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DLS provides a hydrodynamic size and is more quantitative, while AFM and TEM offer both
qualitative and quantitative information such as particle shape, surface morphology, and size of the
NPs. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will
be particularly. Rizeq, B.R.; Younes, N.N.; Rasool, K.; Nasrallah, G.K. Self-assembly of amphiphilic
chitosan provides further promise for drug delivery systems since several properties such as size,
surface charge, loading efficiency, stability, and biodistribution can be altered for a particular
application. Micelle carrier systems can improve drug solubility and stability as well as help
overcome toxicity and immunogenicity problems. It is well known the hydrophobic core of the
micelles provides a reservoir for loading water-insoluble drugs. The formation of the nanoparticles is
instantaneous and needs only one step so it has the advantage of a rapid and straightforward
operation. The mechanism of action involves morphogenesis of the cell wall, which directly
interferes with the growth. When chitosan encounters anions, it forms a gel and beads and this
feature allows it to be used in drug delivery. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no competing
interests. Even though the number of reaction steps is increased because of the application of
protecting groups, it results in a larger range of derivations without affecting the molecular weight.
International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM). It was shown that blood capillaries were
capable enough to administrate Ch intravenously. Paper should be a substantial original Article that
involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for. Aggregation of amphiphilic
polymers is controlled by the balance between the interaction of the hydrophobic groups and the
hydrophilic chains. Different polymers can be used to obtain micelles to carry drugs. The zebrafish
model can be used to assess nanoparticle toxicity at multiple toxicity levels, including the mortality
rate, teratogenic effect, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and genotoxicity. Through rapid solvent
diffusion, the nanoparticles are formed immediately. Rizeq, B.R.; Younes, N.N.; Rasool, K.;
Nasrallah, G.K. The amino groups can be further selectively modified via a quaternization reaction,
reductive amination, or peptide coupling. Recently, the development of ChNPs gained a lot of
attention for a wide range of applications in the biomedical and pharmaceutical industry. Due to the
Ch properties of non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, it is possible to encapsulate and
deliver DOX with reduced side effects. Ch has the advantage that a range of derivatives can be
synthesized from Ch due to the existence of the amino group in conjunction with the primary alcohol
function, which gives rise to N -modified Ch, O -modified Ch or N, O -modified Ch. However, the
use of high shear forces and organic solvents required during nanoparticle formation are two
drawbacks of this approach. This mechanism can be considered as an active treatment for bone
hyperplasia and rheumatoid arthritis. On the other hand, selectively O -modified Ch can be obtained
via an easy and efficient method in which the protonation of amino groups is performed using an
acidic solvent or additives like H 2 SO 4 or MeSO 3 H. This review presents an overview on the
state of the art regarding Ch-based nanomaterials in the biomedical field. While the use of
nanomaterials offers great advantages in the biomedical field, current research on the safety of
various NPs is not enough for their application in the biomedical field. Considering the targeted
applications, these nanomaterials can be applied in a solubilized form, such as suspensions, coatings,
hydrogels, and films, and they show high potential for antitumor applications, protein and peptide
drug delivery, cardiovascular applications, bone reconstruction, blood purification, cancer treatment,
and tissue regeneration applications. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK).
ChNPs show promising results for in vivo use as drug delivery vehicles and diagnostic materials.
