Electrical Engineering Capsule

Youth Competition Times
ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
CAPSULE
Useful for All Competitive AE/JE Exam :
UPPSC AE UKPSC AE BPSC AE CGPSC AE MPPSC AE RPSC AE UPSSSC

SSC JE DMRC JE LMRC JE JMRC JE BMRC JE DSSSB JE UP Jal Nigam
UKSSSC JE RSMSSB JE MPPEB SUB ENGINEER HPSSC JE HSSC JE
Punjab JE CGPEB SUB ENGINEER BSSC JE DRDO JE ISRO JE
UPPCL AE/JE UPRVUNL AE/JE JVUNL JE SAIL JE
GAIL JE BHEL JE NTPC JE DFCCIL
COAL INDIA LTD. JE RRB JE etc.
Chief Editor
Mr. Anand Mahajan
Compiled & Written by
Er. Anil Kumar, Er. Rakesh Patel
Computer Graphics by
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In the event of any dispute, the Judicial area will be Prayagraj.
INDEX
Network Theory ......................................................................................... 3-13

Electromagnetic Field Theory................................................................. 14-21
Electrical Materials .................................................................................. 22-30
Electrical Instruments and Measurements ........................................... 31-47
Power Plant ............................................................................................... 48-63
Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Power ............................. 64-71
Electrical Switchgear and Protection ..................................................... 72-83
Earthing and Wiring ................................................................................ 84-91
Utilization of Electrical Energy ............................................................ 92-106
Electrical Machine–I ............................................................................ 107-116
Electrical Machine–II .......................................................................... 117-126
Power Electronics & Drives ................................................................ 127-135
Control System ..................................................................................... 136-141
Signal and System .............................................................................. 142-148
Engineering Mathematics.................................................................... 149-153
Basic Electronics Engineering............................................................. 154-161
Analog Electronics ............................................................................... 162-171
Communication Engineering .............................................................. 172-179
Digital Electronics ................................................................................ 180-188
Microprocessor & 8051 Microcontroller ........................................... 189-193
PLC, SCADA and Automation ......................................................... 194-199
Computer Fundamental and Application of Computer Software .. 200-203
IMED, IMRE and Energy Conservation .......................................... 204-208
Electrical Engineering Capsule 2 YCT

NETWORK THEORY
Unit and Dimension • Conversion of Resistance–
Quantities Unit Dimension
Resistance Ohm  ML2 T −3 A −2 
 
Resistivity Ohm-meter  ML3T −3A −2 
 
Conductivity mho/m or [M–1L–3T3A2]
Siemens/m
Delta to star Star to Delta
Voltage Volt [ML2T–3A–1]
Current Ampere [A] R AB × R CA RARB
RA = R AB = R A + R B +
Electric Power Watt [ML2 T–3] R AB + R BC + R CA RC
Electric Energy kWh [ML2T–2] R AB × R BC R BR C
RB = R BC = R B + R C +
Permittivity Farad/meter [M–1L–3T4A2] R AB + R BC + R CA RA
Electric field V/m or N/C [MLT3A–1] R BC × R CA R CR A
intensity RC = R CA = R C + R A +
R AB + R BC + R CA RB
Electric flux C/m2 [MLT–3A–1]
density • Resistance Vs Temperature R t = R o (1 + α∆T )
–1 –2 4 2
Capacitance Farad [M L T A ]
• AC Resistance R AC = 1.6R DC
Inductance Henry [ML2T–2A–2]
Permeability Henry/meter [MLT–2A–2] • Resistivity of materials-
Magnetic Flux Tesla or [ML–1T–2A–1] ρ=
1
Ω-m
density Weber/m2 σ(conductivity)
Magnetic field A/m or Oersted [MT–2 A–1] • Cable insulation Resistance-
intensity or N/Wb
ρ r 2.303 ρ r
mmf AT or Gilbert [A] R= log e 2 = log10 2
2πℓ r1 2πℓ r1
Reluctance AT/Wb or per [M–1L–2T2A2]
Henry • Colour coding of Resistance
Permeance Wb/AT [ML2T–2A–2] Colour Value Multiplier Tolerance
Luminous flux lumen [ML2T–3] Black 0 1 –
Illumination Lux or lumen/ m2 [MT–3] Brown 1 10 ± 1%
Red 2 102 ± 2%
Resistor
Orange 3 103 ± 3%
ρℓ 104
Resistance (R) = Yellow 4 ± 4%
A Green 5 105 ± 0.5%
If wire is stretch n times then- R ′ = n 2 R Blue 6 106 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 107 ± 0.10%
R
If wire is compressed n times then- R ′ = Grey 8 108 ± 0.05 %
n2
White 9 109 –
V Gold – 10–1 ± 5%
Ohm's law for resistor- R =
I Silver – 10–2 ± 10%
• Series combination of resistor (None) – ± 20%
R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ...... + R n • Formula for 4 Band resistor
R = AB × 10C ± Tolerance
• Parallel combination of resistor- Where A → Ist significant digit
1 1 1 1 1 B → 2nd Significant digit
= + + + ........ +
R eq R 1 R 2 R 3 Rn 10C → multiplier

• Metal and melting point (in 0C) f. Capacitance of variable capacitor-
Metal Melting Metal Melting C=
( n − 1) εo ε r A
Farad
point (in point (in d
ºC) ºC) Where n = no. of plates
Copper 1084 Chromium 1850 • Series combination of capacitors
Magnesium 650 Molybdenum 2622 1 1 1 1 1
Zinc 419.5 Tungsten 3390 = + + + ........ +
Ceq C1 C 2 C3 Cn
Aluminium 658.6 Iron 1538
Tin 231.8 Cobalt 1490 • Parallel combination of capacitors
Lead 327.4 Nickel 1452 Ceq = C1 + C 2 + C3 + ....... + C n
Silver 961 Carbon 3550 • Conversion of capacitors–
• Behaviour of resistor
Resistor is a linear, bilateral and passive element.
• Material and dielectric constant
Material Dielectric Material Dielectric
Constant Constant
Vacuum 1 Paper 3.6
Glass 5-12 Polystyrene 2.6
Mica 4-8 Air (100 1.0548 Delta to star Star to Delta
atm)
C C CA CB
Germanium 16 Porcelain 5-6.2 C A = C AB + C CA + AB CA C AB =
Water 80.6 Rubber 2.5 C BC C A + C B + CC
Air (1 atm) 1.00059 C AB C BC C B CC
Capacitor C B = C AB + C BC + C BC =
CCA C A + C B + CC
εo εr A
a. Capacitance of Capacitor C = Farad C C CC C A
d CC = C BC + C CA + BC CA CCA =
C AB C A + C B + CC
b. Capacitance of different Dielectric having different
thickness and relative permittivities – • Charging and Discharging of capacitor
Charging Discharging Time
εo A
C= Farad constant
t1 t 2 t 3 for
+ +
ε r1 ε r2 ε r3 capacitor
Current equation Current equation τ = R th Ceq
c. When some part of parallel plate capacitor have air
medium and some part have another medium then IC ( t ) = I0 e IC ( t ) = − I0e − t / τ
−t / τ
εo A Voltage equation Voltage equation

capacitance- C = Farad VC ( t ) = V0 (1 − e − t / τ ) VC ( t ) = V0 e − t / τ
  t 
d −  t − 
  εr 
Charge equation Charge equation
q c ( t ) = Q0 (1 − e )
−t / τ
q c( t ) = Q 0 e − t / τ
d. When some part of parallel plate capacitor have air
medium in horizontal direction and some part have • Transient equation for capacitor–
Vc ( t ) = Vc ( ∞ ) +  Vc ( 0+ ) − Vc ( ∞ )  e− t / τ t > 0
another medium then capacitance-
ε A 1 + ε r  1 + ε r 
C= o  = Cair   Farad
d  2   2  • Concept of short circuit and open circuit of
e. Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor- capacitor with respect to time-
t
Vc ( t ) = ∫ i c ( t ) dt + V ( 0− )
CdV 1
2πε o ε r ℓ ic = ;
C= Farad dt C0
log e b / a
• Behaviour of capacitor with initial condition-
2πε o ε r ℓ at t = 0 → act as a voltage source
C= Farad
2.303log10 b / a at t = ∞ → act as open circuit
• Behaviour of capacitor without initial condition–
at t = 0 → act as short circuit
at t = ∞ → act as open circuit

• Some important point Regarding to capacitor– • Magnetic coupling of Inductor
a. Capacitor opposes rate of change of voltage. Series connection of Inductor
VC (0–) =VC (0+) i. Adding nature ii. Subtracting nature
b. Capacitor Stores the energy in electric field. L = L1 + L 2 + 2M L = L1 + L 2 − 2M
dVc ( t )
c. While charging, Ic ( t ) = increased and Ic(t)
dt
must be positive.
dV ( t )
d. While discharge, Ic ( t ) = c decreased but Ic(t)
dt
must be negative. Parallel connection of Inductor
e. While a capacitor charge and discharge polarity of i. Adding nature ii. Subtracting nature
dc voltage of capacitor never change. L1L 2 − M 2
L1L 2 − M 2
• Energy stored in capacitor – L eq = L eq =
L1 + L 2 − 2M L1 + L 2 + 2M
2
1 1 1 Q
E = CV = QV =
2
Joules
2 2 2 C
Inductor
• Faraday's law for an inductor
t
VL dt + i ( 0− )
di 1 •
i(t) =
L ∫0
VL = L Transient equation for inductor
dt
i L ( t ) = i L ( ∞ ) + i L ( 0+ ) − i L ( ∞ )  e − t / τ t > 0
• Coefficient of self inductance
• Charging and discharging of inductor
Nφ V N 2 µ oµ r aN 2
L= = L = = Where N = no. of Charging Discharging
i di / dt S ℓ
Current I L ( t ) = Io (1 − e ) Current I L ( t ) = Io e − t / τ
−t / τ
turns in the coil, 'a' is cross sectional area and ℓ is

Voltage VL (t) = Vo e − t / τ Voltage VL ( t ) = − Vo e− t / τ
the length of the coil.
Also,
µr = Relative permeability
µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Henry/meter
S = Self inductance
• Coefficient of mutual Inductance
Nφ VL2 µ µ N N π r2
M= 2 1 = = o r 1 2 L
i1 di1 / dt ℓ1 • Time constant for inductor τ = second
R
µo µ r N1 N 2 A • Behaviour of Inductor
M= a. Inductor is linear, bilateral and passive element.
ℓ1
b. Inductor opposes the sudden change of current.
M I L (0 − ) = IL (0 + )
• Coupling factor of Inductance K=
L1L 2 c. Inductor allows the sudden change of voltage.
d. Inductor is an energy storing element.
• Inductor Voltage & Current e. Inductor does not dissipate any power, it only stores
energy.
a. Inductor with initial condition • Transient equation for RLC circuit -
at t = 0 → act as a current source Source free series RLC Source free parallel RLC
at t = ∞ → act as short circuit circuit circuit
b. Inductor without initial condition

at t = 0 → act as an open circuit
at t = ∞ → act as short circuit
1 2
• Energy stored in inductor- E = Li
2 roots s1,s2 = −α ± α2 − ωo2 roots s1,s2 = −α ± α2 −ωo2

Overdamped Overdamped Bidirectional and unidirectional element
• α > ωo ⇒ C > 4L/R2 • α > ωo ⇒ L > 4R2C Bidirectional Unidirectional
If the characteristic or If the property or
• i(t) = A1es1t + A2 es2 t • v(t) = A1es1t + A2 es2 t
property of element is characteristic of element
•ξ>1 •ξ>1 independent of direction of is dependent on direction
Critically damped Critically damped flow of current, element is of flow of current, element
• α = ωo ⇒ C = 4L/R2 • α = ωo ⇒ L = 4R2C bidirectional. is unidirectional.
Ex. R, L & C Ex. Diode, BJT op-amp
• i(t) = (A1 + A2 t)e−αt • v(t) = (A1 + A2 t)e−αt
When characteristic curve is similar in opposite
•ξ=1 •ξ=1 quadrant part the element is bidirectional otherwise
Under damped Under damped it is unidirectional.
• α < ωo ⇒ C < 4L/R2 • α < ωo ⇒ L < 4R2C Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• s1,s2 = –α ± jωd • s1,s2 = –α ± jωd
Where ωd = ωo2 − α2 Where ωd = ωo2 − α2
• i(t) = e–αt (A1cosωdt + A2 • v(t) = e–αt (A1cosωdt +
sin ωdt) A2 sin ωdt)
1 1
• Time constant = • Time constant =
α α ∑I = 0
2π 2π • Outgoing current = incoming current.
• Period (T) = • Period (T) =
ωο ωο I3 = I1 + I 2 + I 4
•ξ<1 •ξ<1 q 3 − ( q1 + q 2 + q 4 ) = 0
Note : The constant A1 & A2 can be determined from
KCL is also known as law of conservation of
initial condition i(0+) & di(0+)/dt and v(0+) & dv(0+)/dt
charge.
Step response of series Step response of parallel Kirchhoff's voltage Law (KVL)
RLC circuit RLC circuit
Complete solution Complete solution ∑V = 0, − v1 + v 2 + v3 + v 4 = 0

• Over damped - • Over damped - KVL is known as law of conservation of energy.
V(t) = Vi + A1es1t + A2 es2 t I(t) = Ii + A1es1t + A2 es2 t Voltage source
• Critically damped • Critically damped Ideal
voltage
V(t) = Vi + (A1 + A2) e–αt I(t) = Ii + (A1 + A2) e–αt
source
• Under damped - • Under damped -
V(t) = Vi + e–αt (A1 cos ωdt + I(t) = Ii + e–αt (A1 cos ωdt
A2sin ωdt) + A2sin ωdt)
r = 0, where r is internal resistance
Electric Circuit V = VS
Classification of circuit element Note: Internal resistance of ideal
Active and Passive elements voltage source is zero.
Practical
Active Passive
voltage
Capable of delivering the Not capable of delivering source
energy for infinite time energy for infinite time.
Ex. Current source op-amp, Ex. R,L,C, Bulb,
BJT etc. Transformer etc.
If the ratio of voltage to current at any point on
characteristic curve is negative then the element is Note: The internal resistance of practical
active otherwise it will be passive. voltage source is not zero
• Voltage source connection Dependent source
Source Parameter to control
Current controlled voltage
source
Voltage controlled voltage

source
In parallel, voltage source is dominant.
Voltage controlled current
source
Current controlled current

Current Source source
Ideal
Current Power absorbed and delivered by element
Source
When current is entering into positive
terminal, element absorbs power.
Note: The internal resistance of an ideal When current is leaving from positive
current source is infinite terminal, element delivers power.
Practical
Current
Source Source Transformation Technique
• Voltage source to current source conversion
Note: The internal resistance of practical

current source is not infinite.
• Current source connection • Current source to voltage source
• Voltage Division Rule

R1
V1 = ×V
R1 + R 2
In series, current source is dominant.
R2
V2 = ×V
R1 + R 2
• Current Division Rule :

Source Ideal Practical R2
I1 = × Is
Voltage Source Rs = 0 Rs = Low R1 + R 2
Current Source Rs = ∞ Rs = High R1
Voltmeter Rm = ∞ Rm = High I2 = × Is
R1 + R 2
Ammeter Rm = 0 Rm = Low

• Nodal voltage Analysis circuit : Tellegen’s theorem- States that the summation
of power delivered is zero for each branch of any
electrical network at any instant of time.
b
∑ vk ik = 0 b= number of branches
k =1
This theorem is valid for any network where kVL
and KCL equation are valid.
Millman’s theorem-
Vb − V1 Vb − V2 Vb
+ + =0, I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
R1 R2 R3
Nodal analysis is an application of Kirchhoff’s
current law.
n
Number of equation in nodal analysis = N-1
N = Number of nodes ∑ Ei Yi n
E eq = i =1
and Yeq = ∑ Yi
• Mesh Current Analysis Circuit n
∑ Yi i =1
i =1
Reciprocity theorem-
V1 − I1R 1 − ( I1 + I2 ) R 2 = 0 , V2 − I 2 R 3 − ( I1 + I 2 ) R 2 = 0 V1 V2
= ; Z12 = Z21
Mesh analysis is used only for planer network. I2 I1
Number of equations in mesh analysis = B–(N–1) Maximum Power transfer Theorem-
Network theorems
Superposition theorem- It is applicable only
for linear and bilateral network. When more than
one independent voltage or current source is present,
then response across any element in the circuit, is
the sum of the responses obtained from each source. Vth
I=
Thevenin’s & Norton’s theorem - It states ( R th + R L ) + ( X th + X L )
2 2
that any linear, bilateral and active RLC network

which contains one or more independent or • Condition for maximum power transfer-
dependent voltage or current source can be replaced ZL = Z*th
by a single voltage source Voc in series with
equivalent impedance Zeq for thevenin’s theorem and Z*L = Complex conjugate of load impedance
can be replaced by a single current source Isc in shunt Where Zth = Thevenin's equivalent impedance
with equivalent impedance Zeq for norton’s theorem • Only RL is variable & XL fixed.
R L = R 2th + ( X L + X th )
2
• Only XL is variable & RL fixed.

X L = −X th
Thevenin’s theorem
• If both are variable.
|ZL| = |Zth|*
• If load is purely Resistive
R L = R 2th + X 2th
Efficiency of maximum power transfer theorem is
50%.
Two Port Network • Connections of Two-port networks
Series series connection Parallel Parallel connection
Maximum number of possible parameters for analysis of

two port network is given by N o = 4 C2
• Parameters of two port network
• Z-Parameter (Impedance Parameter)
V1 = I1Z11 + I2 Z12  V1   Z11 Z12   I1   Y11 Y12 
=  Z11 Z12  Y =
Y22 
;
V2 = I1Z21 + I 2 Z22  V2   Z21 Z22  2×2  I2  2×1 Z =  21
 21 Z22 
∵ I1 , I 2 → Independent Variable  Y11a + Y11b Y12a + Y12b 
 Z11a + Z11b Z12a + Z12b  Y
V1 , V2 → Dependent Variable Z + Z + Y21b Y22a + Y22b 
 21a 21b Z22a + Z22b   21a
• Y – Parameters (Admittance Parameter)
Series parallel connection Parallel series connection
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12 V2  I1   Y11 Y12   V1 
; =
I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2  I 2   Y21 Y22  2×2  V2  2×1
∵ V1 ,V2 → Independent Variable
I1 , I 2 → Dependent Variable
• h–Parameter (hybrid Parameter)
V1 = I1h11 + V2 h12  V1   h11 h12   I1 
; =
I 2 = I1h 21 + V2 h 22  I 2   h 21 h 22  2×2  V2  2×1  h11 h12   g11 g12 
h = g g22 
=
∵ V1 ,I 2 → Dependent Variable  21 h 22   21
I1 , V2 → Independent Variable  h11a + h11b h12a + h12b   g11a + g11b g12a + g12b 
h + h h22a + h22b  g + g21b g22a + g22b 
• g- Parameter ( Inverse hybrid Parameter)  21a 21b  21a
I1 = g11V1 + g12 I 2  I1   g11 g12   V1  Cascade connection
; =
V2 = g 21V1 + g 22 I 2  V2  g 21 g 22  2×2  I 2  2×1
∵ I1 , V2 → Dependent Variable
V1 , I2 → Independent Variable  A B   Aa Ba   Ab Bb 
• ABCD- Parameter (Transmission Parameter)  C D =  C D  C Db 
   a a  b
V1 = AV2 − BI 2  V1   A B   V2  • Transformer
; =
I1 = CV2 − DI 2  I1   C D   −I 2 
∵ V2 , I2 = Independent variable
V1 , I1 = Dependent variable
• abcd (t)- Parameter (Inverse Transmission Line
Parameter)
V2 = aV1 − bI1  V2  a b   V1  A B  n 0 
; =  C D  =  0 1/ n  = T- parameter
I2 = cV1 − dI1  I 2   c d   −I1     
 h11 h12   0 n 
h =   = h- parameter
• Condition for network to be symmetrical &  21 h 22   − n 0 
reciprocal. • T & π Network
Reciprocal Symmetrical T - Network π - Network
Z12 = Z21 Z11 = Z22
Y12 = Y21 Y11 = Y22
A B A=D
=1
C D
h12 = – h21 h11 h12  Y11 Y12 
=1  Z11 Z12 
h 21 h 22 Z  = Y Y  =
 21 Z22   21 22 
g12 = – g21 g11 g12  Z1 + Z2 Z2   Y1 + Y2 −Y2 

=1  −Y 
g 21 g 22  Z 
Z2 + Z3   Y2 + Y3 
 2 2

AC Circuit Analysis Phasor Diagram
• Average and RMS value of periodic signals • Series circuit
• Average value = DC value RL RC RLC
T T
1 1 2
v ( t ) dt , Vrms = v ( t ) dt
T ∫0 T ∫0
Vavg = VDC =
VRL = VR2 + VL2 VRC = VR2 + VC2 V = VR2 + ( VL ~ VC )
2
VR = IR VC = IXC∠− 900
V V
Peak Factor = max ; Form Factor = rms
Vrms Vavg
VL = IX L ∠900
Note:
If f ( t ) = a 0 + a 1 cos ω t + a 2 cos 2 ω t + ..... + b1 sin ω t + VL VC VL ~ VC
φ = tan −1 φ = tan −1 φ = tan −1
b 2 sin 2 2 ω t + ....... VR VR VR
f ( t )RMS = a 02 +
2
( a1 + a 22 + .... + b12 + b 22 + ....)
1 2
• VR VR VR
RMS and Average of Signal cos φ = ( lag ) cos φ = cos φ =
Time domain Signal RMS Average V V V
value Value (lead) If VL > VC ( lag )
V Vavg = 0
Vrms = m
2 VC > VL ( lead )
If VL = VC
Vm 2Vm
Vrms = Vavg = (Resonance)
2 π
cos φ = 1
Vm Vm
Vrms = Vavg =
2 π Parallel Circuit-
RL RC RLC
Vrms = Vm Vavg = 0
I = I2R + I 2L I = I2R + IC2 I = I2R +( IL ~IC )

2
V V V
IR = , IL = ∠−900 IC = ∠900
Vm R XL XC
Vm
Vrms = Vavg =
2 2
IR IR IR
cos φ = (lag) cos φ = cos φ =
Vm Vm I I I
Vrms = Vavg =
3 2 (lead)
(Lead); IC>IL
(Lag); IL>IC
V V
Vrms = m Vavg = m
3 2 cos φ = 1 ;
IL=IC

Resonance Circuit
Parallel Resonance circuit Series Resonance Circuit
• Resonance condition |IL| = |IC| • Resonance Condition X C = X L , |VL|= |VC|

V V V V
• ↓ Is = = = IR = minimum •↑ I = = = maximum
R Z↑ R Z↓
Z = R = maximum , Y = minimum Z = R = minimum , Y = maximum
• Resonance in Practical RLC Circuit 1 1
L ωo = rad / sec f0 = Hz
1
R −
2
L LC 2π LC
ω= C rad/sec
LC L
R C2 −
C
ω Power factor Y (Admittance) ω Power factor Z (Impedance)
ω < ω0 lag Inductive ω < ω0 lead Capacitive
ω > ω0 lead Capacitive ω > ω0 lag Inductive

ω = ω0 Unity power factor Resistive ω = ω0 Unity power Resistive
factor
2 2 2 2
 1  R
 1 
, ω2 = +   +
1 1 1 1 R 1 R R 1
ω1 = − +   + , ω2 = +   + ω1 = − +   +
2RC  2RC  LC 2RC  2RC  LC 2L  2L  LC 2L  2L  LC
ω0 = ω1 ω2 rad/sec f 0 = f1 f 2 Hz ω0 = ω1 ω2 rad/sec f 0 = f1 f 2 Hz
Where, ω2 = Upper frequency, ω1 = Lower frequency
1 ω0 ω R ω
• B.W = ω2 − ω1 = = = 0 ∆ω = B.W = = ω2 − ω1 = 0
RC ω0 RC Q L Q
∆ω ∆ω ∆ω ∆ω
ω1 = ωr − , ω2 = ωr + ω2 = ωo + , ω1 = ωo −
2 2 2 2
Quality factor ( Q ) Quality factor ( Q ) =
1
Dissipation factor
 Maximum energy stored in the circuit 
= 2π   VL VC XL XC 1 L ωo L 1
 Total energy dissipated by the circuit  Q= = = = = = =
R R C | I L | | IC | f V V R R R C R ω0CR
Q= = = ωCR = R = = = r
XL XC L I I B.W
• It is current magnifier circuit. • Net reactive power of a series resonant circuit
is zero. |PLC| = 0
L
• At resonance Z=R and Z = (tank circuit) circuit • Net reactive voltage of series resonant circuit is
CR zero. |VLC| = 0
becomes purely resistive circuit • Phase angle is zero
• P I
A parallel resonance circuit behave as - band stop filter P ≥ max , I ≥ max
2 2
For Band stop filter-
• Series resonance circuit is voltage magnifier
P ≥ 2Pmin , I ≥ 2 Imin circuit.
resonance frequency • ωC = ω0 1 −
R 2C
, ωL =
ωo
• Selectivity = 2L R 2C
Bandwidth 1−
2L

Analogy between electric and magnetic circuit
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
Voltage/EMF is the 'cause' [Units-volts] mmf→Magneto Motive force is the cause = N.I
Current is the effect [Unit-Ampere] Flux is the effect → [Unit → weber (Wb)]
V mmf NI
Ohm law → R = Ω Ohms Law- S = =
I φ φ
ρℓ ℓ
R= , Electrical material , ρ = Resistivity (Ω-m) S= , magnetic material µ = Permeability (H/m)
a µa
V mmf N.I
E= , [ volt / m ] , E = Electric field intensity H= = , H = Magnetic field intensity
d ℓ ℓ
I A φ  Wb 
J=
a  m 2  , J = Current density B=
a  m 2  or [ Tesla ] , B = Magnetic field density
J =σE B = µH (B → Mag. Flux density)
J = Electric current density µ = µ0 µr µr = Relative permeability
σ = Conductivity (mho/m)
φ = flux , N = No. of turns in the coil

Electric Conductor (Cu, Al, etc)
Magnetic Conductor (Fe, Ni cobalt etc)
Three Phase System

Graph Theory
In star connection In Delta Connection • Graph is defined as collection of node and branch
i R + i Y + i B = 0 ; I L = IPh VR + VY + VB = 0 • Rank of graph = N–1 Where N= Number of node
• Degree of node = number of incoming branch at any

V VL = VPh
VL = 3VPh ; VPh = L node.
3
I L = 3 I Ph 6
b a b
a c c
P = 3VPh I Ph cos φ or 1 2
P = 3VL I L cos φ 4
~ 3 5
d
P = 3 VL IL cos φ
d

