O N T H E C A L C U L A T I O N OF

DUCTED PROPELLER
P E R F O R M A N C E IN
A X I S Y M M E T R I C FLOWS

J. A. C. F A L C A O D E C A M P O S
C A L C U L A T I O N OF D U C T E D PROPELLER P E R F O R M A N C E IN
A X I S Y M M E T R I C FLOWS

B I B L I O T H E E K T U Delft
P 1734 3404

821780
 O N T H E C A L C U L A T I O N OF
DUCTED PROPELLER
P E R F O R M A N C E IN
A X I S Y M M E T R I C FLOWS

PROEFSCHRIFT

T E R V E R K R I J G I N G V A N D E G R A A D V A N D O C T O R IN D E
TECHNISCHE WETENSCHAPPEN A A N DE TECHNISCHE
H O G E S C H O O L D E L F T OP G E Z A G V A N D E R E C T O R
M A G N I F I C U S , P R O F . IR. B. P. T H . V E L T M A N
VOOR E E N COMMISSIE A A N G E W E Z E N DOOR HET C O L L E G E
V A N D E K A N E N T E V E R D E D I G E N OP D I N S D A G
1 4 J U N I 1983 T E 14.00UUR

DOOR

JOSÉ A L B E R T O C A I A D O FALCÂO D E C A M P O S

E N G E N H E I R O MECÁNICO
G E B O R E N TE LISSABON

H. V E E N M A N E N Z O N E N B.V. - W A G E N I N G E N
Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd
door de promotoren

Prof. Dr. Ir. J. D. van Manen

Prof. Dr. Ir. P. J. Zandbergen
CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. ANALYSIS OF THE FLOW PAST A PROPELLER DUCT 6

2.1. I n t r o d u c t o r y remarks 6

2.2. P o t e n t i a l flow a n a l y s i s 9

2.2.1. F o r m u l a t i o n o f the problem and boundary c o n d i t i o n s 9

2.2.2. Numerical solution 15

2.2.3. C a l c u l a t i o n o f the duct c i r c u l a t i o n . F i r s t inviscid

approximation and the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n 21

2.3. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e duct v i s c o u s l a y e r s 25

2.4. V i s c o u s - i n v i s c i d coupling 28

2.5. R e s u l t s i n u n i f o r m flow and comparison w i t h experiment 30

2.6. C a l c u l a t i o n o f the duct s t e a d y l o a d f o r a duct w i t h p r o p e l l e r 38

2.6.1. P r o p e l l e r model and p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s on

the duct 38

2.6.2. Remarks on v i s c o u s e f f e c t s on the duct f o r a ducted

propeller 49

2.7. N u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s and comparison w i t h experiment 51

3. DUCTED PROPELLER IN AXISYMMETRIC SHEAR FLOW 70

3.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 70

3.2. G o v e r n i n g equations 73

3.3. I t e r a t i v e s o l u t i o n by a d i s c r e t e v o r t e x sheet method 82

3.3.1. V o r t e x sheet a p p r o x i m a t i o n to t h e v o r t i c i t y i n the

flow 82

3.3.2. F i r s t approximation t o the a c t u a t o r d i s k v o r t e x sheets

and the flow stream surfaces 85

3.3.3. C a l c u l a t i o n o f the f l o w stream s u r f a c e s and

d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the v o r t e x s h e e t s 87

3.3.4. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f the v o r t e x s h e e t s 95

3.3.5. I t e r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e 97

3.4. N u m e r i c a l results and comparison w i t h experiment 98

4. INTERACTION STUDIES BETWEEN A DUCTED PROPELLER AND THE STERN

FOR AX I SYMMETRIC FLOWS 114

4.1. Introduction 114
4.2. A p p l i c a t i o n t o the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the s t e r n f l o w f o r an
a x i s y m m e t r i c body 119

4.3. I n t e r a c t i o n between a d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r and the s t e r n 126

4.4. D i s c u s s i o n o f the r e s u l t s 130

5. DUCTED PROPELLER DESIGN 139

5.1. Introduction 139

5.2. D e s i g n p r o c e d u r e 140

5.3. P r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s 142

5.4. Duct t h r u s t and duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s 145

5.5. The d e s i g n w i t h the i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r method 147

5.6. R e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n 152

6. CONCLUSIONS 161

Appendix 1 163
Appendix 2 167
References 168
Nomenclature 175
Summary 188
Samenvatting 190
Acknowledgement 192
Curriculum vitae 193
1. Introduction

In s h i p p r o p u l s i o n , f o r a t t a i n i n g h i g h p r o p u l s i v e e f f i c i e n c y or

r e d u c i n g the r i s k o f c a v i t a t i o n on p r o p e l l e r s , the d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r became

i n the l a s t decades, a w i d e l y used p r o p u l s i o n d e v i c e .

With r e g a r d t o i t s purpose o r i t s b a s i c working p r i n c i p l e two main

t y p e s o f d u c t s may be d i s c e r n e d . The a c c e l e r a t i n g t y p e , which f i n d s i t s

field of a p p l i c a t i o n i n improving the e f f i c i e n c y o f h e a v i l y l o a d e d propellers

and the d e c e l e r a t i n g type which i s employed t o reduce the e x t e n t o f

c a v i t a t i o n on p r o p e l l e r s , as i n the case o f pump jets.

In r e c e n t y e a r s , w i t h the permanent i n c r e a s e o f power i n s t a l l e d on

s h i p s , h i g h l e v e l s o f v i b r a t i o n i n d u c e d on the h u l l may occur p r i m a r i l y due

to unsteady c a v i t a t i o n phenomena on the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s o p e r a t i n g i n the

h i g h l y non-uniform s h i p ' s wake.

In c e r t a i n c a s e s , as s u g g e s t e d f o r example by O o s t e r v e l d (1971),

a p p l i c a t i o n o f a non-axisymmetric duct may lead to a decrease o f the extent

of c a v i t a t i o n on the p r o p e l l e r and reduce i t s i n d u c e d v i b r a t i o n and r a d i a t e d

noise levels.

In view o f an i n c r e a s i n g number o f a p p l i c a t i o n s o f the ducted propeller,

the development o f t h e o r e t i c a l models f o r d e s c r i b i n g i t s hydrodynamical

performance has r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n o f many a u t h o r s .

E a r l y t h e o r e t i c a l work on d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r s aiming at the e v a l u a t i o n

o f i t s performance and the s e t up o f adequate d e s i g n methods were c o n c e n t r a -

t e d on the u n i f o r m flow case. In such i d e a l i z e d c o n d i t i o n s the hydrodynamic

problem f o r the ducted p r o p e l l e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n p r e s e n t s i t s e l f as an

i n t e r f e r e n c e problem between p r o p e l l e r and d u c t . Under the assumptions o f

ideal fluid and flow i r r o t a t i o n a l i t y the flow p a s t p r o p e l l e r and duct may

be r e p r e s e n t e d by s i n g u l a r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s on the duct and propeller

s u r f a c e s and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a i l i n g vortex sheets r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r

wakes.

Under a d d i t i o n a l linearising assumptions r e g a r d i n g the magnitude o f

the d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t r o d u c e d by p r o p e l l e r and duct on the u n d i s t u r b e d flow

in a r e f e r e n c e frame r o t a t i n g w i t h the p r o p e l l e r , the s i n g u l a r i t i e s and the

potential flow boundary c o n d i t i o n s can be t r a n s f e r r e d to s p e c i f i c reference

surfaces: a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e f o r the duct and a set of h e l i c o i d a l vortex

s h e e t s f o r the propeller.

The b a s i c i d e a s f o r the a n a l y s i s o f the steady performance o f the duc-

ted propeller in a x i a l and u n i f o r m f l o w , were a l r e a d y c o n t a i n e d i n the work o f

Dickmann and W e i s s i n g e r (1955). They r e p r e s e n t e d the duct w i t h an elliptical

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r i n g v o r t i c e s on a c y l i n d e r of constant r a d i u s and the

p r o p e l l e r was modeled by an a c t u a t o r d i s k o f c o n s t a n t load with i t s corres-

pondent s l i p s t r e a m r i n g vorticity.

Theories introduced subsequently by Ordway et a l (1960),and Morgan (1961)

made use o f l i n e a r i z e d r i n g a i r f o i l theory, o r i g i n a l l y developed by

W e i s s i n g e r (1955,1957), and i n c l u d e d a l i f t i n g l i n e model f o r the propeller.

Ordway e t a l c o n s i d e r e d a l i g h t l y l o a d e d p r o p e l l e r , w h i l e Morgan used the

i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r method as i n t r o d u c e d by L e r b s (1952) f o r moderately loaded

p r o p e l l e r s . These t h e o r i e s c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o the e v a l u a t i o n o f both

steady and non-steady l o a d i n g on a r o t a t i o n a l symmetric duct under the

i n f l u e n c e o f the p r o p e l l e r . D i s c u s s i o n o f non-steady duct performance i s

o u t s i d e the scope o f the p r e s e n t work. F o r an account on the linearized

t h e o r i e s mentioned above we r e f e r t o the review work o f W e i s s i n g e r and

Maas (1968).

A fundamental r e s u l t which f o l l o w e d from t h o s e investigations and

which i s o f importance f o r the e v a l u a t i o n o f the d u c t ' s steady performance,

is the e q u i v a l e n c e between the time averaged flow f i e l d i n d u c e d by a rotating

set o f bound r a d i a l lifting l i n e s together with t h e i r t r a i l i n g vortex sheets

and the axisymmetric flow i n d u c e d by an i n f i n i t e l y b l a d e number p r o p e l l e r

model, the a c t u a t o r d i s k .

T h i s e q u i v a l e n c e was demonstrated by Hough and Ordway (1965) i n the

strictly linearized case o f a l i g h t l y loaded p r o p e l l e r f o r which the

helicoidal v o r t e x s h e e t s are assumed t o have a c o n s t a n t p i t c h determined by

the u n d i s t u r b e d advance and rotational velocities.

In the case o f the m o d e r a t e l y loaded p r o p e l l e r lifting l i n e model the

e q u i v a l e n c e does not h o l d . However, the a c t u a t o r d i s k model has been used

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as an a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o study non-linear effects o f c o n t r a c t i o n and p i t c h

v a r i a t i o n o f the h e l i c o i d a l vortex l i n e s t a k i n g place i n the s l i p s t r e a m of

moderately and h e a v i l y l o a d e d p r o p e l l e r s as c o n s i d e r e d by Van Gent (1976).

S t u d i e s o f t h e e f f e c t s o f s l i p s t r e a m c o n t r a c t i o n on duct performance

i n ducted propeller applications using s i m p l i f i e d a c t u a t o r d i s k models have

been c a r r i e d out by C h a p l i n (1964) and Van G u n s t e r e n (1973).

Apart from such r e f i n e m e n t s o f the p r o p e l l e r models, improvement o f t h e

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e duct has been a c h i e v e d by a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e

v o r t i c i t y models which take i n t o account i n a r a t h e r a c c u r a t e way,the duct's

geometry. T h i s has been done by Lewis and Ryan (1971).

In g e n e r a l t h e d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r operates i n t h e s h i p ' s wake i n t h e

proximity of the h u l l and t h e water s u r f a c e s .

The f a c t t h a t the p r o p u l s o r works i n a f l o w r e g i o n w i t h h i g h concentra-

t i o n of v o r t i c i t y basically i n v a l i d a t e s t h e assumption o f p o t e n t i a l flow

which u n d e r l i e s u n i f o r m flow t h e o r i e s .

Nevertheless, the success enjoyed by t h e d e s i g n o f wake adapted

p r o p e l l e r s based on t h e i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r method o f L e r b s (1952) has ensured t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l f l o w t h e o r i e s i n a s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d form t o t h e

g e n e r a l non-uniform f l o w c a s e . The m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d i n the t h e o r y o f

wake a d a p t i o n c o n s i s t i n c o n s i d e r i n g the f l o w p e r t u r b a t i o n s i n d u c e d by the bound

and trailing v o r t i c i t y t o be added t o t h e u n d i s t u r b e d local inflow v e l o c i t i e s

to the p r o p e l l e r d i s k assumed t o v a r y w i t h t h e r a d i a l c o o r d i n a t e . In

a d d i t i o n the p i t c h of the h e l i c o i d a l vortex l i n e s assumed c o n s t a n t i n axial

direction i s determined a t the p r o p e l l e r plane by t h e l o c a l total velocities.

The local inflow v e l o c i t i e s i n t o the p r o p e l l e r i . e . t h e t o t a l

v e l o c i t i e s minus t h e p r o p e l l e r p e r t u r b a t i o n s , a r e known as e f f e c t i v e

velocities and i t s knowledge i s c o n s i d e r e d i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n wake adapted

p r o p e l l e r d e s i g n . They d i f f e r from t h e nominal v e l o c i t i e s which o c c u r behind

the s h i p ' s h u l l i n t h e absence o f t h e o p e r a t i n g propeller.

Such d i f f e r e n c e i s r e g a r d e d as a consequence o f t h e p r o p e l l e r - h u l l

i n t e r a c t i o n phenomena.

The previous considerations i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e problems i n v o l v e d

i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e a v a i l a b l e t h e o r i e s and p o i n t out t h e need o f

c o n s i d e r i n g the problem o f d u c t e d propeller hull interaction.

Specifically i t i s thought necessary t o a s c e r t a i n t o what e x t e n t some

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of the most r e l e v a n t e f f e c t s o f the i n t e r a c t i o n phenomena may i n f l u e n c e the
d e t a i l e d performance o f the p r o p u l s o r .

Recent s t u d i e s by Huang e t a l (1976, 1977), S c h e t z and F a v i n (1979), on

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between a c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o p e l l e r and the s t e r n have been con-

c e n t r a t e d on axisymmetric b o d i e s . In view o f the c o n s i d e r a b l e s i m p l i c i t y of

the s t e r n f l o w when compared w i t h the s i t u a t i o n b e h i n d the s h i p , o f f e r e d by

the f l o w axisymmetry, t h e s e s t u d i e s employ models which attempt complete pre-

d i c t i o n s o f the f l o w f i e l d around the s t e r n w i t h the p r o p e l l e r i n o p e r a t i o n .

On the o t h e r hand, w i t h the advent of Laser-Doppler anemometry, the

measurement o f the v e l o c i t y field i n the c l o s e v i c i n i t y o f the o p e r a t i n g

propeller, (Huang e t a l , 1976, 1977), has enabled the d e t a i l e d comparison

w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l predictions.

Attempts t o a d r e s s the problem from a d i r e c t numerical solution of

the f u l l Navier-Stokes e q u a t i o n s have been undertaken by Schetz and Favin

(1979). From the comparisons w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a the a u t h o r s recognized

some o f the s h o r t comings o f the t u r b u l e n c e model employed and the need o f

its refinement i n o r d e r t o improve the t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s . The approach o f

Huang e t a l (1976, 1977), makes use o f a c a l c u l a t i o n method o f the v i s c o u s

flow on the s t e r n r e g i o n based on boundary l a y e r t h e o r y brought into inter-

a c t i o n w i t h the o u t e r p o t e n t i a l f l o w i n an i t e r a t i v e scheme. The i n f l u e n c e

of t h e p r o p e l l e r i n the boundary l a y e r i s e x e r t e d through a m o d i f i c a t i o n of

the e x t e r n a l p o t e n t i a l flow.

A n o v e l f e a t u r e o f the approach i s , however, the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the

flow f i e l d i n the c l o s e v i c i n i t y of the p r o p e l l e r by an i n v i s c i d rotational

f l o w model based on the E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s o f motion. Rather accurate

p r e d i c t i o n s o f the t o t a l v e l o c i t i e s ahead of the p r o p e l l e r are o b t a i n e d

w i t h such model.

The need f o r an e l u c i d a t i o n o f some o f the fundamental a s p e c t s o f

ducted p r o p e l l e r h u l l i n t e r a c t i o n and the development o f c a l c u l a t i o n tech-

niques a p p r o p r i a t e t o the non-uniform f l o w s i t u a t i o n when the vorticity

of the incoming f l o w i s taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n has m o t i v a t e d the present

investigation.

The b a s i c approach pursued in this study assumes t h a t the interaction

flow between d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r and h u l l which u l t i m a t e l y determines the

4
performance o f duct and p r o p e l l e r i s inviscld i n nature and t h e r e f o r e may
adequately be t r e a t e d by t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s o f
motion.

Although the i n v i s c i d a n a l y s i s might be t h e o r e t i c a l l y j u s t i f i c a b l e or

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y v a l i d a t e d when d e a l i n g w i t h t h e g r o s s e f f e c t s o f t h e i n t e r -

a c t i o n problems t o the d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r , v i s c o u s e f f e c t s i n t h e boundary

l a y e r s on t h e v a r i o u s components o f t h e ducted p r o p e l l e r system may be o f

primary importance i n determining the o v e r a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e system.

V i s c o u s e f f e c t s on p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on p r o p e l l e r

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r y e a r s . On the o t h e r hand, t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f v i s c o s i t y on t h e duct performance has r e c e i v e d much l e s s

a t t e n t i o n i n s p i t e o f b e i n g a s o u r c e o f s e r i o u s s c a l e e f f e c t s on

f u l l - s c a l e p r e d i c t i o n s when s e p a r a t i o n f l o w phenomena o c c u r on model scale.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e second c h a p t e r i s concerned with the a n a l y s i s o f the

v i s c o u s f l o w p a s t an axisymmetric duct e i t h e r i n u n i f o r m axial flow o r when

regarded as b e i n g a p a r t o f t h e d u c t e d propeller.

In t h e t h i r d c h a p t e r , the flow p a s t an a n n u l a r a e r o f o i l and a d u c t e d

propeller i n axisymmetric shear f l o w i s c o n s i d e r e d and approximate numerical

s o l u t i o n s o f t h e E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n by a d i s c r e t e v o r t e x method a r e g i v e n .

Chapter four d e a l s w i t h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f the methods developed

in c h a p t e r two t o the i n t e r a c t i o n problem o f a d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r b e h i n d a

revolution body.

In c h a p t e r f i v e some c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on t h e d e s i g n o f d u c t e d propellers

are g i v e n .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e b a s i c f l o w models i n t h e f i r s t and second chapters

a r e v e r i f i e d by c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h experiment.

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2. Analysis of t h e flow past a propeller duct

2.1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

F o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f duct performance i t i s necessary to have

a method f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and f o r e s t i m a t i n g

its frictional d r a g . T h i s i s n o r m a l l y accomplished by combined potential

f l o w and boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n methods.

In general, i n ducted p r o p e l l e r a p p l i c a t i o n s , f o r ducts with sharp

trailing edges o r w i t h s m a l l r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge and

o p e r a t i n g near d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s , a potential flow c a l c u l a t i o n ignoring the

presence o f t h e boundary l a y e r a l r e a d y g i v e s r e l i a b l e v a l u e s o f t h e o v e r a l l

f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e duct p r o v i d e d t h a t f l o w s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s from t h e

duct's s u r f a c e only i n the v i c i n i t y o f the t r a i l i n g edge. In t h i s c a s e , t h e

v i s c o u s drag i s r a t h e r s m a l l when compared w i t h t h e a x i a l f o r c e a c t i n g on

the duct.

The potential f l o w s o l u t i o n o b t a i n e d as a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n by

d i s r e g a r d i n g the presence o f t h e boundary l a y e r and wake, o r f i r s t inviscid

approximation, i s assumed t o s a t i s f y t h e Kutta-Joukowsky c o n d i t i o n f o r the

flow at t h e t r a i l i n g edge.

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Kutta-Joukowsky c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n

of the p o t e n t i a l f l o w on a p r o f i l e i s not a t r i v i a l matter and i t s v a r i o u s

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and c o r r e s p o n d i n g i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s may bear c o n s i d e r a b l e

i n f l u e n c e on t h e s o l u t i o n .

Gostelow (1974) , g i v e s a review o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t r a i l i n g edge

c o n d i t i o n s on t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l and turbomachinery blade s e c t i o n s . For p r o f i l e s

with blunt t r a i l i n g edges, a t r a i l i n g edge c o n d i t i o n e q u i v a l e n t t o the c l a s s i -

cal Kutta-Joukowsky c o n d i t i o n cannot be f o r m u l a t e d , and any h y p o t h e t i c a l

first inviscid approximation based on an a r b i t r a r y v a l u e o f c i r c u l a t i o n i s

d e p r i v e d from p h y s i c a l meaning. C l e a r l y , f o r the s o l u t i o n of t h i s problem,

v i s c o u s e f f e c t s have t o be c o n s i d e r e d . In r e l a t i o n t o p r o p e l l e r d u c t s this

s u b j e c t w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d more e x t e n s i v e l y l a t e r i n this Chapter.

6
 A classical approach c o n s i s t s i n s o l v i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f l o w and t h e

boundary l a y e r problems i t e r a t i v e l y . On each i t e r a t i o n step the p o t e n t i a l

flow s o l u t i o n provides t h e r e q u i r e d boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e boundary

l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n s and these, i n turn, f u r n i s h t h e r e q u i r e d boundary conditions

f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l flow problem.

One o f t h e methods o f c o u p l i n g t h e two s o l u t i o n s t h r o u g h their

c o r r e s p o n d e n t boundary c o n d i t i o n s c o n s i s t s i n d i v i d i n g the flow field into

two well-defined regions: an o u t e r i n v i s c i d p o t e n t i a l f l o w r e g i o n and a

vortical r e g i o n dominated by t h e e f f e c t o f v i s c o s i t y . These two flow regions

are separated by some boundary s u r f a c e where t h e s o l u t i o n s o f t h e two f l o w

problems s h o u l d be matched by p r o p e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e

boundary c o n d i t i o n s . Such an approach r e q u i r e s an adequate d e f i n i t i o n o f

the boundary s u r f a c e which n a t u r a l l y c o u l d be taken as t h e s u r f a c e specified

by t h e boundary l a y e r and t h e wake t h i c k n e s s e s and s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d as a

p a r t o f t h e s o l u t i o n , (Rom, 1977).

Such a p r o c e d u r e i s , however, d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s from t h e p o i n t o f view

of computational e f f i c i e n c y , since the i n v i s c i d p a r t o f t h e computation has

to be performed w i t h boundary c o n d i t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d on a s u r f a c e changing

i t s p o s i t i o n during the i t e r a t i o n process.

An a l t e r n a t i v e approach, which c i r c u m v e n t s t h i s problem, c o n s i s t s i n

t r a n s f e r r i n g the matching c o n d i t i o n s t o the body's s u r f a c e by assuming t h a t

the o u t e r inviscid f l o w may be c o n t i n u e d down t o t h e body's s u r f a c e .

For t h i n shear l a y e r s the t r u n c a t i o n e r r o r of the T a y l o r expansion

about t h e p o i n t s on t h e o r i g i n a l matching s u r f a c e i s i n g e n e r a l small except

near s e p a r a t i o n . L i g h t h i l l , (1958), showed that such a c o u p l i n g procedure between

the two f l o w s may be f o r m u l a t e d i n terms o f an e q u i v a l e n t source distribu-

t i o n on t h e body's surface.

The s o l u t i o n of the viscous f l o w problem a t h i g h Reynolds numbers by

solving iteratively the outer inviscid flow and t h e boundary l a y e r forms

the c l a s s i c a l "weak i n t e r a c t i o n " t h e o r y .

One o f t h e main d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered i n the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the

theory lies on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e may break down i n r e g i o n s o f

"strong i n t e r a c t i o n " o f t h e boundary l a y e r and t h e i n v i s c i d flow such as

near a s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t o r a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge region.

In f a c t , i t might be i m p o s s i b l e to continue the boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a -

t i o n s beyond s e p a r a t i o n , u s i n g d i r e c t methods i . e . w i t h p r e s c r i b e d pressure

7
d i s t r i b u t i o n at the edge o f the layer.

Rigorous a n a l y s i s o f the l o c a l flow i n a r e g i o n of s t r o n g v i s c o u s -

inviscid interaction f o r l a m i n a r f l o w s a t the t r a i l i n g edge o f cusped

and wedged a i r f o i l shapes based on a s y m p t o t i c theory,have been g i v e n by

v a r i o u s a u t h o r s : R i l e y and S t e w a r t s o n , (1969), Brown and Stewartson, (1970),

Chow and M e l n i k , (1976). E s t i m a t e s f o r the c o r r e c t i o n due t o the e f f e c t of

v i s c o s i t y on the c i r c u l a t i o n as determined by the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n have been

g i v e n i n those a n a l y s e s . A new method o f g e n e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n r e g i o n s o f

strong i n t e r a c t i o n , has been r e c e n t l y proposed by Veldman, (1979), (1981).

The a n a l y s i s based on the "weak i n t e r a c t i o n " t h e o r y i s c l a s s i c a l (see

Thwaites, 1960), and i n many, cases i s capable of p r o v i d i n g p r e d i c t i o n s of

section l i f t and d r a g f o r c e s w i t h e n g i n e e r i n g a c c u r a c y .
In the a p p l i c a t i o n t o p r o p e l l e r d u c t s one such a method has been
considered. In t h i s r e s p e c t the f o l l o w i n g remarks s h o u l d be made:

- Laminar s e p a r a t i o n phenomena o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y on p r o p e l l e r d u c t s at

model s c a l e , Dyne (1977). T h e r e f o r e the treatment of laminar

separation bubbles i n the c a l c u l a t i o n method was felt neces-

sary .

- Due to o p e r a t i o n requirements p r o p e l l e r d u c t s have, r a t h e r o f t e n ,

c o n s i d e r a b l y t h i c k round trailing edges. A c c o r d i n g l y , the e f f e c t s of

trailing edge b l u n t n e s s had t o be c o n s i d e r e d .

This chapter i s d i v i d e d into three parts. In the f i r s t p a r t the potential

flow a n a l y s i s i s g i v e n and n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s i n uniform flow are p r e s e n t e d

and compared w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . In the second p a r t e x t e n s i o n o f the

method t o i n c l u d e the e f f e c t o f v i s c o u s l a y e r s i s g i v e n and experimental

verification i s supplied. Finally, i n t h e t h i r d p a r t the case o f the duct

with p r o p e l l e r i s examined i n u n i f o r m flow by means o f p o t e n t i a l theory.

For t h a t purpose an a c t u a t o r d i s k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the p r o p e l l e r i s used.

The results are compared w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l data.

An attempt i s made t o i n c l u d e v i s c o u s e f f e c t s i n the duct analysis

in the p r e s e n c e o f the propeller.

8
2.2. POTENTIAL FLOW ANALYSIS

2.2.1. F o r m u l a t i o n of t h e problem and boundary c o n d i t i o n s

We c o n s i d e r the flow o f an i n v i s c i d and i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l u i d p a s t a duct

i n an onset flow.

The disturbance potential s a t i s f i e s Laplace equation

2
V<f> = 0. (2-1)

The regularity c o n d i t i o n at i n f i n i t y

it) -*• Q at i n f i n i t y , (2-2)

and t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n at the impermeable duct s u r f a c e D

m
where « — denotes the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o the normal t o the
on
d u c t ' s s u r f a c e taken p o s i t i v e outwards and <|> i s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e onset

flow. For a duct i n uniform flow with v e l o c i t y U . the u n d i s t u r b e d potential

o
<|> i s s i m p l y t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e u n i f o r m
o stream

<f>
r
= U X . (2-4)
O O

F o r a duct p l a c e d i n t h e f l o w i n d u c e d by a p r o p e l l e r a d v a n c i n g with constant

speed U the p o t e n t i a l <J> i s

o o

<t>
y
= U x+d> , (2-5)
o o p

i> b e i n g t h e p r o p e l l e r d i s t u r b a n c e p o t e n t i a l which has t o be determined

P
subject to the correspondent boundary c o n d i t i o n s and i s assumed t o be known

f o r the p r e s e n t purposes.

In t h e l i f t i n g case we are c o n s i d e r i n g , t h e r e i s c i r c u l a t i o n around a

c o n t o u r e n c i r c l i n g a s e c t i o n o f t h e duct and the p o t e n t i a l i s discontinuous

on a s u r f a c e W e x t e n d i n g from a l i n e on the d u c t ' s s u r f a c e t o i n f i n i t y

( F i g . 2-1). 9
 The d i s t u r b a n c e p o t e n t i a l at a p o i n t P o u t s i d e t h e s u r f a c e s D and W

i s given i n terms o f i t s boundary v a l u e s (Lamb, 1952), by

(P) = •A ƒ ƒ (Z^L ' i d s + i ƒ ƒ (c (2-6)

8 N 3n
^ D+W R 4 7 1
D+W

where (J) , T T 1 — and d> , T T — denote the v a l u e s o f the p o t e n t i a l and i t s normal

dn on
d e r i v a t i v e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y on the o u t e r and i n n e r s i d e s o f the s u r f a c e s D and W,

andR=|Rj i s the d i s t a n c e between the f i e l d p o i n t P and the p o i n t on the

surface where t h e i n t e g r a l i n (2-6) i s b e i n g evaluated.

Equation (2-6) g i v e s the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l i n terms o f

a s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the s u r f a c e w i t h strength a equal t o the d i s c o n t i -

nuity i n the normal d e r i v a t i v e

3<j) 3<j>
(2-7)
3n 3n

and a d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h axes d i r e c t e d a l o n g the normal t o the s u r f a c e

and w i t h i t s s t r e n g t h y equal t o the d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f the p o t e n t i a l

(2-8)

With eq. (2-7) and (2-8), eq. (2-6) w r i t e s

(2-9)
D+W D+W

Uo

Fig. 2.1. Schematic representation of the flow past a propeller

duct section.
10
 By assuming c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e p o t e n t i a l on t h e surface,we o b t a i n a

representation f o r the p o t e n t i a l i n terms s o l e l y o f t h e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n

and by assuming c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e normal d e r i v a t i v e s on t h e s u r f a c e we

obtain a representation i n terms o f a d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o n l y . In t h e

lifting c a s e , f o r which t h e p o t e n t i a l i s d i s c o n t i n u o u s the l a t t e r represen-

t a t i o n o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f the two as i n (2-6) has t o be adopted.

As s t a t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between viscous

and inviscid flow regions, t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s due t o t h e boundary

l a y e r and wake can be r e p r e s e n t e d by a s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e s u r f a c e s

D and W i n t h e manner s u g g e s t e d by L i g h t h i l l (1958). The Neumann boundary

condition (2-3) s h o u l d then be a p p l i e d on t h e s u r f a c e B displaced from t h e

original surfaces D and W by t h e boundary l a y e r and wake d i s p l a c e m e n t thick-

ness.

However, as remarked b e f o r e , t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n on B can be replaced

by t h e Neumann boundary c o n d i t i o n on t h e o r i g i n a l surface D+W s p e c i f y i n g the

v a l u e o f t h e normal d e r i v a t i v e f o r t h e o u t e r p o t e n t i a l a t t h e s u r f a c e . The

normal d i s c o n t i n u i t y i s e q u a l t o t h e s o u r c e s t r e n g t h on t h e s u r f a c e

From (2-7) we obtain

| i _ + O = 0 on D , (2-11)

s i n c e d> and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s are c o n t i n u o u s on D.

o
U s i n g Green's theorem, we c o n c l u d e from (2-11) t h a t the p o t e n t i a l i s

c o n s t a n t i n s i d e D:

$• + $ = C , (2-12)

where C i s an a r b i t r a r y c o n s t a n t .

Equation (2-12) c o n s t i t u t e s a Dirichlet boundary c o n d i t i o n f o r the

i n n e r p o t e n t i a l which may be employed i n s t e a d o f t h e Neumann c o n d i t i o n (2-10).

11
 As i n the p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s the s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s o n l y used t o

represent boundary l a y e r and wake d i s p l a c e m e n t thickness e f f e c t s , i t s

s t r e n g t h f o l l o w s from the shear l a y e r f l o w s o l u t i o n s . In such c a s e , a p p l i c a -

t i o n o f the boundary c o n d i t i o n s (2-10) o r (2-12) l e a d s to i n t e g r a l equations

for the d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

Applying the Neumann c o n d i t i o n (2-10), a Fredholm i n t e g r a l equation

of the first kind i s derived

9 (J)

4 V
a ( q ) ( ) d S
^ p D
D+W W +
P ( q )
^
q
) d S =
~ 3 ^pH a ( P ) +
n 7
D+Ww ^ pI
(2-13)

where p denotes the p o i n t where the boundary c o n d i t i o n i s s t a t e d and the

terms i n the s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n have been p l a c e d on t h e r i g h t - h a n d side to

emphasize the f a c t t h a t they are c o n s i d e r e d t o be known.

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , we may d i f f e r e n t i a t e e q u a t i o n (2-12) a l o n g any direction

tangent t o the s u r f a c e r e q u i r i n g the v e l o c i t y component i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n on

its i n n e r s i d e t o v a n i s h . Such c o n d i t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d by the f o l l o w i n g v e c t o r

equation

_
n x V (<J> +<J>) = 0
Y
. (2-14)
—p p o

By u s i n g a well-known e q u i v a l e n c e between the p o t e n t i a l due to a

d i p o l e sheet and a vortex sheet, i t i s u s e f u l to show t h a t e q u a t i o n (2-14)

l e a d s t o the s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y f o r m u l a t i o n o f the p o t e n t i a l flow problem.

To do t h i s we f i r s t evaluate the v e l o c i t y induced by the d i p o l e

d i s t r i b u t i o n which, i n any case, i s r e q u i r e d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n of either

boundary c o n d i t i o n (2-13) o r (2-14).

We have

W V
P "**>?5-<i> d s
=i¥ // ^)v [n^.vw p (|)]ds (2-15)
M
D+W q D+W ^

where we use Vp to denote the g r a d i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o the f i e l d coordinates

and the g r a d i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o the c o o r d i n a t e s o f the p o i n t q on the
surface.

12
 Since

1 ^
V . ' • 7

we obtain

R R
V [n .V (i)]
p q q = ( n q . V p ) ^ + n x(V x-3)
q p . (2-16)

For an a r b i t r a r y v e c t o r A the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n holds

nx(VxA) = (nxV)xA - (n.V)A - n(V.A)

and (2-16) becomes

R
Vp[n .V (|)] q q = - ( ^ x V q ) x ^ n g V q ( i ) . (2-17)

To i n t e g r a t e (2-15) by p a r t s we note t h a t

R 5 5:
y(n xV J x - = T (n x V )x(y-^-)-(n xVy)x-~- (2-18)
~q q 3 R -q q 3 -q R 3 R

and the i n t e g r a l i n (2-15) w r i t e s

1 5
+ -r- // (n x V u x - 7 dS +
4 Q 3
^ D+W "«3 R

2
+ T= ti y(q)n V (I)dS. (2-19)
4 7 T Q Q R
D+W

By a v a r i a n t o f S t o k e s ' theorem t h e f i r s t i n t e g r a l on two r i g h t - h a n d side of

(2-19) can be t r a n s f o r m e d into

R R
ƒƒ (n xV )x(y- )dS T = tf r d i x p ^ (2-20)
Q Q
D+W R R

where C i s a c o n t o u r e n c l o s i n g the s u r f a c e D+W. T h i s i n t e g r a l g i v e s the

13
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the induced v e l o c i t y by t h e boundary edges o f t h e s u r f a c e

D+W. In the p r e s e n t case such edges a r e i n e x i s t e n t and t h e i n t e g r a l vanishes.

When i d e n t i f y i n g the s t r e n g t h o f t h e v o r t e x sheet y as

1 = -n x Vy (2-21)

the second integral expresses the f a m i l i a r result o b t a i n a b l e from Biot-

S a v a r t law.

F i n a l l y , the l a s t i n t e g r a l i n (2-19) v a n i s h e s i n view o f the f a c t t h a t

2 1
V (—) i s z e r o everywhere except when the p o i n t P c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e p o i n t q.
R
With t h e p r e v i o u s r e s u l t (2-19), (2-20) and (2-21), e q u a t i o n (2-14) y i e l d s

the f o l l o w i n g i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n f o r the s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y distribution

P E
D+W " R" D+W

(2-22)

F o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the v o r t i c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , equation (2-22) must be

resolved into i t s components i n a curvilinear c o o r d i n a t e system. We note,
however, t h a t t h e two components o f t h e s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e
related through equation (2-21).

In axisymmetric flow, the d i p o l e s t r e n g t h i s independent of the circum-

ferential c o o r d i n a t e and t h e s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y v e c t o r has o n l y circumferen-
tial component. Moreover, the d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s constant i n the s u r f a c e

W which i m p l i e s t h a t no v o r t i c i t y i s shed i n t o the wake.

Let x=x(s) and r = r ( s ) be the p a r a m e t r i c equations o f t h e duct c o n t o u r ,

and s t h e a r c l e n g t h measured a n t i - c l o c k w i s e from the t r a i l i n g edge, F i g . 2-1.

a n d
W r i t i n g y=y(s)i a t a k i n g the c r o s s product o f (2-22) by n we o b t a i n the
-0 -p
following integral equation

-|Y(S) + $ s
1
y ( s ) k ( s , s ')ds' = f(s) (2-23)

The k e r n e l k ( s , s ' ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e induced velocity tangent t o the c o n t o u r at

the p o i n t s due t o a r i n g v o r t e x l o c a t e d at s=s' and i s g i v e n by

14
 1
k(s,s') = (x-x ;r,r ') ~ - (x-x ';r , r ' ) | | (2-24)

where u and v are the a x i a l and radial velocities induced at the p o i n t

Y Y
x=x(s), r = r ( s ) by a v o r t e x r i n g a t x ' = x ( s ' ) , r'=r(s').

The right-hand side i n equation (2-23) i s

f Cs] = || $ I
a(s )T( S / s')ds' (2-25)
dx ds dr ds s + w

where T ( s , s ' ) i s a c o u p l i n g f u n c t i o n f o r the s o u r c e distribution

T(s,s') = u a (x-x' ;r , r ' ) | | - v (x-x';r,r')||

Q (2-26)

w i t h u ( x - x ' ; r , r ' ) and v ( x - x ' ; r , r ' ) r e s p e c t i v e l y the a x i a l

q and radial

velocities induced by a s o u r c e ring.

Expressions f o r the f u n c t i o n s u , v , u , v a r e g i v e n i n terms of

y y 0 a
complete e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l s by Kiichemann and Weber, (1953).

We note that, a surface v o r t i c i t y f o r m u l a t i o n c o u l d be used i n combi-

n a t i o n w i t h the Neumann boundary c o n d i t i o n l e a d i n g t o a Fredholm integral

e q u a t i o n o f the f i r s t kind. Equations of second k i n d a r e , however, advanta-

geous from the p o i n t o f view o f t h e i r numerical solution.

2.2.2. N u m e r i c a l solution

Numerical s o l u t i o n procedures f o r i n t e g r a l equations o f the type of

equation (2-23) o f the l a s t s e c t i o n e i t h e r , f o r two-dimensional or axisymme-

tric potential flow problems,have been g i v e n by many authors.

The g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f the s o l u t i o n techniques employs a c o l l o c a t i o n

method. In the c o l l o c a t i o n method the e q u a t i o n i s only e x a c t l y s a t i s f i e d at

a d i s c r e t e s e t o f p o i n t s and the number o f p o i n t s i s chosen e q u a l to the

number o f knots employed i n the n u m e r i c a l quadrature used to approximate the

i n t e g r a l . For l i n e a r i n t e g r a l equations t h i s procedure leads to a linear

system o f e q u a t i o n s having as unknowns the v a l u e s of the f u n c t i o n at the knot

locations.

15
Two b a s i c approaches have been f o l l o w e d :

A p p l i c a t i o n o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o the i n t e g r a t i o n v a r i a b l e , p r i o r t o the
a p p l i c a t i o n of the c o l l o c a t i o n method,or d i r e c t s o l u t i o n o f the original
e q u a t i o n by c o l l o c a t i o n h a v i n g t h e a r c l e n g t h as independent variable.

The o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n of the s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y method, d e v e l o p e d by

Martensen (1959), f o r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l airfoils i s o l a t e d or i n cascade,

belongs to the f i r s t c a t e g o r y . The method was subsequently developed by

Jacob and R i e g e l s (1963), W i l k i n s o n (1967), and o t h e r s and applied to p r o p e l -

ler d u c t s by Lewis and Ryan (1971).

All t h e s e methods make use o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the a r c l e n g t h i n t o

the p o l a r a n g l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a p o i n t i n s i d e the c o n t o u r and employed

trapezoidal i n t e g r a t i o n t o approximate the integral.

The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s between the v a r i o u s methods r e g a r d the distri-

b u t i o n o f c o l l o c a t i o n p o i n t s and the n u m e r i c a l p r o c e d u r e s used to e v a l u a t e

the g e o m e t r i c a l parameters o f the contour.