When chitosan encounters anions, it forms a gel and beads and this feature allows it to be used in
drug delivery. Most interactions of nanoparticles with cell membrane proteins are non-specific in
nature. The dried material is added to water to eliminate the surfactant and salt is applied to remove
the surfactant, followed by centrifugation to recover the ChNP. In addition, both nanoparticles
induced neurobehavioral toxicity, including decreased spontaneous movement in TmCS-NP-treated
embryos and a hyperactive effect in ChNP-treated embryos. The Tween modified ChNPs (TmCS-
NPs) size 251 nm showed significantly decreased hatching rate as well. Journal of Experimental and
Theoretical Analyses (JETA). The application of ChNPs in the biological and biomedical fields is due
to the biocompatibility and biodegradability of Ch. It is obtained by partial deacetylation of chitin,
the second largest and most abundant polysaccharide in nature after cellulose. Nanomaterials or
nanoparticles offer new opportunities in material science and biomedicine. Aggregation of
amphiphilic polymers is controlled by the balance between the interaction of the hydrophobic groups
and the hydrophilic chains. Ch is also used to prevent tissue adhesion in internal surgery. Journal of
Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER). Rizeq, B.R.; Younes, N.N.;
Rasool, K.; Nasrallah, G.K. The example method given here uses the simplest approach to form
either chemical or ionic crosslinked chitosan nanoparticles. The size of NPs is one of the most
important factors that affect their applicability in the biomedical and pharmaceutical sector. The
zebrafish model can be used to assess nanoparticle toxicity at multiple toxicity levels, including the
mortality rate, teratogenic effect, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and genotoxicity. This novel
approach can reduce the particle size and distribution of the synthesised ChNP. The liquid phase is
then evaporated by mixing these droplets with a drying gas, resulting in the formation of ChNP.
Phase separation and coacervation are the foundations of the desolvation technique. Gout, Urate, and
Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD). Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed). For
many years chitosan was considered useful as a bioadhesive material because of its ability to form
non-covalent bonds with biological tissues, mainly epithelia and mucous membranes. Commonly, Ch
was found to be relatively safe due to its biodegradable and biocompatible properties. The amino
groups can be further selectively modified via a quaternization reaction, reductive amination, or
peptide coupling. Self-assembly of amphiphilic chitosan provides further promise for drug delivery
systems since several properties such as size, surface charge, loading efficiency, stability, and
biodistribution can be altered for a particular application. The deacetylation (DA) of Ch influences
the antimicrobial activity due to the number of free amino groups which contribute to the activity.
The major concerns related to Ch stability in aqueous solution, as well as its antibacterial properties,
antifungal properties, and toxicity, are addressed in order to understand the prospective of these
materials in various biomedical applications. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology
and Education (EJIHPE). The degree of acetylation (DA) is an essential characteristic of chitin and
chitosan.
In the nanoprecipitation method, the nanoparticles are obtained from the colloidal suspension when
the oil phase is slowly added to the aqueous phase under moderate stirring. Moreover, both NPs
inhibited axonal development of the motor neurons and remarkably affected the muscle structure of
the embryos. Reverse micelles are thermodynamically stable liquid mixtures of water, oil, and
surfactant. ChNPs show promising results for in vivo use as drug delivery vehicles and diagnostic
materials. This allows the production of small, narrow particle sizes. Overall, the ionotropic gelation
method is the simplest and most cost-effective from bench-to-industrial scale-up. Figure 3 B shows
an illustration of this strategy. Chitosan NanoParticles Preparation Methods Particulate chitosan
structures are 3D crosslinked networks where polymeric chains are interconnected by crosslinkers.
