Chapter-2 Merged Compressed

8/22/2016
Objectives
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
 Fluid vs Solid
 Pressure/stress at a point in static fluid
 The variation of pressure with height in a static
fluid
 Pressure calculations using manometer
 Calculate the forces exerted by a static fluid on
plane submerged surfaces
Pressure Distribution in a Fluid
Chapter-2 J S Rathore
2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Fluid: One that can flow !! Pressure:

How to distinguish fluid from solid?  Pressure: Normal force per unit area
Substance that deforms continuously under the action of shear y

h
stress of any magnitude
A′
ΔFs = Ps(ΔsΔz)
A
Δs For a body at rest
F F Δy   
ΔFx θ
B B′ C C′
B′ B′′ C′ C′′ x  F  ma   F  0
= Px(ΔyΔz) B′
t′ t′′ θ Δz C′
t′′ > t′ B x-direction:
A z Δx C
D
 Fx  Fs sin  0
 (xyz ) g ΔFy = Py(ΔxΔz)
Solid Fluid 2
Deformation is continuous with y-direction:  F  F cos  g  xyz   0
y s
time  2 
3 4
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
1
8/22/2016
Pressure at a point in static Pressure at a point in static

fluid: fluid:
x-direction:  px  p y  ps ----------- (1)
y
 Fx  Fs sin  0  p x yz   ps sz  0  p x  ps
s Conclusions:
1. Pressure at a point in static fluid is same in all directions.
(Pascal’s law)
2. θ does not appear in equation (1) that means normal force per unit
 xyz 
y-direction:  Fy  Fs cos  g  0 area i.e. pressure, is independent of angular orientation of the surface
 2  and is therefore a scalar quantity.
 x   xyz 
 p y xz   ps sz    g  0
 s   2 
  y 
 lim  p y  ps  g    0  p y  ps
V 0   2 
5 6
State of stress at a point O: State of stress at a point O:

In solids
Stress components on
m  X   xxiˆ   xy ˆj   xz kˆ
 X   xxiˆ   xy ˆj   xz kˆ positive x-face
 Y   yxiˆ   yy ˆj   yz kˆ
 Z   zx iˆ   zy ˆj   zz kˆ
n
If fluid is at rest   0
A x  ΔyΔz
 xx  xy  xz   xx 0 0   P 0 0 
   0  0    0  P 0 
Fx Fy Fz  yx  yy  yz   yy
 xx  lim  xy  lim  xz  lim  zx  zy  zz   0 0  P 
Ax 0 Ax Ax 0 Ax Ax 0 Ax    0 0  zz 
7 8
2
8/22/2016
Pressure –Height relation: Pressure –Height relation:

In static fluid
y 
Py+Δy Pz  F  0  
A′ D′

 p  g
 g xyz  
 ˆ
  p x  p x  x yz i 
A  Constant pressure lines
Px D Px+Δx  0
Δy B′
g C′ 
 
 p y  p y  y xz  ˆj 
 p p
x   g x  0
  p  p 
z  z xy k 
Δz ˆ x x
B  z
C p dp
z Δx   g y    g
Pz+Δz Py  p
 g   x  x i
 
 p x  ˆ p y  y  p y ˆ  p z  z  p z  ˆ 
j k  0 
y dy
p p
 x y z  g   g z  0
z z
p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ   
 i j  k  g  p  g g x  g z  0, g y   g
x y z
Maximum rate of change of pressure occurs in the direction of gravity
vector.
9 10
Pressure at a point Pressure units:

PA = PB = PC = PD = PE = PF = PG = Patm + ρgh Absolute pressure: actual pressure at
1 Pa  1 N/m2 a given position. Measured with
respect to absolute vacuum (absolute
1 bar  10 Pa  0.1 MPa  100 kPa
5
zero pressure)
Gage pressure: Difference between the
absolute and local atmospheric
A pressure
Pgage = Pabs - Patm
Patm
Pvac
PH  PI Pabs B
Pabs
“The pressure is same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given Absolute
fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points are vacuum
Pabs = 0
interconnected by the same fluid” Vacuum : pressure below atmospheric
11 12
3
8/22/2016
Manometer : Exercise #1
1. Commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is
differences. measured by a multi-fluid manometer as shown in Fig.
2. A manometer contains one or more fluids such as mercury, Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1 = 0.1 m, h2 = 0.2 m
water, alcohol, or oil. and h3 = 0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil and mercury to
patm be 1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3 and 13600 kg/m3, respectively.
D
Determine the pressure at point A.
p2 = patm = 101 kPa
dp D D
d2
   g   dp    gdy
dy C C
d1
B C D C′ B′
 p2  mercury gh 3  oil gh 2   water gh1  p1
 Patm  PC    2 g ( y D  yC )  Patm  PC    2 gd2
A A  PA  Patm   2 gd2  1 gd1
C B A   p1 gage  44.05 kPa
  dp    1 gdy  PA  PB   1gd1
B B
13 14
Hydrostatic Forces on submerged

Ex # 2 plane surfaces
Determine the pressure difference between point A and B. Horizontal plane surface :
Benzene: 8640 N/m3
Kerosene: 7885 N/m3
F Mercury: 133100 N/m3
dp
Water: 9790 N/m3    g  p  gh
Air: 12 N/m3    g dy
I
E  pabs  patm  gh
C G H
D  p gage  gh
(ρ)ben g (0.2)  (ρ) mer g0.08  Patm

FR  ( gh) A
 PA   (ρ) ker g0.32  (ρ) wat g0.26  PB  PA  PB   8.9 kPa
 (ρ) air g0.09 
15 16
4
8/22/2016
Vertical plane surface : Vertical plane surface :

O z O x
When analyzing hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces, the atmospheric
pressure can be subtracted for simplicity as it acts on both sides of the structure. h1
gh1 Pressure
y prism
ycp y
Centroid of the pressure
diagram dA h2 dA
dF  ( gy)dA F cg
 F  g  ( ydA)   g y A
y gh2
y
Distance between free
surface and CG of the  y or ycg
submerged plane surface
17 18
O z O x
gh1 Pressure
h1
y prism
y ycp
ycp y
cg Fg yA dA h2
F F cg
gh2 y
y
Moment of resultant force must be equal to ( F ) ycp   (dF ) y
moment of distributed force.
19 20
5
8/22/2016
O x
( F ) ycp   (dF ) y dF  ( gy)dA
y
g  y 2 dA y
y ycp
 ycp  dA
F cg Fg yA
2 cg
 y dA F
I xx
 ycp   I cg
yA yA ycp  y 
y
yA
Second moment of area OR
Area moment of inertia OR I cg  Ay 2 I cg
Moment of Inertia of plane area   y
yA yA
21 22
Revise:
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
(1)  px  p y  ps   xx   yy   zz   p
 xx  xy  xz   xx 0 0   P 0 0 
 
(2)
 yx  yy  yz    0  yy 0    0  P 0 
 zx  zy  zz   0 0  zz   0 0  P 
 
p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ    Hydrostatic
(3) 
x
i
y
j  k  g
z
 p  g stress condition
1. No shear stress
2. Normal stresses are
dp equal & compressive
(4)    g
Lecture - 2 dy
24
6
8/22/2016
Ex 1 (2.61): Home assignment (2.62):

Gate AB in Fig is 1.5 m wide into the paper, hinged at A, and For the Gate of problem 2.61, stop ‘B’ breaks if the force on it
restrained by a stop at B. Compute (a) the force on stop B and (b) equals 40 kN. For what water depth h is this condition reached ?
the reactions at A if the water depth h = 3 m.
RAy
A RAx
(ycp- 1.8)
(1.5  1.23 )
y ycp  2.4  12 y
Fh cp 2.4(1.5  1.2)
RB
cg 1.2 m cg 1.2 m
 M A  0  Fh ( ycp  1.8)  RB 1.2
 Fx  0  R Ax  ?
25 26
Ex 3: Ex 4 (2.65):
The flow of water from a reservoir is controlled by a 1.8 m (wide Semicircular plane gate AB is hinged along B and held by a
into the paper) L-shaped gate hinged at point A as shown in Fig. horizontal force P applied at A. What force P is required for
If it is desired that the gate open when the water height is 3.6 m, equilibrium ?
determine the mass of required weight placed at B.
c x R 2
4R A
y 2
3
I xc  0.11R 4
ycp
B B’
 M A  0  Fh ( ycp  0.9)  (mg ) 1.5
27 28
7
8/22/2016
Area moment of inertia: Plane surfaces : Page 82

Area moment of Inertia
 Geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed
with regard to an arbitrary axis. A  bL A  R 2
2nd moment of area about x-axis  I xx   y dA 2 c x bL3 c x R 4
I xc  I xc 
y 12 y 4
 I yy   x 2 dA I xyc  0 I xyc  0
 I xy   xydA
bL
A
c x 2
A  bL 4R
y R 2 bL3
c x bh3 3 A  I xc 
2
y x I xxc  36
y 12 I xc  0.10976R 4 b(b  2 s ) L2
I xyc  0 I xyc 
z I xyc  0 72
29 30
Inclined plane surface : Inclined plane surface :
 FR   dF   gydA   g ( y sin ) dA
A A A
y
gh1 ycp y y y
ycp  FR  g sin  y dA
A
gh2 x
 FR  g sin yA
x Where y is the y coordinate of
the centroid measured from x′
axis which passes through O.
 FR  gyA
y
xcpx    y(dF )
( FR ) ycp
A
31 32
8
8/22/2016
Inclined plane surface : Inclined plane surface :

Moment of resultant force must be equal to moment of distributed force.
Similarly, x coordinate, xcp, for the resultant force can be determined by
   y(dF )   g sin ( y) 2 dA
( FR ) ycp summing moments about y-axis .
A A
   x(dF )   g sin xydA
( FR ) xcp
 ( y) dA
2
y y
A A
ycp y y y  
 ycp A ycp y y y
ycp y A ycp
x  xydA I   I    Ax y 
x I I  A( y ) 2  
 xcp A
  xy  xyc
 xcp
  xx  xc
 ycp x
y A y A y A
y A y A
x
I xc I xyc
  y 
 ycp y
xcpx   x 
 xcp
y A y A
y I xc sin 2  where, Ix′y′c is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
xcpx  ycp  y  coordinate system passing through the centroid of area and formed by a
yA translation of x-y coordinate system.
33 34
Ex 1: Inclined plane surface :

The car shown, has just fallen into a lake during an accident and lands at Similarly, x coordinate, xcp, for the resultant force can be determined by
the bottom of the lake on its wheels such that its inner pressure is equal to summing moments about y-axis .
the atmospheric pressure Po. The shape of car door can be approximated by
a rectangle with the sides a (1.2 m) and b (1 m). The height of water above    x(dF )   g sin xydA
( FR ) xcp
the top edge of the door is H (4 m). (Take density of water 1000 kg/m3 and y
A A
g = 9.81 m/s2.) ycp y y y
ycp
 xydA
1. Locate center of pressure (xcp,ycp).
I   I    Ax y 
x
2. Calculate the force F necessary to open the door.
Assume that the force F is normal to the door surface  
 xcp A
  xy  xyc
 xcp
and acts at a distance 0.75 b from the hinge.
x
y A y A y A
3. Up to which height h must the water rise inside the car
to allow the driver with a muscle force F (850 N) to H=4m
I xyc
open the door? y
xcpx   x 
 xcp
Justify your answer and discuss if driver can open the door. y A
where, Ix′y′c is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of area and formed by a
translation of x-y coordinate system.
36
b
9
8/22/2016
Ex 2: Submerged curved surfaces:

The 4 m diameter circular gate (see Fig below) is located in the inclined FBD of the liquid block enclosed by
wall of a large reservoir containing water (ρg = 9.81 kN/m3). The gate is 1. the curved surface of interest &
mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter, and the water depth is 2. the horizontal and vertical
10 m above the shaft. Determine (a) the magnitude and location of the projections of this surface
resultant force exerted on the gate by the water and (b) the moment that A B
would have to be applied to the shaft to open the gate.
 FR  gyA
W
C
ycp Fy
A
dF = pdA B B
A B
dA FH
Fx W
C C
I sin 2  C FV θ
 ycp  y  xc 37 F
38 R
BITS Pilani, y A Campus
Pilani BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Submerged curved surfaces: Submerged curved surfaces:

Fy Fy
B’ C’
A B A B
FH  Fx FH  Fx
FH FH
Fx W FV  Fy  W Fx W FV  Fy  W
C FV θ C FV θ B
FR FR
FR  FH  FV FR  FH  FV
2 2 2 2
C
Fy
FV FV
tan   tan  
FH FH
A B
W
C 39
40
10
8/22/2016
Ex 1: Ex 2:
A hemispherical object lying at the bottom of a tank. Calculate (1) the horizontal A hemispherical projection of diameter 1.2 m
force acting on one side of the object (2) net horizontal and vertical force acting on provided on one of the vertical sides of a tank.
the object. If the tank contains water to an elevation of 3
D′
D m above the centre of hemisphere. Calculate
the horizontal and vertical forces acting on the
projection.
Water Air
3m A
A′
H
Water
B O 1.2 m
B
A′ C′ C′ C
R
A C
42
Ex 2: Ex 3:
A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m hinged at point A, is used as an
automatic gate as shown in Fig. When the water level reaches 5 m, the gate
opens by turning about the hinge at point A. Determine
1. The hydrostatic force acting on the cylinder and its line of action when
gate opens.
The hydrostatic force acting on a circular 2. Weight of the cylinder per m length.
A
surface always passes through the center of
the circle since the pressure forces are
normal to the surface and they all pass
through the center. B C
43
B C 44
11
8/22/2016
Objectives Tutorial problem

