THE 7th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

"CIVIL ENGINEERING - SCIENCE AND PRACTICE"

GNP 2020 – Kolašin, Montenegro, 10-14 March 2020

Jelena Savić1, Danijela Milanović2, Aleksandra Cilić3, Danijela Đurić-Mijović4

MASONRY BUILDINGS DAMAGE: CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

Abstract
Masonry buildings, which make up most of the architectural heritage, are more susceptible to
damage than others, primarily due to the large mass of construction and brittle walls. Many of
them were built by the beginning of the previous century, so the experience acquired in the
service of masonry structures demonstrates that with an appropriate maintenance, they can have
satisfactory safety and durability levels. When renovating existing structures, care must be
taken to ensure that an adequate and comprehensive condition assessment is carried out before
any construction interventions are applied. The period when buildings were constructed is very
important because it can be determined which regulations were in force at the time in
seismically active areas.
Disrupted safety and stability of the buildings, and the quality of dwelling leads to a number of
new technical, urban, social economic and legal problems, which give rise to a process of
renovation and improvement of housing buildings in the areas where they exist. Considering
that the process of reconstruction and repair of masonry facilities requires considerable
financial resources, it is very important that the causes of damage occurrence are adequately
and precisely identified so that they can be eliminated in the best way. In this regard, this paper
outlines the types of damage and their causes, with the necessary classifications and tabulations.
The importance of such a systematic and orderly classification is reflected in the good detection
and recognition of the causes of damage and proposing appropriate measures for their
elimination.
Key words
Masonry buildings, causes of damage, classifications, rehabilitation

1
PhD, Teaching and Research Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis,
jelena.savic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
2
PhD student, Teaching Associate, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis,
danijela.milanovic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
3
PhD, Teaching and Research Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis,
aleksandra.cilic@gaf.ni.ac.rs
4
PhD, Teaching and Research Assistant, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis,
danijela.djuric.mijovic@gaf.ni.ac.rs

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1. INTRODUCTION

Most of existing residential buildings are masonry buildings, sensitive to different

influences. Both them as structures and the people who live in them are vulnerable. The existing
buildings observed in this paper were built decades ago, in the period prior to the adoption of
building regulations in seismically active areas. In addition to damage caused by various causes,
seismic loading is a high risk for them, since the Balkans countries are in a zone of considerable
seismic activity. In order to ensure the safety of the structure in the first place and to improve the
quality of housing, teams of experts of different profiles are involved [1]. Teams of experts,
specialists should consist of architects and urban planners, civil engineers of various expertise,
primarily in the field of construction and geomechanics, then of surveyors, geologists,
conservationists, archaeologists and art historians. It is very important that the causes of damage
occurrence are adequately and accurately identified, since the process of reconstruction and repair
of masonry buildings requires considerable financial resources. This paper gives an overview of
possible causes of damage to masonry buildings, as well as their classification according to
different parameters.

2. MASONRY BUILDINGS DAMAGE CAUSES

The need to perform certain interventions on the construction does not arise from the
requirement to repair the damage, but often from the wish to improve the condition of the structure
and prevent the occurrence of damage. Sometimes the state of the structure cannot be determined
by visual inspection alone. In some cases, damage and defects such that they can be registered and
analyzed only after conducting testing of materials and structures themselves. Damage in the form
of cracks resulting from exceeding the resistance of the masonry materials to tensile, compression
or shear stresses is most easily observed [2,3]. The most common causes are uneven foundation
settling, increased deformation of the supports, differences in humidity of some elements that cause
material to shrink or swell, as well as large temperature differences that cause dilation of certain
structural elements (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Cracking in walls due to different influences

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Damage due to soil settling is the most common because settling is a normal occurrence in
all soil types except rock material. Even settling is not harmful if it is within the permissible limits.
Uneven settling, regardless of its extent, represents a risk to the building stability and causes cracks
to occur in walls and other structural elements (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Different causes of object settling

The causes that lead to the soil settling usually result from the additional load originating
from the surrounding activities (traffic, mining, machine operation, piling), the volume change in
the soil due to changes in humidity, changes in groundwater levels, sensitivity of soil to freezing-
thawing, influence of underground works , mines and communications, lateral soil pressure and
similar.
The second major group of damage is caused by defects in the structural system of buildings
and the system and construction technology [4]. There are errors in the foundations of the buildings
that are very difficult or impossible to correct. Founding of individual parts of a building or of a
new building adjacent to an existing building, at different depths, as well as building foundations
on top of the old foundations, leads to cracks at the transition points from shallow to deep
foundations or from old to new foundations.