Note: Chitosan and crosslinker concentration need to be optimized for desired particle size and
encapsulation efficiency. They confirmed their results by performing cardiotoxicity assays in which
CZNC-treated embryos showed a normal heartbeat frequency, rhythmic activity, and contractile
functions. This method can generate particles as small as 170 nm, which increases the number of
applications as well as its efficiency. Phase separation and coacervation are the foundations of the
desolvation technique. Concluding Remarks This short review summarizes the recent research on
chitosan and its amphiphilic derivatives, including experimental chemical modifications, the
mechanisms of nano-structure fabrication, and their drug delivery system applications. Journal of
Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD). Note that from the first issue of 2016, this
journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. Rizeq, Balsam R., Nadin N. Younes, Kashif
Rasool, and Gheyath K. Nasrallah. Synthesis, Bioapplications, and Toxicity Evaluation of Chitosan-
Based Nanoparticles. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed). In this process, an
aqueous chitosan solution with a stabilising agent (e.g., Tween 20) is treated with a precipitation
agent (e.g., sodium sulphate). The salty chitosan solution causes a steady removal of water-encircling
chitosan. All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open
access license. No special. While the use of nanomaterials offers great advantages in the biomedical
field, current research on the safety of various NPs is not enough for their application in the
biomedical field. At the end of this review, we also provide some of future directions and
conclusions that are important for expanding the field of biomedical applications of the chitosan
nanoparticles. Furthermore, the neurotoxicity assay revealed that CZNC-treated embryos did not
elicit any significant impact on the neurological behavior of the embryos. The N-deacetylated
derivative of chitin is an appealing biopolymer for producing nanoparticles because chitosan has a
unique polymeric cationic nature, non-toxicity, high biocompatibility, mucoadhesive properties,
absorption-enhancing qualities, and biodegradability. The Tween modified ChNPs (TmCS-NPs) size
251 nm showed significantly decreased hatching rate as well. Commonly, Ch was found to be
relatively safe due to its biodegradable and biocompatible properties. Table 1 summarizes and
compares these four mechanisms as well as current delivery applications. Cosmetics and
cosmeceutical applications of chitin, chitosan and their derivatives. Schematic illustration of different
methods of chitosan nanoparticle (ChNP) synthesis. For more information on the journal statistics,
click here.
An excess amount of water is added to ensure complete acetone diffusion and the nanoparticles are
separated using centrifugation. Synthesis, Bioapplications, and Toxicity Evaluation of Chitosan-
Based Nanoparticles. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 5776. In this context, the wide range of ChNP
applications necessitates accurately investigating the potential ChNP toxicity for both aquatic life
and higher vertebrate animals. Nanomaterials or nanoparticles offer new opportunities in material
science and biomedicine. Modified and unmodified chitosan has been widely used, albeit with
different molecular weights and chemical modifications, in biomedical,2,3 pharmaceutical,4 metal
chelation,5,6 food additive,7 and other industrial applications.8 Chitosan is biocompatible and can
be biodegraded by enzymes such as lysozymes, some lipases, and proteases.9 These properties, as
well as its positive charge in physiological conditions, endow chitosan with a promising future as a
biomaterial. Moreover, they reported that ChNP-treated embryos showed a significant increase in cell
death rate and increased presence of reactive oxygen species. This method is used mostly for
hydrophobic drug entrapment but is sometimes employed to incorporate hydrophilic drugs. On the
other hand, several factors also influence the crosslinking reaction such as the characteristics and
chemical structure of the crosslinker itself. Rizeq, B.R.; Younes, N.N.; Rasool, K.; Nasrallah, G.K.
Chitosan NanoParticles Preparation Methods Particulate chitosan structures are 3D crosslinked
networks where polymeric chains are interconnected by crosslinkers. Previous Article in Special Issue
Enhancing the Thermo-Stability and Anti-Biofilm Activity of Alginate Lyase by Immobilization on
Low Molecular Weight Chitosan Nanoparticles. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2019;
20(22):5776. Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications (JLPEA). In addition, both
nanoparticles induced neurobehavioral toxicity, including decreased spontaneous movement in
TmCS-NP-treated embryos and a hyperactive effect in ChNP-treated embryos. This method can
generate particles as small as 170 nm, which increases the number of applications as well as its
efficiency. Please let us know what you think of our products and services. Rizeq, Balsam R., Nadin
N. Younes, Kashif Rasool, and Gheyath K. Nasrallah. Feature papers are submitted upon individual
invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive. Multiple requests from the
same IP address are counted as one view. The example method given here uses the simplest approach
to form either chemical or ionic crosslinked chitosan nanoparticles. ChNP loaded with dexketoprofen
trometamol appear to be a potential oral prolonged-release medication delivery strategy with low
dosages and good efficiency. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK). Since the
smaller particle size was revealed in sodium chloride, nanoparticles disseminated in saline solution
were also found to be more stable. DLS provides a hydrodynamic size and is more quantitative,
while AFM and TEM offer both qualitative and quantitative information such as particle shape,
surface morphology, and size of the NPs. Synthesis, Bioapplications, and Toxicity Evaluation of
Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles. Most interactions of nanoparticles with cell membrane proteins are
non-specific in nature. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader. The
modifications performed to synthesize Ch derivatives are primarily determined by the type of
reactants used. Summary of the five studies of chitosan nanoparticle toxicity using a zebrafish
model. Rizeq, Balsam R., Nadin N. Younes, Kashif Rasool, and Gheyath K. Nasrallah.