As remarked by W i l k i n s o n (1967), o r i g i n a l l y recommended p i v o t a l p o i n t

distributions, (Jacob and R i e g e l s , 1963), i n c l u d e d the t r a i l i n g edge as a

c o l l o c a t i o n p o i n t and gave u n r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s f o r p r o f i l e s w i t h sharp trai-

ling edges. The potential f l o w problem i s not u n i q u e l y determined by the

s a t i s f a c t i o n o f the k i n e m a t i c a l boundary c o n d i t i o n on the c o n t o u r and the

c i r c u l a t i o n must be g i v e n t o s p e c i f y the s o l u t i o n . The main d i f f i c u l t y arose

in the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n i n the t r a n s f o r m e d v a r i a b l e . Due

to the p r o p e r t i e s o f the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n at the t r a i l i n g edge the implemen-

t a t i o n o f the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n i n the t r a n s f o r m e d v a r i a b l e d i d not imply zero

l o a d i n g a t a sharp t r a i l i n g edge.

To minimize the e r r o r s i n t r o d u c e d by the t r a p e z o i d a l i n t e g r a t i o n s a

"back d i a g o n a l c o r r e c t i o n " was n o r m a l l y a p p l i e d t o the o r i g i n a l m a t r i x which

rendered i t singular.

W i l k i n s o n showed t h a t the system o f e q u a t i o n s a f t e r the a p p l i c a t i o n o f

the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n became i l l - c o n d i t i o n e d at s m a l l e r t r a i l i n g edge radii.

The problem has been c i r c u m v e n t e d by a l t e r n a t i v e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s o f the

K u t t a c o n d i t i o n , ( W i l k i n s o n , 1967), and by d i f f e r e n t choices of p i v o t a l p o i n t

l o c a t i o n s , ( L e w i s and Ryan, 1971).

16
 Although t h e s e type o f methods may r e q u i r e a r a t h e r s m a l l number o f
knots f o r an "optimum" t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the main drawback l i e s i n the selec-
t i o n o f an adequate t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

Methods o f the second c a t e g o r y employ the a r c l e n g t h as independent

v a r i a b l e . They may d i f f e r on the o r d e r of a p p r o x i m a t i o n used to discretize

the p r o f i l e contour and the s u r f a c e s i n g u l a r i t y distribution. First order

approximations discretize the c o n t o u r by straight elements and assume a con-

stant singularity d i s t r i b u t i o n on each element.

Higher order approximations, d i s c r e t i z i n g the c o n t o u r and the singula-

rity d i s t r i b u t i o n s by p o l y n o m i a l s o f h i g h e r degree, can reduce substantially

the computation time by r e d u c i n g the number o f elements r e q u i r e d f o r a

p r e s c r i b e d accuracy at c o s t s o f a d d i t i o n a l a n a l y t i c work.

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s e v e r a l second o r d e r methods r e l y i n g on v a r i o u s

f o r m u l a t i o n s o f the p o t e n t i a l f l o w problem i n c o m b i n a t i o n with different

numerical approximations o f the c o n t o u r and singularity distributions,has

been r e c e n t l y a s s e s s e d by L a b r u j e r e (1979), f o r two-dimensional flows on

p r o f i l e s . Although surface v o r t i c i t y f o r m u l a t i o n s were contemplated,they

have been o n l y examined i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the Neumann boundary c o n d i t i o n

and a boundary c o n d i t i o n i n terms o f the stream function. In t h i s respect,we

will be l i m i t e d t o a comparison w i t h methods o f the f i r s t category or

experimental results.

The second o r d e r method proposed by Hess (1973, 1974), i n connection

w i t h h i s s u r f a c e source p a n e l method has been adopted i n the p r e s e n t numeri-

cal solution.

The duct i s p a n e l l e d by elements o f p a r a b o l i c shape where v o r t i c i t y i s

distributed according to a polynomial f u n c t i o n . Constant, l i n e a r and parabo-

lic f u n c t i o n s have been used.

The vorticity distribution i s expanded about a c o n t r o l p o i n t chosen

as the mid p o i n t o f the element i n the form

2
YjU) = Y< 0 )
+ Y^C + yfh (2-27)

a n <
where Y j ^ > Y j i Yj a r e , r e p e c t i v e l y the s t r e n g t h o f the v o r t e x sheet,
its first and h a l f t h e second d e r i v a t i v e s e v a l u a t e d at the c o n t r o l p o i n t j

17
 X

Fig. 2.2. D e f i n i t i o n of a parabolic panel on the duct's section contour.

and E, i s t h e a r c l e n g t h on t h e element measured from t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t ,

F i g . 2.2.

The v a l u e s o f t h e f i r s t and second d e r i v a t i v e s a t the c o n t r o l p o i n t s

are obtained by a d i v i d e d d i f f e r e n c e scheme, as given by Hess and M a r t i n (1974)

We note t h a t when u s i n g such scheme, d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n the v o r t i c i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e i n t r o d u c e d a t t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t s between elements.

The p a r a m e t r i c equations o f t h e a r c element admit a similar expansion

2
x _.(£;) = x_. +cosct_.5 - C j sina_.5 (2-30)

- 2
(^) = r_. +sina_.£ + c_. c o s o u ? (2-31)

where ( x ^ , r ^ ) a r e the c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t , a. i s t h e s l o p e o f
the chord on t h e element and c . i s the element curvature.
J

18
 The boundary c o n d i t i o n o f z e r o v e l o c i t y tangent to t h e c o n t o u r on t h e

i n n e r s i d e a p p l i e d a t N c o n t r o l p o i n t s l e a d s t o the l i n e a r system o f

equations

N
(0)
I k .•Yj = f, i = 1, (1) ,N (2-32)
3 3
j= l

The m a t r i x o f i n f l u e n c e c o e f f i c i e n t s k.. i s o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d u c t ' s

geometry and i s g i v e n by

k. . = h&. • + c o s a . X . . + s i n a . Y . . , i = l,(l),N,j = 1,(1),N

(2-33)

6 i s t h e Kronecker d e l t a 6. . = 1 f o r i = j and 6. .=0 f o r The m a t r i x X. .

and Y . are a x i a l and r a d i a l induced v e l o c i t y m a t r i c e s , and f o r t h e i r

e v a l u a t i o n we r e f e r t o Hess and M a r t i n (1974).

The right-hand side i n equation (2-32) i s o b t a i n e d by e v a l u a t i n g

equation (2-25) a t t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t s and i n c l u d e s t h e u n d i s t u r b e d f l o w and

the d i s t u r b a n c e v e l o c i t y caused by t h e boundary l a y e r and wake displacement

t h i c k n e s s e s . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e v e l o c i t y fields i s the s u b j e c t of

the subsequent s e c t i o n s .

The computational advantages o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r the i n f l u e n c e of the

boundary l a y e r on t h e p o t e n t i a l f l o w by an a d d i t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e velocity

t o t h e b a s i c onset flow, become e v i d e n t from t h e form o f e q u a t i o n (2-32). The

matrix of i n f l u e n c e c o e f f i c i e n t s k _ which depends o n l y on t h e geometry o f

the d u c t , does not need t o be changed i n t h e v i s c o u s - i n v i s c i d iteration

process.

As a consequence o f t h e non-uniqueness o f t h e p o t e n t i a l flow problem

eigen s o l u t i o n s of equation (2-25) r e p r e s e n t i n g c i r c u l a t o r y f l o w s may be

added t o a p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n without a f f e c t i n g t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n on

the s u r f a c e .

19
 Strictly speaking at i n c r e a s i n g number o f elements the m a t r i x k^
becomes i l l - c o n d i t i o n e d . C l e a r l y any s o l u t i o n o f t h e system (2-32), i f made
p o s s i b l e through the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n , does n o t , i n general, s a t i s f y the
Kutta-Joukowsky c o n d i t i o n o f smooth flow at the t r a i l i n g edge.

Such c o n d i t i o n has t o be s p e c i f i e d i n a d d i t i o n t o the system obtained

from t h e c o l l o c a t i o n method. In the l i t e r a t u r e v a r i o u s implementations of

the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n have been c o n s i d e r e d . A l s o t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e freedom i n

the way the a d d i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s are c o u p l e d to the e x i s t i n g system o f

equations.

Regarding the form o f the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n , Mangier and Smith (1969),

showed t h a t , f o r sharp trailing edges, i n two-dimensional inviscid flow,the

stagnation streamline should l e a v e the t r a i l i n g edge a l o n g the b i s e c t o r t o

the t r a i l i n g edge a n g l e . In f i r s t o r d e r methods t h i s c o n d i t i o n can be approx-

imated, f o r example, by e q u a t i n g the v o r t e x s t r e n g t h o f t h e f i r s t and last

c o n t r o l p o i n t s , (Lewis and Ryan, 1971), o r by computing the v e l o c i t y at a

p o i n t o u t s i d e t h e s u r f a c e c l o s e t o the t r a i l i n g edge and giving i t the direc-

t i o n o f the b i s e c t o r . T h i s approach may o b v i o u s l y be o f low accuracy i n the

case o f l o a d e d trailing edges. In second o r d e r methods e x t r a p o l a t e d forms o f

t h e K u t t a c o n d i t i o n t o the t r a i l i n g edge i t s e l f become p o s s i b l e , which would

improve the p r e d i c t i o n s f o r l o a d e d trailing edges.

With the i n c r e a s e o f the t r a i l i n g edge r a d i u s t h e s e forms o f Kutta

c o n d i t i o n becomes o f q u e s t i o n a b l e a p p l i c a t i o n i n view o f the d i f f i c u l t y of

defining a suitable " b i s e c t o r " t o the t r a i l i n g edge a n g l e . In such case,

discretization o f the t r a i l i n g edge i t s e l f and s p e c i f i c a t i o n of s t a g n a t i o n

point as done by Martensen (1959) can be used.

With r e s p e c t t o the c o u p l i n g t o the system o f e q u a t i o n s various choices are

possible. Strictly speaking, the system o f e q u a t i o n s h o u l d be r e n d e r e d sin-

g u l a r p r i o r t o adding the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n . Martensen (1959), makes the sys-

tem s i n g u l a r i n a l e a s t - s q u a r e s sense. In the method o f Lewis and Ryan (1971),

the s o - c a l l e d "back d i a g o n a l " c o r r e c t i o n i s the most o b v i o u s c h o i c e of ma-

k i n g t h e e x i s t i n g system s i n g u l a r , s i n c e i t r e p l a c e s the c o u p l i n g coefficient

i n each column most a f f e c t e d by t r a p e z o i d a l i n t e g r a t i o n e r r o r s by the one

needed to'make the sum of a l l column elements v a n i s h .

20
In methods which a c c u r a t e l y compute t h e c o u p l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s such choice i s

not unique. In t h e p r e s e n t method t h e o v e r d e t e r m i n e d system o f e q u a t i o n s

which r e s u l t s from adding an a d d i t i o n a l e q u a t i o n expressing the Kutta condi-

tion, t o the o r i g i n a l system, i s s o l v e d by a l e a s t - s q u a r e s method. In t h i s

case t h e K u t t a c o n d i t i o n i s s a t i s f i e d only approximately w i t h t h e same degree

of accuracy as t h e e q u a t i o n s e x p r e s s i n g t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n on t h e c o n t r o l

points. Stronger implementations which r e s u l t from s a t i s f y i n g e x a c t l y t h e

K u t t a c o n d i t i o n and o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y the other equations have been c o n s i d e r -

ed but d i d n o t i n t r o d u c e d i s c e r n a b l e changes i n t o t h e r e s u l t s .

2.2.3. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e duct circulation. First inviscid approximation

and the Kutta c o n d i t i o n .

In t h e v i s c o u s - i n v i s c i d i t e r a t i o n process, the s o l u t i o n o f the poten-

tial f l o w problem i s o b t a i n e d by s p e c i f y i n g t h e c i r c u l a t i o n around t h e d u c t ' s

section.

The circulation i s d e f i n e d i n a contour c o i n c i d i n g with the outer s i d e

of the duct's contour.

T = (5 Y ( s ) d s (2-34)

and i s approximated by

N
r = l g . y . 0 )
(2-35)
: 3
j=l

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s g^ a r e taken as

g. = 25'. (2-36)
j :

The c i r c u l a t i o n has t o be determined from l o c a l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s at t h e

trailing edge.

A r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s o f t h e f l o w on t h e t r a i l i n g edge i s r a t h e r e l a b o -

r a t e and r e q u i r e s the abandon o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l weak i n t e r a c t i o n scheme i n

the neighboorhood o f t h e t r a i l i n g edge.

A s i m p l e r approach i s based on t h e assumption t h a t f o r n o n - s e p a r a t e d

21
f l o w t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t normal t o t h e s t r e a m l i n e s at t h e t r a i l i n g edge
l o c a t i o n i s r a t h e r s m a l l and can be n e g l e c t e d . T h i s l e a d s t o t h e e q u a l i t y
of the p r e s s u r e on the i n n e r and o u t e r s i d e s and can be e x p r e s s e d by

C = C (2-37)
r r
out inn
P-P Q

where C= — i s the pressure c o e f f i c i e n t . Equation (2-37) p r o v i d e s a good

U
*4p o

approximation f o r a cusped t r a i l i n g edge where t h e s t r e a m l i n e s l e a v e t h e

trailing edge p a r a l l e l t o i t . At i n c r e a s i n g t r a i l i n g edge angle streamline
c u r v a t u r e e f f e c t s become important and c o n d i t i o n (2-37) i s i n p r i n c i p l e less
accurate (see Thwaites , 1960).

For separated f l o w at t h e t r a i l i n g edge,Thwaites (1960) shows t h a t ,

under t h e assumptions o f f i r s t o r d e r boundary l a y e r t h e o r y , a s i m i l a r
c o n d i t i o n t o (2-37) h o l d s , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e i s taken at t h e boun-
dary l a y e r s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t s on t h e o u t e r and i n n e r s u r f a c e s :

( c ) = ( C 2 38
p out p 'inn <" >
P -p
*sep o
with C = and p b e i n g t h e p r e s s u r e at s e p a r a t i o n .
P 2
s *PU
o
Equation (2-38) may be used t o determine t h e p o t e n t i a l flow solution

when t h e l o c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t s are known from experiment. In

the v i s c o u s - i n v i s c i d i n t e r a c t i o n , equation (2-38) i s not d i r e c t l y implemented

i n t o the p o t e n t i a l flow s o l u t i o n . I t i s , however, s a t i s f i e d i n t h e converged

s o l u t i o n by p r e s c r i b i n g t h e sequence o f c i r c u l a t i o n Y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
n
r e l a x a t i o n f o r m u l a , (Dvorak e t a l , 1979).

r ,. = r + p[ (c L
) -(c ). J
1 , v
(2-39)
n+l n pr
out pr
inn ' '
sep sep

where t h e r e l a x a t i o n factor >

f has a v a l u e comprised between 0.1 and 0.3.

To start the i t e r a t i o n and i f t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t s

are not known t h e f i r s t i n v i s c i d approximation i s c o n s i d e r e d t o conform w i t h
the c l a s s i c a l K u t t a c o n d i t i o n . F o r a sharp trailing edge t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f

22
infinite v e l o c i t i e s at the t r a i l i n g edge has t o be p r e c l u d e d . T h i s i m p l i e s

that the s t a g n a t i o n s t r e a m l i n e leaves the t r a i l i n g edge w i t h a d i r e c t i o n

between the t a n g e n t s t o t h e o u t e r and i n n e r s u r f a c e s o f t h e d u c t , (Mangier

et al, 1969 ). By a p p l y i n g B e r n o u l l i e q u a t i o n t o the f l o w s on t h e o u t e r and

i n n e r s u r f a c e s , i t i s seen that equation (2-37) i m p l i e s t h e s t a g n a t i o n

streamline to leave the t r a i l i n g edge i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e b i s e c t o r t o

the t r a i l i n g edge a n g l e . T h i s form o f t r a i l i n g edge c o n d i t i o n , which i n t h e

inviscid a n a l y s i s o f Mangier e t a l (1969), i m p l i e s the i n e x i s t e n c e of

vorticity i n the wake, i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e more g e n e r a l form of t r a i l i n g

edge c o n d i t i o n (2-38), which i n t h e v i s c o u s f l o w a n a l y s i s i m p l i e s a z e r o

net d i s c h a r g e o f v o r t i c i t y i n t o t h e wake.

F o r a round trailing edge t h e p r e v i o u s form o f t h e K u t t a c o n d i t i o n

cannot be a p p l i e d . We s i m p l y specify the p o s i t i o n o f t h e t r a i l i n g edge

stagnation point.

To i l l u s t r a t e the a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s l a t t e r form o f t h e t r a i l i n g edge

c o n d i t i o n and t o examine the s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r e s u l t s to the p a r t i c u l a r

choice of the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t , p o t e n t i a l flow c a l c u l a t i o n s in uniform flow

have been c a r r i e d out f o r two d u c t s .

The f i r s t duct i s t h e duct NSMB 19A w i t h l e n g t h - d i a m e t e r r a t i o o f 0.5.

The duct s e c t i o n geometry i s g i v e n by Van Manen and O o s t e r v e l d (1966). The

duct p r o f i l e and t h e computed p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e shown i n F i g . 2-3.

Gibson's (1972) t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s w i t h another surface v o r t i c i t y method

and h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e a l s o shown i n F i g . 2.3. H i s t h e o r e t i c a l

calculation r e s u l t s c o r r e c t e d f o r tunnel wall i n t e r f e r e n c e are included

as well.

The p r e s e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s have been performed w i t h 44 elements on t h e

contour and t h e s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge i s l o c a t e d a t t h e

i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t between t h e b i s e c t o r t o t h e angle formed by t h e i n n e r and

o u t e r s u r f a c e s and t h e t r a i l i n g edge c i r c u l a r arc f a i r i n g .

I t can be seen t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e ,

i n t h i s case,marginal except near t h e t r a i l i n g edge presumably due t o

different f a i r i n g procedures. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d that both calculations

satisfy approximately equation (2-37) a t t h e p r e s s u r e minima a t t h e t r a i l i n g

edge i m p l y i n g a z e r o load i n t h e t r a i l i n g edge r e g i o n .

23
 Fig. 2-3. Pressure distribution on duct NSMB 19A in uniform flow.

The comparison w i t h experiment i s poor on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e due t o t h e

o c c u r r e n c e of l e a d i n g edge l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n f o l l o w e d by t u r b u l e n t reattach-

ment. The c i r c u l a t i o n i s a l s o n o t w e l l p r e d i c t e d by the t r a i l i n g edge condi-

t i o n and t h i s i s the cause f o r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y of the pressure l e v e l on t h e

inner side.

The s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o the p o s i t i o n o f t h e s t a g n a t i o n

p o i n t on the t r a i l i n g edge has been i n v e s t i g a t e d on the duct NSMB 37. This

duct has a l e n g t h d i a m e t e r r a t i o o f 0.50 and a b l u n t trailing edge t o

improve a s t e r n o p e r a t i o n , O o s t e r v e l d (1971).

24
 The r e s u l t s a r e shown i n F i g . 2-4 and d e p i c t an enormous change o f
the duct c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h s m a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t location.

Fig. 2-4. Effect of the location of t r a i l i n g edge stagnation point

on the pressure distribution on duct NSMB 37.

2.3. CALCULATION OF THE DUCT VISCOUS LAYERS

In this s e c t i o n we w i l l r e f e r t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e boundary layers

on the duct s u r f a c e i n axisymmetric steady flow.

Starting from t h e s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t on the d u c t ' s nose the l a m i n a r

boundary l a y e r i s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e axisymmetric v e r s i o n o f T h w a i t e s ' method,

due to Rott andCrabtree, (see Rosenhead, 1963).

25
 The method g i v e s the momentum t h i c k n e s s i n terms of the v e l o c i t y V
at the edge o f the boundary l a y e r by

2
0 0.45 2 5
ƒ r V ds (2-40)
v
o

where V i s the k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y and s i s the a r c l e n g t h measured along

the c o n t o u r from the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t .

The C u r i e and Skan m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o the o r i g i n a l Thwaites universal

f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e shape f a c t o r and s k i n f r i c t i o n suggested f o r two-dimensio-

n a l f l o w s have been adopted. The l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n i s

persued until the o c c u r r e n c e o f l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n o r the o n s e t o f transition

is predicted.

The criterion f o r l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n has been kept t o a v a l u e o f the

dv e 2

p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t parameter m = — . — e q u a l t o -0.09.
ds y

At p r e s e n t no e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on n a t u r a l t r a n s i t i o n o f the boundary

layer flow on p r o p e l l e r d u c t s i s a v a i l a b l e . On b o d i e s o f r e v o l u t i o n i n axisym-

m e t r i c f l o w v a r i o u s methods have been a s s e s s e d by Kaups (1974). The methods

o f M i c h e l , (1951)and G r a n v i l l e (1953) have been used i n the p r e s e n t work.

The method o f M i c h e l has been used i n i t s transformed v e r s i o n as recommended

by Kaups. The constants appearing i n Mangier's t r a n s f o r m a t i o n have been s e t

f o r each s u r f a c e on the duct e q u a l t o the c o r r e s p o n d e n t mean r a d i u s . C a l c u l a -

t i o n s performed on the duct NSMB 37 have shown t h a t the i n f l u e n c e o f c h o i c e

o f the c o n s t a n t on the M a n g i e r ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n on the t r a n s i t i o n prediction

is small. Experimental c o n f i r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the adequacy o f the p r e v i o u s

methods f o r the p r e d i c t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n on d u c t s has not been g a t h e r e d in

this study.

I f l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n i s p r e d i c t e d b e f o r e t r a n s i t i o n the calculation
o f the l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble and the p r e d i c t i o n o f the e v e n t u a l turbu-
lent reattachment c o n d i t i o n s are performed.

The c a l c u l a t i o n of the l a m i n a r p a r t o f the s e p a r a t i o n bubble i s done

a c c o r d i n g t o the method proposed by Van Ingen,(1975) . The c a l c u l a t i o n makes

use o f an i n v e r s e v e r s i o n o f Thwaites i n t e g r a l method. The pressure distri-

b u t i o n i s not p r e s c r i b e d a f t e r s e p a r a t i o n but the shape o f the s e p a r a t i o n

s t r e a m l i n e i s g i v e n i n s t e a d . In the p r e s e n t calculations the s e p a r a t i o n

26
s t r e a m l i n e i s assumed t o be a s t r a i g h t l i n e making an a n g l e y w i t h t h e
surface g i v e n by t h e e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n used by Oskam, (1979),

15
tany = (2-41)
R
9
sep

V
where R, i s t h e Reynolds number based on t h e momentum t h i c k n e s s
'6
sep
at s e p a r a t i o n . The s o l u t i o n y i e l d s t h e r e v e r s e d boundary l a y e r flow i n t e g r a l

parameters i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and i s t e r m i n a -

ted i f t r a n s i t i o n i s predicted. A first approximation to the p o s i t i o n of

t r a n s i t i o n on t h e bubble may be found by u s i n g the t r a n s i t i o n c r i t e r i o n .

s. - s 4
tr sep 3.6xl0
(2-42)
8
0
sep sep

The c r i t e r i o n used f o r t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f reattachment was g i v e n by t h e

i n t e r s e c t i o n between t h e S t r a t f o r d ' s zero skin friction l i m i t i n g pressure
distribution and t h e i n v i s c i d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

This s i m p l e c r i t e r i o n has g i v e n r e a s o n a b l e p r e d i c t i o n s of the length

of t h e s e p a r a t i o n bubble i n some o f t h e c a s e s i n v e s t i g a t e d by Van Ingen,

(1975) and Oskam (1979).

The turbulent boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed u s i n g t h e i n t e -

g r a l method o f Head and P a t e l , (1968).

This method i s based on t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e momentum i n t e g r a l equation

t o g e t h e r w i t h an e q u a t i o n f o r t h e e n t r a i n m e n t r a t e o f t h e boundary layer

w i t h a l l o w a n c e f o r d e p a r t u r e from e q u i l i b r i u m conditions and an a u x i l i a r l y

e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n . The Cumpsty-Head s k i n f r i c t i o n f o r m u l a as

g i v e n by Head and P a t e l (1968) has been used. The method has p r o v e d t o make

rather accurate predictions o f t h e boundary l a y e r i n t e g r a l parameters i n two-

d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w s f o r a wide v a r i e t y o f p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

The turbulent boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n i s s t a r t e d u s i n g t h e momentum

t h i c k n e s s at t r a n s i t i o n o b t a i n e d from t h e l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r calculation

and an e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n f o r t h e shape f a c t o r g i v e n by Dvorak e t a l (1979),

i f natural t r a n s i t i o n has been predicted.

27
2.4. VISCOUS-INVISCID COUPLING

As mentioned b e f o r e the c o u p l i n g o f the v i s c o u s and inviscid calculations

is effected, i n what concerns the p o t e n t i a l f l o w c a l c u l a t i o n , by a s u r f a c e

source d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g the boundary l a y e r d i s p l a c e m e n t effect.

With r e s p e c t t o the boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n the c o u p l i n g w i t h the outer

potential f l o w i s r e a l i z e d by u s i n g on each i t e r a t i o n as boundary c o n d i t i o n

at the edge of the boundary l a y e r an updated i n v i s c i d velocity distribution

evaluated from the p r e v i o u s p o t e n t i a l f l o w s o l u t i o n a t the d u c t ' s surface.

From each s o l u t i o n o f the boundary l a y e r f l o w the l o c a t i o n o f the

s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t s on the o u t e r and i n n e r s u r f a c e s o f the duct are obtained

and the p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t at the s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t s f o l l o w s from the

correspondent i n v i s c i d pressure distribution.

In a d d i t i o n , from the boundary l a y e r d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s , the

s t r e n g t h o f the e q u i v a l e n t s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d , as we w i l l ex-

p l a i n i n s h o r t , a f t e r . The subsequent p o t e n t i a l flow c a l c u l a t i o n i s performed w i t h

an onset f l o w a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n (2-25) and the c i r c u l a t i o n g i v e n by e q u a t i o n

(2-39).

In the p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s o f the e f f e c t o f d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s on the

potential f l o w the f o l l o w i n g assumptions have been made:

- Wake d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s have been n e g l e c t e d . In p r i n c i p l e , t h e viscous

l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be p r o l o n g e d i n t o the wake. The wake displacement

e f f e c t s c o u l d then be r e p r e s e n t e d f o r a t h i n wake by a s o u r c e distribution

l o c a t e d on the wake's c e n t r e line.

- The displacement effects of eventual laminar s e p a r a t i o n bubbles have been

disregarded.

This last assumption may seem r a t h e r crude i n view o f l o c a l v a l u e s o f the

displacement t h i c k n e s s on a s e p a r a t i o n b u b b l e which can be one o r d e r o f mag-

n i t u d e l a r g e r than the d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s o f the a t t a c h e d boundary layers.

However, f o r not too l o n g b u b b l e s , the p o t e n t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e , which has a

dipole character, i s primarily localized and has, i n general, a small effect

on the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e flow r e g i o n s f a r from the separated

region.

Yet, i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t , b e s i d e s b e a r i n g a l a r g e i n f l u e n c e on the

p r e d i c t i o n of the bubble e x t e n t and the development o f the r e a t t a c h e d turbu-

l e n t boundary l a y e r , the d i s t u r b a n c e on the p o t e n t i a l flow caused by the

28
bubble may i n f l u e n c e t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f l a m i n a r separation

itself. In many s i t u a t i o n s l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n on t h e l e a d i n g edge o c c u r s

i n v a r i a b l y on a r e l a t i v e l y sharp p r e s s u r e peak a t t h e l e a d i n g edge and i s

in the f i r s t p l a c e determined by the nose geometry.

We note t h a t t h e c o r r e c t p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e bubble may be

crucial f o r the p r e d i c t i o n of the l i f t on t h e s e c t i o n but i t s e f f e c t on t h e

t u r b u l e n t s e p a r a t i o n at the t r a i l i n g edge may be l e s s critical.

According to L i g h t h i l l , (1958),the source strength per unit area f o r

axisymmetric flow i s

0(S) = J |g <V r 6 * ) (2-43)

where 6* i s t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s d e f i n e d by

oo
<5* = ƒ (l-^)dz (2-44)
o

w i t h u t h e streamwise v e l o c i t y i n t h e boundary l a y e r , and z t h e c o o r d i n a t e

normal t o t h e s u r f a c e .

W i t h i n the p r e s e n t d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the contour,the integral repre-

s e n t i n g t h e induced velocity due t o t h e s o u r c e distribution i n equation

(2-26) , e v a l u a t e d a t t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t i , i s

N
6„o{s' ) T ( s , s ' ) d s ' = E (cosct. U . . + s i n c t . V..) (2-45)
S ' j= l ^3 i i - l

where t h e c o u p l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s U j . and give the a x i a l and r a d i a l veloci-

ties induced a t t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t i by t h e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n on p a n e l j .

The e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c o u p l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s U.. and V.. has been g i v e n by

Hess and M a r t i n , (1974), f o r constant, linear and p a r a b o l i c s o u r c e distribu-

t i o n s on a p a n e l .

In t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e s t r e n g t h and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s a t t h e

pivotal point locations, spline f u n c t i o n s a r e used. The f u n c t i o n (Vr6*) i n

equation (2-43) i s approximated by weighted l e a s t squares cubic splines to

a c h i e v e v a r i o u s degrees o f smoothing i n d i f f e r e n t flow r e g i o n s , i n t h e manner

suggested by Oskam, (1979).

29
 This procedure i s used t o e l i m i n a t e the sudden v a r i a t i o n s o f the

s o u r c e s t r e n g t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the sharp v a r i a t i o n s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t thick-

ness caused by m o d e l l i n g d e f i c i e n c y o f the p r o c e s s e s of n a t u r a l transition

or the reattachment of separated t u r b u l e n t l a y e r s .

In the same way, the d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t o f s e p a r a t i o n bubbles have

been t r e a t e d , by p r o v i d i n g a smooth c o n n e c t i o n between the displacement

t h i c k n e s s at s e p a r a t i o n and reattachment.

2.5. RESULTS IN UNIFORM FLOW AND COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENT

To a s s e s s the c a p a b i l i t i e s o f the method d e s c r i b e d i n the p r e v i o u s

s e c t i o n s a s e t o f c a l c u l a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out f o r the duct NSMB 37 i n

uniform a x i a l f l o w and compared w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . As noted before i n

S e c t i o n 2.2, t h i s duct has a rather blunt t r a i l i n g edge and the accuracy

of inviscid calculations suffers from a l a r g e degree of u n c e r t a i n t y .

A duct model w i t h 20 cm d i a m e t e r was tested i n the L a r g e Cavitation

Tunnel o f the NSMB, at t h r e e d i f f e r e n t Reynolds numbers.

The experiments comprised the measurement o f the f o r c e s a c t i n g on a

duct s e c t i o n and the v e l o c i t y field around the d u c t .

F o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the f o r c e s a c t i n g on the section

the t o t a l drag f o r c e and the f o r c e i n c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n a c t i n g on a

m e r i d i o n a l cut o f the duct have been measured.

The axial and radial velocity components at v a r i o u s a x i a l locations

upstream i n s i d e and downstream of the duct have been measured w i t h the NSMB

Laser-Doppler v e l o c i m e t e r wake f i e l d scanner.

A s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n of the t e s t arrangement and the experimental

techniques employed, i s g i v e n i n the Appendix 1.

The c h a r a c t e r o f the boundary l a y e r on the duct model has a l s o been

i n v e s t i g a t e d at the same Reynolds numbers i n the Deep Water B a s i n by paint

tests.

The t e s t s a p p l y a s i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e t o the one used to i n v e s t i g a t e the

boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r models, K u i p e r (1981).

The p a i n t t e s t s were run i n the deep water b a s i n at the advance speeds

30
1.25, 2.50 and 3.75 m/s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Reynolds numbers based on the duct's
5 5 5
l e n g t h r e s p e c t i v e l y o f Re =l.10x10
c , Re =2.20x10
c and Re =3.29x10 .
c

The r e s u l t s o f the v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f the limiting s t r e a m l i n e s by the

paint are shown f o r t h e h i g h e s t speed o f 3.75 m/s on F i g u r e s 2-5 to 2.8. In

all these F i g u r e s the u n d i s t u r b e d stream i s from l e f t to right.

A schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the boundary l a y e r c h a r a c t e r suggested

by the o b s e r v e d paint patterns i s given in Fig. 2-9.

Fig. 2-5. Paint pattern on the Fig. 2-6. Faint pattern on the
outer surface of duct 37. outer surface of duct 37.

Leading edge region. Trailing edge region.

5 S
Re =3.29xl0 . Re =3.29xlO .
c a

In the same f i g u r e the l o c a t i o n s of the r e f e r e n c e s t r i p s , which may be

d i s c e r n e d i n F i g s . 2-5 t o 2-8, are given.

The occurrence o f a s e p a r a t i o n b u b b l e on the o u t e r s u r f a c e i s c l e a r l y

31
Fig. 2-7. Faint pattern on the inner surface of duct 37. Leading edge
region. Re =3.29x10^.

32
 LEAPW6 EDGE
'LAMINAR SEPARATION

TURBULENT SEPARATION
OUTER SURFACE

L L A M I N A R OR T U R B U L E N T SEPARATION
INNER S U R F A C E

e v i d e n c e d i n F i g . 2-5 where a r e g i o n of r e v e r s e d flow i s t o be seen. T u r b u -

lent separation o c c u r s near the trailing edge as shown i n F i g . 2-6. We note

t h a t both p a t t e r n s have been s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by gravity force effects

l e a d i n g to the transverse component on the paint streaks i n F i g . 2-5 and the

accumulation of paint downwards at the trailing edge.

F i g s . 2-7 and 2-8 show a l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r a p p r o a c h i n g a region

of low skin f r i c t i o n at about x/c=0.40 and a clear separation line at the

trailing edge at about x/c=0.82. Whether the l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r separates

at x/c=0.40 f o r m i n g a s e p a r a t i o n bubble i s not c l e a r from the paint

patterns.

From the p a i n t t e s t s c a r r i e d out at the two other speeds,no significant

Reynolds e f f e c t has been found on the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e on the

l o c a t i o n s o f l e a d i n g edge l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n o r t r a i l i n g edge separation.

Yet, the p r e c i s e streamwise e x t e n t of the l e a d i n g edge l a m i n a r separa-

t i o n b u b b l e s on the o u t e r surface c o u l d not be clearly e s t a b l i s h e d by the

paint t e s t s i n any of the test conditions.

T h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s and other experimental studies (Van Ingen,

1975), reveal that the Reynolds number has a marked e f f e c t on the extent of

33
the bubble by i n f l u e n c i n g the o n s e t o f t r a n s i t i o n on the s e p a r a t e d shear

l a y e r and therefore determining the reattachment location.

The theoretical c a l c u l a t i o n s have been performed f o r the t h r e e diffe-

r e n t Reynolds numbers c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the t e s t c o n d i t i o n s .

The computed p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s are g i v e n i n F i g . 2-10 together

w i t h the i n d i c a t i o n o f the p r e d i c t e d l o c a t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n and reattachment

p o i n t s o f the c o r r e s p o n d e n t boundary layers.

The d i f f e r e n c e s between the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on the i n n e r s u r f a c e

are v e r y s m a l l . On the o u t e r s u r f a c e the e x t e n t o f the l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n

bubble c o n s i d e r a b l y d e c r e a s e s w i t h the i n c r e a s e o f Reynolds number.

Fig. 2-10. Computed pressure distributions on duct 37 in uniform flow.

Trailing edge laminar separation on the inner surface.
34
 In o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t of t r a i l i n g edge t u r b u l e n t s e p a r a -
t i o n on the duct l o a d i n g the c a l c u l a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d out with
" s t i m u l a t e d " t r a n s i t i o n assumed t o take p l a c e at x/c=0.39 on the i n n e r s u r -
f a c e o f the d u c t . The results are shown i n F i g . 2-11.

Fig. 2-11. Computed pressure distributions on duet 37 in uniform-

flow. Trailing edge turbulent separation on the inner
surface.

In t h i s case s e p a r a t i o n from the t r a i l i n g edge on the i n n e r s u r f a c e i s

shifted t o x/c=0.96 s t a y i n g , however, independent o f Reynolds number f o r the

cases considered.

Comparison o f the r e s u l t s o f F i g s . 2-10 and 2-11 reveals a considerable

effect on the duct l o a d i n g due t o the " t u r b u l e n c e s t i m u l a t i o n " on the i n n e r

surface. Although t h e change o f c h a r a c t e r o f the i n n e r boundary l a y e r influ-

ences the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the o u t e r s u r f a c e , the e x t e n t o f the

s e p a r a t i o n bubbles i s not significantly changed. We note t h a t the determina-

t i o n o f reattachment with reasonable accuracy i n the p r e s e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s i s

impaired by t h e q u a s i parallel c o u r s e n e a r reattachment o f t h e c u r v e s

representing the S t r a t f o r d recovery f o r the separated turbulent shear l a y e r

and the " i n v i s c i d " p r e s s u r e distribution.

The duct s e c t i o n l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s obtained from the measurement o f t h e

circumferential f o r c e on the d u c t ' s m e r i d i o n a l cut are given i n F i g . 2-12.

The measurements o f c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l f o r c e i n c l u d e d not o n l y the i n t e g r a t e d

e f f e c t o f the r a d i a l p r e s s u r e f o r c e s a c t i n g on the d u c t ' s i n n e r and outer

surfaces, but a l s o the f o r c e component due t o the p r e s s u r e f o r c e s a c t i n g on

the duct s e c t i o n s on the c u t , ( s e e Appendix 1 ) .

A radial force coefficient C i s defined as

R
F
C = 2—S
R i 2„2
^PU R Q

where F i s the r a d i a l f o r c e a c t i n g on the duct p e r u n i t radian,

n

Fig. 2-12. Effect of Reynolds number on measured and calculated duct

section lift coefficients. Duct 37 in uniform flow.

36
 CALCULATED

_ LAMINAR SEPARATION
0.3
"INNER SURFACE

TURBULENT SEPARATION
"INNER SURFACE
0.2
MEASURED

CAVITATION TUNNEL

0.1 -

J I I L_
10. 20. 30. 50. 60
Re c »10" 4

Fig. 2-13. Effect of Reynolds number on the duet's section drag

coefficient, duct 37 in uniform flow.

An equivalent two-dimensional l i f t coefficient i s defined by

c - ifa/c
L 2 c ^R

where c i s the duct length.

To e n a b l e the comparison w i t h the experiment r e s u l t s the duct section

lift coefficient was c o r r e c t e d f o r the e f f e c t o f the d u c t ' s finite thick-

ness by assuming a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n o f p r e s s u r e on the c u t between the outer

and inner surfaces.

We note the remarkable e f f e c t o f the Reynolds number on the l i f t which

changes s i g n i n the range o f speeds c o n s i d e r e d . T h i s e f f e c t has been found

both f o r the measurements performed i n the deep water b a s i n and i n the

c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l , though a c l e a r s h i f t between t h e two lift curves i s found.

The c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s with assumed t u r b u l e n t s e p a r a t i o n on the

t r a i l i n g edge seem t o c o r r e l a t e r e a s o n a b l y with the measurements i n the

c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l . However, the c h a r a c t e r o f t h e boundary l a y e r on the inner

s u r f a c e f o r the t e s t s i n t h e c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l has not been e s t a b l i s h e d and

no d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s i n t h i s respect can be drawn.

37
 The paint tests i n t h e Deep Water B a s i n i n d i c a t e d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f

s e p a r a t i o n at a t r a i l i n g edge l o c a t i o n which c o r r e l a t e d r a t h e r w e l l with the

t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s of t r a i l i n g edge l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n . Y e t , c o n s i d e r a b l e

d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e found i n the l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t . A p o s s i b l e reason f o r such

d i s c r e p a n c i e s may l i e on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s on t h e e x t e n t o f t h e l a m i n a r

s e p a r a t i o n bubbles which a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e h i g h s l o p e o f t h e t h e o r e t i -

cal lift curves a t t h e lowest Reynolds number.

The results f o r the v e l o c i t y field around t h e duct a r e shown i n F i g s .

2-14 t o 2-17.