An open tank has a vertical partition and on one side contains gasoline with a
 Hydrostatic force on curved surfaces density ρ = 700 kg/m3 at a depth of 4 m, as shown in Fig. A rectangular gate that is
4 m high and 2 m wide and hinged at one end is located in the partition. Water is
 Fluid in rigid body motion slowly added to the empty side of the tank. At what depth, h, will the gate start to
open? Also compute the reactions at hinge.
I cg
 y cpgl  y   2.667 m
yA [1.5M]
I cg 2h
 y cpw  y   [1.5M]
yA 3
 MH  0
 Fwater  (h  ycpw )  Fgl  (4  ycpgl )
 Fwater  ( g ) y w A  9810  (2h)  9.81h 2 kN [1M]  h  3.55m

h [3M]
2
 Fglycerin  (  gl g ) y gl A  700 9.81 2  (8)  109.872 kN [1M]  Rx & R y [1+1]
45 46
Ex 4: Ex 5:
A 4 m long quarter-circular gate of radius 3 m and of negligible weight is A cylinder of diameter 2.4 m and weight 2 kN per unit length, rests on the
hinged about its upper edge A, as shown in Fig. The gate controls the flow bottom of a tank as shown in Fig. Left and right hand portions of the tank
of water over the ledge at B, where the gate is pressed by a spring. are occupied by water and oil (SG = 0.75) to depths of 0.6 m and 1.2 m
Determine the minimum spring force required to keep the gate closed when respectively.
the water level rises to A at the upper edge of the gate. Find the magnitude of horizontal and vertical force needed to be applied
externally to keep cylinder touching the tank at B.
FBD of the liquid block OAB & Gate AB :
FV
C
O FH Ay
O Ax
FV
FHW FHO
FS
FR C′ A′
FH
θ = 23.2˚
47 48
12
8/22/2016
Fluids in rigid body motion Fluids in rigid body motion

  Maximum rate of change of pressure occurs in the y′
 p  g direction of gravity vector.  A
g
θ
Pressure variation in a fluid with rigid body motion : 
a
 
 F  m a  
(g  a)
Py+Δy Pz
O Constant pressure line

 g xyz   x′
 ˆ
   p x  p x  x yz i 
  
p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ
i
 
j  k   ( g  a) 
dp  
  g  a 
dp
  g 2  a2
a    xyz a
Px  Px+Δx

 
 p y  p y  y xz  ˆj 

x y z dy dy
Δy g x   p  p ˆ
 z  z xy k 
A A
  dp     g 2  a 2 dy  Patm  Po    g  a ( y A  yo )
2 2
Δz z
O O
z Δx 
p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ    
Pz+Δz Py  i j  k   ( g  a)  p   ( g  a )  Po  Patm   g 2  a 2 ( y A  yo )
x y z
49 50
Fluids in rigid body motion Fluids in rigid body motion

y′
A
 A  Constant pressure line
g g
θ θ
 h1 
a a
D
  h2
(g  a)
O Constant pressure line B C
x′
p h1  h2
   a x V1  V2  h
x 2
BC
p  h1  h2  AD sin  h1, 2  h  tan 
   (g  ay ) 2
y
 BC  AD cos
p
   a z
z
51 52
13
8/22/2016
Ex 1
Objectives
An open tank, 5m square and 3 m depth contain oil up to 2 m height. What
angle does the oil surface makes with the horizontal if tank accelerates up a  Exercise problems : Ex 2.8, 2.13, 2.14
30˚ inclined plane at 3.6 m/s2. Also find the intensity of pressure at the Unsolved P2.56, 68, 70, 76, 101, 105, 155
bottom of the tank at front (i.e. point B) and rear end (i.e. point A).
 Fluid in rigid body motion

Oil a o Uniform acceleration
(ρ = 800 kg/m3) 
a  3.6 cos30iˆ  3.6 cos30 ˆj  3.12iˆ  1.8 ˆj m/s2 o Uniform rotation
B   
 p   ( g  a )

 p   (9.81ˆj  3.12iˆ 1.8 ˆj )
y
x   ( 3.12iˆ  11 .61 ˆj )
53 54
Ex 2: Home assignment Fluids in rigid body rotation

An open rectangular tank, 1.5 m wide, 3 m long and 1.8 m deep contains Z
water to a height 1.2 m. Find the horizontal acceleration which may be
  
 p   ( g  a )
imparted to the tank in the direction of its length so that
A. There is no spilling of water from the tank
B. The front bottom corner of the tank is just exposed
r
C. The bottom of the tank is just exposed up to its mid point 
1. Calculate the volume of water that would spill out from the tank in Case
B and C. a r  r 2
2. Calculate the total force on front and rear end (wall) of the tank in case ho hc zfs
B.
R
θ

p
r
eˆr 
1 p
r 
p

eˆ  eˆz   g (eˆz )  r 2 (eˆr )  0eˆ  0eˆz
z

Case A
Case C
Case B 55 56
14
8/22/2016
Fluids in rigid body rotation Fluids in rigid body rotation

p
  r  2
r

p
r
eˆr 
1 p
r 
p
z

eˆ  eˆz   g (eˆz )  r 2 (eˆr )  0eˆ  0eˆz  p
 p
 2
r 2  gz  po z
po  p  2 2
 r ------ (1)
 0 2 g 2g
 Eq (1) gives the elevation of constant
p p p pressure surface.
   g
 dp  dr  dz z
r z
 dp  r 2dr  gdz
 2
 p r 2  gz  C1 a r  r 2
2 ho hc zfs
 V1  V2
The pressure variation is linear in Z
R 2
and parabolic in r-direction.  R 2 ho   2r (dr) zfs  ho  hc  R2
R 0 4g
At (r,z)  0  p  57po 58
Fluids in rigid body rotation Ex 3

A drag racer rests her coffee mug on a
 2 po  p  2 2 horizontal tray while she accelerates at
 p r 2  gz  po z  r ------ (1) 7m/s2. The mug is 10 cm deep and 6 cm in
2 g 2g diameter and contains coffee 7 cm deep at
rest. (a) assuming rigid body acceleration of
At the free surface where r = 0
the coffee, determine whether it will spill
p  patm out of the mug. (b) Calculate the gage
 z s (0)  o  hc pressure in the corner at point A if the
g density of coffee is 1010 kg/m3.
2
 z s (r )  hc  r2 ------ (2)
2g The coffee mug in above question is removed
a r  r 2 from the drag racer, placed on a turntable,
ho hc and rotated about its central axis until a
zs
 V1  V2 rigid body mode occurs. Find (a) the angular
velocity that will cause the coffee to just
R 2
 R 2 ho   2r (dr ) z s  ho  hc  R2 reach the lip of the mug and (b) the gage
R 0 4g pressure at point A.
59 60
15
8/26/2016
BITS Pilani Fluid in motion:

Pilani Campus
Objectives: Pipe bend

1. Velocities at various points in flow field
2. Force and moment reactions
3. Energy transfer
Nozzle
Turbine bucket
Integral Relations for a Control Volume

Chapter-3 J S Rathore
2
Fluid in motion: Eulerian description:

There are two distinct ways to describe motion:
 The Eulerian description is often more
1. Lagrangian (particle or system approach) convenient for fluid mechanics
2. Eulerian (Control volume approach) applications.
 In the Eulerian description, we define
Lagrangian description: To follow the path of individual objects
field variables, such as the pressure field
This method requires us to track the position and velocity of each individual fluid and the velocity field, at any location and
particle. instant in time.
With a small number of objects, such as

billiard balls on a pool table, individual
objects can be tracked.
Flow through a pipe
3 4
1
8/26/2016
Fluid in motion: Reynolds Transport Theorem :

1. System and control volume (fixed, moving & deforming) Relation between the rate of change of any extensive property of the system
and its variations associated with a control volume.
2. The law of mass conservation
Control volume A  
3. Newton’s IInd law of motion System approach
RTT
CV approach
   ( x, y , z , t )
4. First law of thermoD 1. A control volume ALBR
R 2. Finite mass of fluid (i.e. system) at time t

L
3. An extensive property of fluid N and
specific property n
B
System at time t
( System)t  (CV )t N  nm  N   n( dV )

V
t - ∆t t t + ∆t
5 6
Reynolds Transport Theorem : Reynolds Transport Theorem :
 N (t  t )  N cv (t )  N III (t  t )  N I (t  t ) 
A ( System)t  ( I  II )t  (CV )t dN
 lim  cv 
dt sys t 0  t 
( System)t  t  ( II  III )t  t
cv ndV t  t  cv ndV t III ndV t  t I ndV t  t
L I II RIII  (CV  I  III )t  t  lim
t 0 t
 lim
t  0 t
 lim
t  0 t
System at time t+Δt
(1) ( 2) (3)
B dN N sys (t  t )  N sys (t )
 lim
System at time t dt sys t 0 t
dN Amount of N that has Amount of N that
 Rate of change of moved out of control
dt N within the CV has moved in
 N (t  t )  N cv (t )  N III (t  t )  N I (t  t ) 
sys
surface ARB in time Δt through ALB
dN
 lim  cv 
dt sys t 0  t 
7 8
2
8/26/2016
Reynolds Transport Theorem : Reynolds Transport Theorem :

dN
 Rate of change of
Amount of N that has Amount of N that dN s   
dt N within the CV moved out of control has moved in   nρdV   n(ρv .dA)
sys
surface ARB in time Δt through ALB dt t cv cs
 ndV 
(1)  lim cv  cv ndV
t 0 t t N  m (mass) n
N
1
Control volume A m
Rate of change of N within the CV
   
 α  Fluid volume swept out of area dA in time Δt N  P  m n 
dA

  dt(dA cos )     
R   N  H  m (r  ) n  (r  )
L   .( dA)( t )
N  E (energy) ne
dN s   
  nρdV   n(ρv .dA)
B dt t cv cs
9 10
System at time t BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Continuity equation : Ex 1 :
Consider the steady flow of water (1000 kg/m3) through a multi-valve
dN    device shown.
  nρdV   n(ρ .dA) ------- (1)
dt sys t cv cs Given A1 = 0.2 m2, A2 = 0.5 m2, A3 = A4 = 0.4 m2
The mass flow rate out through section (3) is 388 kg/sec. The volume

N inflow rate through section (4) is 1 m3/s and V1  10 iˆ m/s . Find flow velocity
Replace N  m (mass) n 1
m at section 2.
A4   
60˚   ρdV   (ρ .dA)  0
t cv
dm       cs
  ρdV   (ρ .dA)   ρdV   (ρ .dA)  0 A3
dt sys t cv cs t cv cs
4  
mcv   (ρ . A)  0   2  ?
Finite mass or fixed A1 30˚
 m
 out   m
 in  0 1
quantity of mass t
A2
11 12
3
8/26/2016
Ex 2 (P 3.35) : Ex 3 :
In some wind tunnels the test section is perforated to suck out fluid and Two very long parallel plates of length 2L are separated by a distance b.
provide a thin viscous boundary layer. The test section wall in Fig contains The upper plate moves downward at a constant rate v0. A fluid fills the
1200 holes of 5-mm diameter each per square meter of wall area. The space between the plates. Fluid is squeezed out between the plates.
suction velocity through each hole is vs = 8 m/s, and the test-section Determine the maximum fluid velocity if the exit velocity is parabolic.
entrance velocity is v1 = 35 m/s. Assuming incompressible steady flow of
(Take unit width perpendicular to paper)
air, compute (a) vo (b) v2 (c) vf in m/s
   o   
  ρdV   (ρ .dA)  0
  ρdV   (ρ .dA)  0
t cv t cv cs
cs
3′ 2′ 1′ O′
 y y2 
b y   4 max   2 
b b 
x
3 2 1 O 
 (   2 L  b  1)  2m
 out   m
 in  0
t
13 14
Impulse Momentum equation : Impulse Momentum equation :

      
d m sys   Fsys    (ρ .dA)    ρdV 
   Fsys ------- (1)
cs t cv
dt
Sum of all Time rate of change of
external forces linear momentum of
The net flow rate of
dN    acting on CV the contents of the CV
  nρdV   n(ρ .dA) ------- (2) linear momentum
dt sys t cv cs out of the Control
Surface by mass flow
       

N  m n
N 
 Fgravity  Fpressure  Freaction    (ρ .dA)    ρdV 
m cs t cv
p1

d m        p2 = patm
  Fsys    ρdV     (ρ .dA) ------- (3)
dt sys t cv cs
15 16
4
8/26/2016
Impulse Momentum equation : BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus

d m       
  Fsys    ρdV     (ρ .dA)
dt sys t cv cs
Pipe bend
Application:
1. Pipe bend, Nozzle, Diffuser
2. Jet propulsion
3. Flow through pumps, turbines, propellers
Nozzle Turbine bucket