Termino- Definition Notation Formula • Tie-set matrix- Tie-set matrix is a fundamental loop
logy matrix
Node Intersection point [a,b,c,d] N
Rank of tie-set matrix = B–N+1
of branch
Number of KVL equation = Number of
Branch The portion of [1,2,3,4,5,6] N(N-1)/2
circuit between fundamental loop current
two nodes
• Cut set matrix- Cut set matrix is a twig dependent
Tree The part of graph [a,b,c,d] N−2
N matrix.
containing all
nodes. Number of cut set (T) = N–1
Possible trees =
Rank of cut set matrix = N–1
det[[Ar][Ar]T]
Order of cut set matrix = [Cut set matrix]T×B
Twig The branches of a [1,2,4] N–1
tree are twig • Principle of Duality
Co-tree The part of graph [3,5,6] B–N+1
Resistance (R) Conductance (G)
is not covered by
tree
Inductance (L) Capacitance (C)
Link or The branch of a [3,5,6] B–N+1
chord co-tree Impedance (Z) Admittance (Y)
Where N= Number of node, B = Number of branch Voltage (V) Current (I)
• Incidence Matrix Voltage Source Current Source
Node Mesh
Series path Parallel path
Open circuit Short circuit
KCL KVL
Rank of incidence matrix = N-1
Thevenin Norton
Order of incidence matrix [ A ]N×B
Sum of all column mmf of incidence matrix is Star Network Delta Network
zero
Ri (t) GV (t)
• Reduced Incidence Matrix
On deleting any row we get reduced incidence matrix. Ldi ( t ) dv ( t )
C
dt dt
1 1
i ( t ) dt ∫ v ( t ).dt
C∫ L
VDR CDR
Order of reduce incidence matrix = [ R ]( N −1)×B

Voc Isc

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY
Differential normal dSx = dydzaˆ x ,
Vector analysis- surface area
dSy = dzdxaˆ y
dSz = dxdyaˆ z
Addition Differential volume dV = dxdydz
A+ B = B+ A
r xaˆ x + yaˆ y + zaˆ z
Subtraction A − B = A + (−B) • Unit vector r̂ = =
r x 2 + y2 + z2
Cumulative law A+ B = B+ A • Projection of a vector
Associative law
( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C ) Projection of a on
îx direction of b (ob)
Multiplication
Scalar or Dot = a.iˆx
A.B = A B cosθ
product
Vector or cross A × B = A B Sinθ nˆ
product Cylindrical Co-ordinate system (ρ, φ, z)
θ = angle between A and B 0 ≤ ρ < ∞ x =ρcos φ

n̂ = Unit vector perpendicular to 0 ≤ φ < 2π y =ρsin φ
A and B  −∞ < z < ∞ z = z

Scalar triple A⋅ (B×C) = B⋅ (C× A) = C⋅ (A× B)
product ρ = x 2 + y2
Vector triple
product ( )
A × B× C = B A ⋅C − C A ⋅ B( ) ( )
Cartesian Co-ordinate System (x, y, z)
Position vector of a r = ρaˆ ρ + zaˆ z
−∞ < x < ∞ point p ( ρ, φ, z )
−∞ < y < ∞
Displacement vector dℓ = dρaˆ ρ + ρdφaˆ φ + dzaˆ z
−∞ < z < ∞
dℓ = (dρ) 2 + (ρdφ) 2 + (dz) 2

Unit vector cross product Unit vector dot
product Differential length dρaˆ , ρdφaˆ , dzaˆ
ρ φ z
aˆ x × aˆ y = aˆ z aˆ x .aˆ y = aˆ y .aˆ z = aˆ z .aˆ x = 0 element
Differential normal dS = ρdφdzaˆ , dS = dρdzaˆ
ρ ρ φ φ
aˆ y × aˆ z = aˆ x aˆ x .aˆ x = aˆ y .aˆ y = aˆ z .aˆ z = 1 surface areas
dSz = ρdφdρaˆ z
Differential volume dV = ρdρ ⋅ dφ ⋅ dz
aˆ z × aˆ x = aˆ y
aˆ x × aˆ x = aˆ y × aˆ y = aˆ z × aˆ z = 0 Comparison between Cartesian and cylindrical
co-ordinate system
Position vector
Cylindrical to Cartesian x = ρ cos φ , y = ρ sin φ
r = xaˆ x + yaˆ y + zaˆ z
z=z
Displacement vector Cartesian to cylindrical
dℓ = dx aˆ x + dyaˆ y + dzaˆ z ρ = x 2 + y2
y
dℓ = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 φ = tan −1   , z = z
z

Spherical Co-ordinate System (r,θ, φ)
0 ≤ r < ∞ In Cartesian ∂V ∂V ∂V
 co-ordinate ∇V = aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z
0 ≤ θ ≤ π ∂x ∂y ∂z
 0 ≤ φ < 2π system

In cylindrical ∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
x = r sin θ cos φ ∇V = aˆ ρ + aˆ φ + aˆ z
y = r sin θ sin φ
co-ordinate ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
z = r cos θ system
In spherical ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
co-ordinate ∇V = aˆ r + aˆ θ + aˆ φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
system
Position vector of r = raˆ r
point p Divergence of a vector- Divergence of a vector
Displacement d ℓ = draˆ r + rdθaˆ θ + r sin θdφaˆ φ field simply measure how much the flow is
vector expanding at a given point.
dℓ = (dr)2 + (rdθ)2 + (rsin θdφ) 2
∇.A = + ve
Differential going away from a point in
driˆr , rdθîθ , r sin θdφîφ
length element different direction.
Differential dSr = r 2 sin θ dθdφaˆ r
normal surface
area dSθ = r sin θdrdφaˆ θ ,
dSφ = rdrdθaˆ φ ∇.A = − ve
Differential Coming towards the point
dV = r 2 sin θd rdθ dφ from the different direction
volume
Relation between spherical and Cartesian Co-
ordinate system
Spherical to Cartesian x = r sin θ cos φ ∇.A = 0 divergence less or solenoidal
y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ
DivA = ∇.A = lim
∫ A.dS
s
Cartesian to Spherical r = x +y +z
2 2 2 ∇ V →0 ∆V
z In cartesian
θ = cos −1 ∂D x ∂D y ∂D z
x + y2 + z2
2 co-ordinate ∇.D = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Special Derivatives system
• Del (∇) Operator- In cylindrical 1 ∂ 1 ∂D φ ∂D z
In Cartesian co- ∂ ∂ ∂ co-ordinate ∇.D =
ρ ∂ρ
( ρDρ ) +
ρ ∂φ
+
∂z
ordinate system ∇= aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z system
∂x ∂y ∂z
In spherical co-ordinate system
In Cylindrical co- ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
ordinate system ∇= aˆ ρ + aˆ φ + aˆ z 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z ∇.D =
r ∂r
2 ( r Dr ) +
r sin θ ∂θ
( sin θDθ ) +
r sin θ ∂φ
In spherical co- ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
ordinate system ∇= aˆ r + aˆ θ + aˆ φ • Curl of a Vector field
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Curl of any vector point function gives the measure
• Gradient of a Scalar field
Gradient of scalar field represents the both of angular velocity at any point of the vector field.
magnitude and the direction of the maximum space
rate of increase of a scalar. ∇ × A = lim
∫ L
A.dℓ
î Curl → rotation
n
∆S→0 ∆S
Gradient → Slope

• Curl of vector
Curl in  aˆ x Divergence Theorem Stokes Theorem
aˆ y aˆ z 
rectangular   The divergence of A at The curl is a vector
∂ ∂ ∂ 
co-ordinate CurlA = ∇ × A =  a point P is the outward operation that can be used
 ∂x ∂y ∂x 
  flux per unit volume to state, if there is a rotation
 A x Ay A z  shrinks about associated with a
P. vector.
Curl in  â ρ â z 
cylindrical ρ â φ
ρ  ∫ A.dS = ∫ (∇.A ) dV ∫ L
(
A.d ℓ = ∫ ∫ ∇ × A .dS )
co-ordinate  s
V S
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A =   Electro-statics
 ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z 
 A ρ ρA φ Az  • Source of Charges
  Line charge dQ
  = ρL C / m , Q = ∫ ρL dL C
density (ρL) dL L
Curl in spherical  aˆ r aˆ θ âφ 
co-ordinate   Surface charge dQ
= ρS C / m 2 , Q = ∫ ∫ ρS dS C
 rsin θ rsin θ r 
density (ρS) dS S
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇× A = 
∂φ 
Volume charge dQ
∂r ∂θ = ρV C / m3 , Q = ∫ ∫ ∫ ρV dV C
  density (ρV) dV V
 Ar rAθ rsin θAφ 
  • Relation between Network theory and
electromagnetic field
Important identities
Network Theory EMFT
( )
∇. ∇ × A = 0 Divergence of curl is always zero.
Voltage (V)-Volt
Electric field intensity E
Volt
( )
m
∇ × ( ∇A ) = 0 Curl of gradient is always zero.
Current (I)-Amp Magnetic field intensity
∇.A = 0 A is divergence less or solenoidal (H) A / m
∇×A = 0 A is irrotational ()
Current density J A / m 2
• Laplace operator
Capacitance (C)-Farad Permittivity (ε) Farad/m
Inductance (L)-Henry permeability (µ) Henry/m
Charge (Q)-Coulomb Electric flux density (D)C/m2
2
Magnetic flux (φ) Magnetic flux density (B)Wb/m
Weber/m2
Resistance (R)-ohm Conductance ( G ) − ℧ / m
∇ f = ∇. ( ∇f )
2
( )
∇ .f = ∇ ∇.f − ∇ × ∇ × f
2
Remember point 1
WC = CV2
If Laplacian of any scalar 'F' is zero in the given Q = CV φ = LI 2
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
region, then that scalar 'f' is said to be harmonic. D = εE B = µH 1
In Cartesian co- WE = εE2
∂ 2 f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 2
ordinate system ∇2f = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 Coulomb's Law
In cylindrical 1 ∂  ∂f  1 ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f
co-ordinate ∇2f = ρ  + +
ρ ∂ρ  ∂ρ  ρ2 ∂φ2 ∂z 2
system r1 = x1aˆ x + y1aˆ y + z1aˆ z
In spherical co-ordinate system
r 2 = x 2aˆ x + y 2 aˆ y + z 2 aˆ z
1 ∂  ∂f  1 ∂ ∂f  1  ∂ 2f 
∇ f = 2  ρ2  + 2
2
 sin θ  +  
ρ ∂ρ  ∂ρ  ρ sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  ρ2 sin 2 θ  ∂φ2 

Force on Q2 due to Q1 Gauss’s law in differential or point form ∇.D = ρv
1 Q1Q 2 1 Q1Q 2
F12 = aˆ = R 12 For charge free region, ρv = 0, ∇.D = 0
4πε o R 12 2 R12
4πε o R12 3
• Energy Density in Electrostatic Field
−9
10 Electrostatic Energy Density–
ε o = 8.854 ×10−12 F / m =
36π dWE 1 1 D2
WE = = D.E = ε o E 2 = J/m3
1 dV 2 2 2ε o
= K = 9 × 109 m / F
4πε o Total Electrostatic Energy
If two similar charges with same sign are placed at a 1 1
2 ∫V
distance then the force acted on it is repulsive in WE = D.E dV = ∫ ε o E 2 dV
2 V
nature. F1 = −F2 • Electric Potential difference
• Electric Field Intensity- It is measure of strength of B
Q 1 1
VAB = − ∫ E.dℓ =  − 
F
electric field at any point. E = lim N / C A
4πε o  rB rA 
Q →0 Q
• Potential at a point P due to point charge
• Electric field due to point charge Q
(V) = , V = ∫ E.dl
F Q 4πεR
E= = aˆ r , V / m
Q t 4πε o R 2 • Relationship between E & V , E = −∇V
• Electric field due to various charge distribution: • Capacitance
For Line charge ρL dL Parallel plate ε0 ε r A
E=∫ aˆ C=
L 4πε R 2 r
o d
ρL = Line Charge Density Coaxial cable 2πεL
C=
For Surface charge ℓ n (b / a )
ρs dS
E=∫ aˆ r
S 4πε o R 2 Capacitance of sphere 4πε
C=
ρS = Surface Charge Density 1 1
 − 
For Volume charge a b
ρV dV
E=∫ aˆ r Capacitance of isolated C = 4πεa
V 4πε o R 2 sphere
ρv = Volume Charge Density Composite parallel plate A
C=
Electric field due to ρL 1 capacitor d1 / ε1 + d 2 / ε2 .....d n / εn
infinite long line E= aˆ ρ , E ∝
πε
2 o ρ ρ Equipotential Surface
charge
Electric field due to 1. Concentric sphere whose centre is at point charge
ρL R h (source).
circular loop E= aˆ x
2ε o ( R 2 + h 2 )
3/ 2
2. Equipotential surface and electric field line are
always perpendicular to each other.
Electric field due to
ρs  h 
circular disc E= 1 −  aˆ x
2ε o  R +h 
2 2
Electric field due to ρs

infinite sheet E= aˆ n
2ε o
Electric field due to ρs
infinite sheet for E= ( −aˆ n )
2ε o
external
Poisson's equation Laplace Equation
• Electric/Displacement flux Density D = ε E C / m 2
−ρ V ∇2 V = 0
∇2V =
• Gauss's law ψ = ∫ S
D.dS = Q = ∫ ρV dv
V
ε

• Electric dipole moment p = Q.d • Conductor - dielectric boundary
• Inside a Conductor- E = 0, ρV = 0, Vab = 0

• Power (Joule's law)
P = ∫ E.J dV J →current density (A/m2)
V
∂ρ V
• Continuity Equation ∇.J = −
∂t
• Dielectric material - In any dielectric material
electric dipole are present. Dielectric material stores Et = 0, Dt = ε0 E t = 0 D n = ρs , D2n = ε2 E2n
electric energy. Using these electric dipole by
rotating on their axis. • Law of Refraction
In free space no electric dipole, Magnetic dipole and
free electron. From boundary condition
D = ε0 E + P → [True all material] E1t = E 2t or E1 sin θ1 = E 2 sin θ2
For linear dielectric material. P = χe ε0 E D1n = D 2n or ε1E1 cos θ1 = ε 2 E 2 cos θ2
D = (1 + χe ) ε0 E and εr = 1 + χe
tan θ1 tan θ2 tan θ1 ε1
= or =
Boundary Condition- Boundary condition govern the ε1 ε2 tan θ2 ε 2
behaviour of electric field at the boundary between two
different media. If field exist in a region consisting of 2 • Image theory applicable problem solving of
different media then there is some condition which must electrostatic field only.
be satisfy at the interface separating media is known as
boundary condition. • Conductor and free space boundary condition
• Dielectric - Dielectric Interference -
Tangential component of electric field in medium

(1) and medium (2) are equal E1t = E 2t
If the both medium are equal, then surface charge on
the boundary D1n = D 2n , ρs = 0 E t = 0, D t = ε0 E t = 0 ρs
The field is directed from medium (1) to medium D n = ρs , E n =
ε0
(2) D 2n − D1n = ρS
Magneto static Field
• Biot-Savart's law
E1t
∵ tan θ1 =
E1n Id ℓ × aˆ r
E2 t
H= ∫ 4πR 2
A/m
tan θ2 =
E 2n
Idℓ sin θ
dH ∝
tan θ1 E1t E 2n R2
= ×
tan θ 2 E1n E 2 t
• Magnetic Field Intensity for Distributed Current
∵ E1t = E 2 t ∵ D1n = D 2n , ρs = 0 Line current Surface current Volume current
tan θ1 E 2n ε1.E1n = ε 2 E 2n
= Idℓ × aˆ r ρv dS × aˆ r J.dV×aˆ r
tan θ2 E1n E 2n ε1 H=∫ H=∫ H=∫
= L 4πR2 S 4πR 2 V 4πR2
E1n ε 2

• Magnetic field intensity due to straight current • Maxwell's equation for time-varying field
carrying filamentary conductor Differential Integral form Remarks
For finite length I
H= ( cos α2 − cos α1 ) aˆ φ form or point
4πρ form
For semi finite length
H=
I
aˆ φ ∇.D = ρ v ∫
D.dS = ρ dv
S ∫
Gauss's law
V V
4πρ
For infinite length
H=
I
aˆ φ
∇.B = 0 ∫ S
B.dS = 0 Non existence
of magnetic
2πρ charge
• Relation between µ o & ε 0 −∂ Faraday's law
−∂ B
∇×E = ∫ E .d ℓ =
∂t ∫ B .d S
,c = Speed of light ( 3 × 108 m / s )
1 dt L
c= S
µo εo Ampere's
∂D  ∂D 
• Magnetic Energy Density in H field (Wm)
∇× H = J +
∂t ∫
H.dℓ = ∫  J +
L
S
 .dS circuital law
∂t 
1 2 1
Wm = µ H = B.H Vector magnetic potential (A) and magnetic field
2 2
density relation B = ∇ × A
• Magnetic Energy
1 ∂A
Wm = ∫∫∫ Wm dV = LI 2 ( Joule ) • Time-varying potentials E = −∇.V −
V 2 ∂t
• Force on a charge particle placed in a magnetic
∂V
field • Lorentz condition for potential ∇.A = −µε
∂t
Magnetic force
Fm = Q v × B newton ( ) Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
Electric force
Fe = QE Free space σ = 0, ε = εo , µ = µo
Lorentz
Equation
force
F = Fe + Fm = Q E + v × B ( ) Perfect dielectric σ = 0, ε and µ can have any value
Good dielectrics σ ≃ 0, ε = ε r εo , µ = µ rµ o or σ << ωε
Force on a current
carrying conductor F= ∫ L
Idℓ × B Perfect conductor σ ≃ ∞, ε and µ can have any vlaue
µ 0 I1I 2ℓ Good conductor σ ≃ ∞, ε = ε o , µ = µ r µ o or σ >> ωε
Force between 2-infinite line F =
2πd Lossy Dielectric σ ≠ 0, ε = ε0 ε r , µ = µ0µ r
Same direction current → attraction For isotopic independent of µ, ε, σ
• Magnetic Torque medium
T = BINAsin α
A → area of the loop • Relation between conduction current density and
T = M×B displacement current density
• Magnetic Dipole Moment M = iA.nˆ ∇ × H = σE + jωεE = Jc + Jd

Maxwell's Equations
• Maxwell's equation for Static Electric and
Magnetic Fields
Differentia Integral form Remarks
l or point
form
First
Law
∇.D = ρv ∫S D.dS = ∫V ρV dv Gauss's law
Second ∇.B = 0
Law ∫S B.dS = 0 Non existence
of magnetic JC = σE → Conduction current density
monopole
∂D
Jd = → Displacement current density
Third
Law
∇×E = 0 ∫ L
E.d ℓ = 0 Conservative
property of dt
electrostatic Jc σ
field = → Jc & Jd are out of phase (not 1800)
Jd ωε
Fourth ∇ × H = J
Law ∫ L H.dℓ =∫S J.dS Ampere's
circuital law In time and they are in the same direction in space

• Loss tangent/Dissipation factor • Poynting Theorem- The net power flowing
Jc σ through volume V is equal to the sum of the ohmic
tan δ = = ( δ → loss angle ) loss and decrease in rate of energy with V.
Jd ωε 0
∂ 1 2
•
( ) () 1
( ) ( )
2
Vector wave equation or vector Helmholtz's − ∫ E× H .dS =
equation S ∫ 
∂t V  2
ε E + µ H  dV + ∫ σE2J dV
2  V
Case I- For frequency domain

For Electric field ( )
− ∫ E × H dS = Total power leaving the volume
s
∇2 Es − γ 2 Es = 0
∫ ( σE J ) dV =Ohmic power dissipation

2
For magnetic-field ∇ Hs − γ Hs = 0
2 2 v
∂ 1 2
1
( ) ( )
2
Case II-For time domain ∫ 
∂t V  2
ε E + µ H  dV = rate of decrease in
2 
Electric wave equation dE d2 E
∇2 E = µσ + µε 2 energy stored in electric and magnetic field.
dt dt
Magnetic wave equation • Poynting vector - P = E × H W / m2
dH d2 H
∇2 H = µσ + µε 2
dt dt Instantaneous power E 02
P= cos 2 ( ωt − βz ) aˆ z
• Field Equation of EM wave in S-domain. density η
j( ωt −β z )a
ES ( z ) = E o e −αz .e x Average power density in 1 E 2x 1
Pavg = aˆ z = E x H y aˆ z
j( ωt −β z )a lossless medium 2 η0 2
HS ( z ) = Ho e −αz .e y
E 2rms
• Field equation of EM wave in the time Domain = aˆ z = E rms H rms aˆ z
η
E ( z, t ) = E o e −αz cos ( ωt − βz ) a x
• Incidence of EM wave
H ( z, t ) = H o e −αz cos ( ωt − β z ) a y
Reflection
E r η2 − η1 ε − ε2
Intrinsic Impedance coefficient Γ= = = 1
E jωµ E i η2 + η1 ε1 + ε 2
(η) η= Ω , η=
H σ + jωε
Transmission
For free space 2η2 2 ε1
Coefficient T= = {T = 1+ Γ}
µ0 η2 + η1 ε1 + ε2
η0 = = 120π = 377Ω
ε0
Standing Wave 1+ | Γ | 1+ ρ V
Phase velocity ω C S= or S = or S = max
v= = m/s Ration (SWR) 1− | Γ | 1− ρ Vmin
β µ r εr
Snell's law for
sinθt η1 ε
Skin Depth EM waves = = 1
1
δ= =
1
meter δ ∝
1 sin θi η2 ε2
α πfµσ f
Brewster's Angle
Surface or skin η2 ε
tan θB = = 2
Resistance RS =
1
=
πfµ
Ω / m2 ( θB ) η1 ε1
σδ σ
Total internal
• Plane waves in good conductor ε2
reflection θc = sin −1 θc = Critical angle
σ >> ωε ε1
ωµσ
α =β= = πfµσ
2 • Polarization (P)- Polarization is electric field
ω 2ω 2π ωµ orientation of electromagnetic wave at a fixed
u= = , λ= η= ∠45º
β µσ β
σ position in space with respect to time. [ E ⊥ H ⊥ P ] .

Electromagnetic field in x and y direction only Distortion less R G
= , α = RC and β = ω LC
E ( z, t ) = E x0 sin ( ωt − βz ) a x + E y0 sin ( ωt − βz ) a y transmission line L C
R L
Electromagnetic wave propagate linear horizontal Z0 = =
G C
in z-direction and electric field polarization
direction in x • Input impedance, standing wave ratio and power
only E ( z, t ) = E
0 sin ( ωt − βz ) x
a
 Z + jZ0 tan βℓ 
Zin = Z0  L 
Electromagnetic wave propagate linear vertical  Z0 + jZL tan βℓ 
z, electric field in y-direction only polarization
E ( z, t ) = E 0 sin ( ωt − βz ) ay
For short circuit Zin = Zsc = jZ0 tan βℓ
E x0 = E y0 = E 0 and φ = ±90 0 circular line (ZL = 0)
Quarter wave line ( λ / 4 ) ,
polarization
E x = E x0 cos ωt E y
2π λ
Zin = jZ0 tan × =∞
Ey = E y0 cos ( ωt + φ ) = ± E 0 sin ωt λ 4
For open circuit line Zin = Zoc = − jZ0 cot βℓ
φ = ±90, E x0 ≠ E y0 Elliptical
polarization ( ZL = ∞ ) Quarter wave line ( ℓ = λ / 4 )
E x = E x0 cos ωt
2π λ
E y = E y0 cos ( ωt + φ) = ±E y0 sin ωt Zin = Zoc = − jZ0 co t ×
λ 4
Zin = 0
Transmission line
Characteristic For matching line (Zin=Z0)

V+ R + jωL
Z0 = = Ω (ZL=Z0)
impedance I+ G + jωC
Z02
Propagation γ = α + jβ Zin = , Z0 = Zin ZL
ZL
constant
= ( R + jωL )( G + jωC ) m −1
Zin = input impedance, ZL= Load impedance
Where, α= Attenuation constant,
• Voltage reflection coefficient- Ratio of reflected
β = Phase shift constant
voltage wave to that of the incident wave.
 γ = Propagation constant of medium  ZL − Z0 1+ | Γ |
  ΓL = S=
 γ = α + jβ and γ = jωµ ( σ + jωε ) 
2
Z L + Z0 1− | Γ |
•
µε  
2 Current reflection coefficient- The current
 σ 
Attenuation constant ( α ) = 1+   − 1 reflection coefficient at any point on the line is the
2   ωε  
  negative of the voltage reflection coefficient at that
point i.e. −Γ L .
µε  
2
 σ 
Phase constant ( β ) = 1+   + 1
2   ωε   Short circuited line (ZL= 0) Γ L = −1, S = 0
 
Lossless Open circuit line ( ZL = ∞ ) Γ L = 1, S = ∞

L
R = G = 0, Z0 = R 0 =
transmission line C Matched line (Zin = Zc) Γ L = 0, S = 1
ω 1
v= = = f .δ • Characteristics Impedance Z0 = Zsc Zoc
β LC

ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
Crystal Structure : Basis or motif - The atoms, molecule, ion or
radical called the repeating unit assembly when
Crystal - When (atoms, molecules and ions) are located at each Lattice point is called basis or motif.
arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structures Lattice + Basis → Crystal structure
then a crystal or crystalline solid is formed. Crystals
Unit Cell - It is the minimum area cell in two
combining together to form crystal lattice that dimension and minimum volume cell in three
extends in all directions. dimension which may generate whole cyrstalline
Examples – Diamonds, snow flakes, table salt etc. solid.
Crystals are arranged in regular and ordered manner
The volume of unit cell V = a ⋅ b ⋅ c
in three dimensional pattern.
There are three types of crystals – Where a, b & c are Lattice Parameters along x, y and
Crystalline solids z directions.
Non Crystalline In three dimensions cells counting of
Quasi Crystalline atoms-
Space lattice - A space lattice is defined as an 1
Vertex atom → atom per cell
infinite array of points in three dimensional space in 8
which each point is identically located with respect 1
Edge atom → atom per cell
to each other. 4
A three dimensional space lattice may have 1
Face atom → atom per cell
Cubic array (a = b = c) 2
Non cubic array Body unique → 1 atom per cell
Atomic Radius- Atomic radius is half the
distance between nearest neighbours (atoms) in a
crystal of pure element.
Atomic packing factor -
Volume of the atoms
APF =
volume of the unit cell
Comparison of unit cell properties of cubic crystal structures
Properties Diamond cube Simple cube Body centred Face centred cube
(dc) (sc) cube (bcc) (fcc)
Volume of unit cell a3 a3 a3 a3
Number of atoms per unit cell 8 1 2 4
Number of atoms per unit volume 8 1 2 4
a3 a3 a3 a3
Number of nearest neighbours 4 6 8 12
(coordination number)
Nearest neighbour distance (2r) a 3 a a 3 a 2
4 2 2
Atomic radius a 3 a a 3 a 2
8 2 4 4
Atomic packing factor π 3 π 3π 2π
= 0.34 = 0.52 = 0.68 = 0.74
16 6 8 6
Examples Ge, Si and C Polonium Na, Li and Cr Al, Cu, Ag and Pb