F o r t h e purposes o f comparison, the v e l o c i t i e s c a l c u l a t e d with the f i r s t

inviscid approximation a r e i n c l u d e d . These c a l c u l a t i o n s have been carried

out u s i n g a t r a i l i n g edge c o n d i t i o n o f e q u a l p r e s s u r e , ( s e e eq. 2-37), a p p l i e d

at t h e p r e s s u r e minima on t h e t r a i l i n g edge. I t has been found from the

p a i n t t e s t s t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n o f t u r b u l e n t s e p a r a t i o n on the o u t e r s u r f a c e

and l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e c o r r e l a t e d r a t h e r w e l l w i t h

l o c a t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e minima o f t h e f i r s t i n v i s c i d pressure distribution

at the t r a i l i n g edge.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e v i s c o u s f l o w a n a l y s i s show a s a t i s f a c t o r y agreement

w i t h the experiments except i n s i d e t h e boundary l a y e r and wake. The agreement

i n s i d e t h e duct i s p a r t i c u l a r l y good. No attempt has been made t o c a l c u l a t e

velocity profiles i n s i d e t h e boundary l a y e r s and wake and t h e r e f o r e the p r e -

sent comparison i s o n l y m e a n i n g f u l i n the o u t e r p o t e n t i a l flow r e g i o n s .

Because o f t h e n e g l e c t i o n o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s of the s e p a r a t i o n

bubbles, the c a l c u l a t e d p o t e n t i a l flow v e l o c i t i e s do n o t agree w i t h t h e

measurements on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e i n t h e l e a d i n g edge r e g i o n . However, t h e

agreement o b t a i n e d downstream o f reattachment suggests the l o c a l character

of such effect.

2.6. CALCULATION OF THE DUCT STEADY LOAD FOR A DUCT WITH PROPELLER

2.6.1. P r o p e l l e r model and p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s on t h e d u c t .

When a p r o p e l l e r r o t a t e s i n s i d e a duct, the flow p a s t t h e duct i s

unsteady. Within inviscid flow theory, i f t h e duct i s axisymmetric and t h e

ducted p r o p e l l e r i s p l a c e d i n an axisymmetric onset f l o w , the f l o w through

the ducted p r o p e l l e r becomes s t e a d y i n a c o o r d i n a t e system r o t a t i n g w i t h t h e

38
X
p r o p e l l e r . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f v i s c o u s e f f e c t s are c o n s i d e r e d , the flow

i n s i d e the d u c t ' s boundary l a y e r i s time dependent i n a c o o r d i n a t e system

f i x e d t o the duct and w i l l have, i n g e n e r a l , a p e r i o d i c c h a r a c t e r stemming

from the p e r i o d i c n a t u r e o f the p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d flow.

At s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l c l e a r a n c e s between the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e t i p s and

the d u c t , the duct boundary l a y e r f l o w w i l l further i n t e r a c t with the

p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s and the a s s o c i a t e d t i p c l e a r a n c e flows, a r i s i n g from the

p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e between the p r e s s u r e and s u c t i o n s i d e s of the propeller

blades.

Due t o the g r e a t c o m p l e x i t y o f such i n t e r a c t i o n flow, various approxi-

mations have t o be i n t r o d u c e d i n the t h e o r e t i c a l treatment.

The time-mean f o r c e s and p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the duct can be

approximated by c o n s i d e r i n g the time-mean v e l o c i t y field i n d u c e d by the

p r o p e l l e r on the d u c t . O b v i o u s l y , the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of such v e l o c i t y field

i s e q u i v a l e n t t o the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l mean f l o w induced

by the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s i n a c o o r d i n a t e system r o t a t i n g w i t h the propeller.

As i t has been o b s e r v e d i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n , i f the l i f t i n g line

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the p r o p e l l e r i s adopted, the e q u i v a l e n c e between the

c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l mean o f the i n d u c e d v e l o c i t y field and the v e l o c i t y field

o f an a c t u a t o r d i s k model w i t h the same c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n , has been

e s t a b l i s h e d by Hough and Ordway, (1965), for l i g h t l y loaded propellers,

i . e . under the assumption t h a t the h e l i c a l vortices shed from the lifting

l i n e s r e p r e s e n t i n g the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s , are c o n v e c t e d by the u n d i s t u r b e d

relative flow.

For moderately o r h e a v i l y l o a d e d p r o p e l l e r s the e q u i v a l e n c e does not

h o l d . The F o u r i e r a n a l y s i s of the v e l o c i t y field a p p l i e d by Hough and

Ordway may e a s i l y be extended to m o d e r a t e l y loaded p r o p e l l e r s , f o r which the

p i t c h o f the shed h e l i c a l vortices i s m o d i f i e d t o i n c l u d e the a x i a l and

tangential perturbation velocities i n d u c e d by the p r o p e l l e r . The result for

the z e r o t h harmonic l e a d s t o the v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by a p r o p e l l e r with an

i n f i n i t e number o f b l a d e s , w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d e n t s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x system

being b u i l t up o f an i n f i n i t e set of h e l i c a l v o r t i c e s with a p i t c h distribu-

43
tion identical to the one of the f i n i t e b l a d e number model, (see Morgan
1961, 1965).

In the i n f i n i t e b l a d e number l i m i t the v o r t e x s h e e t s degenerate i n t o a

volume d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v o r t i c i t y w i t h a t a n g e n t i a l component or ring
vorticity inducing axial and radial velocities and an axial vorticity

component, which t o g e t h e r w i t h the r a d i a l bound v o r t i c i t y at the disk and

the hub a x i a l v o r t i c i t y , induces t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t i e s inside the slipstream.

For the calculation of the circumferentially averaged a x i a l and radial

velocities i n d u c e d at the duct by the propeller, i t i s s i m p l e r t o make use
of the e x p r e s s i o n s f o r the velocities i n d u c e d by a semi-infinite ring vortex
cylinder of constant radius.

This velocity f i e l d may be readily o b t a i n e d from Hough and Ordway

e x p r e s s i o n s i n terms o f L e g r e n d r e f u n c t i o n s . E q u i v a l e n t e x p r e s s i o n s i n terms
of e l l i p t i c integrals have a l s o been o b t a i n e d by Gibson, (1974), directly
from the application o f B i o t - S a v a r t law to the semi-infinite ring vortex
cylinder.

I f V ( x , r ; r ' ) and
A V ( x , r ; r ' ) denote the
R axial and radial velocities
i n d u c e d at a point (x,r) by a semi-infinite ring vortex cylinder of unit
strength, of radius r ' and i t s b a s i s l o c a t e d at the p l a n e x=0 of a cylindrical
c o o r d i n a t e system, we have

2
V (x,r;r' ) = V* + X _ [ K ( k ) - ^ 11 ( a \ k ) ]

(2-46)

2
V (X,r;r') = —--~ \ - r [E (k) - ( K (k)] (2-47)
1
k [ ( p - r + ( p - r p
2
where K ( k ) , E(k), H(a \k) are, respectively the elliptic integrals of first
second and t h i r d k i n d w i t h modulus

. 2 4rr 1

k = -s j , (2-48)
1
x +(r+r )

and parameter

44
 2 4rr'
a = 2 '
(r+r' )ö . (2-49)
+r' )
The f u n c t i o n V * ( r , r ' ) i s

V^(r,r') = 1 r < r'

= h r = r'

=0 r > r' (2-50)

+
L e t F (r)=2lTr w be t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e p r o p e l l e r w i t h i n f i n i t e
°j o
number o f b l a d e s , w b e i n g t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l mean t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y
o
immediately downstream o f t h e p r o p e l l e r d i s k , x=+0.

The a x i a l and t a n g e n t i a l v o r t i c i t y components are r e s p e c t i v e l y

U = - - J - (2-51)
x 2irr d r

and

1 dX^
(2-52)
2-nr t a n g . d r
l

where 3. i s t h e p i t c h a n g l e o f t h e h e l i c a l v o r t i c e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e assump-

t i o n s of moderately loaded p r o p e l l e r theory, the p i t c h of the h e l i c a l

v o r t i c e s remains c o n s t a n t i n the p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m and t h e r e f o r e , t h e

vorticity components O J ^ and given by (2-51) and (2-52) a r e c o n s t a n t i n

the a x i a l d i r e c t i o n . F o r an a r b i t r a r y c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e p i t c h

P. (r)=2irr tang, i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r a d i u s .
l i -p
=
I n t r o d u c i n g t h e n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n G ^^}~ we
aa

obtain f o r the tangential v e l o c i t y

G
+ CO __
= r < 1 (2-53)
o r
= 0 r > 1

In t h e s e q u e l , as i n (2-53), the v e l o c i t i e s a r e made n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l

by the u n d i s t u r b e d axial velocity U q and t h e c o o r d i n a t e lengths by t h e p r o -

peller radius.

45
 The axial and r a d i a l v e l o c i t i e s a r e then o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e

c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e v o r t e x c y l i n d e r s from t h e hub t o the t i p i n t h e form

1 dG
G 1
= - PtiHêT dï^ V (x.,r;r')dr' (2-54)
r
h

1 d G
! co
V 1
= - r'tang. dF^ V R (x , r ; r ' ) d r ' (2-55)
r
h

As mentioned b e f o r e , the a x i a l and r a d i a l v e l o c i t y components g i v e n by

(2-54) and (2-55) r e p r e s e n t t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l average o f the induced velo-

c i t i e s o f t h e p r o p e l l e r w i t h f i n i t e number o f b l a d e s p r o v i d e d t h a t 3. i s t h e

hydrodynamic p i t c h o f t h e h e l i c a l v o r t i c e s shed from t h e l i f t i n g lines

and the c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n G i s taken as

G^ = ZG , (2-56)

where G i s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e l i f t i n g lines and Z t h e number o f b l a d e s .

If L e r b s ' (1952) m o d e r a t e l y l o a d e d theory i s c o n s i d e r e d , t h e p i t c h o f t h e

h e l i c o i d a l v o r t i c e s is taken as t h e hydrodynamic p i t c h a n g l e a t t h e l i f t i n g

l i n e . T h i s approach has been f o l l o w e d by Morgan, (1961), f o r d u c t e d propellers.

When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by t h e duct and hub on t h e p r o p e l -

ler, t h e hydrodynamic p i t c h a n g l e a t t h e l i f t i n g line i s ( F i g . 2-18).

1+u +u,+u,
d h
tang. = P (2-57)
i Trr
—r- -W - W ,
J P d

where J=U /nD i s t h e advance r a t i o , u , u , and u t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e

o p d h
l i f t i n g l i n e i n d u c e d by t h e p r o p e l l e r duct and hub r e s p e c t i v e l y , and w and
P
w^ t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t i e s át t h e l i f t i n g line i n d u c e d by t h e p r o p e l l e r and

d u c t . The t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y i n d u c e d by the hub, b e i n g v e r y s m a l l , has been

d i s c a r d e d i n eq. (2-57).

In equation (2-57) t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t y i n d u c e d by t h e duct i n c l u d e s , n o t

o n l y t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the steady l o a d on t h e d u c t , but a l s o t h e c o n t r i b u -

t i o n o f i t s f l u c t u a t i n g p a r t . Moreover, t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y w, i n d u c e d by
d
the duct i s e n t i r e l y due t o the f l u c t u a t i n g part.

T h e r e f o r e , i t s d e t e r m i n a t i o n r e q u i r e s the s o l u t i o n f o r the higher blade

harmonics o f t h e d u c t ' s c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l load d i s t r i b u t i o n as i n d i c a t e d by

46
Morgan, (1961). Such p r o c e d u r e e n t a i l s a lengthy i t e r a t i o n process between

duct and p r o p e l l e r i n v o l v i n g on each i t e r a t i o n s t e p the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e

b l a d e harmonics o f t h e p r o p e l l e r and d u c t induced v e l o c i t y field.

C o n s i d e r a b l e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of the c a l c u l a t i o n i s achieved i f the

h i g h e r b l a d e harmonics a r e n e g l e c t e d and, i n a d d i t i o n , t h e hydrodynamic pitch

i s determined by t h e v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by an i n f i n i t e l y bladed propeller

model.

We n o t i c e that, when assuming an i n f i n i t e l y bladed p r o p e l l e r which

delivers t h e same t h r u s t as t h e f i n i t e bladed p r o p e l l e r , the correspondent

circulation distribution does n o t comply w i t h e q u a t i o n ( 2 - 5 6 ) , which o n l y

holds i n the l i m i t Z-*o°. T h i s can r e a d i l y be seen, from the a p p l i c a t i o n of

the law o f Kutta-Joukowsky which g i v e s f o r t h e p r o p e l l e r with i n f i n i t e number

of blades

C T = 4 ƒ - | ) G„ r d r (2-58)
r
P h

and f o r the f i n i t e bladed propeller

C m = 4Z ƒ (—• - w) Gr d r (2-59)
P r
h

where w i s t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y induced at the l i f t i n g line

W = W + W-,
P d

With r e g a r d t o the hydrodynamic p i t c h f o r t h e v o r t e x system o f an

infinitely bladed p r o p e l l e r , Dyne, (1967),showed that the a x i a l induced

velocities f a r downstream as c a l c u l a t e d from g e n e r a l momentum t h e o r y o f t h e

a c t u a t o r d i s k , (see Glauert,1935) , and from equation (2-54), a r e i n agreement,

provided that t h e hydrodynamic p i t c h a n g l e i s t a k e n i n t h e u l t i m a t e wake

(Fig. 2-19):

1+U
CO
tang . = . (2-60)
1» irr Goo

J r

Equations (2-58), (2-60), (2-54), (2-55) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s

(2-46) t h r o u g h (2-50), c o m p l e t e l y determine t h e a x i a l and r a d i a l i n d u c e d

47
 27tnr

Fig. 2-18. Velocity diagram at a l i f t i n g line in the moderately

loaded theory of a ducted propeller.

velocities on the d u c t and hub i f the advance r a t i o , p r o p e l l e r loading

coefficient and c i r c u l a t i o n distribution are known, w i t h o u t i n v o l v i n g the

duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t y field explicity.

The duct f l o w problem i n the p r e s e n c e o f a g e n e r a l axisymmetric poten-

tial flow f i e l d s u c h as the p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d f l o w d e s c r i b e d above, has been

t r e a t e d i n s e c t i o n 2.2 and w i l l not be c o n s i d e r e d here any further.

2Ttnr

Fig. 2-19. Velocity diagram in the ultimate wake in the moderately

loaded actuator disk theory.

48
2.6.2. Remarks on v i s c o u s e f f e c t s on t h e duct f o r a ducted propeller.

The inviscid flow theory presented i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s has been a

powerful tool t o p r e d i c t duct performance and t o p r o v i d e d e s i g n guidance.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t might be o f l i m i t e d use i n t h e cases where v i s c o u s effects,

which c o n t r o l t h e c i r c u l a t i o n on t h e duct,cannot be a d e q u a t e l y represented

by t h e c l a s s i c a l Kutta-Joukowsky c o n d i t i o n . T h i s f a c t has been illustrated

in this Chapter f o r axisymmetric steady flow past p r o p e l l e r ducts with

blunt trailing edges.

When t h e p r o p e l l e r i s o p e r a t i n g i n s i d e t h e d u c t , t h e boundary layer

flow on t h e duct i s a f f e c t e d by t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l and unsteady effects which

a r i s e from t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e r o t a t i n g p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s . F o r most o f

the cases of p r a c t i c a l interest i n which t h e duct e x h i b i t s a form o f t r a i l i n g

edge s e p a r a t i o n , t h e q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e steady compo-

nent of c i r c u l a t i o n and f o r c e s on t h e d u c t , i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t t o which

the p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l and unsteady effects i n f l u e n c e the

overall separation p a t t e r n at the t r a i l i n g edge.

When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e boundary l a y e r f l o w from t h e p o i n t o f view o f an

o b s e r v e r f i x e d t o t h e d u c t , the o u t e r p o t e n t i a l f l o w may be r e g a r d e d as

composed o f a mean m e r i d i a n flow w i t h a superimposed three-dimensional

o s c i l l a t i n g disturbance flow.

The amplitude of the o s c i l l a t o r y disturbance w i l l s t r o n g l y depend on

the p r o x i m i t y t o t h e p r o p e l l e r .

On t h e o t h e r hand, on t h e d i f f u s e r p a r t o f t h e d u c t , t h e mean o u t e r

flow i n c l u d e s a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l component r e s u l t i n g from the s w i r l imparted

by t h e p r o p e l l e r t o the f l u i d i n the s l i p s t r e a m .

A l s o , t h e f l o w around t h e p r o p e l l e r t i p s which i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e

boundary l a y e r f l o w on t h e d u c t ' s i n n e r w a l l , may be o f importance i n deter-

mining t h e downstream development o f t h e boundary l a y e r i n t h e d i f f u s e r . Such

flows have been s t u d i e d by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s ( s e e f o r i n s t a n c e Hutton, 1958,

Gearhart, 1966 , Lakshminarayna, 1970), i n view o f t h e i r importance i n asses-

s i n g the correspondent t i p c l e a r a n c e l o s s e s o r i n r e l a t i o n t o the d e t e r m i n a -

t i o n of the blade t i p c a v i t a t i o n performance.

49
 Most o f t h e models proposed are i n v i s c i d flow models which n e g l e c t
the e x i s t e n c e o f t h e w a l l boundary l a y e r and a r e p r i m a r i l y concerned with
the flow c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e gap and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on b l a d e performance.

The response o f a two-dimensional boundary l a y e r t o u n s t e a d i n e s s i n the

f r e e - s t r e a m has been s t u d i e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y and t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r both

l a m i n a r and t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s . F o r a review we r e f e r t o t h e paper o f

T e l i o n i s , (1979).

In p a r t i c u l a r , the unsteady s e p a r a t i o n o f an o s c i l l a t o r y two-dimensio-

n a l boundary l a y e r from t h e t r a i l i n g edge o f an a i r f o i l - l i k e body has been

examined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by Despard and M i l l e r , (1971).

T h e i r r e s u l t s s u p p l i e d f u r t h e r evidence f o r a now commonly known f a c t

that steady separation c r i t e r i a such as t h e v a n i s h i n g o f t h e w a l l shear a t

separation,cannot be a p p l i e d t o unsteady boundary l a y e r flow.

In f a c t , o c c u r r e n c e o f r e v e r s e d f l o w a t a c e r t a i n downstream location

on t h e boundary l a y e r c o u l d be o b s e r v e d near the w a l l during the g r e a t e s t

p a r t o f t h e o s c i l l a t i n g c y c l e without b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h flow breakdown

from the w a l l at that location.

In a d d i t i o n , t h e i r r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e that the d e v i a t i o n o f the l o c a t i o n

flow s e p a r a t i o n from t h e w a l l , i m p l y i n g the f o r m a t i o n o f a wake i n t h e case o f

unsteady flow, from the l o c a t i o n of s e p a r a t i o n i n steady flow w i t h t h e same

mean p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t , d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds number and f r e -

quency o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n , b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d t o a much l e s s degree by t h e am-

p l i t u d e of the o s c i l l a t i o n .

We n o t i c e , t h a t t h e mean p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t used by Despard and M i l l e r

i n t h e i r experiments a r e much weaker than t h e ones which can be e x p e c t e d

on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e o f a duct i n the p r e s e n c e of a propeller, except at v e r y

light l o a d i n g s , and t h e amplitude d i s t r i b u t i o n being uniform along the chord,

differs from t h e one o c c u r r i n g on t h e duct s u r f a c e s .

The range o f Reynolds numbers and f r e q u e n c y parameter i n v e s t i g a t e d can

y e t be c o n s i d e r e d as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e f l o w on t h e duct a t model scale.

The p r e v i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s suggest t h a t by n e g l e c t i n g unsteady and

three-dimensional e f f e c t s as a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n , one may o b t a i n an e s t i -

mate o f t h e steady component o f c i r c u l a t i o n c o n s i d e r i n g the steady boundary

50
l a y e r f l o w s u b j e c t t o the time-mean pressure distribution.

The method f o r steady flows d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 2.3 has been a p p l i e d

to t h e ducted p r o p e l l e r case making use o f a p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n obtained

by t h e method o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e

presented i n t h e next section.

2.7. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENT

In order t o v e r i f y e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l models which

have been employed i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e duct steady performance and, i n

p a r t i c u l a r , to assess the accuracy o f t h e n o n - i t e r a t i v e method based on t h e

actuator d i s k theory presented i n t h i s c h a p t e r , a s e t o f experiments with

ducted p r o p e l l e r s has been c a r r i e d out i n u n i f o r m flow.

The experiments have been s e l e c t e d t o p r o v i d e , t o t h e degree r e q u i r e d

by the t h e o r e t i c a l models used i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s , d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on

the f l o w f i e l d around t h e ducted propeller.

The measurements i n c l u d e d the o v e r a l l f o r c e s a c t i n g on duct and

p r o p e l l e r , p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e i n n e r s i d e o f t h e duct and t h e a x i a l

and radial velocity components o f t h e v e l o c i t y field upstream and downstream

of t h e d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r , i n c l u d i n g the p r o p e l l e r S l i p s t r e a m . In this i n v e s t i g a t i o n

the measurements were f o c u s s e d on t h e time-mean v a l u e s and no attempt has

been made t o g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f l o w s i n

the duct and p r o p e l l e r wakes. A l s o t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e boundary l a y e r f l o w on

the duct have n o t been c o n s i d e r e d .

The f o l l o w i n g d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s have been c o n s i d e r e d :

- Duct NSMB 19A w i t h a p r o p e l l e r o f t h e KA-4-70 s e r i e s . Open-water characte-

ristics and the r a d i a l f o r c e component a c t i n g on t h e duct section, deriva-

ble from the measurement o f t h e t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e a c t i n g on a duct meridio-

nal c u t , have been measured i n t h e Deep Water Basin.

- Duct NSMB 37 w i t h a f o u r - b l a d e d c o n t r o l l a b l e p i t c h p r o p e l l e r o f Kaplan

type denoted here by p r o p e l l e r A. Open-water characteristics and p r e s s u r e

d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e i n n e r s i d e o f t h e duct at t h r e e d i f f e r e n t propeller

l o a d i n g s have been measured i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank ( i n atmospheric

condition).

51
- Duct NSMB 37 w i t h a f i v e - b l a d e d p r o p e l l e r denoted by p r o p e l l e r B: open-

water c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , r a d i a l f o r c e measurements on t h e d u c t s e c t i o n and

velocjty f i e l d measurements w i t h L a s e r - D o p p l e r v e l o c i m e t e r a t v a r i o u s

l o c a t i o n s upstream and downstream o f t h e duct w i t h o p e r a t i n g propeller

were c a r r i e d out i n t h e L a r g e C a v i t a t i o n T u n n e l at t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p r o p e l l e r

loadings.

The p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e p r o p e l l e r o f t h e K A - s e r i e s can be found i n

O o s t e r v e l d , ( 1 9 7 1 ) . The geometry o f t h e p r o p e l l e r s A and B a r e g i v e n i n t h e

Appendix 2.

In a d d i t i o n , the character o f t h e boundary l a y e r on t h e duct NSMB 37

w i t h t h e p r o p e l l e r B has been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h e Deep Water B a s i n by means

of a paint test technique.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s with the a c t u a t o r disk analysis of the

present chapter f o r the forces a c t i n g on t h e duct NSMB 19A w i t h t h e KA-4-70

s e r i e s p r o p e l l e r model a r e compared w i t h t h e measurements i n F i g . 2-20. The

results are presented i n terms o f a K - J diagram. In o r d e r t o e n a b l e an

T

immediate comparison o f t h e magnitude o f t h e r a d i a l and a x i a l f o r c e compo-

nent a c t i n g on a d u c t ' s s e c t i o n , a radial force coefficient K , similar to

R
the thrust c o e f f i c i e n t K„ has been d e f i n e d as
T
d
K
2TT F R

R 274
pn D

where F i s t h e r a d i a l force per unit radian, acting on t h e d u c t .

R

The c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed w i t h an assumed l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n on

the actuator disk g i v e n by Gco=K(r-r ) / l - r and a c l e a r a n c e between t h e edge

of t h e d i s k and t h e d u c t ' s s u r f a c e o f 0.5%. The p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t

was t a k e n i d e n t i c a l t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l one.

V i s c o u s e f f e c t s were n e g l e c t e d and t h e K u t t a c o n d i t i o n was implemented

i n the conventional way by p l a c i n g the s t a g n a t i o n point on t h e b i s e c t o r t o

the trailing edge a n g l e .

52
 Fig. 2-20. Comparison of duct force coefficients for duct NSMB 19A
with propeller KA 4-70, P/D-1.0.

From F i g . 2-20 i t can be seen t h a t the agreement i n duct thrust

between c a l c u l a t i o n and experiment i s good except at h i g h advance ratios.

A l s o at h i g h p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s a t r e n d f o r the t h e o r y to p r e d i c t duct

thrusts higher than the e x p e r i m e n t a l ones can be discerned.

At low p r o p e l l e r loadings the inviscid theory obviously predicts a

p o s i t i v e duct t h r u s t as l o n g as the p r o p e l l e r a l s o d e l i v e r s t h r u s t . Therefore,

the d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h i s range o f l o a d i n g may be a s c r i b e d t o the e f f e c t s of

viscosity. In p a r t i c u l a r the l a r g e measured v a l u e s o f duct drag can be attri-

buted to the o c c u r e n c e o f l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n on the o u t e r s u r f a c e of the

duct.

At h i g h p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s n o n - l i n e a r e f f e c t s on the p r o p e l l e r slip-

53
 Fig. 2-21. Calculated pressure distributions on duct NSMB 19A with
propeller KA 4-70. P/D=1.0 at various propeller loadings.

stream become important and may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o v e r e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e

propeller induced velocities.

With r e g a r d t o the r a d i a l f o r c e the c a l c u l a t i o n s c o n s i s t e n t l y u n d e r e s t i -

mate the measured v a l u e s . We n o t e t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e s have been

corrected f o r the p r e s s u r e f o r c e a c t i n g on the duct m e r i d i o n a l c u t assuming,

as i n t h e case o f u n i f o r m flow t r e a t e d before, a l i n e a r pressure variation

between t h e o u t e r and i n n e r s u r f a c e s . The c o r r e c t e d c o e f f i c i e n t i s t o be

compared w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t a l coefficient K^.

C o n s i d e r i n g the good c o r r e l a t i o n on the duct t h r u s t , the discrepancy

i s expected t o be caused by t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on

the i n n e r s i d e o f t h e d u c t , downstream o f t h e p r o p e l l e r .

54
 Fig. 2-22. Effect of tip clearance on the pressure distribution on
duct NSMB 19A. J=0.60, =1.245.
V

The c a l c u l a t e d pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n F i g . 2-21. Apart

from t h e sudden p r e s s u r e r i s e due t o t h e v a n i s h i n g c h o r d a c t u a t o r d i s k

m o d e l l i n g , t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on t h e d i f f u s e r a r e independent of the

propeller l o a d i n g which i s r a t h e r unexpected.

The e f f e c t s o f t i p c l e a r a n c e and l o c a t i o n o f p r o p e l l e r p l a n e on t h e

calculated pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g s . 2-22 and 2-23, r e s p e c t i v e -

ly.

The r e s u l t s f o r the duct, p r o p e l l e r and t o t a l t h r u s t on t h e duct NSMB

37 w i t h t h e p r o p e l l e r A are g i v e n i n F i g . 2-24.

The c o r r e l a t i o n on duct t h r u s t o f t h e i n v i s c i d calculation i s consider-

a b l y worse than f o r t h e duct NSMB 19A. The d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e r e l a t e d t o the

difficulties encountered i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e duct circulation from t h e a p p l i -

c a t i o n o f a steady form o f t h e K u t t a c o n d i t i o n t o t h i s d u c t . The i n v i s c i d

c a l c u l a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d out u s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f e q u a l pressure

at the p o i n t s on the t r a i l i n g edge where t h e p r e s s u r e minima o c c u r . Such

criterion has proved t o give a reasonable e s t i m a t e o f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n on t h e

duct 37 i n u n i f o r m flow without propeller.

55
 -30

Fig. 2-23. Effect of location of propeller plane on the pressure

distribution on duct NSMB 19A. J=0.50, Cm =1.245.
J-p
Contrary t o the case o f duct 19A the I n v i s c i d c a l c u l a t i o n tends to

g i v e s m a l l e r t h r u s t s on the duct than the e x p e r i m e n t a l ones at h i g h e r p r o -

p e l l e r l o a d i n g s and the c o r r e s p o n d e n t u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f the circulation

around the duct can be r e l a t e d t o the i n a c c u r a c i e s i n the p r e s s u r e distribu-

t i o n on the i n n e r s i d e of the duct downstream of the propeller.

This fact is illustrated i n F i g s . 2-25 t o 2-27 where the calculated

and measured p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on the i n n e r s i d e o f the duct are

shown. S i n c e , at i n c r e a s i n g p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g , the l e v e l o f the pressure

minimum i s u n d e r e s t i m a t e d by the l i n e a r i z e d t h e o r y , the c i r c u l a t i o n i s also

underestimated.

F o r the h i g h e s t p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g the e f f e c t o f the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a

trailing edge c o n d i t i o n on the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e shown f o r c a l c u l a -

t i o n s performed w i t h the l i n e a r i z e d and n o n - l i n e a r t h e o r i e s .

The n o n - l i n e a r t h e o r y used i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s s o l v e s the e x a c t equa-

t i o n s o f motion f o r axisymmetric inviscid f l o w s u b j e c t t o the boundary
c o n d i t i o n s on the duct and hub by a d i s c r e t e v o r t e x method and i s considered

56
 Fig. 2-24. Correlation for the invisoid and viscous calculations of
the thrust acting on the duct 37 with propeller A.

i n C h a p t e r 3. In comparison w i t h the l i n e a r i z e d model p r e s e n t e d in this

Chapter, i t can be s a i d t h a t the e f f e c t s o f c o n t r a c t i o n o f the stream surfaces

and vortex p i t c h deformation i n the p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m under the influence

o f the duct-hub induced v e l o c i t i e s are taken i n t o a c c o u n t .

Note worthy i n the r e s u l t s o f F i g . 2-27 a r e the d i f f e r e n c e s between

the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c a l c u l a t e d by the linearized and non-linear

t h e o r i e s downstream of the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e . Except near the l e a d i n g edge

and i n the v e r y vicinity o f the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e , the p r e s s u r e distribution

c a l c u l a t e d with the n o n - l i n e a r t h e o r y agrees w e l l w i t h the measured pressure

distribution i f a proper trailing edge c o n d i t i o n i s chosen. The smaller

values o f the measured p r e s s u r e at the l e a d i n g edge might be r e l a t e d to the

occurrence o f a s e p a r a t i o n bubble on the i n n e r s u r f a c e and are responsible

57
Fig. 2-26. Pressure distribution on duct 37 with propeller A. J=0.40
C =3.50.
V
 LINEARIZED THEORY
LINEARIZED THEORY
STAGNATION POINT x / C . 9 0 . 9 V . OUTER SIDE

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 x / c

Fig. 2-27. Pressure distribution on duct 37 with propeller A.

J=0.20. C T =16.36.
P

for the differences between the measured and the c a l c u l a t e d values of duct

thrust c o e f f i c i e n t .

The s t e a d y v i s c o u s - i n v i s c i d i n t e r a c t i o n model has been a p p l i e d to

c a l c u l a t e the f l o w p a s t the duct under the influence of the propeller, using

the l i n e a r i z e d actuator d i s k model t o compute the propeller steady induced

velocity field. The c a l c u l a t i o n s were o n l y performed at the lowest loadings,

due t o the i n v a r i a b l e p r e d i c t i o n of separation n e a r the p r o p e l l e r plane at

increasing propeller loading. This f a c t might be r e l a t e d to the use of an

actuator d i s k model and, presumably,a model which a c c o u n t s f o r f i n i t e chord

loading e f f e c t s would l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s .

The r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g . 2-24 and the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n for

the condition J=0.60, C =1.10 i s compared w i t h the i n v i s c i d c a l c u l a t i o n i n

p
Fig. 2-25. A l t h o u g h the v i s c o u s c a l c u l a t i o n l e a d s to a s m a l l e r v a l u e f o r the
circulation f o r J=0.60, C =1.10 the c a l c u l a t e d duct t h r u s t i s c o r r e c t . As i t
P
can be seen from F i g . 2-25 a considerable l o s s of thrust i s caused by the
leading edge s e p a r a t i o n bubble on the outer surface.

59
 The r e s u l t s o f the p a i n t t e s t s c a r r i e d out on duct 37 w i t h propeller B
i n the Deep Water B a s i n are shown from F i g . 2-28 t o F i g . 2-39. In t h e s e F i g u r e s
the d i r e c t i o n o f the u n d i s t u r b e d stream i s from l e f t to r i g h t . C o n c e r n i n g the i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n o f the p a i n t p a t t e r n s o b t a i n e d , t h e f o l l o w i n g remarks can be made:

- At the s m a l l e s t p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g J=0.625 t h e r e i s a laminar separation

b u b b l e on the o u t e r s u r f a c e o f the duct shown i n F i g . 2-28 and 2-29. The

separation point l i e s at about x/c=0.02 and the t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r

reattachment l o c a t i o n i s at about x/c=0.10 ( i d e n t i f i e d by the angle between

the p a i n t s t r e a k s at r e a t t a c h m e n t caused by t h e e f f e c t s o f gravity).

Separation o f the t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r from the t r a i l i n g edge i s seen

to occur between x/c=0.92 and x/c=0.96.

The paint patterns on the i n n e r s u r f a c e , ( F i g . 2-30), r e v e a l an attached

boundary l a y e r from the l e a d i n g edge, a r e g i o n at mid-chord where the

paint apparently d i d not stream, presumably due t o a low value o f the time

average s k i n f r i c t i o n n e a r the l o c a t i o n o f the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e , and a

rather irregular " s e p a r a t i o n r e g i o n " n e a r the t r a i l i n g edge. Comparison

with the c o r r e s p o n d e n t trailing edge s e p a r a t i o n p a t t e r n i n u n i f o r m flow

without p r o p e l l e r at the same Reynolds number based on the u n d i s t u r b e d stream

i n F i g . 2-11, which shows a c l e a r s e p a r a t i o n l i n e , i n d i c a t e s the p o s s i b l e

presence of a r e g i o n of o s c i l l a t i n g reversed flow.

- At the i n t e r m e d i a t e p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g J=0.417, the boundary l a y e r on the outer

s u r f a c e remains a t t a c h e d up t o the t r a i l i n g edge as shown i n F i g . 2-31 and 2-32.

The l i n e o f attachment o f the f l o w to duct s u r f a c e can be d i s c e r n e d i n

F i g . 2-31 at about x/c=0.03 and the l i n e o f s e p a r a t i o n at the t r a i l i n g edge

lies at about x/c=0.98. The c h a r a c t e r o f the boundary l a y e r on the i n n e r s u r -

f a c e i s shown i n F i g . 2-33 and 2-34. The l e a d i n g edge p a t t e r n shows an a t t a c h e d

boundary l a y e r and the mid-chord t h i n p a t t e r n seems t o i n d i c a t e a removal o f the

p a i n t by the a c t i o n of p r o p e l l e r blades. The trailing edge p a t t e r n shows

again an i r r e g u l a r "separation region" with an apparent t h i n i n g e f f e c t

o f the p a i n t which has streamed under the a c t i o n of g r a v i t y .

- The test at t h e h i g h e s t p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g has been performed at J=0.22.

The paint patterns on the o u t e r s u r f a c e are shown i n F i g . 2-35 and 2-36.

I t may be concluded t h a t the v e l o c i t y i s too low to o b t a i n a reasonable

paint pattern with the p r e s e n t technique. The p a t t e r n on the l e a d i n g edge

i n d i c a t e s attachment o f t h e f l o w w e l l on the o u t e r s u r f a c e . The paint

60
Fig. 2-28. Outer surface. Fig. 2-29. Outer surface,
leading edge region.

Fig. 2-30. Inner surface.

Figs. 2-28 - 2-30. Paint patterns on duct 37 with propeller B.

U 5
J=0.625, -°! = 3. 29x1 0 .

61
Fig. 2-31. Outer surface, Fig. 2-32. Outer surface,
leading edge region. mid-chord and trailing
edge regions.

Fig. 2-33. Inner surface, Fig. 2-34. Inner surface,

leading edge and trailing edge region.
midchord regions.

Figs. 2-31 - 2-34. Paint patterns on duct 37 with propeller B.

J=0.417, 2.19x10"

62
 leading edge and trailing edge region,
mid-chord regions.

Fig. 2-39. Leading edge (front view).

Figs. 2-35 - 2-39. Paint patterns on duct 37 with propeller B.

5
J=0.22 , = l.lOxlO .
v

63
 patterns obtained on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e a r e f a r more r e v e a l i n g and they

are shown i n F i g . 2-37 t o F i g . 2-39. No i n d i c a t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n a t the

l e a d i n g edge i s t o be seen i n F i g . 2-37 and 2-38. A r e g i o n o f r e v e r s e d

paint f l o w has been o b s e r v e d e x t e n d i n g from about x/c=0.60 t o x/c=0.33.

A s i m i l a r p a i n t p a t t e r n on the t r a i l i n g edge as i n t h e case J=0.417 has

been obtained.

The r e s u l t s o f the i n v i s c i d c a l c u l a t i o n s with the l i n e a r i z e d actuator

d i s k model and u s i n g a t r a i l i n g edge c o n d i t i o n based on the e q u a l i t y o f

pressure at the l o c a t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t s which c o u l d be i n f e r r e d from

the p a i n t t e s t s , a r e shown i n F i g . 2-40.

The assumed l o c a t i o n s a r e : x/c=0.973 on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e and

x/c=0.901 on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e f o r J=0.625; x/c=0.981 on the o u t e r surface
and x/c=0.871 on the i n n e r s u r f a c e f o r J=0.417; x/c=0.973 on t h e o u t e r
s u r f a c e and x/c=0.822 on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e f o r J=0.208.
 The c o r r e l a t i o n on duct t h r u s t i s r e a s o n a b l e except at lowest propeller

loading. The i n c l u s i o n o f v i s c o u s e f f e c t s i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s considerably

improves t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b o t h on t h r u s t and on s e c t i o n r a d i a l force coeffi-

cient .

The a x i a l and r a d i a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s measured upstream and

downstream o f t h e d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r x/R=-0.80, -0.53, 0.53 and 0.90 w i t h res-

p e c t t o the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e are shown i n F i g . 2-41 t o F i g . 2-48 and compared

w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n s by l i n e a r i z e d and n o n - l i n e a r theories f o r J=0.417 and

J=0.202.

The c a l c u l a t i o n s have been p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e same t r a i l i n g edge condi-

tions f o r the i n v i s c i d l i n e a r i z e d and n o n - l i n e a r models i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f F i g . 2-40.

Fig. 2-41. Axial velocity profiles upstream of the propeller at

x/R=-0.80. Duct Z7 with propeller B.

65
 Fig. 2-42. Axial velocity profiles upstream of the propeller

x/R=-0.53. Duct 37 with propeller B.

At the lowest l o a d i n g , J=0.635 t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d out

with l i n e a r i z e d t h e o r y w i t h and without c o n s i d e r i n g v i s c o u s e f f e c t s on t h e

duct.

66
 o EXPERIMENT J 10.625
w J =0.417
a J : 0.208

i LMEARIZED THEORY

WITH DUCT VISCOUS E F F E C T S

NONLINEAR THEORY

0
—-•

Aj
/>/

0 I i1 i1 1 1 1
O 1.0 20 3.0 *0 SO
Ui

Fig. 2-43. Axial velocity profiles downstream of the propeller at

x/R=0.S3. Duct 37 with propeller B.
 o EXPERIMENT J s 0.625
r/R » J s 0.417
D J- 0.208

LINEARIZED THEORY
20
WITH DUCT VISCOUS E F F E C T S

WUo

Fig. 2-45. Radial velocity profiles upstream of the propeller at

x/R=-0.80. Duct 37 with propeller B.

Fig. 2-46. Radial velocity profiles upstream of the propeller at

x/R=-0.53. Duct 37 with propeller B.

68
 o EXPERIMENT J : 0.625
J : 0.417
J : 0.208

LINEARIZED THEORY

WITH DUCT VISCOUS EFFECTS

Fig. 2-47. Radial velocity p r o f i l e s downstream of the propeller at

x/R=0.53. Duct 37 with propeller B.

EXPERIMENT J : 0.625
J : 0.417
J sO. 200

• LINEARIZED THEORY

WITH DUCT VISCOUS EFFECTS

1.5

Fig. 2-48. Radial velocity profiles downstream of the propeller at

x/R=0.90. Duct 37 with propeller B.

89
3. Ducted propeller in a x i s y m m e t r i c shear flow

•3.1. INTRODUCTION

In g e n e r a l , ducted p r o p e l l e r s work i n a h i g h l y non-uniform f l o w field

i n the s h i p ' s wake. When p l a c e d i n a non-uniform f l o w , away from additional

d i s t u r b a n c e s such as the one caused by the p r e s e n c e o f the h u l l , the ducted

p r o p e l l e r performance may considerably d i f f e r from the one obtained in a

uniform f l o w . The presence of v o r t i c i t y i n the incoming flow and i t s inter-

a c t i o n w i t h the p r o p e l l e r and duct v o r t e x systems, are the d i s t i n c t i v e fea-

t u r e s o f the b e h a v i o u r o f the d u c t e d propeller in a non-uniform flow.