Figure 3. Extension and upgrading of existing buildings

A large overload of buildings is caused by their extension, upgrading or conversion (Fig. 3),
which leads to subsequent settling, most often uneven, so that damage occurs in the form of

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characteristic cracks both in the walls and in the foundations. Cracks and crevices are characteristic
of buildings without expansion joints as well as of buildings with unconnected foundations and not-
stiffened and unconnected walls.
Construction in expensive and cramped urban areas leads to the construction of deep
foundation pits for one or more underground floors and deep trenches for laying various
installations in the immediate vicinity of existing buildings. Failure to apply the sidewall protection
measures of these deep excavations will seriously jeopardize the stability of existing buildings by
damaging the structure, separating walls, tearing down beams and breaking columns.
One of the most unfavorable factors in terms of impact on buildings is water, which can
occur in various forms (underground, atmospheric, free, moving, stagnant) and all aggregate states.
Its effect to the foundations of buildings is particularly unfavorable, as it leads to deterioration of
the soil structure, a decrease in load-bearing capacity and it has an aggressive effect on the
foundation material if it contains aggressive ingredients. Ice lenses are formed in the foundation
zone at low temperatures whereby the swelling of the frozen soil causes pressure on the foundation
and later thawing leads to increased settling. The capillary rise of water up foundations and
foundation walls propagates into the walls causing damage to the finish of the wall surfaces and
elements made of wood or metal. The facades of the buildings are directly exposed to atmospheric
effects and temperature changes, and stylishly worked and decorated facades with accentuated
cornices and other decorative details around the openings are particularly sensitive (Fig.4).

Figure 4. Damage to walls due to capillary rise of water

Earthquakes are external factors that cause damage to buildings, and depending on their
severity, the damage can range between minor and devastating. The Balkan region is located in a
zone of considerable seismic activity, so this issue is covered by the appropriate technical
regulation. During an earthquake, most frequently it is the masonry buildings that are damaged, and
the main causes of structural damage are different. In the case of individual housing, prevails the
damage to buildings constructed without design documentation with improperly constructed load-
bearing masonry and reinforced concrete elements, poorly designed structural details and
connections, poor quality of the performed works and embedded materials. When it comes to

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collective housing - masonry buildings, much more damage has been done to extended buildings,
resulting from ignorance or failure to comply with the basic rules for the design and construction of
seismically resistant structures.

3. DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION OF MASONRY BUILDINGS

Detailed classifications of damage to building elements and of the causes are given
depending on the mode of manifestation, speed and time of occurrence, severity, prevalence and
other characteristics, since the task of defining the form of damage is very complex and
demanding. The determination of safety and degree of usability of existing masonry buildings is
made on the basis of the analysis of collected data on material characteristics, basic dimensions and
geometry of elements, damage and irregularities observed in terms of volume and location, on the
performed interventions and other measures taken during service.
According to Tomaževič [4], visible damage to the walls according to the severity can be
classified into several categories depending on the size of the damage and the volume and degree
of necessary repair works.
Table 1. Categorization of wall damage rehabilitation by severity[4]

0. level Negligible Cracks less than 0.1mm

1. level Very small Small cracks, visible mostly on the inside of the wall, that can be
removed by lime. The crack width is at most 1mm.
2. level Small Cracks are up to 5mm wide. It is necessary to fill the cracks with
suitable materials, both from the outside due to atmospheric
influences and from the inside.
3. level Moderate Cracks must be cleaned and filled with suitable material. On the
outside of the wall, it is necessary to replace the damaged brick
elements. Windows and doors are difficult to open. Installations are
damaged or broken. Crack width 5-15mm.
4. level Serious Extensive repair, includes replacement parts of walls, especially
doors and windows. Window frames and doors distorted. Walls
protruding or curved, loss of bearing capacity of individual
elements. Crack width 15-25mm.
5. level Very serious Major damage that requires partial or complete restoration. Walls
are curved and require support, loss of load-bearing capacity of
individual elements. Windows broken and distorted. The danger of
instability. Crack width greater than 25mm.

Numerous causes of damage can also be classified into categories, first the two most general
and then more detailed according to the following table.

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Table 2. Damage partition according to the occurrence [5]

Damage caused by the Local soil conditions on which the building was erected
nature of the building (geomorphological and geotechnical)
itself Type of construction and material applied, construction tolerances,
(internal factors) design and construction errors
Long-lasting effects that result in physical, hygienic or
Damage caused by the microbiological processes that lead to a gradual degradation of the
very nature or building.
intentional and Natural random causes that cannot be predicted: earthquakes,
unintentional action of storms, atmospheric influences
humans The causes of damage are from the domain of human activity when
(external factors) using buildings or performing other works in the environment of
observed buildings (fires, explosions, vibrations, undermining,etc.).

A special group consists of damages where the causes are unknown, so they require further
detailed research. It is also difficult to identify the prevailing cause of damage when there is a
superposition of multiple different impacts on buildings, and it is practically impossible to avoid
such situations. The most common parameters by which damage is classified are interrelated and
provide a specific picture of the damage nature.
Table 3. Basic classification parameters and nature of the damage [5]

Basic classification parameters The nature of the damage

Rate of formation Gradual and sudden

Propagation and danger
Manifestation
Cause and time of damage
The elements on which they appear
Gradual and partial
higher critical and smaller
Visible-predictable, sudden, hidden
Damage due to external or internal factors, damage
during construction, damage in operation
Foundations, columns, slabs, beams, roof, insulation,
cladding, installation

Many European countries have developed numerous legal measures and national programs
to rebuild housing in old, damaged buildings and to provide funding sources. That is why they
provide a series of classifications according to different parameters for a detailed
appraisal/assessment of the damage of objects which are also mentioned in our national literature
[1-3]. In Germany, building damage is classified on the basis of:
- repair options,
- limitations on the usability and life of the building,
- severity and extent of damage.
Considering the severity and impact on the usability and durability of a building, damage
can be classified into seven classes (Table 4).

