MECH 3416 Fundamentals of

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Hong Kong

Prof. Lixi Huang, © since 2009, revised 2022

1
 Course Content
Part A: Aerodynamics and Propulsion

Chapter 1. Aerodynamics
1.1 Introduction to airfoil, lift coefficient Assessment
1.2 Preliminary physical explanations of lift
1.3 Finite-length wings
1.4 History of modern aerodynamics 10% : In-course assessment

Chapter 2. Engine Mid-term test (following reading

2.1 Components of the core jet engine week, by Email/Moodle
2.2 Cycle analysis and turbofan design announcement)
2.3 Combustion and pollution
10% : Lab (compulsory part)
Chapter 3. Flight mechanics
3.1 Drag polar 80% : EXAM, end of semester
3.2 Cruise performance
3.3 Take off and landing

Part B: Aircraft Materials

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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics Overview

1. Airfoil and lift 8. Viscosity and vorticity 15. Finite wing,

2. Bernoulli equation 9. Stokes theorem vortex drag
3. Lift coefficient 10. Kelvin theorem 16. Historical themes
4. Examples 11. Tennis ball 17. Transonic age
5. Pressure centre 12. Vorticity production 18. Supersonic
6. NACA airfoils 13. d’Alembert paradox 19. Swept wings
7. Kutta-Joukowski 14. Smooth trailing edge 20. Prandtl’s line
theorem flow 21. Review examples

The mathematical parts in 8-

14 are not required for exam
References

1. George K. Batchelor, An introduction to fluid dynamics, Cambridge

University Press, 1967. Sec. 7.8 and other general topics of fluids. Coded as
[GKB] below
2. M. James Lighthill, An informal introduction to theoretical fluid mechanics,
Oxford University Press, 1986. Chapters 5,10,11. [MJL]
3. John D. Anderson Jr, A history of aerodynamics and its impact on flying
machines, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Part IV. [JDA]
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 1. Airfoil and lift

Lift, L= component of resultant force

perpendicular to flight velocity V,
drag, D, force opposing V. L>>D
L
Flow
D
Incidence
angle

Flight ,  incoming flow speed V far away

An airfoil has
Blunt nose
Sharp tail
High lift-to-drag ratio, ≥10

Scanned figure from a book by Sir

M. James Lighthill (1924-1998)
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 2. Bernoulli eqn cannot explain lift

The usual theoretical explanation of lift The central question of why the upper
generation adopts the Bernoulli equation: surface has low pressure is translated
pressure is low where velocity is high to why the upper surface has faster
flow. Bernoulli eqn does not provide a
causal explanation from the root of
physics. It is much beyond Bernoulli
Note: This equation is valid for steady flow along a
single stream without viscous effect, points 12, or From
1’2’ (below). When points 1 and 1’ are similar, we CFD:
may compare points 2 and 2’: if V2>V2’, p2<p2’. Equal time
interval for
2 each color
1 strips

1’
2’ It is WRONG to assume that it takes the same
time for the two streams to reach the trailing
Daniel Bernoulli, edge; the flow on the upper surface is much
Dutch-Swiss, faster. There is no simple explanation for the
1700 –1782 lift force, but we believe the true origin lies in
fluid viscosity and vorticity shedding, beyond
Found pressure
Bernoulli equation.
related to V2
5
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 3A. Lift coefficient

is inward normal
, C: chord, S: span
In 2D study we set span S=1, Boundary
layer wraps
Hence
airfoil

(Figure from the book by JDA)

Shear stress 𝜏 = 𝜇
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 3B. Lift coefficient

, symmetrical airfoil
, circular arc of 0 thickness, but

Thin, symmetrical airfoil

(e.g. flat plate):

Slope
Actual slope against
(in radian) ~ 6.0
Cambered airfoil
DEGREE for ONLY
has a negative
USED IN AXIS zero-lift
LABELS incidence -b

Use radian
for a in all
calculations
Incidence angle alpha 7
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 4. Examples

Q: A flat-plate of 1m in span and 0.3m in chord length is placed in a flow

stream of 20m/s, at an attack angle of 5deg. What is the maximum possible lift
force? Note that air density is 1.2 kg/m3 for this question and the lift-
coefficient slope is 6.0.
Radian, not
Ans degree!
Not 6.0x5=30
. × . × × . .