Miller Indices - Miller indices are used to Bohr Magneton- Smallest unit of magnetic
represent orientation of a plane. Three indices are moment is Bohr Magneton.
used for x, y, z direction.
neh
1 PB = for n = 1, PB = 9.27 × 10–24 Amp-m2 or J/T
Indices = 4πm
intercept in that direction
Magnetic Anisotropy- Different magnetic
Bragg’s law and x-ray diffraction- nλ = 2d sin θ properties exhibited by ferromagnetic materials in
Atomic Bonding - Forces between atoms are different directions is known as magnetic
called inter-atomic forces may be attractive or anisotropy.
repulsive forces. Causes of magnetic anisotropy :-
i. Ionic Bonding ii. Covalent Bonding Cold working – when material is shaped without
iii. Metallic Bonding increasing temperature.
Magnetic Materials- Materials that can be Annealing :- heat treatment of a material
magnetized are called magnetic materials. Net magnetic Quenching :- Immediate cooling after heating.
field produced by an electron at nucleus is zero. Magnetostriction :- Change in dimension of a
Remember point material when magnetic field is applied is called
Magnetization means alignment of dipoles in the magnetostriction.
direction of applied magnetic field.
Magnetic Dipole - Two unlike magnetic poles
of equal pole strength at a very small distance is
known as magnetic dipoles.
Example : A small bar magnet, magnetic needle, a
current carrying loop etc.
Magnetic Laws -Magnetic Laws are following – Remember point
µ Idℓ sin θ
Biot-savart Law– dB = 0 Converse of magnetostriction is called ″Villari
4π r 2 effect. ″
B = magnetic field, r = distance , dℓ = differential
Curie Temperature- The temperature at which
length a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic in
Ampere’s circuital Law : - nature. A magnetic material completely loses its
Ienc magnetic property at curie temperature.
H=
2πr
also ∫ H ⋅ dl = I
C
enc According to curie’s law-
C
Magnetic flux density :- i.e. χ = Where, C → Curie’s constant
T
φ
B= = µH (wb/m 2 or tesla) Temperature Vs Susceptibility :-
A
Magnetic susceptibility(χ)- Magnetic
susceptibility is the degree of magnetization of a
material in response to an applied magnetic field.
M →Magnetization
χ=
H →Magnetic field intensity
It is unitless proportionality constant.
Magnetic Moment- m = I × A in Amp-m2
m -Magnetic moment, I - Current, A → Area
C
Paramagnetic – Curie’s law χ m =
T
Am 2 C
∴M = = A/m Ferromagnetic – Curie- weiss law χ m =
m3 T–θ
Magnetic Intensity - θ- Curie’s temperature, T > θ (ferro → para)
B = B0 + B m = µ 0 ( H + M ) Anti ferromagnetic – Curie – weiss law
B = µ0 H + µ0 M = µ 0 H + µ 0χ m H C
χm = T > θn (Neel’s Temp)
= µ 0 H (1 + χ m ) = µ0µrH T + θn

Summary of magnetic materials -
Type Example Atomic/Magnetic Behaviour
Diamagnetism Inert gases, many metals - Au, Cu, Atoms have no magnetic
Hg, non-metallic elements - B, Si, moment. Susceptibility is
P, S, many ions - Na+, Cl– & their small & negative.
salts, diatomic molecules - H2, N2,
H2O, most organic compounds
Paramagnetism Some metals - Al, some diatomic Atoms have randomly
gases - O2, NO, ions of transition oriented magnetic
metals and rare earth metals, and moments. Susceptibility
their salts, rare earth oxides. is small & positive.
Ferromagnetism Transition metals Fe, H, Co, Ni, Atoms have parallel
alloys of ferromagnetic elements, aligned magnetic
some alloys of Mn - MnBi, moments. Susceptibility
Cu2MnAl. is large (below TC)
Antiferromagnetism Transition metals Mn, Cr & many Atoms have antiparallel

of their compound - MnO, CO, aligned magnetic
NiO, Cr2O3, MnS, MnSe, CuC2. moments. Susceptibility
is small & positive,
Ferrimagnetism (Fe3O4-magnetite), (Fe2O3- Atoms have mixed

magnemite), mixed oxides of iron parallel and anti-parallel
and other elements such as Sr aligned magnetic
ferrite. moments. Susceptibility
is large (below Tc)
Magnetization calculations in Important Terms Related to magnetism –

Magnetic materials Air gap :- The distance between north and south
Magnetization of Paramagnetic materials poles of magnetic circuit.
M = µmNp – µmNa (where µm –dipole moment) Coercive force :- The magnetic field required to
= (Np – Na) µm= 2µmN tanhα reduce the residual magnetism to zero value.
 –E  Residual magnetism :- Remaining magnetisation in
Np = N0 exp  P  , N = Np + Na the magnet after magnetic field intensity is zero.
 K BT 
Gauss – The unit of magnetic induction or magnetic
 –E a  flux density used to measure the magnetic field
Na = N 0 exp  
 K BT  strength (magnetic flux/cm2)
Where, Na – Anti parallel dipole MGO – Mega Gauss oersted
Np – Parallel dipole, Ep – Energy of equal dipole Oersted - The unit of magnetic intensity in the CGS
Ea – Energy of unequal dipole system that describes magnetic force.
Retentivity :- The material’s ability to retain
magnetization when magnetic field is removed after
saturation.
Types of magnetic materials :-
M Nµ 0µ m2 Nµ 0µ m2 Soft magnetic materials :- These are used in
χm = = ∴C= , transformer, electric machines and magnetic
H K BT KB
memory.
Ex. Iron, Iron-silicon alloys, nickel-iron alloys.
Hard magnetic materials :- These are also called
permanent magnetic materials.
Ex- Alnico, Chromium steel, tungsten steel, Carbon
steel etc.
Dielectric materials- Dielectric materials are Mechanism of Polarization
basically insulators contains no free electrons. These Electronic Polarization- The polarization occurred
can be easily polarized when electric field is applied. due to displacement of positive charge and negative
They have ability to store energy. charge in dielectric material is called electronic
Dielectric Terms polarization.
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant (εr) - Pe = NαeE
The dielectric constant is a measure of the amount Where, αe = 4πε0R3 {R - Radius of atom}
of electric potential energy. This energy is known as
electrostatic energy. ε = εrε0 ε0 ( ε r – 1)
αe = , εr = 1+4πNR3 ......for rare gases
Where, εr– Relative permittivity = 1 (for air & vacuum) N
ε0 = Permittivity of vacuum = 8.854 × 10–12 F/m Ionic Polarization- Ionic polarization occurs only in
Permittivity - Ability to block/oppose electric field those dielectric material in which atoms contain
lines passing through a material. ionic bonds.
Dipole moment - A dipole moment is the product of When external electric field is applied distance
between charges increases.
the charge and the distance between them.
Pi = NαiE Electronic polarization
Where αi → ionic polarizability
P = Qd 1
αi = × αe
It is measured in Debye units (D). 10
Dipole movement 1D = 3.33 × 10–30 Coulomb-meter Ionic polarization is temperature independent.
Polarization- The total effect of an external Oriental polarization- Polar dielectric exhibit
electric field on any dielectric material is called orientational polarization even in the absence of
polarization of dielectric. electric field. That is called oriented polarization.
The electric dipole moment per unit volume is called NPP2 1
P0 = E , P0 ∝
polarization or polarization density ( P ). 3kT T
P = Np (Coulomb/m2) P ∝ E As temp ↑ → randomness ↑→ net dipole moment↓
Where, N - No. of permanent dipoles
P = χe ε0 E, D = ε0 E + P = ε0 (1 + χe )E
Pp - Permanent dipole moment,
p - Polarization of each molecule E- External electric field
k -Boltzmann constant
 n 
N - No. of molecules (Atoms)  N =  T –Temperature, P0 - Oriental polarization
 Volume  Orientational polarizability
Bound charge density Pp2
Electrical suceptibility (χe ) = α0 = ............ Curie law
Free charge density 3kT
Total polarization of a polygamic gas
Polarizability – α=
P
E
(
Farad − m 2 ) P = Pe + Pi + P0 = NαTE
 Pp2 
εχ ε ( ε – 1) P = N  α e + αi + E
α= 0 e = 0 r  3kT 
N N 
E = Electric field, P = dipole moment NPp2
∴ ε0χe = N(αe + αi) +
Electric flux density 3kT
D = εE ...... for isotropic materials

Remember point
Orientational polarization depends on temperature and
Electric flux density when electric field is applied
frequency. It is applied only to polar dielectrics.
D = ε0 E + P Interfacial polarization or space charge
The stored energy per unit volume in dielectric polarization :-
medium Total polarization
1 P = Pe+Pi+P0+Ps {for multiphase material)
E= PE {P - dipole moment} Where, Ps = Interfacial Polarization
2
For single phase material, Ps becomes zero.
Internal field in solids and Liquids Maxwell’s Relation for optical frequencies or
Eint = E0+Ep+Es+Ed lorentz-lorentz equation –
E0 → field produced by charged external to NAα n 2 – 1 M
dielectric specimen. π= = ⋅
3ε 0 n 2 + 2 ρ
D
E0 = , Ep → Depolarization field lorentz-lorentz equation will apply only for the
ε0
case α = αe
–P γP 1
Ep = and Es = , For cubic structure γ = Nαγ
ε0 ε0 3 Condition for spontaneous polarization =1
ε0
P Types of dielectric material in the
Internal field E int = E + (Lorentz field)
3ε0 presence of electric field
Types of Dielectric Materials Piezoelectric material- Piezoelectric materials or
piezoelectrics are the materials that can produce
electric energy upon application of mechanical
stress.
Examples- BaTiO3 Crystal, Quartz Crystal,
Rochelle salt.
Piezoelectricity- It has two effects-
Elemental solid dielectrics- The materials which do

not contain ions or permanent dipoles and consist of
single type of atoms.
Nα e above both effects are Linear. such materials obey
1 – (1 – γ ) the following equations –
ε0
ε r = ( χ e + 1) = T = cS, S = sT, P = dT
γNα e
1– Where, T → Stress, S → Strain
ε0
1
Ionic Non-polar solid dielectrics- These solids c - Elastic stiffness constant, s →
contain more than one type of atoms, but no c
permanent dipoles. d → piezoelectric strain constant
Polar Solid :- Dielectric displacement D = εE + dT
In these solids molecules possess permanent dipole Inverse effect can be given as S = sT + dE
moments. Ferroelectric material - Ferroelectric materials are
Nα e ε r – 1 those dielectric materials in which permanent
Clausius – Mosotti Relation - =
3ε 0 εr + 2 polarization remains even after removing the applied
electric field.
Maxwell's relation for index of refraction :- Example- Barium Titanate, Sodium nitrite, KDP,
εre = n2 (Consider µ = µ0) Rochelle salt
Where, εre- dielectric constant at optical frequencies Remember point
n -Refractive index
i. By applying external field, direction of polarization
In Clausius-mosotti relations for gases at low
can be reversed.
pressure
ii. Curie- weiss law is used for ferroelectric material.
Nα e
εr = 1 So, = ε r – 1 = χe Pyroelectric material- Pyroelectric materials are
ε0 defined as such materials in which spontaneous
Debye’s generalization of clausius-mosotti relation polarization in the absence of external electric field
Polarizability per kilogram molecule and changes its polarization on heating.
∆P = λ∆T
NAα εr – 1 M
π= = ⋅ Where, ∆P = Change in polarization
3ε 0 εr + 2 ρ
λ = Pyroelectric constant
Where, π - Molar polarizability ∆T = Change in temperature
M-Molecular weight of material, ρ - Density, kg/m3 Example- Tourmaline and polyvinylidene fluoride
Anti-ferroelectric material Breakdown due to liquid globules
Dipole moments are aligned antiparallel in these σ
materials. Hence spontaneous polarisation is zero. E = 487.7 V / cm
Rε ℓ
Example- ADP, sodium nibate, Lead zirconate,.
Dielectric breakdown in gases Where, E - Critical field on which the globule loses
its stability
Average velocity of the charge carrier in a gas
V = µE εℓ - Liquid medium Permittivity
Where, µ - Charge carrier Mobility σ - Pressure caused by surface Tension,
E- applied electric field. R - Globule Radius
Secondary ionization coefficient Dielectric breakdown of solids- Von Hippel
n 0e αd Theory
n=
(
1 – γ e αd – 1 ) EC =
2π2 vem  1 1 
 2 – V/m
Where, n- Total no. of electrons h  n∞ ε 
n0- No. of primary photoelectrons per second Where,
d - Distance between anode and cathode EC-Critical field on which the breakdown
γ-Townsend’s second ionization coefficient occurs
Condition of Ionization v - Optical frequency
E.λ = Vi n∞- Index of refraction of infinite wave
Where Vi - Ionization potential ε- Dielectric constant, m-mass of electron
λ- mean free path h -plank’s constant
Electron ionization coefficient (Town send Thermal breakdown :-
breakdown process)
Heat generated per unit volume per unit time
1 V / Eλ
α = e−( i ) ε r tan δ
λ W = E 2f ⋅ watts/cm 3
1.8 × 10 12
Where,α = Townsend’s first ionization coefficient

Where E- uniform electric field
1
λ∝ ......... at constant temperature f-frequency
Pressure δ - Loss angle
nd = n0eαd εr - Relative permittivity
Where, nd = Number of electrons striking the anode
for direct voltage power dissipated per volume can
per second
be given by
Townsend criterion for spark breakdown
E2
( )
γ e αd – 1 = 1 W=
ρ
watts/m3
Dielectric breakdown in liquids Where ρ → Resistivity of the insulator

Colloidal theory Dielectric loss- The absorption of electric energy by
ε – ε′ 3 3 kT a dielectric subjected to an alternating electric field
⋅r E ≥ is known as dielectric loss.
ε + 2ε′ 4
Dielectric constant
Where, r - Insulating particle Radius
ε -Permittivity of insulator ε∗r = ε 'r – Jε"r
ε′- Permittivity of oil Imaginary part is incorporated to put absorption of
E - field strength energy in the equation.
k - Boltzmann’s Constant J(t) = ωε0 ε"r E0cosωt + Jωε0 ε 'r E0cosωt
T - Absolute Temperature
JL = Charging current density
Bubble theory-
JL = ωε0 ε"r E0 cosωt
3εE 0
Ei = JC = Lossy current density
2ε + 1
JC = ωε0 ε 'r E0cosωt
Where Ei - Electric field of a gas bubble that is
immersed in a liquid Also loss tangent or dissipation factor –
ε - Permittivity of liquid J L ε"r ε′′
E0 - Electric field in the liquid in absence of the tan δ = = =
J C ε 'r ε′
bubble
ε′′ Electrical properties
If δ is small tanδ = δ, then δ=
ε′ Mechanical properties
Visual properties
Thermal properties
Chemical properties
Classification of insulating materials :
The classification of insulating material is based on
the thermal classification, physical classification,
And energy absorbed structural, chemical classification and the process of
manufacture.
ω ' " 2 ω '
W(t) = ε0ε r E 0 W(t) = ε 0 ε r tan δE 02 watt/m3 Thermal classification :-
2 2
Thermally the insulators are classified into seven
Dielectric strength-The maximum electric field
classes or types. Which are explained below –
that a dielectric material can sustain without
breakdown is called its dielectric strength. i. Class-Y ii. Class – A iii. Class – E
iv. Class – B v. Class – F vi. Class – H
Materials Dielectric strength (KV/cm)
vii. Class – C
Air 3
Details of every Insulators :-
Impregnated paper 15 Class-Y :- The class-Y temperature limit is 90 ºC.
Polystyrene 20 Examples- Cotton, Paper, silk etc.
Rubber 21 Class- A- Temperature limit of this class material is
105ºC
Bakelite 25
Examples- Paper, silk, polyamide, cotton, resins etc.
Glass 30 Class- E - Temperature limit is 120 ºC.
Mica 200 Examples- Enameled wire insulation, polyvinyl, epox
resins etc.
Insulating materials- Insulating materials block
heat transmission, electric current or noise. It has Class – B- Temperature limit is 130 ºC.
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Examples - Inorganic materials impregnated with
Ex.- Porcelain, glass, Neon, Transformer oil, varnish.
Ceramic etc. Class- F - Temperature limit is 150 ºC.
Basics of Insulating materials :- Examples - Mica, polyester epoxide.
Class- H- Temperature limit is 180 ºC.
Properties of Insulating materials :-
Class-C - Temperature limit is greater than 180 ºC.
High voltage bearing capacity
Examples-Glass, Mica, Quartz, Ceramics, Teflon etc.
No effect of heat, chemicals, moisture, cold
Other Types of Insulators
Physical classification Structural Chemical Process of manufacture
classification classification
Three types- Solid , Liquid, Gases The Structural Chemical These are two types
Solid – fibrous, ceramic, mica, glass etc classification of insulating i. Natural
insulating material materials are
Liquid- mineral oils, synthetic oils, ii. Synthetic
transformer oils. is classified into organic &
two types Inorganic Insulating materials are –
Gaseous – air, hydrogen, nitrogen SF6 etc. fiberglass, mineral wool,
i. Cellulose
cellulose, natural fibers,
ii. Fibrous polystrene

Conducting Materials for isotropic material =
Ohm’s Law- I ∝ V Collision time (τc) = Relaxation time (τr)
ρℓ eτc E
R =
V
, R= • Drift velocity of electron ( Vd ) = = µ e Ε m/sec.
I A m
1 • Mean free path :- Average distance travelled by

Conductivity (σ) =
ρ ( resistivity ) electron before collision takes place.
I 3kT
Current density ( j ) = λ = Vτc, Where, V =
A m
Also J = σE (ohm’s law in terms of current density)
2E F
(Point form of ohm’s law) • Velocity of an electron Vp =
m
Free electron theory -
Where, EF → fermi energy
 ne T 
2
ne T 2
Note – At absolute zero, all energy levels below Ef are
J=   E = σE , ∴ σ =
 m  m filled and all those above Ef being empty.
–eET Factor effecting electrical conductivity of

Drift velocity of electron- Vd =
m materials :-
Current density of electron- ∴ J = –enVd i. Temperature ii. Alloying
Mobility - Mobility is known as ease of charge flow iii. Mechanical stressing - Change in crystal structure
in a material. Mobility is defined as drift velocity per iv. Age Hardening - As age of material → σ↓
unit electric field.
v. Cold working - Change in shape without heating it
V eT
Mobility (µe) = d = (m2/volt sec) 1 ne 2 τc
E m σ∝ , σ=
T m
For semiconductor – σ = e [nµn + pµp]
As temperature ↑, thermal energy ↑, randomness ↑,
Joule’s Law - Joules first law shows the relation collisions ↑, τc ↓
between heat produced by flowing electric current
2E F
through a conductor. • mean free path at fermi level d F = τc
m
H = I2RT= VIT,
• Thermal conductivity :-
• Volume density of heat developed per second W =
σE2 = JE watts/m3  dT 
Flux of thermal energy Q = −K   watts/m
2
Relaxation Time (τr , τf) - When electric field is  dx 

applied across a conducting material is removed, the dT
velocity of electrons does not go to zero - Temperature gradient, ºC/m
dx
instantaneously but rather decays exponentially due
1 nπ2 k 2 τT
to inertia of electron. This time is known as Thermal conductivity K = watt/mK
3 m
relaxation time.
Vd (t) = Vd (0)e –t/τf K π2 K 2 LT

= = L , K = σLΤ =
σT 3e 2 ρ
• Collision time (τc) → Time taken in 2 collisions
L ( Lorentz Number) = 2.443×10–8 W-m/K2
known as collision time
Super Conductors - When conductors are cooled to Silsbee’s Rule- A criterion describing the critical
a temperature below a certain value then they lose (maximum) value of magnetic field, above which a
resistivity and called as super conductor. superconductor loses its superconducting state and
The temperature at which the metals change from becomes a normal resistive conductor. This
normal conducting state to superconducting state is magnetic field may be generated by current flowing
called critical temperature/Transition Temperature. through conductor.
Example – Hg, pb, Zn, pbAu, pBTL2, Cus etc. ∫ H ⋅ dℓ = I , H×2πr = I
Properties of Superconductors – I
H= , material loses superconducting nature
i. Zero electrical resistance vii. Critical current 2πr
ii. Persistent currents iii. Josephson currents If H > HC, I > IC = HC2πr
iv. Critical magnetic field Factors effecting the superconductivity

v. Meissner effect → Expulsion of magnetic field • Frequency effect :- When frequency increases
vi. Critical Temperature/Transition Temperature above 1013 HZ (infrared Region) material loses its
Meissner Effect- Expulsion of magnetic field – At superconductivity.
T > Tc , H < H c or T < Tc , H > H c → Magnetic line • Entropy effect :- Increase in entropy results in
change in state from superconductivity to normal.
passes through its body.
• Isotope effect :-
1
TC ∝ , Where, M - mass of isotope
M
Types of superconductors
When cooled below critical temperature • Type –1
T < Tc ,H < H c - magnetic line pushed out of These are ideal superconductors called as soft
superconductor body. superconductors as well.
The critical field and transition temperature values
are low.
These exhibit complete Meissner effect and silsbee’s
Rule.
Example- Th, Pd, Pb, V, Hg etc.
In the state of super conductivity material exhibits
• Type-2
zero resistivity and perfect diamagnetism. For
These are non- ideal superconductors also called
perfectly diamagnetic material
hard super conductor.
χm = –1, µr =0, B = µ0µrH = 0
The critical field and transition temperature values
  T   2 are high.
Critical field (HC) - H C = H 0 1 –   
  TC   They exhibit incomplete Meissner effect and
Silsbee’s Rule
Where H0 - Critical field at absolute zero Change in state from normal to superconducting is
HC - Critical field at any temperature gradual.
TC-Transition temperature Example- NBN, Babi3

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS AND
MEASUREMENTS
Method of Measurement- There are two method 2. Precision - The closeness of the measurements to
of measurement- each other.
i. Direct measurement method 3. Sensitivity-
ii. Indirect measurement method Small change in output ∆V0
Sensitivity = =
Remember point Small changein input ∆Vi
1
Direct method is inaccurate. In this method the Sensitivity =
unknown quantity is directly compared against a Deflection factor
standard. Rm 1
Sensitivity = = Ω / volt
Indirect method is accurate, and more sensitive so VFSD  VFSD 
this method is more preferred.  
 Rm 
Classification of Instrument -
1
i. Sensitivity = Ω / volt
IFSD
• The sensitivity of an instrument should be high
4. Repeatability and Reproducibility-
Repeatability- The repetition of reading of an
instrument taken over a period of time.
Reproducibility-It is define as the measure of
repeatability of reading an instrument over a period
ii. Absolute and secondary Instruments- of time.
Absolute - Tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh's 5. Dead Time and Dead Zone-
current balance, etc. Dead Time- It is defined as the time required by a
Secondary- Ammeter, voltmeter, pressure gause measurement system to begin to respond to a change
etc. in the measurement.
iii. Deflection and Null type Instrument- Dead Zone- It is defined as the range of input
value for which there is no output.
Deflection Instruments- These type of instrument
6. Linearity-If the output of any instrument is
have less accuracy, less sensitivity but faster
proportional to the input given to it, then it is called
response.
linear.
Example- PMMC, Moving iron, 7. Resolution or discrimination- The smallest change
Electrodynamometer type. Ohmmeter, Megger. in measured value to which the instrument will
Null Type - Null indication denotes the magnitude respond.
of measured quantity. 8. Drift- For a particular value of the input, variation in
These type instrument have high Accuracy and high output of an instrument from the desired value.
sensitivity. There is no drift for perfect reproducibility.
Example- Potentiometer. Galvanometer Errors in Measurement and their analysis-
iv. Recording and Integrated type- fullscale deflection
Re solution =
a. Recording Instruments → No.of divisions
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) as no. of division increases, resolution increases for
Substation Recording Instrument same range
ECG (medical research & patient monitoring ) 1. Static error
b. Integrated type δA = Measured value − True Value
1-φ Energy meter (domestic) = Am − AT
3-φ Energy meter (Industrial) Where, δA = Absolute static error of quantity 'A'
Static characteristics of Instruments- Am = Measured value of quantity 'A'
1. Accuracy- The closeness of a measured value to a AT = True value of quantity 'A'
standard or known value. Error = – Accuracy
2. Relative limiting error-
• Deviation- d n = x n − x
Relative limiting error,
 Measured value − True value  Where x = Mean value of readings
εr =  
 True value  xn = Readings to the n value
 A − AT   δA  • Average Deviation-
% εr =  m  ×100 , % ε r =   × 100 Mean or Avg deviation
 A   AT 
∑ | d | | d1 | + | d 2 | +....... | d n |
T
Where, εr = Relative limiting error D= =

n n
δA = Absolute static error
Am = Measured value , AT = True value • Standard deviation-
3. Static Correction δC = A t − A m = −δA ∑ d2 d2 + d2 + ........ + d2n
For n > 20, S.D. = σ = = 1 2
δC = Static correction, At = True value n n
Am = Measure value, δA = Static error n < 20, S.D. = σ =
Non-linearity- ∑d 2
d 2 + d 22 + ........ + d n2
(max.deviation of output = 1
from theidealized straight line) n −1 n −1
N.L. = × 100 The standard of an infinite No. of data is defined as
Desired Value
the square root of the sum of the individual
• Error at desired value =
deviation squared, divided by the No. of readings.
% Fullscale value × Error at fullscale
% εr = • Variance-
Desired Value
Variance = σ 2 = (Standard deviation)2
Combination of Quantities with limiting
∑ d2
errors For n >20 V = σ 2 =
• Sum or difference of two or more than two n
quantities- ∑ d2
n < 20 V = σ2 =
X = ± X1 ± X 2 ± X 3 ± X 4 ( n − 1)
δX  X δX1 X 2 δX 2 X 3 δX 3 X 4 δX 4  Where- σ - Standard deviation, d - deviation
= ± 1 + + + 
X  X X1 X X2 X X3 X X4  • Types of Errors-
• Product or quotient of two or more than two
quantities-
xx x1 xx
x = 1 2 or or 1 2
x2 + x3 x2 + x3 x 2 − x1
• Relative limiting error -
δx  δx δx δx 
εx = = ± 1 + 2 + 3 
x  x1 x2 x3 
(
ε x = ± ε r1 + ε r2 + ε r3 )
εx = relative limiting error of quantity x
δx = absolute static error
εx = relative limiting error • Analog Instruments
xa xb xa
• Composite factor- x = x1a .x b2 .x 3c or 1 c 2 or b 1 c
x3 x 2 x3
• Relative limiting error-
δx δx δx δx
εr = = ±a 1 + b 2 +c 3
x x1 x2 x3
ε r = ± (a ε r1 + b ε r2 + c ε r2 )
• Arithmetic mean value-
x + x 2 + ......x n ∑ x
mean value = x = 1 =
n n
Where x1 , x 2 ,.......x n = Readings
n = No. of readings
• Operating principle of Analog Instruments-
Type Principle Contro Deflecti Damping Power Use
lling ng supply
PMMC Magnetic Spring θ∝I eddy current DC Voltmeter, Ammeter
effect
EMMC (EDM) Electro Spring θ ∝ I2 Air AC or DC Voltmeter, Ammeter, wattmeter,
magnetic effect power factor meter, frequency
meter
MI Magnetic gravity/ θ ∝ I2 Air AC or DC Ammeter, Voltmeter
effect spring
Electrostatic Electrostatic Spring θ ∝ V2 Fluid AC or DC Voltmeter
effect friction
Rectifier Magnetic Spring θ∝I eddy current AC or DC Ammeter, Voltmeter
effect
Induction type Induction Spring θ ∝ I 2rms eddy current AC Energy meter, wattmeter,
effect voltmeter, Ammeter
Hot wire Heating effect Spring θ ∝ I2 eddy current AC or DC Ammeter, voltmeter
Thermocouple Seebeck effect Spring θ ∝ I2 eddy current AC or DC Voltmeter, Ammeter
• Parameter of Indicating Instrument - I = Current through moving coil
Span - (Maximum Value of scale - minimum value N = No. of turns of the coil
of scale) A = Area of cross-section of core
(i) Deflecting torque - Controlling torque- TC = Kθ
Deflecting torque (Td ) ∝ Measureable quantity
at balance, TC = Td , Kθ = GI
(ii) Controlling Torque – The controlling torque is
G
used to opposes the deflecting torque and the θ= I, θ ∝ I
K
increases with the deflection of moving system.
(iii) Damping torque (Tδ) - To eliminate pointer Scale- linear
oscillation damping torque used. • Range Extension of PMMC -
• Analog instrument are of 2 order type which has a
nd In PMMC to measure currents beyond 50mA we use
damping factor, δ = 0.6 to 0.8, under damped shunt.
damping is used. Shunt → low Resistance, Parallel connection
Note - Tc depends on Td but damping torque is Rm
(Shunt resistance) Rsh =
independent of Tc and Td. (m − 1)
Types of damping - I
(i) Air friction damping (Multiplying factor of shunt) m =
Im
(ii) Fluid friction damping
 R sh 
(iii) Eddy current damping Current through meter ( I m ) =   .I
Effectiveness of damping order -  R sh + R m 
Eddy current > fluid friction > Air friction I = Ish + Im
Damping Application
Eddy current PMMC, Galvanometer, Hot wire,
induction type
Air friction MI, Electrodynamometer
Fluid friction Electrostatic voltmeter
1. PMMC (Permanent magnet moving coil/D'
Arsonval instrument)-
Torque equation- Rm = Resistance of PMMC instrument
Deflecting torque - Rsh = Resistance of shunt
(Td ) = BINA = GI I = Total input current
(Where G = NBA) Ish = Current through shunt
Td ∝ I Im = Current through instrument
B = Magnetic flux density m = Shunt multiplying factor
Swamp resistance- To compensate the temperature
effect of a resistance called "Swamp resistance".
Swamp resistance → low temperature coefficient
→ Manganin (D C)
 R m + R swamp 
Constantan(AC) R sh =  
 m −1  2. Moving Iron Instrument (MI)-
i. Attraction type ii. Repulsion type
1 2 dL
a. Deflecting torque- Td = I
2 dθ
ii. Controlling torque- TC = kθ
At steady state position- TC = Td
1 I 2 dL
θ=
• Multirange Ammeters- 2 k dθ
i. Using No. of shunts- θ ∝ I2
• Scale − Non linear
Errors in MI instrument-
1. Hysteresis 2. Frequency error-
Rm I Rm I
R sh1 = , m1 = 1 , R sh 2 = , m2 = 2
m1 − 1 Im m2 −1 Im
ii. By using universal shunt or Ayton shunt (DC)- V
Im =
R I (R m + R s ) 2 + (ωL m ) 2
• R 1 = m , m1 = 1 , (I2–Im) = (Rm+R1–R2) Im
m −1 Im V = Supply Voltage Rm = meter Resistance
Im (R m + R 1 ) R + R1 I2 Rs = Multiplier Resistance Lm = Meter inductance
R2 = , R2 = m , m2 = Note:-
I2 m2 Im
Frequency ↑→ I m ↓
R m + R1 I3
R3 = , m3 = ∵ θ ∝ I2m
m3 Im
∴ θ will decrease for same voltage
This effect can be nullified by using a capacitor.
L
C = 0.41 m2
Rs
3. Eddy current error
4. Error due to stray magnetic field
5. Temperature error.
• Electrodynamometer type instrument
dM
• Extension range of voltmeter- 1. Deflecting torque- Td = i1i 2
dθ
Multiplier→ High resistance, parallel connection
V
• Rse = (m –1) Rm, • m=
Vm
Rse = Multiplier Resistance
Rm = Voltmeter Resistance
V = Supply Voltage
Vm = Voltage Across PMMC voltmeter
IFSD = Full scale deflection
2. Control torque- TC = Kθ dM VI dM
Td = I1I2 cos φ. , Td = cos φ.
At steady state- TC = Td dθ RS dθ
dM i1i 2 dM V P dM
K θ = i1i 2 θ= ∵ I1 = , I2 ≃ I , Td = .
dθ k dθ RS R S dθ
∴ Deflection of pointer, θ ∝ i1i 2 P dM