Lecture-2
17
Continuity equation : revise Continuity equation :

Reynolds transport equation:
1. System
  
2. CV (3D form of Leibniz integral rule)   ρdV   (ρ .dA)  0
t cv cs
System at t3 dN   
  nρdV   n(ρ .dA) mcv
dt sys t cv cs  m
 out   m
 in  0
t
System Accumulation Flux rate
parameter in CV through CS
msys  constant
Net change in
Total mass entering Total mass leaving
mass within the
the CV during Δt the CV during Δt
CV during Δt
dm   
System at t2   ρdV   (ρ .dA)
dt sys t cv cs
System at t1
19 20
5
8/26/2016
Impulse Momentum equation : Application:


d m sys  dN         
   Fsys   nρdV   n(ρ .dA)  Fsys    ρdV     (ρ .dA)
dt dt sys t cv cs t cv cs
------- (1) Pipe bend
Application:
 N 
N  m n   1. Pipe bend, Nozzle, Diffuser
m 2. Jet propulsion
 3. Flow through pumps, turbines, propellers
d m      
   ρdV     (ρ .dA)
dt sys t cv cs Nozzle Turbine bucket
------- (2)
     
 Fsys    ρdV     (ρ .dA) ------- (3)
t cv cs
21 22

      Force exerted on a reducing pipe bend from a steady flow of fluid
 Fsys    (ρ .dA)    ρdV  ------- (3)
cs t cv
FBD of the control volume A1
1. Pressure forces at section 1 p1 A2
   and 2
 Fx    x (ρ .dA)    x ρdV  2. Pressure and shear forces p2
cs t cv exerted on the fluid by pipe
wall
  
  y ρdV 
3. Body force due to weight of
 Fy    y (ρ .dA)  the fluid in CV
cs t cv
  
 Fz    z (ρ .dA)    z ρdV 
cs t cv
23 24
6
8/26/2016
  
v1  Fy    y (ρ .dA)    y ρdV  v1
v2 cs t cv v2
   
   y (ρ .dA)    y (ρ .dA)
1 2
  
 Fx    x (ρ .dA)    x ρdV  Bx and By are the force comp
cs t cv acting on the fluid by pipe bend 0  p2 A2 sin  By  W  0  (2 sin )(m
)
   
p1 A1  p2 A2 cos  Bx    x (ρ .dA)    x (ρ .dA)
1 2
25 26
Ex 2: Ex 3:
Water flows steadily through a horizontal 30˚ pipe bend as shown in Fig. At Water flows steadily through the 90˚ reducing elbow shown in Fig. At the
section 1: the diameter is 0.3 m, the velocity is 12 m/s and the pressure is inlet to the elbow, the absolute pressure is 220 kPa and the cross-sectional
128 kPa gage. At section 2: diameter is 0.38 m and the pressure is 145 kPa area is 0.01 m2. At the outlet, the cross-sectional area is 0.0025 m2 and the
gage. Determine the force Fx and Fz necessary to hold the pipe bend velocity is 16 m/s. The elbow discharges to the atmosphere. Determine the
stationary. force require to hold the elbow in place. (Atmospheric pressure 101 kPa)
Bz v2
A D
v1 Bx
z
C
B
x
27 28
7
8/26/2016
Home assignment: BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus
P 3.59, 3.65
3.65
3.59

Lecture – 3
29
Objectives: Impulse Momentum equation :

Velocity wrt CV
1. Impulse momentum principle with moving control volume      
 Fsys    (ρ .dA)    ρdV 
2. Angular momentum principle cs t cv
   
 Impulse turbine   rel    u
 Reaction turbine v
31 32
8
8/26/2016
Solved Ex 3.9: Text book P 3.51:

A water jet of velocity Vj impinges normal to plate A 50 mm diameter water jet having a velocity of 25 m/sec, strikes an
that moves to the right at velocity Vc as shown in inclined plate and splits into 2 jets. Assume that the flow over the plate is
Fig 3.9. Find the force required to keep the plate frictionless. Calculate the resultant force required to maintain its position
moving at constant velocity if the jet density is (θ = 60˚)
1000 kg/m3, the jet area is 3 cm2, and Vj and Vc are a. When the plate is stationary.
b. When the plate is moving with a velocity of 10 m/s in the direction of
20 and 15 m/s, respectively.
jet.
Neglect the weight of jet and plate, assume steady  
frictionless flow with respect to the moving plate  Fn    n (ρ .dA) tˆ
with the jet splitting into an equal upward and cs n̂
downward half jet.
     
 Fsys    (ρ .dA)    ρdV 
cs t cv
θ
  
   
 Fsys   (  u ) ρ(  u ).dA 
cs
Rx  (rx )in (m
 in )  (rx )1(m
 1)  (rx ) 2 (m
 2)  Fn  1.0627 kN
33 34
Text book P 3.51: Home assignment

When the plate is moving with      
a velocity of 10 m/s in the  Fsys    (ρ .dA)    ρdV 
direction of jet. t cv Q2
cs
 ?
Q1
tˆ
n̂
u = 10 m/s
= 60˚ (Moving control volume)
   
  rel    u
Problem 3.60
θ
Problem 3.168
  

  
 Fsys   (  u ) ρ(  u ).dA 
cs
35 36
9
8/26/2016
Angular Momentum principle : Angular Momentum principle :

dN         
  n(ρ .dA)   nρdV ------- (RTE)  
 M sys   (r  )(ρ .dA) 
dt t cv  (r  )ρdV
sys cs
cs t cv
    
Replace N  H  m (r  ) n  (r  ) Equation is applicable to all rotating machines such as Turbines, Pumps,
Fans, Blowers, Lawn sprinkler
d         
[m(r  )]   (r  )(ρ .dA)   (r  )ρdV
dt t cv
 
cs
sys
    
 M x   (r  ) x (ρ .dA)   (r  ) x ρdV
          t cv
 (r  Fsys )  M sys   (r  )(ρ .dA)   (r  )ρdV
cs
cs t cv
My
Resultant moment Net flow rate of angular
due to all forces momentum through control
Rate of accumulation Mz
surface
37 38
Angular Momentum principle :

Angular Momentum principle : Turbines
  
       
      M sys   (r  )(ρ .dA)   (r  )ρdV
 M sys   (r  )(ρ .dA)   (r  )ρdV t cv
cs t cv cs
Turbines Impulse Turbines Reaction Turbines

 Lester Pelton (1870)  James Francis (1848)
runner runner
      
 M z   (r  ) z (ρ .dA)   (r  ) z ρdV Pelton Turbine-Wheel Working & Design.mp4 Francis Turbine.mp4
cs t cv
39 40
10
8/26/2016
Turbines: Turbines:
Classification based on the action of water flowing through the runner Classification based on the action of water flowing through the runner
1. Impulse turbine  Impulse action of water

1. Impulse turbine
2. Reaction turbine generates the torque 2. Reaction turbine
runner  All available energy converted
into kinetic energy 2
1
 No difference in pressure at  Air tight casing
inlet and outlet i.e. Patm  Runs due to pressure difference
everywhere between inlet and outlet
Runner
 ri = ro  Radial inward flow
2
1
r1ω
41 42
Impulse turbines: Impulse turbines:

       
(1  r)  M z   (rin in ) z (ρ .dA)   (rout out ) z (ρ .dA)
inlet out
(1  r)
r θ  M z  r (1  r)(ρQ)  r[(1  r) cos ](ρQ)
y θ
Nozzle
1 Tshaft   M z  r (1  r)(1  cos )(ρQ)
x
(1  r)
       Power developed P  T (1  r)
 M z   (r  ) z (ρ .dA)   (r  ) z ρdV
cs t cv
Power output r (1  r )(1  cos )(ρQ )
        Efficiency  
 M z   (rin in ) z (ρ .dA)   (rout out ) z (ρ .dA) input 1
(ρQ )12
inlet out 2
43 44
11
8/26/2016
Impulse turbines: Impulse turbines:

How would your analysis differ if there were many, many buckets on the
u (1  u )(1  cos )(ρQ ) wheel, so that the jet was continuously striking at least one bucket?

1
(ρQ )12
2
Condition for maximum efficiency :
d (1  cos )
 0  max 
du 2
Tshaft   M z  r (1  r)(1  cos )(ρQ)
(1  u ) θ
45 46
Ex 1: Reaction turbines/pumps:
An impulse water turbine has a number of similar buckets one of which is    
shown in Fig.  M z   (r  ) z (ρ .dA)
Water strikes on bucket of an impulse turbine with a velocity of 31.4 m/s cs
and at the rate of 0.05 m3/s. The mean bucket speed is 10 m/s and the
deflection angle (β) by the bucket for discharge is 150˚. Calculate power eˆr eˆ eˆz
output. Consider atmospheric pressure through out and the friction of  
bucket reduces the relative velocity of water by 10%. Mz   r 0 0 (ρ .dA)
 r  z
cs
(1  u )  
θ  M z   (r ) z (ρ .dA)
cs
Vr1
 M z  ( r )in (m
 in )  ( r ) out (m
 out )
        k (1  u)
 M z   (rin in ) z (ρ .dA)   (rout out ) z (ρ .dA)  )[(r ) out  ( r )in ] Eq 3.60
 M z  (m Vθ1
inlet out
47 48
12
8/26/2016
Ex 2 (Solved problem 3.17): Home assignment:

Water from a reservoir flows through a pipe bend of diameter 75 mm in the
configuration shown. The pipe bend is supported at point A. Compute the 1. Solved E 3.2, 3.5, 3.9 and 3.10
torque T that must be resisted by the support at A, if p1 (gage) = 690 kPa, p2 2. Unsolved Problems 3.51, 56, 59
(gage) = 550 kPa, V1 = 12 m/s, h1 = 50 mm and h2 = 250 mm. 3. P 3.60, 63, 64
4. P 3.161, 168, 169
    
 M z   (r  ) z (ρ .dA)  ()
cs t
        
TA  r  Fpressure   r  gdm  (r1 1 )(m
 1 )  (r2 2 )(m
2)
 
TA  h1 ( p1 A1 )  h2 ( p2 A2 )   r  gdm  (h11 )(m
 )  (h22 )(m
)
49 50
Energy principle: System approach Energy principle :

First law of thermodynamics s
Q W   
   e(ρ .dA)   e(ρdV )
 Q   W ------- (A) t t cs t cv pdA
Q W dE
Q  W  dE ------- (B)    ------- (C)
t t dt
1
E  U  KE  PE  U  m 2  mgz W  Wshaft  W flow  Wviscous  Welect / etc
2
1  dA( )
e  u   2  gz Work transmitted
2 Work done by the
by a rotating shaft normal and shear
W (+) components of viscous
Q (+) Work done by the
system p   forces on the control
W (-)  (ρ .dA) pressure forces on surface
Q (-) ρ the control surface
51 52
13
8/26/2016
Energy principle : SFEE :

Q W   
   e(ρ .dA)   e(ρdV ) ------- (1) p 2    
t t cs t cv Q  W shaft     u   gz (ρ .dA)   e(ρdV )  Wother
cs ρ 2  t cv
  
Q  (W shaft  W flow  Wviscous  Wetc )   e(ρ .dA)   e(ρdV )
cs t cv p 2 
 u   gz  (m
) W s
ρ
 2 1
p    
Q  W shaft     e (ρ .dA)   e(ρdV )  Wother
cs  ρ  t cv
p    Q
2 
Q  W s     u   gz (ρ .dA)   e(ρdV )  Wother ---- (2)
cs ρ 2  t cv p

 2 
 
 ρ  u  2  gz  (m)
 2
Flow through a passage: Energy principle :

Head loss or loss of energy:
p 2    
Q  W shaft     u   gz (ρ .dA)   e(ρdV )
cs ρ 2  t cv  u2  u1  p  p2 12  22
   hL OR h f  1   z1  z2
 g  ρg 2g
Assumptions : 1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible
3. Adiabatic
4. No work done Due to friction Due to eddies formation or
(Major losses) turbulence
i.e. change in velocity
p 2  p 2 
 u   gz     u   gz  (magnitude or direction)
ρ ρ (Minor/local losses)
 2 1  2 2
1. Sudden change in flow passage area
u2  u1  p1 12  p 2  Part of mechanical energy 2. Some obstruction in flow passage
    z1    2  2  z2  that is converted into 3. At the entrance and exit of pipes/tanks
g  ρg 2 g   ρg 2g  intermolecular energy 4. Elbows, bends, pipe fittings
14
8/26/2016
Energy principle : Ex 1:
Head loss or loss of energy: Sea water (ρ = 1025 kg/m3) flows through a pump at 0.21 m3/s. The pump
inlet is 0.24 m in diameter. At the inlet, the pressure is – 20 kPa. The pump
outlet, 0.12 m in diameter, is 1.8 m above the inlet. The outlet pressure is
 u2  u1  p1  p2 12  22
 g   hL  ρg  2 g  z1  z2 175 kPa. How much power does the pump add to the fluid? Neglect the
  frictional losses.
Assumptions : 1. Steady flow p 2    