Through rapid solvent diffusion, the nanoparticles are formed immediately. Zebrafish embryos were
used in our and other laboratories as an in vivo model to evaluate nanoparticle biocompatibility.
However, only a small amount of DOX reaches the tumor target site because about 40% is excreted
via liver metabolism. Moreover, both NPs inhibited axonal development of the motor neurons and
remarkably affected the muscle structure of the embryos. The steps in this strategy are depicted in
Figure 3 A. This novel approach can reduce the particle size and distribution of the synthesised
ChNP. Current research is focused on improving the stability, biocompatibility, and synthesis of
novel ChNPs to enhance their effectiveness in biomedical applications. Indeed, the mechanism of the
analgesic effect was investigated using an acetic-acid-induced writhing test on mice using a Ch
suspension mixed with a 0.5% acetic acid solution. Bioadhesions formed using natural polymers have
unique properties as a carrier because they can prolong residence time and, therefore, increase the
absorbance of loaded drugs.1 Chitosan is hydrophilic and soluble in acidic solutions through the
protonation of its amine groups. Ch has wide-ranging properties and characteristics that make it
useful in a number of applications over a variety of fields. Thus, the present knowledge on Ch-based
nanomaterials is not developed enough, and extensive research on the fabrication of ChNPs and their
biological properties is urgently needed. Special attention is dedicated to their preparation, properties,
and application in cancer therapeutics, as well as their use as wound-healing dressings, as
therapeutic delivery systems, and for drug delivery and transfection. Self-assembly of amphiphilic
chitosan provides further promise for drug delivery systems since several properties such as size,
surface charge, loading efficiency, stability, and biodistribution can be altered for a particular
application. Rizeq, B.R.; Younes, N.N.; Rasool, K.; Nasrallah, G.K. Amphiphilic properties allow it
to self-associate in aqueous solution, leading to different kinds of drug delivery systems such as
nanomicelles, nanoparticles, microspheres,30 liposomes,31 and hydrogels ( Figure 2. Encyclopedia.
Available online: (accessed on 22 February 2024). The authors PEGylated the Ch chemoselectively,
and precipitated it in a 15% Tris(hydroxyl methyl) amino methane aqueous solution. ChNPs show
promising results for in vivo use as drug delivery vehicles and diagnostic materials. Mechanisms of
chitosan nanoparticle formation and hydrophobically modified chitosan self-assembly nanomicelles
Identification of the most appropriate mechanism for chitosan nanoparticle formation can be
complicated. The mechanism of action involves morphogenesis of the cell wall, which directly
interferes with the growth. Although several procedures are reported to describe a selective
modification of Ch, there is a certain procedure which can be employed to perform nonselective
modification of amino or hydroxyl groups. Due to the eco-friendly nature of Ch, it provides a novel
pathway to develop less toxic biocides for combating marine fouling without affecting the aquatic
fauna. When chitosan encounters anions, it forms a gel and beads and this feature allows it to be
used in drug delivery. Several natural antimicrobials were investigated and applied in the bio and
pharmaceutical industry. Furthermore, the neurotoxicity assay revealed that CZNC-treated embryos
did not elicit any significant impact on the neurological behavior of the embryos. The modifications
performed to synthesize Ch derivatives are primarily determined by the type of reactants used.
Cosmetics and cosmeceutical applications of chitin, chitosan and their derivatives. The
physicochemical properties like size, shape, and surface morphology of ChNPs are well characterized
and reported in the literature. Subsequently, O -modified Ch is obtained via a deprotection step of
the amino function. However, several studies showed the cytotoxicity of ChNPs in vitro and in vivo.