θ= . , θ ∝ P Scale linear
Where KR S dθ
i1= Current in fixed coil at time t Electrothermic Instruments-
i2 = Current in moving coil at time t
M = Mutual inductance between two coils
L1 = Inductance of fixed coil ii. Thermocouple Instruments
L2 = Inductance of moving coil Electrostatic instrument
i. Operation with DC - For DC, i1 = i2 = I
1 2 dc
dM Deflecting torque → Td = V
Deflection torque → Td = I 2 2 dθ
dθ
1 2 dc
Deflection angle → θ = V
Deflection angle → θ ∝ I2 2k dθ
ii. Operation with AC- TC = Kθ
i1 = I m1 sin ωt,i 2 = I m2 sin (ωt − φ) Controlling torque →
θ ∝ V 2 non linear scale
dM
Deflecting torque Td = I1I 2 cos φ. Range extension of Electrostatic Voltmeters-
dθ There are two method
i. Resistance potential dividers
I1I 2 dM
Deflection of the pointer θ = cos φ ii. Capacitance potential divider
k dθ i. Resistance potential divider-
Application of EDM type instrument -
I 2 dM
i. EDM type Ammeter- θ =
K dθ
For making the reading independent of frequency-
timeconstant of shunt = timeconstant of movingcoil
L L
of shunt = of moving coil Vm =
r
.V
V R
=
R R R Vm r
2. EDM type voltmeter-
V R
V 2 dM Multiplying factor m = =
Deflecting torque → Td = . Vm r
R s2 dθ
R = total resistance
V 2 dM r = potential divider resistance
Deflection angle → θ = . , θ ∝ V2
KR s2 dθ m = voltage multiplying power
ii. Capacitance potential divider-
Where→ V = Supply Voltage
RS = Multiplier series Resistance
M = Mutual inductance between fixed and moving
coil.
Electrodynamometer type wattmeter-
 CS 
Vm =   .V
 CS + C m 
V  Cm 
Multiplying factor m = = 1 + 
Vm  Cs 
Cm = Capacitance of voltmeter
CS = Capacitance in series with voltmeter
Rectifier type instrument- A. Low resistance measure method-
i. Half wave Rectifier meter Ammeter voltmeter method (V-I method)
ii. Full wave Rectifier meter
Kelvins double bridge method
Reading of rectifier type inst = kf × PMMC reading
i. Half wave Rectifier meter- Potentiometer method
V V
Output voltage (V0) = Vavg = m Ammeter voltmeter method- Principle, R m =
π I
(V0) = Vavg = 0.45 Vrms Case i- Ammeter near to unknown resistance
similarly i0 = iavg = 0.45 Irms Rm = Ra + RT
Rms Value of AC wave
Form factor = = 2.22 Error in measure of RT -
A vg .value of DC wave
Reading of half wave rectifier inst = 2.22 × PMMC  R − RT 
% error =  m  × 100
reading.  RT 
Sensitivity- Sac = 0.45 SDC
AC sensitivity is 45% of DC sensitivity R 
ii. Full wave rectifier meter- % error =  a  × 100 (∵ Ra= Rm –RT)
Reading of full wave rectifier inst = 1.11 × PMMC  RT 
reading.
2V
Output voltage V0 = Vavg = m
π
Vavg = 0.9Vrms , Iavg = 0.9 Irms
Sensitivity Sac = 0.9 SDC
AC sensitivity is 90% of DC sensitivity
Form factor
Rms value of AC wave Vm / 2 Where -
= = = 1.11
Avg value of DC wave 2Vm / π Ra = Ammeter internal resistance
Range Extension of rectifier type instrument- RT = Test resistance
1. For DC - Rm = Measured value of resistance
i. For half wave rectifier R S = Sdc − R m − R d Case ii- Voltmeter near to unknown resistance -
−R m R T
ii. For full wave rectifier- R S = Sdc − R m − 2R d R m − RT =
RV
Where-
RS = Multiplier resistance −R T2
Sdc= Rectifier instrument DC sensitivity Assume R m ≃ R T (R m − R T ) =
RV
Rm = PMMC instrument resistance
Rd = diode resistances −R T
2. For AC operation (AC voltmeter) ε'r =
RV
i. For half wave rectifier- Error -
−R T
Rs = SacV–Rm – Rd = 0.45 Sdc V–Rm – Rd % error = × 100
ii. For full wave rectifier- RV
RS = SacV –Rm – 2Rd = 0.9Sdc V–Rm –2Rd
Where-
Rs= Multiplier resistance
Sac= Rectifier instrument AC sensitivity
Rm= PMMC instrument resistance
Rd= diode Resistance, V = Supply voltages
Measurement of Resistance
Classification of resistance- Where -
Classification Value of R RT = Test resistance
Low resistance R ≤ 1Ω RV = Voltmeter internal resistance
Medium resistance 1Ω < R < 100kΩ IV = Current blowing through voltmeter
High resistance R > 100kΩ IR = Current flowing through test resistance
Remember point- • Thevenin's equivalent of wheat stone bridge-
 P R 
When error in both cases are same- VTh = V  − 
| ε r |=| ε 'r |  P + Q R + S
Ra RT PQ RS
= RT = Ra RV R Th = +
RT R V P+Q R +S
Ra = Ammeter internal resistance
RV = Voltmeter internal resistance • Current Sensitivity (Si)-It is the ratio of deflection
RT = test resistance or unknown resistances of galvanometer to that of the current flowing
• Kelvin's double bridge method θ
through the galvanometer. Si = (mm / µA)
Ig
• Voltage sensitivity (SV)- Ratio of deflection of the
galvanometer to that of the voltage across the
θ
galvanometer. SV = (mm / V)
VTh
• Bridge sensitivity (SB)- Ratio of deflection of the
galvanometer to that of the small change in the value
Under balanced condition-
θ
P  qr  P p  of the resistance. SB = mm
R x = .S +  (∆R / R)
 − 
Q  p + q + r  Q q 
Si Ig
include lead resistance or SB = mm
• Condition to eliminate lead/contact resistance- (∆ R / R)
P p P Max value of bridge sensitivity
= then R x = .S eliminate contact resistance.
Q q Q VSV P R
SBmax = occurs when = = 1
• Potentiometer method- Based on comparison 4 Q S
method. • Ohm-meter method
E ℓ R Series ohm meter Shunt ohm meter
High accuracy. 1 = 1 = 1
E2 ℓ 2 R 2 i. Series ohmmeter
When AB is open
when, AB is open → I min = I1 = 0and R T = ∞ = M ax
AB isshort → I1 = I max and R T = Max
B. Measurement of medium Resistance-
Ammeter-Voltmeter method (V-I method) ii. Shunt ohm meter
Substitution method
Wheatstone bridge method
Ohmmeter method
Wheat stone bridge method- at balance-
Remember point
Practically series type ohmmeter is used to measure
unknown resistance and shunt type not commonly
used.

C. Measurement of High Resistance P R + S + Lr
Loss of charge method From bridge 1- +1 = .....(i)
Q S + (L − ℓ1 )
Meggar
Direct deflection method P R + S + Lr
From bridge 2- +1 = .....(ii)
Mega ohm Bridge Q S + (L − ℓ 2 )
• Loss of charge method- Principle- charging and
discharging of capacitor through unknown resistor. From (i) and (ii) R − S = (ℓ 2 − ℓ1 )r
Measurement using A.C. Bridges
• AC bridges used-
i. Measure of unknown impedance and associated
parameters like inductance, capacitance, and
resistance respectively.
Voltage across the capacitor ii. Measurement of dissipation factor (tan δ) and
electrical permittivity.
VC (t) = Ve − t / RC Where (t = time constant) iii. Measurement of unknown frequency of audio signal.
t 0.4343t • Sources-
R= R= a. For low frequency → Power line supply can be
 V   V 
Cℓn   C log10   used.
 VC   VC  b. For high frequency → Electronic oscillator is used.
Where- AC Bridge-
t =time in second, V = Supply voltage
• General equation for bridge balance-
R = Unknown resistance
VC = Voltage across capacitor Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
• Meggar method
Its working principle based on electrodynamometer.
No need of external supply
Used for the measurement of insulation resistance of
cables, bushing insulation.
1
Deflection (θ) ∝
Unknown resistance (R T )
• Direct deflection method-
• Magnitude condition- | Z1 || Z4 |=| Z2 || Z3 |
• Angle condition- θ1 + θ4 = θ2 + θ3
Vibrant Galvanometer - 5Hz to 1kHz
Head Phone - 250 Hz to 4kHz
• Detector-
Tuned Amplifier - 10Hz to 100kHz
D' Arsonval Galvanometer is used for deflection in D' Arsonval galvanometer - 0Hz
above method. • Depending upon phase angle θ, elements are-
When high voltage source is applied, a small current
flows through the insulator. By measuring voltage V θ Elements
and current I, resistance of cable, R is measured. 0º R
• Carry foster slide wire bridge- 90º L1
Carry foster bridge method is used for medium
resistance measurement by comparing standard −90º C1
resistance. 0º < θ1 < 90º R 1L1
−90º < θ1 < 0º R 1C1
• Measurement of self inductance-
i. Maxwell's Bridge→(1<Q<10)- measure medium Q of
coil
ii. Maxwell's Inductance-Capacitance Bridge
iii. Hay's Bridge(Q>10)- measure high Q of coil
iv. Anderson's Bridge (Q<1) - measure low Q of coil
v. Owen's Bridge
i. Maxwell's Inductance Bridge- v. Owen's Bridge-
It is used for measurement of self inductance with a
wide range.
Used for measure of incremental inductance
R3
R1 = (R 2 + r2 ) Suitable for medium Q-factor measurement.
R4
L1 = R 2 R 3 C 4
R
L1 = 3 .L 2 C4
R4 R1 = R3
C2
ωL1
Q= = ωR 2 C 2
R1
Where , L1= Unknown inductance
L2 = Variable inductance, R2 = Variable resistance
R3, R4 → Known non-inductive resistance.
Measurement of capacitance-
R1 = Unknown resistance
i. De sauty's bridge , ii. Schering bridge
ii. Maxwell's Inductance-Capacitance Bridge-
De-Sauty's bridge-
Not suitable for measurement of high Q-coil because
phase angle criteria does not satisfy.
Not suitable for measurement of low Q-coil because
of sliding balance problem.
R2R3
R1 = , L1 = R 2 R3C4
R4
ωL1
Q= = ωC4 R 4
R1 R4
For lossless capacitors C1 = C2
R3
iii Hay's Bridge- For lossy capacitors
R 2 R 3C 4
L1 = R 
(1 + ω2 R 24C24 ) r1 = (R 2 + r2 )  3
 R4
 − R1

ω2 R 2 R 3R 4 C 42
R1 = R4
1 + ω2 R 24 C24 C1 = .C 2
R3
1
Q=
ωR 4C 4
It is slowest bridge 1
Dissipation factor- D = tan δ = ωCR =
High Q-factor measure Q
iv. Anderson's Bridge- Schering Bridge
C4 R4
r1 = R3 C1 = C2
R2R3 C2 R3
R1 = − r1 D = tan δ1 = ωC1r1 = ωC 4 R 4
R4
R3
L1 = C [r(R4 + R2 ) + R2R4 ]
R4
Use for measurement of relative permittivity and

power factor of dielectric material.
It can measures self inductance of very low Q coil
Schering bridge method is used to measure
(Q<1) dissipation factor and capacitance
Measurement of frequency- 4. Ratio correction factor (RCF)-
i. Wien's bridge- Transformation ratio R
RCF = =
Naminal ratio kn
Burden of an instrument Transformer-It is
1 convenient to express load across the secondary
f= winding terminals as the output in volt-ampere at the
2π R 1R 2 C1C 2
rated secondary winding voltage.
Current Transformer-
1
if C1 = C2, R1 = R2 f =
2πR1C1
Instrument transformer
• Transformation ratio-
(I m sin δ + Ie cos δ)
R ≃n+
IS
Ie  I 
R ≃n+ ≃ n  1 + e  I m = I0 cos α, Ie = I0 sin α
IS  IP 
Ratio of Instrument Transformers- • Phase angle-
1. Transformation ratio- It is the ratio of the
magnitude of the primary phasor to the secondary 180  I m cos δ − Ie sin δ 
θ≃   degree
Phasor. π  nIS 
| Primary Phasor |
Transformation ratio (R) = 180 Im
| Secondary Phasor | θ≃ degree
π IP
Primary winding current
For C.T. - R = • Ratio error-
Secondary winding current
Naminal ratio (k n ) − actual ratio (R)
Primary winding Voltage Ratio error =
For P.T. - R = Actual ratio (R)
Secondary winding Voltage
• CT ratio error is dependent on eddy current loss
2. Nominal Ratio (kn)- Ratio of rated primary
winding current (or voltage) to the rated secondary and magnetizing current.
winding current (or voltage). Remember point
Rated primary winding current
For C.T - k n = • In order to minimize errors, the core must have high
Rated secondary winding current
permeability and low core loss.
For P.T.- k n =
Rated primary winding Voltage • The phase angle error is effected very little by a
Rated secondary winding voltage change of one or two turns in the secondary.
The ratio marked on the transformer is its nominal • The secondary winding of current transformer is
ratio. always short circuit.
3. Turns Ratio (n)-
• The primary current of C.T. is depending on load
No. of turns of secondary winding
For C.T. - n= connected to system but it is not depending
No.of turnsof primary winding secondary winding burden.
No. of turns of Primary winding • The secondary number of turns are reduced by 1 or 2
For P.T. n =
No.of turns of secondary winding turns then the ratio error reduces.

Potential transformer
• Actual transformation
IS
[ R P cos ∆ + X P sin ∆ ] + Ie rP + Im X P
R =n+ n
VS
• Phase angle-
IS I X −I r
θ= ( XS cos ∆ − R S sin ∆ ) + e P m P rad.
VS nVS
Remember point
• C.T. never operates with secondary winding open

but P.T. can be operated with secondary winding
open.
• Strip wound core is used to reduce ratio error and
phase angle error. Y-connection ∆ -connection
VL = 3VPh , I L = I Ph VL = VPh , I L = 3I Ph
LV, High current HV, Low current
Vm I m
P= cos φ
Average Power- 2
P = Vrms I rms cos φ
DC Power measurement
1. V - A method-
Current Transformer Potential Transformer
C.T. is used for high P.T. is used for high
current measurement. voltage measurement.
The flux density and The flux density and
exciting current (I0) of a exciting current (I0) of a
C.T. varies over a wide P.T. varies over a restricted
range. range. Pm = PT + Ia2 R a , Error = + Ve ⇒ Pm − PT
Secondary winding of a The secondary winding of Pm − PT R
C.T. should not be open P.T. can be opened ↓ % Error = ×100 = a × 100
PT RL ↑
circuited. circuited.
2. A-V method-
A C.T. is equivalent to A P.T. is equivalent to a
VL2
a series transformer parallel transformer with Pm = PT + Error = (+)Ve ⇒ Pm > PT
operating under virtual it’s secondary winding RV
short circuit condition operating under open IV
circuit conditions. % Error ↓ = ×100
Pm − PT IL ↑
The primary winding The primary winding % Error = × 100
PT RL ↓
current of a C.T. is current of a P.T. is % Error ↓ = × 100
RV
independent of the dependent upon the
secondary winding secondary circuit burdens.
circuit conditions.
In a C.T. a small In a P.T. a full voltage
voltage exists across exists across it’s terminals.
it’s terminals.

Condition for equal error in both condition- 2. Error due to pressure coil capacitance-This
2 capacitance is due to, inter-turn capacitance of the
V  1
Ra =  L  × series resistance.
 IL  R V Due to this capacitance the wattmeter reads high on
2. Electrodynamometer wattmeter- lagging power factor of the load.
a. Connection 1- Pm = PT + I L2 R CC , ICC = I L To eliminate these error X L = X C of the pressure
coil.
Error because of connection
C.C. - Current Coil/Fixed Coil

P.C. - Pressure Coil/Moving Coil
RCC - Resistance of Current Coil
RPC - Resistance of Pressure Coil
b. Connection-2 Power indicate by
L-C short Connection- wattmeter = Power consumed and power losses
byload + Power consumed in current coil
VL2
Pm = PT +
R PC MC short connection- Preferable when load current
small.
ICC = I L + I PC
Current coil / Fixed coil → N ↓ .A ↑

Voltage coil / Pr essure coil / moving coil → N ↑, A ↓ P.C.
N→ turn, A→ Area
Error in electrodynamometer wattmeter Power indicate by wattmeter =
Error due to pressure coil inductance.
Power consumed by load + Power loss in P.C.
Error due to pressure coil capacitance.
error due to method of connection. • LC short connection
1. Error due to pressure coil inductance- Preferable when load current is large.
cos φ Remember point
Correction factor =
cos β cos(φ ± β)
For low power factor measurement, a compensating
(–)Ve → lagging load, (+) Ve → Leading load
coil may used in the instrument to compensate for
∴ True power =
cos φ the error caused by power loss in the pressure coil
× Actual wattmeter reading circuit.
cos β cos (φ ± β)
∴ Error = Actual wattmeter reading-true power • Low power factor Electrodynamometer type
= tan φ tanβ × true power wattmeter- These are modification of the
Error= VI sinφ tanβ electrodynamometer type wattmeter for reading of
Compensation for inductance of pressure coil, low power factor wattmeter.
connect a capacitor of value in parallel with Power measurement in poly phase system
L Blondel's Theorem
resistance of coil. C = 0.41
r2

Measurement of power in 3-φ circuit
Two-wattmeter method-
W1 = VL I L cos(300 − φ)
i. For inductive load- W2 = VL IL cos(300 + φ)
W = W1 + W2 = 3VL I L cos φ
Measurement of 3-φ Reactive Power-
Q = 3(W1 − W2 )
Total Reactive Power
= 3VL IL sin φ
 3(W1 − W2 )  −1  Q 
φ = tan −1   = tan  
 W1 + W2  P
 3(W1 − W2 ) 
cos φ = cos  tan −1 
 W1 + W2 
Shunt magnet → I2 → φsh → Iesh
φ Cosφ Relation between Series magnet → I1 → φse → Iese
W1+W2
0º 1 (UPF) W1=W2
30º 0.866 lag W1 = 2W2
60º 0.5 lag W1 = reads, W2= 0
0º < φ < 60º 0.5 < cos φ < 1 W1 = (+)Ve,W2 = (+)Ve
90º 0 W1 = –W2
60º < φ < 90º 0 < cosφ < 0.5 W1 = –W2

W1 = (+)Ve, V→ Supply voltage
W2 = (–) Ve I1→ Current coil or load current
I2 → Pressure coil current
Measurement of Energy-
Eesh→ Eddy emf induced due to φsh
• Energy = Power × time, E = ∫ VI dt
t
Eese→ Eddy emf induced due to φse
0
Iesh→ eddy current due to Eesh
• Unit → Kilowatt hours or watt second or Joule
Iese→ eddy current due to Eese
• Energy meter is used to measure the energy • Meter constant
consumed by load. No.of revolutions N
K= =
• Energy meter kWh P× t
Integrating type instrument K- Energy meter constant,N- Number of revolution
Principle-Induction P- Power in kilo watt, t - time in hour
• Compensation of 1-φ Energy meter
No controlling torque
1. Lag compensation- Through lag coil or shading
• Integrating type instrument- coil
Driving mechanism → Shunt and series coil 2. Low load or friction adjustment- By using shading
loop
Moving system → Al disc
3. Over friction or creeping- By providing holes or
Braking system → Braking magnet slots on rotating disc.
• Pressure coil 4. Over load compensation- By keeping saturable
shunt magnet in series magnet or current coil.
Highly inductive
5. Over Voltage Compensation- By keeping saturable
Connected across the supply shunt magnet in shunt magnet.
6. Temperature Compensation- Making permanent
magnet of "MUTEMP" material
7. Speed Adjustment- Adjusting position of break
magnet
Creeping Error
• Deflection sensitivity of CRO

L.ℓ d .Ed
Electrostatic deflection =
2dEa
Revolution of disc to D Lℓ d
creeping per hr. deflection sensitivity = S = = (m / V)
% Creeping error = × 100 Ed 2dEa
Revolution of disc due
to total load per hour 1 2dEa
deflection factor (G) = = (V / m)
S Lℓ d
Speed adjustment-
Where-
1
Tb (braking torque) ∝ Nφ2m d , N ∝ Ea = Voltage of pre-accelerating anode
d Ed = potential between deflecting plates (Volt)
Position of the permanent magnet from the spindle L = Distance between screen and the centre of the
of the rotating disc changes the disc speed. deflecting plates.
Temperature compensation ℓ d = Length of deflecting plate
Magnets mode up of “MUTEMP” d = Distance between deflecting plate (in meter)
MUTEMP decreases the permeability with the Note- Bandwidth × t = 0.35
r
increases in temperature
Electronic measurements tr → Rise time of signal
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) • Lissajous Pattern-
Electronic voltmeter Frequency measurements
Voltage sensitive element max.no.of intersection of a horizontal
Principle-thermoinic emission f line with lissajous pattern
=
y
Measure RMS. Peak, Average, value of signal. f x max.No. of intersection of a vertical

By different modes using we can also measure line with Lissajous pattern
phase, frequency and time period. fy = Unknown frequency
fx = Known frequency
f y No.of horizontal tangencies
=
fx No.of vertical tangencies
• Lissajous pattern for different phase angles-
Phase angle (φ) Lissajous pattern
between Vx and Vy
0º or 360º
Straight line I and III
0º < φ < 90º

or
270° < φ < 360º
Ellipse I & III

φ = 90º or 270º • Dual slope integrating DVM
Circle V 
1. Vm T1 = Vref .T2 2. Vm =  refN  .X
10 
3. Conversion time = T1 +T2
4. Design criteria for noise rejection T1 = nTS
90º < φ < 180º
10N
or Where- T1= 1st integration time period =
f clk
180º < φ < 270º
Ellipse II & IV 1
TS = Noise signal time period =
50Hz
φ = 180º
10N n
Straight line II & IV =
f clk 50Hz
Where- Vm = Unknown analog voltage signal
Vref = Reference voltage in DVM
Remember point T1 = Ist integration time period
T2 = 2nd integration time period
• Lissajous figure from 0º to 180º → clock wise Quality Factor meter-
• Lissajous figure from 180º to 360º → anti clock
wise
• Lissajous pattern Application-
Used for finding the phase angle difference between • Application of Q-meter
the signal applied to vertical and horizontal plate.
Used for finding the frequency ratio between
vertical and horizontal plates voltage.
• Finding the phase angle φ from given Lissajous
pattern-
a. When lissajous pattern in Ist and 3nd quadrant-
• First possibility-
ωL
Q- factor of a coil-
R
Distributed Capacitance -
C1 − n 2 C 2
Cd = where f 2 = nf1
n2 −1
1 1
• Second possibility 3600 − φ f1 = and f 2 =
2π L(C1 + Cd ) 2π L(C 2 + Cd )
b. When Lissajous pattern is in second and fourth
1
quadrant - • Unknown Inductance- L =
4π f (C + Cd )
2 2
0
x 
i. φ = 180º − sin −1  1  ω0 L 1
 x2  • Unknown Resistance- R = or
Q true ω0 CQ true
ii. Second possibility-
 R 
Q true = Q measured 1 + sh 
 R 
• True value of Q -
 C 
Q true = Q m 1 + d 
 C
ω0 L ω0 L
• Digital volt meters Q true = & Qm = , Q m < QTrue
R R + R sh
1
Resolution of a DVM= Where-
10N Cd = distributed or self capacitance
N = Number of full digit
C = tuning capacitance, R = Resistance of the coil
Sensitivity = Resolution × Range of meter Rsh = Shunt resistance
Percentage error due to insertion resistance in D'Arsonval Galvanometer-
 −R sh 
indication of Q =  ×100%  • Deflecting torque- Td = BINA = GI
 R + R sh 
Percentage error in indication of Q due to • Controlling torque- TC = Kθf
−Cd
Cd = × 100%  NBA   G 
C + Cd • Final steady deflection- θf =  I =  I
 K  K
• Galvanometers
Where-
B = flux density (wb/m2)
I = Current through moving coil(A)
N = No. of turns in coil
Today D'Arsonval/Weston or moving coil type A = ld = Area of coil (m2)
galvanometer is widely used. G = Displacement constant of galvanometer
Transducer
• Strain Gauge- • Thermistors

Negative temperature coefficient
Temperature range-1000C to 3000C
Resistance range – 0.5Ω to 0.75 MΩ
(∆R / R) ∆R / R Thermistors → Thermal + Resistance
Gauge factor (G f ) = =
(∆L / L) ε • Resistance of Thermistor
∆L ∂ρ / ρ  1 1  
ε = strain = G f = 1 + 2γ +
L ε R T1 = R T2 exp  −  
 T1 T2  
LateralStrain −∆D / D
γ = Poisson 's ratio = =
Longitudinalstrain ∆L / L Where-
∂ρ / ρ R T1 = Resistance of thermistor at absolute
When →0
ε temperature T1K
G f = 1 + 2γ R T2 = Resistance of thermistor at absolute
Remember point temperature T2K
For a semiconductor, gauge factor is very high β= A constant depending upon the material of
(more than 100) thermistor

• Thermocouple- Q
• Charge Sensitivity, d = (C / N)
F
E
• Voltage Sensitivity g = (V − m / N)
P
E.M.F. Produced in a thermocouple-
• Output Voltage E 0 = gtp
E = a(∆θ) + b(∆θ) 2
Where-
Where a, b= Constant Q = change, t = thickness of crystal
∆θ = Difference in temperature between the hot E = electric field intensity, P = pressure applied
thermocouple junction and the reference junction ºC Measurement of displacement
Material used for Thermocouple- Potentiometer LVDT Hall transducer
(+)Ve metal (-) Ve metal Temperature Measurement of Temperature
Range Transducer Measurement range
0
Copper Constantan –250ºC to 400ºC (in C)
Iron Constantan –200ºC to +850ºC Resistance thermometer upto 6000C
Platinum Platinum 0 to 1400ºC (RTD)
Rhodium Thermocouple upto 14000C
Rhodium Iridium 0 to 2100ºC Thermistors –1000C to 3000C

Iridium Pyrometer 12000C to 35000C
• LVDT Bimetallic strip Room temp. (270C)
Measurement of Pressure
Low pressure ( ≥ 1kg/cm 2 )

Gauge Pressure range (mm
of Hg)
Pirani gauge 10–1 to 10–3

• Sensitivity of LVDT
Thermocouple vacuum upto 10–2
Output voltage gauge
Sensitivity =
displacement
Mcleod gauge >10–4
• Piezoelectric Transducer- Suitable for dynamic
Thermistor vacuum gauge 2.6×10–3 to 1.3×10–2
pressure or force measurement
Ionization type vacuum 10–3 to 10–8
gauge
Mechanical gauge for low pressure

Bourdon tube Bellow Diaphragms
High pressure- Bridgman gauge.