The study o f the r a d i a l n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f the inflow,assumed t o have

o n l y a x i a l v e l o c i t y component, i s o f importance when d e s i g n i n g wake-adapted

p r o p e l l e r s . For ducted propellers, i n a d d i t i o n t o the d i f f e r e n t conditions i n

which duct and p r o p e l l e r o p e r a t e , i t s i n t e r a c t i o n may be further modified by

the e f f e c t o f incoming flow vorticity.

It i s , i n g e n e r a l , assumed t h a t the main e f f e c t s o f v o r t i c i t y may be

p r o p e r l y d e s c r i b e d by i n v i s c i d f l o w t h e o r y . The study o f such e f f e c t s under
this g e n e r a l assumption, i s the p r i n c i p a l aim o f t h i s chapter.

The study o f the flow d i s t u r b a n c e s t o p a r a l l e l shear flows has been

c o n s i d e r e d by many i n v e s t i g a t o r s . E a r l y work on a e r o f o i l and wing t h e o r y has

been done by T s i e n , (1943), who c o n s i d e r e d the f l o w p a s t a symmetrical

Joukowsky a e r o f o i l p l a c e d i n a u n i f o r m l y sheared stream. Von Karman and

Tsien (1945), developed a l i n e a r i z e d theory f o r s m a l l d i s t u r b a n c e s caused by

a lightly loaded lifting l i n e i n a non-uniform flow.

To simplify the g e n e r a l l y d i f f i c u l t t a s k o f s o l v i n g the i n v i s c i d non-

l i n e a r Euler equations o f motion, two b a s i c approaches can be used, as

d e s c r i b e d by Hawthorne (1966). In many c a s e s , the v o r t i c i t y t r a n s p o r t e d by the

undisturbed stream i s l a r g e w h i l e the d i s t u r b a n c e s produced t o the stream are

relatively s m a l l . T h i s assumption a l l o w s a treatment based on a linearized

form o f t h e E u l e r e q u a t i o n s o f motion, o b t a i n e d by n e g l e c t i n g second order

70
terms i n t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s .
On t h e o t h e r hand, i n many c a s e s , t h e v o r t i c i t y i n the undisturbed stream

may be c o n s i d e r e d s m a l l , a l t h o u g h t h e stream may be s u b j e c t t o l a r g e d i s t u r -

bances. The t h e o r y based on t h i s assumption, o r secondary flow theory, consi-

d e r s t h a t the secondary vorticity i s o b t a i n e d by a l l o w i n g t h e v o r t i c i t y o f

the u n d i s t u r b e d stream t o be t r a n s p o r t e d , a c c o r d i n g t o the v o r t i c i t y trans-

p o r t e q u a t i o n , by the p r i m a r y f l o w which i s determined by assuming a p o t e n -

tial flow d i s t u r b a n c e to a uniform f l o w . The t o t a l flow i s the s u p e r p o s i t i o n

of t h e p r i m a r y and secondary f l o w s , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e one a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

the secondary vorticity.

The first approach, based on t h e l a r g e s h e a r , small disturbance theory

is s u i t e d f o r s t u d y i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t r o d u c e d t o shear f l o w s by b o d i e s with

forms o f aerodynamic interest.

Lighthill (1957), s t u d i e d the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l flow produced by a p o i n t

s o u r c e s e t i n a two-dimensional parallel shear f l o w . The c o r r e s p o n d e n t funda-

mental s o l u t i o n i s found by r e d u c i n g , w i t h F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m t e c h n i q u e s , t h e

two-dimensional boundary v a l u e problem t o a problem i n v o l v i n g an o r d i n a r y

differential equation.

Using similar a n a l y t i c a l methods, W e i s s i n g e r (1970), (1972) d e v e l o p e d a

linearized two-dimensional theory f o r p r o f i l e s i n shear f l o w which i n c l u d e s

e f f e c t s o f camber and a n g l e o f a t t a c k (1970) and t h e a d d i t i o n a l combined

e f f e c t s of thickness (1972).

Overlach (1974), extended t h i s work t o a n n u l a r a e r o f o i l s i n axisymmetric

shear f l o w s , and o b t a i n e d n u m e r i c a l results from the theory f o r i n f i n i t e l y

thin ring airfoils i n v a r i o u s types o f axisymmetric shear flows.

The problem o f a two-dimensional airfoil i n non-uniform flow has a l s o

r e c e n t l y been a t t a c k e d w i t h n u m e r i c a l methods, u s i n g f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s by

Chow e t a l (1970), finite elements by Van d e r Vooren and Labrujère (1973)

and d i s c r e t e v o r t e x methods as t h e v o r t e x sheet method o f G l i i c k (1979).

These l a s t methods attempt the s o l u t i o n of the f u l l y non-linear Euler

equations t a k i n g i n t o account t h e e x a c t shape o f t h e a i r f o i l and a r e

i t e r a t i v e by n a t u r e .

In c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e a i r f o i l problem,the d i s t u r b a n c e f l o w due t o a

propeller i n a shear f l o w has n o t been s t u d i e d so e x t e n s i v e l y .

In a r a d i a l l y non-uniform f l o w , t h e model o f an i n f i n i t e l y bladed

71
p r o p e l l e r , o r a c t u a t o r d i s k , h a s been i n v e s t i g a t e d by Goodman (1979), assuming

l a r g e shear, s m a l l d i s t u r b a n c e .

For the h e a v i l y loaded ducted p r o p e l l e r t h i s l a s t type o f assumption i s

not l i k e l y t o h o l d w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n , when d e a l i n g w i t h t h e t h r e e -

fold i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e p r o p e l l e r , t h e duct and t h e non-uniform stream.

In a d d i t i o n , even a t l i g h t t o moderate l o a d s , t h e duct thickness i s l i k e l y

t o have s t r o n g n o n - l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s w i t h t h e incoming vorticity i f

the duct i s p l a c e d in a r e g i o n o f s t r o n g s h e a r . N o n - l i n e a r a c t u a t o r d i s k t h e o r y

f o r p r o p e l l e r s has been d e a l t w i t h by Wu (1962), Greenberg (1972) , Van Gent

(1976) and C o e s e l (1979).

The present n o n - l i n e a r approach i s concerned w i t h an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e

p r e v i o u s methods t o c o n s i d e r the combined e f f e c t s o f t h e duct and an actua-

t o r d i s k r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e p r o p e l l e r p l a c e d i n a non-uniform stream.

A vorticity stream f u n c t i o n f o r m u l a t i o n i s employed and t h e v o r t i c i t y

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e non-uniform i n f l o w and shed by t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k i s d i s -

cretized into a f i n i t e set of vortex sheets.

The boundary c o n d i t i o n s on t h e duct and hub s u r f a c e s a r e s a t i s f i e d by

i n t r o d u c i n g s u r f a c e v o r t e x s h e e t s and s o l v i n g t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n t inner poten-

tial f l o w problems.

In o r d e r t o determine t h e l o c a t i o n and s t r e n g t h o f t h e v o r t e x sheets

r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e two v o r t i c i t y fields a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e non-uniform stream

and the a c t u a t o r d i s k , a r e l a x a t i o n procedure i s used, i n which from an

estimate of the l o c a t i o n of the vortex sheets,the corresponding s t r e n g t h i s

o b t a i n e d from the v o r t i c i t y t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n . The l o c a t i o n s o f t h e stream

s u r f a c e s are obtained with a s t r e a m l i n e t r a c i n g procedure,based on t h e

stream f u n c t i o n induced by t h e v o r t i c i t y field of the previous iteration.

Provision i s made t h a t , p r i o r t o t r a c i n g t h e stream-surfaces, the boundary

c o n d i t i o n s on duct and hub a r e p r o p e r l y s a t i s f i e d .

The b a s i c f o r m u l a t i o n and t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e n u m e r i c a l solution

procedure a r e g i v e n i n s e c t i o n s 3.2 and 3.3. N u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s which show

the convergence and a c c u r a c y o f t h e n u m e r i c a l method and i l l u s t r a t e the e f -

f e c t o f incoming v o r t i c i t y on t h e ducted p r o p e l l e r performance a r e r e p o r t e d

i n s e c t i o n 3.4. F i n a l l y the experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s with a ducted

propeller i n a r a d i a l l y non-uniform flow t o g e t h e r w i t h a comparison w i t h the

t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s are presented.

72
3.2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

C o n s i d e r t h e f l o w o f an i n v i s c i d and i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l u i d through a

ducted p r o p e l l e r system m o d e l l e d as f o l l o w s :

- An axisymmetric duct w i t h an a r b i t r a r y m e r i d i o n a l s e c t i o n o f c o n t o u r D and

an axisymmetric c e n t r a l body o f m e r i d i o n a l c o n t o u r H r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
p r o p e l l e r hub.

- An a c t u a t o r d i s k o f n e g l i g i b l e t h i c k n e s s e x e r t i n g a x i a l and t a n g e n t i a l

f o r c e s on t h e f l u i d .

The ducted a c t u a t o r d i s k system i s p l a c e d i n a r a d i a l l y v a r i a b l e a x i a l stream

with a x i a l v e l o c i t y U ( r ) .
The E u l e r e q u a t i o n s o f motion a r e

(u.Vu) = -V(£)+F (3-1)

where u i s t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r , p t h e p r e s s u r e and IF t h e e x t e r n a l body f o r c e

per u n i t mass.

The e q u a t i o n o f c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e absence o f s o u r c e s o r s i n k s

V.u = 0 (3-2)

can be i d e n t i c a l l y s a t i s f i e d i n axisymmetric f l o w , by i n t r o d u c i n g t h e S t o k e s '

stream f u n c t i o n V ^ r ) which p e r d e f i n i t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o t h e v e l o c i t y by

1 3f 1 3 ? ,„ „,
U V = 3 3 )
= r dr" ' " F 3 x ' < "

where (u,v,w) a r e t h e v e l o c i t y components i n a c y l i n d r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e system

(x, r, 6 ) .

The v o r t i c i t y v e c t o r tü=V x u has components

2 ,
1 3(rw) 3w l.S * 2
1 9H' 3 r\ ,„ „ N

DX D 17

We i n t r o d u c e a c u r v i l i n e a r c o o r d i n a t e system ( s , n, 9 ) , s b e i n g measured
along the stream-surfaces on a m e r i d i o n a l p l a n e and n b e i n g measured a l o n g
the normal t o t h e s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s .

73
 In t h i s c o o r d i n a t e system,the v o r t i c i t y v e c t o r has components

,1 3(rw) 3w .

In the absence o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e s the e q u a t i o n o f motion (3-1) writes

u x u = VH (3-6)

where

2
H = | + \ u (3-7)

i s the t o t a l head.
The dot p r o d u c t of (3-6) by u yields

( 3 8 )
i f = °' "

which means t h a t i n the absence o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e s the t o t a l head i s c o n s t a n t

a l o n g the s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s . T h e r e f o r e , we may write

H = H(¥) (3-9)

A l s o the dot p r o d u c t of (3-6) w i t h (o shows t h a t t h e streamtubes c o i n c i d e with

the v o r t e x tubes and from (3-5) we conclude that

^H^=0, (3-10)

which means t h a t the a n g u l a r momentum i s c o n s e r v e d a l o n g the stream-surfaces

rw = f(¥) . (3-11)

Using equations (3-8) and (3-10), t h e e q u a t i o n (3-6) i n the curvilinear

c o o r d i n a t e system i s w r i t t e n

£ X (rw)-u W f l = p (3-12)
r 3n s 8 3n

74
 2 — 2
z
where u =(u +v
) i s the m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t y .
S
d 1 8
U s i n g the r e l a t i o n —— = TT— the e q u a t i o n (3-12) becomes
ru 3n s

W
9 dH ^ (rw) d , . ,„
= + ( r w ) ( 3 1 3 )
— " dT :T~ d T "
r

and w i t h ( 3 - 4 ) , (3-13) becomes

2
1 ,9 r 2,
1 3? 3 ?, dH (rw) d, . ,„,„,
— - ? sí +
—2 3
= df — r d ¥ ( r w )
• ( 3
- > 1 4

r 3x 3r r

The previous equation governing inviscid axisymmetric f l o w i n the absence o f

external forces, i s an e l l i p t i c p a r t i a l differential e q u a t i o n f o r the stream

f u n c t i o n . The o p e r a t o r i n the l e f t - h a n d s i d e i s l i n e a r w h i l e , i n g e n e r a l ,

the r i g h t - h a n d s i d e i s a n o n - l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f ¥.

In the absence o f s w i r l , w=0, equation (3-14) t a k e s the form

showing t h a t the q u a n t i t y — i s constant a l o n g the stream-surfaces.

Equation (3-14) i s v a l i d everywhere i n the f l o w f i e l d except at the

a c t u a t o r d i s k where e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t upon the fluid.

If the u n d i s t u r b e d stream i s f r e e of s w i r l , the p a r t i c u l a r form (3-15)

of the e q u a t i o n (3-14) h o l d s everywhere i n the f l o w f i e l d , except at the

disk i t s e l f and the s l i p s t r e a m c o n s i s t i n g o f the f l o w r e g i o n downstream o f

the d i s k comprising a l l the streamtubes which have c r o s s e d the d i s k .

In o r d e r t o determine the r i g h t - h a n d s i d e o f e q u a t i o n (3-14) i n the

d i s k s l i p s t r e a m , one has t o c o n s i d e r the form which the f o r c e f i e l d t a k e s at

the d i s k .

From the e q u a t i o n o f motion, r e t a i n i n g the body f o r c e term, we have

u x u = VH-F. (3-16)

By t a k i n g the dot p r o d u c t of (3-16) by u we get

U = A (U.F) (3-17)
S

75
and the 8 component o f (3-16) i s

( r w ! F 3 18
E = e • <" >
s

The body f o r c e f i e l d F b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e d i s k , has a D i r a c d e l t a

f u n c t i o n behaviour. In the s t r e a m l i n e c o o r d i n a t e system i t t a k e s the form

F = ( f x m 6 ( s ) , 0 , f m<$ e (s)), ¥<<P(R) (3-19)

where R i s t h e d i s k r a d i u s , s=0 d e n o t i n g the p o i n t where the streamtube i n -

t e r s e c t s the d i s k .

Using (3-19) and i n t e g r a t i n g (3-17) between -°° and s>0, we o b t a i n

rw = 0 , s<0

rw = — f (¥) Q , s>0, (3-20)

s
f
e
which i m p l i e s t h a t the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y has a jump — at the d i s k .
u
s
The jump i n t o t a l head at t h e d i s k can be found from a matching condi-

t i o n w i t h the f l o w i n s i d e t h e b l a d e row at the d i s k .

Assuming an i n f i n i t e number o f b l a d e s r o t a t i n g w i t h a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y
fi =Qi , t h e c o n d i t i o n e x p r e s s i n g the n o r m a l i t y between t h e f o r c e a c t i n g on
— —x

the f l u i d and t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y reads

(u - i g f i r ) .F = 0 (3-21)

and from (3-17) and (3-18), we o b t a i n

F ( r w (3 22
IS = !r e = ^ > " >
s

Integrating (3-22) from s=-°° t o s=s we have

Hen = H 0 e n , for s<o o r y ^ t o ^ )

H (¥) = H ei')+f2rw, for

Q s>0 and (0,R) , (3-23)

76
where H g C f ) , b e i n g t h e t o t a l head b e f o r e the d i s k , h a s t o be d e t e r m i n e d from

the conditions at i n f i n i t y upstream.

Using (3-23) i n (3-14) we finally, o b t a i n , f o r t h e f l o w i n the s l i p s t r e a m ,

the equation

2 2 d H
1 ,3 ¥ 1 3Y . 3 ¥ , 0 ^ , n rw. d , ,
—
r
{
T 2 - r ^
3x
-2
3r
= + ]
-dT + ( f i
— 2r> d ? ( r w )
' ( 3
' 2 4 )

which i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t o the non-uniform i n f l o w case of the equation

o b t a i n e d by Wu (1962) f o r t h e u n i f o r m inflow.

O u t s i d e the s l i p s t r e a m , e q u a t i o n (3-15) w r i t e s

2
1 ,3 V 1 3T , _ d H
o ...

r 3x 3r

Equations (3-24) and (3-25) have t o be s o l v e d subject t o the p a r t i c u l a r

boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r the present problem, namely:

- At i n f i n i t y upstream we have P = P Q and u = U ( r ) i ^ . The t o t a l head i s

P() 1 2

H Q m = -j- + |U (3-26)

and t h e stream f u n c t i o n i s
V = ƒ U ( r ') r ' d r ' . (3-27)
U
0

The v o r t i c i t y v e c t o r has o n l y c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l component

w
e 0 - - IF ( 3
" 2 8 )

and the boundary c o n d i t i o n at i n f i n i t y upstream w r i t e s

¥ = \JJ Q as x •> -oo (3-29)

At infinity as x-M-°° and r-*», we have

P- -> 0 x + +°° , r - + o o . (3-30)

3x

77
- On t h e d u c t ' s s u r f a c e t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n i s s i m p l y

4f = C on D, (3-31)

where C i s an unknown c o n s t a n t t o be determined from the Kutta c o n d i t i o n at

the d u c t ' s t r a i l i n g edge.

- At t h e hub t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n i s

¥ = 0 on H. (3-32)

If the r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of c i r c u l a t i o n

r (r)
m = 2-rrrwQ = 2nrw(s=0 + )

i s known a t the d i s k , t h e r o t a t i o n a l momentum becomes known and t h e f o r c e s

a c t i n g on t h e f l u i d are determined from e q u a t i o n (3-20).

In t h e p r e s e n t problem, t h e r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c i r c u l a t i o n and t h e

shape o f t h e duct and hub a r e assumed t o be known.

The main d i f f i c u l t y i n s o l v i n g equations (3-24) t o (3-32) l i e s i n t h e

fact t h a t , t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e s o f (3-24) and (3-25) b e i n g n o n - l i n e a r f u n c -

tions o f ¥ a r e not known a t t h e o u t s e t i n t h e whole f l o w f i e l d , but o n l y a t

p a r t i c u l a r s u r f aces, namely, a t i n f i n i t y upstream s=-°° and at t h e d i s k s=0.

By a p p l i c a t i o n o f Green's theorem, t h e p r e v i o u s boundary-value problem,

c o n s i s t i n g of equations (3-24) t o (3-32) , can be t r a n s f o r m e d into a set of

coupled n o n - l i n e a r i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , on t h e f l o w domain

e x t e r i o r t o t h e duct and hub s u r f a c e s , and on i t s boundary, c o n s i s t i n g o f

the duct and hub s u r f a c e s themselves.

Although t h e t h e o r y may be a p p l i e d t o t h e d u c t e d propeller placed i n a

g e n e r a l non-uniform stream, we w i l l limit o u r s e l v e s t o ducted p r o p e l l e r s i n

wake f l o w s .

In such case we are d e a l i n g w i t h , o f a d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r i n an axisymme-

t r i c wake f i e l d , t h e n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e incoming flow i s o f l i m i t e d radial

e x t e n t and we may t h e r e f o r e assume t h a t , at r a d i i g r e a t e r than t h e r a d i u s R ,

78
the i n f l o w i s u n i f o r m w i t h v e l o c i t y U^.

We make the f l o w q u a n t i t i e s n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l u s i n g t h e d i s k r a d i u s R and

the v e l o c i t y U , as f o l l o w s : r*=r/R, x*=x/R, u*=u/U , U*=U/U

Q Q Q> r=V/iV H
Q ),
H =
^ /(U R ),
0 0
2
^=R<, /U , 03*e 0 S V 0-U J
=™ 0
/ f l R
-
With t h e a s t e r i s c o m i t t e d , equations (3-25) and (3-24) become:

2 2
1 ,3 ¥ 1 3Y . 8 ¥ , d H
0 , ,. -,. ,
—=•( 7T —H X-) = o u t s i d e the s l i p s t r e a m
r 2 3. x2 r 9r 3r2 df (3-33)

and

1 ,Z V 2
1 3¥ ^ d V> 2 d H
0 . /TT (rw) . d , . .. ..
- j l J gT7 + =
!W (
- 2~ df) (
' l n s l d e t h e
slipstream.
r 3x 3r J r _ ( 3 3 4 )

We may c o n t i n u e t h e f l o w f i e l d i n t o the r e g i o n e x t e r n a l l y bounded by t h e

duct and hub s u r f a c e s i n an a r b i t r a r y way, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e s e s u r f a c e s

remain stream-surfaces o f t h e f l o w . I f we assume t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y vanishes

identically i n that r e g i o n , the v e l o c i t y tangential to the s u r f a c e will

become d i s c o n t i n u o u s .
+
Denoting by V and ¥ t h e stream f u n c t i o n o f t h e e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l

f l o w s r e s p e c t i v e l y , we have

= v ( s ) o n D a n d H ( 3 3 5 )
- ? [ ^ - ^ ] =- ' -
where V ( s ) i s t h e o u t e r m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t y on D and H.
In t h i s way, t h e common r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e duct and hub s u r f a c e s by

v o r t e x s h e e t s w i t h s t r e n g t h y ( s ) = V ( s ) , as r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e p r e v i o u s Chapter

is obtained.

The r e l a t i o n between t h e stream f u n c t i o n V ( x , r ) i n d u c e d by a g i v e n

vorticity f i e l d U)g(x,r) i s

V(x,r) = If G ( x - x \ r , r ' ) u e (X ' , r ' ) d x ' d r ' , (3-36)

K

i n which t h e i n t e g r a t i o n i s performed over t h e r e g i o n K f o r which 0 ) g ( x , r ) ^ 0 .

1
The f u n c t i o n o f Green G ( x - x , r , r ' ) , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o p e r a t o r

79
 2 2
1 3 1 3 3
— ( — TT- + — ; r ) a p p e a r i n g i n (3-33) and (3-34), r e p r e s e n t s the stream
r ~ A r or ~ £
ox 9r
f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by a r i n g v o r t e x w i t h u n i t c i r c u l a t i o n . I t has been g i v e n
i n v a r i o u s ways by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s (Lamb (1952), Greenberg (1932)). The r e -
p r e s e n t a t i o n i n terms o f e l l i p t i c integrals, as d e r i v e d by Kiicheman and
Weber (1953), i s used here:

2 2
G(x-x',r,r') = / ( x - x ' ) + ( r + r ' ) '[( 1-^-) K ( k ) -E ( k ) ] . (3-37)

The modulus o f the e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l s K(k) and E ( k ) i s

,2 _ 4rr '
(3-38)
~~ 2 2 *
(x-x') +(r+r')

The total stream f u n c t i o n can be w r i t t e n as the sum o f the t h r e e c o n t r i b u -

tions :

Y(x,r) = * (x,r)
w (x,r) +4> ( x , r )
d . (3-39)

<p ( x , r ) i s the stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by the v o r t i c i t y field

w

dH
w
e = r
" "dT ' ( 3 - 4 0 )

w
l|Jp(x,r) i s the stream f u n c t i o n induced by the v o r t i c i t y field

,rTr .d(rw)
u Q = - ( — - w)
d¥ (3-41)

and <i> i s the stream f u n c t i o n induced by the duct and hub surface v o r t i c i t y
d
Y(s) .
We note t h a t co„
i s d i f f e r e n t from z e r o i n the f l o w r e g i o n e x t e r n a l t o
w
l l
the duct and hub s u r f aces, s a t i s f y i n g i'(x,r)< r'(x,R„) , w h i l e w i s different 0

0 o
l P
from z e r o i n s i d e the d i s k s l i p s t r e a m ¥(x,r)< i'(x, 1) w i t h x>0. It should also
be noted t h a t , though one c o u l d i n t e r p r e t e 10. as the v o r t i c i t y r e s u l t i n g
°w
from the t r a n s p o r t o f the v o r t i c i t y o f the incoming stream and 0 ) the v o r t i - Q
9
p
c i t y shed from the a c t u a t o r d i s k , t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s not an e s s e n t i a l one

when s o l v i n g the n o n - l i n e a r problem, because the two vorticity fields are

c o u p l e d through the dependence on the t o t a l stream function V.

80
 When t a k i n g i n t o account the v a r i o u s components t o the stream f u n c t i o n
in equation (3-35) e x p r e s s i n g the boundary c o n d i t i o n on the duct and hub
s u r f a c e s , one o b t a i n s the i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n on the s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y
strength:

-4Y(S)+ 1
ƒ y (s )k(s,s' )ds' = + (3-42)
2 D+H r 3 n ó n

s i n c e ill and Ui are c o n t i n u o u s on D and H.

w p
The c o n s t a n t C, appearing i n equation (3-31), i s not i n v o l v e d i n equa-

tion (3-42). However, as d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 2, e q u a t i o n (3-42) i s s a t i s -

f i e d by an i n f i n i t e number o f s o l u t i o n s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o each p o s s i b l e

v a l u e o f the c o n s t a n t C. The K u t t a c o n d i t i o n has t o be added t o s p e c i f y the

solution.

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f (3-39), (3-40) and (3-41) i n t o (3-36) y i e l d s an inte-

g r a l e q u a t i o n on the stream f u n c t i o n ¥ which has t o be s o l v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h

the i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n (3-42).

The n o n - l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r o f the problem asks f o r an i t e r a t i v e approach,

and the f o l l o w i n g has been adopted:

1. We d e p a r t , as a f i r s t approximation, from a s o l u t i o n based on s m a l l shear,

large disturbance approximation t o the f l o w f i e l d , i . e . we assume t h a t the

v o r t i c i t y o f the u n d i s t u r b e d stream i s convected a l o n g the p o t e n t i a l flow

stream-surfaces of a primary flow.

The stream-surfaces o f such p r i m a r y f l o w are o b t a i n e d from a linear

approximation t o the v o r t i c i t y shed from the a c t u a t o r d i s k i n the presence

o f the u n d i s t u r b e d stream, t o g e t h e r w i t h the v o r t e x sheet s t r e n g t h

r e q u i r e d t o make from the duct and hub stream-surfaces o f the flow.

The l i n e a r approximation t o the v o r t i c i t y shed from the a c t u a t o r d i s k i s

dr
1 ÜT7T T co
w
e ( r )
"-af^T-Vutri+u
J
(r) -&F ( 3
" 4 3 )

P Poo
where u i s the a x i a l v e l o c i t y i n d u c e d f a r downstream by the shed v o r t i c i t y
Poo
U)„ ( r ) . T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o the v o r t e x system o f a moderate-
9
P
l y loaded a c t u a t o r d i s k with continuous d i s t r i b u t i o n of c i r c u l a t i o n and

the p i t c h o f the v o r t e x l i n e s determined i n the u l t i m a t e wake and

81
 has been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n Chapter 2 .

2. The stream function i s computed from e q u a t i o n s (3-36) and ( 3 - 3 7 ) .

3. With t h e t o t a l stream f u n c t i o n known, new e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e v o r t i c i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n s OJg ( x , r ) and U)„ ( x , r ) , f o l l o w from equations ( 3 - 4 0 ) and
(3-41). W P

4. The s o l u t i o n o f t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n (3-42) yields Y ( ) s o n D a n d H

-

Steps 2 . t o 4 . a r e r e p e a t e d u n t i l convergence i s a c h i e v e d .

The various steps of the i t e r a t i v e s o l u t i o n using a d i s c r e t e vortex sheet

method w i l l be examined i n t h e next section.

3.3. ITERATIVE SOLUTION BY A DISCRETE VORTEX SHEET METHOD

3.3.1. Vortex sheet approximation to the v o r t i c i t y i n t h e flow

In t h e p r e s e n t approximate n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n to the

problem d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , we assume t h e u n d i s t u r b e d stream

t o be approximated by a p i e c e w i s e c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . As a con-

sequence, the v o r t i c i t y o f t h e incoming f l o w i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n a f i n i t e num-

ber o f v o r t e x s h e e t s (Fig. 3 . 1 ) .

Let the inflow v e l o c i t y be p i e c e w i s e c o n s t a n t , g i v e n by

U(r) = U m for r Q <r<r Q , m=l(l),N, (3-44)

m m+1

w i t h rQ =0,r„ =R and U ..=U b e i n g t h e c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y o u t s i d e t h e wake.

u n
1 N+l 0 N+l
The stream f u n c t i o n at i n f i n i t y upstream i s

r r r 3 ) U f o r r r
V > 1=1
T * 0 i+l
- 0 I, V W^l m
m 0 m
^ 0 m+1
•
(3-45)
At the d i s c r e t e r a d i i r n , we have
u
m
m-1
¥ = i> ( r ) = z j(r - r )U , m=l, (1),N . (3-46)

At i n f i n i t y upstream, t h e v o r t i c i t y v a n i s h e s everywhere, except at the d i s -

crete r a d i i r ^ , m=l,(l),N, where i t has a D i r a c d e l t a f u n c t i o n type behav-
m
iour.

82
 The f u n c t i o n H^CV), which c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e t o t a l head o f t h e f l o w
o u t s i d e the s l i p s t r e a m , (see eq. 3-23), i s c o n s t a n t between t h e v o r t e x

s h e e t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e stream surfaces , m=l,(l),N. At t h e v o r t e x

m

sheets themselves, the f u n c t i o n has a jump a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d i s c o n t i -

nuity of v e l o c i t y across the sheet.

th
The jump a t t h e m v o r t e x sheet i s

AH = H Q - H 0 - |<U r a + 1 -U m ) = U Ym 0 , m = l , ( l ) , N , (3-47)
m m+1 m m

where U = i ( U _+U ) i s t h e mean v e l o c i t y at the sheet, at i n f i n i t y upstream,

m m+1 m
and

Y„ = U ,.-0 (3-48)
'0 m+1 m
m

i s t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e v o r t e x sheet a t i n f i n i t y upstream.

The f u n c t i o n dH^/d^, becomes

dH N
-gf = E AH fi(¥-«F ) Q , (3-49)
m=l m

where 6 i s t h e d e l t a f u n c t i o n o f D i r a c .
The s t r e n g t h of the correspondent v o r t e x sheet can be deduced by i n t e -

g r a t i n g t h e t a n g e n t i a l component o f v o r t l c i t y on a s m a l l a r e a element with

t h i c k n e s s 2e normal t o t h e s h e e t , e n c l o s i n g a v o r t e x sheet element with

l e n g t h ds, and l e t t i n g £ approach z e r o . In such c a s e , we get

+e +c d H Q

y(s) = l i m ƒ di.dn = l i m ƒ (-r -,„, ) d n (3-50)

e^O - e 0
£+0 -£

Using (3-49), and c h a n g i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n v a r i a b l e t o f , t h e s t r e n g t h o f

th
the m v o r t e x sheet becomes

A ^ O f - A f m m m

(3-51)

Using (3-47) and n o t i n g t h a t t h e m e r i d i o n a l mean v e l o c i t y at the vortex sheet

.1(31)
1 S U = ( ) W e h a V C
s -7 8n" ^ '
m m

83
 Y ( s ) = —5i- Y • n (3-52)
s m
m
The same e q u a t i o n c o u l d be o b t a i n e d by a p p l y i n g B e r n o u l l i e q u a t i o n at b o t h

s i d e s o f t h e v o r t e x sheet and u s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e

pressure across the sheet.

As remarked b e f o r e , t h e N v o r t e x s h e e t s w i t h s t r e n g t h g i v e n by e q u a t i o n

(3-52), do not r e p r e s e n t t h e t o t a l v o r t i c i t y i n s i d e t h e s l i p s t r e a m . The a d d i -

t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n of the v o r t i c i t y from t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k and g i v e n by

equation (3-41) has t o be a c c o u n t e d f o r .

L e t the c i r c u l a t i o n a t the d i s k be approximated by a p i e c e w i s e constant

function, so t h a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n t shed v o r t i c i t y i s d i s t r i b u t e d on a number
o f v o r t e x s h e e t s . The i n n e r v o r t e x sheet i s assumed t o be bound t o t h e hub
and the outer vortex sheet, forming t h e o u t e r boundary o f t h e s l i p s t r e a m , i s
shed from t h e d i s k ' s edge ( F i g . 3-1).

Fig. 3-1. Schematic representation of the discrete vortex model for

a ducted propeller in non-uniform wake flow.

84
 We have

r j r ) = r k for r <r<r
k k + 1 , k=l,(l),N . r (3-53)

w i t h r = r , b e i n g t h e hub r a d i u s a t t h e d i s k and r =1.

1 h ° Np+1
I f Ar =r, -T , w i t h r =0, we have
k k+1 k' '
N
r
d
-g^- = 27 Z Ar 6(¥-¥ )
k k , k = l , (1) ,N , (3-54)
k=l

and integrating (3-41) w i t h (3-54) we o b t a i n f o r t h e v o r t e x s t r e n g t h o f t h e

k t h o r t e x sheet
v shed from t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t :

A ¥
V Ar
r
y (s) = l i m ƒ [- ] S ( M ) d¥, (3-55)

i r,+r, A T ,

s ) } 3 5 6 )
V = - - 2 2 — • < "
2J 8TT r s,
k
1 3f 1
where U g
=
~ " ~ ( ' g ^
r
a n c
* Crw>u;—tj/ ~4TI^
=
a r e t h e l i m i t
i n
6 values f o r
the m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t y and t h e r o t a t i o n a l momentum a t t h e v o r t e x sheet.
Equation (3-56) agrees w i t h t h e e q u a t i o n g i v e n by Greenberg (1972) f o r t h e

vortex s t r e n g t h of the s l i p s t r e a m of a h e a v i l y loaded actuator disk i n u n i -

form f l o w . Comparison o f e q u a t i o n (3-56) w i t h (3-52) e v i d e n c e s the r o l e of
s w i r l i n t h e s l i p s t r e a m r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e second term between b r a c k e t s i n

(3-56).

3.3.2. F i r s t approximation t o t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k v o r t e x s h e e t s and t h e f l o w

stream surfaces.

Using the previous r e s u l t s the l i n e a r approximation of equation (3-43)

to t h e v o r t i c i t y shed from t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k can be d e r i v e d .

The r e s u l t , f o r the strength Y o f the s e m i - i n f i n i t e r i n g vortex

k
(l)
c y l i n d e r s shed from t h e d i s k r a d i i r, , a f t e r some c a l c u l a t i o n , i s
k

85
 (1) k+l (l) £=k+l (1) J 4TT

k = 1, (1) , N p . (3-57)

The v e l o c i t y field i n d u c e d by a s e m i - i n f i n i t e r i n g v o r t e x c y l i n d e r has

been g i v e n i n Chapter 2. The r e s u l t f o r the corresponding induced stream
f u n c t i o n i s deduced by i n t e g r a t i o n o f the Green's f u n c t i o n , equation
(3-37), from x'=0 t o t o x'=°°, ( C o e s e l , 1979):

2
r 2
l C5*n,,,r»)
oB = -(A(n)+ — § 7 { (n-i) [K(k n )-n(a^k )] +

4 1 T z
S +(n+D

2 2
[c +(n+D ] [K(k )-E(k )]})
1 1 (3-58)

where
2
A(n) = wn for n<i , (3-59)

= 7T for T1>1 , (3-60)

2 4
k = , " =• , (3-61)
r+(n+D
2 _ 4n
a = ' (3-62)
(Tl + 1)'

5r = —r -'
X
1 r
and n=—r
r'
• 1

U s i n g the a x i a l and r a d i a l v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by t h e v o r t e x system

(3-57), the i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n (3-42) f o r t h e f i r s t i t e r a t e on t h e s u r f a c e
v o r t i c i t y y ^ ( s ) on the duct and hub i s s o l v e d and a f i r s t approximation to
the stream s u r f a c e s o f t h e f l o w f o l l o w s . -The c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t a l stream
function i s

86
 f, . ( x , r ) = i> ( r ) + i K
n (x,r)+Z y v *(5,n, r ) (3-63)
K k
U ) 0
(l) d
k = l CL)

where 0 i s t h e stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by t h e duct and hub v o r t i c i t y y .j,,

(1)

3.3.3. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f l o w stream s u r f a c e s and d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f t h e

vortex sheets.

In t h e i t e r a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e v o r t e x s h e e t s , represen-
t i n g e i t h e r t h e wake v o r t i c i t y o r t h e s l i p s t r e a m v o r t i c i t y , a r e o b t a i n e d by

t r a c i n g on an E u l e r i a n g r i d t h e s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s V=¥ , m = l , ( l ) , N and ,
m k
k = l , (1) ,N
The g r i d has c o n s t a n t s t e p s i z e i n t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n and v a r i a b l e
s t e p s i z e i n the a x i a l d i r e c t i o n , ( s e e F i g . 3-2). The c o n s t a n t radial step-

s i z e i s introduced f o r o b t a i n i n g higher accuracy i n t h e computation of axial

velocity profiles from t h e stream f u n c t i o n knot v a l u e s by n u m e r i c a l differen-

tiation, and t h e v a r i a b l e s t e p s i z e i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n t o permit adaption

to t h e decay r a t e o f t h e v o r t i c i t y d i s t u r b a n c e s w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e
duct and a c t u a t o r d i s k .

On each r a d i a l s t a t i o n x=x^, i = l , ( l ) , M , t h r e e p o i n t Lagrange interpola-

th
t i o n i s used to obtain the radius r . of the m v o r t e x sheet f ^ f from t h e
lm m
stream f u n c t i o n knot v a l u e s f , ..
The same s e t o f p o i n t s (x , r ) i s used t o d i s c r e t i z e the corresponding
th
v o r t e x sheet
i n t o p a r a b o l i c elements. The p a r a m e t r i c e q u a t i o n s o f t h e I
th
element on t h e m v o r t e x sheet a r e

-
2
x . (£) = x . + c o s a . 5 c . s i n a . 5
lm lm i n lm lm

2
r . (5) = r . + s i n a . 5+c. c o s a , £ , i=l,(l),M-l , (3-64)
lm lm lm lm lm

with (x , r ) as t h e o r d i n a t e s o f t h e p a r a b o l a v e r t e x , a. t h e angle made

im lm lm
by t h e element chord w i t h the x - a x i s , c t h e element c u r v a t u r e and 5 t h e
im
a r c - l e n g t h measured from t h e p o i n t (x. , r . ).
" im im

87
 UPSTREAM BOUNDARY CONDITION
DOWNSTREAM BOUNDARY CONDITION
L

L -1

VORTEX SHEET,

3
2

Fig. 3-2. Computational grid, equispaced in v with variable step in

x, for streamline tracing and discretization of vortex sheets

We f u r t h e r assume t h a t , a t s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e d i s t a n c e s from the

origin, say f o r x<x, and x>x , the v o r t e x sheet has constant r a d i u s . Accord
= 1 — m
ingly, i n the i n t e r v a l s (-°°,x^) and (x ,+<») , o u t s i d e o f the computational
domain, i t may be r e p l a c e d by s e m i - i n f i n i t e r i n g v o r t e x c y l i n d e r s w i t h con-
stant strength.

In the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain and on each element the v o r t e x s t r e n g t h i s

assumed t o v a r y linearly.

The b a s i c procedure f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e stream f u n c t i o n on the

k n o t s o f the c o m p u t a t i o n a l grid i s the e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e stream f u n c t i o n

i n d u c e d by a v o r t e x sheet element, (3-64), w i t h a l i n e a r l y v a r y i n g v o r t e x

strength. I f Y. ' and Y 5 ^ are, r e s p e c t i v e l y , the v a l u e s o f the vortex

km km

88
s t r e n g t h and its first d e r i v a t i v e at the p a r a b o l a vertex (x, ,r, ), we ob-
km km

tain, f o r the stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by the element on t h e g r i d point

i k m
(0)'
=Tu 5 if ,G(x.-x, (5),r.,r. (£))d?+
1 j km km _ ' I km ' j km ^'
^•km

+
C ( ^ ^ k m ^ ^ . , ^ ) ) ^ < " >3 65

^km

where £, d e n o t e s h a l f t h e a r c l e n g t h o f the element,

km
The i n t e g r a l s i n e q u a t i o n (3-65) are r e g u l a r s i n c e r ?T , and can be evalu-
km j
ated n u m e r i c a l l y t o any degree o f a c c u r a c y without d i f f i c u l t i e s . In the pres-

ent a p p l i c a t i o n , a 10 p o i n t G a u s s i a n and a 21 p o i n t Kronrod f o r m u l a has been

applied for that purpose.