2. Incompressible Q  W s     u   gz (ρ .dA)  ()
cs ρ 2  t 2
3. Adiabatic
4. No work done  
 (m
p 2
5. Frictionless/inviscid flow  )( 1  u1  1  gz1 )  1.8 m
 ρ 2 
 W s   
 22
p 2   (m

p2
 )(  u2   gz2 ) 
 z C Bernoulli’s equation
 ρ 2 
1
ρg 2 g
 p  p1  22  12 
 ) 2
 W s  (m   g ( z2  z1 ) 
 ρ
 2 
Ex 2: Ex 2:
An exhaust fan draws air from a room through a 0.3 m diameter round
duct that has a smoothly rounded entrance. A differential manometer
connected to an opening in the wall of the duct shows a vacuum pressure
of 2.5 cm of water. The density of air is ρair = 1.22 kg/m3. Determine
1. the volumetric air flow rate in duct.
2. The fan power in kW. Wall thickness
1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible
3. ∆u = 0  p  p1 32  12 
 ) 3
 Q  W s  (m   g ( z3  z1 )  (u3  u1 ) 
 ρ
 2 
 p  p1  22  12 
 ) 2
 Q  W s  (m   g ( z2  z1 )  (u2  u1 ) 
 ρ
 2 
15
9/5/2016
Objectives Flow through a passage:
 Review SFEE – problems p 2    

Q  W shaft     u   gz (ρ .dA)   e(ρdV )
 Viscosity cs ρ 2  t cv
 Newton’s law of viscosity
2. Incompressible
3. Adiabatic
4. No work done
p 2  p 2 
 u   gz     u   gz 
ρ ρ
 2 1  2 2
u2  u1  p1 12  p 2  Part of mechanical energy

    z1    2  2  z2  that is converted into
g  ρg 2 g   ρg 2 g  intermolecular energy
1
Energy principle : Minor/local losses :

Head loss or loss of energy: Due to eddies formation or turbulence i.e. change in velocity (magnitude or
direction)
 u2  u1  p  p2 12  22
   hL OR h f  1   z1  z2 1. Sudden change in flow passage area (P3.64)
 g  ρg 2g 2. Some obstruction in flow passage
3. At the entrance and exit of pipes/tanks
4. Elbows, bends, pipe fittings D1 D2
Due to friction Due to eddies formation or
(Major losses) turbulence
i.e. change in velocity
(magnitude or direction)
(Minor/local losses)
fL 2 2 2
h f major  φ( f , L, , D)  k hf  φ( , D1, D2 )  k 
2 gD 2g minor 2g
1
9/5/2016
1
Energy principle : Velocity :  Vavg 
Ac
 VdAc
Head loss or loss of energy: Vavg
12  22
Ac
 u2  u1  p1  p2 V(r)
Vavg
 g   hL  ρg   z1  z2
  2g Vmax Q=VavgAc
2. Incompressible
3. Adiabatic Cross-section
No-slip V= 0
4. No work done
5. Frictionless/inviscid flow
Total available head (Stagnation pressure head) (H):
p 2
 z C Bernoulli’s equation
ρg 2 g
Ex 1 : Ex 2 (P3.191):
A pump is 2.5 m above the water level in the sump (water reservoir) and has a The pump in Fig creates a water jet oriented to travel a maximum
pressure of (-) 22 cm of mercury at the suction side (pump inlet). The suction pipe is horizontal distance. System friction head losses are 6.5 m. The jet may be
of 25 cm diameter and delivery pipe (pump outlet) is a 30 cm diameter pipe ending approximated by the trajectory of frictionless particles. What power must be
delivered by the pump?
in a nozzle of 10 cm diameter. If the nozzle is directed vertically upwards at an
elevation of 4 m above the sump water level (i.e. EL = 0 m). Neglecting all the
losses, determine
1. The discharge (m3/s)
2. The power input by pump (kW)
 p  p A 12   A2 (u1  u A ) 
 g ) 1
 Q  W s  (m 
 ρg  2 g  ( z1  z A ) 
3. Elevation (m) above the sump

water level, to which the jet  g 
would reach
25 m
θ
2m
2
9/5/2016
Ex 3: Home assignment (P 3.122) Ex 4 : Home assignment

A jet of water from a nozzle is to reach a window on a vertical wall. The A siphon of 15 cm diameter is used to empty kerosene oil (Relative density = 0.8) from a tank.
window is at 15 m above the ground. The nozzle exit is at 1.5 m above the The losses in pipe can be assumed to be 0.5 m up to summit (point B) and 1.2 m from the
ground level. If the velocity of jet at the nozzle exit is 25 m/s, calculate the summit to the outlet. Determine
maximum horizontal distance from the wall at which the nozzle can be kept 1. Rate of discharge Siphon: a bent tube used to move a
to achieve the objective. What is the corresponding angle of inclination of 2. Pressure head at B liquid over an obstruction to a lower
the nozzle? level without a pump due to
B
EL: 5.5 m gravitational effect of large liquid
dx
Window  x    o cos  x  o cos t column that cause a suction at the
dt top of siphon.
o EL: 4 m
θ dy
15 m y    o sin   gt
1.5 m dt
gt 2
 y   o sin  t 
x 2
15 cm
EL: 1 m
gx2
θ = 52.8˚  y  x tan   Q = 0.0892 m3/s
x = 48.36 m 2(o cos ) 2 PB = - 25.85 kPa
Home assignment:
1. P 3.64
2. Solved example 3.15
3. Unsolved 3.135 (Venturi meter), 3.138
Reading assignment:
1. Orifice meter
2. Venturi meter (P 3.135)
3. Total energy line and Hydraulic grade line
4. Momentum and energy correction factors
3
10/27/2016
BITS Pilani Dimensional analysis and similarity:

Pilani Campus
Real flow situations are approximated with a mathematical model
1. Analytical approach : Chapter 4 Assumptions:

 Steady
 Navier-Stokes equation  Incompressible
 Euler’s equation  Fully developed
 Laminar flow
 Bernoulli's equation  Newtonian fluid
2. Experimental investigations
Dimensional analysis and similarity  Experiments to check/refine the analytical results
Chapter 5  Many situations where fluid mechanics entirely depends

upon experimental investigations
Dimensional analysis and similarity: Dimensional analysis:

2. Experimental investigations/results
Power input to a fan OR Power output of a hydraulic turbine
 Guess ?
 How many experiments do we have to conduct?
 Is it possible to get maximum information from the fewest
experiments ? (Dimensional analysis)
 P  f (D, Q, ρ, μ, ω, g, Head)
 Conducting experiments on actual structure or scaled
replica?
 Measurements made on one system (in laboratory) can be
used to describe the behavior of other (actual) system?
(Similarity)
Pressure drop per unit length in steady flow
through a long, smooth walled horizontal
circular pipe
p
  f ( D, ρ, μ,  )
L
1
10/27/2016
Dimensional analysis: Buckingham Pi theorem Similarity:

Steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through a long, smooth walled Measurement made on one system (in laboratory) can be used to
horizontal circular pipe. Pressure drop per unit length ? describe the behavior of other (actual) system?
p  1   ( 2 ,  3 .....,  nr )
  f ( D, ρ, μ,  )
L Buckingham Pi Theorem (1914): If a physical
phenomenon is described by n number of
p independent variables then according to Buckingham Complete similarity between laboratory
 L    ρ D  Pi theorem, the phenomenon can be described in model (scaled-up/down) and actual structure
 ρ 2   μ  terms of (n-r) independent dimensionless groups or (prototype):
    π- terms. 1. Geometric similarity
 D 
  r = number of primary dimensions
2. Kinematic similarity
3. Dynamic similarity
 Q1  f (Q2 , Q3 ....., Qn )  1   ( 2 ,  3 .....,  nr )
Completely similar: Geometrically similar: Similarity of shape

1. Geometric similarity : ratio of corresponding dimensions should
 1   ( 2 ,  3 .....,  nr ) be same in both the systems
2. All body dimensions in three coordinates have the same length
scale ratio
Laboratory model
(Scaled replica)  Actual structure
(Prototype) Points that have
the same relative
location
 1 model  1 prototype
  2 model   2 prototype
Lmodel w
Length scale ratio  Lr   model
Lprototype wprototype
2
10/27/2016
Kinematically similar: Similarity of motion Kinematically similar: Similarity of motion

 the velocity at any point in the model flow must be proportional  Kinematic similarity requires that the model and prototype have
(by a constant scale factor) to the velocity at the corresponding same length scale ratio and same time scale ratio.
point in the prototype flow.
1
Velocity scale ratio
Vmodel V V 2
 Vr   1  2
Vprototype V1 V2
1′ V1m V2m
 
2′ V1p V2p
Dynamically similar: Similarity of forces Dynamically similar: Similarity of forces
 ma   F  ma  Fgravity  Fpressure  Fviscous  Felastic  Fsurface
 Fgravity  Fpressure  Fviscous  Felastic  Fsurface V 

 ma  ρL3    ρL2V 2
 Fgravity Fpressure Fviscous  t 
   
Finertia Finertia Finertia   Fgravity  mg  ρL3 g
1 
Fgravity Fpressure Fviscous Felastic Fsurface
1       F 
Finertia Finertia Finertia Finertia Finertia F  Fpressure  pA  pL2
 elastic  surface 
 Finertia Finertia 
dV 2
 Fviscous  A  μ L  μVL
dy
 Felastic   A  Ebulk eV L2
 Fsurface  L
3
10/27/2016
Dynamically similar: Similarity of forces Dynamically similar: Similarity of forces
 ma   F
Fg ρL3 g gL V2 V
    or  Froude number
Fi ρL2V 2 V 2 gL gL
 Fgravity  Fpressure  Fviscous  Felastic  Fsurface
Used where gravity is equally important
Reynolds number 1. Flow in open channels, Rivers, Dams-Spillways or Flow
with free liquid surface
Fgravity Fpressure Fviscous Felastic Fsurface 2. Ship models to calculate resistance due to surface waves
1     
Finertia Finertia Finertia Finertia Finertia
Euler number Weber number

Froude number
Mach number
Froude number Froude number

Fr = 0.37
1. When ocean-going sailing vessels V
  Froude number
were first replaced by steam- gL
powered ships in the latter half
of the nineteenth century, little
was understood about the
amount of power needed to drive Fr = 0.19
these steam vessels.
2. However, by 1872, William
Froude had developed the
method of using models to
predict the power requirements Fr = 0.55
of ocean vessels that is still in
use today.
Effect of surface waves on
bridge pillars
4
10/27/2016
Froude number Open hydraulic structures

Examples V

V
 Froude number   Froude number
– Spillways gL V-notch :
gL for flow measurement
– Channel
– Weirs/notches
Important Forces
– Inertial forces
– Gravity: from changes in water surface elevation
A 1 : 46.6 scale model of an US – Viscous forces (often small relative to gravity forces)
Navy fleet destroyer being tested in
the 100-m long towing tank at the
University of Iowa. The model is Minimum similitude requirements
3.048 m long. – Froude number
Euler number: Reynolds number:

Fp pL2 p Fv μVL μ ρVL VL
    Euler number    Reynolds number  Re  
Fi ρL2V 2 ρV 2 Fi ρL2V 2 ρVL μ 
1. Flow in closed channels/pipes 2300  Re crit  4000
2. External flow around aircrafts-submarines to calculate lift/drag
1. Laminar/turbulent flow inside a pipe (Internal flow)
3. Cavitation problem (pumps, turbines, diffuser) 2. External flow
Fdrag
 Cd  Non-circular sections :
ρL2V 2 Hydraulic diameter :
  4A
 p   Lh  Dh 
 Ca    P
 1 ρV 2 
 
2  P = wetted perimeter
5
10/27/2016
Reynolds number:
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Human swimmer (L = 1.8 m) paddling

in a swimming pool (V=1.5 m/sec)
has a Reynolds number
VL VL
Re    106  1
 
 Swims at very high Reynolds number i.e. inertial terms in NS

equation are much larger then the viscous terms
rely on inertia when we (macroswimmers) swims
Dimensional analysis and similarity
 If we stop propelling ? ---------- Chapter 5
21
Ex 1: Ex 2:
The power output of a hydraulic turbine P depends upon the diameter D of the The drag force F on a high speed aircraft depends upon the velocity of flight V, the
turbine rotor, the height H of the water surface above the turbine, the density ρ of geometrical dimension of the air craft l, the fluid density ρ, viscosity μ and bulk
water, the gravitational acceleration g, the angular speed ω of turbine rotor, the modulus of elasticity Ebulk of ambient air.
volumetric flow rate Q of the water through the turbine and the efficiency η of the Using Buckingham π-theorem, find out the independent dimensionless quantities
turbine. By dimensional analysis, generate a set of appropriate dimensionless which describe the phenomenon of drag on the aircraft.
groups.
 P  f ( D, H , ρ, g , ω, Q, )  F  f (V, l , ρ, μ, Eb )
6
10/27/2016
A long structural component of a bridge has the cross section shown in Fig. It is known that
when a steady wind blows past this type of bluff body, vortices may develop on the down-
wind side that are shed in a regular fashion at some definite frequency. Since these frequency
can create harmful periodic forces acting on the structure, it is important to determine the BITS Pilani
shedding frequency. If it is expected that the shedding frequency, ω, to depend on the lengths Pilani Campus
D and H, the approach velocity V, the fluid density ρ, and viscosity µ.