Q: The lifting performance of an aircraft wing is approximately described by the results

of airfoil test in a wind tunnel. The test result reveals the following: the zero-lift attack
angle is -5deg and the lift coefficient remains linear with respect to the attack angle up
to about 12deg, hence . Estimate the weight (in kg)
that a pair of wings, each with a chord of 5m and a span of 30m, can support when the
aircraft flies at 200m/s, at an attack angle of 0deg, near the sea-level where the air
density is 1.2kg/m3.
Use SI units
Ans for Newton！
× . × × × × . × . ×
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 5A. Pressure centre

In 2D, per unit span S=1, using arc airfoil as example

Equivalent concentrated force
L acting at one point

Actual, distributed pressure

xp

Symmetrical, xp=chord/4 Arc with , 𝑝=chord/2

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Chapter 3. Flight 5B. Stability

Longitudinal stability (pitch)

Centre of gravity (CG) ahead of lift centre

(neutral point NP) is more stable since the
disturbance is on the lift

When attack angle  (nose up), lift  leading to

CG down hence nose down (stable)

Illustration from NASA website 10

Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 6A. Shape matters: NACA airfoils

Gottingen thickness distribution

Eastman N. Jacobs, NACA Langley Experimentalist,1902–1987

NACA2412 : 2% max camber at 0.4 chord, max thickness 12%

NACA23012: best in five-digit series, higher CLmax but

poorer stall behavior, higher drag

NACA 23012
Theodore Theodorsen, Norwegian American, NACA Langley,1897-1978
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 6B. Flow acceleration/deceleration

A very crude explanation of how flow behaves around an airfoil –

acceleration (lower pressure) and deceleration (higher pressure)

Far away, the flow

stream is horizontal

Near the airfoil,

the streamline
should be curved

• Acceleration through narrowing passage, deceleration through expansion

• The actual flow field is more complex. Suppose the flow accelerates and
decelerates in a symmetrical fashion as shown above, and the lower surface is flat,
it would suggest zero total lift as the suction by the front part is cancelled out by the
pressurization at the rear part. In fact,
• the streamline near the airfoil is curved and the flow over the entire upper surface
turns clockwise with a low mean-pressure based on the centrifugal force argument.
• Comprehensive explanation requires fluid viscosity, fluid rotation, vortex shedding,
which is far beyond the Bernoulli equation.
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 6C. Laminar airfoils (low drag)

• Boundary layer wraps airfoil and it determines drag (friction and normal Shear
stress
pressure). Jacobs tried to reduce drag by optimizing airfoil shape only
𝜏=𝜇
• Laminar flow has lower drag than turbulent flow, but the latter has better
capability to counter flow separation (worst)

• A lot of study in 1960s-70s to delay the laminar-to-turbulent flow

transition, and to learn from fish swimming
• Modern control methods include boundary layer suction

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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 6C. Laminar airfoils (low drag)

Typical 4-digit series NACA 0012 6-digit series

NACA 66-012

Flow decelerates, pressure

rises (adverse pressure
condition), prone to turbulent
flow and separation

Maximum thickness moves

downstream, extension of
region of favourable
pressure (↓) condition
Real experiment does not
show laminar flow, due to
roughness, but very good
for high-speed flow, a
fluke, or 歪打正着
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 6D. High lift

Modern design with inverse problem: finding geometry for a given pressure
distribution. But, apart from lift/drag ratio, stall character is also important !
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 Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 7A. Lift & circulation

To calculate lift, we begin with the simplistic use of

Bernoulli’s equation by assuming that
• the flow is irrotational (vorticity =0) everywhere
outside the body and incompressible, and
• the pressure on the surface is very similar to the
pressure in the mainstream where Bernoulli’s
equation makes sense