However, i f the d i s t a n c e o f t h e f i e l d point t o the element v e r t e x is

l a r g e compared w i t h the characteristic arc l e n g t h of the element, m u l t i -

p o l e e x p a n s i o n s of the Green's f u n c t i o n about the v e r t e x (x, , r, ), can be

km km
used.
A T a y l o r e x p a n s i o n about the p o i n t (x, , r ), y i e l d s
km km

G(x.-x. (E),r.,r. (£)) = G(x.-x, ,r.,r. )+

I
s s
l km ' j' km km' j' km

+G ,(x.-x, ,r.,r, ) Tx. (£)-x, 1 +

I 3 '
L s 1
x' km' km km km-

+G ,(x.-x. ,r.,r. ) fr, L

( p - r , l 1
+
r' 1 km j ' km km * km-

2
1 - - -
+ T T { G . ,(x.-x, ,r.,r, ) fx. L
(£)-x. 1 J
+
2 x'x' 1 km' j' km km ^ km

+G , ,(x.-x.
1
,r.,r. ) fx, 1
(?)-x, 1 fr, J L s
(£)-r. 1 +
J
x'r 1 km' j ' km km ^ km km km

2
+G . ,(x.-x, ,r . , r . ) fr. (5)-r, (3-66)
3'
L J
r'r' 1 km' km km ^ km

where

89
G ,(x-x',r,r')
x - - ¿ ^ ' K(k) { +
z ¿
/(x-x') +(r+r')

[1+ -]E(k)}, (3-67)

2 ¿
(x-x*) +(r-r')

G ,(x-x' , r , r ' ) = ¿ , f ,{K(k) +

2 ¿
/(x-x') +(r+r')

2 r r r }
[1 ' ' =-]E(k)}, (3-68)
(x-x') + ( r - r ' )

x x 2 T r 2 2 3 / 2 2 2
' ' [(x-x') +(r+r') ] [(x-x') +(r-r') ]
/
([(x-x") ( r + r ' ) + (r - r

2
2 1 +k
K ( k ) + { 2 r r ' (x-x') +
1-k
2 2 2 2
- (r+r') [(x-x') +(r +r' )]}E(k)), (3-69)

G (x-x' r r') = — (x-x' )

x , ,
r X X ,r,r 2 ï ï ^ x _ x l ) 2 + ( r + r l ) 2 j 3 / 2 ^ ( x _ x I ) 2 + ( r _ r I ) 2 j

2 2 2
{[(x-x') -(r -r' )]K(k) +

+ [2r(r-r') (ï±El+^_) +
1-k

2 2 2
- (x-x') +(r -r' )] E(k)}, (3-70)

1
G ( X X r r )
r'r' ~ '' ' ' 2 T r 2 2 3 / 2 2 2
[ (x-x' ) + (r+r ' ) ] [ (x-x' ) + ( r - r ' ) ]

2 2 2 2
{(x-x') [(x-x') +(r +r' )] K(k)

2 2 2 2
-{ ( x - x ' ) [ ( x - x ' ) - ( r - r ' ) ] - 2 r ( r + r ' )

9 O O r r 1
9 9
, z
(r -r )+^ i [ ( x - x ' ) T + ( r - r ' ) ] E ( k ) }.(3-7l)
1-k
90
 The modulus o f the e l l i p t i c integrals i s

2 4 r r '
Z
k = 5- (3-72)
(x-x') +(r+r')

The f u n c t i o n s G , and G , r e p r e s e n t the stream f u n c t i o n induced by r i n g

x r
v o r t e x d i p o l e s o f u n i t s t r e n g t h , w i t h t h e i r axes d i r e c t e d i n t h e a x i a l and

r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The f u n c t i o n s G , ,, G , , and G , , a r e
x x ' r ' r ' x r'
the stream f u n c t i o n s i n d u c e d by u n i t a r y r i n g v o r t e x q u a d r u p o l e s with their
p a i r o f axes, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a x i a l l y d i r e c t e d , r a d i a l l y d i r e c t e d and orthogo-
nal i n both a x i a l and r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n s . These f u n c t i o n s are g i v e n i n F i g s .
3-3 to 3-7.
When the m u l t i p o l e expansions are used, the stream f u n c t i o n il. ., i n
l j k m
equation (3-65), becomes

0 ) ( 1 1 1
* = < G °> n ' ^ ' (3-73)
y
l3km T
'km l j k m 'km ï 3 km

wit

G f = 2GE,' + [~c, L
(-sina, G ,+cosa, G ,) +
ljkm km km km x ' km r '

4 ( c o s 2 a
km x'x• G + 2 s i n a
km C O S a G
k m x <r< )+

2
+ sin a k m G , ,]|43
r r , ( 3 _ 7 4 )

and

3
G..? = ( c o s a , G , + s i n a , G ,)^, , (3-75)
13km km X km r 3 km
1 1

where the s h o r t - h a n d n o t a t i o n G stands f o r G(x.-x , r . , r , ) and s i m i l a r l y t o

1 km j km
the o t h e r functions.

The c r i t e r i o n used t o e s t a b l i s h i n which f l o w r e g i o n f a r from the

element multipole expansions s h o u l d be used, depends on the a c c u r a c y desired.
From n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s i t t u r n e d out t h a t , f o r a wide range o f element
g e o m e t r i c parameters, l i n e s o f e q u a l e r r o r i n the a p p r o x i m a t i o n (3-66), c o u l d

be r e a s o n a b l y approximated by s e m i - e l l i p s e s . T h e r e f o r e , m u l t i p o l e e x p a n s i o n s

91
'Fig. 3-3. Stream function induced Fig 3-4. Stream function induced
by an axially directed by a radially directed
ring vortex dipole. ring vortex dipole.
Stream function induced by Fig. 3-6. Stream function induced by
a ring vortex quadrupole. a ring Vortex quadrupole.
Two axial axes. One axial axis and one
radial axis.

Fig. 3-7. Stream function induced by a ring vortex

quadrupole. Two radial axes.

93
were used when

1 / - 2 - 2
-p-.— / ( x . -x. ) +c . ( r . - r . ) > c for r ./r. <1
Ç' l km l j km y km
'km

and

1 / - 2 - 2
•p-.— / ( x . - x , ) +c (r.-r, ) <c for r . / r . >1
l km e' j km j ' km

The v a l u e s o f the n u m e r i c a l c o n s t a n t s have been chosen as c =7.6, c =1.0

l e
and c=6.0.

By summing the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f a l l v o r t e x s h e e t s , the t o t a l stream

f u n c t i o n s at the mesh knots writes

N+N^+l , ,
r p (m)
f . . = £ £ ill . .. +R. . (3-76)
in J
i l , inkm in J J
m=l k=l
th
where p(m) i s the number o f elements o f the m v o r t e x s h e e t . The summation

over t h e v o r t e x s h e e t s i n e q u a t i o n (3-76) i n c l u d e s the v o r t e x s h e e t s o f t h e

incoming wake f l o w , the v o r t e x s h e e t s o f the d i s k s l i p s t r e a m and the duct

and hub boundary v o r t e x s h e e t . R r e p r e s e n t s the c o n t r i b u t i o n s from the r e -

mainder o f the f l o w f i e l d o u t s i d e the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain and i s given by

N
R,. = I [y ¥ (-Ç. ,n n ,r )+y ¥ (ç n ,n ,r )] +
L 00
jM 0 0 0 O CO CO 0 0
CO CO -1
J
m=l m m m m m m m m

+ 1 Y m * (5 ,n ,r ) (3-77)
'CO CO CO ' CO CO

k=l k k k k
with r =— , n =—^— , C =—-——, n =—^—. r
00
and r are the a s y m p t o t i c
03 00 00
O r x.-Xj^ O r r. r r
m O m O m x.-x„
°°_ m » m k
m
r a d i i o f the wake v o r t e xm s h e e t s and s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x s h e e t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
and y œ , y œ the c o r r e s p o n d e n t vortex strengths,
m k

94
3.3,4. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f the v o r t e x sheets

In each i t e r a t i o n s t e p , when the l o c a t i o n o f the v o r t e x sheet becomes

known from the s t r e a m l i n e tracing procedure and the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the

vortex sheet i n t o i t s v a r i o u s elements has been e f f e c t e d , the v o r t e x s t r e n g t h

on each element s t i l l needs t o be evaluated.

Concerning t h e wake v o r t e x s h e e t s and the s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x s h e e t s , the

calculation o f the v o r t e x s t r e n g t h can be, e a s i l y , c a r r i e d out from equations

(3-52) and (3-56), p r o v i d e d t h a t the mean m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t i e s u s and u^

s

are known.

F o r the computation o f the v e l o c i t y field, two methods a r e , i n p r i n c i p l e

available: Biot-Savart integration over the v o r t e x s h e e t s o r n u m e r i c a l dif-
ferentiation o f the stream function.

With r e s p e c t t o c o m p u t a t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y , the second method i s t o be

p r e f e r r e d t o the f i r s t , though i t i s , c l e a r l y , o f l e s s accuracy.

S i n c e the s l o p e o f the s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s i s a l r e a d y known from the stream-

line tracing procedure and the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s , one

o n l y needs t o compute the a x i a l v e l o c i t i e s .

From t h e v a l u e s o f stream f u n c t i o n at t h e g r i d k n o t s , a x i a l v e l o c i t y

profiles, at a l l the a x i a l s t a t i o n s , are d e r i v e d u s i n g a t h r e e - p o i n t Lagrange

differentiation formula (see, f o r example, I s a c s o n and K e l l e r , 1966).

The v a l u e s o f the a x i a l v e l o c i t y are, i n the f i r s t p l a c e , e v a l u a t e d at

the g r i d k n o t s and, secondly, i n t e r p o l a t e d t o the c o r r e s p o n d e n t vortex sheet

radii. We note that, f o r p a r t i c u l a r c h o i c e s o f the g r i d s p a c i n g i n the radial

direction,this procedure may lead to continuous axial velocity distributions

by smoothing the v e l o c i t y discontinuities a c r o s s the v o r t e x s h e e t s .

If u„. and u . .B
c denote the m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t i e s on the extremi-
°i,m i+l,m ^
t h
t i e s o f the i element o f the m wake v o r t e x s h e e t , o b t a i n e d from the axial

velocities and v o r t e x sheet s l o p e s at the same p o i n t s , we get

(0) 1 1
im u
+ u
) (3-78)
m s. s.
i + 1 ,m I ,m

95
 3 79
= i V o ^ < " >
m s. , . s.
1+1,m i,m
f o r the wake v o r t i c i t y on the element.
u a n t l u a r e t n e
Similarly, if s ^ + 1 k s i k m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t i e s on the
1 1
e x t r e m i t i e s o f the i * * element o f the k** s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x s h e e t , we have

W W
0) l.„ , i+l,k i,k . .„ „ 0 %

Y A r ( + ( 3 8 0 )
i k = 2 k u ^ — ^r—> ' -
s s
i+l,k i , k

w W

= i A r k ( ^ ± ^ - ^ - )
s s
i+l,k i , k

f o r the s l i p s t r e a m v o r t i c i t y on the element, where

r +r
W - J - - k k + 1
( 3 - 88 2
< 3 2 )
i
i,k - „ - „ 2 2 "
<J BIT r i k

The duct and hub vorticity i s found from the s o l u t i o n o f the integral'

equation (3-42), when the a x i a l and radial velocities induced on the duct

and hub are known. S i n c e the n u m e r i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n procedure tends t o be

l e s s a c c u r a t e near the f l o w b o u n d a r i e s i . e . the duct and hub surfaces, Biot-

Savart i n t e g r a t i o n i s used t o compute the v e l o c i t i e s on the p i v o t a l p o i n t s

on t h e s e s u r f a c e s .

I t must be n o t e d t h a t , the s t r e n g t h o f the boundary v o r t i c i t y on the

duct and hub s u r f a c e s has much s t e e p e r g r a d i e n t s than the wake and s l i p s t r e a m

v o r t e x sheet s t r e n g t h s , d u e t o the p r e s e n c e of s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t s on the

boundary. T h e r e f o r e , the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the boundary s u r f a c e s i s not

c o u p l e d t o the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the o t h e r v o r t e x s h e e t s a n d , g e n e r a l l y , admits

a l a r g e r number o f elements c o n c e n t r a t e d near the f o r e and after stagnation

points.

The axial and radial velocities i n d u c e d by c o n s t a n t , l i n e a r and para-

b o l i c v o r t e x d i s t r i b u t i o n s on p a r a b o l i c elements and semi-infinite ring

v o r t e x c y l i n d e r s , have been a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 2 when d e a l i n g w i t h

the s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y method f o r the duct as w e l l as the s o l u t i o n o f the c o r r e s -

pondent i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e w i l l not be further considered here.

96
3.3.5. I t e r a t i v e procedure

The i t e r a t i v e procedure used to calculate t h e flow i n s i d e the computa-

t i o n a l domain can now be summarized as f o l l o w s :

1. From t h e p a r t i c u l a r v o r t e x sheet d i s c r e t i z a t i o n adopted f o r the wake a t

the upstream c o m p u t a t i o n a l boundary, t h e v a l u e s o f t h e stream f u n c t i o n

f o r t h e v o r t e x sheet s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s are determined. On t h e hub t h e

stream function i s zero.

2. N e g l e c t i n g v o r t e x sheet d e f o r m a t i o n i n the computational domain, and from

the f i r s t approximation t o the a c t u a t o r d i s k vortex sheets, ( S e c t i o n

3.3.2), and c o r r e s p o n d i n g induced velocities, the s t r e n g t h of the s u r f a c e

v o r t e x sheet on t h e duct and hub i s determined from the c o n d i t i o n that

the i n n e r v e l o c i t y tangent t o t h e s u r f a c e must v a n i s h , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

K u t t a c o n d i t i o n on t h e duct t r a i l i n g edge.

3. From t h e v a l u e s o f t h e s u r f a c e v o r t e x sheet on t h e duct and hub, the

stream f u n c t i o n induced at the knots o f the computational grid i s

computed.

4. The s t r e a m l i n e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the wake v o r t e x s h e e t s and the stream-

l i n e s corresponding t o the s l i p s t r e a m vortex sheets are t r a c e d i n s i d e

the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain.

5. The s t r e n g t h o f t h e wake v o r t e x s h e e t s i s determined from t h e form taken

by the v o r t i c i t y t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n f o r axisymmetric flow without swirl

(eq. 3-78 and 3-79), and t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x s h e e t s i s

determined from the p a r t i c u l a r form o f the v o r t i c i t y transport equation

f o r axisymmetric flow with s w i r l ( e q . 3-80, 3-81 and 3-82).

6. The stream f u n c t i o n induced a t t h e knots o f t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l g r i d by

all the vortex sheets i s computed.

7. The a x i a l and r a d i a l v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by a l l v o r t e x s h e e t s a t t h e

p i v o t a l p o i n t s on t h e duct and hub c o n t o u r a r e computed.

8. The boundary c o n d i t i o n on t h e duct and hub s u r f a c e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

K u t t a c o n d i t i o n on t h e duct t r a i l i n g edge i s s a t i s f i e d s o l v i n g the

correspondent inner p o t e n t i a l f l o w problems f o r the s u r f a c e v o r t e x

sheets.

Steps 3 to 8 are repeated u n t i l convergence i s a t t a i n e d .

97
3.4. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENT

In order to a s c e r t a i n the e f f e c t o f t h e wake v o r t i c i t y on ducted pro-

p e l l e r performance, a s e r i e s o f c a l c u l a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out f o r the

ducted p r o p e l l e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n duct 37 w i t h p r o p e l l e r B i n u n i f o r m and non-

uniform flow.

T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n was t e s t e d i n the NSMB Large C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel both

in uniform and non-uniform f l o w c o n d i t i o n s and e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a became

available for detailed comparison w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l calculations.

Some of the r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g the u n i f o r m f l o w case f o r t h i s c o n f i g u r a -

t i o n have a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 2, f o r the purpose o f compari-

son w i t h the p r e d i c t i o n s of a l i n e a r i z e d model. F u r t h e r r e s u l t s r e g a r d i n g the

duct p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s and the f l o w s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s will be introduced

here as they are needed f o r a f u l l a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the e f f e c t o f the

wake v o r t i c i t y .

In fact, due t o the n o n - l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n between the incoming wake

vorticity and the s l i p s t r e a m and duct v o r t e x systems, i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o

s e p a r a t e the a s s o c i a t e d i n d u c e d velocity fields and we must r e s o r t to the

uniform f l o w case a t the same chosen o v e r a l l l o a d i n g parameter, f o r the pur-

poses o f comparison.

F o r the u n i f o r m - f l o w case, o n l y the s l i p s t r e a m v o r t i c i t y needs t o be

d i s c r e t i z e d . The c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed at a l l p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s w i t h

48 elements on the duct and 21 elements on t h e hub. The computational grid

was chosen w i t h 10 a x i a l stations at x/R=0.0, 0.231, 0.442, 0.533, 0.643,

0.754, 0.905, 1.307, 1.751, 3.00, i m p l y i n g 10 elements on each s l i p s t r e a m

v o r t e x sheet and 15 r a d i a l s t a t i o n s w i t h 0.175 as c o n s t a n t radial stepslze.

In o r d e r t o a s s e s s the e f f e c t o f the number o f v o r t e x s h e e t s on the nu-

merical results, the s l i p s t r e a m v o r t i c i t y has been d i s c r e t i z e d first with 5

and then w i t h 9 v o r t e x s h e e t s . From p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s i t turned out

t h a t u n d e r r e l a x a t i o n was r e q u i r e d t o ensure convergence. A constant relaxa-

tion f a c t o r o f 0.5 was used when computing new iterates f o r the t o t a l stream

f u n c t i o n on the knots of the computational g r i d . F o r such c a s e , the conver-

gence p r o p e r t i e s o f the r e l a x a t i o n method a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 3-8, in

98
 40.0
A C T d -5 V O R T E X S H E E T S

' C R - . .

A C T ( J -9 V O R T E X S H E E T S

' C R -

30.0

20.0

10.0 -

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ITERATION N U M B E R

Fig. 3-3. Convergence of i t e r a t i o n for the duct thrust and radial

forces, ducted propeller in uniform flow J=0.208,
Cy =12.48. Relaxation factor 0.5.
P

which the r e s u l t s f o r the a x i a l and r a d i a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on the duct i n each

i t e r a t i o n s t e p a r e shown f o r the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g J=0.208, CXp=12.48. It i s
seen t h a t 6 i t e r a t i o n s were s u f f i c i e n t t o get converged r e s u l t s w i t h an a c c u -
r a c y of 0.01. The e f f e c t o f number o f v o r t e x s h e e t s used t o d i s c r e t i z e the
slipstream v o r t i c i t y appears t o be r a t h e r s m a l l i n what c o n c e r n s the f o r c e s
on t h e d u c t . In f a c t , t h e change from 5 t o 9 v o r t e x s h e e t s i s r e s p o n s i b l e
for v a r i a t i o n s of t h e r a d i a l f o r c e o f l e s s then 3% and o f the a x i a l f o r c e l e s s than 1%.

In t h e non-uniform f l o w case the c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed f o r the

e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s

Kj^=0.204, 0.171 and 0.101 r e s p e c t i v e l y . We note t h a t the c o n f i g u r a t i o n has

been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n u n i f o r m f l o w at the same p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s (see C h a p t e r 2).

The axisymmetric wake v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i n f r o n t of t h e p r o p e l l e r was

g e n e r a t e d by means o f w i r e meshes. In t h i s way a r e a s o n a b l e s t r o n g l y sheared

wake v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e w i t h a r a d i a l e x t e n t o f 2.4 times t h e p r o p e l l e r r a d i u s

c o u l d be o b t a i n e d . I t was found t h a t the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e was f a i r l y constant

b e h i n d the mesh s c r e e n f o r d i s t a n c e s o f about two p r o p e l l e r d i a m e t e r s and was

99
 rlR

2 4

2 0

16

1.2

0 8

0 4

°0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

U/Uo

Fig. 3-9. Approximation of wake velocity profile.

reasonably a x i s y m m e t r i c . The v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e d e r i v e d from t h e Laser-Doppler

measurements b e h i n d the screen i s shown i n F i g . 3-9. In t h i s F i g u r e t h e wake

v e l o c i t i e s a r e made d i m e n s i o n l e s s by t h e measured v e l o c i t y o u t s i d e t h e wake

field. This v e l o c i t y appeared t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r than t h e t u n n e l

s p e e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y 4.13 m/s and 3.75 m/s. T h i s i n c r e a s e o f f r e e - s t r e a m velo-

city due t o d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e wake s c r e e n and t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e t u n n e l

w a l l s , was taken i n t o account i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s by r e f e r r i n g t h e d i s k ad-

_ - 2 2
vance r a t i o J=Up/nD and t h e d i s k t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t CXp=T^/(JpU^irR ) , t o the

measured v e l o c i t y o u t s i d e t h e wake i n s t e a d o f t h e t u n n e l speed. No o t h e r

c o r r e c t i o n s due t o t h e t u n n e l " w a l l e f f e c t " were considered.

The v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e was d i s c r e t i z e d i n t o 10 o r 11 v o r t e x sheets. Differ-

ent d i s c r e t i z a t i o n s were employed f o r each p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g i n o r d e r t o

o b t a i n a h i g h number o f v o r t e x sheets i n the v i c i n i t y of the duct's stream-

s u r f a c e . As an i l l u s t r a t i o n , F i g . 3-9, shows the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n used a t t h e

highest p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g , J=0.78, 0^=0.87, f o r which t h e r a d i u s a t i n f i n i -

t y upstream o f t h e d u c t ' s stream s u r f a c e was about 1.70. The need f o r a f i n e

d i s c r e t i z a t i o n of the inflow v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i n the v i c i n i t y o f the duct's

100
stream-surface r a d i u s at i n f i n i t y upstream, a r i s e s from the f a c t t h a t , as

expected, the p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e f o r c e on t h e duct appeared t o be r a t h e r

s e n s i t i v e t o the p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n o f t h e v o r t e x s h e e t s nearby. Moreover,

situations a r o s e , i n which the method f a i l e d t o converge because the n e a r e s t

v o r t e x sheet t o the duct was a l t e r n a t i n g l y t r a c e d o u t s i d e and i n s i d e the

duct from one i t e r a t i o n s t e p to the n e x t .

To illustrate the e f f e c t o f p r o p e l l e r r a d i a l load d i s t r i b u t i o n s , two

typical d i s k c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n s were used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s and

are shown i n F i g . 3-10 t o g e t h e r w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p i e c e w i s e constant

approximations leading to d i s c r e t i z a t i o n s o f the s l i p s t r e a m v o r t i c i t y into

f i v e vortex sheets.

Because o f the v a r i a b l e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s i n the v i c i n i -

ty of t h e d u c t ' s nose depending on the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g two g r i d designs

were used. The f i r s t employed 24 a x i a l s t a t i o n s u n e q u a l l y spaced and 15

radial s t a t i o n s with a t y p i c a l s t e p s i z e o f 0.175 and i t was a p p l i e d at t h e

highest p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s . The second employed 15 a x i a l stations unequally

spaced and 15 r a d i a l s t a t i o n s w i t h t h e same s t e p s i z e and i t was used at t h e

r/r.

Fig. 3-10. Discretization of disk circulation distributions.

101
smallest loading.
With t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r a d i a l s t e p s i z e , w h i c h i s o f t h e o r d e r o f t h e mag-

nitude of the duct's t h i c k n e s s , the rather steep v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s near t h e

nose and t h e t r a i l i n g edge cannot be a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d . T h e r e f o r e , local

e r r o r s i n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e v o r t e x sheet are introduced i f the vortex

sheet i s traced i n the close v i c i n i t y o f t h e d u c t ' s s u r f a c e . The problem

c o u l d be p r o b a b l y o b v i a t e d by a r e f i n e m e n t o f t h e r a d i a l s t e p s i z e which

s h o u l d be accompanied by an i n c r e a s e o f t h e number o f v o r t e x s h e e t s i n o r d e r

to keep t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e n u m e r i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n scheme f o r t h e

a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s . A n o t h e r way o f m i n i m i z i n g such e r r o r s i s through

refinement o f t h e number o f v o r t e x s h e e t s p a s s i n g c l o s e t o t h e d u c t ' s sur-

f a c e because o f t h e r e l a t i v e d e c r e a s e o f the s t r e n g t h of the nearest vortex

s h e e t . The n u m e r i c a l results f o r t h e f o r c e on t h e duct i n t h e v a r i o u s itera-

t i o n steps r e v e a l e d that f o r a given d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the i n f l o w v e l o c i t y

profile t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e duct were not p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e t o s m a l l

v a r i a t i o n s of the l o c a t i o n of the vortex sheets i n the v i c i n i t y o f t h e nose,

p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e o f t h e d u c t ' s s t r e a m - s u r f a c e d i d not

change. On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e r e s u l t s the e f f e c t o f t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e on

the duct f o r c e was sought predominant t o t h e e f f e c t of v o r t i c i t y . Therefore

no attempt has been made t o f u r t h e r r e f i n e t h e r a d i a l s t e p s i z e i n the pre-

sent i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t must be, however, r e c o g n i z e d t h a t s m a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f

c i r c u l a t i o n around t h e duct due t o s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e

v o r t e x s h e e t s may cause l a r g e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e f o r c e i f a s h i f t o f t h e duct

to a d i f f e r e n t dynamic p r e s s u r e i s i m p l i e d .

In a l l c a s e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed with a relaxation factor

o f 0.5. The r e s u l t s f o r t h e duct thrust and r a d i a l f o r c e o b t a i n e d on each

iteration s t e p a r e shown i n F i g . 3-11. I t i s seen t h a t i n g e n e r a l , s i x i t e r a -

t i o n s were s u f f i c i e n t t o o b t a i n converged r e s u l t s w i t h i n 2% f o r t h e duct

radial f o r c e and 1% f o r t h e duct thrust.

The l o c a t i o n s o f t h e wake v o r t e x s h e e t s o b t a i n e d from t h e l a s t iterates

at the v a r i o u s p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s are shown i n F i g s . 3-12 t o 3.14. The c i r c u l a t i o n

distribution 1 has been assumed i n t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s . S m a l l i n a c c u r a c i e s can

be found on the l o c a t i o n o f t h e v o r t e x s h e e t s c l o s e t o hub' s nose which can be

a s c r i b e d t o the s m a l l number o f elements used t o approximate i t .

102
 Fig. 3-11. Convergence on duct thrust and radial force. Duct 37 with

propeller B in shear flow .

In o r d e r t o make e v i d e n t the e f f e c t o f the wake v o r t i c i t y on the

flow stream-surfaces, i n F i g . 3-15, the s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the

v o r t e x s h e e t s shed from the p r o p e l l e r d i s k , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the vortex

sheet bound t o the hub, are shown f o r b o t h u n i f o r m and shear flows at the

same p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g . Both c a l c u l a t i o n s have been done w i t h the same K u t t a

c o n d i t i o n on the d u c t ' s t r a i l i n g edge and the same d i s k r a d i a l distribution

103
Fig. 2-12. Location of wake vortex sheets. Duct 37 with propeller B
in shear flow. 1=1.92, C =0.07.
T

r - i — i
-20 -10 0 10 2.0 3.0 a / R

Fig. 3-13. Location of wake vortex sheets. Duct 37 with propeller B

in shear flow. 1=1.29, C =0.26.
T

oi> -2 0 -10 0 1.0 20 3.0 „,„

Fig. 3-14. Location of wake vortex sheets. Duct 37 with propeller B

in shear flow. 1=0.78, =0.87.
P

104
 Fig. 3-15. Location of slipstream vortex sheets. Duct 37 with propeller
B. Comparison between uniform flow and shear flow.

of c i r c u l a t i o n . It i s interesting t o note t h e much lower r a t e o f decay o f

the r a d i a l v e l o c i t i e s w i t h d i s t a n c e from the p r o p e l l e r plane obtained i n the

shear flow case i n comparison w i t h t h e u n i f o r m flow.

The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on t h e duct i n shear flow are given i n

Fig. 3-16 t o 3-18 and compared w i t h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n uniform flow

at t h e same p r o p e l l e r loadings i n Figs. 3-17 and 3-18. From t h e s e f i g u r e s i t

may be c o n c l u d e d that the e f f e c t o f v o r t i c i t y tends to decrease the thrust

r a t i o between p r o p e l l e r and duct a t t h e same p r o p e l l e r r a d i a l load distribu-

tion.

In o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e t h e e f f e c t of the disk r a d i a l c i r c u l a t i o n distri-

b u t i o n on the duct p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , computations were made w i t h t h e

load d i s t r i b u t i o n 2 o f F i g . 3-10 and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g pressure distributions

are shown i n F i g . 3-17 and 3-18. The e f f e c t o f the r a d i a l c i r c u l a t i o n distri-

b u t i o n on t h e computed duct thrust amounted t o a change from C ^=0.59 t o T

Cf,=0.51 and on the computed r a d i a l force c o e f f i c i e n t C from 1.70 t o 1.43,

d R
respectively f o r the c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n s 1 and 2 with J=0.78,

C =0.87. F o r J=1.29, C =0.26, t h e duct

Tp Tp thrust coefficient changed from 0.16

with c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n l , t o 0.13 w i t h c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n 2 and

the c o r r e s p o n d i n g change o f the r a d i a l f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t was from 5^=0.52 t o

C =0.45, ( s e e F i g . 3-11).
R

105
 K T p =0.101 J =1.92 C T p = C .07

-0 6

-0.5
ft

-0.4

-0.3

0 2

-0 1

1 1 1 T" f I t I _^--T T j
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 \ 1 0
x,C

0 1 -

0 2

Fig. 3-16. Pressure distribution on duct 37 with propeller B in

shear flow.

As mentioned b e f o r e , t o check the n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s a s e t of mea-

surements on the configuration duct 37 w i t h p r o p e l l e r B were p e r f o r m e d i n

the Large C a v i t a t i o n T u n n e l , which i n c l u d e d L a s e r - D o p p l e r measurements of the

axial and r a d i a l v e l o c i t y components and measurements o f the thrust and inte-

grated r a d i a l force a c t i n g on the duct.

These measurements have been r e p o r t e d by Luttmer and J a n s s e n (1982) and

a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t e s t equipment and p r o c e d u r e can be found i n Appen-

dix 1.

An a n a l y s i s of the v e l o c i t y measurements i n the propeller slipstream

showed a c l e a r s h i f t of the loci of maximum a x i a l v e l o c i t y from r/R=0.7 i n

uniform f l o w to r/R=0.6, 0.5 and 0.4 i n s h e a r f l o w at d e c r e a s i n g propeller

loadings. This fact i s illustrated i n F i g . 3-19 where the perturbation axial

106
 Fig. 3-17. Pressure distributions on duct 37 with propeller B in
uniform and shear flow.

v e l o c i t i e s derived from t h e L a s e r - D o p p l e r measurements a t 3 mm downstream o f

the duct's t r a i l i n g edge and a n a l y s e d at the p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t i d e n t i t y are

shown f o r the u n i f o r m and non-uniform flow c a s e s . The s h i f t towards t h e hub o f

the point o f maximum v e l o c i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e change o f p r o p e l l e r load

distribution i n t h e wake f i e l d f o r the various propeller loadings.

The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e magnitude o f t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n velocities at the

smallest p r o p e l l e r loading could partially be due t o t h e way o f a n a l y s i n g

the r e s u l t s . Since t h e measured duct t h r u s t s c o n s i d e r a b l y differ from each
other at t h i s p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g , being respectively K =0.043 and K„ =0.001
1
i<3 d

i n u n i f o r m and non-uniform flow, total t h r u s t i d e n t i t y would l e a d t o a

higher effective velocity.

107
 Fig. 3-18. Pressure distributions on duat 37 with propeller B in
uniform flow and shear flow.

F o r t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l o a d i n g , t h e v a l u e s o f the duct t h r u s t coefficient

are K =0.060 and K =0.058 f o r t h e u n i f o r m and non-uniform f l o w , respec-
d d
tively, and t h e t o t a l t h r u s t identity virtually yields t h e same e f f e c t i v e

velocity, which s u g g e s t s a remarkable e f f e c t of the i n t e r a c t i o n with the

wake v o r t i c i t y i n the induced v e l o c i t y f i e l d . We note that the depicted

p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e non-uniform flow case i n c l u d e t h e d i s t u r b a n c e

velocity induced by t h e change i n t h e wake v o r t i c i t y . F o r t h e h i g h e s t

loading the d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e duct t h r u s t coefficient i s significant,
(Kx =0.134 i n u n i f o r m f l o w and K =0.111 i n non-uniform flow) and t o t a l
d Td

thrust i d e n t i t y would l e a d again to a higher e f f e c t i v e velocity.

108
 Fig. 3-19. Measured axial perturbation velocities at 3 mm downstream of

the trailing edge (x/B= 0.53). Duct 37 with propeller 3 in

uniform and non-uniform flow at propeller thrust identity.

The comparison between the calculated and measured v e l o c i t y field is

given i n Figs. 3-20 to 3-22, where the axial velocity profiles at three

different locations upstream and downstream of the ducted p r o p e l l e r are

shown. I t may be concluded that the agreement between the measured and

calculated p r o f i l e s i s reasonable for the highest propeller loading, but

worsens as the propeller l o a d d e c r e a s e s . As remarked b e f o r e , the circulation

distribution on the propeller at d e c r e a s i n g l o a d i n g , i n c r e a s i n g l y deviates

from the circulation distribution 1 assumed i n the calculations. For the

sake of comparison, the results of the calculations with circulation

d i s t r i b u t i o n 2 f o r the two highest l o a d i n g s , are shown a l s o i n the Figures.

109
 o EXPERIMENT
J =1.92 C T p =0.07

Fig. 3-20. Measured and calculated axial velocity -profiles at

x/R=-0.53. Duct 37 with propeller B in axisymmetric wake
flow.
I t can be seen t h a t the e f f e c t of the p r o p e l l e r l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n on the

induced v e l o c i t i e s i s remarkable i n s i d e the p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m . The

measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s d e p i c t steep gradients i n the v i c i n i t y of the

duct s u r f a c e and deviate considerable from the t h e o r e t i c a l ones. With the

radial s t e p s i z e employed i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s such s t r o n g gradients,

specially at the nose and the wake peak downstream of the duct trailing

edge, c o u l d not be resolved and therefore, the c a l c u l a t i o n s are not

e x p e c t e d t o be accurate i n those regions.

The comparison between the c a l c u l a t e d and measured f o r c e a c t i n g on

the duct i s shown i n T a b l e 3-1. I t may be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the c o r r e l a t i o n

110
 Fig. 3-21. Measured and calculated axial velocity profiles at x/R=0.53.
Duct 37 with propeller B in axisymmetric wake flow.

i s poor, even at the h i g h e s t p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g f o r which the p r e d i c t i o n of

the v e l o c i t y f i e l d i s reasonable. Although the e f f e c t o f v i s c o s i t y on the

f o r c e s i s not known t h e r e i s a tendency towards c o n s i s t e n t o v e r e s t i m a t i o n

of the p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s i n comparison w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t a l results. The

change o f the p r o p e l l e r load d i s t r i b u t i o n , although considerably affects

the v e l o c i t y f i e l d , appears t o have a s m a l l e f f e c t on the duct forces.

The most l i k e l y cause o f the d i s c r e p a n c i e s i s the e f f e c t on the duct

f o r c e s of the dynamic p r e s s u r e of the duct s t r e a m - s u r f a c e . In f a c t , f o r the

particular discretizations used i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s , the d i f f e r e n c e i n the

duct f o r c e s i f the duct s t r e a m - s u r f a c e i s traced i n a consecutive interval

111
o f dynamic p r e s s u r e i s o f t h e o r d e r o f magnitude o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s

between c a l c u l a t e d and measured results.

We r e c a l l t h a t , f o r t h e sake o f comparison, t h e K u t t a c o n d i t i o n was

implemented i n t h e same way i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n u n i f o r m and non-uniform

f l o w . As remarked i n t h e second Chapter, this form o f K u t t a c o n d i t i o n gave

r e a s o n a b l e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e f o r c e s on t h e duct a t t h e two h i g h e r

p r o p e l l e r loadings i n uniform flow.

Fig. 3-22. Measured and calculated axial velocity profile at x/R=0.90.

Duct 37 with propeller B in axisymmetric wake flow.

112
 EXPERIMENT THEORY
Circulation Circulation
distribution 1 distribution 2

J
P \ 5
R
\ e
R
% 5
R

1.92 0.07 0.00 0.035 0.04 0.16 - _

1.29 0.26 0.09 0.34 0.16 0.52 0.13 0.45

0.78 0.87 0.47 1.19 0.59 1.70 0.51 1.43

Table 3-1. Comparison of measured and calculated forces on duct 37

with propeller B in axisymmetric wake flow.

113
4. Interaction studies b e t w e e n a ducted propeller a n d
the stern for axisymmetric flows

4.1. INTRODUCTION

This C h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h the a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e methods p r e s e n t e d i n

C h a p t e r s 2 and 3 t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f s t e r n f l o w s and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

between t h e d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r and t h e s t e r n i n axisymmetric flow.

When p l a c e d c l o s e b e h i n d a body, an o p e r a t i n g propeller introduces a

d i s t u r b a n c e t o t h e e x i s t i n g f l o w around t h e s t e r n . T h i s disturbance flow

l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e of v e l o c i t y i n the stern region which r e s u l t s i n a

d e c r e a s e o f p r e s s u r e and an i n c r e a s e o f s k i n f r i c t i o n on t h e body's surface.

The c o r r e s p o n d e n t increase o f body r e s i s t a n c e at a c e r t a i n speed,when ex-

p r e s s e d as a f r a c t i o n o f t h e t h r u s t t o be d e l i v e r e d by t h e p r o p u l s o r t o

propell the body a t t h e same speed, i s known as t h e t h r u s t deduction f r a c t i o n

The v e l o c i t i e s o c c u r r i n g a t t h e p r o p e l l e r p l a n e i n t h e absence o f t h e

p r o p e l l e r are known as the nominal v e l o c i t i e s . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e

nominal v e l o c i t i e s and t h e body's speed e x p r e s s e d as a f r a c t i o n o f that

speed i s known as t h e nominal wake.

It i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d that, due t o the i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e

p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d flow and t h e s t e r n f l o w , the i n f l o w t o the p r o p e l l e r i s

t h e r e b y m o d i f i e d and t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n t v e l o c i t i e s at t h e p r o p e l l e r plane

differ from t h e nominal v e l o c i t i e s . These i n f l o w v e l o c i t i e s a r e known as

e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t i e s and t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e t o the body's speed as a f r a c -

t i o n of that speed i s known as the e f f e c t i v e wake.

In model t e s t i n g t h e mean e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t y t o t h e p r o p e l l e r i s ob-

tained by the t h r u s t o r t o r q u e i d e n t i t y method from t h e open-water character

i s t i c s of the propulsor.

In the c a l c u l a t i o n o f wake adapted p r o p e l l e r s , t h e e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e p r o p e l l e r p l a n e i s an important input parameter. A com-

monly a c c e p t e d s u i t a b l e d e f i n i t i o n f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t i e s i d e n t i f i e s

them w i t h d i f f e r e n c e between t h e t o t a l v e l o c i t i e s p r e v a i l i n g b e h i n d t h e body

114
w i t h the operating propeller and the p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s . In such
definition, under the concept of p r o p e l l e r induction i s understood the
velocity field i n d u c e d by the assumed p r o p e l l e r v o r t e x model.

In view o f the r e l a t i v e s i m p l i c i t y of t h e i r s t e r n f l o w , axisymmetric

b o d i e s i n the d e e p l y submerged s t a t e , have been i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r the purpose

of g e t t i n g i n s i g h t i n t o the i n t e r a c t i o n phenomena and providing checks on

new a n a l y t i c a l and c o m p u t a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s . The classical approach t o the

i n t e r a c t i o n problem, f o r a d e e p l y submerged body, s e p a r a t e s the total flow

i n t o i t s p o t e n t i a l and viscous components, r e s p e c t i v e l y associated with the

d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s of the body and the body's boundary l a y e r and wake

system.

It i s not s u r p r i s i n g that early a n a l y t i c a l studies on axisymmetric

bodies,considering both p o t e n t i a l and viscous e f f e c t s , w e r e based on classi-

cal p o t e n t i a l f l o w and boundary l a y e r t h e o r i e s , (Korvin-KroukovsKy, 1956,

Tsakonas and Jacobs, 1960).

In t h e s e s t u d i e s the body was r e p r e s e n t e d by a line source-sink distri-

bution and the p r o p e l l e r by a sink disk with constant strength. Korvin-

Kroukovsky (1956),used e x p e r i m e n t a l boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s data, together

w i t h an assumed power v e l o c i t y law d i s t r i b u t i o n , to e s t i m a t e the effect of

the boundary l a y e r on the thrust d e d u c t i o n by a c c o u n t i n g f o r the e f f e c t s of

the boundary l a y e r d i s p l a c e m e n t thickness.

