in com m ercial m a te r ia ls in c lu d e non-

m e ta llic in c lu s io n s , h o le s and s o f t s p o ts a r i s i n g from im proper

h e a t tr e a tm e n t. A ll promote th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f s t r a i n in

l o c a l i s e d a r e a s which th e n a c c e le r a t e s c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n .

In g e n e ra l th e mechanism o f c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n i s b ased on s l i p

bands o r debonding a t in te r - p h a s e b o u n d a rie s . Such d e f e c ts

can be v e ry im p o rta n t and i t i s w e ll known t h a t th e y im p a ir

fa tig u e p erfo rm an ce.

2 .5 * 2 . S hear Mode Crack Growth

F ollow ing i n i t i a t i o n from any o f th e s i t e s m entioned above,

alm o st a l l th e m a te r ia ls s tu d ie d so f a r in f a tig u e show c ra c k

grov/th a lo n g p la n e s o f maximum s h e a r s t r e s s . T h is c o n tin u e s

u n t i l a c r i t i c a l c ra ck depth i s re a ch e d where th e c ra c k c h a r a c te r ­

i s t i c s a l t e r to a t e n s i l e mode. An e x c e p tio n to t h i s h a s been

shown to be molybdenum 91 which shov/ed c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n b u t no

s h e a r mode grov/th. I t d id hov/ever show th e t e n s i l e mode o f

c ra c k grow th.

The r a t e o f grov/th o f th e s h e a r mode c ra c k i s u s u a lly v ery

low (ab o u t 50 A °/c y c le ) and th e a re a o ccu p ied on th e t o t a l

f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e i s v e ry s m a ll. I n th e p a s t , t h i s l im i t e d s iz e

h a s made th e exam inatio n d i f f i c u l t . Even th e n , m e ta llo g ra p h ic

exam ination has shov/ed th e s e a re a s to be alm o st f e a t u r e l e s s . In

c o n tr a s t, th e t e n s i l e mode o f c ra ck grow th (S tag e I I ) e x te n d s

ov er a la r g e a re a o f th e f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e and c o n ta in s much

i n t e r e s t i n g m icro sco p ic d e t a i l .

k6
 Much o f th e e x i s t i n g knowledge ab o u t s h e a r mode crack

grow th h a s been g a in e d from o n ly a few s t u d i e s . I n one such

105
stu d y , th e mechanism was examined in copper s in g le c r y s t a l s .

I t was shown t h a t th e i n i t i a t i o n and grov/th o f S tag e I c ra c k s

were dependent on re p e a te d and re v e rs e d p l a s t i c d efo rm atio n

r a t h e r th a n i n t e r m i t t e n t u n i d ir e c tio n a l d e fo rm a tio n . Under

c y c lic com pression s t r e s s e s , c ra c k s were n o t o b serv ed to i n i t i a t e

o r grow i n s in g le c r y s t a l s even v/hen th e s t r e s s e s v/ere s e v e r a l

tim e s th e m onotonic y i e l d s t r e s s . In c o n tra s t, a p o ly -c ry s ta llin e

sample showed c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n and grov/th un d er com pression

c y c lin g . T h is was a t t r i b u t e d to e i t h e r r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s o r

l o c a l i s e d t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s c re a te d by th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f g r a i n s .
106
I n a f u r th e r stu d y o f alum inium , c y c lic te n s io n s t r e s s e s gave

d is lo c a tio n s t r u c t u r e s ty p i c a l o f m onotonic d e fo rm a tio n r a t h e r

th a n o f c y c lic d e fo rm a tio n .
105
I n th e work on co p p er, two mechanisms were s u g g e ste d f o r

s h e a r mode c ra c k grov/th. The f i r s t i s th e " p l a s t i c b lu n tin g

107
p ro c e s s ” w ith in a s in g le s l i p b an d . T h is ta k e s p la c e by a

r e p e t i t i v e p l a s t i c ro u n d in g and c lo s in g o f th e c ra c k t i p th ro u g h

p l a s t i c flow v /ith in a s in g le s l i p b an d . The mechanism i s a s l i g h t

m o d ific a tio n o f th e one which a c c o u n ts f o r th e t e n s i l e mode

cra c k grow th and which i s d e sc rib e d f u l l y i n s e c tio n 2 . 6 . 2 . The

second mechanism i s b ased on an " u n s lip p in g model” . Here th e

m a te r ia l on one s id e o f th e c ra ck i s d is p la c e d by s h e a r on th e

te n s io n c y c le . On th e com pression c y c le , th e specim en s u r f a c e

geom etry i s r e s to r e d b u t th e c ra ck le n g th i s in c r e a s e d . Both

models a r e s c h e m a tic a lly p re s e n te d in f i g . 1 0 . The d if f e r e n c e

betv/een th e mechanisms a r i s e s from th e ty p e s o f a s s o c i a te d

**7
p l a s t i c d e fo rm atio n and hence s l i p c h a r a c te r . The u n s lip p in g

model i s a p p lic a b le to m a te r ia ls o f low S .F .E . h av in g a p la n a r

s l i p mode. The p l a s t i c b lu n tin g model i s a p p r o p r ia te to

m a te r ia ls o f h ig h S .F .E . v/here c ro s s s l i p i s e asy and hence

c ra c k t i p b lu n tin g p o s s i b l e .

E xam ination o f s h e a r mode f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s h a s n o t been

e x te n s iv e ly c a r r ie d o u t. The m ost d e ta i le d a p p e a rs to be t h a t

f o r a n ic k e l- b a s e s u p e r a llo y h av in g a tw o-phase s t r u c t u r e and i n

s in g le c r y s t a l f o r m .^ ^ On c y c lic t e s t i n g to g iv e f a i l u r e in
5
ab o u t 10 c y c le s , c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n o c c u rre d a t s u rfa c e p o re s and

th e c ra c k grew a lo n g s e v e r a l { ill} p la n e s . The f r a c t u r e s u rfa c e

was h ig h ly r e f l e c t i v e and showed c r y s ta ll o g r a p h ic f r a c t u r e s te p s

and r i v e r l i n e s when t e s t e d in a i r b u t un d er vacuum t e s t i n g ,

th e r e were few er s te p s and l i n e s . There was a v e ry h ig h d i s ­

lo c a tio n d e n s ity w ith in a band e x ten d in g a p p ro x im a te ly 25yu.m from

th e f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e and c o n fin e d m ainly to th e m a tr ix . It

was d i f f i c u l t to determ ine th e n a tu re o f th e d i s lo c a t io n s b u t

d i f f r a c t i o n c o n tr a s t e x p erim en ts su g g e ste d t h a t th e y were d ip o le s .

109
I n a more r e c e n t stu d y o f a m u lti-p h a s e alum inium a l l o y ,

s h e a r mode c ra c k s p ro p o g ated by th e developm ent and lin k in g up

o f h o le s w ith in p r e c i p i t a t e f r e e zones and p e r s i s t e n t s l i p b a n d s.

W ell d e fin e d s t r i a t i o n s were o b serv ed on th e f r a c tu r e s u r f a c e .

go
Such s t r i a t i o n s have a ls o been o b serv ed i n ^3 - b r a s s J t h o r i a t e d
110 111
n ic k e l and an aluminium a ll o y and a re s im il a r to th o s e

found in th e t e n s i l e mode c ra c k , s ta g e I I . The p re se n c e o f

s t r i a t i o n s and th e need f o r re v e rs e d p l a s t i c d e fo rm a tio n have

le d to a g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d c o n c lu sio n t h a t a r e p e t i t i v e

mechanism o f p l a s t i c d efo rm atio n o p e ra te s i n b o th th e s h e a r mode

 c rack grow th s ta g e and th e t e n s i l e mode g row th, namely s ta g e I I .

2 .5 * 2 .1 . In flu e n c e o f M ic ro s tru c tu re

E x te n siv e s h e a r mode c rack grov/th i s encouraged a t low

c y c lic s t r e s s e s and i n c o rro s iv e e n v iro n m e n ts. These f a c t s

a r e w e ll known b u t th e r e i s l i t t l e work r e l a t i n g m icro -

s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and sh e a r mode c ra c k g ro w th .

Some m a te r ia ls such a s oC - b r a s s show a f a tig u e l i f e

dependence on g r a in s iz e u nder c y c lic s t r e s s i n g g iv in g lo n g

112
life . T h is m a te r ia l h a s a low S .F .E . and c ro s s s l i p o f

d is lo c a tio n s i s d i f f i c u l t . I n alum inium , which h a s a h ig h

S .F .E . v a lu e th e r e i s no dependence o f l i f e on g r a in s iz e

under s im ila r c y c lic t e s t i n g c o n d itio n s . A s im i la r e f f e c t i s

o b serv ed in copper, v/hose S .F .E . v a lu e i s h ig h b u t l e s s th a n

t h a t o f alum inium . The d if f e r e n c e o f b e h av io u r i s a t t r i b u t e d

to th e s ta g e I c ra c k grow th i n b o th copper and alum inium b e in g

i n s e n s i t i v e to g r a in s iz e v/hereas i n b r a s s i t i s n o t .

Under c y c lic t e s t i n g , th e d is lo c a tio n s t r u c t u r e developed

in copper and alum inium i s c e l l u l a r v/hereas i n b r a s s i t i s

p la n a r . The c e l l w a lls behave a s g r a in b o u n d a rie s and a r e

n o t p e n e tr a b le by moving d i s lo c a tio n s . Hence th e d is lo c a t io n s

move w ith in th e c e l l s and few i n t e r a c t w ith g r a in b o u n d a rie s .

The c ra ck in g r a t e i s th e r e f o r e d eterm in ed by th e c e l l s iz e

v/hich in tu rn i s dependent on th e s t r e s s a m p litu d e a s p re v io u s ly

m entioned in 2 . ^ . 2 . 2 . I n b r a s s th e re a r e no c e l l w a lls

formed so t h a t d is lo c a tio n m otion i s i n h i b i t e d o n ly by g r a in

b o u n d a rie s. D is lo c a tio n s th e r e f o r e move w ith in th e p l a s t i c

zone a t th e crack t i p b u t on re a c h in g a g r a in boundary th e y

a r e r e s t r a i n e d by boundary p i l e u p s . C rack grow th i s th u s

^9
 re ta rd e d * As th e g r a in s iz e i s in c re a s e d , boundary i n t e r ­

fe re n c e i s l e s s fre q u e n t and t h i s sta g e o f c ra c k grow th i s

a c c e le ra te d *
112
The work above r e p r e s e n ts th e m ost d e t a i l e d stu d y o f

m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l e f f e c t s on s ta g e I c rack grow th so f a r . Some

o f i t s fin d in g s a r e in c o n f l i c t w ith th e r e s u l t s o f e a r l i e r
113
work* F or exam ple, in e a r l i e r work on b r a s s i t was shown

t h a t g r a in b o u n d a rie s o b s tru c te d d is lo c a tio n movement to such

an e x te n t t h a t once a c ra c k p e n e tr a te d a boundary, i t e n te re d

th e s ta g e I I grow th . T h is i s o f co u rse n o t th e case* R ecent

112
work h a s shown t h a t s ta g e I c ra c k s can c ro s s g r a in

b o u n d a rie s and c o n tin u e in t h i s s ta g e o f grow th in to o th e r

g ra in s * The e f f e c t i s shown s c h e m a tic a lly i n fig * 7*

2 .6 . STAGE I I CRACK GROWTH

A s ta g e I I c ra c k fo llo w s th e s ta g e I c ra c k grow th p e rio d a s

shown in f i g *7* I t in v o lv e s grow th o f a c ra ck i n a p la n e o f

maximum t e n s i l e s tr e s s * A sm all p l a s t i c a l l y deform ed zone i s

c re a te d a t th e c ra c k t i p and th e zone s iz e in c r e a s e s a s th e c ra c k

becomes lo n g er* Grov/th o f th e c ra c k c o n tin u e s u n t i l a c r i t i c a l

d epth i s re a ch e d where c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e o ccu rs*

The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p l a s t i c zone s iz e w ith specim en th ic k n e s s

s i g n i f i c a n t l y in f lu e n c e s th e c ra ck grow th c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s *

C o n sid e r, f o r exam ple, a th ic k specim en u n d er t e s t a t low c y c li c

s tr e s s e s * A t th e b eg in n in g o f s ta g e I I , th e p l a s t i c zone s i z e i s

r e l a t i v e l y sm all compared w ith th e sample th ic k n e s s and hence

p la n e s t r a i n c o n d itio n s e x i s t a t th e c ra c k tip * As th e zone s iz e

in c r e a s e s w ith c ra c k e x te n s io n , i t s r a t i o to sample th ic k n e s s a ls o

changes and produces a change in b o th th e s t r e s s and s t r a i n

30
 c o n d itio n s a t th e c ra c k t i p . A t r a n s i t i o n from p la n e s t r a i n

to p la n e s t r e s s c o n d itio n s o c c u rs and th e c ra c k grov/th r a t e

a c c e le r a te s u n t i l c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e c o n d itio n s a r e a c h ie v e d .

I n t h i n specim ens t h i s t r a n s i t i o n from p la n e s t r a i n to p la n e

s t r e s s can occur a lm o st im m ediately i f th e c o n d itio n s a r e r i g h t .

The p l a s t i c zone s iz e i s a c o n tr o llin g f a c t o r f o r th e propo­

lis
g a tio n o f f a tig u e c ra c k s and s t u d i e s have shown t h a t th e zone

s iz e i s dependent on th e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r and m a te r ia l
115
p r o p e r tie s a t th e c ra c k t i p . T h is i s d is c u s s e d i n th e l a t e r

s e c tio n on s tu d ie s o f c ra c k grow th r a t e s .

S tu d ie s o f t h i s s ta g e o f c ra c k grov/th f a l l in to tv/o c a te g o r ie s ,

th o se in v o lv in g m e ta llo g ra p h ic ex am in atio n and th e more q u a n t i t a t i v e

in v e s t ig a ti o n s in v o lv in g m easurem ents o f c ra ck grow th r a t e and i t s

dependence on t e s t i n g c o n d itio n s and m a te r ia l p r o p e r t i e s . The

m a te r ia l s c i e n t i s t s a re m ainly re s p o n s ib le f o r m e ta llo g ra p h ic

s tu d ie s and th e su b sequ en t p ro p o sed mechanisms f o r c ra c k g ro w th .

The more q u a n tita tiv e a s p e c ts have been s tu d ie d i n o rd e r to

f a c i l i t a t e p r e d ic tio n o f grov/th r a t e s and f a tig u e l i v e s . Each o f

th e s e groups o f s tu d ie s a r e c o n sid e re d i n th e fo llo w in g s e c t i o n s .

2 .6 .1 . M e ta llo g ra p h ic F e a tu re s o f S tag e I I Crack Growth

M e ta llo g ra p h ic ex am in atio n o f s ta g e I I f a tig u e c ra c k grov/th

h a s been e x te n s iv e . The te c h n iq u e s u sed have in c lu d e d o p t i c a l ,

e le c tr o n and scanning e le c tr o n m icro sco p y . In g e n era l t h i s

cra c k fo llo w s a tr a n s g r a n u la r n o n - c r y s ta llo g r a p h ic r o u t e . It

can fo llo w g ra in b o u n d a rie s a s f o r example in th e c ase o f th r e e

B.C.C. m a te r ia ls , ir o n a l l o y s , ^ p - b r a s s ^ and m olybdenum .^

The d is lo c a tio n arrangem ent in th e c ra c k t i p and i n re g io n s

c lo s e to th e c ra ck s u rfa c e h a s been examined by tra n s m is s io n

51
 e le c tr o n m icro sco p y . The f i r s t s tu d ie s o f t h i s ty p e were on
*1 *16 ”1 *1 7
p u re s in g le phase m a te r ia ls such a s copper and alum inium .
OO cQ
M u lti-p h a se m a te r ia ls in c lu d in g aluminium and tita n iu m

a llo y s have a ls o been s tu d ie d and th e r e s u l t s a p p e a r c o n s is te n t

w ith th o se f o r th e s in g le phase m a t e r i a l s . A h ig h ly m is-

o r ie n te d s u b -g ra in s t r u c t u r e i s formed a d ja c e n t to a f a tig u e

c ra ck and in th e m u lti-p h a s e m a te r ia ls th e s i z e o f th e re g io n

c o n ta in in g th e s e s u b -g ra in s i s s m a lle r th a n in th e s in g le phase

m a te ria ls . The s u b -g ra in fo rm atio n i n d i f f e r e n t m ic r o s tr u c tu r e s

i s a t t r i b u t e d to th e h ig h s t r a i n a t th e t i p o f a grow ing f a tig u e

c ra ck which i s c o n sid e re d to a c t i v a t e re c o v e ry o f th e s t r u c t u r e

in a l o c a l i s e d r e g io n .

The d is lo c a tio n s t r u c t u r e s i n re g io n s a d ja c e n t to a grow ing

c ra ck a re c h a r a c t e r i s t i c :of h ig h s t r a i n am p litu d e c y c lin g o f b u lk

118
specim ens. I n th e case o f alum inium , l o c a l i s e d h a rd e n in g

o c cu rs in th e s e re g io n s i n th e same way a s i n b u lk sp ecim en s.

However, m e ta llo g ra p h ic ev id en ce shows t h a t th e m a te r ia l i n th e

c ra ck t i p may deform i n ways n o t observ ed i n norm al b u lk

d e fo rm a tio n . F or exam ple, t h i n f o i l s c o n ta in in g th e f a tig u e

f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e o f s in g le and m u lti-p h a s e m a t e r ia ls showed sub­

g r a in s o f ab o u t O.lyiAmetres d ia m e te r. These a r e much s m a lle r

th a n e v er observed under b u lk d efo rm atio n c o n d itio n s . T h is

s u g g e s ts t h a t th e m agnitude o f s t r a i n i n th e c ra c k t i p i s v e ry

h ig h . Knowledge o f th e b eh av io u r o f m a te r ia ls u n d e r such h ig h

s t r a i n i s s c a rc e and hence p r e d ic tio n o f m a te r ia l b e h a v io u r i n

th e c ra c k t i p i s d i f f i c u l t . However, th e e f f e c t s o f such h ig h

s t r a i n on p r e c i p i t a t e r e s o lu t io n and o v era g ein g have been

s tu d ie d in some a l l o y s . ^ ’ ^ I n an alum inium -zinc-m agnesium

52
 72
a llo y , r e - s o l u t i o n o f n o n -c o h e re n t p r e c i p i t a t e s was o b serv ed

ahead o f th e grow ing c ra c k . I t was su g g e ste d t h a t th e r e ­

s o lu tio n was a t t r i b u t e d to s o lu te d if f u s io n s in c e a t h ig h c ra ck

grov/th r a t e s and hence s h o r t d if f u s io n tim e s , th e p r e c i p i t a t e s

rem ained l a r g e ly u n a f f e c te d . I n a commercial p r e c i p i t a t i o n

h ardened alum inium -copper a l l o y , th e re was however no ev id en ce

o f p r e c i p i t a t e r e - s o l u t i o n i n th e re g io n o f th e c ra c k t i p b u t

th e re a so n s f o r t h i s a r e n o t s t a t e d in th e w ork.

The m ajor f e a tu r e s o f f a tig u e f r a c tu r e s u r f a c e s a r e th e

s t r i a t i o n s which l i e ap p ro x im a te ly p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e l o c a l
119
d ir e c tio n o f c ra c k gro w th . S in ce th e y were f i r s t r e p o r te d

a l o t o f work h a s been done in th e stu d y o f t h e i r f e a t u r e s .

F or in s ta n c e , i t h a s been su g g e ste d t h a t th e y form o n ly u n d er

3
c o n d itio n s o f p la n e s t r a i n a t th e c ra c k f r o n t . F u rth erm o re ,

th e d is ta n c e betw een each s t r i a t i o n r e p r e s e n ts one v c y c le o f

s t r e s s a lth o u g h th e re v e rs e does n o t alw ays a p p ly ; some s t r e s s

c y c le s produce no s t r i a t i o n s s in c e th e s t r a i n c o n c e n tra tio n

b u ild up a t th e c ra c k t i p may be i n s u f f i c i e n t to in c r e a s e th e

cra ck le n g th . T h is a s s o c ia ti o n o f s t r e s s c y c le s w ith s t r i a t i o n s
120 121
h a s been examined i n a number o f programme lo a d in g t e s t s . *

These a ls o showed t h a t s t r i a t i o n sp a c in g in c re a s e d a s th e s t r e s s

in c r e a s e d .

Not a l l f a tig u e f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e s show c l e a r l y d e fin e d

s tria tio n s . ^ h e ir v i s i b i l i t y i s in flu e n c e d by th e t e s t i n g

3 122
method, env iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s and method o f e x a m in a tio n .

Some may be v i s i b l e u n d er an o p t i c a l m icroscope w hereas o th e r s

may r e q u ir e s u rfa c e r e p l i c a t i o n and e le c tr o n m icro sco p e exam­

in a tio n f o r r e s o l u t i o n . Two ty p e s o f s t r i a t i o n s have been

53
i d e n t i f i e d , namely a d u c tile o r ty p e A and a b r i t t l e o r ty p e
123
B. The d u c tile s t r i a t i o n s l i e on cu rv ed p la te a u x which

form a g e n e ra l f r a c tu r e p la n e norm al to th e maximum t e n s i l e

s tr e s s * The b r i t t l e s t r i a t i o n s l i e on c r y s ta ll o g r a p h ic f a c e ts

which show c o n s id e ra b le o r i e n t a t i o n d if f e r e n c e s to th e g e n e ra l

f r a c tu r e p la n e . The two ty p e s may o c c a s io n a lly a p p ea r to g e th e r

under s im ila r s t r e s s c o n d itio n s b u t in g e n e r a l th e b r i t t l e ty p e

12*f
i s o b serv ed i n c o rro s iv e environm ents and c y c lin g a t low

f r e q u e n c i e s .^

S t r i a t i o n s have been o b serv ed on th e f a tig u e f r a c tu r e

125
s u rfa c e s o f many m e ta llic m a te r ia ls and p o ly m eric m a te r ia l s ,

co v erin g a number o f d i f f e r e n t c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e s . In th e

m e ta llic m a te r ia ls th ey have been o b serv ed i r r e s p e c t i v e o f

91
w hether th e c ra c k p a th i s tr a n s g r a n u la r o r i n t e r g r a n u l a r .

However, th ey a r e n o t th e o n ly f e a tu r e s o b s e rv e d . O th e rs

in c lu d e a re a s o f m ic ro -c le a v a g e and v o id c o a le sc e n c e and o f
126
co u rse th e se in flu e n c e th e r a t e o f grov/th. The ty p e s o f

f e a tu r e s ob serv ed a r e dependent on th e m ic r o - s tr u c tu r e and

t e s t i n g c o n d itio n s . In work on p e a r l i t i c and s p h e r o id is e d

c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s in s t e e l , f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e s showed a r e a s o f

cleav ag e where th e s t r u c t u r e was p e a r l i t i c in a d d itio n to

s tria tio n s . C leavage was a s s o c ia te d w ith crad k grov/th th ro u g h

c e m e n tite p l a t e s . I n th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e , th e

c rack grov/th r a t e was low er and th e f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e shov/ed

s tria tio n s .

Mechanisms o f Crack Grov/th in F a tig u e

A number o f mechanisms have been p ro p o sed f o r s ta g e I I

c ra ck grow th and most o f them a r e b ased on th e e x p la n a tio n o f

s t r i a t i o n fo rm atio n s in c e t h i s i s th e most common f r a c t u r e

s u rfa c e f e a t u r e . There a r e however o th e r f e a t u r e s , a s

m entioned e a r l i e r . Four mechanisms d e s c rib e d a r e a s f o llo w s :-

a) s t r i a t i o n o r r i p p l e fo rm atio n

b) m ic ro -c le av a g e

c) v o id c o ale sce n c e

d) in te r g r a n u la r s e p a ra tio n

The most w idely a c c e p te d mechanism f o r s t r i a t i o n fo rm a tio n i s th e

107
p l a s t i c b lu n tin g p ro c e s s proposed by L a ir d . I t i s sch e m a ti­

c a l l y shown i n f i g . 1 1 . D uring t e n s i l e lo a d in g , p l a s t i c s t r a i n

o c c u rs a t th e c ra c k t i p and p l a s t i c d e fo rm atio n i s c o n c e n tra te d

i n zones alo n g p la n e s o f k5° to th e c rack grow th d i r e c t i o n .

T h is r e s u l t s in c ra ck b lu n tin g and an in c re a s e d s u rfa c e a r e a .

D uring th e com pression h a l f o f th e c y c le , th e c ra c k fa c e s come

to g e th e r w ith o u t com plete r e v e r s a l o f th e p l a s t i c d e fo rm a tio n

and th e c ra c k advances a c e r t a i n d is ta n c e . The c ra c k i s r e ­

sharpened and re a d y to re p e a t th e p ro c e ss on th e n e x t c y c le .

Each c y c le produces a s t r i a t i o n a c c o rd in g to t h i s m odel. F u r th e r ­

more peaks on one s id e o f th e c ra c k sh o u ld c o rre sp o n d w ith p eak s

on th e o th e r and th e same w ith v a l l e y s . T h is i s o b serv ed i n

3 127.
many c a s e s b u t o th e r ty p e s o f s t r i a t i o n p r o f i l e s e x i s t ’

F or exam ple, peaks may co rresp o n d v/ith tro u g h s and u n d e r c u ttin g

o f r id g e s does o ccu r on some f r a c tu r e s u r f a c e s . The p r o f i l e i s

dependent on th e symmetry and number o f a v a il a b le s l i p system s

128
and in g e n e r a l, most F .C .C . m a te r ia ls show a un ifo rm 11saw­

to o th 11 p r o f i l e . T h is i s n o t alw ays th e case in B .C .C . m a te r ia ls

v/here h ig h e l a s t i c a n is tr o p y may e x i s t a s f o r example in ^ - b r a s s ,

E ^111^ / E <^00) = 8.9*f. The d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f p r o f i l e

33
 in d ic a te t h a t th e r e i s no s in g le mechanism which p r e c is e ly

s a t i s f i e s a l l th e o b s e r v a tio n s . N e v e rth e le s s , th e p l a s t i c

b lu n tin g model i s th e most a p p lic a b le *

M icrocleavage may o ccu r d u rin g crack p ro p a g a tio n i n m a te r ia ls

c o n ta in in g b r i t t l e sec o n d phase p a r t i c l e s * T h is h a s been

129
observ ed i n a c o a rse p e a r l i t e s t e e l and i n h ig h s tr e n g th
130
aluminium a llo y s * T h is grow th mechanism g iv e s a h ig h e r
126
p ro p a g a tio n r a t e th an a s t r i a t i o n mechanism* The in c r e a s e
131
i n r a t e i s dependent on th e m ic ro s tru c tu re i n p e a r l i t e s t e e ls *

For coarse p e a r lit e s tru c tu re s , the grov/th r a te and e x te n t o f

m ic ro -c le av a g e v/ere g r e a t e r th an i n a s p h e ro id is e d s tr u c tu r e *

Void o r dim ple fo rm atio n d u rin g c ra ck grov/th h a s been

3 132
ob serv ed i n s e v e r a l s t e e l s h av in g fin e m ic r o s tr u c tu r e s . *

The mechanism pro p o sed 133 i s b ased on v o id fo rm a tio n ahead

o f th e main c ra c k and u ltim a te lin k in g up o f th e two on sub­

seq u en t c y c lic lo a d in g .

I n te r g r a n u la r c ra ck grow th h a s been o b serv ed i n s e v e r a l

13*f
quenched and tempered high stre n g th s t e e ls . I t v/as found to

be associated w ith p r io r a u s te n ite g ra in boundaries p a r t ic u la r l y

i f the boundary stren g th v/as im paired by im p u rity elem ents*

2* 6* 3* S tudies o f Crack Growth Fates

The m ajor aim s o f such s t u d ie s have been n o t o n ly m easure­

ment o f c ra c k grov/th r a t e b u t i t s dependence on m a te r ia l p ro p e r­

t i e s and t e s t i n g c o n d itio n s* A number o f m ethods f o r c ra c k

grow th measurement have been u s e d . F or exam ple, th e s t r i a t i o n s

on f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e s in d ic a t e l o c a l i s e d grow th and t h e i r

sp a c in g s can be u sed to d eterm in e th e l o c a l i s e d grow th r a te *

However, s t r i a t i o n s a re n o t alw ays p r e s e n t and th e y do n o t alw ays

36
 in d ic a te th e m ic ro sco p ic grov/th r a t e . The o p t i c a l and

e l e c t r i c a l methods a re w idely u sed to m easure c ra c k g row th.

The o p t i c a l method i s s u i t a b l e f o r s u rfa c e c ra c k s tu d ie s b u t i s

tim e consuming and r e q u ir e s an o b s e r v e r. F o r th ic k specim ens,

th e e r r o r s can be se v e re s in c e a c ra ck may b ran ch o f f and tu n n e l

to g iv e , f o r exam ple, th e u n d e rc u ttin g e a r l i e r m entioned i n

s tria tio n p ro file s . The e l e c t r i c a l method overcom es th e s e d i s ­

a d v a n ta g e s. I t m easures th e p o t e n t i a l betw een th e two fa c e s

produced by th e growing c ra c k and th e r e f o r e g iv e s a m easure o f

th e in c re a s e i n f r a c t u r e s u rfa c e a r e a . I t i s more p r a c t i c a l l y

c o n v en ie n t th an th e o p t i c a l method b u t i s s ta n d a r d is e d a g a in s t

th e o p t i c a l .

F r a c tu re m echanics co n cep ts have been w id ely u sed i n th e

p r e d ic tio n o f grow th r a t e s . The s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y ran g e a t th e

c ra c k t i p i s th e dominant p a ra m e te r. A most w id ely a c c e p te d

136
e q u a tio n i s t h a t below , which a p p lie s to th e grov/th p e r c y c le

o f a c ra c k having le n g th 2a;

da
— = c ( A k) ----------------------------- 8
<ffl

v/here AK i s th e rang e o f s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y

C i s a c o n s ta n t which may be m a te r ia l dependent

m i s th e exponent i n th e power lav/ r e l a t i o n s h i p

T h is e q u a tio n s u f f e r s from s e v e r a l l i m i t a t i o n s and u n f o r tu n a te ly

i s o f te n used f o r p r e d ic tio n s in s i t u a t i o n s f o r v/hich i t i s n o t

v a lid . F or example i t sh o u ld o n ly be u sed v/here th e p l a s t i c

zone s iz e a t th e c ra ck t i p i s sm all compared to th e c ra c k le n g th

and specim en d im en sio n s. F u rth erm o re, i t assum es t h a t in

57
d e term in in g th e p l a s t i c zone s iz e f o r c a l c u l a t io n o f th e s t r e s s

i n t e n s i t y range A K , th e y i e l d s t r e s s rem ains c o n s ta n t th ro u g h o u t

th e t e s t . As d e s c rib e d i n e a r l i e r s e c tio n s , m a te r ia ls may show

h ard e n in g o r s o fte n in g on c y c lic t e s t i n g . F i n a l l y , th e e q u a tio n

ta k e s no acco u n t o f m a te r ia l p r o p e r t i e s . N e v e rth e le s s , th e r e

i s much e x p e rim e n ta l d a ta f o r s e v e r a l m a te r ia ls which s a t i s f i e s

th e e q u a tio n and j u s t i f i e s i t s u se i n c e r t a i n c irc u m s ta n c e s .

S e v e ra l o th e r ap p ro ach es to c ra c k growth p r e d ic tio n s have

been made based on d is lo c a tio n th e o r i e s 137 and c y c lic m a te r ia l

138 139
b e h a v io u r. * From th e m e ta llu r g ic a l p o in t o f view ,

ap p ro ach es based on th e l a t t e r a p p ea r more a t t r a c t i v e s in c e th e

o p p o rtu n ity f o r m a te r ia l d e sig n i s im proved. I n one a p p ro a ch ,

138
th e grow th r a t e o f s e v e r a l m a te r ia ls in c lu d in g m u lti-p h a s e

aluminium a llo y s and s t e e l s , was r e l a t e d to m onotonic t e n s i l e

p r o p e r tie s and s a t i s f i e d a u n iv e r s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . The t e n s i l e

p r o p e r tie s in v o lv e d were th e y i e l d s t r e s s and t e n s i l e s tr e n g th ,

tr u e s t r a i n a t f r a c tu r e and Youngs m odulus.

A more r e a l i s t i c approach 139 i s t h a t b a se d on c y c li c

p r o p e r tie s v/hich have been a lre a d y d e fin e d i n 2 . 2 . 1 . The

p r o p e r tie s c o n sid e re d a r e th e c y c lic s tr e n g th c o e f f i c i e n t (

i
and th e c y c lic s t r a i n h ard e n in g exponent ( H ) . I n th e d e r i ­

v a tio n o f t h i s m odel, s ta g e I I c ra c k grow th was o b serv ed i n a

d u c tile m e ta l and th e p a t t e r n o f c ra ck t i p d e fo rm a tio n and c ra c k

llfO
grov/th deduced. In te n s e p l a s t i c d e fo rm atio n o c c u rre d m

l o c a l i s e d bands a t k5° to th e t e n s i l e a x i s . The new c ra c k s u r ­

fa c e formed by s h e a r decohesion a lo n g th e s e bands d u rin g th e

t e n s i l e lo a d in g . The model i s d e s c rib e d in th e form o f two

e q u a tio n s , b o th g iv en below (9 and 1 0 ). Each r e f e r to th e i 'a t e

38
 o f grov/th p e r c y c le o f a c ra c k o f le n g th 2 a . E q u a tio n 9

d e s c rib e s th e model f o r lov; c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s where th e

p l a s t i c s t r a i n p re d o m in a te s. E q u atio n 10 r e f e r s to h ig h c y c le

f a tig u e c o n d itio n s where th e e l a s t i c s t r a i n c o n s t i t u t e s a p re ­

dominant p a r t o f t o t a l s t r a i n .

.
2

da = TV Op ftn'+O
32
A£
dN e r ( o ',r

da IT (2n+/iV) 10
= a Acr
dN
. 32 (Tfw ( o - ' ) 2

i
where f\ = c y c lic s t r a i n h ard e n in g exponent
I
Cfy - c y c lic y i e l d s t r e s s

Op = tr u e m onotonic f r a c t u r e s t r e s s

= tr u e m onotonic f r a c tu r e s t r a i n

A £ P= p l a s t i c s t r a i n ran g e

A cr = s t r e s s range

These e q u a tio n s show t h a t f o r low c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s , an

I
in c re a s e o f n g iv e s a d e crea se i n c ra ck grow th r a t e . For a

d e crea se i n c ra ck grov/th r a t e u n d er h ig h c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s ,

i
a d e c re a se o f n i s r e q u ir e d . These f a c t s c o r r e l a t e w ith th e

s ta te m e n ts made e a r l i e r and g iv e sim ple in d ic e s o f f a tig u e c ra c k

growth r e s i s t a n c e .

2.7- Summary

The m ajor o b je c tiv e s in t h i s su rv ey have been to re v ie w th e

work done on m ic ro sco p ic a s p e c ts and mechanisms o f f a tig u e i n t h a t

im p o rta n t group o f m a te r ia ls , namely th o se b ased on m u lti-p h a s e

a llo y s . Such a llo y s c o n s ti tu te a lm o st a l l th o se com m ercial

59
m a te r ia ls t h a t a r e u sed f o r h ig h duty a p p lic a tio n s * The su rv ey

h a s shown t h a t a lm o st a l l th e e a r l i e r work b n such a s p e c ts and

mechanisms was c o n c e n tra te d on s in g le phase m a te ria ls * I n more

r e c e n t y e a r s t h i s work h a s been ex ten d ed to co v er m u lti-p h a s e

m a te ria ls *

A s i g n i f i c a n t advance in f a tig u e knowledge t h a t h a s been made

i n r e c e n t y e a r s i s th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c y c li c m a te r ia l p aram eters*

These can be r e l a t e d to f a tig u e perform ance and e n a b le th e f a tig u e

b e h av io u r u n d er s p e c i f i c c o n d itio n s to be r e l i a b l y p re d ic te d *

T h is advance h a s been m ainly a t t r i b u t e d to th e d e sig n and u se o f

s o p h is ti c a te d t e s t i n g m achines* An u n d e rly in g theme th ro u g h o u t

much o f th e work covered in t h i s su rv ey h a s been th e a tte m p t to

l i n k such p a ra m e te rs w ith m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l fe a tu re s * I f t h i s co u ld

be done th e n th e d e sig n o f m ic ro s tru c tu re f o r s p e c i f i c f a tig u e

perform ance i s th e n made p o s s ib le .

The most s i g n i f i c a n t c y c lic p a ra m ete r re c o g n is e d to d a te i s

l
th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g exponent ( fl ) . I t s v a lu e h a s been

shown to in flu e n c e f a tig u e b e h av io u r i n t h a t i t can be r e l a t e d to

t o t a l l i f e perform ance and c ra c k grow th r e s is ta n c e * The b e s t

c o r r e la tio n betw een t h i s p a ra m ete r and m ic ro s tru c tu re h a s been

found w ith th e mode o f s lip * High v a lu e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith

s t r u c t u r e s which a llo w e x te n s iv e d is lo c a tio n and c ro s s s l i p w h ils t

low v a lu e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith r e s t r i c t e d d i s l o c a ti o n m otion*

However, th e lim it in g range o f v a lu e s known f o r t h i s exponent a t

th e p r e s e n t tim e r e s t r i c t s th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r e x te n s iv e c o n tr o l

o f f a tig u e b e h av io u r u s in g t h i s m ethod. There i s a n eed f o r

f u r t h e r re s e a rc h in to a llo y d e sig n g iv in g h ig h e r o r lo w e r v a lu e s

th a n th e e x is t in g range f o r t h i s ex p o n en t. F u r th e r r e s e a r c h i s

60
a ls o re q u ire d in to th e r e l a tio n s h ip betw een S ta g e I and I I c ra ck

p ro p a g a tio n on m ic ro s tru c tu re * L i t t l e work h a s been done to

r e l a t e m ic ro s tru c tu re w ith s ta g e I c ra c k grow th y e t in h ig h c y c le

f a tig u e c o n d itio n s , t h i s s ta g e may occupy up to 9QP/0 o f th e l i f e *

I n S tage I I c ra c k grov/th th e r e h a s been more work done b u t th e

dependence on m ic ro s tru c tu re i s s t i l l n o t c le a r* The f r a c t u r e

m echanics approach s p l i t s th e b a s ic crack -g ro w th curve in to th r e e

'ikk
re g io n s , th e s e b e in g an i n i t i a l th re s h o ld which i s th e n

fo llo w ed by a re g io n o f uniform f a tig u e c ra c k grow th and f i n a l l y

c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e . The th r e s h o ld re g io n i s r e p o r te d a s b e in g

s tro n g ly dependent on m ic ro s tru c tu re and f u r t h e r v/ork i s

r e q u ir e d here*

61
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The m ajor o b je c tiv e o f t h i s work h as been th e stu d y o f c ra c k

i n i t i a t i o n and p ro p a g a tio n in a p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e . The s t e e l

u sed , re q u ire d a com position such t h a t on s u i t a b l e h e a t tre a tm e n t,

a f u l l y p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e co u ld be a ch ie v e d w ith o u t th e p re se n c e

o f p r o - e u te c to id f e r r i t e o r c e m e n tite . The most s u i t a b l e s t e e l

a v a il a b le , a t th e tim e th e work began, was a carbon s p rin g s t e e l ,

h aving th e s p e c i f i c a t i o n number En^CK (B .S .970)* I t had been

made by th e a c id open h e a r th p ro c e ss and v/as s u p p lie d by, a t t h a t

tim e th e B .I.S .R .A . l a b o r a t o r i e s . I t s co m position i s g iv e n in

T able 1 and f o r t h i s v/ork i s d e sig n a te d s t e e l A. M e ta llo g ra p h ic

exam ination o f th e s t e e l shov/ed o n ly tr a c e s o f a p r o - e u te c to id

c o n s titu e n t b u t i t d id c o n ta in numerous n o n -m e ta llic i n c l u s i o n s .

Many v/ere o r ie n te d in th e r o l l i n g d ir e c ti o n and th e m a jo rity were

i d e n t i f i e d a s alum ina and manganese s u lp h id e . B ecause o f t h e i r

known in flu e n c e on f a tig u e b e h a v io u r, i t was c o n sid e re d t h a t b o th

c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n and p ro p a g a tio n co u ld be a t t r i b u t e d to them a s

w e ll a s p e a r l i t e m orphology. A rrangem ents were th e r e f o r e made

fo r a s t e e l o f s im ila r com position to be made i n a vacuum in d u c tio n

m e ltin g fu rn a c e . Two s e p a r a te c a s ts o f s t e e l v/ere su b se q u e n tly

made u sin g th e m e ltin g f a c i l i t i e s o f th e S h e f f ie ld P o ly te c h n ic .

These a re d e sig n a te d s t e e l s B and C and t h e i r c o m p o sitio n i s g iv e n

in ta b le 1• Both shov/ed o n ly t r a c e s o f p r o - e u te c to id c e m e n tite

and th e in c lu s io n c o n te n t v/as ex trem ely low . The o r i e n t a t i o n o f

in c lu s io n s w ith r o l l i n g d ir e c t io n was u t i l i z e d i n th e su b seq u en t

exam ination o f damage a r e a s in s o f a r t h a t o r i e n t a t i o n o f damage

a r e a s v/as e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d v/ith re fe re n c e to r o l l e d o u t in c lu s io n

d ire c tio n .
3 .2 . PREPARATION OF MATERIAL

3 .2 .1 . Specimen D esign

The m a te r ia l was shaped in t o two form s, namely r o l l e d s t r i p

13mms. wide and a b o u t 3mms. th ic k and a ls o r o l l e d b a r o f l8mms.

d ia m e te r. Each form was u sed f o r a sup p ly o f specim ens f o r

f a tig u e t e s t i n g i n an Avery re v e rs e d p la n e b ending machine and

a c lo s e d lo o p e le c tr o h y d r a u lic s e r v o - c o n tr o lle d m achine. To

a v o id th e p re sen c e o f la r g e r e s id u a l s t r e s s e s i n th e specim ens

p r i o r to f a tig u e t e s t i n g , sam ples were m achined and ro u g h ly

p o lis h e d p r i o r to h e a t tr e a tm e n t.

F l a t specim ens f o r re v e rs e d p la n e bending were m achined to

dim ensions shown i n f i g . 12A such t h a t a l l r o l l e d edges and d e -

c a r b u ris e d s u r f a c e s were rem oved. The round s e c tio n specim ens

f o r p u s h -p u ll f a tig u e were machined to dim ensions shown i n f i g .

12B. The specim ens were m e ch a n ic ally p o lis h e d to a ro u g h n ess

o f 15yuun. F or th e round specim ens, o n ly th e gauge le n g th was

p o lis h e d and t h i s was done u s in g a M orrison m achine.

I n o rd e r to p re v e n t d e c a r b u r is a tio n d u rin g th e h e a t t r e a t ­

m ent, a l l specim ens were e n c a p s u la te d in a s i l i c a tu b e c o n ta in in g

a rg o n . Each specim en was f i r s t d eg reased and d r ie d b e fo re

i n s e r t i n g in th e tu b e . One tu b e end was c lo s e d and th e open

end was f i t t e d in to a vacuum l i n e . The system in c lu d e d a

s p e c ia l v a lv e which was f i t t e d to an arg o n s u p p ly . The tu b e

v/as ev ac u a ted and th e n f i l l e d v/ith a rg o n . T h is p ro c e s s o f

e v a c u a tio n and arg o n f i l l i n g v/as re p e a te d s e v e r a l tim e s . A f te r

f i n a l e v a c u a tio n , arg o n was p a sse d in to th e tu b e to a p r e s s u r e

o f l 80mms. o f m ercury . The tu b e c o n ta in in g th e specim en was

s e a le d o f f u sin g an p x y -a c e ty le n e b u rn e r. I t was c a lc u la te d

63
 t h a t a t ab o u t 1300°K which was th e maximum te m p e ra tu re re a ch e d

d u rin g h e a t tre a tm e n t, th e i n t e r n a l p re s s u re in th e tu b e would

be ab o u t 1 atm o sp h ere. T h is p re v e n te d tu b e e x p lo sio n d u rin g

h e a tin g .

3 .2 .2 . Heat T reatm ent

H eat tre a tm e n t c y c le s were d esig n ed to produce th re e

d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s , th e s e b ein g a co arse p e a r l i t e , f in e p e a r l i t e

and a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s in f e r r i t e . Most

o f th e e a r ly work was done u s in g a co arse p e a r l i t e and h e re th e

cy cle was d esig n ed to g iv e a s tr u c t u r e t h a t v/as r e a d i l y

re s o lv a b le u s in g an o p t i c a l m icro sco p e. F o r c o a rse p e a r l i t e

p ro d u c tio n , th e e n c a p s u la te d specim ens v/ere a u s t e n i t i z e d a t

1100°C f o r k h o u rs to homogenize th e a u s te n it e fo llo w ed by

t r a n s f e r to and h o ld in g i n a m u ffle fu rn ac e a t 710°C fo r 20 h o u rs

and th e n c o o lin g in a i r . F or th e th re e s t e e l s u sed in th e

work, t h i s c y c le produced a co arse la m e lla r p e a r l i t e h av in g an

average p e a r l i t e c e l l s iz e o f 30yum (ran g e 20 - ^Ojumet r e s ) a s

determ ined by l i n e a l a n a l y s i s . The mean i n t e r l a m e l l a r

sp ac in g v/as 3000 Angstrom u n i t s .

A f in e p e a r l i t e was produced by a s im i la r a u s t e n i t i z a t i o n

tre a tm e n t to th e above b u t fo llo w ed by a i r c o o lin g . T h is gave

an av erag e p e a r l i t e c e l l s iz e o f 12yu»m (ran g e 1 - 28y x m e tre s)

and an in t e r l a m e l l a r sp ac in g o f 700 Angstrom u n i t s . The

s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s tr u c t u r e was a c h ie v e d by h e a tin g to and

h o ld in g a t 670°C f o r 36 h o u rs and th e n c o o lin g i n a i r . I t had

a mean fr e e f e r r i t e p a th o f ab o u t 3000 Angstrom u n i t s . The

s p h e ro id a l c a rb id e s iz e v/as in th e range o f 1 - AyU-metres.

6k
3 * 2 .3« S u rfa c e P r e p a ra tio n

A f te r h e a t tre a tm e n t and p r i o r to f a tig u e t e s t i n g , th e

specim en s u rfa c e s were m e ch a n ic ally p o lis h e d down to

M echanical p o lis h in g was o n ly m inim al s in c e s u r f a c e s had been

p o lis h e d down to 15yW-m b e fo re h e a t tre a tm e n t. They were th e n

e le c tr o - p o lis h e d to p ro v id e a n o n - d is to r te d s u rfa c e l a y e r .

The e l e c t r o l y t e c o n ta in e d 25 grams o f chromium t r i o x i d e , 133 nils

o f g l a c i a l a c e t i c a c id and 7 m is o f d i s t i l l e d w a te r. The

a p p a ra tu s used i s shown in f i g . 13 • A c y l i n d r i c a l cath o d e o f

s t a i n l e s s s t e e l a llo w ed b o th s u rfa c e s o f th e f l a t specim ens to

be p o lis h e d and a g la s s s t i r r e r was immersed i n th e e l e c t r o l y t e .

For c y l i n d r i c a l specim ens, an a d d iti o n a l item o f equipm ent was

u sed. Here th e specim en v/as r o t a t e d by f i x t u r e i n a chuck and

d riv e n by a m o to r.

The c o n d itio n s f o r s u c c e s s fu l e le c tr o p o l is h in g v a r ie d

s l i g h t l y a cc o rd in g to th e ty p e o f s t r u c t u r e . I n g e n e r a l, w ith

a fix e d anode-cathode s e p a r a tio n o f 35mms, th e .re q u ire d

p o t e n t i a l drop betv/een anode and cathode f o r s u c c e s s f u l p o l i s h ­

in g was betw een 20 and 2k v o l t s and th e c u r r e n t d e n s ity was

2
a p p ro x im ately 0 .1 5 amps/cm •

E le c tr o p o lis h in g was o f te n u sed f o r f a tig u e damaged

specim ens i n o rd e r to examine th e e x te n t o f damage w ith in th e

specim en. Here i t v/as n e c e s sa ry to remove known th ic k n e s s e s

from damaged s u r f a c e s . The c o n d itio n s f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y e l e c t r o ­

p o lis h in g were reprod u ced and th e l o s s in w eig h t d u rin g p o lis h in g

a s p e c if ic s u rfa c e a re a was d e term in e d . Knov/ing th e d e n s ity o f

s t e e l , th e v/eight l o s s v/as c o n v e rte d in to volume and s u b se q u e n tly

in to th ic k n e s s o f m e ta l rem oved. S u rfa c e rem oval was c o n tr o lle d

65
 by a d ju stm e n t o f p o lis h in g tim e . ^he c o n d itio n s d e s c rib e d

above gave a rem oval r a t e o f ab o u t 25jU.m/hour.

3*3* FATIGUE TESTING

Two ty p e s o f f a tig u e t e s t s v/ere u sed in th e v/ork* In itia lly ,

th e m a te r ia l a v a il a b le v/as t e s t e d i n a r e v e rs e p la n e bending

machine u s in g th e specim ens m achined from th e s t r i p ( f ig .1 2 A ) .

L a te r i n th e work, m a te r ia l v/as t e s t e d in u n ia x ia l te n s io n -

com pression u s in g th e equipm ent d e s c rib e d below . The specim ens

f o r t h i s work were produced from round b a r ( f ig .1 2 B ) .

3*3«'l» Reverse Plane Bending Tests

Specim ens were f a tig u e t e s t e d i n an Avery r e v e r s e p la n e

bending m achine. Here th e specim en v/as b o lte d a t one end to a

dynamometer and a t th e o th e r end to a bending arm which i s

o p e ra te d by a m o to r-d riv e n e c c e n tr ic th ro u g h a c o n n e c tin g ro d .

The bending arm o s c i l l a t e s a b o u t an a x is p a s s in g th ro u g h th e

m id -p o in t o f th e specim en. The throw o f th e e c c e n tr i c v/as

a d ju s te d to g iv e th e r e q u ir e d bending moment v/hich i s d eterm in ed

by th e d e f le c tio n o f a m easuring arm co n n ected to th e dynamo­

m e te r. Knowing th e bending moment and specim en d im en sio n s, i t

was p o s s ib le to determ in e th e maximum t h e o r e t i c a l b ending s t r e s s

a t th e specim en s u r f a c e . I t v/as however r e a l i s e d t h a t th e

method o f c a lc u la tio n i s b a se d on th e assu m p tio n t h a t th e

o p e ra tiv e s t r e s s e s a re o f an e l a s t i c n a tu re w hereas i n f a c t some

o f th e s t r e s s e s v /ill be p l a s t i c . The method h a s been u sed so

t h a t specim ens o f d i f f e r e n t th ic k n e s s v a lu e s can i f n e c e s s a ry

be t e s t e d a t th e same t h e o r e t i c a l bending s t r e s s . To a c h ie v e

t h i s , th e re q u ire d bending moment v/as f i r s t d e term in ed u s in g th e

form ulae and th e e c c e n tr ic throw a d ju s te d a c c o r d in g ly .

66
 A s e r i e s o f t e s t s v/as a ls o perform ed to e v a lu a te th e

m agnitude o f s t r a i n a t a specim en s u rfa c e co rre sp o n d in g to a

range o f v a lu e s f o r e c c e n tr ic throw s e t t i n g s . A s t r a i n gauge

v/as fix e d to th e s u rfa c e o f s e v e r a l specim ens in t u r n , each

h aving d i f f e r e n t th ic k n e s s e s . A f te r c a l i b r a t i o n , th e gauge

re a d in g s v/ere used to c a lc u la te th e c o rre sp o n d in g s u rfa c e s t r a i n .

The number o f specim ens a v a ila b le v/as such t h a t a f u l l

d e te rm in a tio n o f th e s t r e s s - l i f e cu rv es f o r each o f th e th r e e

s t r u c t u r e s v/as n o t p o s s i b le . N e v e rth e le s s , an e s tim a te o f t h a t

3 6
p o r tio n o f th e curve betw een 10 and 10 c y c le s v/as aimed f o r

from a few n o n - in te r r u p te d c y c lic t e s t s a t v a rio u s s tr e s s

a m p litu d e s . The m a jo rity o f t e s t s v/ere conducted a t s u rfa c e

5 6
s t r e s s a m p litu d e s co rre sp o n d in g to f a i l u r e a t betw een 10 - 10

c y c le s and in th e s e , specim ens v/ere p e r io d ic a l l y removed d u rin g

th e t e s t f o r exam inatio n o f damage. A ll t e s t s v/ere c a r r ie d o u t

a t a frequency o f 2*f HZ.

3 -3 * 2 . U n ia x ia l T ension-C om pression T e s ts

These t e s t s were c a r r ie d o u t u s in g a c lo s e d -lo o p s e rv o -

h y d ra u lic m achine. U sing t h i s equipm ent e i t h e r th e lo a d o r

deform ation co u ld be c o n tr o lle d . Load v/as m easured by a lo a d

c e l l in s e r i e s w ith th e specim en and v/as a p p lie d by a h y d ra u lic

ram . T h is ram was e n e rg iz e d by a h y d ra u lic pump and c o n tr o lle d

by an e le c tr o - h y d r a u lic s e r v o -v a lv e . A c lip - o n e x ten so m e te r

was used to measure specim en d e fo rm a tio n .

A ll th e t e s t s v/ere c a r r ie d o u t in s t r a i n c o n t r o l . V/ith

a pre-*determ ined s t r a i n am p litu d e s e t t i n g , th e feed b ack s ig n a l

from th e ex ten so m eter v/as compared v/ith t h i s command

by th e s e r v o - c o n t r o lle r . The d if f e r e n c e betw een th e two

67
s ig n a ls was used to d riv e th e ram by means o f a s e r v o -v a lv e .

T h is machine was u sed to perform th r e e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f t e s t s ,

th e s e b e in g :-

a) in c re m e n ta l s te p t e s t s

b) c o n s ta n t am p litu d e s t r a i n - c o n t r o l l e d t e s t s

c) m onotonic te n s io n t e s t s

In c re m e n ta l s te p t e s t s were u sed to e s t a b l i s h th e c y c lic s t r e s s -

s t r a i n cu rv es f o r each s t r u c t u r e . Such c u rv e s were e a r l i e r

d e sc rib e d in s e c tio n 2 . 2 . 1 . One specimen o n ly was used to

e s t a b l i s h th e curve f o r each s t r u c t u r e . I n th e t e s t , a s p e c i­

men was s u b je c te d to a programme o f c o n tin u a lly in c r e a s in g and

th en d e c re a sin g s t r a i n a m p litu d e s . These ran g ed from a s t r a i n

am p litu d e o f a p p ro x im a te ly 0.0011 to 0.0168 i n 15 e q u a l s t e p s .

An X-Y p l o t t e r was used to m o n ito r th e lo a d and s t r a i n m easure­

m ents and th e r e s u l t s from t h i s p l o t t e r were u sed f o r m easure­

ment o f th e se v a lu e s . C ontinuous m o n ito rin g o f s t r a i n and lo a d

was p o s s ib le from a h ig h speed s t r i p c h a r t re c o r d e r and an

o s c illo s c o p e .

Each specim en was s u b je c te d to a t o t a l o f a b o u t b lo c k s .

The X-Y p l o t t e r was used to tr a c e o u t lo a d and s t r a i n v a lu e s f o r

a number o f th e s e b lo c k s and in t h i s way i t was p o s s ib le to

re c o rd th e changes in lo a d r e q u ir e d to m a in ta in s p e c i f i c l e v e l s

o f s t r a i n a m p litu d e . A f te r o n ly a few b lo c k s , th e c y c lic

b eh av io u r a s shown by lo a d v a lu e s began to s t a b i l i z e * Once

s t a b i l i t y was a c h ie v e d , th e c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve was

produced by jo in in g up th e t i p s o f th e lo o p s on th e t r a c e from

th e X-Y p l o t t e r , which showed lo a d v a lu e s c o rre sp o n d in g to l e v e l s

o f s t r a i n a m p litu d e . The lo a d v a lu e s were o f c o u rse c o n v e rte d

68
to s t r e s s . T h is curve v;as u sed to d eterm ine v a lu e s f o r th e
I
c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g exponent n and th e c y c lic s tr e n g th
t
c o e f f i c i e n t K , b o th h av in g been d e sc rib e d e a r l i e r i n 2 .2 .1 •

E q u atio n 1 was u sed to determ ine th e v a lu e s , t h i s b e in g :

t
n
CTa = K'

where 0 a i s th e s t r e s s am p litu d e co rre sp o n d in g to a p l a s t i c

s t r a i n a m p litu d e o f A in a c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u rv e .
2

I n th e c o n s ta n t am p litu d e s t r a i n - c o n t r o l l e d t e s t s , specim ens

5
were t e s t e d a t s t r a i n a m p litu d e s g iv in g f a i l u r e i n a b o u t 10 -
6 *5 6
10 c y c le s o r 2 x 10 - 2 x 10 re v e rs a ls . Specim ens were a ls o

t e s t e d under th e s e c o n d itio n s and removed f o r m e ta llo g ra p h ic

exam in atio n a t th e fo llo w in g s ta g e s o f l i f e : 25^» 50% and 73^*

The frequency o f c y c lin g i n a l l th e t e s t s was a p p ro x im a te ly 10 HZ«

P r i o r to th e commencement o f t h i s work, th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een

s t r a i n am p litu d e and l i f e to f a i l u r e was p r e d ic te d f o r each o f

th e th r e e s tr u c t u r e s u s in g th e methods d e s c rib e d i n 2 . 2 . 2 .

The in fo rm a tio n re q u ir e d f o r p r e d ic tio n was

I
a) th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g exponent O
i
b) th e f a tig u e s tr e n g th c o e f f i c i e n t Q ~?
/
c) th e f a tig u e d u c t i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t £p
l
The a p p ro p ria te v a lu e o f th e exponent n was known from th e
« ^ '
in c re m e n ta l s te p t e s t . V alues o f th e c o e f f i c i e n t s O p and c .p
9 10 11
were n o t known b u t p re v io u s work ’ ’ had shown them to be

a p p ro x im a te ly eq u al to th e m onotonic tr u e f r a c t u r e s t r e n g th and

f r a c tu r e d u c t i l i t y r e s p e c t i v e l y . M onotonic te n s io n t e s t s were

c a r r ie d o u t under s t r a i n c o n tro l in th e h y d ra u lic m achine and

th e s t r e s s - s t r a i n cu rv es were tr a c e d u sin g th e X-Y p l o t t e r f o r

 each s t r u c t u r e . From th e s e th e v a lu e s f o r b o th th e tr u e

f r a c tu r e s tr e n g th and f r a c tu r e d u c t i l i t y were d eterm in ed and

hence com pleted th e in fo rm a tio n re q u ire d f o r p r e d i c tio n . The

number o f sam ples a v a il a b le was sm all and hence i t was n o t

p o s s ib le to check th e p r e d ic te d curve o v er a wide range o f

s t r a i n a m p litu d e s .
The o n ly checks made were a t th o se a m p litu d e s
5
which had been p r e d ic te d a s co rresp o n d in g to l i v e s o f ab o u t 10 -
g
10 c y c le s . I n t h i s way, any n e c e s sa ry c o r r e c tio n s were

p o s s ib le b e fo re co n d u ctin g th e t e s t s in which specim ens were

removed f o r m e ta llo g ra p h ic e x am in atio n .

In th e c y c lic t e s t s to f a i l u r e , re a d in g s o f s t r a i n and lo a d

on th e h ig h speed re c o rd e r and tr a c e s on th e o s c illo s c o p e co u ld

be used a s i n d ic a to r s o f th e s ta g e o f c ra c k in g . F o r exam ple,

when a c ra ck i n i t i a t e d , t h i s m a n ife ste d i t s e l f in a r e d u c tio n o f

th e t e n s i l e lo a d r e q u ir e d to m a in ta in a g iv en s t r a i n a m p litu d e .

However, th e s iz e o f c ra c k n e c e s sa ry to produce an e f f e c t t h a t

could be p ic k ed up by th e equipm ent was such t h a t , by th e tim e

th e lo a d r e d u c tio n was o b serv ed , th e c ra ck would be w e ll in t o th e

p ro p a g a tio n s ta g e .

METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION

P r e - p o lis h e d specim en s u rfa c e s were examined a f t e r c y c li c and

m onotonic t e s t i n g in o rd e r to d eterm in e th e e x te n t and form o f

damage. In th e case o f c y c lic t e s t i n g , specim ens were a ls o

removed from th e machine a t s p e c i f ic s ta g e s o f th e l i f e f o r m e ta llo ­

g ra p h ic exam ination and r e c y c le d . F u r th e r e le c tr o - p o l i s h i n g o f a

damaged s u rfa c e and th e rem oval o f known amounts was a ls o c a r r i e d

o u t in o rd e r to stu d y th e e x te n t o f damage below th e s u r f a c e .

I n alm o st a l l c a s e s , an ex am in atio n o f an u n te s te d specim en was

 conducted in p a r a l l e l f o r com parison p u rp o s e s. I t a ls o a s s is te d

in i s o l a t i n g th o se f e a tu r e s t h a t were n o t a t t r i b u t e d to e i t h e r

c y c lic o r m onotonic t e s t s . F r a c tu re s u rfa c e s o f specim ens c y c le d

to f a i l u r e were examined m e ta llo g r a p h ic a lly . I n th e re v e rs e p la n e

bend t e s t s , a f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e was produced by s to p p in g th e t e s t a s

n e a r to f i n a l f a i l u r e a s p o s s ib le and b re a k in g th e specim en in a

v ic e . T h is m inim ised any d e s tr u c tio n o f s u rfa c e f e a tu r e s t h a t

was e x te n s iv e i f th e specim en was allo w ed to p ro c e ed to com plete

c y c lic f a i l u r e .

A number o f m e ta llo g ra p h ic ex am in atio n te c h n iq u e s were u sed in

th e work, a l l based on e i t h e r o p t i c a l o r e le c tr o n m icro sco p y .

3 .^ .1 . O p tic a l M icroscopy

B rig h t f i e l d and a ls o dark f i e l d illu m in a tio n were u sed in

th e norm al o p t i c a l m icroscope te c h n iq u e s f o r d e te c tin g e a r ly

damage o f s u rfa c e s o f specim ens having c o a rse p e a r l i t e and

s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s . F o r th e f in e p e a r l i t e , th e

re s o lv in g power o f th e m icroscope was . 'i n s u f f i c i e n t .

In th e exam inatio n o f s u rfa c e topography o f damaged a r e a s ,

specim ens were f i r s t f la s h c o a te d w ith copper and th e n n ic k e l

p la te d so a s to p re s e rv e th e s u rfa c e f e a t u r e s . W ithout th e

i n i t i a l copper c o a tin g , th e n ic k e l d e p o s it was n o t a d h e r e n t. The

copper p la tin g s o lu tio n was made up to c o n ta in th e fo llo w in g

m a te ria ls :- 23 gms o f copper c y an id e , 35 gms o f sodium cy an id e

and 15 gms o f sodium c a rb o n a te , a l l in 1 l i t r e o f w a te r . The

s o lu tio n was used a t 50°C in a fume cupboard w ith a l l th e

n e c e s sa ry s a f e ty p r e c a u tio n s . The an o d e-cath o d e p o t e n t i a l was

2 v o l t s and a copper anode was u s e d . A f te r w ashing, th e copper

p la te d specim ens were im m ediately p la te d w ith n ic k e l u s in g a

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 s o lu tio n c o n ta in in g 2k0 gms o f n ic k e l s u lp h a te , gms o f n ic k e l

c h lo rid e and 30 gms o f b o ric a c id , a l l in 1 l i t r e o f w a te r.

A good a d h e re n t d e p o s it was produced on p l a t i n g a t an anode

cathode p o t e n t i a l o f 3 - ^ v o l t s and an anode o f a n n e a le d n i c k e l .

The s o lu tio n te m p e ra tu re was 20°C. A f te r ab o u t 2 h o u rs p l a t i n g

th e d e p o s it th ic k n e s s was s u f f i c i e n t to w ith s ta n d th e n e c e s sa ry

sawing o f f o f s e c t i o n s . These specim en s e c tio n s were mounted

a t a ta p e r a n g le o f a b o u t 11-J° to g iv e an a p p a re n t s u rfa c e

m a g n ific a tio n o f x 3*

3 * ^ .2 . E le c tro n M icroscopy

F o r h ig h r e s o lu ti o n m icroscopy, th e tra n s m is s io n and ‘

scan n in g e le c tr o n m icro sco p es v/ere u s e d . Most o f th e work on

th e scan n in g e le c tr o n m icroscope was c a r r ie d o u t u s in g th e

f a c i l i t i e s o f th e B r i t i s h R a il T e c h n ic a l C en tre a t D erby.

The m a jo rity o f work was done u s in g th e tra n s m is s io n e le c tr o n

m icroscope and f o r t h i s two s e p a ra te p r e p a r a tio n te c h n iq u e s were

in v o lv e d , th e s e b e in g :-

(a ) th e p ro d u c tio n o f r e p l i c a s

(b) th e p ro d u c tio n o f th in f o i l s

Two m ethods were used f o r r e p l i c a p ro d u c tio n . For su rfa ce

damage exam in atio n where, i t was n e c e s sa ry to p re s e rv e th e s u r f a c e ,

a tw o -sta g e r e p l i c a method was used* C e llu lo s e a c e t a t e s h e e t o f

th ic k n e s s 0 . 03^ rams was f i r s t w e tte d w ith a c e to n e and a p p lie d

to th e specim en s u rfa c e * A f te r d ry in g , i t was s tr ip p e d o f f ,

shadowed w ith g o ld -p a lla d iu m f o r im proving c o n tr a s t and th e n

c o ate d w ith c arb o n . B reak-up o f th e r e p l i c a d u rin g d i s s o l u t i o n

o f th e a c e ta te film v/as m inim ised by f i r s t c o a tin g th e carbon

w ith a low m e ltin g p o in t p a r a f f i n wax. T h is was done by c u t tin g

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th e carbon c o a te d film in to s u ita b l e s iz e d p ie c e s r e q u ir e d f o r

th e m icroscope# Each p ie c e was th e n p la c e d carbon fa c e down

in to th e m olten wax and th e wax allo w ed to s o l i d i f y . The

a c e ta te film v/as d is s o lv e d in a c e to n e and th e wax s u b se q u e n tly

d is s o lv e d in petroleum e th e r so a s to le a v e th e carb o n r e p l i c a .

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f some f i e l d s o b ta in e d i n th e r e p l i c a s was

a t f i r s t d i f f i c u l t s in c e i t v/as n o t known w hether c e r t a i n

f e a tu r e s were tr u e ones a t t r i b u t e d to f a tig u e damage o r v/hether

th e y were a r t e f a c t s o f r e p l i c a t i o n . S in ce a sca n n in g e le c tr o n

m icroscope was n o t r e a d i l y a v a il a b l e , i t was d e c id e d e a r ly on in

th e work to develop te c h n iq u e s whereby such f e a t u r e s co u ld be

p o s itiv e ly id e n tif ie d . Comparison w ith u n fa tig u e d specim ens

was used b u t n o t c o n sid e re d to be co m p letely s a t i s f a c t o r y . It

was however th o u g h t t h a t i f a f e a tu r e was seen r e p e a te d ly on

s e v e r a l r e p l i c a s o f th e same a r e a , i t v/as u n lik e ly to be a

re p lic a tio n a r te f a c t.

A method was th e r e f o r e developed f o r o b ta in in g a r e p l i c a

from th e same a r e a . T h is c o n s is te d o f r e p l i c a t i n g i n a c e ta t e

s h e e t a s b e fo re b u t th e n c a r e f u l l y m ounting th e d r ie d p l a s t i c

r e p l i c a on a g la s s s l i d e f o r exam in atio n i n an o p t i c a l m ic ro sc o p e .

I t was p o s s ib le to i d e n t i f y a r e a s co rre sp o n d in g to p a rtic u la r

f e a tu r e s o f i n t e r e s t d u rin g o p t i c a l m icroscope e x a m in a tio n .

The a re a o f i n t e r e s t was th e n marked f o r su b seq u en t r e f e r e n c e

and th e p ro c e ss re p e a te d v/ith a second p l a s t i c r e p l i c a and th e

same a re a i d e n t i f i e d . A f te r shadov/ing v/ith g o ld -p a lla d iu m and

carbon, th e a r e a s o f i n t e r e s t were c u t o u t and p ro c e s s e d a s

above f o r exam ination i n th e e le c tr o n m ic ro sco p e . V/ith c a r e ,

i t v/as p o s s ib le to examine s e v e r a l r e p l i c a s from a b o u t th e same

73
a r e a u s in g t h i s tw o -sta g e method* I f a f e a tu r e v/as

a t t r i b u t a b l e to f a tig u e damage i t would show i t s e l f i n each

r e p l i c a from th e a re a c o n ta in in g t h a t f e a t u r e .

S in g le s ta g e r e p l i c a s v/ere produced o f f r a c t u r e s u rfa c e s

and th o se damaged s u r f a c e s v/here p r e s e r v a tio n was n o t n e c e s s a ry .

Here carbon v/as e v a p o ra te d onto th e s u rfa c e and s tr ip p e d o f f by

e tc h in g . T h is method v/as m ainly u sed on th e c y l i n d r i c a l

specim ens v/hich had been c y c le d i n u n ia x ia l te n sio n -c o m p re ssio n

te s ts .

T hin f o i l s were p re p a re d o f th e c y l i n d r i c a l specim ens by

c u ttin g d is c s p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e c y c lic s t r e s s a x i s . These

v/ere m e ch a n ic ally p o lis h e d i n a h o ld e r down to a th ic k n e s s o f

ab o u t I^OyUimetres. They v/ere e l e c t r o l y t i c a l l y p o lis h e d a t 10°C

u s in g a s o lu tio n o f 25$ p e r c h lo r ic a c id in m e th a n o l. F in a l

d is h in g and p e r f o r a tio n v/as c a r r ie d o u t u s in g th e e l e c t r o - j e t

te c h n iq u e in a s o lu tio n o f 10% p e r c h lo r ic a c id i n m ethanol a t

-10°C and a p o t e n t i a l o f 1*f-l6 v o l t s depending on th e s t r u c t u r e .

Two e le c tr o n m icrosco p es v/ere u sed f o r ex am in atio n o f th e f o i l s .

These w e re :-

(a ) an A .E .I . 1000 KV m icroscope

(b) a JEM 100B m icroscope

*f. RESULTS

A ll th e r e s u l t s p re s e n te d a r e from t e s t s on th e th r e e s t e e l s A,

B and C whose com position i s shown in ta b le 1 • As m entioned

p re v io u s ly , th r e e s e p a ra te s t r u c t u r e s were produced by h e a t tre a tm e n t

o f each o f th e s e s t e e l s and th e s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a s

fo llo w s : -

a) c o a rse p e a r l i t e h avin g an av erag e p e a r l i t e c e l l s iz e o f 30 /* m

(ran g e 20 - 50 yU-metres) and a mean i n t e r l a m e l l a r sp a c in g o f

3000 Angstrom u n i t s ( F ig .l^ a )

b) f in e p e a r l i t e v/ith an a v erag e p e a r l i t e c e l l s i z e o f 12yx.m

(ran g e 1 - 2 8 yiyimetres) and a mean in t e r l a m e l l a r sp a c in g o f 700

Angstrom u n i t s (Fig.1*fb)

c) s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s i n f e r r i t e h aving a c a rb id e s iz e ran g e o f

1 - yixm etres and a mean f r e e f e r r i t e p a th o f 3000 ,Angstrom

u n i t s ( F ig .l^ c )

*f.1. CYCLIC AND MONOTONIC PROPERTIES

These p r o p e r tie s v/ere a s s e s s e d m ainly from t e s t s oh s t e e l C.

The m onotonic te n s io n s t r e s s - s t r a i n cu rv es a r e shown i n F ig . 15 and

v a lu e s f o r some o f th e im p o rta n t p r o p e r t ie s g iv e n i n t a b l e 2 .

V alues o f th e m onotonic tr u e f r a c tu r e s t r e s s and s t r a i n have a ls o

been d eterm ined because each i s u t i l i s e d i n d e riv in g th e t o t a l

s t r a i n - l i f e p l o t s a s d is c u s s e d i n 2 . 2 *2 . The f in e p e a r l i t e shows

h ig h e r v a lu e s th a n th e o th e r s t r u c t u r e s f o r th o s e p a ra m e te rs v/hich

d e fin e m onotonic s tre n g th * The s p h e r o id is e d c a rb id e h a s a much

h ig h e r f r a c tu r e d u c t i l i t y th a n th e o th e r s t r u c t u r e s .

The r e s u l t s o f in c re m e n ta l s te p t e s t s a r e shown i n two fo rm s.

F i r s t l y th e c y c lic p r o p e r ti e s a r e l i s t e d in ta b le 3* S eco n d ly ,

th e c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n cu rv es a re produced f o r com parison v/ith

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th e m onotonic s t r e s s - s t r a i n cu rv es i n f ig u r e s 16 - 18 . The

v a lu e s i n ta b le 3 i n d ic a te t h a t b o th th e c y c li c y i e l d s t r e s s and

s tr e n g th c o e f f i c i e n t a re h ig h e s t f o r th e f in e p e a r l i t e s tr u c tu r e * .,

I t s c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g exponent i s low er th a n t h a t f o r th e

o th e r s tr u c tu r e s * A ll th re e v a lu e s l i e in th e narrow range

0.228 - 0 .2 4 8 . T y p ic a l v a lu e s o f t h i s exponent f o r a la r g e

number o f d i f f e r e n t m a te r ia ls have been shown to l i e in th e ran g e

12
0 .1 0 - 0.23* High v a lu e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith th o se s t r u c t u r e s
11
which a llo w e x te n s iv e c ro s s s l i p and d is lo c a tio n m o tio n . A ll

th r e e s tr u c t u r e s show h ig h v a lu e s f o r th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g

exponent and th e s e a r e a t t r i b u t e d to th e p re se n c e o f f e r r i t e a s

th e dom inant p h a se . C a lc u la tio n s b ased on th e ir o n - c e m e n tite

e q u ilib riu m diagram g iv e a volume p ro p o rtio n o f B>% f o r f e r r i t e i n

p e a rlite . I t i s w e ll known t h a t th e s ta c k in g f a u l t energy f o r

t h i s phase i s h ig h and c r o s s - s l i p i s hence e a s y .

The second phase i s shown to in flu e n c e th e exponent v a lu e

s in c e t h a t f o r th e f in e p e a r l i t e i s lo w er th a n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s , th e v a lu e s o f th e l a t t e r two
11
b e in g very s i m i l a r . From th e above o b s e r v a tio n s , t h i s would

su g g e st t h a t c ro s s s l i p and d is lo c a tio n m otion a r e l e s s e x te n s iv e

in th e f in e p e a r l i t e th a n th e o th e r two s t r u c t u r e s . I t w i l l be

shown l a t e r i n th e m e ta llo g ra p h ic r e s u l t s t h a t f in e p e a r l i t e shows

th e l e a s t c o n c e n tra te d s l i p damage o f th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s .

A com parison o f th e m onotonic and c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u rv e s

C fig s . 16 - 18 ) shows t h a t th e f in e p e a r l i t e behaves i n a d i f f e r e n t

manner to t h a t o f th e c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e r o id is e d c a r b id e .

The m onotonic i s above th e c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve f o r f in e

p e a r l i t e ov er th e range o f s t r a i n v a lu e s u sed i n th e t e s t s . T h is

76
in d ic a te s c y c lic s o f te n in g . Such b e h av io u r h a s been o b serv ed in
7 68
many s t e e l s . * I n b o th th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d

c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s , c y c lic s o fte n in g i s o b serv ed f o r th e lo w er

v a lu e s o f s t r a i n b u t a c ro s s -o v e r o c c u rs where th e c y c lic curve i s

above th e m onotonic c u rv e . T h is in d i c a te s c y c li c h a rd e n in g .

T h is t r a n s i t i o n from s o fte n in g to h a rd en in g o c c u rs a t a s t r a i n

v a lu e o f 0.003 f o r th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e and O.OO^f f o r th e s p h e r­

o id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e . . I t means t h a t oh c y c li c t e s t i n g a t a

s t r a i n am p litu d e below th e c ro s s -o v e r v a lu e f o r th e r e s p e c tiv e

s t r u c t u r e , th e s t r e s s r e q u ir e d to m a in ta in th e a m p litu d e w i l l

i n i t i a l l y d e c re a s e . A t a m p litu d e s above th e v a lu e , th e s t r e s s

re q u ire d w i l l i n i t i a l l y in c r e a s e . T h is b e h av io u r i s o b serv ed

in s e v e r a l s t e e l s . F or exam ple, th e s t e e l r e p r e s e n te d by F ig .3

shows s im ila r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The re a so n s f o r t h i s c ro s s -o v e r

a re d is c u s s e d l a t e r .

The p r e d ic te d s t r a i n - l i f e cu rv es f o r th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s

a re shown i n F ig s . 1 9 - 21 . As m entioned e a r l i e r , th e s e have been

produced from r e s u l t s o f th e m onotonic and in c re m e n ta l s te p t e s t s

u s in g th e methods d e s c rib e d i n 2 . 2 . 2 . The m ajor re a so n f o r t h e i r

p ro d u c tio n was to p r e d ic t th e s t r a i n am p litu d e c o rre sp o n d in g to

5 6
f a i l u r e a t betw een 10 and 10 re v e rs a ls . The m a jo r ity o f t e s t s

f o r subsequent m e ta llo g ra p h ic ex am in atio n have been co n d u cted a t

such s t r a i n a m p litu d e s . The number o f specim ens a v a i l a b l e was

lim it e d and checking o f th e p r e d ic te d cu rv es was n o t p o s s ib le o v er

th e range o f s t r a i n v a lu e s . Checks were r e s t r i c t e d to t h a t

p o r tio n o f th e curve f o r each s t r u c t u r e c o rre sp o n d in g to f a i l u r e

c
a t around 10 r e v e r s a l s . Such checks shov/ed v e ry good agrem ent

w ith v a lu e s on th e p r e d ic tio n c u rv e .

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 I n th e h ig h c y c le re g io n o f th e p r e d ic tio n curve
5 6
c o rre sp o n d in g to f a i l u r e a t aro u n d 10 - 10 r e v e r s a l s , th e f in e

p e a r l i t e h a s a g r e a t e r f a tig u e r e s is ta n c e th an th e o th e r tv/o

s tru c tu re s . T h is i s shown by th e f a c t t h a t f o r a g iv e n l i f e o f

say 3 x 10 r e v e r s a l s , a s t r a i n a m p litu d e o f 0,0026 can be

to l e r a t e d by th e f in e p e a r l i t e w hereas b o th th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s can t o l e r a t e an a m p litu d e o f

0.002*f. A t a s t r a i n am p litu d e o f 0 .0 0 2 ^ , th e l i f e f o r th e f in e

p e a r l i t e i s ap p ro x im a te ly double t h a t f o r each o f th e o th e r

s tru c tu re s .

I n th e low c y c le re g io n o f th e p r e d ic tio n c u rv e s c o rre sp o n d in g

to s t r a i n a m p litu d e s o f above 0 . 01 , th e s p h e r o id is e d c a rb id e

s t r u c t u r e p o s s e s s e s th e g r e a t e s t f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e . At a s tr a in

am p litu d e o f 0 . 1 , th e cu rv es show t h a t th e l i f e f o r t h i s s t r u c t u r e

i s up to te n tim e s t h a t o f e i t h e r th e c o a rse o r f i n e p e a r l i t e .

In t h i s r e g io n , th e f in e p e a r l i t e h as th e lo w e st f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e .

In th e h ig h c y c le re g io n , th e p o s itio n i s e x a c tly r e v e r s e d and th e

re a s o n s fo r t h i s p r e d ic te d b e h av io u r a r e d is c u s s e d l a t e r .

In o rd e r to produce f a tig u e d specim ens o f s t e e l s B and C f o r

m e ta llo g ra p h ic ex am in atio n , a s e r i e s o f t e s t s were p erform ed

u s in g th e c lo s e d lo o p s e rv o -h y d ra u lic t e s t i n g sy ste m . Specim ens

were removed f o r exam in atio n a t v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e l i f e . In

th e m ain, th e s t r a i n a m p litu d e s s e le c te d v/ere th o s e which gave

5 6 rt
f a i l u r e between 10 - 10 re v e rs a ls . F o r s t e e l 0 , th e v a lu e s u sed

a re shown i n F ig s . 19 - 2 1 . F o r s t e e l B a ran g e o f s t r a i n am p li­

tu d e s were used to cover th e low c y c le and h ig h c y c le r e g io n s .

D uring th e s e t e s t s , s t r a i n and lo a d were c o n tin u o u s ly re c o rd e d .

In such t e s t s on s t e e l C, s o fte n in g i n i t i a l l y o c c u rs a s

78
p r e d ic te d from th e com parison o f m onotonic and c y c lic s t r e s s

s t r a i n c u rv e s . S o fte n in g i s com pleted w ith in th e f i r s t 100

r e v e r s a l s and th e lo a d re q u ire d to m a in ta in th e p r e s e t am p litu d e

s ta b iliz e s . T his s t a b i l i t y co rresp o n d s to th e s a tu r a ti o n

re g io n shown in F i g . 8 . In t e s t s on s t e e l B, a s i m ila r s o fte n in g

e f f e c t i s observed on i n i t i a l t e s t i n g a t e i t h e r h ig h o r low s t r a i n

a m p litu d e s .

In th e few t e s t s conducted on s t e e l B, a b e h a v io u r p a t t e r n

was ob serv ed t h a t in v o lv e d a change in lo a d r e q u ir e d to m a in ta in a

p r e - s e t s t r a i n a m p litu d e . In some o f th e t e s t s on t h i s s t e e l ,

sam ples were removed from th e machine f o r o b s e rv a tio n a t say 10 ,

20 o r 30% o f th e l i f e and th e n re p la c e d f o r su b seq u en t t e s t i n g a t

th e same a m p litu d e s . The d e la y betw een rem oval and re p la ce m e n t

fo r t e s t i n g ranged from 30 m in u tes to 2b h o u rs . I t v/as found

t h a t v /h ils t s o fte n in g o c c u rre d on t e s t i n g o f v ir g i n specim ens a s

p re v io u s ly m entioned, a f u r th e r s o fte n in g e f f e c t fo llo w e d by

s t a b i l i t y was ob serv ed each tim e th e specim ens v/ere r e c y c le d .

F u rth e r in v e s t ig a ti o n o f t h i s b e h av io u r p a t te r n i s n e c e s s a ry .

I n th e c o n tin u o u s measurement o f lo a d and s t r a i n i t v/as

p o s s ib le to examine th e e f f e c t s o f c rack grow th, in th e f i n a l

s ta g e s o f t e s t s to f a i l u r e , on th e lo a d re q u ire d to m a in ta in a

g iv en s t r a i n a m p litu d e . S in ce th e c y c lin g freq u en cy v/as c o n s ta n t

in a l l t e s t s , an in c re a s e in th e r a t e a t v/hich th e lo a d am p litu d e

d e crea se d f o r a giv en s t r a i n am p litu d e in d ic a te d an a c c e l e r a ti o n

o f c ra ck grow th r a t e . These o b s e rv a tio n s p r e d ic te d t h a t in th e

s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e , th e c rack grow th p e rio d ex ten d ed

o v er a la r g e number o f s t r e s s r e v e r s a ls th an b o th th e c o a rse and

f in e p e a r l i t e .

79
4 .2 . METALLOGRAPHY

A la r g e p ro p o r tio n o f th e m e ta llo g ra p h ic v/ork in v o lv e d th e

o b s e rv a tio n o f s u rfa c e damage th ro u g h o u t th e com plete t e s t to

fa ilu re . These t e s t s v/ere conducted u sin g e i t h e r a re v e rs e p la n e

bending machine o r th e c lo s e d -lo o p s e rv o -h y d ra u lic m achine. The

t e s t s in c lu d e d n o t o n ly th e p e rio d le a d in g up to c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n

b u t a ls o t h a t in v o lv in g c ra c k p ro p a g a tio n . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s

v/ork a r e p re s e n te d i n th re e s e c tio n s c o v erin g i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s ,

c ra c k grow th and g e n e ra l s u rfa c e damage o b s e r v a tio n s . A f o u r th

s e c tio n co v ers r e s u l t s o f th e tra n s m is s io n e le c t r o n m icroscopy ;

where th e a s s o c ia te d d is lo c a tio n s t r u c t u r e s were exam ined.

U n less o th e rv /ise s t a t e d , a l l th e r e s u l t s r e f e r to f a tig u e t e s t s

5 6
conducted under c o n d itio n s g iv in g f a i l u r e a t aro u n d 10 - 10

r e v e r s a ls o f s t r e s s .

4 .2 .1 . O b se rv a tio n o f s u rfa c e damage

a. Form o f damage

A com parison o f damage i n th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s a t 25

and 75P£ o f t h e i r l i f e i s shown i n th e e le c tr o n m icro g rap h s

o f F ig s . 22 - 27• I n a l l s t r u c t u r e s , damage a p p e a rs a s

wavy s l i p bands and c o n tin u e d c y c lin g in c r e a s e s th e number

o f s lip p e d a r e a s and i n t e n s i f i e s some o f th e e x i s t i n g

s l i p p e d fa r e a s . T h is i s shown c l e a r l y i n th e o p t i c a l m icro ­

g ra p h s F ig s . 28 - 50 v/hich r e l a t e to a c o a rse p e a r l i t e and

show b u ild -u p o f damage in one a re a a t 2$o and 3$ o f th e l i f e .

I n b o th c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s

s u rfa c e damage can be o b serv ed a t 1°/o o f th e l i f e . A ll th e

e a r ly damage o b serv ed a p p e a rs in th e f e r r i t e m a trix and

f u r t h e r exam ples a r e shown i n F ig s . 31 and 32* The damage

80.
a s view ed in o p t i c a l m icro g rap h s i s s im ila r i n app earan ce
75
to t h a t found i n p re v io u s work ’ on f a tig u e d specim ens

o f f e r r i t e - p e a r l i t e s tr u c tu r e s * In t h i s p re v io u s work

how ever, th e damage ap p eared i n th e f r e e f e r r i t e g r a in s and

r a r e l y in th e f e r r i t e w ith in p e a r l i t e *

I n th e la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s , s l i p damage a p p e a rs a t

p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s (F ig .2 3 a ) and w ith in th e p e a r l i t e

(F ig s* 22a and b ) . The o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e s l i p bands n e a r ly

alw ays fo llo w s t h a t o f th e c e m e n tite la m e lla e ( F ig s . 22-25*33)

b u t th e r e a r e e x c e p tio n s to t h i s a s shown i n F i g s . 31 and 32*

Many o f th e s l i p bands show r i p p l e s alo n g t h e i r le n g th a s

in d ic a te d by th e arrow s i n F i g s . 23 and 2 ^ . S im ila r e f f e c t s

have been ob serv ed by o th e r w orkers and i n t e r p r e t e d a s s l i p

1*f2 (
band e x tr u s io n s . W h ilst some a r e a s may show heavy \
\
damage ( F ig s . 22a and b) o th e r a re a s im m ed iately a d ja c e n t

show no a p p a re n t damage and t h i s can e x i s t r i g h t up to th e

f i n a l s ta g e s o f f a i l u r e . T h is c o n c e n tra tio n o f damage i s

found i n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e w hereas i n th e f in e p e a r l i t e ,

damage i s l e s s se v e re a t an e q u iv a le n t s ta g e o f th e l i f e and

i s more w idely d is p e r s e d th ro u g h o u t th e s t r u c t u r e . A com­

p a ris o n o f th e two s t r u c t u r e s i s o b ta in e d from F ig s . 23b and

25a which r e p r e s e n t ty p i c a l a r e a s a f t e r c y c lin g to 7% o f

th e f a tig u e l i f e .

I n th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e , s l i p band.%

damage a p p e a rs i n th e f e r r i t e g r a in s and a t t h e i r b o u n d a rie s .

F ig . 2? shows a c o n c e n tra tio n o f damage w ith in th e g r a in s o f

f e r r i t e which a p p e a rs i s o l a t e d from th e b o u n d a rie s . A f te r

c y c lin g to 75^ o f th e f a tig u e l i f e , s u rfa c e damage i s more

81
u n ifo rm ly d i s t r i b u t e d around g r a in b o u n d a rie s and w ith in

th e g r a in s (F ig s* 26a and b)*

I n b o th p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e s , s l i p band damage a p p e a rs

f i r s t in th o se p e a r l i t e c e l l s where th e c e m e n tite la m e lla e

a r e o r ie n te d betw een 30 and 9P° to th e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s

a x is . T h is i s shown i n F ig s* 28 - 30 and 33* H ere th e

in c lu s io n s a r e e lo n g a te d i n th e specim en le n g th d i r e c t i o n and

hence d e fin e th e p r in c i p a l s t r e s s a x i s . C e lls h av in g

la m e lla e o f o r i e n t a t i o n o u ts id e th e above s t a t e d ran g e show

l i t t l e s u rfa c e damage th ro u g h o u t th e whole l i f e . The e f f e c t

o f o r i e n t a t i o n on s i t e s o f damage h as been d em o n strated i n

s e v e r a l ex p erim en ts and F i g s . 3^ and 33 show th e r e s u l t s o f

one conducted on a c o a rse p e a r l i t e . Here th e s u rfa c e

damage a f t e r f a tig u in g to o f ^He l i f e i s shown i n F i g . 3 ^ .

A f te r e le c tr o p o lis h in g to remove 2yU.metres, th e s u rfa c e was

c le a r e d o f v i s i b l e damage ( F ig . 35 a) and a g a in f a tig u e d f o r

th e same number o f c y c le s a s b e f o r e . F ig . 35b shows

s im ila r damage s i t e s and t h i s i s a t t r i b u t e d to th e in f lu e n c e

o f c e m e n tite la m e lla e o r i e n t a t i o n on lo c a t i o n o f damage.

S in ce th e p e a r l i t e c e l l s iz e i n t h i s s t r u c t u r e l i e s i n th e

range 20 - 50yM.mstres, th e rem oval o f 2yu.metres h a s l i t t l e

e f f e c t on th e e x is t in g p e a r l i t e c e l l s p r i o r to p o lis h in g .

The c e m e n tite la m e lla e o r i e n t a t i o n a t a p a r t i c u l a r s i t e w i l l

n o t th e r e f o r e be g r e a tly a l t e r e d . On rem oval o f a b o u t

23 yW.metres by p o lis h in g , a la r g e p ro p o rtio n o f th e e x is t i n g

c e l l s a re removed and th e new s u rfa c e shows many new c e l l s .

At a g iv e n s i t e , th e la m e lla e o r i e n t a t i o n may n o t be th e same

a s t h a t which e x is te d b e f o r e . A f te r such rem oval and su b -

82
 seq u e n t f a tig u in g f o r th e same number o f c y c le s a s b e fo re ,

th e r e i s a change in th e s i t e s o f s l i p damage.

b. In flu e n c e o f n o n -m e ta llic in c lu s io n s on damage

The a r e a s o f damage shown in F ig s . 28 - 30 and 33 show

an e x te n s iv e number o f i n c lu s io n s . Ih e s e r e f e r to th e

f i r s t s t e e l u sed i n th e work ( s t e e l A ). Subsequent s t e e l s

B and C were p ro c e ss e d so a s to be low i n in c lu s io n s . In

s p i t e o f i t s h ig h in c lu s io n c o n te n t, s t e e l A h a s been u sed

f o r much o f th e e a r l i e r w ork. The in c lu s io n s a r e m ainly

1^3
alum ina and manganese s u lp h id e . P re v io u s work h a s shov/n

t h a t alum ina in c lu s io n s a r e d e trim e n ta l to th e f a tig u e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h ig h s tr e n g th s t e e l . I n t h i s 'in v e s tig a ­

t i o n th e in c lu s io n s have l i t t l e d e trim e n ta l e f f e c t on th e

f a tig u e b e h a v io u r. S li p damage a p p e a rs w ith in th e f e r r i t e

and th e r e a re o n ly a few a r e a s where damage c o n c e n tra te s

around in c lu s io n s . I n th e s ta g e s o f c ra c k grow th, in c lu s io n s

a p p ea r to have no m ajor in f l u e n c e .

c. T aper S e c tio n s

A com parison o f specim ens in th e f a tig u e d and u n fa tig u e d

c o n d itio n u s in g ta p e r s e c tio n s shows s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e

a f t e r c y c lin g and t h i s can be d e te c te d e a r ly i n th e f a tig u e

life . T y p ic a l s e c tio n s a r e shown f o r th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s

i n F ig s . 38 - 39• In g e n e r a l, th e s u rfa c e damage i s

a s s o c ia te d v/ith a v e ry sh allo w n o tc h peak to p o g ra p h y .

Where f e a tu r e s a re o b serv ed th e y e x i s t m ain ly a s e x tr u s io n s ,

and c r e v ic e s . The maximum h e ig h t o f e x tr u s io n s o b se rv e d i s

a p p ro x im a te ly 0.5yU ,m etres.

The f in e p e a r l i t e shows th e l e a s t s u r f a c e d is tu rb a n c e

83
o f th e th re e s t r u c t u r e s . A t m a g n ific a tio n s o f 1000 th e r e

i s no a p p a re n t d is tu rb a n c e from th e u n fa tig u e d c o n d itio n .

The c o a rse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s show

changes and exam ples o f f e a tu r e s i n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e a r e

shov/n i n F ig s . 36 and 37* Two f e a tu r e s o f i n t e r e s t a re th e

e x tru s io n s and c r e v ic e s . E x tru s io n s a p p e a r i n fa v o u ra b ly

o r ie n te d p e a r l i t e c e l l s ( F ig . 36a and 37a) and emerge from

th e f e r r i t e . The r o o t o f th e n o tc h e s formed betw een ex­

tr u s io n s c o in c id e s w ith th e emergence o f c e m e n tite la m e lla e

a t th e s u r f a c e . The av erag e h e ig h t o f e x tr u s io n s m easured

over a number o f s e c tio n s i s 0.2yU .m etres. C re v ic e s a p p ea r

i n th e s t r u c t u r e s shown i n F ig s . 36 and 37• I n F ig . 37b

one c re v ic e i s a s s o c ia te d w ith an in c lu s io n s t r i n g e r and i t s

depth i s ap p ro x im a te ly 2yU.metres. There i s some s l i p

damage around i t s r o o t . A d ja ce n t to t h i s a r e o th e r s m a lle r

c re v ic e s b u t n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith i n c l u s i o n s . These two

show damage a t t h e i r r o o t s . Examples o f o th e r c re v ic e s a r e

shown in F ig . 36 .

The s p h e r o id is e d c a rb id e shows d is tu rb a n c e o v e r th e

whole s u rfa c e i n th e s e c tio n . The form o f d is tu rb a n c e

d i f f e r s from t h a t i n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e i n two w ays.

F i r s t l y th e e x tru s io n s a r e b ro a d and rounded ( F ig . 38 b) a s

opposed to th e sh arp peaks i n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e . S eco n d ly

th ey a r e d i s t r i b u t e d o v er th e s u rfa c e wherea s th o s e i n th e

c o a rse p e a r l i t e a p p ea r o n ly from fa v o u ra b ly o r ie n te d c e l l s .

The e f f e c t o f h ig h s t r a i n am p litu d e t e s t i n g on s u r f a c e

d is tu rb a n c e i n a c o a rse p e a r l i t e i s shown in F i g . 39 . There

a r e more se v e re e x tru s io n s produced th an i n th e lo w er s t r a i n

 a m p litu d e t e s t s . F u r th e r more c ra c k s a p p e a r a t th e

p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a r ie s . T hese l a t t e r r e s u l t s a r e n o t

u n e x p e c te d s in c e c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n a t g r a i n b o u n d a r ie s

h a s been o b s e rv e d i n many m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s u n d e r

c o n d itio n s o f h ig h c y c l i c s t r a i n . ^

4 .2 .2 . D is lo c a t io n S t r u c t u r e s i n F a tig u e d Specim ens

T ra n s m is sio n e l e c t r o n m icro sco p y h a s b een u s e d f o r exam ina­

t i o n o f i n t e r i o r s t r u c t u r e s o f sp ecim en s a t v a r io u s s ta g e s

th ro u g h o u t th e f a t i g u e l i f e i n o r d e r to s u p p o r t th e o b s e r v a ti o n s

o f s u r f a c e dam age. The v/ork h a s been c o n fin e d to sp ecim en s

o f s t e e l C w hich v/ere f a ti g u e d i n th e c lo s e d - lo o p s e r v o -

h y d r a u li c t e s t i n g system u s in g u n i a x i a l c y c l in g . For

co m p ariso n p u rp o s e s , th e e x a m in a tio n v/as e x te n d e d to in c lu d e

s t r u c t u r e s i n th e a s - r e c e i v e d c o n d itio n and a f t e r t e n s i l e

fra c tu re . T y p ic a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e shown i n F i g s . 4 - 0 - 4 6 .

The s t r u c t u r e c o rre s p o n d in g to t e n s i l e f r a c t u r e shows

c o n s id e r a b le d i f f e r e n c e s from t h a t f o r c y c l i c t e s t i n g . F ig .

40 shows a c o a rs e p e a r l i t e a f t e r t e n s i l e f r a c t u r e . T h ere

a r e num erous s i t e s o f s h e a r f r a c t u r e i n th e c e m e n tite la m e lla e

and th e s e c l o s e l y c o rre s p o n d v /ith c r a c k s i n th e f e r r i t e . The

a r e a s o f h ig h d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s ity w hich a r e a p p a r e n t a f t e r

c y c l i c t e s t i n g a r e e i t h e r d i f f i c u l t to r e s o lv e o r n o t a p p a r e n t.

The f e a t u r e s o b s e rv e d i n f o i l s o f s p e c im e n ’ s a f t e r

c y c l i c t e s t i n g have been c l o s e l y exam ined to d i s t i n g u i s h

th o s e t h a t a r e a t t r i b u t e d to t r u e s t r u c t u r a l e f f e c t s and

th o s e w hich a r e n o t ( e . g . bend c o n t o u r s ) . A ll s tr u c tu r e s

show a b u ild - u p o f d i s l o c a t i o n s i n th e f e r r i t e . A fte r

85
 2J/o o f th e l i f e , sam p les show s e v e r a l a r e a s o f h ig h

d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s ity i n th e f e r r i t e and a f t e r t e s t i n g to

75^ o f th e l i f e , su ch a r e a s a p p e a r more in t e n s e and

e x te n d o v e r l a r g e r a r e a s . The f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e

i s an im p o r ta n t so u rc e o f d i s l o c a t i o n s w hich move i n t o

th e f e r r i t e . F i g s . k*\ and k2 show t h i s e f f e c t c l e a r l y

by co m p ariso n o f t y p i c a l a r e a s i n th e u n f a tig u e d an d

f a t i g u e d c o n d itio n f o r a c o a rs e p e a r l i t e . A fin e p e a r l i t e

shows a s i m i l a r e f f e c t .

I n th e s p h e r o id a l s t r u c t u r e , d i s l o c a t i o n b u ild - u p

in f e r r i t e a p p e a rs to em anate from a lm o s t a l l c a r b id e

s p h e r o id s . T h is d i f f e r s from th e la m e l l a r p e a r l i t e w here

d i s l o c a t i o n a c t i v i t y a p p e a rs to c o n c e n tr a te i n s m a ll a r e a s

on th e la m e lla e i n t e r f a c e . T r a ils o f d is lo c a tio n s a re

r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t i n th e f e r r i t e ( F ig . A6a) and a d i s l o c a t i o n

c e l l s t r u c t u r e form s ( F ig . A 6b).

F i g s . V ia an d kba. show f e a t u r e s t h a t e x i s t th r o u g h o u t

w hole c e l l s o f p e a r l i t e and c o n tin u e th ro u g h c e m e n tite

la m e lla e w ith o u t any a p p a r e n t e f f e c t . Such f e a t u r e s move

a c r o s s th e image when th e f o i l i s t i l t e d an d a r e a t t r i b u t e d

to b en d s i n th e f o i l . However, s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s a r e o b s e rv e d

i n F i g s . V5a, bbTa and A ^a. T hese do n o t move on t i l t i n g

th e f o i l an d a r e t r u e s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d v /ith

a r e a s o f h ig h d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t y .

F i g s . bZa an d A^b show d a rk f e a t u r e s em an atin g from

c e m e n tite la m e lla e i n t o f e r r i t e . A t f i r s t s i g h t th e y

a p p e a r c ra c k l i k e b u t t h e r e a r e 110 in d ic a tio n s o f p e rfo ra tio n

86
 i n th e s e a r e a s a t v e ry h ig h m a g n if ic a tio n . In s te a d

th e y a r e d i s l o c a t i o n c o n c e n tr a tio n a r e a s . F i g . Vfb

shows f e a t u r e s re s e m b lin g arro w sh ap ed m a rk in g s a c r o s s

c e m e n tite l a m e ll a e . T h ere i s no d is p la c e m e n t o f th e

la m e lla e an d f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s r e q u ir e d to e x p la in

th e s e f e a t u r e s .

^ .2 .3 - S tu d ie s o f C rack I n i t i a t i o n S i t e s

The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s a s p e c t o f th e work h av e b een

to d e t e c t how soon c r a c k s i n i t i a t e a t th e s u r f a c e d u rin g

f a t i g u e an d l o c a t e th e s i t e s o f su ch c r a c k s . The v/ork

h a s in v o lv e d th e u s e o f th e o p t i c a l and e l e c t r o n m icro sco p y

te c h n iq u e s d e s c r ib e d e a r l i e r i n th e e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e .

The d e t e c t i o n o f c ra c k s i t e s by o p t i c a l m icro sco p y i s

l i m i t e d by th e low r e s o l u t i o n . T h is h a s been overcom e

by e l e c t r o n m icro sco p y te c h n iq u e s u s in g s e l e c t e d a r e a

r e p l i c a t i o n m ethods so a s to i s o l a t e a r t e f a c t s o f

re p lic a tio n . The sc a n n in g e l e c t r o n m ic ro sc o p e h a s been

u se d to co n firm some o f th e e v id e n c e o b ta in e d .

I n b o th th e c o a rs e p e a r l i t e an d s p h e r o id is e d c a r b id e

s t r u c t u r e s c r a c k s a r e o g se rv e d i n sp ecim en s f a t i g u e d to

a b o u t 2 % o f th e l i f e . T hese can be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d

by o p t i c a l and e l e c t r o n m icro sco p e e x a m in a tio n te c h n iq u e .

T h e ir p re s e n c e i s co n firm ed by l i m i t e d u se o f th e s c a n n in g .

e l e c t r o n m ic ro s c o p e . Exam ples f o r b o th l a m e l l a r an d

s p h e r o id a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e shown i n F i g s . 26 , 2 7, 31? 3 2 , ^7?

k-8 and ^ 9 . F i g s . 31 and 32 a r e e l e c t r o n m ic ro g ra p h s o f

s u r f a c e r e p l i c a s from c o a rs e p e a r l i t e . C a r e f u l e x a m in a tio n

shows c ra c k s w ith in th e f e r r i t e (A) an d a l s o a t

87
f e r r i te - c e m e n tite i n t e r f a c e s (B )• The shadowing e f f e c t

produced d u rin g r e p l i c a p r e p a r a tio n e n a b le s such c ra c k s to be

d is tin g u is h e d . The shadow d ir e c ti o n i s shown by th e c e m e n tite

la m e lla e which p ro tru d e above th e f e r r i t e . S im ila r f e a tu r e s

a r e shown in a scan n in g e le c tr o n m icrograph ( F i g .^ 7 )• Here

s e v e r a l c ra c k s a re shown a l l o f which may have i n i t i a t e d e i t h e r

in a s l i p band o r a t th e f e r r i te - c e m e n t ite i n t e r f a c e . In

g e n e r a l, th e c o arse p e a r l i t e shows c rack i n i t i a t i o n a t th re e s i t e s

under th e s t r e s s c o n d itio n s u sed in t h i s w ork. These s i t e s a r e

s l i p bands, p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s and th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e

in te rfa c e . S i t e s n e a r th e c e l l b o u n d a rie s a p p e a r to be d eep er

i n th e e a r ly s ta g e s o f th e l i f e . T h is f a c t i s shown up in

F ig s . *t8 and ^9* These show c o arse p e a r l i t e f a tig u e d to 2^P/o o f

i t s l i f e and th e n e le c tr o p o lis h e d to remove 2yu_metres. The

h e a v ily s lip p e d re g io n s seen b e fo re p o lis h in g can n o t be d e te c te d

b u t m ic ro -c ra c k s e x i s t , some o f which a r e up to 2Cyxm etres lo n g .

These c ra c k s occupy p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s and c o n tin u e w ith in

th e c e l l s where t h e i r e x a c t lo c a t io n i s d i f f i c u l t to d e te rm in e .

In th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e , F ig s . 26 and 27 show damage

c o n c e n tra tio n a t f e r r i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s and w ith in th e g r a i n s .

C racks a r e d e te c te d b o th a t s l i p gands and a t th e c e l l b o u n d a rie s .

The shadowing e f f e c t i s v ery se v e re a t th e c e l l b o u n d a rie s and

t h i s in d ic a te s some c o n sid e ra b le d is tu rb a n c e in th e s e zones a s

a r e s u l t o f c y c lin g . The e f f e c t becomes more a c c e n tu a te d in

sam ples fa tig u e d to 75/^ o f th e l i f e .

In th e f in e p e a r l i t e , c ra c k s cannot be d e te c te d i n specim ens

fa tig u e d to 2^/o o f th e l i f e . I t h a s a lre a d y been r e p o r te d

e a r l i e r h e re t h a t s u rfa c e damage was m inim al a f t e r such t e s t i n g .

88
C racks can be d e te c te d a t 75$> o f th e l i f e and a p p e a r a t c e l l

b o u n d a rie s and w ith in s l i p bands ( F ig .5 0 ) • B ecause o f th e

fin e n e s s o f th e p e a r l i t e , i t h a s been d i f f i c u l t to i d e n t i f y

w hether c ra c k s i n i t i a t e a t f e r r i te - c e m e n tite i n t e r f a c e s .

N e v e rth e le s s , th e o v e r a ll r e s u l t s show q u ite c o n c lu s iv e ly t h a t

th e p ro p e n s ity f o r c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n i s f a r l e s s th a n i n e i t h e r

th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e 03? s p h e ro id a l st3 ?u ctu re.

S tu d ie s o f C rack Growth

Crack p ro p o g a tio n h a s been s tu d ie d u s in g m e ta llo g ra p h ic

exam ination o f th e i n i t i a l s u rfa c e c ra c k in g and th e f i n a l f r a c t u r e

su rfa c e . I n th e case o f f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e e x am in atio n , th e c y c li c

t e s t was sto p p ed i n m ost c a se s j u s t p r i o r to f a i l u r e , so a s to

m inim ise th e s t r u c t u r a l d is tu rb a n c e by ru b b in g o f th e tv/o

su rfa c e s. The sample was removed and broken open to r e v e a l th e

f r a c tu r e s u r f a c e s .

S u rfa c e c ra c k in g s t u d ie s have been co nducted f o r th e c o a rse

p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s . Both show c ra c k

p ro p q g a tio n which i s m ainly t r a n s g r a n u la r . I n a c o a rse p e a r l i t e

a specim en s u rfa c e may show s e v e r a l c ra c k s some o f which can

ex ten d o v er s e v e r a l p e a r l i t e c e l l s . T y p ic a l a r e a s a r e shown i n

F ig s . 51 - 33* Some c ra c k s may grow th ro u g h a r e a s which a r e

c o m p arativ ely fr e e o f s l i p damage w h ils t n e ig h b o u rin g p e a r l i t e

c e l l s which a r e h e a v ily damaged form no p a r t o f th e f r a c t u r e

p a th . T h is i s shown i n F ig . 52a which r e p r e s e n ts a sam ple

f a tig u e d f o r 5<$ o f i t s l i f e .

C racks may grow a lo n g f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e s , a c r o s s

c em e n tite la m e lla e and f e r r i t e and sometimes c e l l b o u n d a rie s

i n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e . T y p ic a l a r e a s from f r a c t u r e s u rfa c e

89
 exam ination show exam ples o f th e s e crack r o u te s ( F ig s . 5^ - 56) .

A n a ly sis o f th e s u rfa c e c ra ck p a th shows t h a t th e ro u te fo llo w ed

a t th e s u rfa c e i s dependent on o r i e n ta tio n o f th e c e m e n tite

la m e lla e to th e p r in c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n . Where th e la m e lla e

o r i e n t a t i o n i s betw een 0 - k5° to th e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s a x i s , th e

c ra ck p a th i s m ainly th ro u g h th e la m e lla e . F i g s . 5k and 55

shov; scan n in g e le c tr o n m icrographs o f t h i s p a th .

Crack grov/th a lo n g th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t ite i n t e r f a c e in c o a rse

p e a r l i t e i s an im p o rta n t ro u te and t h i s a g a in i s in flu e n c e d by

o r i e n ta tio n o f la m e lla e to th e p r in c ip a l s t r e s s a x i s . Where th e

o r i e n t a t i o n range i s betw een k5 and 90° , th e s u rfa c e c ra c k p a th i s

favoured alo n g t h i s i n t e r f a c e . F ig . 55 shows an example o f

c ra c k in g alo n g t h i s i n t e r f a c e . The alm o st f e a t u r e l e s s ap p earan ce

on th e i n t e r f a c i a l a r e a s i n d ic a te s a cleav ag e m echanism. However,

th e r e a r e i n t e r r u p t i o n s to crack grow th a lo n g th e i n t e r f a c e s in c e

in some a re a s i t p a s s e s thro u g h cem e n tite la m e lla e . C leavage

may n o t n e c e s s a r ily be th e o n ly c rack p ro p a g a tio n mechanism in

th is s tru c tu re . C lo se r ex am in atio n o f th e i n t e r f a c e i n F i g s . 55

and 56 shows m arkings which resem ble s t r i a t i o n s . S u rfa c e r e p l i ­

c a tio n o f th e f r a c tu r e a re a o f c o a rse p e a r l i t e f a i l s to shov; th e

ty p ic a l s t r i a t i o n m arkings however which have been o b serv ed in

many f a tig u e f r a c t u r e s by o th e r w o rk ers.

The two r o u te s m entioned ab o u t a cc o u n t f o r n e a r ly 95^ o f t*1®

t o t a l f a tig u e c ra ck p a th i n th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e . Where c e l l

b o u n d a rie s a r e fo llo w ed th e re i s no obvious re a so n f o r t h i s

ro u te . In t h i s s t r u c t u r e , th e o v e r a ll f r a c t u r e s u rfa c e shows

th e l a r g e s t a re a c o rre sp o n d in g to c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e i n th e

th r e e s t r u c t u r e s . T h is i n d i c a te s t h a t th e c r i t i c a l c ra c k a r e a

90
 f o r c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e i s s m a lle r in th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e

th an in th e o th e r two s t r u c t u r e s .

In th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e , th e s u rfa c e c ra c k

p a th i s s e n s i t i v e to s t r u c tu r e i n a s much t h a t i t d e v ia te s i t s

ro u te in o rd e r to a v o id a c a rb id e s p h e ro id . T h is may sometimes

in v o lv e an a b ru p t change o f d i r e c t i o n . F ig . 37 shows exam ples

o f t h i s change. I n o n ly one in s ta n c e h a s a c ra c k been o b serv ed

to p a ss through a c a rb id e p a r t i c l e and on t h i s o c c a s io n , i t was

a t t r i b u t e d to th e p a r t i c l e b ein g o f e x c e p tio n a lly la r g e s iz e

( s l i g h t l y more th an *fynm etres). The c rack p a th i s a lm o st alw ays

in th e f e r r i t e and a lo n g th e f e r r i t e - c a r b i d e i n t e r f a c e . F ig . 58

shows a scan n in g e le c tr o n m icrograph o f a f r a c t u r e s u rfa c e in

th is s tru c tu re . I t shows no f a tig u e s t r i a t i o n s . A s u rfa c e

r e p l i c a o f th e f r a c tu r e a re a i s shown in F ig . 59 and t h i s does

show m arkings which a re s im ila r to th e s t r i a t i o n s r e p o r te d .

These m arkings a l l l i e in th e same g e n e ra l d i r e c t i o n b u t do n o t

e x i s t o v er th e whole a re a o f th e f r a c t u r e . T h is may be a t t r i ­

b u te d to e i t h e r a second p ro p a g a tio n mechanism b e in g o p e r a tiv e

o r th a t th e r e p l i c a t i o n method f a i l e d to re p ro d u ce th e m arkings

e x is t in g e lse w h e re . In th o se m arkings o b serv ed , th e r e a r e

s l i g h t d is tu rb a n c e s alo n g t h e i r le n g th which a re p ro b a b ly a

re s u lt of s tru c tu ra l e ffe c ts .

The s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e shows th e s m a lle s t a r e a

co rresp o n d in g to c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e o f th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s .

T his shows t h a t th e c r i t i c a l c ra c k a re a f o r c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e

i s g r e a t e s t in t h i s s t r u c t u r e . T h is c o rre sp o n d s w ith th e

o b s e rv a tio n s o f s u rfa c e c ra c k grow th where s e v e r a l c ra c k s grew

to c o n sid e ra b le le n g th a c r o s s th e specimen w idth b e fo re f i n a l

fra c tu re •
 Crack p ro p a g a tio n s tu d ie s i n th e f in e p e a r l i t e have been

based o n ly on f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e e x am in atio n . As m entioned

e a r l i e r , s u rfa c e c ra c k o b s e rv a tio n was d i f f i c u l t s in c e c a ta s ­

tr o p h ic f a i l u r e o c c u rre d a lm o st im m ediately a s u rfa c e c ra ck was

v is ib le . T h is s t r u c t u r e h a s th e r e f o r e re c e iv e d a more con­

c e n tr a te d exam ination o f i t s f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e th a n e i t h e r th e

c o arse p e a r l i t e o r s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e in o rd e r to com pensate

f o r the la c k o f s u rfa c e c ra ck o b s e r v a tio n . F r a c tu r e s u r f a c e s

o f specim ens f a tig u e d betw een 10 5 and 10 7 c y c le s show a s in g le

i n i t i a t i o n s i t e ( F ig s . 60 and 6 1 ) . The s i t e i s d is tin g u is h e d

by i t s a p p a re n t la c k o f s u rfa c e f e a tu r e s compared w ith i t s

su rro u n d in g s . T h is f e a t u r e l e s s appearance i s a t t r i b u t e d to

th e i n c l i n a t i o n a n g le o f th e s i t e w ith r e s p e c t to th e o v e r a ll

fra c tu re . By t i l t i n g th e s ta g e c o n ta in in g th e specim en i n th e

chamber o f th e scan n in g e le c tr o n m icro sco p e, th e s i t e can be

shown to c o n ta in some f e a tu r e s which te n d to be s t r i a t i o n l i k e

k
m ark in g s. In specim ens f a tig u e d to f a i l u r e m u n d er 10

c y c le s th e f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e shows s e v e r a l c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s .