POWER PLANT
Basic of Power System Very expensive to maintain Less expensive due to local
"A system that deals with the business of store, transmit as they are use and easy maintenance.
carried over long distances
i. Generation
through transmission grid.
ii. Transmission
iii. Distribution of electrical energy Example are- Coal, natural Examples are- geothermal
gas, water, fire-wood. energy, solar energy, wind
• Power System Function -
energy, tidal energy,
biogas energy.
India's power Scenario
Installed capacity -
Sector MW % of Total
Central Sector 94,027 25.2%
1. SMES - (Super conducting magnetic energy store) - State Sector 1,03,617 27.8%
Parts - Private Sector 1,75,050 47%
i. Super conducting coil ii. Cryostat
Total 3,72,694
iii. Cryogenic Refrigerator
• Power Generation -
Energy Store → In form of magnetic energy
2. Compressed Air - High pressure compressed air Sources MW % of Total
stored in large space. Thermal power 2,31,421 62.1%
• Type of generating units - Hydroelectric power 45,699 12.3%
i. Hydro Carbons (oil, coal, natural gas) Nuclear 6,780 1.8%
ii. Water (Hydro power station) Renewable 88,793 23.8%
iii. Nuclear (Fission of Uranium)
Total 3,72,693
iv. Solar v. Wind
vi. Tidal vii. Geothermal • Regional Grids in India -
Five Regional Grids -
1. Northern 2. Eastern
3. North-Eastern 4. Western
5. Southern
• History of power systems in India -
In 1989, Power Grid Corporation of India was
formed.
In 1990, First HVDC bi-pole line was formed.
Difference between conventional and non- In 1998, First 765 KV line was erected.
conventional
• Power generation method -
Conventional Non-conventional Conventional method of power generation
They are exhaustible Non-conventional sources Non-conventional method of power generation.
except Hydro-energy of energy have been • Green Power -
generally identified in the
When power is derived by renewable energy
recent past.
sources.
They are inexhaustible.
Such as -
They cause pollution when Generally these are 1- Hydro
used as they emit smoke pollution free. 2- Solar
and ash.
3- Wind
Their generation and use Low expenditure required. 4- Tidal
involve huge expenditure.
5- Geo thermal
Conventional Power Plant Station 2. Run-off river plants with pondage -
Pondage refers to storage at the plant which makes it
Hydro-Power Plant possible to cope, hour to hour with fluctuations of
India's first hydro project erected in Darjeeling 1897. load through a week or some longer period
depending on size of pondage.
They can serve as base load or peak load plant
depending on flow of stream.
3. Reservoir power plants -
When water is stored in a big reservoir behind a
dam, it is possible to control flow of water.
It can be used as base load or peak load plant as per
requirement.
• Classification according to water head -
Low head` Hydro power plants -
It is created near the dam so no surge tank is
required.
In low head plants, Francis, propeller or Kaplan
turbines are employed.
• Medium head Hydro power plant -
River is usually tapped off to a forebay on one bank
of the river as in low head plant.
From forebay water is led to turbines via penstock.
Forebay also acts as water reservoir and surge tank.
• Power in Hydroelectric power plants - Horizontal shaft Francis, propeller or Kaplan
P = 9.81×10-3 × WQHη kW turbines are used.
• High head Hydro electric power plant -
0.736 WQHη
= WQHη ( kW ) or ( HP ) If high head is available, a steep lateral valley can be
75 75 dammed and a reservoir for storage of water is
W = Specific weight of water kg/m3 ≃ 1000 kg/m3 formed.
Q = rate of flow of water in m3/sec. Surge tank is built just before valve house so that
severity of water hammer effect can be reduced.
H = height of fall and head in m.
Surge tank can also act as temporary reservoir to
η = overall efficiency of operation. meet sudden increase in demand.
• Factors before constructing a plant - • Classification According to type of load -
Capital cost of plant 1. Base load plants -
Capital cost of erecting and maintaining The plants that can take load on the base portion of
transmission line. load curve of power system.
Such plants are of usually large capacity.
Cost of energy generation should be minimum. Since these plants work on nearly constant load so
• Elements of Hydroelectric plants - they operate at high load factor.
Storage Reservoir Dam Forebay Run-off river plants without pondage and reservoir,
Alternator Spillway Intake are used as base load plants.
Valves and gates Trash racks Tail race The unit cost of energy generated by plant should be
low.
Draft tubes Pen stock Surge tank
2. Peak load plants -
Prime mover or water turbines Plants used to supply the peak load of the system
• Classification according to extent of water flow corresponding to top portion of load curve are called
regulation - as peak load plants.
1. Run-off river plants without pondage - Run-off river plants with pondage can be employed
Low capacity & seasonal as peak load plants.
Reservoir plants can be used as peak load plants.
Some Hydro plants are so located that water is taken
Load factor of such plants is low.
from river directly and no pondage or storage is
• Classification of water turbines -
possible. Based on type of flow -
They cannot used as & when desired but only when 1- Axial flow turbines
water is available. 2- Inward radial flow turbines
At such places the water is mainly used for irrigation 3- Tangential or peripheral flow turbines
& power generation is only incidental. 4- Mixed flow - Radial inlet and axial outlet
• Based on action of water- 2. Reaction Type -
1. Impulse Type -
When water pressure combined with its velocity
If entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic
energy in a nozzle and the jet thus formed drives the work on running the turbine.
wheel.
Pelton Wheel Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine Propeller Turbine
Impulse turbine suitable for It is an inward mixed flow It is also a reaction type It is an axial flow reaction
high head and low flow, type of reaction turbine and turbine and has gate and type turbine and has got no
tangential flow is suitable for medium head governing mechanism provision for changing
and medium flow plant. similar to that of Francis runner blade while turbine
Turbine. is in motion.
It has a rotor equipped with They develop power partly In Kaplan turbine water Its efficiency is 92% at full
elliptical buckets along due to velocity of water strike the turbine axially. load.
periphery of turbine. and partly due to difference
in pressure acting on front
and back of runner bucket.
Majority of the pelton Full load efficiency of this Due to high specific
turbines are horizontal shaft type of turbine is about speeds, it is suitable for
type. 92%. low head and large flow
plants.
This turbine is not suitable They can be constructed in Lower cost of runner and
for water head below 200 horizontal and vertical alternator.
m. forms.
It can achieve mechanical This can be designed for Its efficiency is about 90%
efficiency of 90% higher speed than pelton at all loads.
wheel.
Its runner is capable of
reverse operation as a
pump.
• Selection of site for Hydroelectric plants - Ns = Specific speed N = actual speed
Availability of water Water storage Hnet = Net head in metre Pt = Output power in HP
Water head Distance from load center • Head - The ratio of energy to weight is called head.
Effective transportation Land availability U = mgh
Water pollution can cause corrosion of plant Head =
Weight = mg
large catchment area : large reservoir area
• Merits of Hydro power plant - • Type of Head -
1. No fuel is required 1. Gross head (Hg) 2. Net head (Hnet)
2. High reliability and cheapens in operation 3. Frictional or loss head (Hf) H g = H ( net ) + H f
3. Plant can be run up and synchronized faster
4. The load can be varied quickly and rapidly,
For Ideal Hf = 0 For practical Hf ≠ 0
Hg = H(net) H(net) = Hg – Hf
changing load demand can be met.
5. Accurate governing, f = constant • Loss head (Hf) - Mainly friction responsible for
loss.
6. No stand-by losses
7. Plants are robust and have longer life. • Loss is given by two types -
8. Efficiency is not a function of age f LV 2
1. By Darcy weisbach equation - H f =
9. Neat and Clean 2gD
10. Such plants also serve irrigation
• Demerits of Hydro power plant - 4f 'LV 2
2. By fanning's equation - H f =
1. Larger area 2. Firm capacity is low 2gD
3. Construction cost is high Where,
4. Long TL are required as plants are required in hilly f = Darcy Friction Factor f '= Fanning Friction Factor
area L = length of penstock V = Velocity of water
5. Long dry Season may effect power supply D = Diameter of penstock g = Gravity constant.
• Specific Speed - Thermal power plant/Steam power plant
N Pt Overview-
Unit less, quantity Ns = In steam power plant, heat of combustion of fossil
( H net )
1.25
fuels is utilized by boilers to raise steam at high
Where, temperature and pressure.
• Energy Flow diagram -
Chemical Energy 
Combustion
→ Thermal Energy 
Turbine
→ Mechanical Energy 
Generator
→ Electrical Energy
( Coal )
• Schematic of steam power plant -
• Single Line Diagram of thermal power plant -
• Components of steam power plant - • Efficiency of thermal power plant - ηoverall = 29%
1- Boiler —|→ Fire tube boilers
→Water tube boilers →used where large Heat equation of electrical o/p
ηoverall =
Heat equation of coal produced by coal combustion
amount of steam
ηoverall = ηboiler × ηturbine × ηalternator
2. Boiler furnace 3. Condensers
4. Evaporators 5. Feed water heaters • Working of thermal power plant -
It operates on Rankine cycle.
6. Spray ponds 7. Cooling towers coal is burnt in a boiler which converts water to
8. Control room 9. Switch yard steam.
10. Steam turbine 11. Electrostatic precipitator This steam is expanded in a turbine which produces
mechanical power to drive alternator.
12. Super heater and reheater
The steam is then condensed to be fed into boiler
13. Economizer and Air preheater again.
• Fuel and Ash circuit –
↑
Coal Coal and Ash handling Ash

→ 
→ Boiler  
→ 
→ 
→
Storage handling plant plant storage
• Air and Flue Gas Circuit - • Feed water and steam circuit -
Air is drawn from atmosphere by forced draught fan The steam coming out from turbine is condensed
or induced draught fan through air preheater. and extracted from condenser.
Air is heated in preheater by flue gases. This condensate steam is forced to low pressure feed
The flue gases are finally discharged through water heater where its temperature is, raised by heat
chimney. from bled steam.
In boiler water is converted to high pressure steam • Cooling water circuit -
which is wet. Cooling water is supplied from a natural source such
as river, canal, sea or cooling tower through screens
This wet steam is superheated and then supplied to to remove matter that might choke condenser tubes.
main valve to the turbine. • Fuels used -
Fuels may be classified as solid, liquid and gases
After coming out of turbine, steam is condensed into
and as natural or prepared.
feed water. The fuels used generally are coal, oil and gas.
• Classification of coal -
Peat Lignite Sub Bituminous Semi- Semi- Super
bituminous coal Bituminous anthracite anthracite
coal coal coal coal
• Enthalpy of • 30-50% • Volatile • Low • Volatile • Enthalpy - • Very hard
combustion = moisture matter 35- moisture matter - 33500- with a shiny
3000 kj/kg and 40% 45% content 14%-22% 34750 kj/kg black
• High moisture carbon • Enthalpy • Enthalpy - • Enthalpy - • Highest surface.
content =60- • Enthalpy 18000-23000 23000-34000 27000-35000 Carbon
90% = 13,800- kj/kg kj/kg kj/kg content and
17600 kj/kg highest
colorific
value
Nuclear Power Plant The efficiency of nuclear plant is high at high load
• Overview :- factors and hence it is used as base load plant.
Main advantage is the huge amount of energy that
can be released by small amount of active material. Principle - Nuclear reactor are working on principle
Nuclear power is cheapest non-hydroelectric power of Nuclear fission.
in India.
• Diagram of Nuclear power plant :-
• Elements of a nuclear power plant :- They may be diluted for better control of reaction.
1. Nuclear Reactor - As Uranium gets oxidized easily, uranium rods are
The main function is to control the Emission and clad with Aluminum stainless steel or zirconium.
absorption of neutrons. It is desirable to use core as cubical or cylindrical
2. Reactor Core :- than spherical.
It contains a number of fuel rods made of fissile 3. Moderator -
material. Placed near fuel rod.
Slow down the speed of neutron → Neutron speed 5. Liquid metal cooled reactors -
slower required to produced nuclear fission. Fuel - Uranium
Example - Graphite, Heavy water (D2O), Beryllium Sodium is circulated through the reactor core and an
4. Control Rods - intermediate heat exchanger where heat from
Controlling the rate of fission of U235. Sodium (Na) is transferred to heat exchanger for
generation of steam.
These are made of Boron, Cadmium or Hafnium.
Coolant → Liquid sodium.
Chain reaction can be controlled by removing fuel
6. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) -
rods or by introducing neutron absorbing material
Small reactor in which required quantity of enriched
5. Coolant:- uranium or plutonium is kept without a moderator.
It is a medium through which the heat generated in Fuel - Thorium (232)
the reactor is transferred to heat exchanger for Coolant - Liquid Sodium
further utilization in power generation. Moderator - No moderator required.
Sometime to takes up heat and gets converted to The efficiency obtained by liquid sodium is about
steam to drive steam turbine. 42% whereas with other coolant it is 28%.
It keeps the interior temperature of reactor
controlled.
Air, He, H2, CO2 among gases, light and heavy
water among liquids.
Molten Na and Li among metals are used as
coolants.
6. Reflector
A neutron reflector is placed around core which
• Plutonium - 239 Formation -
prevents leakage of neutrons from core.
Reflected neutrons help in continuing the chain
reaction.
7 Thermal shielding
Protects against deadly α, β and γ radiations.
• Multiplication Factor • Selection of plant site
Neutrons produced in one generation Availability of water supply
K=
Neutrons produced in preceding generation Accessibility Type of land
K < 1 : Chain reaction stops (Sub-critical) Distance from populated areas.
K > 1 : Chain reaction grows (Super critical) Transportation Facilities
K = 1 : Chain reaction is steady (Critical Stage) Nearness to load center
ideal (power constant) Availability of space for disposal of waste
• Types of Reactor Used - • Advantages
1. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) - These plants can be constructed near load centers
Fuel = enriched uranium oxide due to negligible cost of transportation.
Most economical for large MVA rating.
Coolant & moderator = Ordinary water
Operating cost is very low.
2. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) -
It is a thermal reactor, using enriched uranium oxide • Disadvantages :-
clad in zircalloy as fuel. Initial cost of plants is very high.
Fission materials produce radioactive waste which
Water under pressure is used as coolant and
causes radioactive pollution.
moderator.
Not suitable for varying loads.
3. Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGCR) -
Fuel used is expensive and difficult to recover.
Fuel - Uranium (235)
maintenance charges are high.
Coolant - CO2
Cooling water requirement of a nuclear power plant
Moderator - Graphite are very heavy so cooling towers are larger and
4. CANDU (Canadian Deuterium Uranium) - costlier.
Fuel - Natural Uranium • Efficiency -
Moderator - D2O (Heavy Water) Overall efficiency of nuclear power plant = 30 to
Coolant - D2O 40%
Diesel Power Plant In turbine blading, working gas expands & heat
• Uses of Diesel Electric Station - energy is first converted to kinetic energy and then
to work of turbine shaft reaction.
Stand by plant Peak load plant
Gas turbine in simple mode have an efficiency of
Emergency plant Mobile plant
32% to 38%.
Supply units for Cinemas, Hospitals etc.
• Schematic -
• Components of Diesel Electric -
Engine Fuel Supply System
Engine Air Intake System
Engine Lubrication System
Engine Exhaust System Engine Cooling System
Diesel Engine Engine Starting System
AC or DC generators
• Selection of site -
Near to load center Fuel transportation
Local condition Noise pollution • Fuels used -
• Advantage - Natural gas (methane) is generally used which has
Simple in design point of view. high calorific value.
Designed for portable use • Selection of site -
Initial cost is less than other types of power station Distance from load center
Thermal efficiency of diesel is quite higher than Availability of land
coal. Availability of fuel
It requires less operating staff. Availability of transportation facilities
The overall cost is much less than that of steam • Merits -
power station of same capacity. Simplicity of design & installation
• Disadvantage - High reliability
The Cost of diesel is very high compared to coal. Compactness Low initial cost
Designed for small power requirement No standby losses
Cost of lubricant is high • Demerits -
Maintenances charges are generally high Low net output Low Efficiency Noisy
The plant doesn't work satisfactorily under overload operation
condition for a longer period. Non Conventional Energy resources
Gas Turbine Plants Solar Energy
Overview -
• Solar cell:-
Gas turbine is used as prime mover for electrical
A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an
energy generation.
electrical device that converts the energy of light
In thermal power plant, products of combustion are directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
used to generate steam which is expanded in prime
Earth Receives Energy annually from the sun = 1.6
mover but in Gas Turbine power plant gas is directly
× 1018 kWh
expanded in prime mover.
• Operation of a photovoltaic cell-
• Building Block of a Solar Panel -

• Solar Constant - Remember point-
The amount of energy that normally falls on a unit
area (1 m2) of the Earth's atmospheric per second Band gap energy for Silicon is 1.12 eV, meaning that
when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun. the majority of infrared range cannot produce
The value of the solar constant = 1367 W/m2 or 1.36 electricity.
kW/m2 • Thin Film - Thin Film technologies reduce the
• Solar Energy from the Sun - amount of material required in creating the active
material of solar cell.
• Thin Film Solar Cell -
Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
Copper indium gallium (CIGS)
• Relation between band gap and maximum Amorphous silicon (A-Si)
efficiency - • Cost -
Bifacial > Mono crystalline ≥ poly crystalline
> Thin Film
• Efficiency
Bifacial > Mono crystalline > Poly crystalline
> Thin Film
• Efficiency - • Life Span -
The Shockley quisser limit for the theoretical Bifacial = Mono crystalline ≥ Poly crystalline
maximum efficiency of a solar cell. Semiconductor > Thin Film
with band gap between 1 and 1.5 ev, or near infrared • Application -
light, have the greatest potential to form an efficient Rural Electrification
cell. Solar Lamps and lighting
Efficiency limit can be exceeded → by multi Agricultural Support
junction solar module. Solar water heaters.
Pout Isc × Voc × F.F. I Solar cell power plant-
η% = = Here, sc = J s
Pin Pin × A A • Overview-
Sun radiates energy of about 3.5×1023 kW into
Js = current density, A = area, F.F. = Fill Factor space and 2×1014 kW energy reaches earth.
• I-V & P-V Characteristics - Even, if 90% of energy is lost in reflection,
refraction & absorption in outer layers of
atmosphere then energy that can be harnessed is
2×1023 kW.
This is equivalent to burning 17 million tons of
coal.
• Types of solar power plant -
i. ON Grid Solar System - Grid Export + Utilize
I m × Vm
Pm = I m × Vm , Fill Factor = ≤1 ii. OFF Grid Solar System - Backup + Utilize
Isc × Voc iii. Hybrid Solar System - ON grid + Off grid
Pm = Isc × v oc × F.F. • Accessories and Diagram of solar power plant -
Accessories -
• Shadow Effects on Configuration of Solar Cell- Solar panel array
Shadow Effects is more dominant in series Charge controller
configuration than parallel configuration. Battery backup bank
• Protect the Solar Panel- Bypass diodes are used to DC/AC inverter
reduce the impact of shadowing effect and to protect Diagram
the Solar panel.
• Materials -
Mono crystalline Silicon
Polycrystalline Silicon
Amorphous Silicon
Cadmium telluride
Bifacial Solar cells
Copper indium selenide/ Sulfide
• Advantage - • Efficiency -
Renewable Energy Source Overall Efficiency = 15 - 20%
Reduce Electricity Bills • Solar Energy Collectors- The sun-radiated
Diverse Applications Solar Energy on the surface of the earth on a normal
Low maintenance costs sunny day is approximately = 1 kW/m2
Technology Development • Electromagnetic radiation
Infrared
• Disadvantage -
Visible
Solar Energy Storage is expensive cost Ultraviolet
Weather dependent • Sun light may be recorded
Cannot be used at night Sunshine Recorder
Uses a lot of area Pyranometer
Low energy conversion rate Pyrheliometer
• Types of solar collectors -
• Solar thermal power plant- • Heliostats -

According to the type of Solar Radiation Heliostats reflect the direct solar radiation into a
Concentration, solar thermal power plants are receiver, centrally positioned on a tower.
subdivided into - Heliostats are reflecting surfaces provided with a
1. Concentrating systems two axis tracking system.
2. Non-concentrating systems • Drawbacks -
• Concentrating system Concepts - Energy density per unit area is very low
Solar tower power plants Available only for parts of a day
Dish/stirling systems Cloudy and hazy atmospheric conditions largely
Parabolic trough and Fresnel trough power plants reduce the energy received
• Schematic and working - A means to store energy is required.
Large parabolic collectors are employed as solar Remember point-
collector.
Typical efficiency of a solar cell is - 15%
Solar Energy collected is used to heat a fluid. This
Solar cell is a type of — photo voltaic device
heat is transferred to feed water which is converted
Solar energy reached on earth surface per day =
to steam.
120 × 1015 W
The steam is used to run a turbine which is coupled
Demands of solar energy in all over world per year
to a generator which generates electric power.
= 5%
90% solar cell made of ⇒ Silicon
Shape of monocrytalline — (Octagonal)
A by pass diode is connected across the solar cell
for protection
1 kW peak power required area of photo voltaic

cell= 8 m2

Geothermal Energy
Resource of Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Energy reservoirs are liquid dominated
and steam dominated. Some are only hot rocks
where there is no water.
• Geothermal Sources -
1. Hydrothermal systems 2. Geopressured systems
3. Petrothermal systems
1. Hydrothermal system -
• Application of Geothermal Energy -
Water is heated by the hot rocks. These can be
vapour - dominated and liquid dominated systems.
(A) Vapour Dominated System -
Principle - Rankine cycle. Space heating Water heating
Crop drying Washing
Warming of fish pounds
(B) Liquid- dominated systems – • Thermodynamic Analysis of Geothermal
Resources -
• The important geothermal systems are -
Hot dry rock Hot aquifer.
2. Geopressured Systems
Hot water or brine 160 ºC temperature • Efficiency - 7 - 10%
2400 to 9100 m depth 1000 bar pressure Magneto-Hydrodynamics (MHD)
Not economical due to low temperature and great Magneto − Hydrodynamic Electricity
depth. Direct heat 
Based on Faraday law
→
Conversion
3. Petrothermal Systems
The electrical power is proportional to magnetic flux
Hot dry rock at 150º to 298 ºC near the earth's
density (B) and gas velocity (v) and gas conductivity
surface.
(σ).
This energy is called petro thermal energy and
accounts. It is 85% of Geothermal Sources. • MHD power generation
• Principle of operation -
Various types of cycles have been suggested for
geothermal power generation.
Only two important ones, which are being used in
practice.
1.
2.
Indirect Condensing Cycle
Direct Non-Condensing Cycle
(
F = q v×B )
Simplest Cheapest B = Magnetic flux density (Wb/m2)
And most widely used geothermal cycle. V = Gas Velocity (m/S)
• Combined operation of Geothermal plant - E = E.M.F., RL = External load
i. Base load plant which is characterized by high fixed
cost and low variable cost.
ii. Peak load plant which is characterized by low fixed
cost and high variable cost.
• Vapour-dominated power plant –
Principle→ Rankine cycle • Design problems -
These systems are most suitable for electricity Gas velocity - P ∝v2 , v = 103 m/s
generation with lowest cost and the least number of Magnetic flux density - P ∝ B
serious problem. Gas Conductivity - σ = 10 to 100 mho/m.
• Dry Steam Increasing the Gas Conductivity → The best seeding
35 bar 200ºC metal is Cesium