Tsakonas and Jacobs (1960), e v a l u a t e d v a r i o u s methods a v a i l a b l e at that

time to compute the boundary l a y e r on the body. In t h e i r work a m a t h e m a t i c a l

model f o r the i n t e r a c t i o n between the propeller and the boundary l a y e r was

investigated. In t h i s model o n l y the d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t s of the boundary

l a y e r and wake were assumed to i n t e r a c t w i t h the p r o p e l l e r . As a conse-

quence the p r o p e l l e r was c o n s i d e r e d t o work i n a p o t e n t i a l flow region where

Dickmann's, (1938), c l a s s i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p o t e n t i a l t h r u s t d e d u c t i o n and

wake f r a c t i o n h o l d . Since, as i t i s well known, the frictional contribution

to the e f f e c t i v e wake i s an important one,they were l e d to the

conclusion that the frictional contribution t o the thrust deduc-

t i o n , f o r the p a r t i c u l a r b o d i e s of r e v o l u t i o n investigated,was s i g n i f i c a n t .

Such c o n c l u s i o n is difficult to a c c e p t and has not been c o n f i r m e d by further

studies.

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More r e c e n t work on t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h r u s t d e d u c t i o n has been based on

potential flow theory. Beveridge (1969), a p p l i e d a surface source panel

method t o r e p r e s e n t the body and a s i n k d i s k w i t h v a r i a b l e r a d i a l strength

to represent the p r o p e l l e r .

T h i s p r o p e l l e r model i s f o r m a l l y e q u i v a l e n t i n t h e r e g i o n o u t s i d e t h e

p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m , t o the a c t u a t o r d i s k model c o n s t i t u t e d by a d i s t r i b u -

t i o n o f r i n g v o r t e x c y l i n d e r s (see Chapter 2 ) , and,as s t a t e d b e f o r e , cor-

responds t o the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l mean f l o w o f a l i f t i n g line representation

of t h e p r o p e l l e r . F u r t h e r developments i n c l u d e t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e

p r o p e l l e r by l i f t i n g s u r f a c e theory, as reviewed by Cox (1977).

R e c e n t l y , Huang e t a l (1976), Huang and Cox (1977) and Huang and

Groves (1980), presented a detailed i n v e s t i g a t i o n on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between

an open p r o p e l l e r and v a r i o u s axisymmetric b o d i e s . T h i s work i n c l u d e d

measurements o f a f t e r b o d y p r e s s u r e and s k i n f r i c t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n s , a n d a x i a l

v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s with Laser-Doppler v e l o c i m e t e r , w i t h and w i t h o u t propeller

in o p e r a t i o n . To t r e a t the d i f f e r e n t aspects of the i n t e r a c t i o n problem

v a r i o u s a n a l y t i c a l procedures were p r o p o s e d and checked by comparison with

the measurements.

To c a l c u l a t e t h e f l o w on t h e afterbody,Huang e t a l (1976), (1977)

employed an i t e r a t i o n scheme based on p o t e n t i a l f l o w and t h i n boundary layer

c a l c u l a t i o n methods. The scheme appeared o n l y t o g i v e s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e d i c t i o n s

of pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n and a x i a l velocity profiles f o r the f i n e s t

afterbody ( f i n e n e s s r a t i o L^/D=4.31). F o r t h e two o t h e r a f t e r b o d i e s

(L^/D=2.25 and 1.48),the p r e d i c t i o n s were c o n s i d e r a b l y p o o r e r . Huang e t a l

(1976), a l s o showed t h a t when using, i n t h e i t e r a t i o n scheme, t h e p r e s s u r e dis-

t r i b u t i o n on t h e body, m o d i f i e d t o account f o r the p r o p e l l e r induced f l o w , un-

r e l i a b l e p r e d i c t i o n s of the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n f r o n t o f t h e p r o p e l l e r were

o b t a i n e d . With an a l t e r n a t i v e approach, based on i n v i s c i d flow theory to

d e s c r i b e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e p r o p e l l e r and t h e t h i c k s t e r n boundary

l a y e r , p r e d i c t i o n s o f the a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s ahead o f t h e p r o p u l s o r

were i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h t h e L a s e r - D o p p l e r velocity measurements.

The i n p u t c o n s i s t s o f t h e nominal v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e p r o p e l l e r p l a n e and t h e

p r o p e l l e r induced velocities as c a l c u l a t e d by a p r o p e l l e r induced

velocity field program. The nominal v e l o c i t i e s were taken from t h e measured

116
v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s without the o p e r a t i n g p r o p e l l e r .
The greatest disadvantage o f Huang's method l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t the

a c c u r a c y o f the t o t a l and e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t i e s u l t i m a t e l y depends on the

a c c u r a c y o f t h e nominal velocities. The c a l c u l a t i o n o f the f l o w i n the tail

r e g i o n o f an axisymmetric body s e e m s , t h e r e f o r e , t o be o f v i t a l importance for

the complete a n a l y t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n o f the i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and

stern.

B e f o r e c l o s i n g t h e s e remarks on the v a r i o u s approaches t o the interac-

t i o n between a c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o p e l l e r and the a f t e r b o d y , the calculation

method used by S c h e t z and F a v i n (1979), s h o u l d be mentioned. They s o l v e d

numerically the f u l l Navier-Stokes equations f o r axisymmetric flow and

obtained reasonable agreement w i t h experiments.

In c o n t r a s t w i t h the l a r g e amount o f work on p r o p e l l e r - h u l l interaction

for conventional propellers, s i m i l a r s t u d i e s f o r ducted propeller are s c a r c e

in the l i t e r a t u r e . Perhaps, the most complete a n a l y s i s o f ducted propeller-

hull interaction i s the one due to K r i e b e l (1964). Assuming p o t e n t i a l flow,

Kriebel r e p r e s e n t e d the h u l l by a s o u r c e - s i n k l i n e d i s t r i b u t i o n , the duct by

r i n g v o r t e x s i n g u l a r i t i e s on the r e f e r e n c e c y l i n d e r and the p r o p e l l e r by an

actuator disk with constant s t r e n g t h . The wake o f the body was represented,

in a s i m p l i f i e d way, by a number o f s e m i - i n f i n i t e v o r t e x c y l i n d e r s . The

s t r e n g t h o f t h e v o r t e x c y l i n d e r s , assumed c o n s t a n t downstream,was determined

by matching the c o r r e s p o n d e n t axial velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n t o the nominal

velocities at the p r o p e l l e r plane.

Possibly, the most d r a s t i c simplification introduced i n his mathematical

model, i s r e l a t e d t o the way the wake was a l l o w e d t o i n t e r a c t w i t h the ducted

p r o p e l l e r and h u l l . Specifically, the v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by the wake v o r t e x

c y l i n d e r s on t h e duct were taken i n t o account but the i n f l u e n c e o f the hull,

duct or p r o p e l l e r s i n g u l a r i t i e s on the wake was d i s r e g a r d e d . By e v a l u a t i n g

the i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c e s between the v a r i o u s s i n g u l a r i t i e s , t h e r e l a t i v e merits

of v a r i o u s duct camber shapes f o r s h o r t and l o n g d u c t s were demonstrated.

The above-mentioned s t u d i e s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r the work o f Huang e t a l ,

suggest t h a t any attempt t o compute the v e l o c i t y field i n the v i c i n i t y of a

p r o p e l l e r o p e r a t i n g i n s i d e the s t e r n boundary l a y e r , s h o u l d contemplate the

117
i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d f l o w and t h e flow i n t h e boundary

layer. Apparently, t h e b a s i c i n t e r a c t i o n mechanism o f t h e two f l o w s i s

inviscid i n nature and may be p r o p e r l y d e s c r i b e d by t h e E u l e r e q u a t i o n s o f

motion.

The f a i l u r e o f the c o n v e n t i o n a l boundary-layer potential flow interac-

tion scheme used by Huang e t a l i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f l o w w i t h p r o p e l l e r i n ope-

r a t i o n , and the r e l a t i v e l y poor p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e s t e r n f l o w w i t h o u t p r o p e l -

l e r f o r the two f u l l e s t f o r m s , i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s and v e l o -

c i t i e s normal t o the s u r f a c e a r e n o t n e g l i g i b l e and s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d .

Finally, Huang e t a l found the f r i c t i o n a l component o f t h e t h r u s t

deduction f o r t h e t h r e e models i n v e s t i g a t e d t o be n e g l i g i b l e . The p r e s s u r e

component o f t h e t h r u s t d e d u c t i o n was w e l l p r e d i c t e d by t h e p o t e n t i a l flow

calculations a l t h o u g h q u e s t i o n s were r a i s e d r e g a r d i n g the adequacy o f the

approach,when a r e g i o n o f s e p a r a t e d flow was p r e s e n t as i n t h e case o f t h e

bluntest afterbody.

T h i s Chapter i s c e n t e r e d on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n problem between a d u c t e d

propeller and t h e s t e r n i n axisymmetric flow. An i n v i s c i d approach t o c a l -

c u l a t e the f l o w on t h e s t e r n w i t h and w i t h o u t p r o p u l s o r based on t h e E u l e r

e q u a t i o n s o f motion i s p r e s e n t e d . Apart from t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s involved i n

the n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n , no o t h e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s are i n t r o d u c e d i n the g o v e r n i n g

e q u a t i o n s . The b a s i c n u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n procedures have a l r e a d y been d e a l t

with i n Chapters 2 and 3 . T h e r e f o r e t h e emphasis i s p l a c e d on t h e under-

lying assumptions and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n results.

In S e c t i o n 4.2 an a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e computation o f t h e f l o w i n the s t e r n

r e g i o n o f a body o f r e v o l u t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d .

In s e c t i o n 4.3 t h e r e s u l t s o f computations f o r two ducted propeller

c o n f i g u r a t i o n s behind the same body o f r e v o l u t i o n are given.

In s e c t i o n 4.4 the r e s u l t s a r e d i s c u s s e d and t h e e f f e c t i v e wake and

thrust deduction a r e e s t i m a t e d u s i n g two d i f f e r e n t methods o f a n a l y s i s : t h e

duct as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l and t h e duct as a p a r t o f t h e p r o p u l s o r .

118
4.2. APPLICATION TO THE CALCULATION OF THE STERN FLOW FOR AN AXISYMMETRIC
BODY.

In t h i s s e c t i o n t h e method p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 3 i s a p p l i e d t o t h e

c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e flow i n the stern region o f an axisymmetric body.

The b a s i c assumption u n d e r l y i n g the c a l c u l a t i o n procedure i s that the

flow may be c o n s i d e r e d inviscid everywhere i n s i d e a flow region, c a l l e d the

c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain, which comprises t h e s t e r n and t h e n e a r wake regions.

For non-separating flows, t h i s assumption i s l i k e l y to hold as a good approx-

imation f o r the r o t a t i o n a l flow region i n s i d e t h e boundary l a y e r and wake

with exception o f a r e l a t i v e l y t h i n l a y e r c l o s e t o t h e w a l l where t h e e f f e c t s

o f v i s c o s i t y become i m p o r t a n t .

A c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o r e t i c a l work performed on

axisymmetric b o d i e s g i v e s support t o t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , the

measurements done by P a t e l e t a l (1974), (1978) on two axisymmetric bodies

revealed t h a t t h e Reynolds s t r e s s e s were r a t h e r small i n the thick

s t e r n boundary l a y e r and near wake r e g i o n s . Also,the t h e o r e t i c a l studies of

Dyne (1978) and G e l l e r (1979), r e s p e c t i v e l y on t h e f i r s t and s e -

cond , axisymmetric b o d i e s s t u d i e d by P a t e l e t a l , p r o v i d e d further evidence

regarding the adequacy o f t h e i n v i s c i d approach by r e v e a l i n g a r a t h e r good

agreement between p r e d i c t e d and measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s down t o t h e t a i l .

It should be noted t h a t Dyne's (1978), s t r e a m l i n e curvature method includes

the losses i n t o t a l head a l o n g the streamlines due t o t h e e f f e c t o f v i s c o u s

and Reynolds s t r e s s e s , b u t such l o s s e s appeared t o be s m a l l o v e r about

ninety p e r cent o f t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i n the s t e r n region. More

recently, the work o f L a r s s o n e t a l (1982), w i t h an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e stream-

l i n e curvature method t o s h i p s t e r n f l o w s , suggests that the i n v i s c i d

assumption might be a p p l i c a b l e t o more g e n e r a l three-dimensional stern

flows.

The c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain i s shown i n F i g . 4-1, ( f o r t h e purpose o f t h e

d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r - h u l l i n t e r a c t i o n s t u d i e s t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e next sec-

t i o n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f duct and p r o p e l l e r a r e i n c l u d e d ) . It i s

selected such t h a t i t i n c l u d e s i n t h e streamwise d i r e c t i o n t h e

119
 Fig. 4-1, Schematic representation of computational domain for
the stern flow.

afterbody's region extending from a s t a t i o n on t h e p a r a l l e l m i d d l e body (or

an upstream s t a t i o n where the f l o w i n t h e boundary l a y e r i s approximately

axially d i r e c t e d and the boundary l a y e r i s t h i n ) downstream t o the t a i l and

p a r t o f the wake. In the r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , i t i s d e l i m i t e d by a cylindrical

s u r f a c e of constant radius.

S i n c e the method o f C h a p t e r 3 i s based on a Green's f u n c t i o n formula-

t i o n t o the stream f u n c t i o n b o u n d a r y - v a l u e problem, the boundary c o n d i t i o n

at i n f i n i t y i n the r a d i a l c o o r d i n a t e i s automatically s a t i s f i e d . Therefore,

the r a d i u s o f the boundary c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e can be kept s m a l l , provided

t h a t no f l u x of v o r t i c i t y takes place through that p a r t i c u l a r surface.

The vorticity contained i n the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain i n s i d e the boundary

l a y e r and wake i s d i s c r e t i z e d i n t o a number of say H, v o r t e x sheets: N-l

vortex sheets r e p r e s e n t i n g the o u t e r r e g i o n o f the boundary l a y e r and one

vortex sheet r e p r e s e n t i n g the w a l l l a y e r . The N-l outer vortex sheets are

assumed to be governed by the inviscid vorticity transport equation for

a x i s y m m e t r i c f l o w without swirl (see C h a p t e r 3 ) . The vortex sheet represen-

t i n g the w a l l l a y e r i s assumed t o be bound t o the body's s u r f a c e w i t h i t s

s t r e n g t h determined from the c o n d i t i o n t h a t the v e l o c i t y at the inner

s i d e o f the s u r f a c e must v a n i s h . T h i s p r o c e d u r e can be sought t o be

equivalent i n viscous flow t o the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f the n o n - s l i p c o n d i t i o n on

the body's s u r f a c e , by a w a l l l a y e r of v a n i s h i n g thickness.

Because a l l the v o r t i c i t y i n the flow f i e l d g i v e s non-zero c o n t r i b u -

120
t i o n s t o the stream f u n c t i o n i n s i d e the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain, o r , i n other

words, the i n t e g r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r the stream f u n c t i o n extends over the

total vortical r e g i o n , the v o r t i c i t y o u t s i d e the c o m p u t a t i o n a l boundaries

and c o n t a i n e d i n the boundary l a y e r on the f o r e b o d y and the wake, has t o be

approximated.

The latter vorticity field i s s i m p l y r e p r e s e n t e d by N r i n g v o r t e x

c y l i n d e r s o f c o n s t a n t s t r e n g t h e x t e n d i n g from the downstream

t computational

boundary t o i n f i n i t y and h a v i n g the c o r r e s p o n d e n t radii identical t o the

computed v o r t e x sheet r a d i i on the last axial station. In a s i m i l a r way,

the former v o r t i c i t y field, i s s u b s t i t u t e d by a s e t o f semi-

infinite r i n g v o r t e x c y l i n d e r s w i t h t h e i r s t r e n g t h matched t o the velocity

p r o f i l e i n s i d e the boundary l a y e r a t the f i r s t s t a t i o n o f the computa-

t i o n a l domain. Such an a p p r o x i m a t i o n d e v i a t e s c o n s i d e r a b l y from the actual

situation on the f o r e b o d y , i n which a l l the v o r t i c i t y i s contained inside the

boundary l a y e r growing from the body's nose. However, the f l o w around the

forebody appears t o have a s m a l l e f f e c t on t h e f l o w around the after-

body and the a p p r o x i m a t i o n can be a c c e p t e d . Moreover, by e x t e n d i n g the

p a r a l l e l m i d d l e body, the nose can be put s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r upstream i n o r d e r

t o have a n e g l i g i b l e i n f l u e n c e on the a f t e r b o d y f l o w . The h i s t o r y o f the

f l o w on the forebody i s brought into the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain through the

upstream v e l o c i t y matching condition.

The i t e r a t i v e procedure used t o c a l c u l a t e the flow i n s i d e the compu-

tational domain, adapted from Chapter 3 f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , can be
summarized as follows:

1. From the p a r t i c u l a r v o r t e x sheet d i s c r e t i z a t i o n adopted f o r the shear

l a y e r i n the upstream c o m p u t a t i o n a l boundary, the v a l u e s o f the stream

f u n c t i o n f o r the v o r t e x sheet s t r e a m - s u r f a c e s c o r r e c t e d f o r the presence

o f the body, are determined. "At t h e body's s u r f a c e the stream function

is zero.

2. N e g l e c t i n g any v o r t e x s h e e t d e f o r m a t i o n i n the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain, the

s t r e n g t h o f the s u r f a c e v o r t e x s h e e t r e p r e s e n t i n g the w a l l l a y e r i s

determined from the c o n d i t i o n t h a t the i n n e r v e l o c i t y tangent t o the

s u r f a c e must v a n i s h .

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3. From the v a l u e s of the s u r f a c e v o r t e x sheet on the body's boundary,the

stream f u n c t i o n induced at the knots o f the c o m p u t a t i o n a l grid i s

computed.

4. The s t r e a m l i n e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the o u t e r v o r t e x s h e e t s are

traced i n s i d e the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain.

5. The s t r e n g t h o f the v o r t e x s h e e t s i s determined from the v o r t i c i t y t r a n s -

port equation.

6. The stream f u n c t i o n induced a t the knots o f the c o m p u t a t i o n a l grid,induced

by the o u t e r v o r t e x s h e e t s i s computed.

7. The axial and radial velocities induced a t the body p i v o t a l p o i n t s by

the o u t e r v o r t e x s h e e t s are computed.

8. The boundary c o n d i t i o n at the body's surface i s s a t i s f i e d solving the

inner p o t e n t i a l f l o w problem f o r the s t r e n g t h o f the s u r f a c e v o r t e x

sheet.

Steps 3 t o 8 are r e p e a t e d u n t i l convergence i s a t t a i n e d .

The procedure d e s c r i b e d above has been a p p l i e d t o the c a l c u l a t i o n of

the f l o w i n the s t e r n of a body o f r e v o l u t i o n . The c h o i c e o f the body was

d i c t a t e d p r i m a r i l y by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o the problem o f interaction

w i t h a ducted p r o p e l l e r , which i s t r e a t e d i n the next s e c t i o n , and more s p e c i -

f i c a l l y , by the need o f h a v i n g an a f t e r b o d y w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l y f u l l form.

T h e r e f o r e , the a f t e r b o d y i n v e s t i g a t e d by Huang e t a l (1976) and designated

by a f t e r b o d y 3 i n the o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n , was chosen. The form o f the

a f t e r b o d y i s g i v e n by a c o s i n e curve f o r the d i m e n s i o n l e s s body r a d i u s r / L :

122
] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
r
; R
L/Db=10.975

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

X/L

Fig. 4-2, Geometry of axisymmetrio body. {From Huang et al, 1976).

UD, 1 8182
E b
L / D
7 6727
M b
L / D
1 4836
A b
0 646

0 416

C 0 862
p
2
TTD2/4L 0 006521

1TDg/4S 0 02540
V2/3/ g 0 123
L/D b " 10 9745
2
S(m ) 2 408

L(m) 3 066

Table 4-1. Particulars of axisymmetrio body (From Huang et al, 1976).

123
 r/r m a x • EXPERIMENTS HUANG (1976)

APPROXIMATE VELOCITY
120 - PROFILE

i
1.16 -

1.12 -

1 08 -

1.04 -

1.00 -

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

U / U 0

Fig. 4-3. D i s c r e t i z a t i o n of boundary layer velocity profile at the

p a r a l l e l middle body.

C / L
^ = a - bcos ( ~* 7r) (4-1)

f o r 0.864811=x/L=0.977137 w i t h a=0.025886, b=0.0196736, c=0.977137 and

d=0.112326. The p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e a f t e r b o d y and t h e h u l l model taken from

Huang e t a l (1976), a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 4-1 and shown i n F i g . 4-2.

A r a t h e r c o a r s e g r i d has been a p p l i e d i n t h e f i n a l calculations using

10 a x i a l s t a t i o n s u n e q u a l l y spaced and 10 r a d i a l stations. The f i r s t axial

station was l o c a t e d , at the p a r a l l e l m i d d l e body at x/L=0.802 and t h e l a s t

axial station at x/L=1.10. The a x i a l s t a t i o n s on the s t e r n were s e l e c t e d a t

l o c a t i o n s coincident with p i v o t a l p o i n t s on the body. The r a d i a l stepsize

which was c o n s t a n t on each s t a t i o n , was adapted t o the body's geometry by an

e q u a l p a r t i t i o n o f t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e p i v o t a l p o i n t on t h e body and

the outer computational boundary.

Fig. 4-3 shows the a x i a l velocity p r o f i l e inside t h e boundary layer

measured by Huang e t a l (1976), a t a Reynolds number based on t h e body length

124
o f Re=5.9xl0 , and the d i s c r e t i z a t i o n into 5 vortex sheets applied at the

first axial station, x/L=0.802. I t can be seen t h a t the present discretiza-

tion assumed a v e l o c i t y at the edge of the w a l l l a y e r e q u a l t o 0.667 the velo-

city at the edge of the boundary l a y e r . We note t h a t the velocity at the

edge of the boundary l a y e r at the first a x i a l s t a t i o n , h a s been t a k e n as

reference velocity. In the present case,the p o t e n t i a l flow c a l c u l a t i o n re-

vealed that i t s difference w i t h the free stream i s l e s s t h a n 2 per cent.

As r e p o r t e d by Huang et al (1976) , at the Reynolds number

Re=5.9xl0^ s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r r e d on the afterbody at about x/L=0.92 f o l l o w e d

by reattachment at about x/L=0.98.

The computed p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the a f t e r b o d y i s compared with

the potential flow s o l u t i o n and the measured v a l u e s on F i g . 4-4. I t i s seen

that the present c a l c u l a t i o n agrees r a t h e r w e l l w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t s up to

the s e p a r a t i o n r e g i o n . A l s o i t c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r s from the potential flow

calculation.

C
P • EXPERIMENT HUANG ET AL (1976)

POTENTIAL FLOW

0 6
" PRESENT INVISCID METHOD

REATTACHMENT (HUANG ET AL 1976)

-0.6
080 082 084 0.86 088 0,90 092 0.94 0.96 098 »00 X / L

Fig. 4-4. Pressure distribution on the afterbody. Re=5.9xl0 .

125
 Fig. 4-5. Axial velocity profiles on the afterbody. Re=5.9xl0 .

The axial velocity profiles a r e shown i n F i g . 4-5. Up t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n

r e g i o n t h e agreement w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l profiles i s good except near t h e

w a l l , where, as e x p e c t e d , t h e calculated velocity profile " f a i l s " t o go t o

z e r o . F o r t h e two s t a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s e p a r a t i o n r e g i o n t h e agreement i s

poor a l s o i n t h e o u t e r p a r t o f t h e boundary l a y e r . In t h e l a s t station,

downstream o f s e p a r a t i o n , t h e shape o f t h e measured v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e on t h e

o u t e r p a r t o f t h e boundary l a y e r i s w e l l d e s c r i b e d .

4.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN A DUCTED PROPELLER AND THE STERN

F o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e flow f i e l d i n the s t e r n region i n the

presence of a ducted propeller, t h e d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e flow introduced

by the p r o p e l l e r and duct need t o be c o n s i d e r e d . As i n t h e p r e v i o u s Chapter,

the duct i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h

determined from t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n on t h e s u r f a c e and t h e p r o p e l l e r i s

126
r e p r e s e n t e d by an a c t u a t o r d i s k w i t h v a r i a b l e r a d i a l l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n , which
i n the present application, i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be known.

The i t e r a t i v e scheme,employed i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e s t e r n flow

without p r o p u l s o r i n s e c t i o n 4 - 3 , i s m o d i f i e d t o account f o r the i n t e r a c t i o n

with p r o p e l l e r and d u c t , a s f o l l o w s :

- The duct i s t r e a t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a f t e r b o d y when s a t i s f y i n g t h e boun-

dary c o n d i t i o n s on both s u r f a c e s .

- The v o r t e x s h e e t s shed by t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k i n t h e s l i p s t r e a m are

t r e a t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e v o r t e x s h e e t s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e boundary l a y e r

and wake, but t h e i r s t r e n g t h i s determined from t h e i n v i s c i d vorticity

t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n f o r axisymmetric flow with swirl.

To s t a r t the i t e r a t i o n , t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e duct and a f t e r b o d y v o r t e x sheets

i s computed i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p r o p e l l e r d i s t u r b a n c e flow,as g i v e n by t h e

linearized a c t u a t o r d i s k model o f Chapter 3.

A h y p o t h e t i c a l ducted propeller configuration i s considered behind

the a f t e r b o d y o f s e c t i o n 4-2. The p r o p e l l e r is l o c a t e d a t x/L=0.98 and a
diameter o f 54 p e r cent o f t h e maximum diameter of the afterbody is assumed.

DUCT B C/D=0.35, d = 20°

MODIFIED NACA 6 4 1 7

1.0

0.5

0 -1.0 -2.0 x/R

-0.04 -0.74

Fig. 4-6. Afterbody with ducts A and B.

127
 Fig.4-7. Computed pressure distributions on the afterbody.

In order to i n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t o f duct a n g l e o f a t t a c k two d i f f e r e n t

d u c t s have been c o n s i d e r e d : d u c t A w i t h a p r o f i l e o f t h e type NACA 6417 w i t h
a modified t r a i l i n g edge and s e t at an a n g l e o f a t t a c k o f 15 degrees with

r e s p e c t t o t h e a x i s ; duct B w i t h an i d e n t i c a l p r o f i l e but at an a n g l e o f

a t t a c k o f 20 degrees. Both d u c t s have a l e n g t h - d i a m e t e r r a t i o o f 0.35 and

are p l a c e d ahead o f t h e p r o p e l l e r p l a n e w i t h an a x i a l c l e a r a n c e o f x/R=0.04.

The two c o n f i g u r a t i o n s b e h i n d t h e a f t e r b o d y a r e shown i n F i g . 4-6.

The same boundary l a y e r p r o f i l e a t t h e upstream c o m p u t a t i o n a l boundary

g
and c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e l e n g t h Reynolds number Re=9.5xl0 has been assumed

throughout the c a l c u l a t i o n s . A t y p i c a l p a r a b o l i c c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n at

the p r o p e l l e r d i s k has been used and 5 v o r t e x s h e e t s were taken t o r e p r e -

sent t h e p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m .

128
 Cp

-6.0

-5.0 -

-4.0 -

1.0 -

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 x / C

Fig.4-8. Computed pressure distributions on duot A.

The results f o r t h e computed p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on t h e a f t e r b o d y

w i t h duct w i t h o u t p r o p e l l e r and w i t h the d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r at two d i f f e r e n t
propeller l o a d i n g s a r e shown i n F i g . 4-7 f o r b o t h c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . The
propeller loading coefficients C T g and advance r a t i o s J g a r e based on
the ship speed which i s approximated by t h e v e l o c i t y at t h e edge o f t h e
boundary l a y e r at the f i r s t a x i a l s t a t i o n on the p a r a l l e l m i d d l e body. The
correspondent pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s on duct A and B a r e shown i n F i g s . 4-8
and 4-9, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s a l o n g the a f t e r b o d y down
to the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e f o r the two c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g s . 4-10
and 4-11. F o r the sake o f comparison t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e
stern alone, a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e F i g u r e s .

129
 Fig. 4.9. Computed pressure distributions on duct B.

4.4. DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

Upon i n s p e c t i o n o f the r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , some

c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the performance o f the two c o n f i g u r a t i o n s can already

be drawn:

- Both d u c t s , when p l a c e d b e h i n d the a f t e r b o d y w i t h o u t p r o p e l l e r , have a

decelerating effect on the flow on the a f t e r b o d y . T h i s d e c e l e r a t i n g e f f e c t

is l a r g e r f o r the duct B which has a h i g h e r angle o f a t t a c k than f o r the

duct A. As a consequence, the p r e s s u r e on the a f t e r b o d y i s i n c r e a s e d i n

comparison w i t h the case o f the h u l l alone. T h i s would l e a d to a decrease

of the p r e s s u r e r e s i s t a n c e component on the h u l l . On the o t h e r hand, a

pressure drag f o r c e a c t i n g on the duct results from the i n t e r f e r e n c e

between the duct and the afterbody. I t must be borne i n mind

that the dynamics of the w a l l l a y e r on the a f t e r b o d y . w h i c h i s dominated

130
131
. 4-11. Axial velocity p r o f i l e s on the afterbody with duct B.

132
 by the e f f e c t s o f v i s c o s i t y and determinant f o r the o c c u r r e n c e o f separa-

t i o n , has been l e f t aside. Also, viscous e f f e c t s on the duct boundary layer

are n e g l e c t e d . A c c o r d i n g l y , the c o n c l u s i o n r e a c h e d above r e g a r d i n g the

p r e s s u r e on the a f t e r b o d y c o u l d be d i f f e r e n t i f a c l e a r e f f e c t o f the duct

on s e p a r a t i o n at the s t e r n i s implied.

Examination o f the inviscid p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the d u c t s A and B

without p r o p e l l e r r e v e a l s the p o s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e o f f l o w s e p a r a t i o n at

the p r e s s u r e minima on the o u t e r s i d e o f the d u c t s .

- With i n c r e a s i n g p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g a t C-r =0.95 and 2.50,both d u c t s deliver

s
a thrust f o r c e . Duct A i s c o n s i d e r a b l y more l o a d e d t h a n duct B and at

&J =2.50 i s o p e r a t i n g near

S i t s optimum. Duct B appears t o have an exces-

sively l a r g e angle of a t t a c k i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r range o f l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

- At increasing propeller l o a d i n g , t h e p r e s s u r e on the a f t e r b o d y decreases

considerably,but the r e l a t i v e trends of the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r the

two ducted p r o p e l l e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s remain the same: the p r e s s u r e de-

crease i s larger f o r the c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h d u c t A than f o r the c o n f i g u r a -

t i o n w i t h duct B. A tendency f o r the a t t e n u a t i o n o f the d i f f e r e n c e , a t the

h i g h e s t p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g , c a n be d i s c e r n e d .

From the p r e v i o u s r e s u l t s the c o n v e n t i o n a l parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the

i n t e r a c t i o n between the d u c t e d propeller and the h u l l i . e . the thrust deduc-

tion, wake f r a c t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r distributions and the t h r u s t ratio

parameter can be estimated.

For bodies f i t t e d w i t h ducted propellers there are, i n p r i n c i p l e , two

different methods o f a n a l y z i n g the p r o p u l s i o n f a c t o r s thus, of

d e f i n i n g the t h r u s t deduction and the wake f r a c t i o n : the duct can be

c o n s i d e r e d as a p a r t o f the h u l l o r as a p a r t o f the p r o p u l s o r . Both methods

will be considered.

- The thrust deduction.

S i n c e the f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on the body and the d u c t are n e g l e c t e d ,

we restrict our d i s c u s s i o n t o the p r e s s u r e component o f the t h r u s t deduc-

tion. Huang e t a l ( 1 9 7 6 ) , found t h a t the f r i c t i o n a l p a r t o f the

thrust d e d u c t i o n amounts t o l e s s than 5% o f the p r e s s u r e component f o r

the p a r t i c u l a r a x i s y m m e t r i c bodies considered.

133
 I f the duct i s c o n s i d e r e d as p a r t o f the h u l l , the t h r u s t deduction

f r a c t i o n i s d e f i n e d as

p hd (4-2)

where T i s the p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t , R, , i s r e s i s t a n c e o f body p l u s duct,

p hd
Huang e t a l (1976), o b t a i n e d r a t h e r good r e s u l t s f o r the t h r u s t deduction
on the axisymmetric b o d i e s w i t h a c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o p e l l e r by integrating
the p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e on the a f t e r b o d y f o r the two cases with and
without p r o p e l l e r . U s i n g the same p r o c e d u r e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e T -R, . can be
p hd
e s t i m a t e d as follows:

r max
2TT ƒ Ap, r d r - T ^ + D ^ , (4-3)
p hd 0
r
l d dh'

where T i s the duct thrust i n the p r e s e n c e o f the p r o p e l l e r , D i s the

d dh
d r a g on the duct i n the p r e s e n c e o f the h u l l and i n the absence o f the

propeller, and Ap^ the d i f f e r e n c e o f pressure on the a f t e r b o d y between the

c a s e s of h u l l w i t h duct and h u l l w i t h d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r . Introducing non-

d i m e n s i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , w e have

c -c
T _ 2
W R ) 2
> * / R
d dh (4-4)
AC . r / r .d(r/r )• s

P C
p^ max max
l T 0

where

(4-5)
2 2
kpV TTR
s

(4-6)
"T 2 2
dS JjpVgTTR

dh
(4-7)
2
dh ïjpVgTrR

134
 AC = C -C (4-8)
p p p
l hull+duct hull+ducted prop.

and C i s t h e p r e s s u r e coefficient.
P

I f t h e duct i s c o n s i d e r e d as a p a r t o f t h e p r o p u l s o r , t h e t h r u s t deduc-

tion fraction i s d e f i n e d as

T +T,-R,
= p d h
1 J )
Po T +T, '
^2 p d

where R i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e h u l l a l o n e . The d i f f e r e n c e T +T ,-R, can be

h p d h
e s t i m a t e d as
r
max
T +T,-R, = 2TT ƒ A p„rdr, (4-10)
p d h F
2 Q

where Ap^ i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e a f t e r b o d y

of t h e h u l l alone and t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e a f t e r b o d y w i t h d u c t e d pro-

peller. In terms o f d i m e n s i o n l e s s q u a n t i t i e s , w e o b t a i n f o r t h e t h r u s t deduc-

tion ratio

2(r /R) 2 r
max / R

t = - — 5 ^ ƒ AC ( r / r )d(r/r ) (4-11)
p 2 T c
+C T Q P2 m a x m a x

s ds

The e f f e c t i v e wake

I f the duct i s c o n s i d e r e d as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l , the e f f e c t i v e velocity

distribution i s d e f i n e d as

u (r) = u ( r ) - u n (r) (4-12)

u r
where Q ( ) and " ^ ( r ) a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e t o t a l and p r o p e l l e r induced

velocities at the p r o p e l l e r plane.

I f t h e duct i s regarded as a p a r t o f t h e p r o p u l s o r , t h e e f f e c t i v e velo-

city i s d e f i n e d as

u g (r) = u ( r ) - u Q p (r)-u d (r) (4-13)

135
 whereu ( r ) i s t h e v e l o c i t y i n d u c e d by t h e duct a t t h e p r o p e l l e r plane,
d

The e f f e c t i v e wake i s e v a l u a t e d by i n t e g r a t i n g over the p r o p e l l e r disk

1
2
w = 1- - u (r)rdr
ƒ (4-14)
e , 2 e
h h
where r. i s t h e n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l hub radius,
h

By c o n s i d e r i n g t h e v o r t e x systems r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e h u l l , i t s boundary

layer and wake, the duct and t h e p r o p e l l e r , the correspondent induced velo-

cities at the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e can be e v a l u a t e d and t h e e f f e c t i v e wake d i s -

1 DUCT PART O F THE HULL

2 DUCT PART O F THE PROPULSOR

EFFECTIVE WAKE _ _
-J =0.66.
s C T s =0.95 1*.,= 0 . 2 0 . W . = 0 2 2
2

J =0.50.
s C T , =2.50. W „ = - 0 . 0 4 . W„ =0.17
2

NOMINAL WAKE _

Fig. 4-12. Nominal and effective wake distributions. Configuration

with duct A.

136
 Fig. 4-15. Nominal and effective wake distributions. Configuration
with duct B.

t r i b u t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d . F o r t h e two c o n f i g u r a t i o n s w i t h duct A and B a t

the d i f f e r e n t p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s , t h e y a r e shown i n F i g s . 4-12 and 4-13. In

the f i g u r e s t h e nominal wake d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e h u l l w i t h and w i t h o u t

duct and t h e duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s a r e i n c l u d e d as w e l l .

It can be seen t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e wake d i s t r i b u t i o n s when t h e duct i s

regarded as a p a r t o f t h e p r o p u l s o r have t h e same type o f b e h a v i o u r as t h e

e f f e c t i v e wake d i s t r i b u t i o n s found i n s i m i l a r s t u d i e s f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l screws

(Huang e t a l , 1980, Dyne, 1981), w i t h i t s g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e in relation

to t h e nominal d i s t r i b u t i o n near t h e hub. The e f f e c t i v e wake d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,

when t h e duct i s c o n s i d e r e d as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l , are c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e -

137
rent, as e x p e c t e d , because o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s . The

g r e a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e e f f e c t i v e wake d e f i n i t i o n (4-12) w i t h t h e p r o p e l -

ler l o a d i n g i n comparison with the d e f i n i t i o n (4-13) i s remarkable.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e t h r u s t d e d u c t i o n computations from e q u a t i o n s (4-4)

and (4-11), t h e wake f r a c t i o n s from e q u a t i o n s (4-12, (4-13), (4-14) and

the t h r u s t r a t i o parameter a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 4-2.

I t can be seen t h a t , when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e duct as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l ,

the h u l l e f f i c i e n c y appears t o be r a t h e r i n s e n s i t i v e to v a r i a t i o n s of pro-

peller and duct l o a d i n g . Y e t , t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n t t h r u s t d e d u c t i o n and e f f e c -

t i v e wake f r a c t i o n s a r e s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by t h e v a r i a t i o n o f p r o p e l l e r

l o a d i n g . When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e duct as a p a r t o f t h e p r o p u l s o r , t h e h u l l

e f f i c i e n c y d e c r e a s e s w i t h p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g which i s p r i m a r i l y associated

w i t h t h e d e c r e a s e o f wake f r a c t i o n .

1 DUCT AS A PART 2 DUCT AS A PART

OF THE HULL OF THE PROPULSOR

1-t 1-t T
CASE t w n = E t n P T- P
P e P e W
h 1-w T +T ,
e P d
J =0.66
s
C =0.95 0.22 0.20 0.98 0.15 0.22 1.09 0.86
T
DUCT A s
J =0.50
s
C =2.50 0.00 -0.04 0.96 0.15 0.17 1.02 0.79
T
s
J =0.66
s
C =0.95 0.25 0.23 0.98 0.09 0.25 1.22 1.00
T
DUCT B s
J =0.50
s
C =2.50 0.02 0.01 0.98 0.13 0.17 1.04 0.83
T
s

Table 4-2. Computed thrust deduction, wake fraction and thrust

ratio for the two afterbody-ducted propeller configurations.

138
5. Ducted propeller design

5.1. INTRODUCTION

In t h e p r e v i o u s C h a p t e r s v a r i o u s f l o w models f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f

d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r performance b o t h i n uniform f l o w and r a d i a l l y variable

i n f l o w have been i n v e s t i g a t e d . E f f e c t s o f v i s c o s i t y on t h e duct flow and

e f f e c t s o f heavy l o a d i n g on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and duct have

been c o n s i d e r e d . Most o f t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l procedures developed t o account

f o r such e f f e c t s a r e i t e r a t i v e and r a t h e r time consuming.

In many c a s e s , f o r d u c t s w i t h a d i f f u s e r downstream o f t h e p r o p e l l e r ,

e f f e c t s o f s l i p s t r e a m c o n t r a c t i o n can be s m a l l even at heavy l o a d i n g s .

In t h e axisymmetric model f o r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and

d u c t , o t h e r n o n - l i n e a r e f f e c t s such as t h e a x i a l v a r i a t i o n o f v o r t e x p i t c h i n

the p r o p e l l e r s l i p s t r e a m can be accounted f o r , i n an approximate manner, by

a s u i t a b l e choice of the vortex p i t c h (assumed c o n s t a n t i n the a x i a l direc-

t i o n a t each r a d i u s ) . The simple l i n e a r i z e d a c t u a t o r d i s k model c o n s i d e r e d

i n Chapter 2 i n c o r p o r a t e s these f e a t u r e s and i s w e l l s u i t e d f o r design

purposes .