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Table 4. Classification of damage by impact on usability and durability [2]

Type of damage Impact on building usability

Architectural No effectes on usability and durability

Slight damage to structural parts Reduced durability

Minor and occasional damage to the
repairable structure
Medium damage in one or more places
Serious structural damage
Very serious damage that is impossible to
repair
Complete damage
Shorten the life of the structure
Reduced usability or the risk of fracture,
remediation makes it possible to achieve usability
and durability
Discontinued use of the facility or limited
usability until the facility is repaired. If it is
renovated, its durability is significantly reduced
The life span of the structure is limited and the
usability is drastically reduced
The structure is unusable/unserviceable

Modern methods of calculation and principles of aseismic design are studied in detail and in
professional practice. The following table lists the basic classification damage caused by an
earthquake.
Table 5. Classification of earthquake damage [5]

Damage degree Damage type

Light damage: tiny cracks in the plaster, scattering of plaster pieces

First degree
and flakes and paint from walls and ceilings
Moderate damage: minor cracks in walls, falling of large pieces of
Second degree plaster, falling of roof tiles, cracking of chimneys and falling of
chimney sections
Severe damage: larger and deeper cracks in walls, demolition of
Third degree
chimneys
Destruction: cracking of walls-gaping cracks-partial demolition of
Fourth degree buildings, destruction of structural connections, demolition of interior
walls
Fifth Degree Total damage: complete demolition of buildings

The degree of damage to individual structures at a particular location indicates the favorable
or unfavorable behavior of load-bearing structures due to earthquake-induced displacement.
Regarding the local soil conditions, in terms of seismic impacts on structures of buildings, the
Ordinance provided for three soil categories. Eurocode 8 now gives this classification expanded to
five categories [6].

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Table 6. Ground types [6]

Ground type Description of stratigraphic profile
Rock or other rock-like geological formation, including at most 5 m of weaker
A
material at the surface.
Deposits of very dense sand, gravel, or very stiff clay, at least several tens of
B metres in thickness, characterised by a gradual increase of mechanical
properties with depth.
Deep deposits of dense or mediumdense sand, gravel or stiff clay with
C
thickness from several tens to many hundreds of metres.
Deposits of loose-to-medium cohesionless soil (with or without some soft
D
cohesive layers), or of predominantly soft-to-firm cohesive soil.
Deposits consisting, or containing a layer at least 10 m thick, of soft clays/silts
E
with a high plasticity index (PI > 40) and high water content

Particularly unfavorable are loose, sandy and other soils saturated with water, which during
the earthquake experienced dynamic instability with intensive settling, landslides and landslides.

4. CONCLUSION
A prerequisite for successful completion of the rehabilitation, reinforcement, reconstruction
or revitalization of existing masonry structures is to find and define the cause of damage. Since the
work on existing structures is often very expensive and demanding, the involvement of specialists
in various fields of civil engineering is required, starting with geotechnics, construction technology,
building materials and architectural design. The paper presents the most common possible causes
that lead to the occurrence of damage to the structure, and then the classification of these damages
according to the causes of the occurrence, extent and severity of remedial works, manner of
manifestation and the degree and type of damage. The importance of such a systematic and orderly
classification is reflected in the good detection and recognition of the causes of damage and
proposing appropriate measures for their elimination.

LITERATURE

[1] Folić Radomir, Kurtović-Folić Nađa: “ Pouzdanost i održavanje stambenih zgrada, Stanovanje u
višeporodičnim spratnim zgradama u novim tržišnim uslovima”, Stanovanje 1, Monografija,
Građevinski fakultet Niš, Prosveta, 1996, 65-76.
[2] Kurtović-Folić Nađa, Folić Radomir: “Stare zgrade – karakteristična oštećenja i njihovi uzorci”,
Časopis Građevinar 38, br. 4, Zagreb, 1986, 153-168.
[3] Radonjanin Vlastimir, Malešev Mirjana: ” Karakteristična oštećenja zidanih konstrukcija”, Izgradnja
59, br. 7-9, Beograd, 2005, 214-220
[4] Tomaževič Miha: “ Earthquake - Resistant Design of Masonry Buildings”, Series on Innovation in
Structures and Construction - Vol. 1, Imperial College Press, 1999, 290.
[5] Savić Jelena: ” Revitalizacija stambenih zgrada u konstruktivnom kontekstu”, Doktorska disertacija,
Univerzitet u Nišu, Građevinsko-arhitektonski fakultet, 2016, 178
[6] CEN. (2003). "Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 3: the strengthening
and repair of buildings." European Committee for Standardisation (CEN).

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