1. Use dimensional analysis to develop a functional relationship for ω.
2. For the specific structure of interest, D = 0.1 m, H = 0.3 m, and wind velocity is 50
km/hr. Standard air can be assumed. The shedding frequency is to be determined through
the use of a small scale model that is to be tested in a water tunnel. For the model Dm =
20 mm and the water temperature is 20o C. Determine the model dimension, Hm, and the
velocity at which the test should be performed. (Use for air, µ = 1.79 x 10-5 kg/m-s, ρ =
1.23 kg/m3, and for water at 20o C, µ = 1.00 x 10-3 kg/m-s, ρ = 998 kg/m3)
3. If the shedding frequency for the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding
frequency for the prototype?
Strouhal number
In dimensional analysis, the Strouhal number (St)
is a dimensionless number describing oscillating
Dimensional analysis and similarity
flow mechanisms. The parameter is named Chapter 5
after Vincenc Strouhal, a Czech physicist who
experimented in 1878 with wires
experiencing vortex shedding and singing in the
25
wind.
Ex : Home assignment Turbulent flow :

Darcy-Weisbach equation :
The pressure drop ‘∆P’ in a pipe of diameter D and length l depends on density ρ,
viscosity μ of flowing fluid, mean velocity of flow V and average height of
L avg
2
roughness ε on pipe surface. Obtain a dimensionless expression for ∆P.
 hf  f  f   (Re) For laminar flow
D 2g

 P  f ( D, l , ρ,  , V ,  )  f   (Re, ) For turbulent flow
D
If
P flV 2
  hf  Turbulent flow :
ρg ρgD 1. Most commonly encountered in pipe flows
find a dimensionless function for coefficient of 2. Mixing is one positive application of turbulence
friction (f). • Heat transfer
7
10/27/2016
The aerodynamic drag of a new car is to be predicted at a speed of 80 km/hr at an Model Prototype
air temperature of 25˚C (refer Table A2). Automotive engineers build a one-fifth At T = 5˚C ρ = 1.269 kg/m3 At T = 25˚C ρ = 1.184 kg/m3 and
model of the car to test in a wind tunnel. It is winter and the wind tunnel is located and μ = 1.754 x 10-5 kg/m-s. μ = 1.849 x 10-5 kg/m-s.
in an unheated building; the temperature of the wind tunnel air is only about 5˚C.
Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind tunnel in order to achieve  ρVL   ρVL 
similarity between the model and the prototype.   2 m      2 p   
   model    prototype
Suppose the engineers run the wind tunnel at 354 km/hr to achieve similarity
between the model and the prototype. The aerodynamic drag force on the model
Fdrag ρVL car is measured with a drag balance. Several drag readings are recorded, and the
  ( )
ρV 2 L2  average drag force on the model is 95 N. Predict the aerodynamic drag force on the
prototype (at 80 km/hr and 25˚C).
Model Prototype Fdm Fdp

  1m   1 p  
At T = 5˚C ρ = 1.269 kg/m3 At T = 25˚C ρ = 1.184 kg/m3 and ρ mVm2 L2m ρ pV p2 L2p
and μ = 1.754 x 10-5 kg/m-s. μ = 1.849 x 10-5 kg/m-s. 29 30
Submarine model tested in wind tunnel:

If a water tunnel is used instead of a wind tunnel to test their one-fifth scale
model, the water tunnel speed required to achieve similarity is Similarity can be achieved even
when the model fluid is different
 ρ p  L p  m 
than the prototype fluid.
 Vm  V p    
 
 ρ m  Lm   p 
 1.184   1.00210 
3
 Vm  80 5  25.7 km/hr
 998   1.84910 
5
8
10/27/2016
Relation between the π-terms: Incomplete similarity:

It is not always possible to match all the π’s of a model to the corresponding π’s of
 1   ( 2 ) the prototype, even if we are careful to achieve geometric similarity.
This situation is called incomplete similarity.
Incomplete similarity: Incomplete similarity:

One-sixteenth scale. The model is geometrically similar to the prototype. The model Possible options:
truck is 0.991 m long. Wind tunnel has a maximum speed of 70 m/s. The wind 1. Use a different fluid for the model tests. Water can achieve higher Re numbers,
tunnel test section is 1.0 m tall and 1.2 m wide. Truck speed = 26.8 m/s. but more expensive.
Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind tunnel in order to achieve
2. Use a bigger wind tunnel : Automobile manufacturers typically test with three-
similarity between the model and the prototype.
eighths scale model cars and with one-eighth scale model trucks and buses in
 ρVL   ρVL  very large wind tunnels.
     
   model    prototype 3. Run the wind tunnel at several speeds near the maximum speed, and then
extrapolate the results to the full-scale Reynolds number.
 ρ p  L p  m 
 Vm  V p    
 
 ρ m  Lm   p   ρ p  L p  m 
 Vm  V p    
 
 ρ m  Lm   p 
9
10/27/2016
Incomplete similarity: Incomplete similarity:

In many flows involving a liquid with a free surface, both the Reynolds number and
Froude number are relevant non-dimensional parameters.
Not always possible to match both Re

and Fr between model and prototype.
 ρVL   ρVL 
     
   model    prototype
 V   V 
   
 gL   
  model  gL  prototype
Extrapolate low Re model test data to predict high Re prototype behavior
Incomplete similarity:
For water at atmospheric pressure and at T
1 = 20˚C, the prototype kinematic viscosity is
L   V p Lp  2
 m  m 
Vp νp = 1.002 x 10-6 m2/s
   
L p   p  Vm Vm  Lm 
3
 L 2
 m  p  m 
 Lp 
Required ratio of kinematic viscosities to match both Re and Fr :  
3 3
 m  Lm  2  1 2
   1.002106  9 2
  10 m /s
 p  L p   100 
1. Mercury ν = 1 x 10-7 m2/s

To ensure complete similarity, use a liquid whose kinematic viscosity satisfies 2. Too expensive and too hazardous
this equation. 3. We can not match both Fr and Re
4. Froude number matching is more critical than Reynolds number matching
39
10
11/9/2016
Overview: chapter 6, 7 & 8 Overview: chapter 6 


Major/frictional losses
Minor/local losses
Internal flow External flow Pipe flow
(Re, Eu, Ma)  C Drag   (Re) (Re, Eu)
Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Pipe flow
(6) Re  2300 Re  4000
(Re, Eu)
 Fluid particles follow straight line  Fluid particles follow erratic paths
paths since fluid flows in thin layers which change direction in space and
(10) Open channel flow Viscous flow over an object time
(Re, Fr)  Velocity profile flatten out and
Flow within boundary layer (7)  become more uniform (Turbulent
  flow mixes fluid)
 Inviscid flow outside boundary layer
(8)
Overview: chapter 7
Flow within boundary layer (Prandtl’s theory)
(Re, Eu, Ma)  C Drag   (Re) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Prandtl
Flow on a flat surface Curved surface  Boundary layer thickness δ(x)

(Blasius solution) (Von-karman solution)  Drag coefficient Cd(x)
Curved surface
Flat surface BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
1
11/9/2016
Inviscid flow: chapter 8 Irrotational flow:

Flow outside boundary layer
    velocity potential function
A      (  )  0 ----- (1)
   2ω  (   ) 
B

x 
 x
  

Potential flow region y 
y
 
 (  )  0 
z 
z
2D irrotational flow:
  velocity potential function
  2  0  2  0 Viscous flow in pipes
    stream function
x  x 
x y 1 Chapter 6
 1
y  
y   2
y x 2
3
3
2
11/9/2016
Contents: Pipe flow:

 Type of flow (laminar / turbulent flow in pipes) Pipe: Flow sections of circular cross-section
 Major and minor losses associated with pipe flow
 Darcy-Weisbach equation (Frictional/major losses)
 Minor losses
 Sudden expansion, contraction, elbows, joints, valves etc
 Pumping power requirement
Duct: Flow sections of non-circular cross-section
 Fully developed laminar flow in circular pipes (chapter 4)

Smaller diameter pipes are usually referred as tubes (Heat exchange).
Importance of pipes Pipes

1. City water/our homes
2. Irrigation systems/sewer water system
3. Animal/plant circulation systems
4. Oil and crude supply lines
3
11/9/2016
Simple flow circuit Laminar and turbulent flow:

Laminar: Highly ordered fluid Turbulent: Highly disordered fluid motion
motion with smooth stream lines characterized by velocity fluctuations and eddies.
1. Reynolds number Re  2300 1. Reynolds number Re  4000

 hL major  hL minor
2. Regular and predictable behavior 2. Irregular and chaotic behavior
 p 2  p 2 
  1  1  z1   h pump   2  2  z2   hL 3. Analytical solution possible 3. No analytical solutions exist
 ρg 2 g   ρg 2 g 
Laminar vs turbulent flow: A turbulent flow is one that has:

Turbulence is of importance in the mixing of fluids
1. Smoke from a stack would continue for miles as 1. Most commonly encountered pipe flow
a ribbon of pollutant without rapid dispersion 2. To transfer the required heat between a solid and an adjacent fluid (such as in
within the surrounding air if the flow were the cooling coils of an air conditioner or a boiler of a power plant) would
laminar rather than turbulent. require an enormously large heat exchanger if the flow were laminar.
2. Although there is mixing on a molecular scale 3. Similarly, the required mass transfer of a liquid state to a vapor state (such as is
(laminar flow), it is several orders of magnitude needed in the evaporated cooling system) would require very large surfaces if
slower and less effective than the mixing on a the fluid flow flowing past the surface were laminar.
macroscopic scale (turbulent flow).
4. Reynolds number greater than 4000
5. Uniform velocity distribution compare to laminar flow
In other situations laminar (other than turbulent) flow is desirable
1. Pressure drop in pipes (hence, the power requirements for pumping) can be
considerably lower if the flow is laminar rather than turbulent.
2. Fortunately, the blood flow through a person’s arteries is normally laminar,
except in the largest arteries with high blood flow rates.
4
11/9/2016
Fully developed laminar flow: Fully developed laminar flow:

Basic pipe flow is governed by a balance between viscous and pressure forces.
1R 
  avg    z dA  max
A0 2
Hagen-Poiseuille equation
32 avg l
 p1  p2 
D2
p 2
 
l r
 p  D
w   
 l 4
p 2
p1 (r 2 )  ( p1  p)(r 2 )  (2rl)  0  
l r
Fully developed laminar flow: Turbulent flow :

p Darcy-Weisbach equation :
32 avg L
 p1  p2  L avg
2
D2  hf  f  f   (Re) For laminar flow

D 2g

 f   (Re, )
p1 12 p 2 u u  p1  p2 D
For turbulent flow
   z1  2  2  z2   2 1    hf
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g  g  ρg
32μ avg L Turbulent flow :

Darcy-Weisbach equation (1860):  hf 
ρgD 2 1. Most commonly encountered in pipe flows
L avg
2
2. Mixing is one positive application of turbulence
 hf  f ------ (6.10)
D 2g • Heat transfer
5
11/9/2016
Problem 6.36: Home assignment :

SAE 30W oil at 20˚C (refer Table A-3) flows in the 3 cm diameter pipe as shown in
Fig, which slopes at 37˚. Assuming steady laminar flow, for the pressure
measurements shown, 1. Solved examples 6.3
1. Determine, whether the flow is up or down?
2. Determine the flow rate in m3/hr.
3. Suppose it is desired to add a pump between A and B to drive the oil upward
from A to B at a rate of 3 kg/s. At 100 percent efficiency, what pump power is
required?
BITS Pilani Objectives:

Pilani Campus
1. Velocity profile: Laminar and turbulent flow

2. Frictional losses: Darcy-Weisbach equation : Eq 6.10
3. Colebrook equation: Eq 6.48 (For calculating friction factor)
4. Moody’s chart: Fig 6.13
Viscous flow in pipes

Lecture - 2
6
11/9/2016
Laminar and turbulent flow: Velocity profile in turbulent flow:

Laminar: Highly ordered fluid Turbulent:  Uniform velocity distribution
motion with smooth stream lines compare to laminar flow
Laminar flow velocity profile
Turbulent flow velocity profile

1. Power law variation
1 2. Logarithmic variation
u  r n
1   1   One seventh law is often used as a
u  r n Vc  R  reasonable approximation to measured
  1   velocity profiles across most of the
Vc  R  pipes.
Frictional losses in pipes : Frictional losses in pipes :

German professor Julius Weisbach (1850) :  h f  fcn( L ,1avg
.75 ̴ 2 
) Darcy friction factor f  fcn (Re, , duct shape )
D D
 2
L avg
 hf  f ------ (6.10)
D 2g

Darcy friction factor f  fcn (Re, , duct shape ) Laminar velocity profile
D  Viscous effects are important across
the entire pipe
French engineer Henry Darcy in 1857
 established the effect of roughness on pipe
resistance
 ε is wall surface roughness height, which is
Turbulent velocity profile
important in turbulent pipe flow.
 Viscous layer thickness is comparable
to surface roughness height
7
11/9/2016
Turbulent flow : Colebrook equation (1939):

Darcy-Weisbach equation :
L avg
2
32μ avg L 
 hf  f ------ (6.10)  hf   f   (Re, )
D 2g ρgD 2 D
64
For laminar flow  f   (Re)  f lam  ------ (6.13) 1  / D 2.51 
Re   2.0 log   ------ (6.48)
 3.7 Re f 

f  
For turbulent flow  f   (Re, ) ------ (6.48)
D Equation has to be solved by iteration for f.
At very large Reynolds number flows


1. complete turbulence or rough region  f  ( )
D
2. rough pipe limit
Alternative explicit formula: Colebrook equation (1939):

 1  / D 2.51 
 Varies less than 2 percent from equation 6.48
 f   (Re, )  2.0 log   ------ (6.48)
D  3.7 Re f 
f  
1  6.9   / D 1.11 
  1.8 log    ------ (6.49) Table 6.1,
f  Re  3.7   page 381
Moody’s chart
Fig 6.13
8
11/9/2016
Moody’s chart (1944) for pipe friction : Fig 6.13

 It is a log-log plot.