Although t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and duct can be t r e a t e d a s s u -

ming axisymmetric f l o w , when d e s i g n i n g t h e p r o p e l l e r finite b l a d e number

e f f e c t s need t o be c o n s i d e r e d .

In t h i s C h a p t e r , L e r b s ' ( 1 9 5 2 ) i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r method f o r wake adapted

c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o p e l l e r s i s used t o d e s i g n t h e p r o p e l l e r i n s i d e a g i v e n duct

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s i m p l e axisymmetric p r o p e l l e r - d u c t i n t e r a c t i o n model men-

t i o n e d above. The e f f e c t s on t h e d e s i g n o f v a r i o u s assumptions r e g a r d i n g

the c h o i c e o f t h e v o r t e x p i t c h i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and

duct are i n v e s t i g a t e d .

139
5.2. DESIGN PROCEDURE

In the d e s i g n method the f o l l o w i n g assumptions have been made:

- An axisymmetric duct and hub c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a surface

v o r t i c i t y method on the assumption of i n v i s c i d and incompressible irrota-

tional flow (see C h a p t e r 2).

- When a c c o u n t i n g f o r the i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and duct the p r o p e l -

ler i s r e p r e s e n t e d by an a c t u a t o r d i s k w i t h a r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f circu

l a t i o n i d e n t i c a l t o the f i n i t e b l a d e d propeller.

- The duct inviscid t h r u s t i s c a l c u l a t e d by i n t e g r a t i o n o f the p r e s s u r e dis-

t r i b u t i o n and the d i s k i n v i s c i d thrust from Kutta-Joukowsky law.

- The p r o p e l l e r i s d e s i g n e d by Lerbs' i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r method,(1952). In the

propeller lifting line calculations the p i t c h o f the v o r t e x l i n e s i s d e t e r

mined at the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e under the i n f l u e n c e o f the average duct

induced v e l o c i t i e s . A t i p c l e a r a n c e i s assumed and the p r o p e l l e r blade

circulation i s c o n s i d e r e d t o v a n i s h at the hub and the t i p .

- F i n i t e blade p r o p e l l e r - d u c t i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s are n e g l e c t e d . The

i n f l u e n c e o f the f i n i t e b l a d e number i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s on the hydro-

dynamic p i t c h has been accounted f o r , i n an approximate way, by Minsaas

(1978),by m i r r o r i n g the p r o p e l l e r h e l i c a l v o r t e x s h e e t s on the cylinder

p r o l o n g i n g the i n n e r s u r f a c e o f t h e d u c t . He concludes that t h i s e f f e c t i s

local and tends t o reduce the p i t c h towards the t i p .

- Viscous e f f e c t s are accounted f o r by c a l c u l a t i n g the v i s c o u s d r a g on the

duct and s p e c i f y i n g the b l a d e s e c t i o n drag coefficient.

- C o r r e c t i o n s t o camber from lifting s u r f a c e t h e o r y as deduced by Morgan e t

al ( 1 9 6 8 ) , f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o p e l l e r s may be a p p l i e d .

G i v e n the t o t a l t h r u s t , p r o p e l l e r r e v o l u t i o n r a t e , p r o p e l l e r diameter and

mean speed o f advance, wake d i s t r i b u t i o n , duct and hub shapes, number o f

blades, blade c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n and cavitation s a f e t y margins, the

method determines the t h r u s t on p r o p e l l e r and d u c t , the duct and hub pres-

sure d i s t r i b u t i o n s , the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e a r e a and the camber, t h i c k n e s s and

p i t c h o f the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s e c t i o n s .

The design procedure can be c o n s i d e r e d t o be performed i n three steps:

1. From an i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e o f the t h r u s t r a t i o between p r o p e l l e r and

140
 duct and an a l l o w a n c e f o r viscous e f f e c t s on the p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t , an i t e r a -

t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and duct i s performed u s i n g the a c t u a t o r d i s k model

t o determine the time-mean p r o p e l l e r induction on the d u c t . Each itera-

t i o n s t e p d e p a r t s from t h e p r o p e l l e r inviscid thrust, calculates the

p r o p e l l e r r i n g v o r t e x system, the p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s on duct

and hub, duct and hub p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , duct i n v i s c i d thrust and

duct v i s c o u s d r a g . The i t e r a t i o n s are c o n t i n u e d u n t i l convergence on the

thrust r a t i o i s a c h i e v e d . From the s t r e n g t h o f the duct-hub v o r t e x distri-

bution the a x i a l v e l o c i t i e s a t the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e can be calculated.

2. With the a x i a l v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by the duct and hub incorporated i n the

i n f l o w v e l o c i t i e s t o the p r o p e l l e r , the p r o p e l l e r i n v i s c i d thrust and

c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n , the l i f t i n g l i n e c a l c u l a t i o n s are performed

g i v i n g the p r o p e l l e r s e l f - i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s and the hydrodynamic p i t c h .

3. The d i s t r i b u t i o n s of chord length, camber and thickness o f the propeller

blade sections are c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f c a v i t a t i o n and strength

requirements and correction factors from lifting surface theory.

The propeller thrust, t o r q u e and e f f i c i e n c y are f i n a l l y calculated taking

i n t o account the v i s c o u s d r a g o f the b l a d e sections.

A final check on the assumed i n v i s c i d thrust f o r the propeller-duct

i n t e r a c t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s i s performed and, i f n e c e s s a r y , the whole d e s i g n

computation i s repeated.

Modifications of t h i s basic design procedure are r e q u i r e d i f the

d e s i g n i s t o be based on g i v e n hydrodynamic p i t c h o r g i v e n power. In such

case, the s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s an e s t i m a t e o f the duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s a t the

p r o p e l l e r p l a n e which are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the t h r u s t r a t i o . Next, the

p r o p e l l e r i s d e s i g n e d t o match the t h r u s t or torque requirements and the

c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n on the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s i s determined as a r e s u l t .

The propeller i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s on the duct are computed from the

actuator disk approximation and the duct t h r u s t and the duct i n d u c e d velo-

c i t i e s on the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e a r e determined. The i t e r a t i o n between propel-

ler and duct proceeds until convergence on the duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s i s

obtained.

Both d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s are summarized i n the flow c h a r t s of Figs. 5-1

and 5-2.

141
 INPUT DESIGN DATA DESIGN INPUT DATA :
SM IP SPEED. PROPELLER REVOLUTIONS, SHIP S P E E D I P R O P E L L E R REVOLUTIONS
PROPELLER DIAMETER . WAKE DISTRIBUTION. P R O P E L L E R D I A M E T E R , WAKE DISTRIBUTION
TOTAL THRUST, CIRCULATION DISTRIBUTION, TOTAL THRUST ( P O W E R ) ,HYDROOYNAMIC PITCH
NUMBER OF BLADES DUCT AND HUB DISTRIBUTION N U M E R O F B L A D E S .
GEOMETRY
DUCT A N D HUB G E O M E T R Y .

FIRST ESTIMATE PROPELLER

ESTIMATE OF DUCT INDUCED
IDEAL THRUST
VELOCITIES AT T H E PROPELLER
PLANE

ACTUATOR DISK MODEL

PROPELLER STEADY INDUCED VELOCITIES
ON THE DUCT P R O P E L L E R LIFTING LINE MODEL
OESIGN FOR A S S U M E D P R O P E L L E R THRUST
(OR GIVEN T O R Q U E i
CALCULATION O F CIRCULATION DISTRIBUTION
AND P R O P E L L E R IDEAL THRUST

ACTUATOR DISK M O D E L
P R O P E L L E R STEADY INDUCED VELOCITIES
ON T H E DUCT

DUCT S U R F A C E VORTICITY M O D E L
DUCT INDUCED VELOCITIES ON THE PROPELLER
DUCT THRUST AND DUCT DRAG

B L A D E SECTION DESIGN
CAVITATION AND STRENGTH C A L C U L A T I O N
CALCULATION OF DESIGN PREDICTIONS
BLADE SECTION DRAG.
FINAL CHECK ON PROPELLER THRUST.

C A L C U L A T I O N OF DESIGN PREDICTIONS

Fig. 5-1. Flow chart of design for Fig. 5-2. Flow chart of design for

given thrust and circula- given thrust (or power) and

Hon distribution. hydrodynamic pitch distribu-

tion.

5.3. PROPELLER INDUCED VELOCITIES

In Lerbs* i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r method the propeller i s represented by

lifting l i n e t h e o r y , under the assumption t h a t the p r o p e l l e r i s mode-
rately loaded.

A c c o r d i n g l y , the trailing v o r t i c e s of h e l i c a l shape, shed from the

lifting l i n e s , are considered to l i e on c y l i n d e r s of constant radius and

have a c o n s t a n t p i t c h i n the axial direction. I f G(r)=r(r)/7TDV A denotes the

142
non-dimensional c i r c u l a t i o n distribution of the lifting lines, with

d e n o t i n g the mean advance v e l o c i t y and D the propeller d i a m e t e r , the axial

and tangential propeller induced v e l o c i t i e s at the lifting lines are given

by

U
p ( r )
1 \ . dG dr'

r
h

and

!P U )
1 \ • ^ dr'

r
h

where r i s the n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l r a d i u s c o o r d i n a t e , r, i s the hub radius and

h
i and i ^ are, respectively, the axial and tangential induction factors.

The induction factors are dependent on the r a t i o r / r ' , the number of

b l a d e s and the hydrodynamic p i t c h angle $ . Expressions for i t s evaluation

have been r e f i n e d by Wrench (1957), and are g i v e n by Van Oossanen (1973).

The hydrodynamic p i t c h is
P.
~ = Tfr tanB ± (5-3)

EL i s g i v e n by (Fig. 5-3),

u r
V (r)
g d ( ) u (r)
p

+ +
v7~ ~\T v
t a n
e ± = —±- ^ (5-4)
IT

at the lifting lines.

The hydrodynamic p i t c h f a r downstream i s

V e (r) u (r)
+ 2-2- V
V A
t a n g ( 5 5 )
i • w~TrT '
°° 77 -i P
J V
A

The axial wake v e l o c i t y V (r) is

e

143
 Fig. 5-3. Definition of hydrodynamie pitch angles and velocities at a
propeller blade section.

V (r) = (1-w (r))V (5-6)

e e s

where V i s t h e s h i p speed and w ( r ) t h e e f f e c t i v e wake f r a c t i o n a t r a d i u s r .

s e
V = 1 - W V w n e
The mean wake v e l o c i t y i s ^ ( ) r e w i s t h e T a y l o r wake f r a c t i o n ,
T S T

u.(r) i s the duct i n d u c e d a x i a l v e l o c i t y and J=V./nD i s t h e advance r a t i o ,

d A

The velocities induced by t h e p r o p e l l e r on t h e duct and hub a r e o b t a i n e d

from t h e v e l o c i t y field i n d u c e d by an a c t u a t o r d i s k w i t h t h e same l o a d dis-

tribution as t h e f i n i t e bladed p r o p e l l e r . They a r e g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 2 (eq.

2-54 and 2-55) and r e c a l l e d here f o r t h e sake o f completeness

1 d G
u 1
= 1 V ( x r r ) d r 5 7
- r'tang. dT^ A ' ' ' ' ' <">
h

1 d G
1 co
= 1 x r r ) d r
k - r'tang. d r ^V ' ' ' ' , (5-8)
A r h

144
where G ( r ) i s t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s c i r c u l a t i o n on t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k . F o r t h e
oo x
'
meaning o f t h e f u n c t i o n V and V we r e f e r t o C h a p t e r 2.
A R

When a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and duct t h e

propeller ideal thrust i s determined from K u t t a Joukowsky law:

TT T* CO

C
T = 4
1
" I - ) G
o o d r
f ( 5
" 9 )

r
Pi h
1 2 2
where C T =T /(TTPV.TIR ) .
Pi Pi 2 A
If the c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e f i n i t e b l a d e d p r o p e l l e r and

the p r o p e l l e r i d e a l t h r u s t a r e known e i t h e r from t h e d e s i g n i n p u t d a t a o r

from the l i f t i n g line calculations, eq. (5-9) g i v e s t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e

c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k .

To complete t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s on t h e d u c t ,

the p i t c h a n g l e i n eq.(5-7) and (5-8) s t i l l has t o be known. A s i m p l e

assumption which seems t o work r a t h e r w e l l , i s t o c o n s i d e r that the p i t c h i s

determined i n t h e u l t i m a t e wake ( s e e Chapter 2, eq. 2-65):

oo

t a n 6, = ~- (5-10)
CO Tf JJ" oo

Other p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r b a s i n g t h e p i t c h and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e

d e s i g n r e s u l t s w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d l a t e r i n t h i s Chapter.

5.4. DUCT THRUST AND DUCT INDUCED VELOCITIES

With t h e knowledge o f t h e v e l o c i t i e s i n d u c e d by t h e p r o p e l l e r on t h e

duct and hub, t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n e x p r e s s i n g t h e boundary

c o n d i t i o n on t h e s u r f a c e y i e l d s t h e duct and hub s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y distribu-

t i o n Y(s) •

The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e duct i s

V
2 2
C (s) = (^d) -(ïl^) (5-11)
p
d A A

where V i s the v e l o c i t y at i n f i n i t y upstream on t h e same stream-surface.

e
d

145
The duct inviscid thrust i s

d. A
l
If f l o w s e p a r a t i o n does not o c c u r on the d u c t , the duct v i s c o u s d r a g i s

r a t h e r s m a l l compared w i t h the t h r u s t . As f o r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l a i r f o i l s the

duct's v i s c o u s drag c o e f f i c i e n t can be e s t i m a t e d as

2 4
C D = [l+ 2 ( ^ ) c + 6 0 ( - ^ ) ] (2C ) (5-13)
d

where

d p V 2 ï ï R C
2 - m- d
and D, i s the duct v i s c o u s d r a g , t , i s t h e maximum t h i c k n e s s o f the d u c t , c
d d
i s the duct l e n g t h , R. i s the duct r a d i u s , V i s a mean v e l o c i t y between
d m
the o u t s i d e and i n s i d e o f t h e duct and i s the f l a t plate skin-friction

c o e f f i c i e n t . The skin-friction coefficient i s a f u n c t i o n o f a duct Reynolds

number d e f i n e d as

cV
Re c = (5-15)

where V i s the k i n e m a t i c viscosity.

The total thrust i s

c ) 2 ( (
V = c
t„ " d„<vf - !r>- 2R> ( 5
" 1 6 )

d d. d A
l
The velocities induced at the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e by the duct and hub c o n f i g u r a -

t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d from the s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y distribution. Only the

axial velocity i s of i n t e r e s t f o r the d e s i g n o f the p r o p e l l e r w i t h the

induction f a c t o r method

u ,
= ƒ u (-x';r,r')I(s')ds' (5-17)
A S,+S, ' A
d h

146
5.5. THE DESIGN WITH THE INDUCTION FACTOR METHOD

When the duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s at the propeller p l a n e become known,

the propeller can be d e s i g n e d i n a s i m i l a r way as f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l wake-
adapted p r o p e l l e r s t o match the required thrust or power.

From Kutta-Joukowsky law, the propeller ideal thrust coefficient for a

f i n i t e bladed p r o p e l l e r is

1 w
C T = 4Z ƒ G(r) (J£ - =E)dr (5-18)
p.
r
r, A
i h
and the propeller i d e a l power c o e f f i c i e n t is

A r, 1 1-w (r) u u,
C = i^Z ƒ G(r) ( § + =E + ^ ) r d r (5-19)
p
i l-w T A A

with

2
C p = P /(^pV^rrR ) .
i

In the design with given c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n G(r)=kF(r), eq.(5-18)

or eq. (5-19) are used t o determine the c i r c u l a t i o n s t r e n g t h k i n the way

indicated by Lerbs (1952). With the propeller self-induced velocities given

by eq. (5-1) and (5-2) and substituted in (5-18) or (5-19), the circulation

distribution and the induction factors are expanded i n a F o u r i e r s e r i e s and

a quadratic equation for k r e s u l t s . S i n c e , at the o u t s e t , the induction

factors are not known, f o r the hydrodynamic p i t c h has not yet been d e t e r -

mined, a method o f successive approximation i s u s e d , s t a r t i n g , as a first

a p p r o x i m a t i o n , w i t h tanB =tan|3.

For the d e s i g n w i t h g i v e n hydrodynamic p i t c h , from the velocity diagram

at a propeller blade section ( F i g . 5-1), the following relation i s derived

147
 u u, w tanB. V
+ +
vf v f tanB.(^) = (5-20)
A A A A

With 3 specified i n advance, when s u b s t i t u t i n g (5-1) and (5-2) i n (5-20),

the following integral equation f o r the c i r c u l a t i o n distribution i s obtained

1 , , , tang. V u,
ƒ ^ ( i +tan@.i _)^- =2(- -ji - 1 ) ^- 2.-y3. (5-21)
I t r - r
J r1
dr' a tang V, V,
r, A A
h

A l s o , the s o l u t i o n of this e q u a t i o n i s performed i n t h e way suggested

by Lerbs. After expansion i n F o u r i e r s e r i e s o f the i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r s and t h e

circulation distribution, a set of linear equations i n the F o u r i e r coeffi-

cients of the c i r c u l a t i o n distribution i s obtained and t h e c i r c u l a t i o n

values are e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d a t the v a r i o u s p r o p e l l e r radii. In o r d e r t o

o b t a i n agreement on t h e r e q u i r e d ideal thrust o r power g i v e n by (5-18) and

(5-19) w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d circulation distribution, the previous computa-

t i o n has t o be performed a t d i f f e r e n t values of the constant factor k

P
d e f i n e d by

tang.
k f ( r ) = -—=ji (5-22)
p p tang

where f ( r ) i s t h e assumed d i s t r i b u t i o n o f hydrodynamic p i t c h .

P
The f i n a l v a l u e o f k c a n be o b t a i n e d by i n t e r p o l a t i o n on t h e assumed
P
k v a l u e s . In b o t h d e s i g n c a s e s , when t h e c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n becomes
P
known, t h e l i f t forces acting on t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n s g i v e n by t h e p r o d u c t o f

the blade section lift coefficient C and t h e s e c t i o n chord c are calculated

from

C c 2TTG cosg .
— = 1 Wp (5-23)

tang V A

With t h e v a l u e s o f C^c/D, -the hydrodynamic p i t c h g and t h e a x i a l and

tangential induced v e l o c i t i e s , the determination o f the chord length, camber,

t h i c k n e s s and p i t c h o f the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s e c t i o n s c a n be p e r f o r m e d on t h e

basis of cavitation criteria and a s t r e n g t h calculation.

148
 When c a l c u l a t i n g the c a v i t a t i o n number a t the v a r i o u s p r o p e l l e r radii
one has t o c o n s i d e r the d e c r e a s e o f s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n d u c e d by t h e duct and
hub. Assuming the p r o p e l l e r t o have an i n f i n i t e number o f b l a d e s and a p p l y -
i n g B e r n o u l l i e q u a t i o n between i n f i n i t y upstream and the p r o p e l l e r plane,
we o b t a i n , neglecting the t a n g e n t i a l velocities,(Fig. 5-4):

r ) U ( r ) U ( r ) r,
P -Pl
0 r V . l ~ + d n 2 rV -,2
+ + ( 5 2 4 )
7—2- - [-yT 2 ^ T — - v — J * L - v — ] "
^pV A A A A A
Applying B e r n o u l l i e q u a t i o n between t h e p r o p e l l e r p l a n e and infinity

downstream we get

R ) U ( r ) u ( r ) V ( r ) u ( r
PQ-P 2 _ R V l » d l 2 r e « ^ l 2

:—a— l~v— +
2~v— +
— J ~ L ~ V — +
~ v — - 1 ( 5 _ 2 5 )

hpV^ A A A A A
The mean s t a t i c pressure p , at the p r o p e l l e r plane i s
me an

P -Pl
2

( 5 2 6 )
Pmean = P " 2 "

Using (5-24), (5-25) and ( 5 - 2 6 ) , the mean s t a t i c p r e s s u r e becomes

u ( r ) V ( r ) u ( r ) 5 ( r , R )
v 2 d r e 1 d 1 - n „2 l R V L 2

A A A A A

Fig. 5-4. Definition of the flow through an i n f i n i t e l y bladed ducted

propeller.

149
The last term r e p r e s e n t s the mean p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e f o r an open p r o p e l l e r .
T h e r e f o r e , the i n d u c e d p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e due to the duct i s

pV u (r) V (r) u (r) u ^ r+1

) (5_27)
Ap
d = A -V ^ + I "V ^
which c o i n c i d e s w i t h the e x p r e s s i o n g i v e n by Dyne (1967).

The c a v i t a t i o n number i s

p -e-Ap,-rRpg
o(r) = — ~ (5-28)

where p i s t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e at the c e n t r e l i n e o f the p r o p e l l e r shaft,

o
e i s the vapour p r e s s u r e at the p r e v a i l i n g temperature, p i s the water

d e n s i t y , g the g r a v i t y a c c e l e r a t i o n and V i s the r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y to the

b l a d e s e c t i o n at r a d i u s r :

w
irr p
J V
A
V = - (5-29)
A COSg.
1
I f m i s the margin a g a i n s t c a v i t a t i o n , then the minimum p r e s s u r e

coefficient C o f the b l a d e s e c t i o n s i s g i v e n by
p .
min

C = m(r)a(r) (5-30)
p
min

The r e l a t i o n between the minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r shock-free

e n t r a n c e at the b l a d e s e c t i o n and the q u a n t i t i e s C^c/t and i s dependent on

which type o f camber and t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s adopted f o r the propeller

sections. In the d e s i g n method used by Van Gent and Van Oossanen (1973), f o r
open p r o p e l l e r s , a Walchner " s e t B" t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h p a r a b o l i c

camber l i n e was a p p l i e d , from about r=0.5 t o the p r o p e l l e r t i p , w h i l e a

Gutsche type o f p r o f i l e i s adopted from r=0.5 down t o the hub. F o r the modi-
f i e d Walchner p r o f i l e the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n h o l d s at s h o c k - f r e e e n t r a n c e ;

C C C c
2 2
C = ( 0 . 6 2 2 - £ - + 2 . 7 4 ) - - [~0.2 ( - i f - ) + l . 0 4 ] (-) (5-31)
L
p . t c t - c

where t i s the maximum t h i c k n e s s o f the b l a d e s e c t i o n . Eq.(5-31) y i e l d s f o r

150
the chord c

c = t=—i {0.331C c + 1.37t+

T

2 2 2
+ /(0.311C c + 137t) +C T [0.2 ( C c ) + 1 0 4 t l }
T (5-32)
•^rtiin

A strength c a l c u l a t i o n i s required to give an a d d i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n f o r

the chord and maximum t h i c k n e s s o f the blade s e c t i o n s . In t h e p r e s e n t method
a s i m p l i f i e d strength analysis i s used and such r e l a t i o n i s g i v e n by

t 2. c = W(r) ( 5 _ 3 3 )

0.087 c o s e

where W(r) i s t h e s e c t i o n modulus o f t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n at radius r and e i s

the rake a n g l e . The s e c t i o n modulus i s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g formula

2
2 2^5 1 C c cos (B!-B)
T

p n
(r) = " ƒ (-£-)
W

!a r
D ' 2
c o s 6n
T h

c o s ^ - g ^ ) r ' (r'-r)dr' (5-34)

where a i s t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e t e n s i l e s t r e s s l e s s t h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s due

T
to c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s and 3^ i s t h e v a l u e o f 3^ a t r = r ' .

The lifting surface corrections derived from o p e n - p r o p e l l e r s e r i e s a r e

not valid f o r ducted p r o p e l l e r s due t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t s i n d u c e d by t h e

duct l o a d i n g and t h i c k n e s s . However, l a c k i n g more a p p r o p r i a t e correction
f a c t o r s , one may r e s o r t t o i t s a p p l i c a t i o n when d e s i g n i n g a d u c t e d propeller.
In such c a s e s , the g e o m e t r i c camber o f t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n s i s c a l c u l a t e d by

C C
f
L
n = K — — (5-35)
0 C4TTC 0

where K i s t h e l i f t i n g surface correction f a c t o r t o camber due t o l o a d i n g

c
derived by Morgan e t a l (1968). P o l y n o m i a l s f o r i t s e v a l u a t i o n as f u n c t i o n

of t h e hydrodynamic p i t c h , expanded b l a d e a r e a r a t i o and r a d i u s of the pro-

151
p e l l e r blade s e c t i o n (r=0.3 up t o r=0.9) a r e g i v e n by Van Oossanen (1973),

for p r o p e l l e r s w i t h 4, 5 and 6 b l a d e s and z e r o skew. is a correction

f a c t o r f o r the e f f e c t o f p r o f i l e t h i c k n e s s on the l i f t and i s g i v e n by

2
C = l + 0,4TTT- + L
(-) 1
J
(5-36)
o c c

The final p i t c h angle i s obtained as

(5-37)

where a i s a p i t c h c o r r e c t i o n g i v e n by

a = 0.10 CT
(5-38)
Li

The delivered thrust of the p r o p e l l e r i s

T (5-39)

and the r e q u i r e d torque i s

(5-40)

5.6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

F o r the purpose of c h e c k i n g the b a s i c assumptions used i n the d e s i g n

method w i t h r e s p e c t t o the i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and d u c t , an

e x i s t i n g p r o p e l l e r o r i g i n a l l y designed by the method o f Van Manen and

Superina (1959), to operate i n s i d e the duct 19A i n a wake f i e l d , has been

r e d e s i g n e d by the p r e s e n t method.

In the d e s i g n method p r o p o s e d by Van Manen and S u p e r i n a , the propeller

i s designed a c c o r d i n g t o a x i a l f l o w pump d e s i g n t h e o r y . The v e l o c i t i e s indu-

ced by the duct on the p r o p e l l e r are c a l c u l a t e d assuming an e l l i p t i c load

d i s t r i b u t i o n on a c y l i n d e r w i t h the same l e n g t h and inner diameter as the

152
duct and the p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s are c a l c u l a t e d assuming an i n f i n i t e
number o f b l a d e s .
T a b l e 5-1 g i v e s the i n p u t d e s i g n d a t a and the wake d i s t r i b u t i o n .

r 1-•w (r) m a
e T
2
(Nnf )

0.20 0 362 1 0 5 2 xlO 7

0.30 0 404 1 0 5 5 xlO 7

0.40 0 431 1 0 5 7 xlO 7

0.50 0 444 1 0 5 75xl0 7

0.60 0 450 0 696 5 85xl0 7

0.70 0 466 0 735 5 90xl0 7

0.80 0 511 0 764 6 0 xlO 7

0.90 0 611 0 760 6 1 xlO 7

1.0 0 742 0 730 6 2 xlO 7

- Total t h r u s t T = 1286407 N

- P r o p e l l e r rev.N = 87 rpm.

- S h i p speed = 16.23 knots

- P r o p e l l e r diameter D = 7.20 m

- Effective s t a t i c p r e s s u r e at p r o p e l l e r shaft
( p - e ) = 169713
Q Nm~
o
- Rake angle = 0
- T a y l o r wake f r a c t i o n w =0.49.
T
fable 5-1. Input design data.

In the o r i g i n a l d e s i g n , named here d e s i g n D, the t h r u s t ratio

between p r o p e l l e r and d u c t was o b t a i n e d from the open-water r e s u l t s o f the

Ka-4-55 s e r i e s . In the p r e s e n t method the f o l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s regarding

the hydrodynamic pitch,when d e t e r m i n i n g the p r o p e l l e r induced v e l o c i t i e s on

the d u c t , have been c o n s i d e r e d :

1. A non-uniform f l o w t o the p r o p e l l e r i s assumed and the s t r e n g t h o f the

p r o p e l l e r r i n g v o r t e x system i s determined i n the u l t i m a t e wake.

2. U n i f o r m flow t o the p r o p e l l e r i s assumed and the s t r e n g t h o f the p r o p e l -

ler r i n g v o r t e x system i s determined i n the u l t i m a t e wake.

153
3. U n i f o r m flow t o the p r o p e l l e r i s assumed and t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e p r o p e l -

l e r r i n g v o r t e x system i s c a l c u l a t e d at t h e p r o p e l l e r plane,.

The d e s i g n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e named d e s i g n s 1,

2 and 3, r e s p e c t i v e l y . A l l t h e d e s i g n s a r e based on g i v e n t o t a l t h r u s t and

c i r c u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n . An e l l i p t i c circulation distribution

G=K/(r-0.2)(l-r) has been assumed f o r t h e t h r e e c a s e s .

T a b l e 5-2 r e v i e w s the c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s and compares them w i t h t h e

open-water r e s u l t s o f t h e Ka-4-55 s e r i e s .

Design J T
C
T C
T
P \
D 0.418 4.737 3.411 1.326 - 0 720

1 0.418 4.737 3.681 1.056 0.0066 0 777

2 0.418 4.737 3.435 1.302 0.0069 0 725
3 0.418 4.737 3.631 1.106 0.0067 0 767

D - Experiment w i t h Ka-4-55 s e r i e s - u n i f o r m flow

1 - Non-uniform flow and p i t c h i n t h e u l t i m a t e wake

2 - Uniform flow, p i t c h i n the u l t i m a t e s l i p s t r e a m
3 - Uniform f l o w , p i t c h at the p r o p e l l e r plane

Table 5-2. Review of calculation results.

I t i s seen t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n 2 based on u n i f o r m flow and p i t c h i n

the u l t i m a t e wake agrees r a t h e r c l o s e l y with the experimental values f o r the

t h r u s t on t h e p r o p e l l e r and d u c t . As e x p e c t e d , the e f f e c t of s l i g h t varia-

t i o n s o f the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e t h r u s t ratio i s small.

I f t h e non-uniform i n f l o w i s accounted f o r i n the determination of the

hydrodynamic p i t c h , the r i n g v o r t i c i t y shed from t h e p r o p e l l e r d i s k i s

strengthened at t h e i n n e r r a d i i o f t h e d i s k and weakened at t h e o u t e r radii,

leading to a higher thrust r a t i o than -the one o b t a i n e d i n u n i f o r m flow.

Concerning d e s i g n 3 we see t h a t t h e duct i n d u c e s at t h e p r o p e l l e r plane,

r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r v e l o c i t i e s i n comparison w i t h t h e p r o p e l l e r s e l f - i n d u c e d

v e l o c i t i e s and t h e r e f o r e , t h e c h o i c e o f t h e hydrodynamic p i t c h a t t h e p r o p e l -

l e r plane gives a higher thrust ratio.

The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on t h e duct a r e shown i n F i g . 5-5.

154
 -8.0 1. N O N - U N I F O R M FLOW. PITCH IN T H E ULTIMATE WAKE
Cp 2. UNIFORM FLOW. PITCH IN T H E ULTIMATE WAKE
-7.0 3. UNIFORM FLOW. PITCH AT T H E P R O P E L L E R P L A N E

-6.0
X,
\ \
-5.0

-4.0

-3.0

-2.0

-1.0

O
.5 x / R

1.0

Fig. 5-5. Calculated pressure distributions on duct 19A.

Concerning t h e duct induced velocities at the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e , shown

i n F i g . 5-6, c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r when comparing w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y

distribution assumed i n d e s i g n D, e s p e c i a l l y towards t h e p r o p e l l e r t i p .

The propeller axial and t a n g e n t i a l s e l f - i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s a r e compared

with the i n f i n i t e l y bladed p r o p e l l e r induced velocities ( d e s i g n D) i n

Fig. 5-7. The d i f f e r e n c e s concerning the a x i a l induced v e l o c i t y are small.

However, i t s h o u l d be n o t e d that d e s i g n D i s based on a d i f f e r e n t propeller

load d i s t r i b u t i o n with f i n i t e l o a d i n g a t t h e hub and t i p g i v e n by

The particulars of the designed p r o p e l l e r s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 5-3. The

final thrust and torque delivered by t h e p r o p e l l e r have been determined by

assuming a c o n s t a n t d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t C^=0.0075 f o r a l l t h e p r o p e l l e r blade

sections. I t can be seen t h a t t h e d e s i g n s 1, 2 and 3 a r e f a i r l y similar.

Although they a r e based on d i f f e r e n t thrust ratios ( f o r i n s t a n c e comparing

155
 P r o | •peller 1

r V (r)/V C tang tanß , C L c/d t (m) c (m) 1/K í e f (m) P ( « ) dT/dx dQ/dx
e A l c o o
s

0 .2 0 .704 0 0 0 468 1 568 0 0 0 294 1 402 0 489 0 7 .095 0 0

0 3 0 . 784 0 0612 0 348 0 958 0 158 0 244 1 683 0 753 0 119 7 .444 643877 681167
0 4 0 .837 0 0801 0 278 0 719 0 160 0 194 1 908 0 895 0 108 7 .370 1230060 1307040
0 5 0 .863 0 0895 0 230 0 577 0 145 0 151 2 077 0 878 0 103 7 300 1809100 1942560
0 6 0 .875 0 0925 0 194 0 486 0 126 0 121 2 190 0 814 0 099 7 304 2308560 2536490
0 7 0 .906 0 0895 0 172 0 423 0 105 0 097 2 248 0 750 0 091 7 324 2661630 3012270
0 8 0 994 0 0801 0 165 0 378 0 082 0 073 2 232 0 664 0 081 7 385 2762790 3266560
0 9 1 188 0 0612 0 176 0 352 0 055 0 050 2 024 0 521 0 071 7 626 2399250 3077090
1 0 1 443 0 0 0 192 0 342 0 0 0 026 0 493 0 352 0 0 7 744 0 0

C T = 3.794 J 87 r . p . m .
T
Pi
t = o° p -e = 169713 Nm T = 1421510 N
° P
P., = 7 . 440 m P N / D Welght= 16839 Kg
N

Propeller 2

V <r)/V G tanß tanß C c / d t <m> c (m) 1/K xc 1 (m) P On) dT/dx dQ/dx
e
A t L
c O 0
N

0 2 0 . 704 0 0 0 468 1. 504 0 0 0 288 1 374 0 499 0. 0 6 802 0 0

0 3 0 .784 0 0566 0 348 0 954 0 143 0 239 1 637 0 763 0. 107 7 . 346 608533 642314

0 4 0 .837 0 0741 0 278 0 715 0 146 0 190 1 848 0 903 0 097 7. 281 1152350 1219750

0 5 0 .863 0 0828 0 230 0 574 0 133 0 148 2 008 0 885 0 094 7 230 1687160 1807180
0 6 0 .875 0 0855 0 194 0 484 0 116 0 119 2 116 0 821 0 090 7 240 2148190 2355500
0 7 0 906 0 0828 0 172 0 421 0 096 0 095 2 172 0 759 0 083 7 266 2472850 2795720
0 8 0 .994 0 0741 0 165 0 380 0 076 0 072 2 162 0 673 0 074 7 399 2572440 3068620

0 9 1 . 188 0 0566 0 176 0 355 0 051 0 049 1 967 0 532 0 064 7 653 2222170 2885190

1 0 1 443 0 0 0 192 0 350 0 0 0 026 0 505 0 361 0 0 7 920 0 0

-1
c T = 3.534 J = 0.418 V = 8.277 ms N = 8 7 r .p.m. D 7.20 >
Pi s
2
E 0° p e 169713 T 1323170 N Q = 19890.3 Nm 0.534
o" V A
o =

P
P N = 7.417 P / D = 1.030
N Weight= 16029 Kg

Table 5-3. Particulars of designed propellers.

156
 Propeller 3

r V <r)/V G tanß tanßj C c/ä t Im) c <m> 1/K c f (m) P dT/dx dQ/dx
A
cx a o
e

0 2 0 .704 0 0 0 468 1 562 0 0 0 292 1 396 0 490 0 0 7 066 0 0

0 3 0 .784 0 0602 0 348 0 958 0 155 0 243 1 675 0 755 0 117 7 428 636809 673969

0 4 0 .837 0 0788 0 278 0 719 0 157 0 193 1 899 0 896 0 105 7 359 1214330 1291060
0 5 0 .863 0 0881 0 230 0 577 0 142 0 150 2 067 0 879 0 101 7 290 1783890 1916510
0 6 0 875 0 0910 0 194 0 486 0 124 0 120 2 180 0 815 0 097 7 296 2275510 2501580
0 7 0 906 0 0881 0 172 0 423 0 103 0 097 2 237 0 751 0 089 7 318 2623060 2971550
0 8 0 994 0 0788 0 165 0 378 0 080 0 073 2 223 0 665 0 080 7 387 2721700 3224760
0 9 1 188 0 0602 0 176 0 353 0 054 0 050 2 019 0 523 0 069 7 637 2362620 3041500
1 0 1 443 0 0 0 192 0 344 0 0 0 026 0 496 0 353 0 0 7 777 0 0

L
C
T 3.740 J = 0.418 V = 8.277 ms N = 87 * P m D 7.20 m
P ]
s
o -2
E =0 P - e = 169713 Nm
Q T = 1401180 N
p Q = 21032.8 Nm A ^ / A ^ = 0.548

P N = 7.440 P / D = 1.033
N Weight= 16687 Kg

Design D

r V (D/V A Ap tanß tanß 1 C c / d t <m> c (m) 1/K xc f (m)

L P
(m) (final)
e c o h P
N
(*)
0 2 0 .704 14459 0 468 1 383 0 105 0 320 1 455 - 0 045 6 996 6 .968
0 3 0 .784 23299 0 348 0 955 0 115 0 285 1 644 - 0 053 7 165 7 . 165
0 .4 0 .837 30152 0 278 0 739 0 112 0 245 1 829 - 0 054 7 328 7 . 317
0 5 0 .863 34743 0 230 0 604 0 103 0 203 2 000 - 0 052 7 424 7 .427
0 6 0 875 37244 0 194 0 513 0 092 0 166 2 150 - 0 048 7 503 7 . 507
0 7 0 906 37792 0 172 0 451 0 080 0 120 2 275 - 0 043 7 631 7 .567
0 8 0 994 36764 0 165 0 414 0 067 0 081 2 310 - 0 037 7 932 7 .619
0 9 1 188 34880 0 176 0 400 0 056 0 045 2 182 - 0 031 8 591 7 .671
1 0 1 443 32345 0 192 0 399 0 046 0 026 1 300 - 0 026 9 701 7 .722

C T
T
= 3.536 J = 0.418 V = 8.277 ms N=87r.p.m. D = 7.20 •
Pi »
2
t = 0 ° p -e = 169713 Nm" T = 1267719 N
° P

( » ) Thrust d i s t r i b u t i o n

Table 5-3. (Continued). Particulars of designed propellers.

157
 1. N O N - U N I F O R M FLOW. PITCH IN T H E U L T I M A T E WAKE
2. UNIFORM FLOW. PITCH IN T H E U L T I M A T E WAKE
3. U N I F O R M FLOW. PITCH AT THE P R O P E L L E R PLANE
DESIGN D

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 5-6. Duct induced velocities at the propeller plane.

1 and 2), they l e a d t o a r a t h e r s i m i l a r p i t c h i n g o f t h e p r o p e l l e r . Clearly

the i n c r e a s e o f p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s due t o t h e h i g h e r propeller

l o a d i n g i n cases 1 and 3 i s " c a n c e l l e d " by t h e d e c r e a s e o f duct induced

velocities.

Concerning t h e comparison w i t h d e s i g n D two main d i f f e r e n c e s can be

noted. In t h e f i r s t place the p i t c h d i s t r i b u t i o n obtained i n the design D

shows a pronounced i n c r e a s e towards t h e t i p which i s n o t o b t a i n e d i n t h e

p r e s e n t d e s i g n s . F i g . 5-8 shows t h e n o n - f a i r e d p i t c h d i s t r i b u t i o n obtained

for different designs and compares i t w i t h t h e f i n a l adopted pitch distri-

b u t i o n o f d e s i g n D. Secondly, t h e camber o f b l a d e s e c t i o n s i n d e s i g n 1, 2

and 3 i s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r than the f i n a l camber adopted i n t h e d e s i g n D.

(see T a b l e 5-3). I t s h o u l d be n o t e d that i n the design D d i f f e r e n t blade

sections a r e used, namely t h e NACA a=0.8 mean l i n e w i t h a m o d i f i e d NACA 66

thickness d i s t r i b u t i o n , and no c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s from lifting surface

theory are a p p l i e d .

158
 1. N O N - U N I F O R M F L O W . P I T C H IN T H E U L T I M A T E W A K E
2. U N I F O R M F L O W PITCH IN T H E U L T I M A T E W A K E
3. U N I F O R M F L O W . PITCH AT T H E P R O P E L L E R P L A N E
DESIGN D

0.7 -

0.1 -

"I l I I I I I I I
0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0.6 0.7 0 8 0.9 1.0
r

Fig. 5-7. Axial and tangential propeller induced velocities.