• MHD Duct - The main difficulty encrusted in the • Accessories of Fuel Cells -
design of MHD power generator is finding suitable Anode Cathode
material of the construction for the duct. Electrolyte Container
• Principle of operation of MHD generator - Separator sealings fuel supply Oxidant supply
The basic principle of operation is based on • Type of fuel cells - Fuel cell classification can be
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. based on-
The study of the dynamics of an electrically Fuel and oxidant combination
conducting fluid interacting with a magnetic field, is Direct fuel or indirect fuel
called Magneto Hydro dynamics. Electrolyte Temperature
In this method gases at about 2500ºC are passed Power ratings Application
through the MHD duct across which a strong • Applications of Fuel Cells -
magnetic field has been applied. Central power generation Cogeneration plants
Since the gases are hot, and partly ionized they form Automotive vehicles Domestic power units
an electrically conducting conductor moving in the Special applications.
magnetic field. An emf (DC) is induced which can
• Advantages-
be collected at suitable electrodes.
No moving part and operation of fuel is noiseless.
• Limitations of MHD Systems -
High efficiency
• Several factors can reduce efficiency -
• Efficiency-40%
Dissipation of energy in internal resistance of
ionised gas. Thermo electrical and Thermionic
Space charge barrier at electrode surface. conversions
Hall effect losses resulting in current induction in • Principle- Seebeck effect
flow direction. • Thermal energy→ Electrical energy
The hall effect causes a voltage gradient in direction
perpendicular to applied magnetic field and current
flow. Hall effect is more in seeded combustion gases.
• Advantages -
MHD generator can take better advantage than other
heat engines of high temperature in the combustion T1 > T2 E = α∆θ
of fossil fuel.
∆θ = difference between hot and cold junctions.
MHD is very good for control power generation and
may lead to design output of 1000 MW. α = Seebeck coefficient
Large amount of power can be generated. • Thermoelectric power generator -
It is very reliable and robust without moving part.
The plant is very compact.
The operating cost will be lower.
• Open cycle MHD power generation system -
Combustion Chamber Nozzle
MHD Duct Pre heater •
Thermoelectric Effects- Thermoelectric effects
Seed recovery unit Hot gas involve interchange between thermal energy and
electrical energy -
• Closed cycle MHD power generation system -
• These are four thermoelectric effects -
Combustion and heater MHD Generator
Seebeck effect Peltier effect
Compressor
Thomson effect Joule effect
Fuel Cells • Selection of Materials for thermoelectric
A fuel cells in an electrochemical device that Generation -
converts chemical energy into electricity and heat The thermal conductivity of thermoelectric element
without combustion. should be as low as possible.
Fuel cell systems generally operate on pure The mobility of current carries should be as high as
Hydrogen and air to produce electricity with water possible.
and heat as the bi-products. One element should be purely p-type and the other
• Difference between fuel cells and battery - n-type the semiconductor should have low ionization
A fuel cell requires continuous supply of a fuel and energy and narrow forbidden band.
oxidant to produce D.C. electric power and in fuel The thermo elements should have variable impurity
cells recharging is not required while battery stores content so the electron concentration should depend
electrical changes after discharge it needs charging. upon the operating temperature.
• Application of thermoelectric generators - • Principle of Power -
a. Cascading operation Wind mills converts the kinetic energy of wind into
b. Application - mechanical energy.
i. These are very simple in construction The total power of wind stream is equal to the time
ii. Very compact 1
rate of kinetic energy. , KE = mv 2
iii. Absence of moving part 2
iv. Suitable for remote and space application amount of air passing in unit time m = ρAV
v. A promising systems for waste heat recovery. ρ = density of air particles
• Thermionic convertors - A = Area, V = Velocity of wind
Electrical In atmosphere condition where the density of air is
Heat Energy  
thermionic emission Effect
→ 1.2014 kg/m3 is given as power developed
Energy
= 13.14 ×10−6 AV 3 kW
Working fluid in place
Electron Acts as → 1 1
of a vapour or gas KE = Aρv3 Total power (p) = Aρv3
2 2
The energy required to extract an electron from the
metal is known as work function and expressed in 1 πD 2
Pi = ρπD 2 v 3 A=
electron- volt. 8 4
The work function depends upon the nature of metal • Graph b/w power and wind speed -
and its surface condition.
Max Efficiency = 40%

• Limitations - • Efficiency -
Actual Efficiency = 35%
Low thermal efficiency.
Wind Energy 1 ρDVi3
• Torque of wind mill - T = η
Wind carries enormous quantity of energy. Wind 8 N
power has been used for centuries to soil vessels, N = Speed of wheel η = Efficiency
pump water, grinding gain. Winds are caused by
solar heating of atmosphere. • Some important terms related to wind power
plant -
This Source of power is non-steady & unreliable.
"The extraction of energy from wind depends on two
There are wide variation in speed & direction of
force."
winds.
• Life Force - It act perpendicular to the direction of
air flow.
• Drag Force - It act in the direction of air flow. (Left
forces are produced by the change in velocity of air
flow over either side of lifting surface.)
3. Pitch Angle - Angle between the direction of wind
and perpendicular to plane of blades.
4. Tip Speed Ratio - The ratio of the speed of rotor
blades tips to the speed of wind is called tip speed
ratio.
Speed of rotor tip
Tip speed ratio =
Speed of wind
5. Solidity - The ratio of projected area of rotor to the
swept area of rotor is known on solidity of rotor.
• Components of wind turbine – Nb
1. Rotor 2. Blades 3. Brake S=
πd
4. Gear box 5. Generator 6. Controller
7. Nacelle 8. Tower 9. Yaw motor N = No. of blades
10. Wind vane 11. Yaw Drive 12. Anemometer b = average breadth of blade
13. Low speed shaft 14. High speed shaft d = diameter of circle described by a blade
6. Hub - Central solid part of wheel. • Biomass Sources -
7. Propeller - Revolving shaft with blade. Biomass is all biologically - produced matter based
8. Needle - Assembly consist of wind turbine gears, in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
bearing generator etc. mounted in a housing. Biomass energy is derived from six distinct
9. Yaw control - Control of orienting the axis of wind energy sources.
turbine 1. Garbage 2. Wood
• Types of wind power plants - Basically, the wind 3. Plants 4. Waste
mills are two types- 5. Land Fill Gases 6. Alcohol Fuels
i. In horizontal axis wind mills- The axis of rotation Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
of such m/c is parallel to the direction of wind. A process called Ocean Thermal Energy conversion
ii. Vertical axis wind mills- Vertical axis wind mills uses the Ocean's natural thermal gradient.
are also known as cross-wind axis m/c here the axis The fact that the Ocean's layers of water have
of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of wind. different temperature to drive a power producing
• Type of wind turbine-Generation units - cycle.
1. Horizontal Axis wind turbine generator (HAWT) • Ideal Energy Conversion -
The propeller are two types 26ºC → warm, sea waters , 4ºC → cold sea waters
i. Up wind type ii. Down wind type
2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator (WAWT)
a. Savonius Rotor - η = 15%
b. Darrieus Rotor - η = 35%
• Site selection -
Mainly four types of sites are considered as suitable-
a. Plane land sites b. Hill top sites
c. Sea shores sites d. Off share shallow water side
P = kV 3 V ∝ H1/ 7 • Application of OTEC -
H = height of tower (i) Generate Electricity (ii) Desalinate water
useful for operating range of speed = 4 m/s to 30 m/s Wave and Tidal Energy
useful for operating range of height = 50 to 250 m Tidal power also called tidal energy, is a form of
• Merits – hydro power that converts the energy of tides into
i. It is non- renewable ii. Pollution free useful forms of power - mainly electricity.
• Demerits - In one year there are approximately 705 full tidal
i. This source of power is non-steady and unreliable. cycles.
There are wide variation in the speed and direction • Generation of tidal energy -
of winds. Tidal power is taken from the Earth's Oceanic, tidal
ii. Favourable winds are available only in few forces are periodic variations in gravitational
geographical locations. attraction exerted by celestial bodies. "A tidal
iii. Wind forms requires flat, vacant land and free from generator converts the energy of tidal flows into
forest. electricity.
iv. There is a fluctuation in electricity power depending • Generating Methods - Tidal power can be
on fluctuating wind speed. classified into three generating methods-
1. Tidal stream generator (TSG) - Tidal stream
v. Noise problem.
generator make use of the kinetic energy of moving
Biomass Energy water to power turbines, in a similar way to wind
• Biomass and its conversion turbines.
Biomass - Biomass is biological material living, or
recently living organisms, most often referring to
plants or plants derived material.
As a renewable energy, biomass can either be used
directly, or indirectly - once or converted into
another type of energy product such as bio fuel.
"Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways.
Thermal conversion
Chemical conversion
Biochemical conversion

2. Tidal Barrage-Tidal barrages make use of the • Peak load
potential energy in the difference in height (or head) Quick starting
between high and low tides. Power on demand
Tidal Barrage utilize potential energy More expensive
Tidal Barrages are typically dams built across an • Load characteristics -
estuary or bay.
1. Connected load - Sum of continuous power rating
Consist of turbines, sluice gates, embankments and
of all loads connected in power system. - load can be
ship locks.
ON or OFF.
• Two types - 2. Maximum demand - Peak of load curve over the
(a) Single basin system (b) Double basin system entire duration.
3. Dynamic Tidal Power - Dynamic tidal power is an
untried but promising technology that would exploit
an interaction between potential and kinetic energies
in tidal flows.
• Tidal power issues -
1. Ecological 2. Corrosion
• Challenges specific to wave energy - 3. Minimum Demand :- Lowest point on load curve
i. High cost ii. Variable energy supply represents minimum demand.
iii. Limited locations iv. Design Bottlenecks 4. Demand Factor -
v. Effect on marine life vi. Technology Development Maximum demand
vii. Requirement of High strength device Demand factor =
Total connected load
• Turbines for Tidal power -
Demand Factor < 1
Kaplan turbine Propeller type turbine
Bulb type turbine 5. Average load/ Demand –
Gen.Units (kWh) Per day
Economics of power generation Daily Avg. load =
24 hours
• To decide type and rating of generating power
station we can consider following terms. Gen. Units (kWh) per month
Monthly Avg. load =
1. Load 2. Connected load 30 × 24 hours
3. Demand (4) Maximum Demand (MD) or peak load Gen. Units (kWh) per year
Yearly Avg. load =
5. Load curve/chronological curve :- 365 × 24 hours
It is similar to Hydrograph 6. Load Factor -
It is drawn between power demand and time Actual load Average demand
Load factor = =
• Type of load curve - Full load Maximum demand
i. Daily load curve ii. Monthly load curve Note -
iii. Yearly load curve System capacity > max demand
Note - Load curve gives information about maximum Load factor max ↑ Capacity ↑ Cost ↑
demand, minimum demand and average demand. 7. Plant Utilization Factor (PUF) -
(6) Load duration curve -
Maximum Demand
It is similar to flow duration curve PUF =
Plant Capacity
It is obtain by load curve
It is plotted between descending order load and time. Capacity > Max demand
(7) Mass Curve - It is drawn between energy and load. So that max load can be easily supplied
• Important point - It tells how well the capacity of a plant gets utilized.
Generating station capacity can be determined by 8. Diversity Factor -
load curve and load duration curve. Sum of individual max. demand
Diversity Factor =
• Types of power plants - Maximum demand
Base load plants Peak load plants - It shows how divide the demand is throughout the
Nuclear power plant Gas plant day.
Coal power plant Diesel power plant Demand should be divided so that capacity required
Hydro electric power plant Pump storage Hydro is less.
Solar power plant power plant Demand factor should be as high as possible.
Wind power plant • It is always greater than one.
9. Plant Use Factor- 10. Reserve capacity -
Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum
Power generated demand
=
Maxmium power that could be generater 11. Plant capacity factor -
Station output (kWh) Average demand
= Capacity Factor =
Plant capacity × hours of use Plant capacity
If plant was running at full capacity throughout Plant Capacity Factor <1
service hours then we get maximum power it could
generate. Capacity Factor = Load Factor × Utilization Factor
M.D. (kW) Average (kW) Energy generated (kWh)

Utilization Factor = = Capacity Factor = Use Factor =
Capacity (kW) Capacity (kW) Capacity×Service hours
• So,
Cold reserve - It is defined as the reserve generating
capacity is available for service but is not in Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Semi Fixed + Running Cost
operation. E = a + b kW + c kWh
• Hot Reserve - It is defined as the reserve generating
a, b, c → Constant
capacity which is available in operation but is not in
Note - Fixed Cost and Semi Fixed Cost do not depend on
service.
energy output that is why it is called standing cost.
• Spinning Reserve - It is defines as the generating • Depreciation - Decrease in value of an assets due to
capacity which is connected to bus and is ready to use.
take load. • Salvage or scrap - It is the value of an assets after it
Cost of Electrical Energy has come to the end of it is useful life.
1. Fixed cost • Determination of depreciation cost - Calculate by
2. Semi fixed cost 3 method.
3. Running or operating cost 1. Straight line method
1. Fixed cost - Fixed cost does not depend on 2. Diminishing value or declining balance method.
maximum demand and energy output. 3. Sinking fund method.
a. Straight line method -
(i) High grade officer salary
(ii) Interest on the capital cost of land P– S
Annual depreciation value =
(iii) Cost of equipment and installation cost n
2. Semi fixed cost - Where, P = Capital cost

Depend → Maximum demand n = No. of useful life period in year
S = Salvage or scrap value
Not depend → Energy output
(i) Interest of capital investment of machine and
building.
(ii) Salary of management and officer/staff
(iii) Depreciation cost of machine and buildings.
3. Running cost/operating cost -
Depend on → Maximum demand and Energy output
i. Fuel cost
ii. Maintenance cost 2. Diminishing Value or Declining balance method -
1
iii. Operating cost S n
Salvage Value ( S ) = P (1 − x )
n
x = 1−  
iv. Salary of running cost P
  S  1n  It is also known as Hopkinson demand tariff.
Depreciation Value = px = P 1 −   
  P  
Where,
P = Capital Cost S = Salvage Value z = ax + by
n = Useful life in year, x = Annual depreciation rate Total tariff = Tariff on maximum demand + Tariff
3. Sinking fund method - on running charge
  5. Maximum demand tariff - Separately connected a
r
Sinking Fund (q) = ( p − s )   maximum demand meter.
 (1 + r ) − 1
n
Maximum demand tariff = Two part tariff +

 (1 + r )n − 1 Maximum demand meter
Total Amount/sum = q   6. Power factor tariff - It is depend on load power
 r 
factor of consumer.
Cost of replacement = p – s,
P↑
r = Rate of depreciation ↑ c os θ =
VI
Tariff • Types -
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to i. kVA maximum demand tariff
consumer is known as the tariff. ii. kWh & kVAR tariff
1 kWh = 1 Unit = 1 BOT = 3.6 ×106 Joule iii. Average power factor tariff/sliding scale tariff
7. Three part tariff -
• Types of tariff -
It is also known as Doherty Rate tariff.
1. Simple or Uniform rate tariff - This type of tariff
Most accurate tariff.
does not depend on types of load.
It is maximum uses.
It means tariff is fixed for all types of load
z = ax + by + c
(industrial load, domestic load, commercial load).
• Disadvantage - High Unit Cost Total charges divided into 3 part.
2. Flat rate tariff - i. Fixed charge
It is depend on types of load it means different ii. Semi fixed charge
charges on different types of load. iii. Running or operating charge
8. Seasonal Rate Tariff - Tariff will vary according to
z = ax E.g. -
season i.e.
→ light-fan load-5 Rs/unit
Load— | Peak load time → High tariff
→ power load/industrial load - 10 Rs/unit
Off load time → Low tariff
• Advantage - Low cost of electricity.
9. Time of Day (TOD) tariff -
• Disadvantage - Two different energy meter uses.
Also know as -
3. Block Rate Tariff - (i) Time of usage (TOU)
Different types of charges on a specified unit block. (ii) Season time of day (STOD)
Tariff reduces on succeeding block of energy.
• General Tariff form - z = ax + by + c
E.g -
Where,
1st block 2nd block 3rd block
z = total amount of bill for period taken
30 unit 30 unit 30 unit
5Rs/unit 4 Rs/unit 3Rs/unit x = Maximum demand in kW
y = energy consumed in kWh during period
z = b1 y1 + b 2 y 2 + b 3 y3
a = Rate/kW of maximum demand
4. Two Part Tariff - b = Energy rate/kWh
It is use for big electricity consumer. c = Constant amount of charge

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
OF ELECTRICAL POWER
Power System • Relation between transmitted voltage and power
loss in transmission line
P 2ρℓ P 2 ρℓ 2
W= Volume(v) =
V 2 cos 2φ A V 2 cos 2φ W
W = Power loss, P = I/P power,
v = volume of conductor, V = Voltage,
Remember point ℓ = length of conductor, A = Area of conductor,
• Conductor efficiency - The ratio of the volume of
1200 kV transmission line is being built between wire required in a given system to the volume of
Bina (MP) and Nashik. wire in a DC two wire system is called the conductor
• DC Transmission voltage in India - efficiency.
HVDC - 500 kV • Type of transmission system and comparison of cost
HVDC is not used when the distance is less than 500 of conductor for different type of supply system
km. 4P 2ρℓ 2
K=
Vm2 W
DC two wire with one conductor earth K
HVDC DC two conductor with mid point 0.25K

earth
DC three conductor method 0.3125K
• Feeder - These are the conductors that connect the
1-φ,2-conductor with 2K/cos2φ
substation to the area in which the supply is to be 1-φ system one conductor earth
given. There is no tapping in the feeder and it is 1-φ,2-conductor with 0.5K/cos2φ
design on the basis of high current carrying capacity. mid point earth
• Distributor - The conductor that in which a lot of 1-φ,3-conductor method 0.625K/cos2φ
tapping is taken to supply to the consumer. It is 2- φ system 2 φ, 4-conductor 1.457K/ cos2φ
design on the basis of voltage drop. AC method
• Service mains - The conductor that connects the 2 φ , 3-conductor method 0.5K/cos2φ
distributor to the consumer terminal. Service mains 3- φ system 3 −φ , 3-conductor 0.5K/cos2φ
should always be made from cable because the cable methods
provide 82% protection against transient over 3 −φ ,4- conductor 0.583K/cos2φ
voltage. methods
• Voltage range in power system - Remember point
Low voltage (L.V) 250 V
In 1-φ 2-wire midpoint earthed, 2-φ 3-wire and 3-φ
Medium voltage (M.V) 650 V 3-wire system the total volume of conductor is same.
High Voltage (H.V) 11kV - 33 kV In 1-φ 2-wire midpoint earthed system the current in
Extra high voltage (E.H.V) 66kV, 132kV, 220kV the one conductor becomes very high and in 2-φ 4-
Ultra high voltage (U.H.V) 400 kV,765kV above wire system number of conductor is more. So it is
• Permissible change in voltage level - not used.
Transmission is generally 3-φ 3-wire Delta
Voltage level Permissible
connection system.
change in voltage
In 3-wire DC system area of return wire (neutral
Low voltage (upto 250V) ± 6% 1
Medium voltage (upto 650 V) ± 6% wire) = area of main wire.
2
High voltage (upto 33 kV) ± 6% to 9% In 2-φ 3-wire system area of return wire (neutral
Extra high voltage (above 33 kV) ± 12.5% wire) = 2 area of main wire.
Permissible change in frequency ± 3%. Underground system is leading power factor system.

• Comparison between overhead & underground Double wood pole 80 m Upto 66
system - a. A-Type wood pole kV
Basis of Overhead system Under- b. H-Type wood pole 150 m Upto 25-30
comparison ground 132 kV
system Steel pole Upto 11
a. Tubular steel pole 100 m kV
Initial cost Low High
b. Solid steel pole Upto 33
Highest AC-765 kV 132 kV 150 m
i. Single solid steel kV
Working DC-800 kV pole 40
voltage ii. Double solid steel 200 m Upto 66
Maintenance High Low pole kV
cost c. Lattic steel pole 150 m Upto 11
Frequency of More Less kV
fault Cement concrete
Voltage drop High because L Low because pole
effective C effective a. PCC 100 m Upto 11 50-60
kV
Fault location & Easy Difficult
b. RCC 100 m Upto 11
repairing
kV
Charging Less charging More Tower
current current charging a. Narrow base tower (200-500) m Above
current (2×2) m 66 kV 100
Interference Effected Not Effected b. Broad base tower (300-1000) Above
with m 66 kV
(5 × 5) m
communication
Remember point
km kVA
• Transmission voltage in kV = 5.5 + or
1.61 150 Kerosene oil is poured into the base of the wood
pole to protect against termites.
km kW
= 5.5 + 1
1.61 100 of the length of a pole is underground.
6
Usually the transmission voltage is taken as 625
Maximum resistance of tower is 1.5 Ω to 2Ω.
volt/km but it can range from 400 volt/km to 900
volt/km. The danger plate is placed at a height of 2.5 meters
from the ground.
• Kelvin's law -
Barbed wire is provided at a height of 2.5 m from
K the ground. Barbed wire is wrapped on a plate at a
Total annual cost (C) = K1a + 2
a height of about 2.5 m from the ground for at least
K2 one meter.
Minimum size of wire (a) = • Insulator -
K1
Name of insulator Using voltage Used
Pin type insulator (11-33 kV) Intermediate pole
on straight run
Suspension type (33-800 kV) generally used with
insulator steel towers
Strain insulator (33-800 kV) At head ends of
line or corner or
• Modified statement of Kelvin's law - sharp curve.
K Shackle insulator Below 650 V Low voltage
Total annual cost (c) = K 0 + K1a + 2 distribution lines
a
• Support - Post insulator Both low and Substation
high voltage
Name of Pole Span Using Average Egg or stay Distribution Stay wire
life in insulator voltage
years
Reel insulator 250 V-1000 V Providing spacing
Single wood pole 60 m Upto 22 b/w conductor of
kV L.T. lines.

Remember point For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is
10.
Every insulator disc is design for 11 kV.
• Distance and transmission voltage -
Line voltage
No of disc insulator = Distance in km Transmission voltage
3 × Disc voltage (11 kV) in kV
• Failure of insulator (15 - 30) km 11 kV
i. Flashover voltage - The voltage at which the air
(30 - 60) km 33 kV
around insulator breaks down and flashover takes place
shorting the insulator is called flash over voltage. (60 - 100) km 66 kV
ii. Puncture voltage - The voltage at which the (100 - 200) km 132 kV
insulator breaks down and current flows through the
(200 - 300) km 220 kV
inside of insulator is called puncture voltage.
(300 - 400) km 400 kV
Puncture voltage
Factor of safety = >1 More than 400 km 765 kV
Flash over voltage
Clearance Line voltage (kV)
(M) 0.4 kV 11 kV 33 kV 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV 400 kV 765 kV
Clearance 5.8 m or 5.8 m or 6.1 m or 6.1 m or 6.1 m or 7 m or 8.4 m or 12 m or
across street 19 F 19 F 20 F 20 F 20 F 23 F 28 F 39 F
Clearance 5.5 m or 5.5 m or 5.8 m or 6.1 m or 6.1 m or 7 m or 8.4 m or 12 m or
along street 18 F 18 F 18 F 20 F 20 F 23 F 28 F 39 F
Other area 4.6 m or 4.6 m or 5.2 m or 5.5 m or 6.1 m or 7 m or 8.4 m or 12 m or
15 F 15 F 17 F 18 F 20 F 23 F 28 F 39 F
• Minimum number of Disc. iii. Bundle conductor - In this, many sub-
Operating voltage No. of disc in No. of disc conductor are used to make a conductor of a
(Line voltage) suspension in strain phase, by which the effective radius are more
type insulator insulator and corona is less.
11 kV 1 1 iv. Stranded conductor - A stranded conductor is
33 kV 2 3 consists of several thin wires of small cross
66 kV 5 6 sectional area called strands as shown in figure
below.
132 kV 9 10
220 kV 14 15
400 kV 22-23 23-24
765 kV 42-43 43-44
The total number of strands in any conductor is
• Insulator material -
i. Porcelain - Dielectric strength of porcelain is given by the formula of N = 3x 2 − 3x + 1
120-150 kV/cm. Where N→ is number of strands in stranded
ii. Toughened glass - Dielectric strength or break conductor
down voltage of toughened glass is 120-200 x → Number of layer
kV/cm. The diameter of conductor can be calculated by the
• Conductor - formula D = (2x – 1) d
Properties of conductor - High conductivity, high Where, D → is the diameter of conductor
tensile strength, high mechanical strength, minimum d → is the diameter of each strand.
cost, minimum corona loss, and conductor material
String efficiency of suspension insulator -
must be chemically inert.
• Type of conductor - Voltage across the whole string
String efficiency =
i. Solid conductor - It has high skin effect. n × Voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor
• Solid conductor uses in earth wire.
ii. Hollow conductor - In this, the weight and skin String efficiency of AC → 80% to 85%
effect of conductor is reduced, but strength
String efficiency of DC → 100%
decreases, so it only use in bus bar.
• Self capacitance - The insulator material between • Corona power loss:
two metallic pins forms a capacitor of capacitance is
241 r kW
× 10−5 × ( f + 25 ) ( VPh − VC )
2
called self capacitance. PC =
δ d km / phase
• Earth Capacitance/ Stray Capacitance/Shunt
Capacitance → The air between the each pin and Remember point
the tower forms the other set of capacitor. These
capacitance are called earth capacitance. PC ∝ (f + 25), VPh - Phase voltage in kV
Earth capacitance VC - Critical disruptive voltage in kV(rms value)
K=
Self capacitance d - distance between conductors.
• Methods of improving string efficiency - • Parameters of line conductor
i. By using longer cross-arms Inductance of the conductor
ii. By grading insulators Ψ Ψ internal + Ψ external
iii. By using a guard ring. L= =
i i
• Sag - Inductance due to internal flux
Wℓ 2
Sag ( S ) = Linternal =
Ψ internal
Ψ internal =
µI
Linternal =
µ
8T I 8π 8π
W - Weight per unit length of the conductor
Inductance due to external flux -
T - Tension in the conductor ℓ - length of the span
µ  d 
Sag under worst condition µ d L total = log e  
Lexternal = log e H 2π  0.7788r 
2π r m
Wr ℓ 2 µ d
( Wc + Wi )
2
S= , Wr = + Ww2 L total = Linternal + L external L total = log e  
8T 2π  r'
• Stringing chart useful in knowing the sag and
Remember point
tension at any temperature -
0.7788r = Geometric mean radius (GMR)
r' = 0.7788r is applicable only solid round conductor.
d
Inductance of single conduction - L = 2 × 10−7 ln
r'
• Inductance of loop conductor L' = 2L
• Corona -
Critical disruptive voltage d GMD
L' = 4 ×10−7 ln L = 2 × 10 −7 log
d r' GMR
VC = m 0 rg 0 δ ln   kV / phase
r • Inductance of double circuit 3-φ line -
Where,  1  D  16  m  13 
m0 = Surface irregularity factor L = 2 × 10 − 7 ln  2 6      H / Phase / m
  r '   n  
r = radius of conductor, δ = air density factor
g0 = Maximum dielectric strength • Capacitance between phase to phase in
21.1 kV/cm (rms) or 30 kV/cm (Peak) π∈ F
• Visual critical disruptive voltage transmission line - Cab =
D m
ln
 0.3   d  r
Vv = δg 0 rm v  1 +  ln   kV / phase
 rδ   r  • Capacitance between neutral to phase in
mv = Roughness factor - 2π ∈ F
1 for smooth conductor transmission line - Can =
D m
0.98 to 0.92 for dirty conductor ln
r
0.87 to 0.80 for standard conductor
Note - Can=2Cab
Visual critical disruptive voltage
= 1.3 • Phase charging current - Ichg = JωC n Van A
Critical disruptive voltage m

• Classification of transmission line and their performance
Line Physical Power angle SIL Parameters Circuit representation Nature of Voltage
length (ℓ) (δ) parameter level
Short T/L 0-80 km 0-50 100 MW R-L R-L series circuit Concentric 20kV
parameter
Medium T/L 80-160 km 50-150 100-300 R-L-C R-L-C T-type Concentric 20-100
MW π − type parameter kV
Long T/L 160 above 150 above 300 MW R-L-C-G R-L-C-G series/parallel Distributed 100 kV-
above parameter above
• Sending End Voltage (for short transmission line) • Skin depth -
Vs = ( VR cos φR + IR ) 2
+ ( VR sin φR + IX )
2
Skin Depth ( δ ) =
ρ
=
ρ
=
1
πfµ πfµ µ r πfµ r µ σ
 V sin φR + IX 
• Phase Angle φs = tan −1  R  1
 VR cos φR + IR  Skin effect ∝
Skin depth
VR cos φR + I × R f – frequency , σ - conductivity, ρ - Resistivity
• Power factor cos φs =
Vs µ - Permeability
1
IR cos φR + IX sin φR Proximity effect ∝
• Voltage regulation =
VR
× 100
(
D Distance b conductor
w )
• ABCD Parameter of transmission lines -
A B C D Zero V.R. Max. V.R. Reciprocal Symmetrical
condition condition
Short T/L 1 Z 0 1 X  AD–BC = A=D
−1  −R  φL = tan−1  L  1
φL = tan   R
 XL 
(Leading) (Lagging)
Medium T Y AD-BC=1 A=D
1+
ZY  YZ   YZ 
T/L Z 1 +  1 +  symmetrical
2  4   2 
π YZ Z
 YZ  YZ  AD-BC=1 A=D
1+ Y 1 +  1 +  symmetrical
2  4   2 
End 1+YZ Z Y 1 AD-BC=1 A≠D

Con. Not
symmetrical
Long T/L cosh YZ AD-BC=1 A=D
cosh YZ Z/Y Z/Y
symmetrical
sinh YZ sinh YZ
• Cable – Extra high tension (E.H.T) cable Upto 66 kV

1 Extra super voltage (tension) (E.S.T) Upto 132
• AC transmission voltage in cable ∝ cable kV
Distance
AC transmission voltage in Max. Distance in • According to insulation -
Cable Voltage limit
cable Km
General cables Below 11 kV
132 kV 60 km
Belted cables Upto (11 kV - 22 kV)
220 kV 40 km
Screened cables Upto (22 kV - 66 kV)
400 kV 25 km
Pressure cables Above 66 kV
• Type of cable according to operating voltage - Oil pressure cables Upto (132 kV - 220 kV)
Cable Voltage Gas pressure cables Above 220 kV
Low tension (L.T) cable Upto 1 kV
High tension (H.T) cable Upto 11 kV • Dielectric loss in cable ( Pd ) = ωCV 2 tan δ
Super tension (S.T) cable Upto 33 kV δ = loss angle of the dielectric
• Dielectric stress of conductor • Short circuit capacity (SCC)
V V Base MVA
g max = g min = =
r ln
R R Per unit impedance of network
R ln  
r r SCC = V I F
ρ R V - pre fault voltage, IF - fault current
• Insulation resistance of cable - R i = log e
2πℓ r • Sub-transient period → only two cycle after fault
1 Sub-transient reactance (X") =
Note point - R i ∝ 1
ℓ Xℓ +
Cost ratio table - 1 1 1
+ +
Voltage (kV) 0.4 11 33
132 220 40066 X dw X f X a
Cost ratio 2 3 96 13 24 •
7 Transient period → 3-5 cycle
Cost of underground system 1
Cost ratio = Transient reactance (X') = X ℓ +
Cost of over head system 1 1
+
Xf Xa
• Per unit system -
• Steady state period → Steady state current cycle
Actual value in same units steady state reactance (X) = Xℓ + Xa
Per unit value =
Base or reference value α - operator - The 'α' operator has a unity value at
in same unit
120 degrees. (α = 1 < 120º)
V2 α 2 + α + 1 = 0 , α3 = 1
• Base value - Sbase = Vbase × Ibase , Zbase = base • Symmetrical components of unbalance 3-φ
Sbase
system -
MVA base
ZPu = ZA × ZPU = R PU + JX PU
( kVbase )
2
• Apparent power - S3 −φ( P.U ) = VPU × I PU
• Active power - P3−φ( PU ) = VPU × I PU cos φ
• Reactive power - Q3−φ( PU ) = V( Pu ) I( PU ) sin φ

• Change of base -
2
 Sbase ( new )   Vbase ( old ) 
ZPU ( new ) = ZPU ( old ) ×  × 
 Sbase (old )   Vbase (new )   Va = Va + Va + Va = Va + Va + Va 
For lagging load For leading load  0 1 2 0 1 2

 Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2 = Va 0 + α Va1 + αVa 2 
2
• S = P + jQ S = P - jQ, I = lead  
 Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2 = Va 0 + αVa1 + α Va 2 
2
I = lag, I = I ∠ − φ I = I ∠φ
 1 
Resistor Q = 0 Inductor, P = 0  Va 0 = 3 [ Va + Vb + Vc ] 
 1 
V2 V2  Va1 =  Va + αVb + α 2 Vc  
RS = cos φ ( Ω ) XS = sin φ ( Ω )
S S  3 
 1 
•  Va 2 = 3  Va + α Vb + αVc  
2
Current concept in pu system -
 
P ± jQ PU Remember point
IPU = PU , (+) lagging, (–) leading
VPU
Positive sequence impedance (Z1) is equals to
• Fault - negative sequence impedance (Z2) in case for static
device (e.g. transformer, transmission line)
For transmission line Z1 = Z2 and Z0 =(2.5 - 3) Z1
In case of rotating machine - Z1 ≠ Z2 ≠ Z0
In case of solid fault - Z1 > Z2 > Z0
In healthy condition only positive sequence
impedance (Z1) present.

• Unsymmetrical fault - • Stability limit - The stability limit defines the
Frequency of fault - maximum power permissible to flow through a
L-G fault 80 − 85 % particular part of the system for which it is subjected
to line disturbances or faulty flow of power.
L-L fault 8%
Ef V
L-L-G fault 5% P= sin δ for Pmax δ = 90º
X
L-L-L fault 2%
L-L-L-G fault 2% • For maximum steady state power transfer in
transmission system X = 3R
Equipment % of total fault
• Steady state stability criterion-
Overhead line 50 dP
Switch gear 15 - Synchronizing power coefficient or Electrical
dδ
Transformer 12 stiffness
Cable 10 dP
i. > 0 — System stable
Miscellaneous 8 dδ
Control equipment 3 dP
ii. = 0 — System on limit of stability
CT & PT 2 dδ
• Single line to ground - (L - G) dP
iii. < 0 — System unstable
dδ
3Vf
If = Ia 0 + Ia1 + Ia 2 = • Transient stability - Transient stability means the
Z0 + Z1 + Z2 + 3Zf
ability of a power system to experience a sudden
Ia change in generation, load, or system characteristics
Ia 0 = Ia1 = Ia 2 = without a prolonged loss of synchronism.
3
Ts - Soft power or mechanical torque
• Line to line fault (L - L fault) - Te - Electromagnetic torque
Ia = 0 and I b = − Ic Ia 0 = 0 and Ia1 = − Ia 2 i. If Ts = Te → synchronism
ii. If Ts > Te Tα = Ts − Te → Rotor accelerated
 − j 3E a 
If =  
Z +Z +Z Tα - Acceleration torque
 1 2 f 
iii. if Ts < Te
• Double line to ground fault (L-L - G) - −Tα = Ts − Te → Rotor decelerated
If = I b + Ic = 3Ia 0 Ia 0 + Ia1 + Ia 2 = 0
Swing equation -
−3E a Z2 Md 2δ
If = = Ps − Pe M → Angular moment
Z1Z2 + Z1Z0 + Z2 Z0 dt 2
1 P
• Fault current ∝ 'M' constant - M = , P =Ps – Pe
Fault loop impedance ( Zf ) α
1 'H' constant -
• Stability ∝ reliability ∝ Stored kinetic energy at rate speed in MJ
Fault current 'H ' =
Rated capacity in MVA
Short circuit kVA
• Isc = • Equal area criterion - The equal area criterion is a
Rated kV simple graphical method for concluding the transient
• Severity of fault - stability of two-machine systems or a single
LLL-G > LLL > LL-G > LL > L - G machine against an infinite bus.
• Power system stability -
For equilibrium state A2 > A1

• Reason of unstable stability in power system - • Distribution System - Type of distribution system,
i. Sudden application of load according to connection -
ii. Loss of generation i. Radial distribution system
ii. Ring distribution system
iii. Loss of large load
iii. Inter connected distribution system
iv. A fault on the system Note - Inter connected distribution system ensures
• Method of improving transient stability - reliability in an event of transmission failure.
i. Use of double circuit line • Type of DC distributors -
ii. Use of bundle conductor i. Distributor fed at one end
iii. Series capacitor in line ii. Distributor fed at both ends
iii. Distributor fed at the centre
iv. High speed excitation system
iv. Ring distributor
v. Fast switching
• High Voltage DC (H.V.D.C) Transmission -
vi. Breaking resistance
• Travelling wave -
1
Speed of transient ( v) =
LC
•
Type of H.V.D.C system -
C 3 × 108 Mono polar link - No. of conductor - 1 and negative
a.
( v) = = polarity.
∈r ∈r
b. Bipolar link - No. of conductor - 2 and ± polarity
Specification of travelling wave - (Surge or c. Homopolar link - No. of conductor - 2 and both
transient) negative polarity.
Note point - Most of the bipolar links are used in HVDC
systems.
• Graph between cost and transmission distance
(km)-
• Reflection co-efficient of voltage -

Reflected voltage Vr z − zo
ρV = = , ev = t
Incident voltage Vi z t + zo
• Reflection co-efficient of current -
Ir z −z • Components of H.V.D.C system -
ei = ρ= o t , ρi = −ρv 1. Converter station or terminal
Ii z t + zo
2. Filters – i. AC filter ii. DC filter
• Transmission coefficient - iii. High frequency filter
3. Reactive power source
2z
τ= τ = 1 + ρv • Source and sink of reactive power -
z t + zo
Apparatus Sink Q Source Neither
• Typical cases of termination - Q sink nor
source
i. Short circuited line - z t = 0, τ = 0, ρ = −1
Synchronous Under Over Normally
ii. Open circuited line - z t = ∞, τ = 2, ρ = 1 generator excited excited excited
Induction generator √ × ×
iii. Line terminated by impedance equal to surge -
Transformer √ × ×
z t = z 0 , τ = 1, ρ = 0 Transmission line Loading > Loading Loading =
iv. Line terminated by cable - UG cable SIL < SIL SIL
Synchronous motor Under Over Normally
z 0 = 50Ω, z 0 = 500Ω excited excited excited
2 −9 Induction motor √ × ×
τ = 0.182 = , ρ = −0.82 =
11 11 Heater × × √

ELECTRICAL SWITCHGEAR AND
PROTECTION
Switchgear and Protection • Nature of faults -The faults are classified as-
• What is switchgear- Symmetrical faults Unsymmetrical faults
Switchgear = (switching + controlling + isolating The symmetrical fault gives A fault in a power
rise to equal fault currents system which gives
and protecting)
in all the lines. unsymmetrical currents
Switchgear devices = (circuit breaker + fuse +C.T.
e.g. L-L-L fault, L-L-L-G in the three lines with
and P.T + disconnecting switches) fault unequal displacement
• Some following feature of switch gear is called
Certain discrimination unsymmetrical fault.
Provide manual and automatic control e.g. L-G fault
Reliability Quick operation L-L fault, L-L-G fault
• Terminologies used in switchgear open circuit fault
Protective zone • Effects of faults
Dead spot or blind spot in a power system Due to heavy fault current which can damage the
Primary and backup protection power system equipments.
1. Primary protection The heavy currents produce overheating and high
2. Backup protection mechanical stresses.
"The primary protection is the first line of defense If the fault persists for longer time then fire may
and is responsible to protect all the power system spread to other parts of the system.
elements from all the types of faults." Weakening of insulation due to overheating.
• Main protection can fail due to many reasons like Due to unbalanced currents and voltages due to
fault generators may lose synchronism.
Failure in circuit breaker Reducing the reliability of the system.
Failure in protective relay
• Basic Trip Circuit operation -
Failure in tripping circuit
Operation cycle -
Failure in DC tripping voltage
Loss of voltage or current supply to the relay.
• Methods of Backup protection-
Relay backup protection
Breaker backup protection
Remote backup protection
Centrally co-ordinate backup protection
• Causes of faults and Effects of Faults in power
system -
Excessive internal and external stresses on the
conductors.
Over voltages due to switching surges
Severe lightning strokes
Heavy winds, rain or snow fall
Ageing of conductors Relay- A relay is an electrically operated switch. It
Chemical pollution consists of a set of input terminals for a single or
Perching of birds on the lines multiple control signals, and a set of operating
contact terminals.
Equipment % of total faults
• Essential qualities and requirements of protective
occur
relaying -
Overhead lines 50
Reliability
Switch gear 15 Stability
Transformer 12 Sensitivity
Cables 10 Adequateness
Miscellaneous 8 Speed and time
Control equipment 3 Selectivity and discrimination
CTs and PTs 2 Simplicity and economy
Is k2 k 2 (constant)
ks = Where, I2 = , I=
Io k1 k1
ks = Sensitivity factor This is the current at which relay operates in case of
Is = Minimum short circuit current in the zone DC operation -
Io = Minimum operating current for the protection For AC operation - In AC electromagnetic relays,
the electromagnetic force is proportional to square
• Terminologies used in protective relay - of the current but it is not constant.
Protective relay Burden Relay time k = Constant
Time delay Breaker time Pickup Im = Maximum value of the operating current
Pickup value Trip circuit Earth fault
1 1
Phase fault Reach Inter lock f e = kI 2 = kI m2 − kI m2 cos 2ωt
Dropout or reset Blind spot Reset time 2 2
Operating force Flag or target Operating time It shows that the electromagnetic force consist of
Unit protection Protective scheme two components-
Restraining force Protective system i. Constant, independent of time
Fault clearing time Current setting ii. Pulsating at double the frequency of apply voltage.
Sealing relays or holding relays The total force thus pulsates at double the frequency.
Plug setting multiplier (P.S.M.)
Time - setting multiplier (T.S.M.)
• Classification of protective relays –
Electromagnetic Solenoid type
attraction type Attracted armature type
relays Balanced beam type
Induction type Induction Disc type Remember point
relays Induction cup type Thus relay armature pulsates at double frequency.
Directional type Reverse current type This causes the relay to hum and produces a noise.
relays Reverse power type It may cause damage to the relay contacts. To
Relays based on Instantaneous type overcome this difficulty using shading in a relay.
timing Definite time lag type Advantages of electromagnetic relays -
Inverse time lag type 1. Can be used for both AC and DC.
Distance type Impedance type 2. They have fast operation and fast reset.
relays Reactance type 3. These are almost instantaneous.
Admittance type 4. High operating speed with operating time (ms)
Differential Current differential type 5. The pickup can be as high as 90-95% for DC
type relays Voltage differential type operation and 60 to 90%. For the AC operation.
Other types of Under voltage, current, power Disadvantage -
relays relay 1. The directional feature is absent.
Over voltage, current, power 2. The working can be affected by the transients.
relay 3. Due to the presence of moving parts, the response
Thermal relay Rectifier is not very quick due to inertia of the parts,
relay compared to modern static relays.
Permanent magnet moving 5. Due to high burden on current and potential
coil relay transformers, the size is large and cost is high.
Static relay Gas operated 6. Life is less and high failure rate compared to static
relay relay.
1. Operating principle of electromagnetic attraction • Applications of electromagnetic relays -
relays - 1. The protection of various AC and DC equipments.
For DC operation- In DC operation, the 2. Over/under current and voltage protection of
electromagnetic force is constant when this force various AC and DC equipments.
exceeds the restraining force, the relay operates. 3. In the definite time lag over current and earth fault
f e = k1I 2 fr = k 2 protection along with definite time lag over current relay.
4. For the differential protection.
fe = Electromagnetic force 5. used as auxiliary relays in the contact systems of
k1 = Constant, k2 = Constant protective relaying schemes.
I = Operating current in a coil 2. Induction type relays -
fr = Restraining force due to spring including friction The induction type relays are also called magnitude
on the verge of relay operating relays. These relays works on the principle of the
fe = fr, k1I2 = k2 induction motor or an energy meter.
• Types (Based on construction) Only faults below oil level are detected.
1. Shaded pole type Setting of the mercury switches cannot be kept too
2. Watt hour meter type sensitive otherwise the relay can operate due to
3. induction cup type bubbles, vibration, earthquakes mechanical shocks etc.
The relay is slow to operate having minimum
• Torque equation for induction type relays - operating time of 0.1 seconds and average time of
F ∝ φ1φ2 sin α 0.2 seconds.
α = Phase difference between φ1 & φ2 • Application -
Note - Net force or torque acting on the disc is same Local overheating Winding short circuit
at every instant. The action of relay under such force Bushing puncture Winding earth faults
is free from vibrations. Entrance of air bubbles in oil
• Direction of net force - Decided by which flux is Short circuited lamination
leading the other. Bad and loose electrical contacts
Short circuit between phases
1- Shaded pole Watt hour meter Induction cup Loss of oil and reduction in oil level due to leakage.
type type Induction relay type relay–
• Design considerations of electromagnetic relay -
T ∝ φs φu sin α T = Kφ1φ2 sin α • Most accurate 1. Coils 2. Cases 3. Movable assembly
relay
• Current setting • Very fast in 4. Relay contacts 5. Bearings 6. Operation indicator
, if φs & φu ∝ I
can be adjusted operation. (10
7. Adjustment of reset
T ∝ I 2 sin α , • Most of the ms) 4. Introduction to over current relays - The over
T = kI 2 induction relays • Adjustable current relays are classified depending upon the time
are of this type. speeds are of operation.
φs = Flux shaded • Operation can
possible Instantaneous No intentional time delay
portion be controlled by • Various shapes
φu = Flux in over current provided.
opening or of time against
unshaded portion closing of the
relays The operating time is less than
operating
sinα = Constant secondary quantity curves
0.01 seconds.
for the given winding. can be These relays are effective only
design. obtained. when the impedance between the
relay and the source Zs is very
• Universal relay torque equation - small compared to the impedance
T = k1I2 + k 2 V 2 + k 3 VI cos ( θ − τ ) + k 4 of the protected section Ze.
2 Inverse If the saturation occurs at a very
k1I = Torque produced by current coil definite time early stage then the time of
2
k2V = Torque produced by voltage coil relays operation almost remains same
k3VI cos (θ-τ) = Torque produced by both coils over the entire working range of
Where, relay. This is called definite time
k1, k2 and k3 constant characteristics.
θ = Angle between V and I Inverse The core saturation current slightly
τ = Maximum torque angle definite higher than the pickup value of the
k4 = Torque produced by control spring. minimum time current. this is called inverse
3. Buchholz relay (Gas actuated relay) - relay (IDMT) definite.
Buchholz relay is a gas operated relay used for the Very inverse The core saturation occurs at a
protection of oil immersed transformers against all relays further later stage then the inverse
the types of internal faults. nature of characteristics continues
It is also known as incipient fault relay. for longer range and takes the
Oil decomposes - generating the hydrogen gas. shape indicated by the curve C.
Buchholz relays are provided for the transformer This is called very inverse time
having rating above 500 kVA. characteristics.
After saturation, the curve tends to
• Component - definite time.
Mercury switch pair Alarm circuit Extremely In such relays the saturation occurs
Trip circuit Float Test cock inverse relays at very later stage and the curve
Flap valve Drain valve Release cock has an inverse nature for almost
• Advantage - entire working range.
Buchholz relay gives an indication of the fault at
very early stage, by anticipating the fault and
operating the alarm circuit.
It is the simplest protection in case of transformers.
• Limitations -
Used only for oil immersed transformers having
conservator tanks.
• Non-directional induction type over current relay 6. Distance relay - In distance relays the operation
It is also called earth leakage induction type relay. is dependent on the ratio of the voltage and current
Its construction similar to a watthour meter with which is expressed in terms of an impedance.
slight modification. • 3 types of distance relay -
• Plug setting multiples - 1. Impedance relay -
Fault current in relay coil Operating 1
P.S.M. =
characteri- z=
Rated secondary C.T. current × Current setting Slope of characteristics
stics
Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current × C.T.
ratio
• Calculation of relay operating time -
Parameters must be known.
i. Current setting ii. Time setting multiplier
iii. Level of fault current iv. Corresponding C.T. ratio R-X z=R+jx, z = R 2 + x 2
v. Time/P.S.M. curve or tabular data diagram
x
• Directional power relay - z 2 = R 2 + x 2 , tan φ =
T ∝ VI cosφ ∝ power in circuit R
x
Use - Providing the reverse power protection to φ = tan −1
synchronous machines. R
• Directional induction type over current relay - Zf = Impedance between relay and
The directional power relay is not suitable to use as fault point
a protective relay under short circuit conditions. z = Set value for impedance = Radius
Hence in practice, directional induction type of circle
overcurrent relay is used.
This relay operates almost independent of system
voltage and power factor.
Use-Two relay elements mounted on a common
case. These elements are -
i. Directional element which is directional power
relay.
ii. Non directional element which is non-directional
overcurrent relay – If zf < z Relay operates
zf > z Relay is not operates
T = KVI sin ( θ + φ ) , T = KVI cos ( θ − τ )
such a relay is non-directional.
φ = 90 – τ, θ = angle between V and I Torque
τ = maximum torque angle Top = K1I 2 − K 2 V 2 –ve = Restrain
equation
• Relay use as - comparators - May relays operate Top= 0 at balance condition
based on the resultant of the comparison of the two
quantities. Top > 0 Relay operate
2
V K1 K1
  = , (z) =
 I K2 K2
Balance condition or pickup value
Voltage restrain over current relay or
Other name
5. Differential relays - A differential relays is Voltage restrain non-directional relay.
defined as the relay that operates when the phasor Application Medium transmission line.
difference of two or more similar electrical 2. Reactance relay -
quantities exceeds a predetermined value.
Operating Operating torque → current
• Types of differential relay -
characteristics restraining torque → current -
1. Current differential relay
2. Biased beam relay or percentage differential relay voltage directional.
3. Voltage balance differential relay Thus the reactance relay is an
over current relay with the
Nr
( 1 2)
I + I directional torque
No The directional element is so
( I1 − I 2 ) ≥ designed that the maximum
2
Nr = Restraining coil number torque angle is 900.
No = No. of operating coil. Construction Induction cup type
Torque • Offset mho relay -In the offset mho relay, only a
equation fraction of the C.T. output current is injected into the
restrain circuit.
This fraction is 'n' which is less than 1. Hence the
X = Z sinθ, R = Z cosθ quantities which are compared for the operation of
T = K1I − K 2 VIcos ( θ − τ )
2
V 
the relay are I and  − nI  .
at the balance condition  I 
K1 K
z sin θ = , X = 1 constant
K2 K2
R - X diagram
v
I> − nI , zI > v − znI ,
K1 z
X= = Constant
K2 v
z > − nz , z > z − nz
The relay will operate for all the I
impedances whose heads lies below • Application -
the operating characteristics, whether i. Operation for close-up faults
below or above the R – axis
ii. Bush bar zone backup protection
Other name Directional restrain overcurrent relay.
iii. Carrier blocking protection schemes.
Use Short transmission line.
iv. Blocking of power swing.
3. Mho relay or admittance relay
Operating The mho relay is made inherently • Classification of distance relays -
Principle directional by adding a voltage i. Definite distance relay- Definite distance type
winding called polarizing winding. impedance relay
This relay works on the measurement ii. Distance time relay- Distance time impedance relay.
of admittance y∠ θ. • Advantages of distance relays -
Construction Induction cup type structure. i. Gives faster operation
Torque Operating torque - current - voltage ii. Simpler to co-ordinate
equation directional iii. Less effect of fault levels and fault current
restraining torque – voltage
magnitudes.
T = K1VIcos ( θ − τ ) − K 2 V 2 iv. Permits high line loading.
at the balance condition v. With the need at readjustments, permanent setting
can be done.
K1
Z2 = cos ( θ − τ ) • Application -
K2
Three phase faults Phase to phase faults
R-X diagram Phase to earth faults
C.T.ratio
• Setting of distance relays - zs = z p ×
P.T.ratio
H.V. phase current
C.T. ratio =
K1 Relay phase current
= Zr =Ohmic setting of relay = H.V. phase to phase voltage
K2 P.T. ratio =
diameter Relay phase to phase voltage
The relay operates when the impedance zp = Primary positive sequence impedance
seen by the relay falls within this circle zs = Secondary positive sequence impedance
τ = 45º-(11 or 33 kV) distribution line • Different effect on distance relay -
τ = 60º- (66 kV or 132 kV) transmission 1. Effect of arc resistance on distance relays -
line Mho relay > Impedance relay → They become
τ = 75º- (275 kV or 400 kV) under reach but reactance relay is unaffected.
transmission line
Other name Voltage restrained directional relay. 2. Effect of power swing on distance relays -
Use Long transmission line Reactance relay > Impedance relay > mho relay