Pipes  f  ( )
D
Pipes
 For Re < 2000, flow is laminar and represented by a straight line f =
64/Re.
 For Re > 4000, flow is turbulent, and represented by many lines for f as
a function of Re and ε/d.
 Smooth pipe curve is a single curve dependent on Re only.
 f   (Re)
64

Re

 f   (Re, )
D
 At high Re, f is dependent on ε/d only, which indicates that viscous shear
Pipes
has negligible effect on the frictional loss. This region is called
“complete turbulence” or “rough zone”. Moody’s chart (1944) and Colebrook equation (1939):
1  / D 2.51 
  2.0 log  
 3.7 Re f 
f  
1. Colebrook equation is implicit in the dependence of f

2. Various inherent inaccuracies are involved
 Relative roughness
 Experimental data used to produce Moody’s chart
3. As a thumb rule 10 % accuracy is best expected
9
11/9/2016

Ex 6.7: Pipes
Oil, with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and ν = 10-5 m2/s,
flows at 0.2m3/s through 500 m of 200
mm diameter cast iron pipe. Determine
1. The head loss due to friction and
2. The pressure drop if the pipe slopes down at 10˚ in the flow direction.
Table 6.1,
page 381
Ex 6.7: Problem 6.53:

Oil, with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and ν = 10-5 m2/s,
flows at 0.2m3/s through 500 m of 200 Use Colebrook equation for friction factor.
mm diameter cast iron pipe. Determine
1. The head loss due to friction and 1  / D 2.51 
 2.0 log  (1)
 
2. The pressure drop if the pipe slopes down at 10˚ in the flow direction.  3.7 Re f 
f  
L avg
2
 hf  f The gutter and smooth drain pipe remove rainwater from
D 2g the roof of a building. The smooth (concrete) drain pipe is
7 cm in diameter.
(a) Estimate the rate of draining when the gutter is full.
p1  2 p 2 L 2 (b) The gutter is designed for sudden rainstorm upto 10
   z1  2   z2  f cm per hour. For this condition, what is the
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g D 2g maximum roof area that can be drained successfully?
p1  p2 L 2 p1  2 p 2 L 2
  f  ( z1  z 2 )    z1  2   z2  f
ρg D 2g ρg 2 g ρg 2 g D 2g (2)
10
11/9/2016
Frictional losses in entry length : Frictional losses in entry length :

Le,laminar
 Le  f ( D,V , ρ, μ )   0.06 Re
D
 The pipes used in practice
 For Re = 20  Le, laminar  D are usually several times
Le,laminar the length of the entrance
  0.06 Re  At Re = 2300  Le,laminar  138D region, and thus the flow
D ------ (6.5) through the pipes is often
1 assumed to be fully
Le, turbulent developed for the entire
  4.4(Re) 6 length of the pipe.
D
1. The pressure drop is higher in the entrance regions of a pipe.  Recent CFD results (Fabien Anselmet)
2. The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the distance from the 1
Le, turbulent
pipe entrance to where the wall shear stress reaches within 2 percent of the   1.6(Re) 4 ------ (6.6)
fully developed value. D
BITS Pilani Colebrook equation (1939):

Pilani Campus
L avg
2
Darcy friction factor
 hf  f
 D 2g
f  fcn (Re, )
D
64
For laminar flow
 f   (Re)  f lam  ------ (6.13)
Re
1  / D 2.51 
For turbulent flow   2.0 log   ------ (6.48)
 3.7 Re f 
f  
At very large Reynolds number flows
Lecture - 3 
1. rough pipe limit  f  ( )
2. complete turbulence or rough region D
11
11/9/2016


Pipes Rough pipe limit
 f  ( )
D
Minor or Local losses in pipe systems:
Sudden expansion/contraction, sharp entrance/exit, valves, elbows, joints etc
Sudden expansion Assumptions:
1. Constant pressure across the left hand side of the CV (pwall = p1)
2. No wall shear stress
 f   (Re)
64 pwall  p1

Re m
  ρV1 A1  ρV2 A2
 p1 A1  ( pwall )( A2  A1 )  p2 A2  m (V2  V1 )
 ( p1  p2 ) A2  (ρV22 A2  ρV12 A1 )

 f   (Re, )
D p1  p2 A
  V22  V12 1 Problem (3.59)
ρ A2
Sudden expansion: Fig 6.22: SE/SC Sudden expansion and contraction losses
based on velocity head
pwall  p1 p1  p2 A
  V22  V12 1 ------ (1) 
2
A   d2 
2
ρ A2  k SE  1  1   1  2 
 A2   D 
A1
 V2  V1 ------ (2) ------ (6.101)
A2
V2
 hloss  k
u u p  p2 V12  V22 2g
 ( 2 1 )  hL minor  1   ( z1  z2 ) ------ (3)
g ρg 2g  d2 
 k SC  0.421  2 
2  D 
1 2 A V2 V2  2  2
 hL minor
V2  V12 1  1  2   V1 1  A1   k SE V1 ------ (6.101)

g A2 2 
2  
2 g  A2   2g
------ (6.102)
12
11/9/2016
Fig 6.21 (b): entrance losses Valves: Fig 6.17: Typical commercial valve geometries (a) gate valve (b) globe valve
(c) angle valve (d) swing-check valve (e) disk-type gate valve
Sharp entry
Rounded entry Beveled entry
(a) (b)
(c)
 Exit losses are k ~ 1

for all shapes of exit
(sharp, beveled, or
rounded)
Screwed valves and Flanged valves Table 6.5: Resistance Coefficients for Open Valves, Elbows and Tees
(a)
(d)
1. These fittings may be connected by either internal threads or flanges.

2. Table 6.5 represents losses averaged among various manufacturers, so there is
(b) (c)
an uncertainty as high as ± 50 percent.
13
11/9/2016
Fig 6.18b: Fig 6.18b:
Fig 6.20: smooth walled 45˚, 90˚, 180˚ bends Fig 6.20: rough walled 90˚ bends
14
11/9/2016
Loss K
V2 V2
Ex 6.16: Sharp entrance
Open globe valve
0.5
6.9
h minor K
2g
 13.6
2g
Water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and ν = 1x10-6 m2/s, is pumped between two reservoirs at 0.3 m bend 0.25
0.0057 m3/s through 120 m of 5 cm diameter pipe and several minor losses, as Regular 90˚ elbow 0.95
shown in Fig. The roughness ratio is ε/d = 0.001. Compute the Half open gate valve 4
1. Major loss
L V2 V2 Sharp exit 1
2. Total minor loss  hloss   f K
3. Pump horsepower required. D 2g 2g  p 2  p 2 
  1  1  z1   h pump   2  2  z2   hmajor  hminor
 ρg 2 g   ρg 2 g 
1. Sharp entrance
2. Open globe valve
3. 0.3 m bend
4. Regular 90˚ elbow
5. Half open gate valve
6. Sharp exit
58
Pipe flow problems: BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus
Three most common types of problems

Lecture - 4
15
11/9/2016
Fig 6.23: Gradual expansion

Fig 6.22: Sudden expansion and contraction losses Pipes Gibson’s correlation
1. Minimum loss lies in the region of 5  2  15 , which

is the best geometry for an efficient diffuser
2
2. For angles less than  d2 
 k diffuser  2.61sin  1    f L -- (6.82)
5°, the diffuser is too  D2  d avg
long and has too much  
friction
3. Angles greater than
15° cause flow
k Gradual expansion
V2 separation
 hloss  k
2g
Gradual expansion: Gradual contraction losses

 Increasing pressure in the diffuser is
an unfavorable gradient, which
causes the viscous boundary layer
to break away from the wall.
(flow separation)
2 15
 A fluid may be accelerated very efficiently, but is very difficult to slow down
a fluid efficiently
 Gradual expansion, sudden expansion and exit losses are more compare to
Angle (2θ) 30° 45° 60°
gradual contraction, sudden contraction, and entrance losses respectively k 0.02 0.04 0.07
Article 6.12: Fluid meters – Reading assignment

16
11/9/2016
Ex: Ex:
A 7.5-cm-diameter potable water line is to be run through a maintenance room in a Water from a treatment plant is pumped into a distribution system at a rate of 4.38
commercial building. Three possible layouts for the water line are proposed, as m3/sec, a pressure of 480 kPa, and a temperature of 20˚C. The diameter of the pipe
shown in Fig. (Use ρwater = 1000 kg/m3, υwater = 1×10-6 m2/s) is 750 mm and is made of cast iron.
Which is the best option, based on minimizing losses? Arrange these layouts in 1. Estimate the pressure 200 m downstream of the treatment plant if the pipeline
order of best to worst option. Assume galvanized iron pipe, and a flow rate of 350 remains horizontal.
L/min. 2. After 20 years in operation, scale buildup is expected to cause the equivalent
surface roughness of the pipe to increase by a factor of 10. Determine the effect
on water pressure 200 m downstream of the treatment plant.
(a) Two 45˚ bends (b) A regular 90˚ screwed (c) Three regular 90˚ screwed
(Bend radius R = 0.375 m) elbow elbows
Ex: Ex: 6.112

As shown in Fig, there are 40 m (length) of 5 cm (diameter) pipe, 25 m of 10 cm pipe A 70 percent efficient pump delivers water at 20°C from one reservoir to another 6
and 50 m of 7.5 cm pipe, all commercial new steel. There are three 90˚ regular elbows m higher, as in Fig. The piping system consists of 18 m of galvanized iron 5-cm
(one elbow is used to direct the water into the turbine is not shown in the sketch) and a pipe, a reentrant entrance, two screwed 90° long-radius elbow, a screwed open gate
fully open gate valve, all screwed. The exit elevation is zero. The water flow rate is 16 valve (not shown in Fig), and a sharp exit. What is the input power required with
m3/hr. Assume sharp entrance and exits. Interpolate the data wherever necessary. Take and without a 6° well-designed conical expansion added to the exit? The flow rate is
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 and υwater = 10-6 m2/s. 40m3/hr.
1. Tabulate all minor loss coefficients involved.
2. Calculate the total minor losses.
3. Calculate the total frictional losses. (Use Moody's chart for friction factor f Reentrant Sharp entry
calculation)
4. Determine the turbine power output (in watt).
6m
k = 0.8 k = 0.5
17
11/23/2016
BITS Pilani Boundary layer thickness :

Pilani Campus
 BLT (δ) : Distance from the solid surface at which the local velocity reaches
99% of the free stream velocity.
V V
V  x  0.99V
δ( x )
Flow past immersed body (External flow)

 Boundary layer effect : Boundary layer retards the fluid near the solid surface
Lecture – 2 Dr J S Rathore
Displacement (δ*) / momentum thickness (θ) : Von Karman momentum integral equation:
Viscous flow Frictionless flow
w d δ  dV δ
y  x  0.99V      x V   x dy    V   x dy
ρ dx  0  dx 0
V
C
o the shear stress at the boundary surface
D
o the overall rate of momentum flux across a section of the boundary layer
δ o the pressure gradient in the direction of flow
δ*
dV
A B  For flow over flat plate  0
dx
(V   x )  x δ x
 δ   (1  )dy   (1  )dy ----- (7.12)
V V
0 0
w d  δ  x  x   w dθ
       1  dy    ----- (7.5)
 x 1  x dy ----- (7.3) ρV2 dx  0 V  V  
 ρV2 dx
0 V  V 
1
11/23/2016
 Re L  5  10 5
Drag coefficients: Drag force :
x
3
x 3 y 1 y
3 w dθ Total horizontal force (or Skin friction drag) 3 y 1 y
      
     ρV2 dx V 2  δ  2  δ 
V 2  δ  2  δ 
L
 FD    w (bdx)  Re L  5  10 5
0
3μV 4.64x
δ
w 3μ
 c fx   c fx  2δ2  Re x
ρV2 ρV ρV δ w
 c fx 
2 2 ρV2
2
Local skin friction coefficient Overall drag coefficient
0.646 1.292
 c fx   C fL  2c fx 
Re x Re l
Boundary layer equations: Prandtl BL equations:

Assumptions: d
 x  y  0
1. Since the BL is very thin, Prandtl   0 d d
assumed that transverse velocity x y  0
dx  0
y x component in BL is very small dx dx
 x   y     1 dp μ  2 x
  x x   y x    
2. Variation in flow variables wrt x is  x y  ρ dx ρ y 2
much smaller than those wrt y
 
  x  y
    1 p μ   2 x  2 x  y x   0
  x x   y x       2  x y
 x y  ρ x ρ  x 2 y  Prandtl BL equations: Balance between
    μ  2 x viscous and inertial forces with pressure
  y  y  1 p μ    y   y  1 p   x x   y x  
2 2
  0  p  p( x) only playing no role
  x  y      2  x y  ρ y 2
 x y  
ρ y ρ  x 2
y  ρ y At y = 0 (wall) :  x   y  0
At y = δ(x) :   x  V
2
11/23/2016
Results of Blasius exact solution: (Table 7.1) Results of Blasius exact solution :
1. Local velocity approaches 99% of free stream velocity at k = 5
5x
2. Using definition of k, boundary layer thickness at any x becomes δ  δ( x )  x
Re x
δ 5
  -- - (7.24)
x Re x
5x
δ Shear stress in boundary layer
Re x
 x  0.99V δ1 δ2
w 0.664
 2
 cf 
ρV Re x
δ
  w ( x)  x  0.5 2
Results of Blasius exact solution : Key points to remember:

Total horizontal force (or Skin friction drag)
L
 FD    w (bdx)  0.664 ρ1 / 2μ1 / 2V1.5 L1/ 2b
0
-- - (7.26)
Average drag coefficient

FD Displacement thickness
1.328
 C D  bL2   2c f ( L) -- - (7.27) 1.721x
ρV Re L  δ*  -- - (7.25)
Re x
2
Momentum thickness
ρV L
where  Re L 
μ θ
0.664x
-- - (7.30)
 Re L  5  10 5 Re x
3
11/23/2016
At what velocity is the boundary layer laminar for an automobile?
Re x cr  5 105  air  1.5 105 m 2 /s
V l
 Re l    500000
 air
 l  3 to 4 m
air Rel
 V 
l
1.5 105 (500000)

 V   1.875m/s
4
 V  6.75 km/hr
Laminar boundary layer Ex 1:

For air at a temperature of 20° C and standard
 air  1.5 105 m 2 /s Water flows around the plate in Fig with a mean velocity of 0.25 m/s. Determine
pressure, flowing at 25 m/s, the boundary layer will the shear stress distribution and boundary layer thickness along one of its sides, and
maintain laminar flow up to a critical distance of sketch the boundary layer for 1 m of its length.
 l  3 to 4 m Take ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 μwater = 0.001 N-s/m2.
(Re x ) cr  air Check ρV x
 xcr   0 .3 m (Re x )cr  5 105  Re x  
V μ
 Re L  5  10 5
Turbulent
boundary layer
Boundary layer remains laminar.
Use Blasius results equation (7.25) 5x

 0.664  δ( x)  -- - (7.24)
 w2  c f  Re x
ρV Re x
xcr 2
4
11/23/2016
Ex 2: Ex 3: P 7.22 (Home assignment)

The ship in Fig is moving slowly at 0.2 m/s through still water. Determine the Air at 20°C and 1 atm flows at 20 m/s past the flat plate in Fig. A pitot stagnation
thickness δ of boundary layer at a point x = 1 m from the bow. Also, at this location, tube, placed 2 mm from the wall, develops a manometer head h = 16 mm of
find the velocity of the water within the boundary layer at y = δ and y = δ/2. Meriam red oil, SG = 0.827. Use this information to estimate the downstream
Take υwater = 1.1x10-6 m2/s. position x of the pitot tube. Assume laminar flow.
ρV x
 Re x    1.818105
μ
Use Blasius solution to determine the
boundary layer thickness at x = 1 m
5x
 δ( x)  = 11.7 mm
Re x
At x = 1 m and y ≈ δ, velocity of water
at this point
v
 x  0.99
V
Ex 4: P 7.8 (Home assignment)

Air at 20˚ C and 1 atm enters a 40-cm square duct as shown in Fig. Using the
Air (ρ = 1.23 kg/m3 and υ = 1.5 x 10-5 m2/s) is flowing over a thin plate (FigQ)
“displacement thickness” concept, estimate (a) mean velocity and (b) the mean
which is 1 m long and 0.3 m wide. At the leading edge, the flow is assumed to be
pressure in the core of the flow at the position x = 3 m.
uniform and V͚ = 30 m/s. Assume laminar boundary layer over full plate length.
1. Using the control volume abcd, calculate the mass flow rate across the surface
ab.
2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the x component of force required to
hold the plate stationary. The boundary layer thickness at bc is δ = 4 mm and the
velocity profile at bc is given by
x
2
 y  y
 2    
V δ δ
δ* 
3. Also evaluate and at section bc.
δ δ
5
11/23/2016
BITS Pilani Turbulent boundary layer:

Pilani Campus
V V
Flow past immersed body (External flow) V  x  0.99V
Lecture - 3
Turbulent boundary layer: Figure 7.5: Comparison of dimensionless laminar

and turbulent flat-plate velocity profiles
1. We can use momentum integral equation to determine the drag caused by a 3. Velocity profile is more flatter and
turbulent boundary layer. (necessary to express the velocity profile as a uniform due to large degree of fluid
function of y) mixing and momentum transfer
within turbulent flow
V 4. Larger velocity gradient near the
V
plate’s surface
V  x  0.99V 5. As a result, the shear stress
developed on the surface, will be
much larger than that caused by a
laminar boundary layer.
1
2. Although many different formulas have been proposed, x  y 7
one of the simplest that works well is Prandtl’s one   
seventh power law. V  δ 
6
11/23/2016
Turbulent boundary layer: Turbulent boundary layer: P7.36

 Velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary  Empirical formula as suggested by Prandtl, 1927
profile follows 1/7th power law (Prandtl’s 1
assumption) 1
 μ 4
x
 y 7   wall  0.0225ρV2  
  
 ρV δ 
-- - (7.39)
V  δ 
 Satisfactorily describes velocity distribution for most of the region of

turbulent boundary layer but not applicable near to wall surface  Von Karman momentum equation
 x
1 6
V  7  7 δ  x 
dθ θ  1  dy
  δ ( y)   wall  ρV2
x
y 7 dx 0 V  V 
 Therefore in all cases of TBL, the surface shear 1
1
stress must be related to δ experimentally. 7 dδ  μ 4 x  y 7 7
Empirical formula that agrees well with the data   0.0225       δ
was developed by Prandtl and Blasius. 72 dx  ρV δ  V  δ  72
Turbulent boundary layer: P7.36 Turbulent boundary layer:

 Equating this to experimental value of shear stress (Prandtl, 1927): Momentum thickness
0.37 x
7 0.036 x
δ 1
1 1 θ δ
 μ 4 7 dδ  μ 4 72 1 (Re x ) 5
  wall  0.0225ρV2     0.0225  (Re x )
5
 ρV δ  72 dx  ρV δ 
Friction drag
Drag coefficient
L L 7 dδ
0.37 x w 0.059  FD    w (bdx)   ρV2 (bdx)
 δ turb   cf   cf  0 72 dx Fdrag 0.072
1 ρV2 1 0   CD  1
1 2
(Re x ) 5 2 (Re x ) 5 bL ρV (bL) (Re L ) 5
 Fdrag  0.036 ρV2 1
2
(Re L ) 5
 5 105  Re L  107
7
11/23/2016
Drag coefficients: Turbulent boundary layer:

 Putting the expression for the 1/7 power law into the equations for
Turbulent boundary layer :  5 105  Re L  107 0.059
 cf  1
displacement and momentum thickness
1
(Re x )5 x  y 7
Fdrag 0.072   
  CD  1
 CD  1.22 c f ( L) V δ
1 2
ρV (bL) (Re 5
2 L) -- - (7.45)
δ x δ
 δ   (1  )dy  δ* 
0 V 8
Laminar boundary layer :  Re L  5  10 5
0.664
 cf  7
Re x δ  x    δ -- - (7.40)
1.328 θ  1 
x
dy 72
V 
 CD   2c fL -- - (7.27)
Re L 0 V 
Drag coefficient is 22 percent greater than the trailing edge skin friction
coefficients (compare it with equation 7.27 for laminar flow).
For Transition region  5 105  Re L  8 107

Drag on a plate
Schlichting proposed 0.031 A
 CD   -- - (7.49)
Re1L/ 7 Re L
 5 10  Re L  10
5 7 L
Transition Rex 5x105 3x106
5
 Re L  5 10 L Constant A 1440 8700
Laminar boundary layer over Turbulent boundary layer
entire length over entire length xcr
Fdrag Fdrag TBL over entire length TBL upto xcr LBL upto xcr
0.072
 C D  bL 
1.328  bL  C D 
ρV2 Re L ρV2 1
+
(Re ) 5
2 2 L
xcr xcr
8
11/23/2016
Home assignment: Drag coefficients: Fig 7.6

x
 CD   ( )
1 
 wall  x
 cf   0.045(Reδ ) 4  C D   (Re, ) Fdrag
 ρV2     CD   (Re)
  -- - (Problem 7.36) 1 2
ρV (bL)
 2  2
 
 Fdrag  V2
1
 wall 
 cf   0.02(Reδ ) 6 -- - (equation 7.38) Drag is independent
 ρV2  of viscosity.
 
 2  2.5
   x
 c f   2.87  1.58 
 
 CD   (Re)
2.5
 L
 CD  1.89  1.62 
 
-- - (7.48)
Ex 7.4 Ex 7.4
A hydrofoil 0.35 m long and 1.8 m wide is placed in a seawater flow of 12 m/s, A hydrofoil 0.35 m long and 1.8 m wide is placed in a seawater flow of 12 m/s,
with ρ = 1025 kg/m3 and υ = 1.044x10-6 m2/s. (a) Estimate the boundary layer with ρ = 1025 kg/m3 and υ = 1.044x10-6 m2/s. (a) Estimate the boundary layer
thickness at the end of the plate. Estimate the friction drag for (b) turbulent thickness at the end of the plate. Estimate the friction drag for (b) turbulent
smooth wall flow from the leading edge, (c) laminar turbulent flow with Retrans = smooth wall flow from the leading edge, (c) laminar turbulent flow with Retrans =
5x105, and (d) turbulent rough wall flow with ε = 0.12 mm. 5x105, and (d) turbulent rough wall flow with ε = 0.12 mm.
V L 12  0.35
V L 12  0.35  Re L    4.023106
 Re L    4.023106  1.044106
 1.044106
Fdrag 0.072 0.031 A
0.37 x 0.37 (0.35) (b)   CD  (c )  C D  
δ  δl   6.18 mm 1 2
ρV (bL)
1
Re1L/ 7 Re L
1 1
2 (Re L ) 5
(Re x ) 5 ( 4.023 106 ) 5 2.5
 L
(d )  CD  1.89  1.62 
 
9
11/23/2016
Home assignments: Drag and lift:

Fluid exerts a viscous tangential shear stress and a
1. 7.10 Reading assignment: Article 7.5: Boundary layers normal pressure on the surface :
2. 7.22 with pressure gradient page 488- 490
3. 7.25  Fdrag    wdA cos   pdAsin
4. 7.26
5. 7.36
6. C7.3  Flift    wdAsin   pdAcos
Pressure and shear stress

on a surface 1. Flow can create two types of drag on an object
 Tangential viscous friction drag caused by
the boundary layer
 Normal pressure drag caused by the
momentum change of the fluid stream
2. Combined effect of these forces is represented
by drag coefficient
(determined experimentally)
Drag force: Fluid flow around cylinder

1. Flow can create two types of drag on an object Uniform ideal flow around a cylinder
2. Tangential viscous friction drag caused by the
boundary layer
3. Normal pressure drag caused by the
momentum change of the fluid stream (b) Pressure drag caused by the
4. Combined effect of these forces is represented change in fluid momentum
by drag coefficient
(determined experimentally)
Pressure distribution
 No net force
(a) Only viscous shear drag due (c) Combination of friction

to boundary layer drag and pressure drag
10
BITS Pilani Drag and lift:
Pilani Campus
Fluid exerts a viscous tangential shear stress and a

normal pressure on the surface :
 Fdrag    wdA cos   pdAsin
 Flift    wdAsin   pdAcos
Pressure and shear stress

on a surface 1. Flow can create two types of drag on an object
 Tangential viscous friction drag caused by
the boundary layer
Potential flows  Normal pressure drag caused by the
momentum change of the fluid stream
Chapter 8 2. Combined effect of these forces is represented
by drag coefficient (determined experimentally)
Inviscid flows: Inviscid flow conditions:   2  0