Far upstream, the flow velocity is

V, and the two streamlines share
the same total pressure 𝐹 ≈ 𝜌𝑉 𝑢 −𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑢 𝑑𝑙⃗

where 𝑑𝑙⃗ on the lower surface runs against 𝑢

Integration around an
enclosed curve (surface),
normally anticlockwise as +
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 7B. Kutta-Joukowski’s theorem

The lift on an arbitrary two-dimensional body with circulation

around that body, G, has a lift per unit span as . The lift
is upward for left-right flow with clockwise circulation

Martin Wilhelm
Lift F
Circulation G Kutta, German,
1867-1944.
Also of Runge-
Incoming Kutta scheme
velocity V

Nikolai
• Inviscid flow theory, where Yegorovich
integral runs outside boundary layer Joukowski,
G
• In 2D, the force direction may be Russian,
F
determined by vector product of 1847-1921
V
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 8. Viscosity and vorticity

• For a rigid disk rotating anti-clockwise at

angular velocity , the anti-clockwise x
circulation is
, which is the flux of
“vorticity” ( , vector using the
right-hand rule) through the area (see
Stokes’ theorem on the next page).

• The rotation of fluid is normally caused

by fluid viscosity (粘性), derived from
molecular collisions, and it tends to
eliminate velocity difference.

• Viscosity imposes zero slip on solid

Dynamic and kinematic viscosity
surface, and it resists shear deformation
coefficients of air at room condition
(but in vain). Shear stress (in Pascal unit)
exists in the layer of
velocity gradient. 18
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 9. Stokes

Sir George Stokes’ theorem (or Kelvin-Stokes) for

Gabriel Stokes, any vector V the vorticity flux through a
1st Baronet surface is equal to the circulation around
(1819–1903),
the edge that encloses the surface
also the Stokes in
(given as a prize exam at Cambridge)
the Navier-Stokes
equation   
ex ey ez
 
   V  /x /y /z
Circulation is the total vorticity u v w
through a surface! n 
v u
z   positive anti-clockwise
Analogy: x y
A, C    
Vorticity  velocity  
  V  n dA   V  dl ,
A C
Circulation  volume flow
comparable to lower dimension
Dimension of vorticity = 1/s, frequency b  dF 
a  dx 
b
Dimension of circulation= m2/s dx  F a

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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 10. Kelvin’s theorem
Kelvin’s theorem: circulation around a
closed curve C moving with fluid remains 2 V+dV
unchanged in inviscid flow dl
 1 V
V   V 2 p 
For unsteady rotational flow   V      gz   0
t  2  

dG d   dV   
   V  dl  
  dl  
 V  dl /dt  0 
dt dt dt
   2nd term
1st term
 
dV dV  p 
1st term:   dt     dp
 1
 p  0,  dl   dl  
dt
If p  f (  ),    f '    d   0

1 1
dp 
William Thomson, 1st
   
2nd term: 
 V  dl / 
dt   V dV   d V 2
/2   0
Baron Kelvin (1824-1907)

Proof not required in syllabus but the physics (below) is important

Viscosity is the main source of vorticity (and agent for dispersion/diffusion),
so the total vorticity, or circulation, is constant in inviscid flow 20
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 11. Tennis ball

A backspin tennis ball (slice shot, flying left, clockwise) generates more vorticity (anti-
clockwise,+) at the lower side than the upper side(-). The net vorticity shed into the wake
is anti-clockwise.
The actual flow speed above the ball is
higher, giving a suction and a net upward lift
force on a backspin tennis ball. The vorticity
bound to the ball is obviously clockwise,
which is the same as the flow over an airfoil.

Airfoil achieves
such circulation and
lift without physical
spin! How?

Applying Kelvin’s law using a large

rectangle enclosing the ball+wake
ensures zero total circulation. Divide the
rectangle into two, the left box has
clockwise bound vorticity, balancing the
anti-clockwise in the right. The total is
zero, as required by Kelvin’s law.
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 Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 12. Vorticity production

Vorticity is generated whenever flow passes over a solid surface, on which velocity =0. We
demonstrate below how the Stokes theorem is proved: calculation of vorticity integration
gives the same result as the line integration of circulation (negative below for clockwise)
Free Vorticity dx v u du
stream U pathway    ,
x y dy
H du
Velocity
distribution
H AHdx dA   dx 0 dy dy
 dx  u y  H  u y 0   dx  U
 
The free stream velocity U is found to be the total G   V  dl  U  dx
Rectangle
vorticity generated by unit distance in flow direction.

  Flow, U When the plate runs left at speed V, it is

G   V  dl   U  V   dx the relative speed that determines the
Rectangle
total clockwise circulation (both velocity
Plate moving left at speed V against the direction of line integration)

Running fluid over a flat plate is like lighting a

Analogy match. The friction with the surface is the
source of vorticity (the resulting fire/light)
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 13. d’Alembert Paradox

The lift is also zero, although there is

Jean le Rond moment tending to turn the airfoil
d'Alembert, French, clockwise! Neither zero lift nor zero drag
1717-1783 conforms to observed reality, therefore
Paradox: inviscid viscosity surely plays a central role in lift
flow over arbitrary generation.
body in motion has
zero drag. By the inviscid flow theory, the flow
velocity around the leading and trailing
edges become infinity due to zero radius of
curvature there. The infinity at the leading
edge is resolved by a small finite radius, but
the velocity around the sharp trailing edge
remains very large, leading to the shedding
of large vorticity (anti-clockwise)

Sharp edge
The flow field shown above is inviscid flow
over a flat plate of zero thickness, showing two
anti-symmetrical stagnation points
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 14. Smooth trailing edge flow

We may begin with inviscid flow over a

flat plate which has two anti-symmetrical +
stagnation points.

The reason why + dominates is due to the

fast rotation of inviscid fluid climbing over a
sharp trailing edge (think of an ice skater
drawing in his stretched arm/leg).
[3] The stagnation point stabilizes when it
coincides with the trailing edge. The total
shedding ( of + ) required is exactly the
amount needed to move the stagnation point to
the edge: the Joukowski hypothesis.
[1] Kelvin’s law begins with zero total circulation
(or vorticity flux) over the area enclosing and
outside the plate. Anti-clockwise bound vorticity
(+ ) is shed at the trailing edge causing a net
clockwise bound vorticity (thus upward lift).
[2] both clockwise (- ) and anti-clockwise bound
vortices (+ ) induce the rear stagnation point to
move but that by (+ ) dominates causing the
stagnation point to move downstream. 24
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 15A. Finite wing – two vortices system

Spanwise vorticity (for lift)

Front view of aircraft tip
vortex

Vortex
sheet

Streamwise vorticity (from tip) 25

Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 15B. Vortex drag

L22 D
Induced Drag  Incidence angle reduced
  span 
2 1
2
U 2
Lift tilted backward  drag
(tip) vortex drag is
• Inevitable (finite wing)
• Proportional to L2
• Winglet helps
Sir B (Bennett) Melvill
Jones (1887-1965) :
what if aircraft can be
designed to have only
the inevitable drag?

Aircraft with minimal drag vs Carnot cycle efficiency 26

Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 16. Historical themes

• Academic people indulge in pure science, probably consider those who wanted to fly
to be mad

• Inventors (Wright brothers) driven by their own passion and develop technology
without the benefit of pure science

• Modern science and technology (since German science in WWI, WWII) academic
research driven by science, science is often justified by technology or industry)

Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) with his

flow test rig at Univ of Gottingen

First flight on 17 Dec 1903 by

Orville (1871–1948) and Wilbur
(1867 –1912) Wright brothers
27
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics
↑ Bell XS-1, first
supersonic flight by captain
Charles Yeager
Theodore von Kármán
(1881-1963), Prandtl’s
Jewish student
17. Transonic age
Factor of by linear
Prandtl-Glauert theory
↑ Sound barrier: a misleading
word invented by British
newspaper following WF
Hilton’s description of drag
divergence to media
28
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 18. Supersonic

Ernst Mach (pronounced

correctly as Max), 1838-
1916, Austrian Empire
(now Czech) studied shock
William John in front of a bullet
Macquorn Rankine,
1820-1872, Civil Engg
Glasgow A more gradual acceleration
in upper surface would
Rankine cycle result in a weak shock and
Rankine- Hugoniot less shock-boundary layer
relation for shock interaction (less terrible
wave form drag)
29
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics
Hermann Glauert (1892-
1934 Sheffield UK) 
derived the Prandtl-Glauert
compressibility correction
for airfoil lift
19. Swept wings
CL 0  incompressible
CL 
1  M 2  2 / AR  Wing aspect ratio
Adolf Busemann (Gottingen, 1901-
1986, at Colorado USA) developed the
idea of swept wing (normal velocity
crucial for flow over the wing - drag)
↓ But Robert T Jones (1910-1999) also
made independent effort at NACA
30
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 20. Prandtl’s line

陆士嘉 Chia Lu, born in

1911 苏州 - 1986, entered
Gottingen 1938, last student
of Prandtl, back to China
1946, a founder and
professor at Beijing Institute
of Aeronautics (北航)

錢學森 Tsien Hsue-shen,

born in 1911 杭州 - 2009
back to China 1955, Co-
founder, Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) at the
California Institute of
Technology (Caltech).
Responsible for Dongfeng
Missile, Long March Rocket,
Shenzhou V, etc
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Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 21. Review examples

Q1. Please choose two of the following phrases as the most relevant elements in
the generation of lift on an airfoil.

(i) fluid viscosity; (ii) steady flow;

(iii) flow separation; (iv) shedding of vorticity.

Offer a brief explanation in less than 50 words

Ans: (i) and (iv) are relevant

Vorticity shedding is directly related to bound vorticity hence lift. The origin
of vorticity is mostly fluid viscosity in contact with a surface.
(brief explanation does not have to be made in the same manner)

Common mistakes: flow separation separates flow into upper and lower surfaces!
Inaccurate explanation for correct choices (i) and (iv).

32
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 21. Review examples

Q2.
(a) A flat-plate of 1m in span and 0.3m in chord length is placed in a flow stream of
20m/s, at an attack angle of 2 deg. What is the lift force generated if there is no stall?
Note that air density is 1.2 kg/m3 for this question and the slope of lift-coefficient vs
attack angle in radian is 6.0.

Ans: =15.08 N
Common mistakes: degree used instead of radian

(b) If the wing described in (a) is placed in a wind-tunnel of width equal to 1m, will it
register higher lift or the same as it would experience in open air stream of the same
velocity? Why?
Hint: Wind tunnel normally has a rectangular cross section and model wing sample is
set with the wing-span in the tunnel width direction. When the tunnel width is very
large compared with the sample, it mimics the free-space flight condition in sky. When
the tunnel width is equal to the wing-span, it mimics the two-dimensional flow.

Ans: Higher lift, because in free stream the lift is reduced by tip vortex.
Common mistake: a bit unclear about which has higher lift though the explanation
shows the right understanding of the fact that tip vortex reduces lift
33
Chapter 1. Aerodynamics 21. Review examples

Q3. Compare flow speeds at points A, B and C on the airfoil shown below. Which point
has the lowest flow speed, and which has the highest flow speed among the three? Briefly
explain why.
C E
A

Flow, attack D
B
Wake
angle 5deg

Point D is in the wake, and E is outside and well above the airfoil. Determine the direction
of vorticity (clockwise or anti-clockwise) at D and E. Also briefly explain your answers.

Ans

C: fastest as it is around the thickest part of the airfoil

D: anticlockwise, which is the direction of shed vorticity
E: nearly no vorticity outside the boundary layer

Common mistakes: consider B to be slowest due to failure to recognize smallest VA.

Vorticity at E is clockwise instead of 0 (bound-vorticity is clockwise but not at E)
34