I t can be e a s i l y seen that the d i f f e r e n c e s i n camber f o r the p r e s e n t

designs i n comparison w i t h d e s i g n D a r i s e m a i n l y from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of

lifting surface correction factors. C o n s i d e r i n g the good agreement with

experiments f o r the f i n a l design D i t can be c o n c l u d e d that the application

t o ducted p r o p e l l e r s o f camber correction factors as d e r i v e d by Morgan f o r

open p r o p e l l e r s , s h o u l d be f a c e d w i t h care.

The b l a d e c o n t o u r s o f p r o p e l l e r s 1, 2 and 3 a r e f a i r l y similar. They

are compared w i t h t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r o f p r o p e l l e r D (Kaplantype) i n
Fig. 5-9.

159
Fig. 5-9. Propeller blade outlines.

160
6. Conclusions

In t h i s s t u d y , some o f the most i m p o r t a n t effects determining ducted

p r o p e l l e r performance both i n uniform and non-uniform axisymmetric flows
have been demonstrated.

In g e n e r a l , i t can be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the i n v i s c i d f l o w models consi-

dered i n Chapters 1 and 2 g i v e s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e d i c t i o n s o f the flow field

and duct performance i n a wide range o f p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g s p r o v i d e d t h a t the

circulation around the duct p r o f i l e can be a c c u r a t e l y determined. As shown

by t h e c a s e s i n v e s t i g a t e d , i n the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of c r i t e r i a f o r the

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the duct c i r c u l a t i o n , detailed account of v i s c o u s effects

on the duct i s r e q u i r e d . The methods developed have been s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d

t o d e s c r i b e the i n t e r a c t i o n between a f t e r b o d y and ducted p r o p e l l e r and to

the d e s i g n o f ducted propellers.

From the v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h i s work i n p a r t i c u l a r , the f o l l o w i n g main

c o n c l u s i o n s can be drawn:

- A potential f l o w c a l c u l a t i o n method, a p p l i e d t o d u c t s w i t h a t h i c k round

t r a i l i n g edge, r e v e a l e d an extreme s e n s i t i v i t y o f the computed pressure

distribution t o the l o c a t i o n o f the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t on the t r a i l i n g edge.

- An a n a l y s i s method f o r the v i s c o u s flow p a s t a p r o p e l l e r duct i n an

uniform f l o w , based on a viscous-inviscid iteration scheme, g i v e s good

p r e d i c t i o n s o f the f l o w f i e l d around the duct.

The t r e n d s o f the e f f e c t of the Reynolds number on the l i f t force acting

on the d u c t s e c t i o n are w e l l p r e d i c t e d by the c a l c u l a t i o n s . The chordwise

e x t e n t o f l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubbles on the o u t e r s u r f a c e o f the duct and

the c h a r a c t e r o f the flow s e p a r a t i o n from the t r a i l i n g edge, appeared to

be determinant to t h i s effect.

- In the c a l c u l a t i o n o f o f f - d e s i g n performance o f a duct f o r a ducted

p r o p e l l e r at l i g h t propeller l o a d i n g s , a p p l i c a t i o n o f an approximate

v i s c o u s a n a l y s i s t o the f l o w p a s t the duct c o n s i d e r a b l y improves the

c o r r e l a t i o n on the duct f o r c e s . More work i n t h i s a r e a i s needed i n o r d e r

161
 to f u l l y c l a r i f y the r o l e o f v i s c o s i t y when t h e p r o p e l l e r i s placed

i n s i d e the duct.

- Experiments with a ducted p r o p e l l e r i n a r a d i a l l y non-uniform flow showed

a s m a l l e f f e c t o f the incoming vorticity on t h e t h r u s t r a t i o between

p r o p e l l e r and d u c t . A l t h o u g h the i n t e r a c t i o n with the v o r t i c i t y induces

a d d i t i o n a l n e g a t i v e r a d i a l v e l o c i t i e s on t h e d u c t , i t tends to diminish

the i n t e r f e r e n c e between p r o p e l l e r and d u c t .

- The c u r v a t u r e o f the s t r e a m l i n e s ahead o f t h e d u c t e d propeller i s smaller

i n shear f l o w than i n u n i f o r m flow.

- Reasonable p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e f l o w f i e l d f o r a ducted propeller i n

axisymmetric shear flow can be o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e method o f Chapter 3. F o r

the c o r r e c t p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e f o r c e s on t h e d u c t , the a p p l i c a t i o n o f

the K u t t a c o n d i t i o n appears t o be e s s e n t i a l .

- The r e a l i s t i c e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e p r o p u l s i o n f a c t o r s o b t a i n e d i n t h e Chapter

4 , p o i n t out t h a t the most i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between a

ducted p r o p e l l e r and t h e s t e r n f o r an axisymmetric body can be d e s c r i b e d

w i t h i n an i n v i s c i d approach. By r e v e a l i n g t h e d e t a i l e d p r e s s u r e distribu-

t i o n on t h e d u c t , t h e method proposed i n Chapter 4 may be useful

in the d e s i g n o f a f t e r b o d y adapted ducted propellers.

- The d e s i g n o f a p r o p e l l e r i n s i d e a g i v e n duct appears t o be r a t h e r

insensitive t o t h e assumptions r e g a r d i n g t h e p i t c h o f t h e v o r t e x lines

shed from a moderately l o a d e d a c t u a t o r d i s k , when a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e

i n t e r a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and d u c t .

- F o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e duct i n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s on t h e p r o p e l l e r , i t

is important t o know w i t h good a c c u r a c y t h e duct chordwise load d i s t r i b u -

t i o n . N e g l e c t i o n o f t h i s f a c t may l e a d t o an erroneous propeller pitch

distribution.

- I t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e s i g n p r o p e l l e r s o p e r a t i n g i n s i d e the duct w i t h an

assumed v a n i s h i n g c i r c u l a t i o n at the t i p .

162
APPENDIX 1: EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

A short d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t - u p used i n t h i s study f o r

the measurements on duct 37 w i t h p r o p e l l e r B i n the Large Cavitation

Tunnel o f the NSMB i s g i v e n . F o r a d e t a i l e d account on t h e r e s u l t s o f

the measurements we r e f e r t o Luttmer and J a n s s e n (1982).

1. F o r c e measurements on t h e duct

To o b t a i n the f o r c e a c t i n g on a duct s e c t i o n the a x i a l and r a d i a l f o r c e

components a r e d e t e r m i n e d . The a x i a l component i s o b t a i n e d from the t o t a l

axial f o r c e a c t i n g on the duct measured w i t h a s t r a i n gauge mounted

on the f a s t e n i n g between t h e duct and t h e t u n n e l w a l l . The r a d i a l force

component i s deduced from the measurement o f the t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e which i s

Fig. Al-1. Position of windows and force transducers on the duct 37.
(dimensions are given in mm).

163
measured by s t r a i n gauge t r a n s d u c e r s p l a c e d on a c u t o f t h e duct surface

by a meridional plane.

The l o c a t i o n o f the f o r c e transducers i s shown i n F i g . A l - 1 , and t h e

geometry o f t h e duct model i s g i v e n i n F i g . A l - 2 .

2. V e l o c i t y measurements

The axial and r a d i a l components o f t h e v e l o c i t y field around t h e duct

and ducted p r o p e l l e r were measured by a L a s e r - D o p p l e r v e l o c i m e t e r p l a c e d around

Dimensions of duct
in nta

X y
2.0 13.80
4.0 11.20
6.0 9.20
8.0 7.70
10.0 6.11
14.0 4.20
18.0 2.70
22.0 1.60
26.0 0.81 r2 3.34
30.0 0.44 r3 101.00
34.0 0.20 hj 12.42
38 .0 0 h2 18.33
straight c 100.00
66.0 0
70.0 0.20
74.0 0.36
78.0 0.76
82.0 1.40
86.0 2.36
90.0 3.80
92 .0 4.70
94 .0 5.80
96.0 7.20
98.0 8.80

Fig. Al-2. Geometry of duct model.

164
 Fig. Al-3. Laser-Doppler velocimeter placed around the cavitation
tunneI.

the t e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e l a r g e c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l ( F i g . A l - 3 ) . The L a s e r - D o p p l e r

v e l o c i m e t e r o p e r a t e s i n t h e f o r w a r d s c a t t e r and r e f e r e n c e beam modes.

Due t o the p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e windows on b o t h s i d e s o f the t u n n e l , i t was

p o s s i b l e t o scann the f l o w f i e l d upstream and downstream o f the d u c t . The

l o c a t i o n s o f the v a r i o u s a x i a l s t a t i o n s where v e l o c i t y t r a v e r s e s were

performed a r e g i v e n i n F i g . A l - 4 . In the same f i g u r e i t i s a l s o shown t h e

l o c a t i o n o f the s c r e e n used t o g e n e r a t e the a x i s y m m e t r i c non-uniform flow

used i n t h e measurements on the d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r i n the wake field.

165
 Fig. Al-4. Location of measuring station and coordinate system.

The measuring volume o f the L a s e r - D o p p l e r v e l o c i m e t e r has dimensions

of 0.214 mm i n t h e x and z d i r e c t i o n s and 16.34 mm i n the y d i r e c t i o n

(Fig. Al-4). This fact affected the a c c u r a c y o f t h e measurements o f t h e

velocity p r o f i l e s i n s i d e the duct where, w i t h o u t p r o p e l l e r , the traverses

were e f f e c t e d on t h e x-y p l a n e . F o r t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r measurements "windows"

were opened on t h e perspex duct model. The l o c a t i o n o f the "windows" a r e

shown i n F i g . A l - 1 .

166
APPENDIX 2: GEOMETRY OF PROPELLERS A AND B.

Fig. A2-1. Geometry of propeller A. (Dimensions are given in mm).

EXPANDED BLADE AREA RATIO A E / A Q = 0 . 6 0 8

CHORD LENGTH Q 7/ DIAMETER c /D Q? = 0 . 2 6 1

THICKNESS/CHORD L E N G T H o.7 , / C
0 7 " 0.063

Fig. A2-2. Geometry of propeller B. (Dimensions are given in mm).

167
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174
NOMENCLATURE

A(r|) function

A A
E / 0 expanded b l a d e a r e a ratio

C duct d r a g coefficient
d
C duct f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t behind the afterbody without propeller
dh
C^ flat plate skin f r i c t i o n coefficient

C lift coefficient
L

C pressure coefficient
P
C duct p r e s s u r e coefficient
P
d
C pressure c o e f f i c i e n t at the t r a i l i n g edge on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e
P
inn
C minimum p r e s s u r e coefficient
P min
•
C pressure c o e f f i c i e n t at the t r a i l i n g edge on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e
P
out
C pressure c o e f f i c i e n t at separation
p
sep
AC pressure difference c o e f f i c i e n t on the a f t e r b o d y between the
P
l
c a s e s : h u l l w i t h duct and h u l l w i t h d u c t e d propeller

AC pressure difference coefficient on t h e a f t e r b o d y between t h e

P
2
cases: h u l l a l o n e and h u l l w i t h d u c t e d propeller

C prismatic coefficient
P
C forebody prismatic coefficient

C afterbody prismatic c o e f f i c i e n t
P
A
C duct r a d i a l force coefficient
R
C duct t h r u s t coefficient
T ,
C ideal duct thrust coefficient

C T * duct t h r u s t coefficient based on t h e s h i p speed

g
C propeller thrust coefficient
P
C ideal propeller thrust coefficient
T
Pi
175
propeller thrust coefficient based on the s h i p speed

correction f a c t o r f o r the e f f e c t o f p r o f i l e t h i c k n e s s on

the lift

duct r a d i a l f o r c e c o e f f i c i e n t i n the non-uniform flow case

based on U Q

duct t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t i n the non-uniform f l o w case based

on U Q

propeller thrust coefficient i n the non-uniform flow case

based on

-duct length

-blade s e c t i o n chord

c u r v a t u r e o f element on the duct and hub

th th
c u r v a t u r e o f the i element on the m vortex sheet

-propeller diameter

-actuator disk diameter

body diameter

duct v i s c o u s d r a g

f o r c e on the duct b e h i n d the a f t e r b o d y w i t h o u t propeller

numerical d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n coefficient

complete e l l i p t i c integral o f the second kind

vapour p r e s s u r e

numerical differentiation coefficient

normalized c i r c u l a t i o n distribution

e x t e r n a l body f o r c e per u n i t mass

duct r a d i a l f o r c e per u n i t radian

components o f i n the c o o r d i n a t e s e t (x,r,8)

right-hand side of i n t e g r a l equation

176
f. r i g h t - h a n d s i d e of system o f equations

f (r) n o r m a l i z e d hydrodynamic p i t c h distribution

P

f x > fg axial and t a n g e n t i a l components o f the c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r c e

on the a c t u a t o r d i s k

fg geometric camber o f a b l a d e section

f numerical d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n coefficient
J

G non-dimensional circulation of a l i f t i n g line

G(x-x',r,r') Green's f u n c t i o n

G „G .,G . ,, p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s o f the Green's f u n c t i o n

x" r " x'x'

x r r' r '

G non-dimensional circulation distribution on the a c t u a t o r d i s k

CO

g gravity acceleration

g\ numerical differentiation coefficient

H total head

Hp t o t a l head o f the u n d i s t u r b e d stream

H Q t o t a l head o f the p i e c e w l s e constant discretized non-uniform

m
stream

h. numerical differentiation coefficient

i i axial and tangential induction factors

a t
i , i ,i„ u n i t v e c t o r s o f the c o o r d i n a t e s e t (x,r,9)
—x r W

i numerical differentiation coefficient

J advance ratio

J advance r a t i o based on the s h i p speed

s
J advance r a t i o i n the non-uniform f l o w case based on U^.

K(k) complete e l l i p t i c integral o f the f i r s t kind

K c o r r e c t i o n t o camber from lifting surface theory

177
K duct r a d i a l force coefficient
R

K T t o t a l thrust coefficient

K duct t h r u s t coefficient
T
d
propeller thrust coefficient
P

k,k^ modulus o f e l l i p t i c integrals

k(s,s') kernel function

k. . matrix of influence c o e f f i c i e n t s
kp c o n s t a n t i n the hydrodynamic p i t c h distribution

L body length

length of afterbody

L length of forebody
E
L l e n g t h o f m i d d l e body
M

M number o f a x i a l stations

m -boundary l a y e r pressure gradient parameter

-margin a g a i n s t cavitation

N -propeller r.p.m.

-number o f elements on the b o u n d a r i e s

-number o f v o r t e x s h e e t s i n t h e d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the

non-uniform stream

number o f s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x sheets
T

n - c o o r d i n a t e o f s t r e a m l i n e based c o o r d i n a t e s e t (s,n,6)

-propeller rate of revolutions

P propeller pitch

P -hydrodynamic pitch

-propeller i d e a l power

P^(r) nominal p i t c h at radius r

178
 mean nominal pitch

p pressure

p mean s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a t the p r o p e l l e r plane

mean

Pg pressure at i n f i n i t y upstream

p^ p r e s s u r e b e f o r e the p r o p e l l e r plane

p pressure a f t e r the p r o p e l l e r plane

Ap pressure decrease i n d u c e d by the duct at the p r o p e l l e r

d

Ap^ p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e on the a f t e r b o d y between the c a s e s :

h u l l w i t h duct and h u l l w i t h d u c t e d propeller

Ap^ p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e on the a f t e r b o d y between the c a s e s :

hull a l o n e and h u l l w i t h ducted propeller

Q propeller torque

R -propeller radius

- d i s t a n c e between two p o i n t s

-actuator disk radius

R v e c t o r r a d i u s between two p o i n t s

R, duct r a d i u s
d

Re Reynolds number

Re Reynolds number based on the d u c t ' s length

c

R r e s i s t a n c e of h u l l alone
h
R r e s i s t a n c e o f h u l l w i t h duct w i t h o u t propeller
hd

R c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e stream f u n c t i o n on a mesh knot due t o the

ij

vorticity o u t s i d e the c o m p u t a t i o n a l domain

R Reynolds number based on the momentum t h i c k n e s s o f the

y
boundary layer

R Reynolds number based on the momentum t h i c k n e s s a t

U
sep
separation

179
RQ radial extent o f the i n f l o w non-uniformity

r radial coordinate

r body r a d i u s
b
r non-dimensional hub r a d i u s
h
th
r. r a d i u s of the m v o r t e x sheet a t x=x.
îm l

radial c o o r d i n a t e on element j

th

r^ r a d i u s of the k s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x sheet a t the a c t u a t o r

disk
r maximum body r a d i u s
max
th
radius of the m v o r t e x sheet at i n f i n i t y upstream
m
th
o
r k m radius of the k s l i p s t r e a m vortex sheet at i n f i n i t y down-

stream
th
r m radius of the m v o r t e x sheet at i n f i n i t y downstream
1
radial coordinate of the vertex of the i * * element on t h e
"im
t h
* V. *
m vortex sheet
th

r^ radial c o o r d i n a t e o f c o n t r o l p o i n t on t h e j element

S -area

- l e n g t h o f t h e duct contour

s c o o r d i n a t e o f t h e s t r e a m l i n e based c o o r d i n a t e s e t (s,n,6)
sep
d i s t a n c e on t h e s u r f a c e a t s e p a r a t i o n measured from t h e nose

stagnation point
s d i s t a n c e on t h e s u r f a c e a t t r a n s i t i o n measured from t h e nose
tr

stagnation point

T t o t a l thrust

T(s,s') c o u p l i n g f u n c t i o n f o r t h e axisymmetric source distribution

T_, duct t h r u s t
d

T propeller thrust

180
T propeller ideal thrust
P
i
t maximum t h i c k n e s s o f b l a d e section

t_ v e c t o r tangent t o the d u c t ' s s e c t i o n contour

t, duct t h i c k n e s s
d

t p r e s s u r e component of the thrust d e d u c t i o n : duct as a p a r t

P
l
of t h e h u l l

t p r e s s u r e component o f t h e t h r u s t d e d u c t i o n : duct as a p a r t
P
2

of the p r o p u l s o r

U(r) axial velocity o f t h e u n d i s t u r b e d non-uniform stream

u
f f e x p e r i m e n t a l mean e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t y (propeller thrust

identity)

1
U. . axial velocity induced at the i * * control p o i n t by a s o u r c e
th
d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e j element

U velocity o f the piecewise constant d i s c r e t i z a t i o n o f the

m

non-uniform stream

Up -uniform flow velocity

-uniform flow v e l o c i t y o u t s i d e t h e wake

th
U mean a x i a l v e l o c i t y at the m v o r t e x sheet a t i n f i n i t y
m

upstream

u axial velocity component i n the c o o r d i n a t e s e t ( x , r , 8 )

_u velocity vector

u (r) axial velocity i n d u c e d by t h e duct

d

u (r) effective velocity: duct as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l

e
l
u (r) effective velocity: duct as a p a r t o f t h e p r o p u l s o r
6
2
u.(r) axial velocity i n d u c e d by t h e hub
h

u (r) axial velocity i n d u c e d by t h e p r o p e l l e r

P
u (r) axial velocity induced f a r downstream by t h e f i r s t approxima-
ted
tion to the s l i p s t r e a m v o r t i c i t y i n t h e non-uniform flow cast

181
u ,u ,u„ components o f u i n t h e s t r e a m l i n e based c o o r d i n a t e s e t (s,n,6)
s n B —
th
u s. m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t y at the m v o r t e x sheet e v a l u a t e d a t
i ,m
(x.,r. )
i lm
th
S
meridional velocity at the k slipstream vortex sheet
i,k
e v a l u a t e d a t (x , r . , )
i lk
1
u m e r i d i o n a l v e l o c i t y a t t h e k** s l i p s t r e a m vortex sheet
s
k
th
u meridional velocity at the m vortex sheet
s
m
Ug(r) total axial velocity at the p r o p e l l e r plane

Uy axial velocity i n d u c e d by a v o r t e x r i n g w i t h u n i t circulation

u^ axial velocity i n d u c e d by a s o u r c e r i n g w i t h u n i t circulation

u axial velocity i n d u c e d by t h e p r o p e l l e r on the duct

u^Cr) axial velocity induced f a r downstream by t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k

v o r t e x system i n t h e u n i f o r m flow case

V resultant velocity to the blade section

V(s) velocity o u t s i d e the boundary layer

V. mean advance velocity

A

V^(x,r;r') axial velocity i n d u c e d by a s e m i - i n f i n i t e ring vortex cylinder

with unit strength

V *(r,r') axial velocity induced f a r downstream by a s e m i - i n f i n i t e ring

vortex cylinder with unit strength

effective velocity d e r i v e d from T a y l o r wake f r a c t i o n

V velocity at i n f i n i t y upstream on t h e duct stream-surface

1
V. . radial velocity induced at the i * * control p o i n t by a s o u r c e

th
d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e j element

V mean v e l o c i t y between t h e i n n e r and o u t e r s i d e s o f t h e duct

m

V (x,r;r') radial velocity i n d u c e d by a s e m i - i n f i n i t e ring vortex

cylinder with u n i t strength

182
V ship speed
s
V velocity o u t s i d e o f t h e boundary l a y e r at s e p a r a t i o n
sep
v radial velocity component i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s e t ( x , r , 0 )

v^ radial velocity i n d u c e d by a r i n g v o r t e x w i t h u n i t circulation

v^ radial velocity i n d u c e d by a r i n g s o u r c e w i t h u n i t strength

v radial velocity i n d u c e d by t h e p r o p e l l e r on t h e duct

W blade section modulus

W. , function
i,k
w tangential velocity component i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s e t ( x , r , 9 )

w tangential velocity i n d u c e d by t h e duct

d

w (r) e f f e c t i v e wake f r a c t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n w ( r ) = l - u ( r )
e e e
w (r) e f f e c t i v e wake f r a c t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n : duct as a p a r t o f t h e
e..
'1
hull w (r)=l-u (r)
e e
l l
w (r) e f f e c t i v e wake f r a c t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n : duct as a p a r t o f t h e
e„
"2
propulsor w (r)=l-u (r)
e e
2 2
w (r) nominal wake f r a c t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n
N

w (r) nominal wake f r a c t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n : duct as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l

w (r) nominal wake f r a c t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n : duct as a p a r t o f t h e

N
2
propulsor

w tangential velocity i n d u c e d by t h e p r o p e l l e r
P
w T a y l o r wake
1
fraction
T

w mean e f f e c t i v e wake fraction

e
w mean e f f e c t i v e wake f r a c t i o n : duct as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l
e
_ l

w mean e f f e c t i v e wake f r a c t i o n : duct as a p a r t o f t h e p r o p u l s o r

WQ tangential velocity immediately downstream o f t h e a c t u a t o r

disk
X a x i a l induced v e l o c i t y matrix
ij

183
x axial coordinate

x^ axial c o o r d i n a t e o f mesh knots

x^(5) axial c o o r d i n a t e on the element j

x axial location o f p r o p e l l e r p l a n e measured from the d u c t ' s

P

th th
x. axial c o o r d i n a t e o f the v e r t e x of the i element on the m
ïm

vortex sheet

1
Xj axial c o o r d i n a t e o f c o n t r o l p o i n t on the j * * element

Y. . radial induced velocity matrix

Z p r o p e l l e r number o f b l a d e s

z c o o r d i n a t e normal to the s u r f a c e i n t h e boundary layer

a -parameter o f t h e complete e l l i p t i c integral of t h i r d kind

-pitch correction

th th
a. s l o p e o f the i element on the m vortex sheet
ïm
th
a.J s l o p e o f the j element
B -relaxation factor

-advance angle

p\ hydrodynamic p i t c h angle

B. hydrodynamic p i t c h angle f a r downstream

oo

r -circulation around a duct s e c t i o n

-circulation of a l i f t i n g line
s t r e n g t h o f "the p i e c e w i s e constant discretized circulation

distribution on t h e a c t u a t o r d i s k

t h
F n iterate t o the c i r c u l a t i o n around a duct s e c t i o n
n

T circulation on the a c t u a t o r d i s k
oo
Y s t r e n g t h o f a v o r t e x sheet i n axisymmetric flow

Y vector strength of a vortex sheet

184
yj I Y J , Y^^strength of vortex sheet, i t s f i r s t and h a l f t h e second
J J J

d e r i v a t i v e s evaluated at the c o n t r o l p o i n t j

1
Y^^.Y.^ ^ s t r e n g t h o f v o r t e x sheet and i t s f i r s t derivative evaluated
km km
th th
at the v e r t e x o f t h e k element on t h e m vortex sheet

Y^ strength of the s e m i - i n f i n i t e r i n g vortex c y l i n d e r s i n the

(1)
first approximation t o the s l i p s t r e a m vortex sheets

th
Y strength of the m vortex sheet
m
th
Y strength of the m v o r t e x sheet at i n f i n i t y upstream
o
m
th
Y strength of the k s l i p s t r e a m v o r t e x sheet f a r downstream
k
°° th
Y^ strength of the m v o r t e x sheet f a r downstream
k

Y#ij first approximation t o t h e duct and hub s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y

6 Kronecker delta

6(x) Dirac delta function

6* boundary l a y e r d i s p l a c e m e n t thickness

e rake angle
D non-dimensional coordinate

n, hull efficiency
h

6 -angular c o o r d i n a t e i n the coordinate s e t (x,r,6)

-momentum t h i c k n e s s o f t h e boundary layer

9 momentum t h i c k n e s s a t s e p a r a t i o n
sep

5 element a r c l e n g t h measured from c o n t r o l p o i n t

t h
5'. half the arc length of the j element

1 1
£' h a l f t h e a r c l e n g t h o f t h e k** element on t h e m*"* v o r t e x sheet
km

U. dipole strength

Y kinematic viscosity

II complete e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l of the t h i r d kind

p fluid s p e c i f i c mass

185
0 -source strength

-cavitation number

0 maximum a l l o w a b l e t e n s i l e s t r e s s l e s s t h e t e n s i l e stress
T

due t o c e n t r i f u g a l forces

T t h r u s t r a t i o T=T / ( T + T J
p p d
t> perturbation potential

propeller perturbation potential

p
o u t e r and i n n e r potentials

¥ total stream function

., stream f u n c t i o n i n f l u e n c e coefficient
ljkm
th
¥ stream f u n c t i o n o f t h e m vortex sheet
m
r
^ooC? >~ > ' ) stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by a s e m i - i n f i n i t e r i n g v o r t e x

c y l i n d e r with unit strength

first a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o the t o t a l stream function

ip - p e r t u r b a t i o n stream function

-pitch angle

ij^ stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by the duct and hub s u r f a c e vorticity

ijj^ first a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by t h e

(1)
duct and hub s u r f a c e vorticity

tjjp stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by the a c t u a t o r d i s k v o r t i c i t y lOg

4) stream f u n c t i o n i n d u c e d by the wake v o r t i c i t y 0)„

w 6
w

4j stream f u n c t i o n o f t h e u n d i s t u r b e d non-uniform stream

P. p r o p e l l e r angular v e l o c i t y

U) v o r t i c i t y vector

u) , u , u Q components o f 0) i n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s e t ( x . r . 8 )
x r 0 —
U)„ v o r t i c i t y o f t h e u n d i s t u r b e d non-uniform stream
9
0

186
actuator disk vortieity

wake v o r t i e i t y

non-dimensional coordinate
SUMMARY

In t h i s s t u d y a t h e o r e t i c a l model f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f duct perfor-

mance f o r d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r s working i n b o t h u n i f o r m and r a d i a l l y variable

inflow, i s investigated. Application o f t h i s model t o the problem o f

i n t e r a c t i o n of a ducted p r o p e l l e r and the s t e r n i n axisymmetric flow i s

c o n s i d e r e d . A s i m p l i f i e d model t o account f o r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between

propeller and duct i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a d e s i g n method f o r d u c t e d propel-

lers .

In C h a p t e r 2 the l i m i t a t i o n s of a p o t e n t i a l flow a n a l y s i s based on

an axisymmetric s u r f a c e v o r t i c i t y method when a p p l i e d to ducts with round

thick t r a i l i n g edges a r e demonstrated. I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f v i s c o u s e f f e c t s

t h r o u g h an i t e r a t i o n scheme u s i n g boundary l a y e r and p o t e n t i a l flow

c a l c u l a t i o n methods, e s s e n t i a l l y removes such l i m i t a t i o n s .

The v a l i d i t y o f t h e approach i s c o n f i r m e d by comparison w i t h experiments

c a r r i e d out f o r a duct i n uniform f l o w . A s i m p l i f i e d model f o r t h e i n t e r -

a c t i o n between p r o p e l l e r and d u c t , based on m o d e r a t e l y loaded actuator

disk theory, i s used t o e v a l u a t e duct o f f - d e s i g n performance f o r d u c t e d

propellers i n uniform flow. Comparison w i t h r e s u l t s o f t h e n o n - l i n e a r

ducted a c t u a t o r d i s k model developed i n Chapter 3 and d e t a i l e d measurements

of t h e f l o w f i e l d i s g i v e n . E f f e c t s o f v i s c o s i t y at l i g h t propeller

l o a d i n g s a r e accounted f o r , i n an approximate way, by an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e

viscous analysis developed f o r t h e duct w i t h o u t propeller i n uniform flow.

In Chapter 3 a d i s c r e t e v o r t e x sheet method i s used t o c a l c u l a t e the

axisymmetric flow through a d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r p l a c e d i n a shear f l o w . The

convergence o f t h e method i s shown. The method i s used to analyse the

effect of v o r t i c i t y o f t h e incoming stream on the i n t e r a c t i o n between

propeller and d u c t . D e t a i l e d comparison o f flow f i e l d calculations with

experiments illustrates t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e method.

In C h a p t e r 4 the n u m e r i c a l method of Chapter 3 i s applied t o compute

the f l o w i n t h e s t e r n r e g i o n o f a body o f r e v o l u t i o n and i s used to treat

the i n t e r a c t i o n problem between a ducted p r o p e l l e r and t h e s t e r n i n a x i -

188.
symmetric f l o w . P r e d i c t i o n s o f p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e a f t e r b o d y and

duct and v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s up t o t h e p r o p e l l e r p l a n e are g i v e n . The

s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e t h r u s t d e d u c t i o n and e f f e c t i v e wake t o p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g

and duct geometry are i l l u s t r a t e d f o r two d i f f e r e n t methods o f l o o k i n g a t

the i n t e r a c t i o n : duct as a p a r t o f t h e h u l l and duct as a p a r t o f t h e

propulsor.

In Chapter 5, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e based on m o d e r a t e l y loaded

a c t u a t o r d i s k t h e o r y and g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 2, i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a d e s i g n

method f o r d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r s based on L e r b s ' i n d u c t i o n f a c t o r method. The sen-

sitivity o f t h e d e s i g n t o v a r i o u s assumptions r e g a r d i n g t h e p i t c h o f v o r t e x

l i n e s used i n the procedure, i s i n v e s t i g a t e d . An i l l u s t r a t i v e example i s

included.

C o n c l u s i o n s are p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter 6.

189
SAMENVATTING

In deze s t u d i e wordt een t h e o r e t i s c h model voor de b e r e k e n i n g van de

werking van s c h r o e f - s t r a a l b u i s s y s t e m e n i n homogene en r a d i a a l o n g e l i j k m a -

t i g e a a n s t r o m i n g o n d e r z o c h t . Het t h e o r e t i s c h model i s t o e g e p a s t op het

probleem van de i n t e r a c t i e t u s s e n een s c h r o e f - s t r a a l b u i s s y s t e e m en de romp

i n axisymmetrische s t r o m i n g . Een vereenvoudigde berekeningsmethode voor de

i n t e r a c t i e t u s s e n s c h r o e f en s t r a a l b u i s wordt g e b r u i k t i n een ontwerpmetho-

de voor de s c h r o e f i n de straalbuis.

In Hoofdstuk 2 worden de b e p e r k i n g e n van een a n a l y s e gebaseerd op

p o t e n t i a a l t h e o r i e en w e r v e l v e r d e l i n g e n op de s t r a a l b u i s aangetoond, wan-

neer d i e worden t o e g e p a s t b i j s t r a a l b u i z e n met een g r o t e a f r o n d i n g aan de

u i t t r e d e n d e k a n t . V e r b e t e r d e r e s u l t a t e n kunnen worden b e r e i k t met behulp

van een i t e r a t i e schema gebaseerd op g r e n s l a a g en p o t e n t i a a l b e r e k e n i n g s -

methoden. Goede c o r r e l a t i e met e x p e r i m e n t e l e r e s u l t a t e n wordt b e r e i k t i n

uniforme s t r o m i n g . Een eenvoudige berekeningsmethode op b a s i s van matig

belaste actuator s c h i j f t h e o r i e wordt t o e g e p a s t om de hydrodynamische eigen

schappen van een s t r a a l b u i s i n " o f f - d e s i g n " c o n d i t i e t e berekenen. De

r e s u l t a t e n worden v e r g e l e k e n met r e s u l t a t e n van een n i e t - l i n e a i r a c t u a t o r

s c h i j f model, gegeven i n Hoofdstuk 3 en v e r d e r met gedetailleerde metingen

van het s t r o m i n g s v e l d . Een b e n a d e r i n g voor de v i s k e u z e e f f e c t e n voor lichte

s c h r o e f b e l a s t i n g e n wordt gegeven met de methode d i e o n t w i k k e l d i s voor

s t r a a l b u i z e n zonder s c h r o e f .

In Hoofdstuk 3 i s een d i s c r e t e w e r v e l v l a k methode t o e g e p a s t b i j de

de b e r e k e n i n g van de a x i s y m m e t r i s c h e s t r o m i n g rond een schroef-straalbuis-

systeem geplaatst i n een r a d i a a l o n g e l i j k m a t i g e a a n s t r o m i n g . De c o n v e r g e n t i

van de methode wordt aangetoond. De methode wordt g e b r u i k t om h e t effect

van de v o r t i c i t e i t i n de a a n s t r o m i n g op de i n t e r a c t i e t u s s e n s c h r o e f en

straalbuis t e a n a l y s e r e n . G e d e t a i l l e e r d e v e r g e l i j k i n g e n met experimentele

r e s u l t a t e n tonen de m o g e l i j k h e d e n en de b e p e r k i n g e n van de methode aan.

In Hoofdstuk 4 wordt de numerieke methode t o e g e p a s t b i j de b e r e k e n i n g

van h e t , s t r o m i n g s v e l d a c h t e r een o m w e n t e l i n g s l i c h a a m en b i j de interactie

190
t u s s e n het s c h r o e f - s t r a a l b u i s s y s t e e m en de romp. D r u k v e r d e l i n g e n op het

l i c h a a m en de s t r a a l b u i s en s n e l h e i d p r o f i e l e n t o t aan het schroefvlak

worden gegeven. De g e v o e l i g h e i d van de z o g g e t a l en de e f f e c t i e v e volgstroom

voor de s c h r o e f b e l a s t i n g en s t r a a l b u i s geometrie wordt gegeven voor twee

v e r s c h i l l e n d e beschouwingswijzen van de i n t e r a c t i e . De s t r a a l b u i s wordt

beschouwd a l s een d e e l van de romp o f de s t r a a l b u i s wordt g e z i e n a l s een

d e e l van de v o o r t s t u w e r .

In Hoofdstuk 5 wordt het berekeningsschema g e b a s e e r d op de m a t i g be-

laste actuator s c h i j f t h e o r i e van Hoofdstuk 2 gebruikt i n combinatie met

een ontwerp p r o c e d u r e v o l g e n s L e r b s ' i n d u c t i e f a c t o r methode. De invloed

van de v e r s c h i l l e n d e keuzen voor de spoed van de afgaande w e r v e l s op de

o n t w e r p r e s u l t a t e n worden o n d e r z o c h t . Een i l l u s t r a t i e f v o o r b e e l d wordt

gegeven.

T e n s l o t t e worden i n Hoofdstuk 6 conclusies getrokken.

191
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes t o e x p r e s s h i s g r a t i t u d e t o the Management o f t h e

Netherlands Ship Model B a s i n f o r t h e o p p o r t u n i t y g i v e n t o perform this

study.

The author i s deeply i n d e b t e d t o D r . I r . W. van Gent f o r h i s guidance

and a d v i c e d u r i n g t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f t h i s work. S p e c i a l thanks a r e

extended t o t h e SR-group o f t h e NSMB, and p a r t i c u l a r l y t o I r . B.R.I. Luttmer,

for t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the i n v e s t i g a t i o n reported here.

Thanks a r e g i v e n t o Mrs. G.P.M. Swint-Jongsma f o r h e r c o n s t a n t

assistance i n the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , t o Mr. F.A.J. J a n s s e n for

h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n to the experimental work, t o Mr. G. van de Weerd and

Mr. G.J. Seves f o r t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e f i g u r e s and t o Mr. B. M i l l e c a m

f o r the photographic work.

T h i s study was performed w h i l e on l e a v e from " I n s t i t u t o Superior

Técnico" and p a r t i a l l y supported by g r a n t s o f " J u n t a N a c i o n a l de

Investigaçao C i e n t i f i c a e Tecnológica" which i s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

A f i n a l word o f g r a t i t u d e i s g i v e n t o P r o f e s s o r A.F. de 0. F a l c a o o f

L i s b o n T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y f o r h i s encouragement and support b e f o r e and

during the stay i n the Netherlands.

192
 STELLINGEN

1.
Wu's formulation for the flow through a heavily loaded actuator disk may be general-
ized to treat the problem of a propeller with finite hub, ducted propellers and a pro-
peller in a radially non-uniform free stream.

W u , T. Y . 'Flow through a heavily loaded actuator disk' Schiffstech-

nik, V o l , 9-1962.

2.
Paint test techniques provide a most useful means of assessing the boundary layer
character on a duct with and without propeller.

3.
For most of the ducts of the acceleration type having a diffuser downstream of the
propeller, the effects of slipstream contraction are of less importance than the effects
of vortex pitch deformation in the slipstream. When considering the interaction be-
tween propeller and duct the latter effects can be rather well approximated by a reason-
able choice of the pitch.

4.
The arguments to justify the design of a propeller with zero circulation at the hub
can be employed to make a design of a ducted propeller with an assumed zero circu-
lation at the tip acceptable.

5.
The experimentally found trends for the propulsion factors for ships fitted with ducted
propellers indicate that the thrust deduction is considerably more influenced by
changes of duct loading than by changes of propeller loading. For the wake fraction
the same trends cannot be discerned.

M I N S A A S , K . J . , G . M . J A C O B S E N and H . O K A M O T O . 'The design of

large ducted propellers for optimum efficiency and manoeuvrability'
R I N A Symposium on ducted propellers. Paper no. 11, London 1973.

6.
Laser-Doppler velocimetry gives new possibilities of theoretically studying propeller-
hull interaction.

7.
Assuming an ideal fluid it is possible to show on theoretical grounds that diffusion
of the propeller's slipstream improves the efficiency of a ducted propeller. One possi-
ble proof may be given by applying surface vorticity techniques.
 8.
The availability of a high speed computer and appropriate computational techniques
associated with the need for a relatively quick answer to a technical problem offers
to the researcher an alternative which may exclude the set-up of an analytical investiga-
tion of considerable interest.

9.
The increasing influence of technology in the forming process of political decisions
makes it necessary that an increasing attention should be paid to the divulgation of
the technical sciences. Significant contributions to such a task could be made by the
technical universities.

10.
The particular demands from the industry for specific profiles of engineers should
be contemplated when defining or reviewing the curricula of the correspondent univer-
sity courses.

11.
The acceptance of a hierarchical principle relating to collective and private transport
in urban and sub-urban areas as it is already done in many cases, constitutes a first
step toward a more rational solution for traffic problems.

12.
It is not justified to think that a great diversification of educational programmes is
inefficient and promotes social inequalities. Instead it contributes to the insertion of
the schools in the society at the professional and cultural levels and helps the students
to find their jobs.

J . A. C . F A L C A O DE C A M P O S
Delft, 14 June 1983
CURRICULUM VITAE

The a u t h o r o f t h i s work was born i n L i s b o n on A p r i l 11, 1952.

Frequented Grammar S c h o o l from 1962 t o 1969. From 1969 t o 1975 s t u d i e d

Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g at the T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y o f L i s b o n . In 1974

j o i n e d the Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g Department, s e c t i o n o f A p p l i e d

Thermodynamics and i n 1975 became a member o f t h e r e s e a r c h group o f

NEEM-CTAMFUL ( C e n t r o de Termodinámica A p l i c a d a e Mecánica dos F l u i d o s

das U n i v e r s i d a d e s de L i s b o a ) . S i n c e O c t o b e r 1977 worked at the

Netherlands S h i p Model B a s i n on t h e s u b j e c t o f d u c t e d p r o p e l l e r s . The

r e s u l t s o f t h i s work a r e p r e s e n t e d i n this thesis.