Elementary planar irrotational flows – Uniform stream 1. Uniform stream flow
which can be superimposed to create more – Line source/sink
complex flows 2. Line source/sink flow
– Line vortex 3. Line vortex flow
– Doublet 4. Doublet flow
Lift − Flow around a cylinder

 (r , ) psurface Fdrag and Flift − Uniform flow + cylinder with circulation
− Rankine half body
   wdA cos Lift
  pdAsin

Inviscid flow conditions: Angular deformation & Rotation
Cross derivatives are responsible for angular deformation and rotation
1   y  x   x
 ω z       x 
2  x y  x 
y
δy  δy δt
A  y 
  2  0
  y 
 δx δt
B
y  y 
  2  0 y  δx  x 
x
x
  : Velocity potential function Angular deformation
Angular
deformation Rotation
Rotation Rotation vector of fluid element

Cross derivatives are responsible for angular deformation and rotation

  x  1   y  x   ω  ω x iˆ  ω y ˆj  ω z kˆ
 δy δt ω z    
 y  2  x y 
 iˆ ˆj kˆ 
1    y  
 1   
  y  ω x   z   ω  
 δx δt 2  y z  2  x y z 
 x   x  y  z 
1   x  z 
ωy    
2  z x   1   1 
 ω  (  )  curl 
2 2
ωz 
ωOA  ωOB 1  δ δ  1   y  x      
 lim           2ω  (  )  curl 
y 
Vorticity
2 δt 0 2  δt δt  2  x
Velocity potential function: 2D flow: Stream function
   
Irrotational flow
 2ω  (  )  curl   
   .  0
 (  )  0 ----- (1) 
  x 
x  r   x  y y
  x r
   ----- (2)   0
x y 
 1  y  
Potential flow region y    x
y r         
      0
  x  y  y  x 
z  z 
z z
Continuity equation 1   y  x 
ω z      2ω z   2
  2  x y 
 .  0   2  0
2D irrotational flow: Basic two-dimensional flows:

Elementary planar irrotational flows which can be superimposed to create more
complex flows
  2  0  2  0
– Uniform stream
 
x  x  – Line source/sink
x y
– Line vortex
 
y  y   – Doublet (combination of equal strength source and sink)
y x
 1 
r  r 
r r 
1  
    
r  r
Source at the origin
Uniform stream flow:
 Simplest plane flow for which 3
streamlines remain straight and parallel   x  V ; y  0
2
  0 y
x  
x y   V ( y)
 -1
    V ( x)
y   -2
y x
-3
-4
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x 14
Source/sink flow: Source/sink flow:

 Flow pattern in xy plane in which flow is radial outward from z-axis
and symmetrical in all direction Q  1  Q
 r      
 Stream lines are radial spokes and the potential lines are circles 2 r r r  2
Q
1. Flow is purely radial    0 1     ln r
   0   2
2. Volume flow rate per unit depth r  r
 c (strength of the source)
 Q  (2 b r )r
Q
  constant  r 
2 r
3. Origin of source/sink flow is a singular point

Free vortex flow: Free vortex flow:
 Flow pattern in which streamlines are  Flow pattern in which streamlines are
concentric circles concentric circles
 No external torque i.e. rate of change of  No external torque i.e. rate of change of
angular momentum of flow must be zero. angular momentum of flow must be zero.
 (m r )  (m r )
  0  r  constant   0  r  constant
t t
 1  K
 r  0     
ln r
r r  2
K 1 1   K
       
2 r r  r 2
Ex 1: Ex 1:
The two dimensional flow of a nonviscous, incompressible fluid in the vicinity of the 1 
90° corner (Fig) is described by the stream function  ψ  2r 2 sin 2 r   4r cos 2
r 
 ψ  2r sin 2
2

Where ψ has units of m2/s when r is in meters.     4r sin 2
(a) Determine the corresponding velocity potential. r
(b) If the pressure at point (1) on the wall is 30 kpa, what is the pressure at point (2) ?

Assume the fluid density is 103 kg/m3 and the x-y plane is horizontal. r   4r cos 2    2r 2 cos 2  f1 ( )
r
1   1 
r      4r sin 2    2r 2 cos 2  f 2 (r )
r  r r 
 1 
   
r r 

Ex 1: Doublet:
 Flow pattern in which equal strength source and sink approach each
 ψ  2r 2 sin 2 other
   2r 2 cos 2     source  sink

r2 r r1
Q Q
   2  1
2 2 θ2 θ1
2
  (1   2 ) a a
Q
  2  tan 1  tan  2 r sin 
r   4r cos 2  V 2  r2  2  16r 2  tan      tan 1 
r  Q  1  tan 1 tan  2 r cos  a
ρ 2 r sin 
1   p2  p1  (V12  V22 )  2ar sin    tan  2 
   4r sin 2   tan 1  2 2 
r 
2 Q  r a  r cos  a
Doublet: Doublet:
 Flow pattern in which equal strength source and sink approach each
other
2  2ar sin  

  tan 1  2 2 
Q  r a  r2 r r1 r2 r r1
For smaller values of a
θ2 θ1 θ2 θ1
Qa  r 
     sin  a a a a
  r 2  a2 
 sin 
When source and sink approaches each other
  
Qa r
a 0  Q     constant

 cos
 
r
Flow around a cylinder: uniform flow + doublet Flow around a cylinder: uniform flow + doublet
    uniform flow  doublet     uniform flow  doublet
 sin   sin 
   Uy     Uy 
r r
 sin   sin 
   Ur sin      Ur sin  
P(r,θ) r P(r,θ) r
   
   Ur   sin     Ur   sin 
r=a  r r=a  r
 1  1    1  1  
 r        r      
r r  r  r r r  r  r
Flow around a cylinder: Flow around a cylinder:

  a2 
    Ur 1   sin
P(r,θ)    Ur   sin  - - - (1)
P(r,θ)  r2 
 r  
1      a2 
 r   U   cos    Ur 1  2  cos
r=a r   r2  r=a
 r 
r 
 a2 
 r  U 1  2  cos
  0  r 
 a2 
 a2     U 1  2  sin 
   Ur 1   sin  0  r 
 r2 
 
Flow around a cylinder: Flow around a cylinder:
 a2  r 
 r  U 1  2  cos Irrotational flow approximation
 r  2
 a 2   Fx    ps cos (ad )
   U 1  2  sin 

0
 r  2
 Fy    ps sin (ad )
0
1 2 1
 p  ρ  ps  ρ2S
2 2  Aerodynamic drag  0
1 2 1. No net pressure drag
 ps  p  ρ (1  4 sin 2  ) 2
2  Fx    ps cos (ad )  0 2. pressure fully recovers at the rear
0 stagnation point
 (r , ) psurface Fdrag and Flift 3. No viscous drag (cannot satisfy the
No-slip boundary condition)
p  p
 s  (1  4 sin 2  )
1 2
Inviscid flow around a cylinder: No drag ρ
2
French mathematician d’Alembert Comparison of theoretical

first showed that the drag on bodies (inviscid) pressure distribution
immersed in inviscid fluids is zero. on the surface of a cylinder
(d’Alembert’s paradox) with typical experimental
A
Zero pressure
distribution
point
Aerodynamic
B shoulder
A
Stagnation
point
B

Flow around a cylinder: Exercise:
Water flows around a 1.8 m diameter bridge pier with a velocity of 4 m/s. Estimate A 2m diameter horizontal cylinder is formed by bolting two semi-cylindrical
the force (per unit length) that the water exerts on the pier. Assume that the flow can channels together. There are 12 bolts per meter of width holding the top and bottom
be approximated as an ideal fluid flow around the front half of the cylinder, but due together. The inside pressure is 60 kPa (gauge). Using potential theory for the
to flow separation, the average pressure on the rear half is constant and outside pressure, compute the tension force in each bolt if the free steam fluid is sea
approximately equal to ½ the pressure at point A. level air and the free stream wind speed is 25 m/s.
1 2
 ps  p  ρ (1  4 sin 2  )
2
V  U  4 m/s 1.8 m
3 2
 p A  p  ρ
2
3 / 2 p
 Fx   ps cos (ad )  A (2a 1)  0
 /2 2
Flow around cylinder with circulation: Magnus effect:

Lift
According to Kutta–Joukowski theorem, when circulation is imposed upon a
cylinder or a ball placed in uniform flow, lift is generated.
A B
 Typically referred as MAGNUS EFFECT in honor of German scientist
Heinrich Magnus (1802-1870), who described the effect in 1852.
 Trajectory of flying balls such as golf, baseball, soccer, cricket, tennis etc is
significantly altered by the lift (Magnus effect).
    uniform flow  doublet  vortex  Flift    ps sin  (ad )

A
 a 2  K
   Ur 1  2  sin  
 ln r
 r  2  Flift  ρ U K a
Kutta (1902) – Joukowski (1906) theorem

 (r , ) psurface Fdrag and Flift

Source in uniform flow
Source in a uniform stream: Half body
Rankine half body ψ = πaU
πa
πa
a
a
  uniform  Uy  Ur sin
Stagnation point :
Q Q
 U  r x  a    source  
2a 2
Q
    uniform flow  source- - - (1)    Ur sin   
2
Rankine half body: Velocity at any point Rankine half body: stream function at stagnation point
Stagnation point :
ψ = πaU
ψ = πaU
Q Q
πa U  a
πa 2 a 2 U
πa
πa
a Streamline passing through stagnation point:

a   2  r2  2
  
Q
1     Ur sin    Q
UQ cos  Q 
Q 2
 r   U cos  2   stag  Ur sin  
2 r
U  2
  2
r  r  2 r 
 stagnation   (a,  )   aU  Ur sin  aU
  2a cos  a  2 
     U sin 2
 U 1    Q (   )a
r    stag     aU  r sin   (   )a  y  r 
 r  r   2 sin 
Ex 8.1 Sink + vortex flow:
The bottom of a river has a 4-m high bump that approximates a Rankine half body as shown
in Fig. The pressure at point B on the bottom is 130 kPa, and the river velocity is 2.5 m/sec.
Use inviscid theory to estimate:
1. The water pressure at point A on the bump, which is 2 m above the point B.
2. The maximum velocity along the bump surface and its location (x, y).
= πa
 2a cos  a  2 
2
   U 1
2
   (   )a
 r  r   r
 sin 

Chapter-2 Merged Compressed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter-2 Merged Compressed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

8/22/2016

Fluid: One that can flow !! Pressure:

Substance that deforms continuously under the action of shear y

Pressure at a point in static Pressure at a point in static

State of stress at a point O: State of stress at a point O:

Pressure –Height relation: Pressure –Height relation:

Pressure at a point Pressure units:

Hydrostatic Forces on submerged

(ρ)ben g (0.2)  (ρ) mer g0.08  Patm

Vertical plane surface : Vertical plane surface :

Vertical plane surface : Vertical plane surface :

Vertical plane surface : Vertical plane surface :

Ex 1 (2.61): Home assignment (2.62):

Area moment of inertia: Plane surfaces : Page 82

Inclined plane surface : Inclined plane surface :

Inclined plane surface : Inclined plane surface :

Ex 1: Inclined plane surface :

Ex 2: Submerged curved surfaces:

Submerged curved surfaces: Submerged curved surfaces:

Objectives Tutorial problem

 Fwater  ( g ) y w A  9810  (2h)  9.81h 2 kN [1M]  h  3.55m

Fluids in rigid body motion Fluids in rigid body motion

Fluids in rigid body motion Fluids in rigid body motion

Ex 2: Home assignment Fluids in rigid body rotation

Fluids in rigid body rotation Fluids in rigid body rotation

Fluids in rigid body rotation Ex 3

BITS Pilani Fluid in motion:

Objectives: Pipe bend

Integral Relations for a Control Volume

Fluid in motion: Eulerian description:

With a small number of objects, such as

Flow through a pipe

Fluid in motion: Reynolds Transport Theorem :

R 2. Finite mass of fluid (i.e. system) at time t

( System)t  (CV )t N  nm  N   n( dV )

Reynolds Transport Theorem : Reynolds Transport Theorem :

Reynolds Transport Theorem : Reynolds Transport Theorem :

Impulse Momentum equation : Impulse Momentum equation :

Impulse Momentum equation : BITS Pilani

Nozzle Turbine bucket

Continuity equation : revise Continuity equation :

Impulse Momentum equation : Application:

Impulse Momentum equation : Impulse Momentum equation :

Impulse Momentum equation : Impulse Momentum equation :

Home assignment: BITS Pilani

Integral Relations for a Control Volume

Objectives: Impulse Momentum equation :

Solved Ex 3.9: Text book P 3.51:

Text book P 3.51: Home assignment

Angular Momentum principle : Angular Momentum principle :

Angular Momentum principle :

Turbines Impulse Turbines Reaction Turbines

1. Impulse turbine  Impulse action of water

Impulse turbines: Impulse turbines:

Impulse turbines: Impulse turbines:

Tshaft   M z  r (1  r)(1  cos )(ρQ)

Ex 2 (Solved problem 3.17): Home assignment:

Energy principle: System approach Energy principle :

Energy principle : SFEE :

Flow through a passage: Energy principle :

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Assumptions : 1. Steady flow p 2    

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Objectives Flow through a passage: