THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Bachelor of Engineering Civil Engineering

Report
Aseismic Design

Maxwel Borter
EICQ/03086p/2019

EECQ 5153
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Lecturer
Prof. David. O. Koteng’

@2023
Carry out a necessary literature review and prepare a report of 12 to 18 pages on the design
and construction of aseismic buildings and other structures. Include properly sized
illustrative figures and provide the references used to generate the report.
Introduction
Earthquakes do not kill people; seismically unsafe buildings do. Primarily, the earthquake safety
problem is a structural safety problem, and hence a technology problem. The key deficiency is
in the practice & management of earthquake-resistant technology. Organisations, agencies,
and/or individuals with no technology background that are steering these projects have been
ineffective. Architects & Engineers are not playing a responsible role; they are offering
substandard technical services leading to UNSAFE constructions.

The 2001 Gujarat earthquake is a recent example of such a catastrophe. It was the first major
earthquake to hit an urban area of India in the last 50 years. It killed 13'800 people and injured
some 167'000. Over 230'000 one- and two-story masonry houses collapsed and 980'000 more
were damaged. Further, many lifelines were destroyed or severely damaged and de facto non-
functional over a long period. The net direct and indirect economic loss due to the damage and
destruction is estimated to be about US$ 5 billion. The human deaths, destruction of houses,
and direct and indirect economic losses caused a major setback in the developmental process
of the State of Gujarat.

From 1950 to 1999, 234 natural catastrophes were categorized as great natural catastrophes
[MR 00]. Of these 234, 68 (29%) were earthquakes. The most important ones in terms of loss of
lives were the 1976 Tangshan earthquake (China), with 290'000 fatalities and the 1970
Chimbote earthquake (Peru), with 67'000 fatalities. In terms of economic losses, the most
important ones were the 1995 Kobe earthquake (Japan), with US$ 100 billion, and the
1994Northridge earthquake (USA) with US$ 44 billion.

It is tempting to think that this risk is concentrated only in areas of high seismicity, but this
reasoning does not hold. In regions of low to moderate seismicity, earthquakes can also be a
predominant risk. There, hazard can be seen as relatively low, but vulnerability is very high
because of the lack of preventive measures.
In the early 20th century, the first seismic provisions in building codes were introduced in a few
countries with high seismicity. These early seismic codes have been periodically updated with
increasing knowledge in earthquake engineering. In the 1960s and 1970s, countries with
moderate seismicity began to adopt seismic requirements in their building codes. In the same
period, a better understanding of dynamic soil behavior as well as inelastic structural behavior
led to the development of more advanced seismic codes.

Kobe Earthquake in Japan Tangshan Earthquake in China

Chimbote Earthquake in Peru Northbridge Earthquake in USA 1

Today, the principles of capacity design together with the concepts of ductile behavior allow a
safe and cost-effective earthquake-resistant design. The latest efforts of seismic code
development were mainly focused on internationally harmonized standards like ISO 3010,
Eurocode 8, and UBC.
Unfortunately, even today, the seismic provisions of the building codes are not always
respected; this is due to either ignorance, indifference, convenience, or negligence. Moreover,
appropriate official controls and checks are lacking. Buildings that are very vulnerable and at
risk from even a relatively weak earthquake continue to be built today. Investigations of
existing buildings showed, however, that enforcing the building code requirements makes it
possible to significantly reduce the seismic vulnerability of buildings with no significant
additional costs while improving their resistance against collapse.

The ignorance or disregard of the seismic provisions of the building codes, even if only partial,
can result in an inferior building.

Reasons for building failure during earthquakes

1. Soil failure and liquefaction: The horizontal and vertical forces of the earthquake move the
ground sideways and up & down simultaneously. These forces are powerful enough to turn
the soft soil into quicksand, which reduces the bearing capacity of the soil. Buildings
constructed on the soil having low bearing capacity are therefore under special risk. These
may be found sinking after the tremors stop. Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed,
water-logged sediments at or near the ground surface lose their strength in response to
strong ground shaking. Liquefaction occurring beneath buildings and other structures can
cause major damage during earthquakes. Most previous studies have shown that
reinforcing the ground through grouting prevents liquefaction damage to the ground and
structures in the event of an earthquake, and is sufficiently applicable to existing structures.
2. Foundation Failure: Earthquake loads are irregular, multidirectional and intense side-to-
side loads thus there is a high possibility of failure of the foundation connection. As the
lateral forces of earthquakes increases with increase in height of the structure, taller
buildings are more prone to seismic failures. The building slides off its foundation due to the
lateral forces. Use of anchor bolts or reinforcement to the foundation wall also help to
protect against the concentration of shear forces at grade.
3. Soft Floor failure: Floors with minimum interior shear walls, additional floor-to-floor height
or large open space with concentration of building mass above are known as soft floors.
 These floors often crumble due to the large inertial force acting above them during an
earthquake. Soft floors are less rigid which makes them susceptible to failure due to
earthquake. Effective measures to prevent soft storey: (a) Changing the location of spaces,
(b) Continuing the walls in soft storey , (c) Changing the size of spaces, (d) Changing the
arrangements of structural elements, (e) separating discontinuous walls from frame.
4. Building joint failure: Many times it is found that there are new expansion to the buildings
which are connected with the older buildings. The expansion usually do not match the
height of the rest of the structure and it is being found to be pounded by the older structure
during an earthquake. It is therefore necessary to provide sufficient clearance between the
structures or the provision of effective expansion joints must be there.
5. Building failure: Sometimes it is found that the roof or façade fall from the building during
or after an earthquake. These failures occur because several diverse building elements have
been treated like a single system when, in fact they must be tied separately back to the
structure, with space between them to provide differential movements of the dissimilar
elements. This failure also occurs when the roof is very heavy compared to the load
supporting elements for example the Japanese tradition houses.
6. Cheap Concrete: The failure is also associated with quality of the material used. People are
usually found to use sub-standard material during construction to cut down the cost,
without considering the long term consequences. Also, it is a well-known fact that the
strength of the concrete decreases when huge amount of water is added to it. People are
found to ignore this fact to save cost on material. Building codes are also not followed
properly. The buildings so constructed do not meet up to the requirements of the load
conditions and are subjected to failure. To mitigate, building codes and high quality of
materials must be strictly adhered to.
7. Resonance: It is usually found that the buildings having lesser height are ignored from the
consideration under the earthquake resistant design. But the failure of the building due to
earthquake is majorly dependent on the resonance. During an earthquake not all buildings
respond to an earthquake equally. If the frequency of oscillations meet the natural
frequency of the building, then resonance can cause severe damage. Small buildings are
 more affected by the high-frequency waves while the tall buildings are affected by low
frequency waves.

Seismic Design Strategies and Devices.

(i) Diaphragms.
A diaphragm is a structural element that transmits lateral loads to the vertical forces resisting
element of the structure.it includes the floor and roof levels. Even symmetrical buildings must
be able to withstand significant lateral forces . Engineers counteract these forces in both the
horizontal and vertical structural systems of a building.

(ii) Cross bracing.

Cross bracing is a system utilized to reinforce building structures in which diagonal support
intersect. It uses two diagonal members in an X-shape, is a popular way to build wall trusses.
Wall bracing can increase a building’s capacity to withstand seismic activity

(iii) Shear walls.

A shear wall is a structural system composed of braced panels. It is used to counter the effect of
lateral loads like acting on a structure. Seismic loads are the most common loads that shear
walls are designed to carry.
(iv) Moment-resisting frames.
Column/beam joints in moment-resistant frames are designed to take both shear and bending
thereby eliminating the space limitations of solid shear walls or braced frames. The
column/beam joints are carefully designed to be stiff yet to allow some deformation for energy
dissipation taking advantage of the ductility of steel.

(v) Braced Frames.

Vertical frames that transfer lateral loads from floors and roofs to foundations. Like shear walls,
Braced Frames are designed to take lateral loads but are used where shear walls are
impractical.
(vi) Trusses.
A truss is a structure that consists of two force members only, where the members are
organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object. The top beams in a
truss are called top chords and are under compression while the bottom beams is the bottom
chords and are under tension.

The Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco draws its strength from a unique truss system which
features X-bracing used above the first floor.
(vii) Base Isolation.
It is one of the most popular means of protecting a structure against earthquake forces. It
involves floating a building above its foundation on a system of bearings, springs or padded
cylinders.When an earthquake hits, it allows the foundation to move without moving the
structure above it. As a result, the building’s horizontal acceleration is reduced and suffers far
less deformation and damage.

San Francisco city Hall located in California is an example of building fitted with base isolators, it
was modified after it was destroyed during the 1906 earthquake. Engineers cut the two-block
long building from its foundation and floated on 530base isolators. In case of any future seismic
event, the building will sway horizontally up to 66 cm.

Common unsafe practices in Earthquake prone areas.