C racks r a d i a t e from th e i n i t i a t i o n s i t e and i n g e n e r a l

th ey p ro p ag ate i n a tr a n s g r a n u la r m anner. The c ra c k p a th i s

a c r o s s th e c e m e n tite la m e lla e and a ls o alo n g th e f e r r i t e -

c e m e n tite i n t e r f a c e . There a re a ls o a r e a s o f i n t e r - g r a n u l a r

c ra c k in g ( F ig s . 62 and 63 ) which a re much more e x te n s iv e th a n

observ ed in th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e . The a r e a s a lo n g th e f e r r i t e -

cem e n tite i n t e r f a c e a re n o t a s c l e a r a s seen i n th e c o a rse

p e a r l i t e ( F ig .53) b u t th e n t h i s i s due to th e s m a lle r g r a in

s iz e o f th e f in e p e a r l i t e . Where a c ra ck fo llo w s t h i s i n t e r ­

fa c e i t m eets a g r a in boundary q u ic k ly and on c ro s s in g i t , th e

92
c ra c k p a th i s l i k e l y to a l t e r . T ra n s g ra n u la r c ra c k in g i s

e x te n s iv e and c ra c k grow th a c r o s s c e m e n tite la m e lla e i s

commonly observ ed ( F ig . 65 ) • A s t r i a t i o n mechanism o f c ra ck

grow th i s d e te c te d from s in g le s ta g e r e p l i c a s o f th e f r a c tu r e

s u rfa c e ( F ig .6 6 )• These m arkings on th e r e p l i c a a r e

e x te n s iv e and occupy la r g e a r e a s o f r e p l i c a s produced from

s e v e r a l f a tig u e f r a c t u r e s .

T h is s t r u c t u r e shows a r e l a t i v e l y la r g e p r o p o r tio n o f th e

t o t a l f r a c tu r e a re a c o rre sp o n d in g to c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e .

I t s p ro p o rtio n i s n o t a s h ig h a s t h a t f o r th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e .

F ig . 6k shows a re g io n o f t r a n s i t i o n from f a tig u e f r a c tu r e to

c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e . The c r i t i c a l c ra c k le n g th f o r c a ta s ­

tro p h ic f a i l u r e in t h i s s t r u c t u r e f a l l s between t h a t f o r th e

two o th e r s t r u c t u r e s . T h is f a c t to g e th e r w ith th e speed a t

which f a i l u r e o c c u rre d so soon a f t e r a c ra c k was v i s i b l e

i n d ic a te s t h a t th e c ra c k grow th r a t e in th e f in e p e a r l i t e must

be v ery r a p id .

93
5. DISCUSSION

5 .1 . THE DEPENDENCE OF CYCLIC PROPERTIES ON STRUCTURE

Tv/o a s p e c ts o f - c y c lic h e h av io u r a r e c o n sid e re d i n t h i s

d is c u s s io n , nam ely, th e p r e d ic te d s t r a i n - l i f e b e h av io u r and th e

I
c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g exp o n en t, O, •

The p r e d ic te d s t r a i n - l i f e b eh av io u r shows d if f e r e n c e s in

f a tig u e perform ance betw een th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s u n d er s im ila r

c y c lic c o n d itio n s . Tor example, u n d er h ig h c y c le c o n d itio n s a s

d e fin e d e a r l i e r i n 2.3* th e f in e p e a r l i t e h a s th e h ig h e s t f a tig u e

re s is ta n c e . T h is p r e d ic tio n h a s been confirm ed from th e r e s u l t s

o f f a tig u e t e s t s . F u r th e r c o n firm a tio n i s g iv e n i n t a b le 3 which

shows t h a t th e c y c lic y i e l d s t r e s s i s h ig h e s t i n th e f in e p e a r l i t e .
1^5
O th er in v e s t i g a t o r s have shown t h a t th e v a lu e o f th e c y c lic

y i e l d s t r e s s i s a lm o st i d e n t i c a l v/ith th e f a tig u e l i m i t and hence

i s an in d ic a tio n o f th e s t r e s s below tahich f a tig u e w i l l n o t o c c u r.

Under low c y c le c o n d itio n s , th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e shows

th e h ig h e s t f a tig u e r e s is ta n c e and th e f in e p e a r l i t e h a s th e lo w e st

re s is ta n c e . T h is change o f b e h av io u r can be e x p la in e d in th e

fo llo w in g way and p a r t o f th e e x p la n a tio n i s b ased on m e ta llo g ra p h ic

o b s e rv a tio n s from th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

As p re v io u s ly m entioned i n th e l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w , th e f a ti g u e

f a i l u r e p ro c e ss i s d iv id e d in to th r e e s ta g e s , th e s e b e in g :-

a) th e i n i t i a t i o n o f a c ra ck

b) th e p ro p a g a tio n o f th e c ra ck in t o th e m a te r ia l and

c) th e a tta in m e n t o f a c r i t i c a l c ra c k s iz e a t which th e

m a te r ia l th e n co m p letely f r a c t u r e s in a r a p id m anner.

The p ro p o rtio n o f f a tig u e l i f e s p e n t in e i t h e r th e i n i t i a t i o n o r

p ro p a g a tio n s ta g e i s dependent on c y c lin g c o n d itio n s and w hether

th e specimen i s p l a i n o r n o tc h e d . V/ith p la in sp ecim en s, th e

9^
i n i t i a t i o n s ta g e pred o m in ates a t s t r a i n a m p litu d e s g iv in g f a i l u r e
5
a t around 10 c y c le s and ab o v e. Under low c y cle f a tig u e con­

d i t i o n s , th e p ro p a g a tio n s ta g e i s dom inant. S e v e ra l examples

e x i s t where th e predom inance o f each s ta g e h a s been s tu d ie d in

m aa.te r•ia ls under

j * u s c o nj-o.-
v a rio d itio n s 20,70,79,84,146
1 ’ • _ v a rio u s
In

F .C .C . m e ta ls , th e p ro p o rtio n o f l i f e s p e n t in s ta g e I I d e crea se d
5 70
from 70% a t 100 c y c le s to l e s s th an 10?o a t 10 c y c le s to f a i l u r e .
146
A s im ila r tre n d h a s been o b serv ed in a u s t e n i t i c s t e e l .

M e ta llo g ra p h ic o b s e rv a tio n s in th e p re s e n t i n v e s t ig a ti o n have

shown t h a t th e fin e p e a r l i t e h as th e g r e a t e s t r e s is t a n c e to c ra ck

i n i t i a t i o n o f th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s when t e s t e d u n d er h ig h cy cle

fa tig u e c o n d itio n s . O b se rv a tio n s o f c ra ck p ro p a g a tio n do n o t

g iv e th e same p a t t e r n . Both c o arse and f in e p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e s

g iv e f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e s showing v ery sm all a r e a s co rre sp o n d in g to

f a tig u e c ra c k grow th. T hat in th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e

i s much l a r g e r . Such o b s e rv a tio n s in d ic a te s m a lle r v a lu e s f o r

th e c r i t i c a l c ra ck s iz e co rresp o n d in g to r a p id f r a c tu r e in b o th

la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s compared w ith th e s p h e ro id a l c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e .

R e s u lts show t h a t th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e h a s th e s m a lle s t v a lu e f o r

th e c r i t i c a l crack s i z e .

S u rfa c e c ra c k o b s e rv a tio n s in th e fin e p e a r l i t e show t h a t

c o n d itio n s f o r ra p id f a i l u r e a r e re a ch e d a f t e r o n ly a sm all number

o f c y c le s once a c ra ck i s v i s i b l e . As m entioned e a r l i e r , t h i s

has made s u rfa c e c ra ck ex am in atio n d i f f i c u l t . In th e c o a rse

p e a r l i t e , however, once a s u rfa c e c ra c k i s v i s i b l e and grows

d u rin g c y c lin g , i t s p a th can be r e a d i l y tra c e d by i n t e r r u p t i n g

th e t e s t . The f r a c tu r e s u rfa c e o b s e rv a tio n s show a s m a lle r a r e a

c o rresp o n d in g to f a tig u e c ra ck growth in th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e th a n

95
in th e f in e p e a r l i t e . The e x te n t o f f a tig u e c ra c k grow th i s

th e r e f o r e g r e a te r in th e fin e th an i n th e c o arse p e a r l i t e .

S in ce th e c o n d itio n s f o r r a p id f a i l u r e a re re a ch e d in a sm all

number o f c y c le s f o r th e f in e p e a r l i t e , th e above o b s e rv a tio n s

in d ic a te t h a t th e f a tig u e c rack grow th must be h ig h e r i n th e f in e

th a n in th e c o arse p e a r l i t e . T h is i s an im p o rta n t f a c t in th e

e x p la n a tio n o f d if f e r e n c e s o f f a tig u e r e s is ta n c e betw een th e th re e

s tru c tu re s .

A number o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ^ ^ ’ in to crack grow th m easure­

ment have been conducted which a re r e le v a n t to t h i s w ork. I n one

/]25
s tu d y , a com parison was made o f c ra c k grow th r a t e s i n a

carbon s t e e l having e i t h e r a s p h e ro id is e d o r la m e lla r p e a r l i t e

s tru c tu re . The grow th r a t e was low er in th e s p h e r o id is e d th a n in

th e p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e . . The m agnitude o f th e d if f e r e n c e was

dependent on th e s t r e s s c o n d itio n s d u rin g t e s t i n g . The r e s u l t s

126
o f t h i s work have been used to c o n s o lid a te and supplem ent th e

fin d in g s o f th e p re s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The s p h e r o id is e d c a rb id e

s tr u c tu r e used in th e work showed th e most e x te n s iv e a r e a

c o rre sp o n d in g to f a tig u e c rack grow th o f th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s u s e d .

I f one th en assumes t h a t th e crack grow th r a t e in t h i s s t r u c t u r e

i s th e lo w e st o f th e th r e e , based on th e work o f o th e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s ,
126 129
’ th e fo llo w in g e x p la n a tio n can be o f f e r e d to a c c o u n t f o r

d if f e r e n c e o f s u p e r io r ity o f s t r u c t u r e s .
3
In low cy cle fa tig u e c o n d itio n s g iv in g f a i l u r e in say 10

c y c le s , th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n component p red o m in ates and th e p ro p ag a­

tio n s ta g e o c cu p ie s most o f th e l i f e . The c ra ck p ro p a g a tio n

r e s is ta n c e and th e e x te n t o f f a tig u e crack grow th b e fo re r a p id

f a i l u r e th e r e f o r e predom inate th e f a c t o r s in f lu e n c in g f a tig u e

96
re s is ta n c e . Both f a c t o r s a r e most s u p e r io r i n th e s p h e ro id is e d

c a rb id e and hence a cc o u n t f o r t h i s s tr u c t u r e h av in g th e b e s t

f a tig u e r e s is ta n c e i n low c y c le f a t i g u e .

I n h ig h c y c le f a tig u e , th e c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n r e s is ta n c e i s

th e predom inant f a c t o r in f lu e n c in g t o t a l f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e .

The f in e p e a r l i t e shows th e g r e a t e s t r e s is t a n c e to f a tig u e c ra c k

i n i t i a t i o n o f th e th re e s t r u c t u r e s . I n s p i t e o f i t s h ig h c ra c k

grow th r a t e and lim ite d e x te n t o f f a tig u e c ra c k grow th, i t i s t h i s

h ig h c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n r e s is ta n c e which a c c o u n ts f o r i t s s u p e r io r

f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e in h ig h c y cle f a tig u e c o n d itio n s .

I n p r a c t i c e , f a tig u e c ra c k s n o rm ally s t a r t a t th e s u r f a c e .

Two tre a tm e n ts which may be u sed to improve f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e

o f c e r t a i n s t e e l s a re c a r b u r is in g and n i t r i d i n g . Both produce

a h a rd s u rfa c e s k in and in th e case o f c a r b u r is in g , t h i s i s

a t t r i b u t e d to th e fo rm atio n o f a tem pered m a rte n s ite s t r u c t u r e .

The h a rd s k in p o s s e s s e s a h ig h c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e . In

a s im ila r way, th e r e s u l t s o f th e i n v e s t ig a ti o n su g g e s t t h a t a

s k in o f f in e p e a r l i t e produced by s u it a b l e h e a t tre a tm e n t w i l l

g iv e h ig h c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n r e s i s ta n c e which i s r e q u ir e d f o r

h ig h c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s . I f t h i s can be co u p led w ith a

co re o f s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e th e n a s t r u c t u r e h av in g a co m b in atio n

o f h ig h c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n r e s is ta n c e and p ro p a g a tio n r e s i s t a n c e

i s a c h ie v e d . The optimum com bination f o r h ig h c y c le f a tig u e

r e s is ta n c e i s t h a t where th e case d e p th o f f in e p e a r l i t e i s

c o n tr o lle d to a l e v e l such t h a t c ra c k p ro p a g a tio n b e g in s in th e

s tr u c tu r e o f s p h e ro id is e d c a r b id e . Such a s t r u c t u r e co m bination

could be produced in a e u te c to id carbon s t e e l by f i r s t s u b je c tin g

th e m a te r ia l to a s p h e ro id is in g a n n e a l and th e n in d u c tio n h e a tin g

97
to give the fine pearlite case.
i
The c y c lic s t r a i n h ard e n in g exp o n en t, ( f\ )» h a s been

i d e n t i f i e d a s p ro b ab ly th e most im p o rta n t p a ra m ete r in flu e n c in g

th e f a tig u e b e h a v io u r. I t s r e l a t i o n s h i p v/ith m ic ro s tru c tu re

11
h as been s tu d ie d and h ig h v a lu e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith th o se

s t r u c t u r e s which a llo w e x te n s iv e c r o s s - s l i p and d i s lo c a t io n m o tio n .

Low v a lu e s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith s t r u c t u r e s v/hich r e s t r i c t d i s ­

lo c a tio n m otion and have a lim it e d number o f s l i p sy ste m s. The

d iff e r e n c e betv/een h ig h and low v a lu e s f o r a number o f m a te r ia ls

examined by o th e r w orkers i s n o t g r e a t . T y p ic a l v a lu e s have been

12
shov/n to be v /ith in a narrow ra n g e , 0 .1 0 to 0 . 25 *

The v a lu e s o b ta in e d f o r th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s u sed in t h i s

in v e s t ig a ti o n l i e in th e range 0.228 to 0 .2 ^8 and hence a r e

d e sc rib e d a s h ig h v a lu e s . These su g g e st s t r u c t u r e s h av in g

e x te n s iv e c ro s s s l i p and d is lo c a tio n m o tio n . A ll th r e e s t r u c t u r e s

c o n s is t o f th e c e m e n tite phase d i s t r i b u t e d v /ith in th e more d u c til e

f e r r i t e m a trix . F e r r i t e i s th e dominant phase in a l l t h r e e .

C a lc u la tio n s based on d a ta from th e iro n - c e m e n tite th e rm a l

e q u ilib riu m diagram show t h a t a l l th r e e s t r u c t u r e s c o n ta in 87$ by

volume o f f e r r i t e and 13$ o f c e m e n tite . I t i s o n ly th e s i z e ,

shape and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c e m e n tite v/hich d i f f e r e n t i a t e s th e th r e e

s tru c tu re s . F e r r i t e has a v ery h ig h s ta c k in g f a u l t energy and

hence d is lo c a tio n s can r e a d ily c ro s s s l i p . F u rth erm o re, i t

c o n ta in s a la r g e number o f a v a il a b le s l i p system s a t room tem pera­

tu re . The h ig h v a lu e s o b ta in e d f o r th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g

exponent in th e th re e s t r u c t u r e s a r e a t t r i b u t e d to th e dominance

o f f e r r i t e and i t s a s s o c ia te d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s d e fin e d ab o v e.

A lthough a l l th re e v a lu e s f o r th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g

98
exponent f a l l in a v e ry narrow ra n g e , th e d if f e r e n c e i n v a lu e

betw een t h a t f o r th e f in e p e a r l i t e , which i s th e lo w e s t, and th e

o th e r two s t r u c t u r e s , v/hich have s im ila r v a lu e s , i s s u f f i c i e n t to

w a rra n t some e x p la n a tio n . On th e b a s is o f v/hat h a s been s t a t e d

e a r l i e r , th e lov/er v a lu e f o r f in e p e a r l i t e i n d i c a te s t h a t c ro s s

s l i p and d is lo c a tio n m otion a r e l e s s e x te n s iv e th a n i n th e o th e r

two s t r u c t u r e s . R e s u lts in ta b le 3 show th e f in e p e a r l i t e to

have th e h ig h e s t c y c lic y i e ld s t r e s s . S in ce t h i s p ro p e rty i s a

m easure o f th e s t r e s s r e q u ir e d to move d is lo c a tio n s th ro u g h th e

s t r u c t u r e , i t means t h a t th e re a r e more e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r s to

d is lo c a tio n m otion in t h i s f in e p e a r l i t e th a n in th e o th e r two

s tru c tu re s . S li p o c c u rs in th e f e r r i t e and th e volume o f t h i s

phase i s th e same in a l l th e s t r u c t u r e s . The g r e a t e r r e s t r i c t i o n

on d is lo c a tio n movement i n th e f in e p e a r l i t e i s a t t r i b u t e d to th e

c em e n tite la m e lla e . These a r e e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r s to d is lo c a tio n

movement a lth o u g h a s shown in F ig s . 41 and 42, t h e i r i n t e r f a c e w ith

f e r r i t e i s a p r in c ip a l so u rce o f m obile d i s l o c a t i o n s . I f th e

c em e n tite phase i s th e p r i n c i p a l b ja r r ie r , th e n th e s m a lle r th e

d is ta n c e betw een b a r r i e r s , th e more e f f e c t iv e i s t h e i r r e s t r i c t i o n

on d is lo c a tio n m otion in to f e r r i t e . The b a r r i e r s p a c in g i n b o th

la m e lla r p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e s i s m easured by th e mean i n t e r l a m e l l a r

sp a c in g ; i n th e s p h e ro id a l c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e , by th e mean f r e e

f e r r i t e p a th . On t h i s b a s is a lo n e , th e b a r r i e r sp a c in g i s

s m a lle s t i n th e f in e p e a r l i t e .

Tv/o a d d i t i o n a l b a r r i e r s a r e g r a in b o u n d a rie s and c e l l w a l l s .

The l a t t e r a re known to form in s e v e r a l m a te r ia ls on p l a s t i c

147 147 148
d e fo rm a tio n . O b se rv a tio n s in p e a r l i t e ’ have shown t h a t

a c e l l u l a r d is lo c a tio n s u b - s tr u c tu r e develops d u rin g p l a s t i c

99;
 d e fo rm a tio n . The c e l l w a lls a c t a s d is lo c a tio n b a r r i e r s and th e

c e l l s iz e in f lu e n c e s th e e x te n t o f b a r r i e r s . I n th e case o f
147
p e a rlite th e i n i t i a l c e l l s iz e i s determ ined by th e i n t e r l a m e l l a r

s p a c in g . The s m a lle r th e sp a c in g , th e s m a lle r i s th e c e l l s iz e

and hence th e g r e a te r th e b a r r i e r e f f e c t . I n th e e le c tr o n

m icroscopy work, th e r e i s ev id en ce o f a d is l o c a tio n c e l l s t r u c t u r e

fo rm atio n in th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e (F ig .4 6 b ) and w ith in some

a r e a s in th e la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s . F u r th e r e x am in atio n i s

n e c e s sa ry to p u rsu e t h i s s u b - s t r u c tu r e phenomenon.

C o n firm atio n o f th e e f f e c t o f c e m e n tite morphology on d i s ­

lo c a tio n m otion i s seen i n some o f th e m icro g rap h s v/hich show

s u rfa c e s l i p damage ( F ig s . 22 - 2 7 )• Both th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s tr u c t u r e s show c o n c e n tra te d damage in

some a r e a s . T h is in d ic a te s e x te n s iv e d is lo c a tio n movement i n

some i s o l a t e d z o n e s. At e q u iv a le n t s ta g e s o f th e f a tig u e l i f e ,

th e f in e p e a r l i t e shows much l e s s se v e re damage; i n s te a d i t i s

more v/idely d is p e rs e d th ro u g h o u t th e s t r u c t u r e . T h is means t h a t

th e movement and accu m u latio n o f d is lo c a tio n s from a g iv e n so u rc e

is re s tric te d . I n s te a d , p l a s t i c s t r a i n o c c u rs by th e movement

o f d is lo c a tio n s from new s o u rc e s i n o th e r a r e a s and th e p ro c e s s

i s r e p e a te d . As w i l l be d is c u s s e d l a t e r , t h i s h a s an im p o rta n t

e f f e c t on c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

5 .2 . CYCLIC HARDENING AND SOFTENING PHENOMENA

The th r e e s t r u c t u r e s shov/ d if f e r e n c e s o f b e h a v io u r i n t h e i r

resp o n se to c y c lic h ard e n in g o r s o f te n in g . The f in e p e a r l i t e

shov/s s o fte n in g ov er a v/ide range o f s t r a i n . The c o a rse p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s shov/ s o f te n in g a t sm all v a lu e s

o f s t r a i n b u t a changeover to c y c lic h a rd e n in g o c c u rs above a

100
s t r a i n v a lu e v/hich i s s im ila r f o r b o th s t r u c t u r e s . R e s u lts o f
7 68
t e s t s on s e v e r a l m a te r ia ls perform ed by o th e r in v e s t i g a t o r s ’

shov/ a range o f b e h av io u r p a t t e r n s . F o r exam ple, th e s t e e l

shov/n i n F ig .3 c y c l i c a l l y s o f te n s a t sm all s t r a i n s b u t h a rd e n s a t

h ig h s t r a i n le v e l s in a s im il a r manner to th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e and

s p h e ro id is e d c a r b id e . On th e o th e r hand, s o fte n in g i s found o v er

a range o f s t r a i n l e v e l s in a hard en ed and tem pered 0 car bon

s t e e l (SAE . I n a n o th e r carbon s t e e l (SAE ^ 1 ^ 2 ), a

h ardened and tem pered s t r u c t u r e shov/s s o fte n in g o r h a rd e n in g

a cc o rd in g to th e h a rd n e ss a f t e r h e a t tre a tm e n t and p r i o r to c y c lic

68
te s tin g . A h ig h h a rd n e ss v a lu e in th e ran g e o f 300 - 670

B r in e ll le a d s to c y c lic h ard e n in g v /h ils t a v a lu e below 300 le a d s

to c y c lic s o f te n in g .
12
A ccording to th e l i t e r a t u r e , m a te r ia ls v/hich shov/ c y c lic

h a rd e n in g a r e d e s ir a b le f o r good f a tig u e p e rfo rm an c e. W hether

o r n o t t h i s perform ance i s u n d er h ig h o r low c y c le c o n d itio n s i s

n o t s t a t e d .. I n th e case o f th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s u sed i n t h i s

work, f in e p e a r l i t e shows th e b e s t perform ance u n d er h ig h c y c le

c o n d itio n s y e t shov/s s o f te n in g . C y c lic s o fte n in g i n d i c a t e s a

d e crea se in th e s t r u c t u r a l r e s i s t a n c e to d is lo c a ti o n m o tio n .

P l a s t i c defo rm atio n i s th e r e f o r e p o s s ib le a t lov/ered v a lu e s o f

s t r e s s and th e a ccu m u latio n o f f a tig u e damage a c c e n tu a te d . If

cra ck i n i t i a t i o n i s th en a c c e n tu a te d a s a r e s u l t o f damage accumu­

l a t i o n one e x p e c ts s o fte n in g to be an u n d e s ira b le c o n tr ib u to r y

f a c to r to good f a tig u e p erfo rm an ce. However, i f damage accumu­

l a t i o n can be r e a d ily d is p e rs e d th ro u g h o u t a s t r u c t u r e th e n th e

d e le te r io u s e f f e c t s o f s o fte n in g a r e overcom e. The m icro g rap h s

in t h i s v/ork ( F ig s . 23b and 23a) show th e damage in f in e p e a r l i t e

to be v e ry u n ifo rm ly d i s t r i b u t e d in th e s t r u c t u r e . Damage

b u ild -u p to le v e l s s u f f i c i e n t f o r c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n under

c o n d itio n s o f h ig h c y c le f a tig u e th e r e f o r e r e q u ir e s a much l a r g e r

number o f c y c le s th a n in o th e r s t r u c t u r e s . Assuming th e n t h a t

s o fte n in g i s an u n d e s ir a b le f a c t o r , th e a b i l i t y f o r s l i p damage

d is p e r s a l i n th e f in e p e a r l i t e outw eighs th e d isa d v a n ta g e o f

s o f te n in g . The n e x t s te p in th e argum ent i s how can one develop

th e s t r u c t u r e to m a in ta in t h i s a b i l i t y f o r damage d is p e r s a l y e t

re p la c e th e s o fte n in g by a h ard e n in g resp o n se? T h is w i l l im prove

f u r th e r th e h ig h c y c le f a tig u e p erfo rm an ce. T h is i s an im p o rta n t

a re a f o r f u r t h e r re s e a rc h a lth o u g h much work h a s a lr e a d y been

65
done in to th e mechanisms o f s o fte n in g m s e v e r a l s t r u c t u r e s .

Some o f th e re a so n s proposed f o r th e s o fte n in g e f f e c t i n th e f in e

p e a r l i t e a r e proposed l a t e r i n t h i s s e c ti o n .

A p r e d ic tio n o f c y c lic h a rd en in g o r s o f te n in g i s p o s s ib le from

a knowledge o f th e m onotonic s t r a i n h ard e n in g e x p o n en t. A h ig h

v a lu e o f above 0.1 f o r t h i s exponent in d ic a t e s a m a te r ia l t h a t w i l l

p ro b a b ly c y c l i c a l l y h ard en w h ils t i f below 0 .1 , c y c lic s o f te n in g

is lik e ly . A s im ila r b a s is f o r p r e d ic tio n i s t h a t o f th e r a t i o

g iv e n by t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . Where t h i s r a t i o i s above 1.4-

y i e l d s tr e n g th
g
m a te r ia ls a re e x p ec te d to h a rd e n . I f below 1 .2 , c y c li c s o f te n in g

i s p r e d ic te d . I n th e case o f s t e e l SAE 4-14-2 m entioned e a r l i e r ,

th e in flu e n c e o f h a rd n e ss on th e c y c lic h a rd e n in g /s o f te n in g

re sp o n se i s a t t r i b u t e d to changes in th e above r a t i o , produced by

68
th e e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t tem pering tre a tm e n ts u se d i n th e w ork.

C a lc u la tio n o f th e r a t i o from t e s t s on th e f i n e , c o a rse p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e g iv e s v a lu e s o f j u s t u n d er 1.4-, o v e r 2.1

and 1 .9 r e s p e c tiv e ly . From th e s e v a lu e s , th e o b serv ed b e h a v io u r

102
does n o t co m p letely co rresp o n d v/ith th e p r e d ic te d b e h a v io u r, b ased

on th e above r a tio * F or in s ta n c e , th e v a lu e s f o r c o arse p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e p r e d ic t h a rd e n in g v/hereas some s o fte n in g

i s observ ed a t low s t r a i n s . I n th e case o f f in e p e a r l i t e , c y c lic

s o fte n in g i s observ ed b u t n o t p r e d ic te d from th e v a lu e . I t is

c le a r t h a t th e above methods o f p r e d ic tin g h a rd e n in g o r s o fte n in g

re sp o n se s a r e n o t v a lid f o r the th re e s t r u c t u r e s u sed i n t h i s

in v e s tig a tio n .

A number o f mechanisms have been proposed in p re v io u s work

to a cc o u n t f o r c y c lic h a rd e n in g and s o fte n in g b e h a v i o u r . ^ ’ 68,1^9

I n th e in v e s t ig a ti o n s where h a rd e n in g and s o fte n in g were o b serv ed i n

7 68
h e a t tr e a t e d s t e e l s , ’ no mechanisms v/ere p ro p o se d . I t i s however

w e ll e s ta b lis h e d t h a t c y c lic h ard e n in g in d ic a te s an in c re a s e o f r e s i s t ­

ance to th e to - a n d - f r o m otion o f d is lo c a tio n s in th e s t r u c t u r e and

t h i s r e s is ta n c e a r i s e s f o r a number o f r e a s o n s . I n s in g le phase

m a te r ia ls , th e p r in c ip a l re a so n i s th e accu m u latio n o f d i s l o c a tio n s

and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w ith each o th e r and p o in t d e f e c t s . I n m u lti­

phase a llo y s an a d d itio n a l so u rce o f r e s is ta n c e i s from p r e c i p i t a t e

p a r t i c l e s t h a t o b s tr u c t d is lo c a tio n m o tio n . C y c lic s o f te n in g i n d i ­

c a te s a d e crea se o f r e s is ta n c e to d is lo c a tio n m o tio n . T h is d e c re a se

a r i s e s from th e r e le a s e o f d is lo c a tio n s from netw orks and d i s l o c a t io n

a n n ih ila tio n . In m u lti-p h a s e a llo y s a f u r t h e r cause i s s t r u c t u r e

d e g ra d a tio n v/here s tre n g th e n in g p r e c i p i t a t e s can be sh e a re d by d i s -

. 30
lo c a t io n s and re a c h s iz e s where th ey r e - d is s o lv e i n th e m a tr ix . A

f u r t h e r so u rc e o f s o fte n in g i s th e r e la x a ti o n o f r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s
150
s e t up d u rin g h e a t tre a tm e n t o r c o ld v/ork.

S o fte n in g in th e th re e s t r u c t u r e s used in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n

i s n o t a t t r i b u t e d to th e r e l i e f o f m ic ro -r e s id u a l s t r e s s e s t h a t

103
a r e formed d u rin g h e a t tre a tm e n t. A ll sam ples were g iv en a low

te m p e ra tu re h e a t tre a tm e n t a f t e r m e ta llo g ra p h ic p r e p a r a tio n t h a t

would have been s u f f i c i e n t to r e l i e v e any i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s

produced by th e a u s te n ite to p e a r l i t e tra n s fo rm a tio n . R ev ersio n

o f c e m e n tite i s n o t th o u g h t l i k e l y in th e e a r ly s ta g e s o f th e

c y c lic t e s t . E le c tro n tra n s m is s io n m icroscopy was u sed f o r th e

exam ination o f n o n -fa tig u e d specim ens and th o se f a tig u e d f o r 25

up to o f th e l i f e . I f re v e rs io n had o c c u rre d e a r ly i n th e

l i f e to acco u n t f o r th e s o fte n in g phenomenon, i t would have been

more a c c e n tu a te d in sam ples f a tig u e d f o r a s l i t t l e a s 25%' o f th e

life . T h is would have shown up a s a r e a s c o n ta in in g s u rfa c e s l i p

bands and denuded o f c e m e n tite . Comparison o f s t r u c t u r e s i n th e

fa tig u e d and n o n -fa tig u e d c o n d itio n d id n o t shov; such f e a tu r e s

t h a t could be c l e a r l y a t t r i b u t e d to a re v e rs io n e f f e c t . Some

c a u tio n i s re q u ire d r e l a t i n g to s ta te m e n ts on r e v e r s io n in th e

in v e s t i g a t i o n . Of th e m e ta llo g ra p h ic te c h n iq u e s u sed in t h i s

work th o se based on e le c tr o n tra n s m is s io n m icroscopy a r e th e o n ly

ones t h a t can r e v e a l any r e v e r s io n e f f e c t i f i t does e x i s t . Such

te c h n iq u e s have n o t been e x te n s iv e ly u sed and t h i s i s an a r e a where

f u r th e r work i s n e c e s s a ry . Low carbon s t e e l s , f o r exam ple, have

bS
been shown to e x h ib it t h i s re v e r s io n e f f e c t on c y c lic t e s t i n g .

From th e evidence o f t h i s i n v e s t ig a ti o n , th e m ajor cause o f

c y c lic s o fte n in g i s th e r e le a s e o f m obile d is lo c a ti o n s from th e

i n te r f a c e betw een f e r r i t e and c e m e n tite . F ig s . b'] and b2 show

t h i s in t e r f a c e to be a p r in c ip a l so u rc e o f d i s l o c a t i o n s . These

a r e unpinned and move in to th e f e r r i t e when th e s h e a r s t r e s s a t

th e i n t e r f a c e re a c h e s a s u f f i c i e n t l y h ig h l e v e l . The o r i e n t a t i o n

o f th e in t e r f a c e to th e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d ir e c ti o n d e term in e s th e
m agnitude o f th e a c ti n g s h e a r s t r e s s . The im p o rtan ce o f

o r i e n t a t i o n i s d is c u s s e d l a t e r . Once unpinned, th e s e d is lo c a tio n s

can r e a d ily move v /ith in th e f e r r i t e and hence th e s t r e s s r e q u ir e d

to m a in ta in t h e i r m otion i s d e c re a se d g iv in g s o f te n in g . The

s a tu r a ti o n p e rio d t h a t q u ic k ly fo llo w s th e s o f te n in g , i n d i c a te s

t h a t th e s t r e s s re q u ire d to m a in ta in th e d is lo c a tio n m otion,

rem ains c o n s ta n t. I t s i g n i f i e s a b a la n c e betw een th e c o n tin u e d

u n p in n in g o f d is lo c a tio n s from th e i n t e r f a c e and th e b u il d up o f

d is lo c a tio n s in th e f e r r i t e t h a t oppose th e m otion o f nev/ly

r e le a s e d d i s l o c a t i o n s . A lte r n a t iv e ly , i t may be th e r e s u l t o f

th e r e le a s e o f d is lo c a tio n s from i n t e r f a c e s h av in g o r i e n t a t i o n s

such t h a t th e r e q u ir e d l e v e l o f s h e a r s t r e s s f o r u n p in n in g o f

d is lo c a tio n s r e q u ir e s an in c re a s e o f th e a p p lie d p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s .

Whereas th e f in e p e a r l i t e shov/s c y c lic s o f te n in g o v e r a ran g e

o f s t r a i n a m p litu d e s, b o th th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e and s p h e r o id is e d

c a rb id e shov; a change-ov er to c y c lic h ard e n in g when t e s t e d a t

s t r a i n a m p litu d e s above a c e r t a i n l e v e l . T h is b e h a v io u r d i f f e r ­

ence i s e x p la in e d i n term s o f th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d i s l o c a t i o n s .

S in ce th e c o n tr ib u tio n s to s t r a i n a r e th e number o f d is lo c a tio n s

moving u n d er s t r e s s and t h e i r s l i p d is ta n c e , -then i f e i t h e r th e

number a v a ila b le o r d is ta n c e moved i s in c re a s e d th e o v e r a l l e f f e c t

i s an in c re a s e o f s t r a i n . I f th e p r i n c i p a l so u rc e o f d is lo c a tio n s

i s th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e , th e n th e number o f a v a ila b le

d is lo c a tio n s i s p r o p o r tio n a l to t h i s i n t e r f a c e a r e a . C a lc u la tio n s

based on th e m e ta llo g ra p h ic d a ta and u s in g th e method shown i n

Appendix 1 g iv e th e fo llo w in g r a t i o s f o r a re a i n th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s

c o arse p e a r l i t e - 1.0

f in e p e a r l i t e -

s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e - 0 .2
The f in e p e a r l i t e shows a much g r e a t e r in t e r f a c e a re a th an th e

o th e r two s tr u c tu r e s * There i s th e r e f o r e a much g r e a t e r so u rc e

o f a v a ila b le d is lo c a tio n s i n t h i s th a n th e o th e r s tr u c tu r e s *

T h is means t h a t a t th o se a m p litu d e s where c y c lic h a rd e n in g o c c u rs

in c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e w h ils t s o fte n in g

rem ains in f in e p e a r l i t e , th e s t r a i n can be accommodated i n th e

fin e p e a r l i t e by th e r e le a s e o f f u r t h e r d i s lo c a tio n s in to th e

fe rrite * I n b o th c o a rse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e , th e

low er number o f a v a ila b le d is lo c a tio n s have to move o v e r g r e a t e r

d is ta n c e s in to th e f e r r i t e and h e re th e y must overcome th e

o b s ta c le s such a s d is lo c a tio n p i l e ups and p o in t d e fe c ts * An

in c re a s e in th e a p p lie d s t r e s s i s th e r e f o r e r e q u ir e d .to m a in ta in

t h e i r movement; hence th e c y c lic h ard e n in g e f f e c t*

S in ce c y c lic h a rd e n in g i s a d e s ir a b le f e a tu r e f o r im proved
12
f a tig u e perform ance a s p re v io u s ly su g g e ste d th e i d e a l s i t u a t i o n

i s t h a t o f th e f in e p e a r l i t e s tr u c tu r e showing h a rd e n in g and y e t

m a in ta in in g i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t g iv e a uniform d is p e r s a l o f

s lip . On th e b a s is o f t h i s mechanism, such h a rd e n in g co u ld be

a c h ie v e d by e n su rin g a s u f f i c i e n t l y e f f e c t iv e o b s tr u c tio n to

d is lo c a tio n m otion in th e f e r r i t e once th e d is lo c a ti o n s a r e u n p in n e d .

T h is im p lie s an a d ju stm e n t to f e r r i t e co m p o sitio n such t h a t i t s

f r i c t i o n s t r e s s i s in c re a s e d w ith o u t d e trim e n ta l e f f e c t s on th e

c e m e n tite la m e lla e m orphology. T h is i s an a re a f o r f u r t h e r

in v e s t i g a t i o n . In th e w ire draw ing in d u s tr y f o r exam ple, sm all

q u a n t i t i e s o f molybdenum (up t o ' 0*230 in e u te c to id carbon s t e e l

151
have en ab led v ery f in e p e a r l i t e s to be produced by p a te n tin g

tre a tm e n ts and th e s e have been s u b se q u e n tly co ld drawn to g iv e

v e ry h ig h s tr e n g th w ir e . Here th e molybdenum h a s n o t o n ly

106
 a l t e r e d th e tra n s fo rm a tio n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a u s t e n i t e d u rin g

h e a t tre a tm e n t b u t a ls o i s an e f f e c t i v e f e r r i t e s tre n g th e n e r*

T h is i s c i t e d a s an example o f th e s o r t o f in v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t

co u ld be c a r r ie d out*

I t h as been re p o rte d e a r l i e r t h a t in th e case o f s t e e l B,

sam ples o f f in e p e a r l i t e t h a t were c y c le d f o r up to 10 , 20 o r 3($

o f th e l i f e , showed f u r t h e r s o fte n in g and th e n s t a b i l i t y on r e ­

t e s t i n g a f t e r d e lay tim es o f up to Zh hours* T h is b e h av io u r

r e q u ir e s f u r t h e r stu d y b u t s u g g e s ts an a g e in g -ty p e phenomenon

s im ila r to t h a t o f th e y i e ld p o in t re -a p p ea ra n c e* A lte r n a tiv e l y ,

th e s o fte n in g may r e s u l t from th e r e l i e f o f m ic r o - r e s id u a l

s t r e s s e s t h a t a r i s e d u rin g c y c lin g .

3* 3 . THE INFLUENCE OF ORIENTATION ON SURFACE DAMAGE

I n b o th la m e lla r p e a r l i t e s , s u rfa c e damage i s more r e a d i l y

a p p a re n t in th o se c e l l s c o n ta in in g c e m e n tite la m e lla e t h a t a r e

o r ie n te d betv/een 30 and 90° to th e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d ir e c tio n *

I t i s however r e a l i s e d t h a t i n th o se c e l l s where th e la m e lla e

o r i e n ta tio n l i e s o u ts id e t h i s fa v o u ra b le ra n g e , s l i p may o c cu r

b u t n o t m a n ife st i t s e l f a s s l i p bands a t th e s u rfa c e * T h is co u ld

happen i f th e B urgers v e c to r f o r atom d isp lacem en t h a s a d i r e c t i o n

p a r a l l e l to th e s u rfa c e o f e x a m in a tio n . I n th e s p h e r o id is e d

c a rb id e th e r e i s no c le a r r e l a t i o n s h i p betv/een th e lo c a t i o n o f

damage and o r i e n t a t i o n o f sp h e ro id s b ased on r e s u l t s o f low

r e s o lu tio n m icroscopy* The dependence o f s u rfa c e damage on

la m e lla e o r i e n t a t i o n (shov/n in £ ig S. 34 an d 33 ) i s a t t r i b u t e d to

th e s t r e s s e s a c tin g on th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n te r f a c e * S in c e

th e s h e a r s t r e s s i s a t a maximum i n a d ir e c tio n o f *+3° to th e

p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s a x is , th e n such i n t e r f a c e s v /ill be s u b je c t to

107
t h i s maximum s h e a r s t r e s s where th e cem e n tite la m e lla e a re

o r ie n te d a t Such i n t e r f a c e s a r e re g io n s where th e atom

arrangem ent changes from B .C.C . i n th e f e r r i t e to orth o rh o m b ic in

th e c e m e n tite . To accommodate t h i s ato m ic p a t t e r n change, th e

t r a n s i t i o n zone c o n ta in s a h ig h d e n s ity o f atom ic im p e rfe c tio n s

such a s v a c a n c ie s and d i s l o c a t i o n s . On c y c lin g , d is lo c a tio n s

a r e unpinned where th e o p e ra tiv e s h e a r s t r e s s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y h ig h .

Movement o f d is lo c a tio n s in to th e c e m e n tite i s d i f f i c u l t b ecau se

of i t s re s tric te d p la s tic ity . Movement in to f e r r i t e i s much

e a s i e r s in c e i t h a s a la r g e number o f a v a il a h le s l i p p la n e s a t

room te m p e ra tu re a lo n g which th e d is lo c a tio n s can move. S lip p in g

th e r e f o r e o c c u rs i n th e f e r r i t e a lo n g th o se p la n e s where th e

re s o lv e d s h e a r s t r e s s re a c h e s a c r i t i c a l v a lu e . The movement o f

many d is lo c a tio n s a lo n g atom ic p la n e s m a n ife s ts i t s e l f a s s l i p

bands a t th e f e r r i t e s u r f a c e .

In th e s p h e ro id a l c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e , th e e x te n t o f th e i n t e r ­

fa c e a re a betw een f e r r i t e and c em e n tite i s c o n s id e ra b ly l e s s th a n

t h a t in th e o th e r s t r u c t u r e s . C onsequently th e number o f a v a i l ­

a b le d is lo c a tio n s from t h i s in t e r f a c e i s s m a ll. To a c c o u n t f o r

th e p l a s t i c s t r a i n such d is lo c a tio n s would have to move o v e r la r g e

d is ta n c e s in to th e f e r r i t e . As shown in th e m ic ro g ra p h s, f i g s .

26 and 27 , s l i p bands a p p ea r i n th e f e r r i t e and some a r e

c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith f e r r i t e g r a in b o u n d a rie s . From

th e low r e s o lu tio n m icroscopy, th e r e a p p e a rs to be no c o r r e l a t i o n

o f damage w ith o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e s e b o u n d a rie s o r th e i n t e r f a c e s .

Evidence from h ig h r e s o lu tio n m icroscopy a s shown i n F i g .

in d ic a te s t h a t th e re may he some dependence o f th e damage a r e a s

on o r i e n t a t i o n . D is lo c a tio n s a r e seen to emanate more from some

108
 a r e a s o f th e in t e r f a c e th a n o th e r s and a r e a s o f common o r i e n t a t i o n

a p p ea r r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f d i s l o c a t i o n s . In t h i s l a t t e r work,

specim ens a r e in th e form o f th in f o i l s produced from d is c s ta k e n

a c r o s s th e specim en d ia m e te r. The p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d ir e c t io n i s

th e r e f o r e c o in c id e n t w ith a norm al to th e pho to g rap h s u r f a c e .

F u r th e r work i s n e c e s sa ry to e s t a b l i s h w hether any o r i e n t a t i o n

dependence o f damage a r e a s e x i s t s .

5 .^ . STAGE I CRACK GROWTH

As d e fin e d e a r l i e r i n s e c tio n 2.5* t h i s s ta g e in c lu d e s th e

p e rio d o f c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n and a ls o t h a t where th e c ra c k grows

alo n g a p la n e o f h ig h s h e a r s t r e s s .

5«ZU 1 . E f f e c t o f C y c lic S tr e s s on S u rfa c e Topography

In g e n e r a l, a f a tig u e c ra ck i n i t i a t e s a t a f r e e s u rfa c e and

i n re g io n s o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n c o n c e n tra tio n . F o r m ost o f th e

m a te r ia ls exam ined, th e most common s i t e i s a s l i p band and th e

fo rm atio n o f s l i p bands i s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e developm ent o f a

s u rfa c e topography c o n ta in in g g ro o v es and r i d g e s . These a re

32 36 37
more o f te n c a lle d in tr u s io n s and e x tru s io n s r e s p e c t i v e l y . ’

T h e ir fo rm atio n i s d e trim e n ta l to f a tig u e perform ance s in c e th e y

c r e a te a r e a s o f s t r e s s c o n c e n tra tio n and c ra c k s r e a d i l y d evelop

v /ith in them . C le a rly t h i s e f f e c t o f s u rfa c e topography on

o v e r a ll perform ance i s most marked un d er h ig h c y c le c o n d itio n s .

Here th e s ta g e I c ra ck grow th, a s d e fin e d in 2 .5 o c c u p ie s such

3
a la r g e p a r t o f th e t o t a l f a tig u e l i f e .

In s p i t e o f th e s u rfa c e s l i p bands o b serv ed , ta p e r s e c tio n s

shov/ no pronounced n o tc h -p e ak topography in any o f th e th r e e

s t r u c t u r e s a f t e r t e s t i n g un d er h ig h c y cle f a tig u e c o n d itio n s .

There i s s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e shown from com parison o f f a tig u e d

109
and n o n -fa tig u e d specim ens b u t i t i s s l i g h t and more a p p a re n t

i n th e c o arse p e a r l i t e th a n in th e o th e r two s t r u c t u r e s . In

th e coarse, p e a r l i t e th e maximum h e ig h t o f e x tr u s io n s i s

0 . ^//-m etres ( j x m) and some c re v ic e s e x i s t o f up to 2yxm i s

d e p th . T h is d is tu rb a n c e i s nowhere n e a r a s se v e re a s t h a t

v/hich h as been ob serv ed in o th e r m a te r ia ls . For exam ple,

e x tru s io n s o f up to 10yt/.m in le n g th have been r e p o r te d f o r some

18
aluminium a l l o y s . I n low c y cle f a tig u e , th e r e i s a g r e a t e r

amount o f s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e . Rumpling i s o b serv ed and

e x tru s io n s o f up to in le n g th a re m easured i n th e th re e

s tru c tu re s . L o c a tio n o f e x tru s io n s and in tr u s io n s v/ith r e s p e c t

to m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l f e a tu r e s h a s been e a s ie r in th e s p h e r o id is e d

c a rb id e s tr u c tu r e where th e rounded form o f sh allo w e x tr u s io n s

h as been w ith in th e f e r r i t e . S u rfa c e d isp la ce m e n t betv/een th e

f e r r i t e and c a rb id e sp h e ro id s h as n o t been o b se rv e d . I n th e

co arse p e a r l i t e , e x tr u s io n s ap p ear in th e f e r r i t e b u t u s u a lly

c lo se to i t s in t e r f a c e v/ith th e c e m e n tite . I n tr u s io n s a r e

in v a r ia b ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e re g io n v/here c e m e n tite la m e lla e

meet th e in te r f a c e and t h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t v/ith re g a rd to c ra c k

i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s and i s d is c u s s e d l a t e r .

C em entite morphology c le a r ly in flu e n c e s th e s u rfa c e to p o ­

graphy produced on c y c lin g . The s u p e r io r ity o f th e f in e p e a r l i t e

s tr u c tu r e v/ith r e s p e c t to h ig h c y c le fa tig u e perform ance i s

a t t r i b u t e d in p a r t to th e minimum amount o f s u rfa c e d is tu rb a n c e

v/hich impedes th e fo rm atio n o f s i t e s o f h ig h s t r e s s c o n c e n tr a tio n .

A more uniform d is p e r s a l o f s l i p damage in th e s t r u c t u r e i s th e

m ajor cause fo r t h i s minimum d is tu rb a n c e . Most o f th e mechan­

ism s proposed fo r e x tr u s io n /in tr u s io n phenomena a r e b ased on

110
s tu d ie s o f s in g le phase m a t e r i a l s .^ 1^ ’ 5? 6 ,152 ease Qf

c ro s s s l i p o f d is lo c a tio n s h as been i d e n t i f i e d a s an im p o rta n t

f a c to r y e t in some m a te r ia ls where c ro s s s l i p i s e a sy , e x tr u s io n s
109
a r e n o t form ed. I n a re c e n t stu d y on m u lti-p h a s e specim ens

c o n ta in in g b o th s o f t and h a rd p h a se s, a model f o r e x tr u s io n /

i n tr u s io n fo rm atio n h a s been p ro p o sed . I t s t a t e s t h a t ex­

tr u s io n s and i n tr u s io n s a re a s s o c ia te d v/ith t h i n s o f t p h ases

t h a t a re surrounded by h a rd e r p h a s e s . The s o f t p h a se s shov/

p r e f e r e n t i a l d efo rm atio n and f o r e x tr u s io n s and i n t r u s i o n s to

form, a s u b -g ra in s t r u c t u r e must d e v elo p . Such a s t r u c t u r e i s

favoured by easy c ro s s s l i p . The th r e e s t r u c t u r e s u sed i n t h i s

in v e s t ig a ti o n a r e b ased on th e s o f t phase f e r r i t e , v/hich p r e ­

dom inates, and th e h a rd c e m e n tite . F e r r i t e h a s a h ig h s ta c k in g

f a u l t energy and c r o s s - s l i p i s e a s y . Hence c y c lin g must

promote s u b -g ra in fo rm a tio n .

Assuming t h a t th e s u b -g ra in s t r u c t u r e fo rm atio n i s th e

s i g n i f i c a n t f a c to r in flu e n c in g s u rfa c e topography a f t e r c y c lin g ,

th e fo llo w in g i s o f f e r e d a s an e x p la n a tio n f o r th e d if f e r e n c e s

o f topography between th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s . S tu d ie s o f

p e a r l i t e "1 have shown t h a t a s u b -g ra in s t r u c t u r e e x i s t s in

th e f e r r i t e and i t s s iz e , i n term s o f c e ll d im en sio n s, i s i n ­

flu e n c e d by in t e r l a m e l l a r s p a c in g . The l a r g e r th e sp a c in g th e

g r e a t e r th e c e l l s i z e . I n th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e th e depend­

ence o f c e l l s iz e i s l e s s c l e a r . I n b o th la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s

th e r e f o r e , th e s t a r t i n g c e l l s iz e in f e r r i t e i s n o t th e same in

th e c o arse and f in e p e a r l i t e . I t i s s m a lle r in th e f in e

p e a r l i t e and hence th e y i e ld s t r e s s o f f e r r i t e h e re i s g r e a t e r ,

a cc o rd in g to p r e d ic tio n based on th e t r a d i t i o n a l H a ll-P e tc h

11.1
 re la tio n s h ip . S in ce p l a s t i c s t r a i n i s more u n ifo rm ly

d i s t r i b u t e d in th e f in e th an c o a rse p e a r l i t e , th e o v e r a ll

e f f e c t on th e s u b -g ra in s tr u c t u r e sh o u ld be d i f f e r e n t . What

t h i s d if f e r e n c e means i s n o t y e t c l e a r ; i t i s assumed t h a t th e

c e l l s iz e i n th e s tr u c tu r e w i l l shov; c o n s id e ra b le d if f e r e n c e s

betw een c o a rse and f in e p e a r l i t e . I n th e p r e s e n t work u s in g

tra n s m is s io n e le c tr o n m icroscopy, a c e l l s t r u c t u r e was o b serv ed

in th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e (Fig.^- 6 ) and v /ith in some a r e a s in

th e la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s . T h is i s a f i e l d f o r f u r t h e r stu d y

u s in g h ig h r e s o lu tio n m e ta llo g ra p h ic te c h n iq u e s .

5 * ^ .2 . C rack I n i t i a t i o n S i t e s

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to e s t a b l i s h th e e x a c t lo c a t io n o f an

i n i t i a t i n g c ra c k . In t h i s in v e s t ig a ti o n , i n i t i a t i n g c ra c k s

have been i d e n t i f i e d e a r ly in th e l i f e f o r c o a rse p e a r l i t e and

s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s ; th e s t r u c t u r a l f e a tu r e s t h a t

dom inate th e c ra c k le n g th have been exam ined. C le a rly th e

c ra ck s iz e sh o u ld be k e p t sm all and i t s t r a n s i t i o n to s h e a r mode

grow th o b s tr u c te d i n o rd e r to a c h ie v e im proved f a tig u e perfo rm ­

ance. Some c ra c k s i n i t i a t e v ery e a r ly in th e l i f e b u t shov;

n e g lig ib le grow th on su b seq u en t c y c lin g and a p p e a r to have

l i t t l e r o le in th e f a tig u e f a i l u r e p r o c e s s . I t i s im p o rta n t

t h a t th e cau ses f o r such c ra c k s to become dormant a r e knovm.

A knowledge o f th o se s t r u c t u r a l f e a tu r e s v /ith in which th e

i n i t i a t i n g c ra c k grows i s an im p o rta n t s te p tow ards id e n t i f y i n g

th e s e c a u s e s .

I n F ig . 31 , two exam ples o f i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s a r e shown.

In t h a t in d ic a te d a t B, a c rack h a s i n i t i a t e d a t a f e r r i t e -

c em en tite i n t e r f a c e . At A, th e s i t e i s more d i f f i c u l t

112
to d e f in e . Much o f th e s u rfa c e c ra c k le n g th i s v /ith in th e

f e r r i t e and a s s o c ia te d v/ith a r e a s showing heavy s l i p damage.

I t i s th e r e f o r e more l i k e l y t h a t th e c ra ck h a s i n i t i a t e d w ith in

a s l i p band. S li p bands and th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e

a re th e two p r in c ip a l s i t e s f o r c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n i n th e co arse

p e a rlite . A d d itio n a l s i t e s a re p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s and,

a s shown in F ig . 37b, a s u rfa c e p ro tr u d in g in c lu s io n , a lth o u g h

th e se a r e r a r e . I n i t i a t i o n a t p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s i s

th o u g h t to be a t t r i b u t e d to boundary e m b rittle m e n t by im p u rity

e lem ents such a s c o p p er. The s t e e l c o n ta in e d t r a c e l e v e l s o f

copper and t h i s elem ent i s known to m ig ra te to a u s t e n i t e g r a in

b o u n d a rie s d u rin g p ro lo n g ed h e a t tre a tm e n t. I n th e f in e

p e a r l i t e , th e p r in c ip a l c ra ck in g s i t e i s v /ith in s l i p bands

v /h ils t in s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e , c ra c k s i n i t i a t e m ainly a t s l i p

bands and f e r r i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s.

C rack i n i t i a t i o n a t th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e i s

observed only in th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e . Here i n i t i a t i o n i s

a ttrib u te d to :-

a) debonding a t th e i n t e r f a c e d u rin g c y c lic s t r e s s

b) fo rm atio n o f s u rfa c e n o tc h e s c o in c id e n t w ith la m e lla e

em erging a t th e s u rfa c e ( F ig s . 37a and b)

Debonding o c cu rs a s a r e s u l t o f th e b u ild -u p o f v a c a n c ie s

to a s u f f i c i e n t l y h ig h l e v e l a t th e i n t e r f a c e . These v a c a n c ie s

form and accum ulate in th e i n t e r f a c e s where d is l o c a t i o n s a r e

r e le a s e d fo r movement in to f e r r i t e by th e a c tin g s h e a r s t r e s s e s

d u rin g c y c lic t e s t i n g . The accu m u latio n o f v a c a n c ie s i s m ost

sev e re a t th o se i n t e r f a c e s v/here th e s h e a r s t r e s s e s a r e h ig h

enough to r e le a s e la r g e numbers o f d is l o c a t i o n s . Coherency

113
betv/een f e r r i t e and c e m e n tite i s d e stro y e d v/ith consequent

weakening o f th e i n t e r f a c e . I t s a b i l i t y to su p p o rt s t r e s s i s

th u s im p a ire d and v/here th e o p e ra tiv e s t r e s s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y

h ig h , a c ra ck may be formed a t th e i n t e r f a c e . Such a l e v e l o f

s t r e s s i s most l i k e l y to be re a ch e d in th e r o o ts o f s u rfa c e

n o tc h e s form ed. Where such n o tc h e s c o in c id e v/ith th e i n t e r f a c e ,

a s shown in F ig s . 37a. and b , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n

i s v ery h ig h . O b se rv a tio n s o f c ra c k s shov/ t h a t such s i t e s

e x i s t a t i n t e r f a c e s o r ie n te d a t around to th e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s

a x is ( F ig .3 1 ) .
78 107
O ther s tu d ie s o f two phase a l lo y s ’have shown a

s im ila r ty p e o f in t e r f a c e crack i n i t i a t i o n to t h a t ab o v e. In a
78
tita n iu m a l lo y , c ra ck i n i t i a t e d a t th e i n t e r f a c e betv/een o L

and p g r a in s d u rin g h ig h c y cle f a t i g u e . Because s l i p band

damage v/as n o t d e te c te d , th e c ra c k in g was a t t r i b u t e d to i n t e r -

107
f a c i a l debonding. In a zirconium a l l o y , th e i n t e r f a c e

betv/een zirconium h y d rid e and th e m a trix g r a in s v/as s u s c e p tib le

to c y c lic damage because o f i t s low co h eren cy . Void i n i t i a t i o n

was p r e v a le n t a t th e i n t e r f a c e and t h i s would acc o u n t f o r i t s

tendency f o r c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n . S u rfa c e c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n

v /ith in s l i p bands i s common to a l l th re e s t r u c t u r e s . S li p

bands a r e re g io n s o f d is lo c a tio n b u ild up and p re v io u s s tu d ie s

153 have shov/n t h a t c ra c k s i n i t i a t e in re g io n s o f h ig h s t r a i n

c o n c e n tra tio n . I n b o th th e c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e r o id is e d

c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s , a shallow s u rfa c e n o tch peak e f f e c t le a d s

to d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s v/hich p ro d u ces a re a s o f s t r e s s con­

c e n tr a ti o n . These a c c e n tu a te th e c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n . In th e

f in e p e a r l i t e th e n o tch peak e f f e c t i s so sh allo w a s to be

114
u n d e te c ta b le by th e m e ta llo g ra p h ic te c h n iq u e s u sed h e r e .

The h ig h e s t r e s is ta n c e to c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n u n d er h ig h

c y cle f a tig u e c o n d itio n s i s found in th e fin e p e a r l i t e . T h is

i s a t t r i b u t e d to a c a p a c ity f o r more homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

p l a s t i c s t r a i n in t h i s s tr u c tu r e th a n th e o th e r s . The b u ild -u p

o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n to le v e l s s u f f i c i e n t f o r c ra ck i n i t i a t i o n

th e r e f o r e r e q u ir e s a l a r g e r number o f s t r a i n c y c le s th a n in th e

o th e r s t r u c t u r e s . The more homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r a i n

a r i s e s from th e e x te n s iv e i n t e r f a c e a re a betw een f e r r i t e and

c e m e n tite . I t i s from t h i s i n t e r f a c e , a s p r e v io u s ly m entioned,

t h a t d is lo c a tio n s move in to f e r r i t e so a s to accommodate th e

p la s tic s tra in . The fin e p e a r l i t e h as th e s m a lle s t v a lu e f o r

mean f r e e f e r r i t e p a th in th e th r e e s tr u c t u r e s and a t f i r s t , i t

was th o u g h t t h a t t h i s m ight have had a d e trim e n ta l e f f e c t on

s t r a i n b u ild up due to i t s l im it in g th e d is ta n c e f o r movement o f

d is lo c a tio n s in to f e r r i t e . T h is does n o t a p p ea r to have been

th e c a s e .

In th e s u b -s u rfa c e zones, f o i l s have shown t h a t

d is lo c a tio n s emanate from th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e in t e r f a c e and

b u ild up in th e f e r r i t e . A c e l l u l a r arrangem ent o f d i s ­

lo c a tio n s a p p e a rs in b o th la m e lla r and s p h e ro id a l s t r u c t u r e s

a s shown in F ig s . ^f2b and ^ 6b . C racks have n o t been d e te c te d

in any o f th e f o i l s p ro d u ced . However c r a c k - lik e f e a t u r e s a r e

seen in F ig s . ^3h, hk-b and 43b and th e se a re c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d

w ith th e f e r r i te - c e m e n tit e i n t e r f a c e . These f e a tu r e s have

been c lo s e ly examined and a re a t t r i b u t e d to a r e a s o f h ig h

d is lo c a tio n d e n s ity . They a re n o t, f o r example, bend o r

th ic k n e s s c o n to u rs .

113
T ran sm issio n e le c tr o n m icroscopy v/as used o n ly i n th e f i n a l

s ta g e s o f th e v/ork and i t i s c le a r from th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d

so f a r t h a t a more thorough u se o f t h i s te ch n iq u e i n fa tig u e

s tu d ie s i s n e c e s s a ry .

Shear Mode Growth

E vidence o f s h e a r mode grov/th fo llo w in g c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n

h a s been d i f f i c u l t to produce b ecause o f th e l im it e d amount o f

fr a c to g ra p h ic exam in atio n in t h i s v/ork. N e v e rth e le s s , b o th

la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s show a r e a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s ty p e o f

grov/th. No such a r e a s have been o b serv ed in th e s p h e r o id is e d

c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e . F ig . 60 shov/s an example i n th e f in e

p e a rlite . The a r e a c o rre sp o n d in g to s h e a r mode grov/th i s sm all

and e x te n d s from th e specim en s u r f a c e . F r a c tu re ex am in atio n

u sin g th e scanning e le c tr o n m icroscope r e v e a ls few f e a tu r e s o f

s ig n if ic a n c e in th e a r e a . Under h ig h c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s

b o th s t r u c t u r e s shov/ o n ly one such a re a v/hereas i n low c y c le

f a tig u e th e r e a re s e v e r a l, a l l o f v/hich ex ten d from th e s u r f a c e .

T h e ir o r i e n t a t i o n i s e s tim a te d to be around k^>° to th e p r i n c i p a l

s tre s s a x is . A lthough f u r t h e r ex am in atio n i s n e c e s s a ry , u s in g

say s in g le s ta g e r e p l i c a t i o n and e le c tr o n m icro sco p y , th e

evidence f o r s h e a r mode c ra ck grov/th fo llo w in g i n i t i a t i o n i s

c o n c lu siv e f o r bo th la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s .

As m entioned e a r l i e r , th r e e c ra c k i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s a r e

i d e n t i f i e d in th e la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s . The r e l a t i v e l y f l a t

s u rfa c e o f th e s h e a r mode c rack a r e a i s lik e n e d to t h a t a p p e a r­

ance c h a r a c te r iz in g cleav ag e a t th e i n t e r f a c e betv/een f e r r i t e

and c e m e n tite . An example o f such an ap p earan ce i s shown in

th e s ta g e I I f r a c tu r e i n F ig . 53* These f e a tu r e s would i n d ic a t e

116
 t h a t o f th e th re e i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s , s h e a r mode c ra c k grov/th

b e g in s from a f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e and c o n tin u e s alo n g

th is in te rfa c e . T r a n s itio n to s ta g e I I c ra ck grov/th o c cu rs

a f t e r o n ly a sm all c ra c k depth i s re a c h e d . Subsequent grov/th

i s th e n alo n g p la n e s norm al to th e p r in c ip a l s t r e s s and c a ta ­

s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e o c c u r s .

5 .5 . STAGE I I CRACK GROV/TH

S t r u c t u r a l d if f e r e n c e s betv/een th e th re e m a te r ia ls s tu d ie d

in flu e n c e th e s ta g e I I c ra c k grov/th u n d er h ig h c y c le f a tig u e con­

d itio n s . The e f f e c t s o f s tr u c tu r e a r e shown up a s d if f e r e n c e s in

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b ased o n :-

1• th e c ra c k p ro p a g a tio n r a t e

2. th e ro u te fo llo w ed by a p ro p a g a tin g f a tig u e c ra c k

3. th e e x te n t o f f a tig u e c ra ck grov/th b e fo re c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e

P ro p a g a tio n R ate

R e la tiv e c ra c k p ro p a g a tio n r a t e s a t th e s u rfa c e have been

e s tim a te d in th e v/ork and b ased on m e ta llo g ra p h ic o b s e r v a tio n a t

v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e l i f e . They show a s im i la r tr e n d to .

'j 29
r e s u l t s o f o th e r w orkers ’ u s in g more s o .p h is tic a te d m easuring

te c h n iq u e s . F or exam ple, th e f a tig u e c ra ck p ro p a g a tio n r a t e

f o r s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e i s low er th a n f o r c o a rse p e a r l i t e .

There i s however no agreem ent i n r e s u l t s shov/ing p e a r l i t e

s tr u c tu r e : e f f e c t s on p ro p o g a tio n r a t e s . An in c r e a s e o f p e a r l i t e
^
la m e lla r sp ac in g was shown , 126 . 1 2 9 to
m p re v io u s v/ork ^ in
•
c re a se

p ro p a g a tio n r a t e s w hereas in th e p re s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a more

ra p id r a t e i s found in th e f in e p e a r l i t e . A p r i n c i p a l cause

o f t h i s d isagreem ent i s l i k e l y to be d if f e r e n c e o f ch em ical com­

p o s itio n o f th e s t e e l s u s e d . The carbon c o n te n t o f th e s t e e l

117
 126 129
used in p re v io u s work 1 was 1?o and th e o th e r a llo y in g

elem en ts in d ic a te d t h a t i t was l i k e l y to g iv e p r o - e u te c to id

cem e n tite on tra n s fo rm a tio n from th e a u s t e n i t i c c o n d itio n .

T h is would be a c c e n tu a te d d u rin g slow c o o lin g to produce c o arse

p e a rlite . In th e p r e s e n t in v e s t ig a ti o n , th e s t e e l u sed con­

ta in e d around 0 . 7y/o o f carbon and m e ta llo g ra p h ic ex am in atio n showed

only t r a c e s o f c e m e n tite . The p re sen c e o f t h i s b r i t t l e c e m e n tite

a t p e a r l i t e g r a in b o u n d a rie s would be d e trim e n ta l to c ra ck p ro p o -

g a tio n in t h a t th e p ro p a g a tio n r a t e would no doubt be in c re a s e d

and in te r g r a n u la r p ro p o g a tio n would be e v id e n t. I n th e r e s u l t s

126 129
o f t h i s work ’ no m ention i s made o f in te r g r a n u la r a p p e a r­

ance on th e f r a c tu r e s u r f a c e . N e v e rth e le s s , th e h ig h e s t p ro p a -
126 129
g a tio n r a t e f o r c o a rse p e a r l i t e in th e work ’ i s a ttrib u te d

m ainly to th e l a r g e r amount o f p r o - e u te c to id c e m e n tite i n t h i s

s t r u c tu r e th a n in f in e p e a r l i t e . The d isag reem en t i n r e s u l t s

f o r p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e e f f e c t s i s th e r e f o r e a t t r i b u t e d to th e

s i g n i f i c a n t re d u c tio n in amount to t r a c e l e v e l s o f p r o - e u te c to id

c em e n tite found in s t e e l s u sed in th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

D iffe re n c e s in f a tig u e c ra c k p ro p a g a tio n r a t e s betw een th e

th re e s t r u c t u r e s a r e a t t r i b u t e d to a number o f re a s o n s , n am ely :-

a) b eh av io u r o f m a te r ia l in th e c ra ck t i p

b) e f f e c t s o f c y c lic p r o p e r ti e s , e . g . c y c lic s t r a i i i h a rd e n in g

exponent

c) ro u te follo w ed by th e p ro p a g a tin g crack

As m entioned e a r l i e r i n - 2 .6 , a sm all p l a s t i c a l l y deform ed

zone i s c re a te d a t th e t i p o f a growing c ra c k . I t s s iz e i s
11*f
dependent on th e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t j ' f a c to r and m a te r ia l
115
p r o p e r tie s a t th e c ra ck t i p . I t h as a s i g n i f i c a n t in flu e n c e

118
on f a tig u e p ro p a g a tio n r a t e . P l a s t i c s t r a i n i s c o n c e n tra te d

w ith in t h i s zone and i t s l e v e l in c r e a s e s th ro u g h o u t th e t e s t

even though th e o v e r a ll s t r a i n a m p litu d e may he k e p t c o n s ta n t

a s was th e case in most c y c lic t e s t s perform ed i n t h i s i n v e s t i ­

g a tio n . A lthough th e l e v e l s o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n c o n c e n tra tio n

re a ch e d a r e n o t known, th e c y c lic s t r e s s - s t r a i n cu rv es o f

F ig s . 16 - 18 do show a t r a n s i t i o n from c y c lic s o fte n in g to

h ard en in g a s th e s t r a i n l e v e l in c r e a s e s f o r b o th c o a rse p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s . S o fte n in g i s o b serv ed in

fin e p e a r l i t e over a range o f s t r a i n l e v e l s . Hence, i f s t r a i n

l e v e l s in th e p l a s t i c zone a re s u f f i c i e n t l y h ig h , l o c a l i s e d c y c lic

h a rd en in g o c c u rs in b o th c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d

c a r b id e . The e f f e c t o f t h i s i s to promote th e r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n in re g io n s where i t can be more re a d ily accommo­

d a te d . T h is could acco u n t i n p a r t f o r o b serv ed c ra ck grow th

alo n g c e r t a i n r o u te s and th e n o b s tr u c tio n : f u r t h e r grow th con

tin u in g alo n g o th e r r o u te s from th e main c ra c k . Branch c ra c k in g

i s a m a n ife s ta tio n o f such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . C le a rly t h i s i s a

f i e l d f o r f u r th e r stu d y b u t a s i g n i f i c a n t p o in t i s t h a t b ran ch

c ra c k s were a p p a re n t in c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e r o id is e d c a rb id e

b u t n o t f in e p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e s . I n th e l a t t e r s t r u c t u r e ,

c y c lic s o fte n in g o c c u rs a t a l l s t r a i n l e v e l s shown i n th e c y c lic

s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve and hence l o c a l i s e d s o fte n in g o c c u rs i n th e

p l a s t i c zone. I t s e f f e c t i s to c o n c e n tra te p l a s t i c s t r a i n a t

th e t i p o f th e grow ing crack and hence in t e n s i f y d is lo c a tio n

m otion th e r e i n . D e v ia tio n from th e main c ra c k i s n o t a p p a re n t

from m e ta llo g ra p h ic o b s e rv a tio n and i t s h ig h r a t e o f p ro p a g a tio n

h a s been m entioned e a r l i e r . Both o b s e rv a tio n s c o r r e l a t e w e ll

119
w ith ex p ected b e h av io u r a r i s i n g from t h i s l o c a l i s e d s o f te n in g .
■
'1
30 ifo
I n th e work o f Tomkins, 1 an ap p ro ach h a s been made tow ards

p r e d ic tio n o f c ra c k grow th r a t e t h a t i s b ased on c y c lic m a te r ia l

b e h a v io u r. The model i s d e s c rib e d in th e form o f two e q u a tio n s , b o th

o f which a r e g iv e n (9 and 10) i n s e c tio n 2 .6 .3 » T h at e q u a tio n

r e f e r r i n g to h ig h c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s i s re p ro d u c ed b e lo w :-

da
dN
A c .10

T h is in d ic a te s t h a t a d e c re a se in th e c ra c k growth
r
a c h ie v e d by a lo w e rin g o f th e c y c lic s t r a i n h a rd e n in g ex p o n en t, H *

a l l o th e r term s b ein g e q u a l. The r e s u l t s in ta b le 3 show fin e

p e a r l i t e to have th e s m a lle s t v a lu e f o r t h i s exp o n en t, n : i t does

however have th e h ig h e s t grow th r a t e . The r e s u l t s from t h i s i n v e s t i ­

g a tio n do n o t th e r e f o r e co rre sp o n d w ith th e p r e d ic te d b e h a v io u r from

e q u a tio n 10 and th e d isag reem en t may be a t t r i b u t e d to th e fo llo w in g

r e a s o n s :-

1 • th e v a l i d i t y o f c ra c k growth measurement in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

I t was d i f f i c u l t to re s o lv e d e t a i l in th e f in e p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e

and c ra ck grow th co u ld have rem ained u n d e te c te d f o r a lo n g tim e .

The r a p id c ra c k growth ob serv ed a t th e s u rfa c e may th e r e f o r e have

re p re s e n te d th e f i n a l s ta g e s o n ly o f th e c ra c k grow th p e r io d .

2 . th e v a l i d i t y o f e q u a tio n 10 f o r th e s t r u c t u r e s u sed i n th e w ork.

^39 ZfO
As m entioned e a r l i e r , th e model ’ was d e riv e d from o b s e r v a tio n s

o f c ra c k in g i n a d u c tile m e ta l. C em entite i s re c o g n is e d a s a

b r i t t l e c o n s titu e n t and hence th o se s ta g e s o f c ra ck grow th th ro u g h ­

o u t c e m e n tite may n o t comply w ith c o n d itio n s un d er w hich th e model

a p p lie s .

120
5 .5 * 2 . M ic r o s tr u c tu r a l F e a tu re s o f P ro p a g a tin g Crack P a th s

Two o f th e m ajor c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s ta g e I I c ra c k in g

have been known fo r a lo n g tim e to be tr a n s g r a n u la r p ro p a g a tio n

and s t r i a t i o n fo rm atio n on th e f a tig u e f r a c tu r e s u r f a c e .

119
S ince s t r i a t i o n s were f i r s t re p o rte d , much work h a s been done

in th e stu d y o f t h e i r f e a t u r e s . They have been o b serv ed in

many m e ta llic and n o n -m e ta llic m a te r ia ls .

In th e th re e s t r u c t u r e s u sed in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , f a tig u e

c ra c k s p ro p a g a te alm o st alw ays in a tr a n s g r a n u la r m anner.

Y/here in te r g r a n u la r c ra c k in g h as been o b serv ed , i t i s a s s o c ia te d

w ith bo th la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s b u t n e v er o c cu p ie s s i g n i f i c a n t

p o r tio n s o f th e f a tig u e f r a c tu r e a r e a . In b o th th e c o a rse and

fin e p e a r l i t e s , c ra ck grow th i s alo n g f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r ­

fa c e s and a c r o s s cem e n tite la m e lla e , w h ils t m a in ta in in g a p a th

t h a t i s a p p ro x im a te ly norm al to th e p r in c ip a l s t r e s s a x i s .

C em entite f r a c tu r e i s p r e f e r r e d where th e la m e lla e a r e o r i e n t a t e d

n e a r l y .norm al to th e c ra ck p a th . • I f ly in g a t a n g le s g r e a t e r

th a n ab o u t *f5 ° to th e c ra ck p a th , th e re s o lv e d s t r e s s e s a t th e

c rack t i p may be i n s u f f i c i e n t to c ra ck th e la m e lla e b u t s u f f i c i e n t

to p ro p a g a te th e c rack alo n g th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e

where v o id s may a lre a d y e x i s t and p ro v id e an easy p o t e n t i a l

r o u te .

C racking o f c e m e n tite la m e lla e may be e x p la in e d in term s o f

1 5k
a f ib r e lo a d in g mechanism. Such a mechanism i s j u s t i f i e d

s in c e p e a r l i t e s im u la te s many f i b r e r e in f o r c e d m a te r ia ls in so

f a r a s i t c o n ta in s h a rd p a r t i c l e s w ith in a d u c t i l e m a tr ix .

I t p r e d ic ts t h a t th e h ig h e s t s t r e s s i s developed a t th e c e n tr e

o f la m e lla e and f r a c tu r e o c c u rs h e r e . F u rth erm o re, th e ten d en cy

121
f o r c e m e n tite la m e lla e to crack depends on th ic k n e s s , th in

la m e lla e b ein g e a s i e r to crack th a n th ic k o n e s. R e s u lts

o b ta in e d show t h a t f r a c tu r e o f la m e lla e does n o t alw ays o ccu r

alo n g t h e i r m id -le n g th . However, th e r e s u l t s f o r f in e p e a r l i t e

show e x te n s iv e c ra c k p ro p a g a tio n a c r o s s c e m e n tite la m e lla e and

t h i s co u ld be a t t r i b u t e d to th e la m e lla e b e in g e a s i e r to c ra c k .

O th er r e s u l t s t h a t can be r e a d ily e x p la in e d in term s o f th e

mechanism a re found f o r th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e .

Here th e c ra ck p a th i s r a r e l y th rough th e s p h e ro id s and t h i s i s

most l i k e l y a t t r i b u t e d to s p h e r ic a l p a r t i c l e s n o t b e in g s u b je c t

to s i g n i f i c a n t f i b r e lo a d in g . When f r a c tu r e does o ccu r th e r e

i s l e s s energy a v a il a b le to p ro p a g a te th e c ra c k i n to th e f e r r i t e

m a trix th a n t h a t r e le a s e d from a f r a c tu r e d la m e lla . The co n cep t

o f energy r e le a s e from la m e lla e f r a c t u r e can be a p p lie d to

e x p la in th e ra p id c ra ck grow th a c r o s s la m e lla e in f in e p e a r l i t e .

V/ith a sm all in t e r l a m e l l a r sp acin g o f 700 Angstrom u n i t s , th e

energy r e le a s e d from f r a c tu r e o f one la m e lla may be s u f f i c i e n t

to p ro p a g a te th e c ra c k th ro u g h th e f e r r i t e and on to th e n e x t

la m e lla e where th e p ro c e s s i s th e n r e p e a te d . The e f f e c t i s

shown most c le a r ly in Fig.AVb where s e v e ra l i n d iv id u a l c ra c k s

a r e shown to p ro p o g ate a c r o s s c e m e n tite la m e lla e and c o n tin u e

t h e i r grow th in f e r r i t e . There a r e however o th e r c ra c k s which

on m eeting a la m e lla grow some d is ta n c e alo n g th e i n t e r f a c e

b e fo re c u ttin g a c r o s s th e la m e lla . T h is b e h a v io u r co u ld be

a t t r i b u t e d to th e p re sen c e o f grov/th f a u l t s in th e c e m e n tite

la m e lla e . 155 I t i s c le a r .from th e lim ite d amount o f c ra c k

p ro p a g a tio n s tu d ie s in t h i s i n v e s t i g a ti o n t h a t no s in g le mechanism

can e x p la in a l l th e o b s e rv a tio n s so f a r .

122
 C rack grow th a lo n g th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e i n t e r f a c e i s most

a p p a re n t in th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e a s shown in F i g . 55* At f i r s t

s i g h t , grow th a lo n g t h i s in t e r f a c e a p p ea rs to be o f a c lea v a g e

ty p e . S t r i a t i o n fo rm atio n i s n o t a p p a re n t on th e f r a c tu r e

s u rfa c e s o f c o a rse p e a r l i t e b u t i s p re s e n t on b o th f in e p e a r l i t e

and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s . T h is d if f e r e n c e in

appearance i s d i f f i c u l t to r e c o n c ile . On th e b a s is o f m icro­

s tr u c tu r e i t i s d i f f i c u l t to e x p la in th e h ig h e r p ro p a g a tio n r a t e

found in f in e p e a r l i t e . The o n ly f e a tu r e i s th e g r e a t e r p ro ­

p o r tio n o f in te r g r a n u la r f r a c tu r e i n t h i s s t r u c t u r e b u t even so

t h i s r e p r e s e n ts a v e ry sm all p ro p o rtio n o f th e f a tig u e a r e a .

I n g e n e r a l, th e o v e r a l l p ic tu r e em erging from r e s u l t s o f c ra c k

p ro p a g a tio n s tu d ie s in t h i s i n v e s t i g a ti o n i s n o t c l e a r . T h is

i s a t t r i b u t e d to o n ly a sm all amount o f th e t o t a l tim e b e in g

sp e n t on c ra c k p ro p a g a tio n s t u d i e s . The sm all amount o f tim e

h a s been j u s t i f i e d s in c e th e o v e r a ll i n v e s t ig a t i o n was co ncerned

w ith h ig h c y cle f a tig u e b e h av io u r and u n -n o tch ed sp ecim en s.

As m entioned e a r l i e r , th e c ra ck p ro p a g a tio n s ta g e r e p r e s e n ts

on ly a sm all amount o f th e t o t a l l i f e under such c o n d itio n s .

5.5*3* C o n d itio n s f o r C a ta s tro p h ic F a ilu r e

A f a tig u e c ra c k grows v /ith in a specimen u n t i l th e c ra c k

le n g th and s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y a t th e crack t i p re a c h l e v e l s a t

which c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e o c c u r s . T h is t r a n s i t i o n to r a p id

f r a c tu r e f a l l s v /ith in th e f i e l d o f f r a c tu r e m echanics and

f r a c tu r e toughness co n cep ts and h as n o t re c e iv e d much a t t e n t i o n

in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . N e v e rth e le s s , th e co n cep t o f f a tig u e

156
f r a c tu r e tou g h n ess h a s been proposed and shown to be r e l a t e d

to th e c y c lic s t r a i n h ard e n in g e x p o n en t. A d e c re a se in v a lu e

125
 156
f o r t h i s exponent i s claim ed to in c re a s e th e f a tig u e

f r a c tu r e toughness i n t h a t th e a re a o f th e f a tig u e f r a c t u r e zone

i s in c r e a s e d . R e s u lts from t h i s in v e s t ig a ti o n c o n tr a d ic t t h i s

c la im ; th e lo w e st v a lu e f o r th e exponent i s found in th e f in e

p e a r l i t e which i s shown to have th e lo w e st f a tig u e f r a c tu r e

to u g h n e ss.
CONCLUSIONS

1. F a tig u e damage a p p e a rs e a r ly i n th e l i f e in b o th la m e lla r and

s p h e ro id a l c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s . S u rfa c e damage e x i s t s a s s l i p

bands in th e f e r r i t e . In b o th th e c o arse and f in e la m e lla r

s t r u c t u r e s , s u rfa c e damage i s more in te n s iv e i n th o se re g io n s

having c e m e n tite la m e lla e o r ie n te d a t betw een 30 and 90° to th e

p r in c ip a l s t r e s s a x i s . A t a g iv en s ta g e o f th e f a tig u e l i f e ,

th e damage i n th e s e p r e f e r r e d re g io n s i s more l o c a l i s e d in th e

c o arse th a n in th e f in e p e a r l i t e .

2. S u rfa ce damage in a l l th re e s t r u c t u r e s , t e s t e d to f a i l u r e un d er

h ig h c y c le f a tig u e c o n d itio n s , i s a s s o c ia te d w ith a v e ry sh allo w

s u rfa c e to p o g rap h y . The maximum h e ig h t o f e x tr u s io n s i s ab o u t

0 . 5 /W.metres in th e c o arse p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e

s tru c tu re s . There i s alm o st no n o tch peak e f f e c t d is tin g u is h a b le

by o p t i c a l m eta llo g ra p h y in th e f in e p e a r l i t e .

3. C y clic s t r e s s i n g le a d s to a d is lo c a tio n b u ild -u p i n th e f e r r i t e .

The p r in c ip a l so u rce o f d is lo c a tio n s i s th e f e r r i t e - c e m e n t i t e

in te rfa c e .

A. C racks ap p ea r a t s l i p bands and i n t e r f a c e s betw een f e r r i t e and

c em e n tite in a l l th e th re e s t r u c t u r e s . C racks a ls o a p p e a r a t

p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s in la m e lla r s t r u c t u r e s and a t f e r r i t e

c e l l b o u n d a rie s in s p h e ro id a l s t r u c t u r e s . M icro sco p ic c ra c k s

can be d e te c te d a t up to 2% o f th e l i f e in c o a rse p e a r l i t e and

s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s w hereas in f in e p e a r l i t e th e y

a re d e te c te d a t betw een 50 and o f th e l i f e .

5. The mechanisms o f c rack p ro p a g a tio n in th e th r e e s t r u c t u r e s a re

n o t th e same. There a re la r g e a r e a s o f m ic ro -c le a v a g e a t

f e r r i te - c e m e n tite in t e r f a c e s and crack c u ttin g a c r o s s c e m e n tite

 la m e lla e in th e c o a rse p e a r l i t e . F in e p e a r l i t e shows

e x te n s iv e c u ttin g a c r o s s la m e lla e by a growing c ra ck and some

i n te r g r a n u la r c ra c k in g . A s t r i a t i o n mechanism i s d e te c te d .

Crack growth i s c o n c e n tra te d v /ith in f e r r i t e o r alo n g th e f e r r i t e -

c em e n tite in t e r f a c e i n th e s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e .

6. In a l l th re e s t r u c t u r e s , f a tig u e c ra ck p ro p a g a tio n fo llo w s a

s ta g e I - I I sequence and te rm in a te s v/hen th e c o n d itio n s f o r

c a ta s tr o p h ic f a i l u r e a r e a t t a i n e d . R e s u lts su g g e s t g r e a t e r

s u rfa c e c ra ck p ro p a g a tio n r a t e s in la m e lla r th a n s p h e ro id a l

s tru c tu re s . F u rth erm o re , th e p ro p o r tio n o f th e f u l l f r a c tu r e

zone occu p ied by th e f a tig u e c rack a re a i s g r e a t e s t i n th e

s p h e ro id a l s t r u c t u r e and l e a s t in th e c o arse p e a r l i t e .

7. The p r e d ic te d s t r a i n l i f e cu rv es show th a b th e h ig h e s t f a tig u e

r e s is ta n c e in th e low c y cle re g io n i s found in th e s p h e r o id is e d

5
c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e . For th e h ig h c y cle re g io n beyond 10 c y c le s ,

th e f in e p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e h a s th e h ig h e s t f a tig u e r e s i s t a n c e .

These p r e d ic tio n s a r e confirm ed from th e s t r a i n - l i f e t e s t s .

8. The th r e e s t r u c t u r e s d i f f e r in t h e i r change o f d e fo rm a tio n

r e s is ta n c e o v er a range o f s t r a i n o f up to 0 . 015 * ^ke f in e

p e a r l i t e c y c l i c a l l y s o f te n s o v er th e whole ra n g e . The c o a rse

p e a r l i t e and s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e s t r u c t u r e s c y c l i c a l l y s o f te n

a t s t r a i n s o f up to ab o u t 0 ,0 0 ^ . On c y c lin g a t s t r a i n s above

t h i s l e v e l , b o th s t r u c t u r e s h ard en and th e n re a c h a s a t u r a t i o n

le v e l•

126
7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

Throughout th e d is c u s s io n s e c tio n o f t h i s t h e s i s , s e v e r a l a re a s

have been i d e n t i f i e d where f u r t h e r i n v e s t ig a t i o n i s recommended.

I n g e n e r a l, a l l th e a r e a s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f

th e im p o rta n t m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l f e a tu r e s t h a t in flu e n c e th e f a tig u e

perform ance o f p e a r l i t e s t r u c t u r e s . I t i s recommended t h a t th e

tra n s m is s io n e le c tr o n m icroscope be more e x te n s iv e ly u sed i n s e v e r a l

o f th e s e a r e a s . The s p e c i f i c a re a s f o r in v e s t ig a ti o n a r e a s f o llo w s :-

a) to i d e n t i f y th e m ic r o s tr u c tu r a l f e a tu r e s t h a t in flu e n c e th e

mechanism o f c y c lic s o fte n in g and h a rd e n in g ,

b) to examine th e e f f e c t s o f c y c lic t e s t i n g on th e r e v e r s io n

o f cem e n tite in f e r r i t e ,

c) to examine th e a g e in g -ty p e phenomenon o b serv ed i n th e work

and i d e n t i f y th o se f a c to r s which in flu e n c e i t ,

d) to e v a lu a te th e f a tig u e perform ance o f s t r u c t u r e s h a v in g a

s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e core and a case o f f in e p e a r l i t e ,

e) to examine th e mechanisms o f f a tig u e c ra ck p ro p q g a tio n .

127
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P a r t i c l e s on Mech. P ro p s , o f S t e e l . Scarborough 1971.
I . S . I . P u b l. 1971, 119.
130. D. B roek. F r a c tu re 1969 . P ro c . o f B rig h to n C onference 1969 .
Ed. P .L . P r a t t . P ub. Chapman and H a ll. 75A.
131. P .T . H eald, T. C. L in d le y and C.E. R ic h a rd s . M a t.S c i.E n g .1972,
10 , 235 .
132. R.W. H e rtz b e rg . ASTM. STP.A15 , 1967, 305-
133* P .J .E . F o rsy th and D.A. R yder. M e ta llu r g ia . 1961, 63 , 117*
13A. W.A. S p it z ig and R .P . W ei. T ra n s. ASM. 1967, 60, 279*
135. P.M. G ilb y and S . P e a rs o n . RAE T ech. R ep. 66A02, 1966 .
136 . P .C . P a r i s and F . E rdogan. J . B asic Eng. 1963, 85 , 528.
137* J« Weertman. I n t . J . F rac t.M ec h . 1969, 5 , 13*
138 . A .J . McEvily and T .L . J o h n s to n . I n t.J .F r a c t.M e c h . 1967 , 3 , ^5*
139- B. Tomkins. P h i l . Mag. 1968, 18, 10A1.
1A0 . B. Tomkins, G. Sumner and J . W areing. F r a c tu re 1969- P ro c . o f
B rig h to n C onference 1969 . Ed. P .L . P r a t t . Pub. Chapman
and H a ll. 712.
1A1. P . Fox. M. P h i l . T h e s is . S h e f f ie ld P o ly te c h n ic , 1969*
1A2. R.C. B o e ttn e r . T ra n s . M et.S oc. AIME. 1967 , 239, 1030.
1A3. R. K ie e s lin g . N o n -M etallic I n c lu s io n s in S t e e l . I . S . I . P u b li­
c a tio n 115, P a r t I I I , 1968.
1AA. J . F . K n o tt. M etals and M a te r ia ls . May 1975, A5 .
1A5 . C.E. F e ltn e r and J . Morrow. J .B a s ic .E n g ., T ra n s , o f ASME.
1961, 83 , 15.
1A6. A .T. P r ic e and W .J. E ld e r . J . I . S . I . 1966 , 20A, 59A .
1^7. J .D . Embury and R.M. F is h e r . A eta.M et. 1966, lA , 1A7«
1A8. J .D . Embury, A .S. Keh, R.M. F is h e r. T ra n s . M et. S o c. AIME.
1966, 236 , 1252.
1A9. C. L a ird and G. Thomas. I n t.J .F r a c t.M e c h . 1967, 3 , 81 •
150. C.T. M ackenzie and P .P . Benham. The E n g in e e r. 1962, 21A, 110A.
151• P r iv a te Communication
152. P .J .E . F o r s y th . P h y s ic a l B a s is o f M etal F a tig u e . 1969 *
B la ck ie & Son L td . (London).
153. W.A. Wood. ASTM. STP.237- 1958, 110. '
15A. T.C . L in d le y , G. O ates and C.E. R ic h a rd s . A c ta . M et. 1970,
18 , 1127.
155. K.E. P u t t i c k . J . I . S . I . 1956, 185 , 167.
156. T. Yokobori and T. A izaw a. K ep.R es. I n s t . S tr e n g th and F r a c tu r e
o f M a te r ia ls . Tohoku U niv. 1969, 6, p p .19*
STATEMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDY

D uring th e p e rio d in v/hich th e re s e a rc h work was c a r r i e d o u t,

a number o f c o u rs e s , sem inars and c o n fe re n c e s were a tte n d e d . These

in c lu d e d th e fo llo w in g :-

a) th e p ro d u c tio n and p r e s e n ta tio n o f a p a p er e n t i t l e d " I n i t i a l F a tig u e

Damage in P e a r l i t e " a t th e I n s t i t u t e o f M etals C o n feren ce, "Modern

M etallo g rap h y i n M e ta llu rg y " . T h is was h e ld a t L iv e rp o o l U n iv e rs ity

i n Septem ber, 1971?

b) th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a p a p er a t a re s e a rc h colloquium a t S h e f f ie ld

P o ly te c h n ic and a tte n d a n c e a t s e v e r a l o f th e s e c o llo q u ia ,

c) a tte n d a n c e a t s e v e ra l c o llo q u ia a rra n g e d by th e F a tig u e R esearch

Group a t th e B r i t i s h R a il T e c h n ic a l C e n tre ,

d) a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s based on Advanced D is lo c a tio n Theory in

F r a c tu re a t S h e f f ie ld P o ly te c h n ic ,

e) a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s based on Q u a n tita tiv e M etallo g rap h y a t S h e f f ie ld

P o ly te c h n ic .

A p ap er h a s been su b m itte d and a c c e p te d f o r p r e s e n ta tio n a t th e

forthcom ing I n t e r n a t i o n a l C onference on F r a c tu re to be h e ld a t W aterlo o ,

Canada, in June 1977* The p ap er i s e n t i t l e d "M e ta llo g ra p h ic A sp e c ts

o f F a tig u e in P e a r l i t e S tr u c t u r e s " .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h is t h e s i s i s based on work c a r r ie d o u t a t th e S h e f f ie l d C ity

P o ly te c h n ic w h ils t th e a u th o r was a p a r t- tim e re s e a rc h s tu d e n t in th e

D epartm ent o f M e ta llu rg y from O ctober 19^9 to Septem ber 1975*

My id e a s owe much to th e h e lp and a d v ice g iv e n to me by P e te r W arin,

my c o lle g e s u p e r v is o r , and P e te r Watson o f th e B r i t i s h R a il T e c h n ic a l

C e n tre , D erby. I w ish to th an k th e many c o lle a g u e s a t th e T e c h n ic a l

C en tre who p ro v id e d v a lu a b le e x p e rim e n ta l a s s is ta n c e and s tim u la tin g

d is c u s s io n . I am in d e b te d to th e te c h n ic a l s t a f f a t th e P o ly te c h n ic ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y R u s s e ll Day f o r workshop f a c i l i t i e s and Ray Codd f o r

a s s is ta n c e in p re p a ra tio n o f some o f th e f o i l s .

I would a ls o l i k e to th an k th e B r i t i s h S te e l C o rp o ra tio n f o r u se

o f t h e i r m icroscope f a c i l i t i e s a t Swinden L a b o ra to rie s and t h e i r

in fo rm a tio n s e r v ic e a t th e Hoyle S t r e e t l a b o r a t o r i e s . My th a n k s go to

P a t r i c i a Cooper who ty p ed th e t h e s i s and a ls o to th e P r i n c i p a l a t

Rotherham C o llege o f Technology who su p p o rte d my i n i t i a l move i n to p a r t -

tim e r e s e a r c h .

F in a lly , I w ish to thank my fa m ily , Janet; S arah , and R achel f o r

t h e i r m oral su p p o rt and c o -o p e ra tio n th ro u g h o u t th e whole p e rio d o f t h i s

work.
 APPENDIX 1

METHOD OF CALCULATION USED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE

AREAS OF FERRITE~CEMENTITE INTERFACE IN STRUCTURES

C onsider th e i n t e r f a c e a re a v /ith in a cube o f th e m a te r ia l, v/hose

dim ensions a r e 1 x 1 x 1 mm.

I n b o th la m e lla r p e a r l i t e s , th e t o t a l a re a i s g iv e n by:

number o f la m e lla e i n cube x in t e r f a c e a re a x 2

I n b o th c a s e s , th e i n t e r f a c e a re a i s assumed to be 1 sq u are

m illim e tr e .

C oarse p e a r l i t e

1 mm.
No. o f la m e lla e th ic k n e s s o f la m e lla e + mean f r e e f e r r i t e p a th

Lam ellae th ic k n e s s 0 . 0^ 3y u n ietres

Mean F .F . p a th O .^O O ^m etres

1 mm.
No. o f la m e lla e = 2900

2
A. T o ta l i n t e r f a c e a re a 2 x 1 x 2900 = 5800 mms'

F in e P e a r l i t e

Lam ellae th ic k n e s s O.OOb^u. m e tre s

L am ellae sp ac in g 0 . 07^*- m e tre s

B. T o ta l in t e r f a c e a re a 12900 x 2 x 1 = 25800 mms2

S p h e ro id ise d C arbide

C onsider th e av erag e number o f sp h e ro id s v /ith in th e cube

hav in g th e dim ensions s t a t e d e a r l i e r .

T o ta l in t e r f a c e a re a i s th e n g iv en b y :-

Number o f s p h e ro id s x s u rfa c e a re a o f sp h e ro id s
 To fin d .a v e ra g e number o f sp h e ro id s

Av. d iam eter o f s p h e ro id = Zjxm e tre s

Mean f r e e f e r r i t e p a th = 0. m e tre s

No* alo n g 1 mm. = ----------- . =• ^00

2 .^ u .m e tre s

No. in cube = ^-00 x ^-00 x *f00

To f in d s u rfa c e a re a o f sp h e ro id
2
A rea o f sp h ere = *f!Tr

r = av erag e ra d iu s ^ o f sp h e ro id

r = Y m etre
T o ta l s u rfa c e a re a = *f00 x *f00 x hOO x ^ x T T x 1 x 1

_C = 800 mms.^

Sum m arising, th e t o t a l i n t e r f a c e a re a v /ith in th e cube f o r

each s tr u c tu r e i s g iv en b y :-
2
A - c o a rse p e a r l i t e _____________=_____ 5800 mms
2
B - f in e p e a r l i t e _______________ = 25800 mms
2
C - s p h e ro id is e d c a rb id e ______ »______ 800 mms
 TABLE 1

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STEELS USED

IN THE INVESTIGATION
V/eight °/o

STEEL STEEL STEEL

A B C

Carbon 0.78 O.78 0 .7 ^

S il ic o n 0.20 0.20 0.21

Manganese 0.70 0.68 0.66

S ulphur 0.0 3 9 0 .0 2 5 0.020

Phosphorus 0.020 0.010 0.010

N ick el OjfO 0jf 2 0 .3 7

Chromium 0 . 2*f 0.28 0.22

Copper 0.12 Not j Analysed

Aluminium 0.015 Not j Vnalysed

Lead 0 .0 5 Not .Analysed

 TABLE 2

MONOTONIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL C

AS MEASURED IN A TENSILE TEST

0 .2 ^ P ro o f T e n s ile rru e F r a c tu re True

S tr e s s S tre n g th S tre s s F r a c tu r e
STRUCTURE
N/mm2 N/mra2 S tra in
N/mm2

C oarse
P e a rlite 315 776 9^5 0.28

F in e
780 11^5 1285 0.16
P e a rlite

S p h e ro id ise d
C arbide 392 72*f 1080 0.71

TABLE 3

CYCLIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL C AS

DETERMINED FROM A CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

C y c lic
C y c lic C y c lic S tra in
STRUCTURE Y ie ld S tre n g th H ardening
S tr e s s C o e f f ic ie n t E xponent
N/mm2 N/mm2 rV
C oarse
220 1790 0 . 2^5
P e a rlite

F in e
P e a rlite 273 2620 0.228

S p h e ro id ise d
210 1670 0 . 2^8
C arbide
 O'
CYCLIC HARDENING

No. OF CYCLES

ST RES S RESPONSE HYSTERESIS LOOPS

No. OF CYCLES

STRAIN CONTROL

ST RESS R E S P O N S E HYSTERESIS LOOPS

CYCLIC SOFTENING
No.OF CYCLES

FIG. 1 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE RESPONSE

O F METALLIC MATERIALS TO CYCLIC STRAIN q
F ig . 2 M onotonic and C y c lic S t r e s s -

S t r a i n Curves f o r S te e l SAE

(A nnealed)
7
A f te r L an d raf
COMPARISON OF THE MONOTONIC AMD CYCLIC STRESS
STRAIN CURVES FOR STEEL SAE 4340 (A N N E A L E D ).

MONOTONIC

CYCLIC

STEEL COMPOSITION SPECIFICATION

0 - 3 8 “ 0 - 4 3 % CARBON

0-60- 0-80% MANGANESE

1-65 - 2 - 0 0 % NICKEL

% CHROMIUM

0 - 2 0 “ 0 - 3 0 % MOLYBDENUM

STRAIN
F ig . 3 M onotonic and C y c lic S tr e s s

S t r a i n Curves f o r M an-ten S te e l

and W aspaloy.
7
A f te r L a n d g ra f.
STRAIN CURVES

------------------- monotonic

------------------ CYCLIC

M A N " T E N ST EEL

0 - 2 8 % CARBON (MAX.)

M O - 1-6 0 % M AN GA NES E.

0-04% P H O S P H O R U S (MAX.)

0 05% SULPHUR (MAX.)

0 -30 % SILICON (MAX.)

0 - 2 0 % COPP ER ( MI N. )

WASPALOY

NICKEL BASE ALLOY CONTAINING

1 9 % CHROMIUM

U % COBALT

4 % MOLYBDENUM

SMALL ADDITIONS OF TITANIUM,

IRON, ALUMINIUM A N D CARBON.

STRAIN
 /

logcra

log 2Nf

FIG.4
 CM
ZZ

FIG. 5
CL CN
cn
o
Q.
XI
cn
o
Fig* 6 S chem atic v a r i a t i o n o f th e f a tig u e

s tr e n g th and d u c t i l i t y ex p o n en ts, (b and c)

and th e tr u e f r a c t u r e s tr e n g th and s t r a i n

( O f and ) viith th e c y c lic s t r a i n

h ard e n in g ex p o n en t, r \!

F ig . 7 Schem atic diagram o f s ta g e I and s ta g e I I

cra c k p ro p q g a tio n in a p o ly c r y s t a l .

A f te r L a ir d .
 direction of
stress

FIG .7
Fig* 8 S chem atic r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a

f a tig u e h a rd e n in g c u rv e .

F ig * 9 Schem atic r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f d is lo c a tio n

s t r u c t u r e s produced i n s in g le phase m a te r ia ls

by c y c lic s t r e s s i n g .
 saturation

rapid
hardening

50 100 150 200 250

No. of cycles.

FIG. 8

CELLULAR
NETWORK

BUNDLES.

MAG. XI 5,000
F ig . 10 An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f tv/o mechanisms

f o r sh e a r mode c ra ck grow th.

Type A i s a s s o c ia te d w ith m a te r ia ls o f

wavy s l i p c h a r a c te r where screiv d is lo c a tio n s

can r e a d ily c ro s s s l i p . *^ype B i s

a s s o c ia te d w ith m a te r ia ls o f p la n a r s l i p

c h a r a c te r .
105
A fte r Kaplan and L a ir d .
 FIG. 10 A FIG. 10 B

S t a g e I c r ac k g r o w t h by the plastic S t a g e I crack g r o w t h by the u n s l ip p in g •

blunting p r o c e s s : ( a ) c o m p r e s s i o n a n a l o g of th e pla sti c blu nt in g p r o c e s s :
( b ) tension ( c) c o m p r e s s i o n . ( a ) c o m p r e s s i o n (b) tension ( c ) c o m p r e s s i o n .
F ig . 11 The p l a s t i c b lu n tin g p ro c e s s .

Drav/ings a t l e f t in d ic a te p o in ts on th e

c y c lic h y s t e r e s i s lo o p to which th e

c r a c k - t ip geom etry a p p l i e s . The p l a s t i c

zone s iz e i s m easured a lo n g p la n e s o f

maximum s h e a r .

A f te r L a ir d .
 ZERO
STRESS

TENSILE
STRESS

MAXIMUM
TENSILE
STRESS

COMPRESSIVE
STRESS

ZERO
ST RE S S

HYSTERESIS
LOOPS fp s p l a s t i c z o n e s i z e

£ = crack a d v a n c e d i s t a n c e
F I G . 11
F ig . 12 Specimen d e sig n .

Upper diagram shows dim ensions o f

f l a t specim ens used f o r re v e rs e

p la n e b e n d in g .

Lower diagram shows round s e c tio n

specim en d im en sio n s.

F ig . 13 A pparatus u sed f o r e le c tr o p o lis h in g

specim ens.
10-90$
10-70
CONC
TOL.O-IO SCREWED 7/j6 DIA. B.S.W.
FORM (EFFECTIVE D!A.
all d i m e n s i o n s in mm. 25-4 RAD(TYP) 0 -3 9 0 \
u n l e s s stated. 0-385

FIG. 12

ICE

STAINLESS STEEL CATHODE

SPECIMEN

c > o

FIG. 13
T y p ic a l a r e a s o f th e th re e s t r u c t u r e s
u sed i n th e in v e s t ig a ti o n ( i n th e h e a t
t r e a t e d c o n d itio n )*

C oarse p e a r l i t e Mag* x 500

F in e p e a r l i t e Mag* x 700

S p h e ro id ise d c a rb id e Mag. x 15000

 FIG. 15 THE INFLUENCE OF MICROSTRUCTURE ON THE
MONOTONIC TENSION STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
1200 1 ( STEEL C )

o
o
oo
o
CO
o
o
CD
O
O

*uiiii/SN01M3N ~SS3*J1S
< >
5

TJ

o
"o
o
O

to
CO

CM

“ CM
LD

1“
<
z.

O (/)
C£
 CYCLIC TENSION STRESS “ STRAIN CURVES
(STEEL C)

500 -

300 - M o n o t o n ic

Cyclic

FIG. 16 COARSE FEARLITE

100 -

500 -

300 -

FIG. 17 SPHEROSDISED

100 *

•005 •01 •015

STRAIN
 I W f c .1 w • I 1 ^ i I 'S w » ' t » i. « w # W I 1 v i ~ ”% I s ¥ V U 5 \ ¥ 4 —•

( STEEL C)

1000 -

8GG-

600-

400-
monotonic
cyclic

200 -

F I G .1 8 FINE PEARLITE

•DOS •01 •015

STRAIN
 FIG. 19 PREDICTED STRAIN-LIFE CURVE
(COARSE PEARLITE)

2
<
□
a

CL
LU

<
<0
o
^

o
o
UJ

Csf
< if)
00
LU
> f—

o
o
ID
to

o
o

CD

O
O
O
O
O

REVERSALS TO FAILURE - 2N
 LU
3
_I if)
$ 1— CO
y UJ

<
G£ OC O
F—O
CO LL

CD
_ O
CURVE

ID Z
_O CM
PREDICTED STRAIN-LIFE

UJ
(FINE ‘PEARLITE)

Dd
3

O £

l/l
_J
<
(O
O'
O UJ
>
UJ
Dd

CM
CD - O
CM
O
FIG. 20

«r—
o o
o

UJ
a
3
<5: F to
Cd Zj CM
CL <3
CO
2
<
 Lo

CD
Uo
PREDICTED STRAIN-LIFE CURVE

LO
O *♦-
(SPHEROIDISED CARBIDE)

■ — z :

CN
I
UJ
O'
ZD
_J
<*■ <f
-O LL
O
CO
_J
<
CO
CO C£
.o LU
>
LU
CC

CN
. O
FIG. 21

u O

LU
Q
3
< j*—
ur: H i CJ
h - CL. < J
CO
2
<
SURFACE FATIGUE DAMAGE IN COARSE PEARLITE

22 C ycled f o r 2J/o o f l i f e
Mag. x 2000

cl • Note th e a re a f r e e o f damage

C ycled f o r 75$ o f l i f e

Mag. x 8000
Note damage a t p e a r l i t e c e l l b o u n d a rie s

b. Mag. x 3000
Note th e r i p p l e s in d ic a te d by arrov/s
Surface Fatigue Damage in Fine Pearlite

F ig . 2b C ycled f o r 2J/o o f l i f e ,
a. Mag. x 8000

b. Mag. x 13,000

F ig . 25 C ycled f o r 1% o f l i f e

Mag. x 13,000
Surface Fatigue Damage in Spheroidised Carbide.

F ig . 26 C ycled f o r 2Jfo o f l i f e .
Mag. x 8000

a.

b.

F ig . 27 C ycled f o r 7% o f l i f e
Mag. x 10,000
The Development o f S u rfa c e F a tig u e Damage i n th e
same a re a o f ^ o a rse P e a r l i t e .
Mag. x 500

F ig . 28 c$ q of lif e

F ig . 29 % of lif e

F ig . 30 F in a l f a i l u r e

P r in c i p a l S tr e s s
D ire c tio n

< >
 \

° V.
V ^
\ I '■
...A

•I'I

® .So’.

O- ' v*“

t c -° V\
o
00 . 'V\
O
Y
"'V ’■ «
-V 1

V\
C ’I :
,v.«

f.!»
J
xmfGP O=>°‘

' v\
•* . * - ^
yWx>'
<"- ' '
'—
e
r c f •' sJn + t
t 5" ,
* Vy V • /

' Wy # 1 la I?
V > * ..
.im aftA A\s
. V "•
y g
, H v • ■ V\
^ x I ,1 v A

s#
» -*o\*
>/ ■ j
• I
/
•

I V- ^ ••
■ r % a *
'T r c ^
An E le c tro n M icroscope S tudy o f R e p lic a s from
F a tig u e Damaged S u rfa c e s i n C oarse P e a r l i t e .
C ycled to 2J/o o f l i f e .

F ig . 31 Mag. x 10,000
The arrow s in d ic a te c ra ck s w ith in f e r r i t e (A)
and a ls o a t f e r r i te - c e m e n tite i n t e r f a c e s (B)

F ig . 32 Mag. x 8000
Note th e ap p earan ce o f s l i p bands w ith in
f e r r i t e and th e absence o f s l i p in some a r e a s
of fe rrite .

P r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d ir e c tio n
Fig. 33 S u rface, f a tig u e damage in
C oarse P e a r l i t e .

F a tig u e d to 10% o f l i f e .

Mag. x 1500

P r in c i p a l S tr e s s
D ire c tio n
< >
The E f f e c t o f C em entite L am ellae O r ie n ta tio n on
lo c a tio n o f s u rfa c e damage in c o arse p e a r l i t e .
Mag. x 200

F ig . 3^ A rea o f damage - fa tig u e d to J/o life

( i . e . 28 x 10 c y c le s )

Fig* 35^ Same a re a a f t e r e le c tr o p o lis h in g damaged

s u rfa c e to remove 2 //.m e tre s .

F ig . 35h Same a r e a a f te r - ,f a t ig u e t e s t i n g f o r a
f u r t h e r 28 x 10 c y c le s .
 , , *•
■■
•'
: ■ -• v . ■
> - V ,-
.
zY?x '

*
Taper Sections of Specimens shov/ing Fatigue Damage.
Taper magnification x 5

F ig . 36 C oarse p e a r l i t e fa tig u e d to 10$ o f l i f e ,

a. Mag.x1000

b. Mag. x 500
Taper Sections of Specimens showing Fatigue damage
Taper magnification x 5

F ig . 37 C oarse p e a r l i t e fa tig u e d to 10$ o f l i f e

a. Mag. x 1000

b. Mag. x 1000
Taper S e c tio n s o f S p h e ro id ise d C arbide Specimens
b e fo re and a f t e r F a tig u e T e s tin g .

Taper m a g n ific a tio n x 3

O p tic a l m a g n ific a tio n x 600

F ig . 38 a. N o n -fa tig u e d c o n d itio n

b. A fte r f a tig u e t e s t i n g to of lif e

Fig. 39 Taper S e c tio n o f C oarse P e a r l i t e a f t e r
F a tig u e T e s tin g to f a i l u r e in 2000 c y c le s .
Taper m a g n ific a tio n x 3
O p tic a l m a g n ific a tio n x 200

F ig . kO An E le c tro n M icrograph o f C oarse P e a r l i t e

a f t e r T e n s ile F r a c tu re
Mag. x 26,000
F ig . kit E le c tro n M icrographs o f C oarse P e a r l i t e .

a. F a tig u e d to 2% o f l i f e .
Mag. x 12,000

b. F a tig u e d to l^P/o o f l i f e .
Mag. x 100,000

c. Not f a tig u e d
Mag. x 30 f 000
F ig . k2 E le c tro n M icrographs o f C oarse P e a r l i t e
fa tig u e d to 7 of lif e .

a. Mag. x 60,000

b. Mag. x 100,000
Electron Micrographs of Fine Pearlite

Fig. 43 Fatigued to 75$ of life,

a. Mag. x 30*000

b. Mag. x 56,000

Fig. 44 Fatigued to 25$ of life.

a. Mag. x 30,000

b. Mag. x 30,000
a
E le c tro n M icrographs o f F in e P e a r l i t e .
F a tig u e d to 2 of lif e .

Mag. x 30*000

Mag. x 30,000

E le c tro n M icrographs o f S p h e ro id ise d

C a rb id e .

F a tig u e d to 23^ o f l i f e .
Mag. x 28,000

F a tig u e d to 7% o f l i f e .
Mag. x 56,000
C * V -'
Fig. k 7 Scanning E le c tr o n M icrograph.
C oarse P e a r l i t e F a tig u e d to
2y/o o f l i f e . .
Mag. x 2000

P rin c ip a l S tre s s
D ire c tio n
< >
C rack I n i t i a t i o n S i t e s in C oarse P e a r l i t e
Specim ens f a tig u e d to 2J/o o f l i f e th e n
e le c tr o - p o lis h e d to remove 2 ti.m e tre s .
Mag. x 1000

F ig . ^8

F ig . ^9

P r in c i p a l S t r e s s
D ire c tio n
< >
C rack I n i t i a t i o n S i t e s in F in e P e a r l i t e .
F a tig u e d to 7J/o o f l i f e .
S u rfa c e r e p l i c a - Mag. x 15000

C rack Growth in C oarse P e a r l i t e .

Specim ens F a tig u e d to of lif e .
Scanning E l e c t r o n f^licrogra.phs.

Mag. x 1500

Mag. x 1500

Principal Stress
Direction
— M l l l i l l H I I I I » i5

V • ^
-, ’ ;.

rn m m & m
Fig. 52 Crack Growth Development in one area
of a Coarse Pearlite during fatigue.

a. F a tig u e d to %f/o o f l i f e .
Mag. x *f00

b. Same a re a a f t e r f a tig u e f a i l u r e .
Mag. x 1000

Principal Stress
Direction
Fig. 53 Crack Growth in Coarse Pearlite
during fatigue.
S c a n n in g E lectron . Micro^g rap In £>.

a Mag. x 2500

Mag. 1000

Principal Stress
Direction
!5i.
Fatigue Fracture Surfaces in Coarse Pearlite.

Scanning Electron crogrcxphs.

F ig . 5^ Mag. x 600

F ig . 55 Mag. x 1500
Fatigue Fracture Surface in Coarse Pearlite.

F ig . 56 Mag. x 1000
S t a n n i ng E l e c t r on M i c r o g r a p h .
Fig. 57 C rack Growth in S p h e ro id ise d C arbide
d u rin g f a tig u e
(Scanning e le c tr o n m icrographs)

a Mag. x 10,000

b. Mag. x 20,000
Fatigue Fracture Surface in Spheroidised Carbide

Fig* 58 Scanning E le c tro n m icrograph

Mag* x 625

E ig . 59 S in g le s ta g e r e p l i c a
Mag* x 5000
Fatigue Fracture Surface in Fine Pearlite
Scanning Electron Micrographs Mag. x 600

F ig . 60 Note th e s in g le i n i t i a t i o n s i t e .
Specimen s ta g e i s t i l t e d a t
to e le c tr o n beam.

F ig . 61 Shows one i n i t i a t i o n s i t e .
Specimen s ta g e i s a t 0 .
Fatigue Fracture Surface in Fine Pearlite.
Scanning Electron Micrographs

F ig . 62 Mag. x 600
Note th e a r e a s o f in te r g r a n u la r
c ra ck grow th.

Specimen s ta g e t i l t a n g le - 45°

F ig . 63 Mag. x 450
Shows more e x te n s iv e in te r g r a n u l a r
c ra c k grow th.

Specimen s ta g e t i l t an g le - k^°
Fatigue Fracture Surface in Fine Pearlite.
Scanning Electron Micrographs

F ig . 6k Mag. x 200
Shows t r a n s i t i o n betw een f a tig u e
and r a p i d ' f r a c tu r e zo n es.

F ig . 65 Mag. x 2000
Shows f a tig u e f r a c tu r e a c r o s s
cem e n tite la m e lla e .
Fig. 66 F a tig u e F r a c tu re S u rfa ce i n F in e P e a r l i t e
- S in g le S tag e R e p lic a .
Mag* ~x 5000