1. Poor Building Construction: Buildings constructed without proper adherence to seismic

design principles, inadequate materials, or insufficient quality control measures are
highly vulnerable during earthquakes. This includes inadequate reinforcement of
concrete, poor masonry construction, and lack of proper connections between
structural elements.
 2. Weak Foundation Design: Buildings with weak or improperly designed foundations are
susceptible to settlement, tilting, or sliding during earthquakes. Inadequate foundation
anchorage can also result in structural failure and collapse.
3. Non-Engineered Construction: Informal settlements or structures built without the
involvement of professional engineers often lack proper seismic design considerations.
These structures may use substandard materials and construction techniques,
increasing their vulnerability to earthquakes.
4. Soft Story Buildings: Buildings with soft or weak stories, such as those with open parking
or commercial spaces on the ground floor and residential units above, are prone to
collapse during earthquakes. The lack of structural integrity in the lower stories can lead
to disproportionate damage and structural failure.
5. Ignoring Local Seismic Hazards: Failure to consider local seismic hazards and site-specific
geological conditions during the design and construction process can result in structures
that are ill-prepared to withstand ground shaking, soil liquefaction, or other seismic
phenomena prevalent in the region.
6. Lack of Public Awareness and Preparedness: Communities that lack awareness of
earthquake risks and appropriate safety measures may not be adequately prepared to
respond to seismic events. This includes insufficient emergency planning, inadequate
evacuation routes, and a lack of education on earthquake safety practices.

Practical design process

1. Analyze Site Conditions
The location and physical properties of the site are the primary influences the entire design
process.
2. Establish Seismic Design Objectives
A performance-based approach to establishing seismic design objectives is recommended. This
determines a level of predictable building behavior by responding to the maximum considered
earthquake. A threat/vulnerability assessment and risk analysis can be used to define the level
of performance desired for the building project.
3. Select/Design Appropriate Structural Systems
Seismic design objectives can greatly influence the selection of the most appropriate structural
system and related building systems for the project.
Earthquake Design Codes.

For the past 100 years, seismic resistant codes have been implemented in over 160 countries and
nations. However, their quality, extent of application and methodologies vary, this is because
there’s a great variation in the seismic activities and also building standards with different
regions.

Building Codes typically require that concrete structures be designed to resist lateral forces
typically measured using seismic coefficient, which is based on the expected ground acceleration
at the building site.

There are some general principles commonly included in earthquake-resistant design codes for
structure. They mostly consider the following:

(i) Seismic intensity zone where the building is located.

(ii) How important the building is?
(iii) How stiff is the foundation soil?

Referring the guidelines in reference with the Code of Practice for The Design and Construction
of Buildings and other Structure in Relation to Earthquakes (1973), aseismic structures were
classified as follows;

(a) According to usage, value and importance.

Buildings intended for human occupation, either living, assembly or working have been
classified in the following manner;

Class A: Buildings for public assembly and usage, e.g. Courts, Police stations, Halls.

Class B: Large buildings for multiple occupation e.g. Restaurants, shops, flats.

Class C: Buildings and structures for service and industries e.g. Factories.

Class D: Domestic buildings within Township areas.

Class E: Domestic buildings in rural areas.

(b) Type of structure.

(i) Framed structures
These are structures with beams and columns which transfer loading the ground. They can either
be flexible or rigid.

(ii) Load Bearing Structures.

This type of building transfers loading to the ground purely through its masonry walls.

(c) Type of ground condition.

This considers the softness or hardness of the ground surface over which the structure will be
constructed.

Across various earthquake-resistant design codes for structures, several general principles are
consistently emphasized to ensure the safety and resilience of buildings during seismic events.

Some of the other commonly used codes and standards include;

ACI 318: This is the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary
published by the American Concrete Institute (ACI). The code covers the minimum requirements
for design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings to resist earthquake forces.

ASCE 7: The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) publishes the standard Minimum
Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, which includes
provisions for seismic design.

Eurocode 8: The European standard EN 1998-1, also known as Eurocode 8, provides guidelines
for the seismic design of buildings. It covers the design of new buildings as well as the seismic
assessment and strengthening of existing buildings.

IS 1893: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) publishes the code IS 1893, which provides
guidelines for seismic design of structures, including buildings.
References.

1. Algermissen, S. T. 1983. An Introduction to the Seismicity of the United States. Earthquake

Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, California. American Concrete Institute. 2008.
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary, 2. ACI 318-08.
American Concrete Institute, Framington Hills, Michigan Seismology Committee
(1999). Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary. Structural Engineers
Association of California.
2. "A Survey on concepts of design and executing of Superframe RC Earthquake proof
Structures" (2016) by Kiarash Khodabakhshi ISBN 9783668208704.
3. Abdel-Raheem, K.A., S.E. Abdel Raheem, H.M. Soghair, and M.H. Ahmed. 2010.
Evaluation of seismic performance of multistory buildings designed according to Egyptian
code. Journal of Engineering Sciences, Assiut University 38 (2): 381–402.
4. http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-earthquake-resistant-structures-how-safe-is-
your-home-2082169.
5. R. B. Sancio, J. D. Bray, M. F. Riemer and T. Durgunoglu, An Assessment of the
Liquefaction Susceptibility of Adapazari Silt. 2003 Pacific Conf. Earthquake Engineering,
New Zealand, 2003.