• Static relay - • Two theories which explain the phenomenon of
Basic elements of a static relay - arc extinction –
Energy Heat ↑→ Temperature↑→ Rate of
balance theory ionization of medium ↑.
/Cassie's i. Rate of heat is more than rate of
theory heat dissipation ionization of
medium → move no. of ē↑→
Arc is restrike.
ii. If rate of heat < Rate of heat
dissipation then No ionization
Remember point → No. arc strike.
• Advantages of over current relays over Voltage race Ionization rate ↓→ Arc extinguish
electromagnetic types relay - theory or No. of ē ↓→ Conductivity ↓→
Very high speed of operation Recovery rate Dielectric strength↑.
Fast reset theory or
Directional feature may be present Slepian's theory
• Features of directional relay - • Important terms related with C.B.
High speed operation • Recovery voltage -
High sensitivity It is the voltage having normal power frequency
Ability to operate at low voltages which appears after the transient voltage.
Adequate short time thermal ratio It is RMS in nature.
Circuit breakers- "A circuit breaker can Effect of reactance drop on recovery voltage
make or break a circuit either manually or Effect of armature reaction on recovery voltage.
automatically under no load, full load or short circuit • Transient recovery voltage (Active recovery
conditions." voltage)
This voltage appears between the contacts
• Formation of an arc - immediately after final arc interruption.
It is instantaneous value
v = vm sin ωt
• Representation of arc
• The arc resistance depends -

a. Degree of ionization b. Length of arc
c. Cross - section of arc Active recovery voltage = Vm sin (2π + φ)
• Initiation of arc - = Vm sinφ
i. By high voltage gradient at the cathode, resulting in ARV = Vm sinφ = K1K2K3 Vm sinφ
field emission. K1 = Reduction due to armature reaction
ii. By increase of temperature, resulting in thermionic →(1)−L.G.
emission. K 2 = First pole clear factor—|
→(1.5)−
• Interruption of arc (unground fault)
High Lengthening the arc →1−φ=1
resistance
Splitting of arc, Cooling of arc K 3 —|
interruption →3−φ= 3
(Only use in Rarc ∝ ℓ ↑→ A ↓→ Conductivity ↓ For maximum ARV, value of power factor
DC)
Rarc↑→I↓→Heat↓→Temperature↓ (ARV) maximum - φ = 90º
→Arc will extinguish P.F. = cosφ = cos 90º = 0
Current zero • Effect of natural frequency ON ARV -
interruption/
Low f ↑ → breaking capacity reduces
resistance • Effect of power factor ON ARV -
interruption
If the P.F. is low then interrupting of such current is
Used in AC circuit breaker
difficult.
I = 0 → H = 0, Temperature = 0
Arc will extinguish. • Restriking voltage - When i = 0 → across contact
Artificial Used in HVDC system So that high transient voltage develops in CB due to
current zero sudden distribution of energy between electric field
interruption and magnetic field.
nature → transient voltage. • Classification of circuit breakers- The circuit
Frequency of restriking voltage breakers are classified by various ways.
1 1 i. Interrupting medium ii. According to service
ω0 = ⇒ f0 =
LC 2π LC iii. Way of operation iv. Action
v. Method of control vi. Way of mounting
Restriking voltage - VRE = ARV [1 − cos ωt ]
vii. Tank construction viii. Contacts
Prospective voltage - • Air blast circuit breakers -
1 1 L Voltage range - 132 kV to 400 kV
CV 2 = LI2 ⇒ V = i , if ω0 t = π
2 2 C Medium → Compressed air is used
VRE = ARV (1 − cos180 ) = ARV (1 + 1) • Parts of air blast circuit breaker -
Tank air reservior Operating rod
VRE = 2ARV Doubling Effect
Pneumatic value Fixed contact
• Time at which maximum restriking voltage occurs is Moving contact Enclosure
t m = π LC Port Compression springs
Openings for air outlet Arcing horns optional
• Rate of rising of restriking voltage -
Connection for current
d d ARV
( VRE ) ⇒ ( VRE ) = sin ω0 t Double arc extinction chamber
dt dt LC
Pneumatic operating mechanism
ARV Resistance switching unit
( RRRV )max = ( RRRV ) ∝ ω0
LC Hallow insulator assembly
2V • Types -
( RRRV )avg = m Unit = kV/µ second (i) Cross blast (ii) Axial blast
π LC
• Minimize the oscillation - = Used resistance • Advantage -
because energy is not lost in LC system No fire hazards High speed operation
R ↑ → inductor energy ↓ Arc duration is short Maintenance free operation
LC → oscillation → Transient voltage → oscillation • Disadvantages -
damp out by R Required high pressure air
1 L Possibility of air leakages
R= Critical damping
2 C High current chopping may occur
1 L Maintenance of compressor
R> Under damping
2 C • Application -
1 L
R< Over damping
2 C
AC circuit breaking DC circuit breaking • Best operating range- 132 kV - 400 kV
Current is reduced to Current is never reduced to Breaking Capacity - 7000 MVA
zero twice in every zero. • Air break circuit breaker - Employed in both AC
cycle. & DC type of circuit breaker up to 12 kV.
Arc current can be Arc is continued and arc 460 V - 3.3 kV → 400 - 3500 Amp
reduced to zero when current is difficult to reduce
6.6 kV → 400 - 2400 Amp
voltage is reduced to unless the contacts arc
zero. widely open Medium ⇒ Atmospheric pressure air
C.B. can have higher The C.B. can have lesser • Parts of air C.B. -
rating for same rating for same capacity due Main contacts Arcing contacts
capacity. to larger arc currents. Arc getting split Arc splitter plates
Arc current naturally Arc current is forced to zero. Current carrying terminals
reduced to zero.
Arc rising in the direction of the arrow
Smaller voltage Larger voltages appear.
appear across C.B. • Application -
contacts during arc. Industrial switchgear
interruption Auxiliary switchgear in generating stations
• Sulpher hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breaker - • Application -
Properties of SF6 gas – Voltage range 22 kV - 66 kV
Physical Colourless, odourless, non-toxic and Capacity 60 to 100 MVA
properties non-harmful to health Best operated - 36 kV
Non flammable • Oil circuit breaker –
Having high density (six times that of i. Bulk oil circuit breakers
air) ii. Minimum oil circuit breakers
Liquification starts at low Plain break Single break oil circuit breaker
temperature (at 9ºC) oil circuit Double break oil circuit breaker
Heat transferability is high (1.6 times breaker Suitable up-to 150 MVA
that of air) Voltage range – up-to 11 kV
The gas is electronegative
Self Plain explosion jet
Chemical Chemically inert and stable upto generated Cross jet explosion pot
properties 500ºC pressure oil Self compensated explosion pot
During arc extinction SF6 is circuit
Oil blast explosion pot
decomposed to SF4, SF2 breaker
The metallic fluorides are good Forced blast Advantage- Performance of the
dielectric materials. oil circuit breaker is constant even at low
Dielectric Dielectric strength of SF6 gas at breakers currents as pressure developed in
properties atmospheric pressure is 2.9 times that independent of fault current to be
of air and 30% less than that of interrupted
dielectric oil
• HVDC circuit breaker -
Parts of Moveable cylinder Insulating nozzle Parallel L.C circuit to introduce for artificial current
SF6 C.B Moving contact Fixed contact zero
Fixed piston HVDC C.B. is nothing but a vacuum C.B.
Advantage Size is smaller Silent operation
Not suffer oxidation
Heat transferability high
Minimum maintenance
Non flammable, chemically stable
Current chopping is minimum
• Selection of circuit breaker -
Dis- Sealing problem High cost
i. The maximum fault current
advantage Arced SF6 gas is poisonous and
ii. The maximum current to be carried momentarily
should not be inhaled
Application Voltage range - 115 kV to 500 kV Vd
rms current of C.B. = 1.5×
Power - 10 MVA to 20 MVA X"d
Interrupting time - 3 cycles and less • Rating of circuit breaker- Some important
Pressure - 2 - 3 kg/cm2 characteristics -
• Vacuum circuit breakers - Arc quenching medium Rated voltage Rated insulation level
- vacuum Rated normal current Rated frequency
• Advantage - Rated duration of short circuit
Compact in size and have longer life Rated short circuit breaking current
with stand lightning surges Rated short circuit making current
Low arc energy Rated peak withstand current
Low inertia Rated TRV for terminal fault
• Disadvantage Rated operating sequence
Erosion of material Rated supply voltage
Current chopping because of low pressure Rated pressure of compressed gas
• Rated short circuit breaking current - • Difference between isolator and circuit breaker
I AC Isolator Circuit Breaker
Symmetrical breaking current =
2 Isolate a circuit after Break a circuit carrying
2
the decay of current current under faulty
I  in the circuit conditions and make and
A symmetrical breaking current =  AC  + I2DC
 2 break the current under
normal operating condition.
Breaking capacity = 3VI (MVA)
It is only a switching Switching as well as
• Rated short circuit making current -
device protective device
It is peak value of current during the first half cycle
of current wave after closing of C.B. contact. No mechanism for Provides medium for arc
I m(making ) = 1.8 × 2 × I(B) , I m = 2 × I rms arc extinction extinction
Operated under no Operated under load
1.8 → Consider for doubling effect load condition condition
Im = 2.55I B , Making capacity = 3Vrms I m Fuse- Fuse is a device used in circuit for protecting
electrical equipments against overloads and short
• Rated operating sequence - circuits.
i. O - t - Co - T - Co • Fuse element or fuse wire - It is that part of the
ii. Co - t' - Co fuse device which melts when an excessive current
O = operation of opening flows in the circuit and thus isolates the faulty
t = 3 minutes for circuit breaker not to be used for device from the supply circuit.
rapid auto - re-closure • Minimum fusing current - It is a value of current
Co = Closing followed by opening corresponding to a chosen value of time indicated on
T = 3 minutes a time/current curve which is itself obtained from
t' = 15 sec for C.B. not to be used for rapid auto-re- prescribed testing condition.
closure • Fuse rating - It is that value of current which flows
• Testing of circuit breakers - through the element when fuse does not melt.
Type test Fuse rating < minimum fusing current
Routine test
Minimum fusing current
Development tests • Fusing factor - F.F. =
Fuse rating
Reliability tests
Commissioning tests F.F. > 1
Indirect testing • Prospective current -
Direct testing - (used for full power or stress) R.M.S. in nature.
Short circuit test - (Rating of the C.B.) Appear in circuit when a short circuit occurs.
Synthetic test - (High frequency transient voltages) • Melting time or pre-arcing time - The time taken
Isolator from the instant the current that causes a break in the
Break the circuit under no load condition fuse wire starts flowing, to the instant the arc in
Isolator is present at both side of C.B. initiated.
Isolator are used on transmission line are capable of • Arcing time - The time taken from the instant of arc
breaking = Charging current initiation to the instant of arc being extinguished.
• Step for open & close the isolator - • Total operating time -
Open - Open the C.B. → Open the isolator → Close T.O.T. = ( Pr e − arcing + Arcing time )
the earth switch
• Requirement of fuse –
Close - Close the C.B. → Close the isolator → Open
the earth switch AC → 1 - φ → 1 fuse , DC Supply → 2 Fuse <+ ve
− ve
• Type of isolator - • Working principle -
i. Single Break type
I ↑ → Heat ↑ ∝ I2Rt ∝ T ↑ ∝ material will melt →
ii. Double break type circuit will become open.
iii. Penta graph type isolator
• Quality - Simplest and cheapest form of protection
• Used - Low voltage equipment against overload and
short circuit condition.
• Fuse wire design –
Material Highly conductive
Cross-section area Current rating of fuse
Length of fuse decide the voltage rating • Fuse operation -When an HRC fuse operates, the
wire  V  element absorbs energy from the circuit and heats
 E = > dielectric strength  until it melts.
 d 
Heat produced = ∫ I 2 Rdt
• Protection - Fuse wire are used for backup
protection. R = Instantaneous resistance
• Characteristics - Inverse time current • Operation Time = Operating time is as low as 1/4th
characteristics. of a cycle.
• Properties :-
Fast operation Low cost
Rupturing capacity Non-deterioration
Low temperature operation
Accurate discrimination
Arc voltage within safe limits
• Application -
H 1
I2RT > H , T > , ↓T∝ 2 i. Protection of cables ii. Protection of bus-bars
2
IR I ↑
iii. Earth fault → both of low and high magnitude
3
• Joule's law - I = Kd 2
or Kd1.5 iv. Protection of industrial distribution system
Rating -
d = Diameter of fuse wire, k = Constant
(i) 400 V, (150 Amp continuous rating & 200 kA -
• Type of fuse -
rupturing capacity)
Low voltage High voltage fuse
Kit- kat (Semi closed rewirable) Cattridge fuse
Lightning Arrester -
• Overvoltage protection –
HRC Liquid fuse
External Due to mainly lightning → protected
Metal clade fuse
over by shielding methods
• Characteristics of fuse element - voltages
i. Low melting point ii. High conductive Internal Due to switching operation →
iii. Free from oxidation iv. Low resistance over Protected by Non shielding methods →
v. low cost of material voltages Principle of insulation breakdown
• Alloy - lead (37%) + Tin (63%) • Non shielding method -
i. 10 A > Fuse → (lead + Tin) • Over voltage causes -
ii. 10 A < Fuse → Silver Lightning Switching
• Advantage - Resonance Arching grounds
Cheap Automatic operation Faults Traveling waves.
No maintenance Short time operation Sudden changes in circuit condition
Small size • Lightning arrester specification and terms :-
• Disadvantage - Impulse ratio Flash over
Replace Poor discrimination Seismic load Residual voltage
Current time characteristics some time fail Discharge current Terminal connectors
• HRC fuse- High Rupturing Capacity Fuse. Short circuit forces Breakdown (Puncture)
• Construction - The HRC fuse consists of a ceramic Continuous operating voltage of an arrester
body usually of steatite, pure silver element, clean Rated frequency of an arrester
Silica quartz, asbestos washers, porcelain plugs, Rated voltage of the arrester
brass end-caps and copper tags. Power frequency spark over voltage

• Types of lightning arrester Protection of Bus bar and
Rod gap Horn gap transmission lines -
Surge absorber Surge diverters Bus bar faults -
Expulsion gap or protective tube Failure of insulation Failure of C.B.
Valve type lightning arrester Earth fault Flashover
• Surge diverters - Earth quake and mechanical damage
• Protection -
Rod gap
Frame leakage protection of bus bar
Expulsion type of lightning arrester
circulating current protection of bus bar
Valve type lightning arresters. . High impedance differential protection of bus bar
Rod gap It is a type of surge diverter • Feeder protection -
Connection → Between line terminal Feeder = transmission line & Distribution circuit
and earthed terminal medium of gap → Various methods -
air 1. Over current protection 2. Distance protection
3. Pilot relaying protection
air gap → 12 mm
1. Over-current protection of transmission lines-
approximately
Non-directional time and current graded method
distance between arc path →Inverse time relays
1 Directional time and current graded method
and insulator >
3 Note - None directional relays are employed →
Horn The steepness of the wave incident on Supply side
Gap the equipment to be protected is reduced Directional relay are employed → Receiving end
It reflects the voltage surge back on to • Differential protection of feeders (Pilot wire
the horn protection)
1. Merz - price voltage balance system
Drawbacks- The time of operation of
2. Translay scheme/Translay relay
the gap is quite large as compared to the
3. Solkal scheme - (Based on balanced voltage)
modern protective gear.
2 Distance protection of transmission line -
Expulsion It is also known as expulsion type of • High speed impedance relay, (top = 20 ms)
gap or lightning arrester.
protective
Generator protection -
The breakdown voltage of expulsion
• Generator faults -
tube tubes is slightly lower than for plain
Stator faults Protection
rod gaps for the same spacing.
Phae to phase faults differential protection (merz-
Valve More expensive surge diverter- price protection)
type I = KV n Phase to earth faults Restricted earth fault
lightning protection
arresters K = Constant, n = 2 – 6
Inter-turn faults split-phase protection
• Rating of lightning arrester - Main consideration 2. Rotor faults -
in selecting the ratings of a lightning arrester is the Abnormal Running Protection (Use)
line to ground dynamic voltage. Condition
Operating voltage, Rated voltage Over loading Over current relay
R.V. = Maximum system voltage × ground fault Over speeding Turbo-governor
factor Unbalanced loading Negative sequence currents
• Shielding method - (IDMT Relay)
Ground wires - Protection - transmission line Over voltage Over voltage relay used
made of → galvanized steel wire Failure of prime Wattmetric relay with
mover directional characteristics
protective angle of ground wire - 30º
Loss of excitation Offset mho relay
• Improving the grounds of transmission line – (field failure)
Ground rods Reduce the tower footing resistance Cooling system Thermocouples or resistance
Counter poise Made of - Galvanized steel wire failure thermometers
• Effect of earth resistance on % of winding • Percentage differential protection for
unprotected - transformer -
RI0 It is also called merz- price protection
% of winding unprotected = ×100
V principle → circulating current
I0 = Minimum operating current in the primary of protect → phase to phase fault & phase to ground
C.T. faults
Induction Motor Protection • C.T. Connection -
Abnormal condition Choice of protection Power T/F C.T.
circuit
Connection Connections
Mechanical over load Over load, release,
thermal over load Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
relay, over current Star Delta Delta Star
relay MCB with built- Delta Delta Star Star
in trip coil.
Star Star Delta Delta
Stalling or prolonged Thermal relays,
starting of motor Instantaneous over Delta Star Star Delta
current relay • Problems Encountered in Differential protection
Under voltage Under voltage release, Unmatched Over come by using
under voltage relay
characteristics of C.T. percentage differential relay
Unbalanced voltage Negative phase
Ratio change due to overcome by using
sequence relay
tap change percentage differential relay.
Reverse phase sequence Phase reversal relay
Phase to phase fault or HRC fuse, Difference in lengths overcome by connecting the
phase to earth fault Instantaneous over of pilot wires adjustable resistors in pilot
current relays. wires on both sides.
(for large motor) - Magnetizing current over come by restraining
differential protection inrush coil it is also called.
Single phasing Thermal over load
• Harmonic Restraint and Harmonic Blocking -
relays, single phase
preventer Order of Harmonic content Amplitude as a % of
Remember point in magnetizing current fundamental
Ground Fault protection - 2nd 63.0
rd
ELCB (Earth leakage circuit breaker) 3 26.8
th
Zero sequence current transformer (ZSCT) 4 5.1
th
Transformer protection - 5 4.1
th
Possible Transformer Faults – 6 3.7
th
Over heating thermocouples or resistance 7 2.4
temperature • Frame leakage protection -
Winding faults Phase to phase faults → Percentage Protect → earth fault of a transformer
differential relay
• Over-fluxing and protection -
Earth faults Percentage differential relay
Under over fluxing condition → transformer draws
Inter turn Percentage differential relay
faults very high magnetizing current
Through faults Over current relay with under voltage V Volt
protection by → relay or relay.
blocking, zero sequence protection → I hertz
negative sequence protection • Generator - Transformer unit protection -
Over fluxing over fluxing relay ⇒ Protection by percentage differential relay.
EARTHING AND WIRING
Earthing and Wiring Pressure Pressure
switch switch
Energy meter distribution Normally Normally
board - open (NO) close (NC)
light/Fan
electric HRC Fuse Rewireble
Fuse
Main switch, Distributio
MCB n board -
power Neutral link Instrument
circuit transformer
Distribution bulb point
board
Auto DC
Sub- Water light transformer Generator
distribution bulb point
board
Switch board Light Fan, DC Motor AC
circuit Generator
main AC Motor Direct on
switch/MC line starter
B
Power circuit Spot light Star-delta Auto
main starter transformer
switch/MCB starter
Electric bell Exhaust fan
Current Automatic
control starter starter (DC
Push button Fan motor)
or bell push regulator
Bracket fan Ceiling fan Earthing or Chassis

earth point earth
Batton lamp Manual fire
holder alarm Position of Flexible
fault to frame conductor
Water light Automatic
lamp fitting fire
detector Zig-zag n-
Bulk head Fire alarm conductor conductor
lighting indicator Isolator Power
Projector or Bell circuit
lamp with connected breaker
Reflector to fire Overhead line Co-axial
alarm cable
switch
General bulb Wall or
Flood light Buzzer
or bulb outlet bracket
mounted
lamp
Siren Horn or
hooter Lamp Chain lamp
mounted on fixture
Indicating Push button ceiling
lamp switch
Normally Rod lamp Emergency
open fixture lamp
Push button Push button Panic lamp Luminous
switch switch push button
Normally Normally
closed open - Fluorescent Ceiling
Normally lamp or tube rose
closed light

Name and conditions Light fan Power Push button
of fuse board and circuit circuit fuse
switches board
Main fuse board Socket outlet 5A
without switch
Main fuse board with Socket outlet 16A
switch
Distribution fuse Diagram of electrical circuits
board without switch 1. Layout diagram 2. Circuit diagram
3. Schematic diagram
Distribution fuse → Multi line wiring diagram
4. Wiring diagram —|→ Single line wiring diagram
board with switch
Name and condition In circuit In layout
of switches diagram diagram
Single throw, single
pole
Double pole, single
throw
Triple pole single
throw
Two way
Neutral transformer T Direct ground

Single pole
TN ground connected to connection
multiposition switch chassis
TT Neutral transformer N Neutral
and grounded chassis C Combined
Intermediate switch IT Grounded neutral S Separate
transformer I Isolated from
grounded chassis ground
TN - N/W TN-CN/W T T N/W
TN-SN/W T N-C-S NW TI N/W

• Comparison of all earthing system
Earthing system conditions TN-C TN-S TN-C-S TT TI
Earth fault loop impedance (EFLI) Low Low Low High Highest
RCD Preference No Optional Optional Yes N.A.
Need of earth electrode at site No No Optional Yes Yes
PE conductor cost Least Highest High Low Low
Risk of broken neutral Highest High High No No
Safety Least Safest Safe Safe Less safe
safe
Electromagnetic interference High Low Low Least Least
Safety risks Broken Broken Broken High loop impedance Double fault
neutral Neutral Neutral (Step voltage) over voltage
• Earthing - (BIS -3043 - 1966) • Ideally earth resistance - 0
• Earthing – Used in distribution system to connect • Practically the value of earth resistance given below.
metallic part of electrical equipment to the earth Large power plant 0.5 Ω
with a low resistance wire.
Medium power plant 1.0 Ω
• Points to be earthed
Small power plant 1.0 Ω
1. 3 Pin socket and 4 pin power plug.
2. 4 wire distribution system, neutral wire. Small substation 2.0 Ω
3. All metallic part of equipments e.g. - Motor, Domestic wire installation 1.0 Ω
Generator, Cooler.
Other electrical installation 5.0 Ω
4. All domestic appliances
• Determination of size of earth wire and earth electrode -
Electric load/ type of Size of earth wire Size of earth electrode
load Cu GI Al Cu GI Al
Domestic wiring 14 SWG 8 SWG 12 SWG 60cm×60 cm 60cm×60 cm 60cm×60 cm ×
installation × 3.18 mm × 6.3 mm 6.3 mm
Pole earthing 8 SWG 8 SWG Not used do do Not used
10 H.P. upto do do 12.5 mm2 do do 60×60 cm × 6.3
mm
10 H.P - 15 H.P do 6 SWG 20 mm2 do do do
15 H.P - 30 H.P 6 SWG 2 SWG 30 mm2 do 90cm×90 cm 90cm×90 cm ×
× 6.35 mm 6.30 mm
30 H.P - 100 H.P 4 SWG Not used 37.5 mm2 90cm×90 cm Not used do
× 6.35 mm
50 H.P - 100 H.P 12.7 mm × Not used 50 mm2 do Not used 90cm×90 cm ×
2.54 mm 10 mm
100 H.P above 25.4 mm × Not used 100 mm2 do Not used do
2.54 mm
Power house and Size of earth Size of earth • Methods of earthing -
sub-station wire electrode
Cu Cu
Upto 300 kVA 20 mm×4 mm 90cm×90 cm
× 6.35 mm
300 kVA-500 kVA 32 mm×5 mm do
500 kVA-800 kVA 40 mm×6.3 do
• Electrode used in wire or strip earthing
mm
Electrode type Size
800 kVA-1000 50 mm×6.3 do
Cu wire 3 mm2
kVA mm GI wire 6 mm2
Above 1000 kVA Two strip do Cu strip 25 mm × 1.6 mm
different size GI strip/steel strip 25 mm × 4 mm
• Plate electrode 3. Wire or strip earthing
Type Size • The length of the buried conductor should not be
Cu plate 60cm × 60 cm × 3.15 mm less than 1.5 m laid in a trench not less than 0.5m
GI Plate 60cm × 60 cm × 6.3 mm depth.
• Electrode used in Rod earthing 4. Cable sheaths
Electrode type Size
Cu rod solid 12 mm dia • Where an extensive underground cable system is
GI rod solid 19 mm dia available lead sheathed and steel armoured cables
GI rod hollow 25 mm dia may be used as earth electrodes provided the bond
• Earth resistance depend - across the joints at least of the same conductivity as
of the sheath.
• The resistance of such an earth electrode system is
generally less than one ohm.
Grounding Earthing
Grounding implies Earthing implies connection
connection of current of non-current carrying parts
carrying parts to to ground like metallic
ground. enclosures
It is mostly done for Under any ground fault
either generator or condition, it enables the
transformer’s neutral. ground fault current, return
Hence it is generally back to the source without
called neutral endangering human safety.
grounding. Solid earthing -
Grounding is used for Earthing is used for human • Use when fault current is expected to be low.
equipment safety. safety.
• The earthing may be done directly through metallic
conductor from system neutral to the main earthing
ring without any impedance in the circuit.
• For effective or solid grounding -
X R
< 3 and ≤1
X1 R1
1. Plate electrode
• Made of Cu = 60cm × 60 cm × 3.15 mm. • Resistance earthing -
GI = 60cm × 60 cm × 6.3 mm. • Resistance earthing is generally used when the fault
• Plate electrode shall be buried such a way so that its current is likely to be so high as to cause damage to
top edge is at a depth, not less than 1.5 m from the transformers.
surface of the ground. • The resistance is inserted between the neutral and
• Use of plate electrode is recommended only where,
earth.
there current carrying capacity is the primary
consideration i.e. generating station and substations.
• Plates buried vertically in pits.
2. Pipe electrode
• It should be made of 'B' class GI pipe. Liquid resistance used below 6.6 kV.
• The internal diameter should not be smaller than 38
mm and it should be 100 mm for cost iron pipe.
• The length of the pipe electrode should not be less
than 2.5 m.
• It should be embedded vertically.
Reactance earthing Difference B/w MCB and MCCB -
• When the zero sequence reactance of generators or MCB MCCB
transformers is as low as to cause excessive fault It stand for miniature It stand for molded case
current, usually reactance earthing is used. circuit breaker. circuit breaker.
• A single phase reactor is inserted between the Rated current not more Rated current upto
neutral and the earth to limit fault current to the than 125A. 1600A.
maximum of three phase short circuit current. Its interrupting current Its interrupting current
rating is under 10kA. rating from around 10kA-
85kA.
MCB is mainly used for MCCB is mainly used for
low breaking capacity both low and high braking
requirement mainly for capacity requirement
Arc-suppression coil earthing domestic appliances. mainly for industrial
• To avoid isolation of system under earth fault appliances.
conditions, arc-suppression coils are sometimes
Its trip characteristics are Its trip current may be
used.
normally not adjustable fixed as well as adjustable
• Arc-suppression coil, also known as Peterson coil, is since they basically cater for overload and magnetic
a tuned earthing reactor. to low circuits. setting.
• Difference between RCCB and ELCB -
RCCB ELCB
RCCB stand for ELCB stand for electric
residual current circuit leakage circuit breaker
breaker
It is refers to current ELCB refers to voltage
operated devices operated earth leakage
Medium voltage (3.3 to 33 kV) → Resistance or device
Reactance
it ensures 100% It is not preferable as it can
• S.W.G. wire size - detection of leakage only detect current that
Wire Gauge Dia Area Max current is available to flow back through the main
(mm) (mm2) ampere sense the AC as well as earth wire
(A) DC leakage current
8 SWG 4 12 58 RCCB has no ELCB is working based on
9 SWG 3.6 10.5 47 connection with the earth leakage current
10 SWG 3.2 8.3 37 earth wire
11 SWG 2.94 6.8 30 It can trip when both These devices measured
12 SWG 2.6 5.4 24 current (phase and the voltage on the earth
13 SWG 2.3 4.2 19.3 neutral) are different conductor, if this voltage
14 SWG 2 3.2 14.6 and it will stand up to becomes not zero this
16 SWG 1.6 2 9 same value of both indicate a leakage current
current. to earth.
19 SWG 1 0.8 3.6
6 SWG 4.8 18.6 84
4 SWG 5.8 27.2 123
• Selection of MCB for different circuit -
2 SWG 7 38.6 174
Circuit Colour of knob
Difference between MCB, MCCB, For light/fan circuit Green
RCCB and ELCB - For motor circuit Blue
MCB, MCCB, RCCB, ELCB are circuit breakers
For DC motor or DC circuit Black
but all of them are designed for serving a specific
perpose. Isolator Red
MCB → Miniature circuit breaker Estimation of internal wiring
MCCB → Molded case circuit breaker • Internal distribution system -
RCCB → Residual current circuit breaker Distribution board system
ELCB → Electric leakage circuit breaker Tree system
• Method of wiring - Disadvantage
Junction box method Costly system of wiring
Loop in method- Used in domestic wiring Not suitable where reactive chemical (acids and
a. Junction box method - alkalies) corrosion may occur.
Saving of conductor iv. Batten wiring or T.R.S. or C.T.S. wiring -
The wiring is weak because there are joint at C.T.S. - Cable tyre sheathed
different places. T.R.S. - Tough rubber sheathed
b. Loop in method This type of wiring also called batten wiring.
There are no joint in this wiring neither phase This system is suitable for low voltage
nor in neutral. installation. (below 250V)
• System of wiring The cables are held on the wooden batten by
i. Cleat wiring means of tinned brass link clips spaced at an-
ii. Wooden casing - capping wiring → Horizontal 10 cm
iii. Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
→ Vertical 15 cm
iv. Batten wiring or TR.S. or C.T.S. wiring
v. Conduit wiring
v. Conduit wiring
Surface conduit wiring
i. Cleat wiring
Concealed conduit wiring
The distance between the cleat is 30 to 60 cm.
PVC or VIR cable used. Advantage
The wiring is cheap and temporary. Appearance is good Life long
Advantage Withstand the action of most reactive chemicals
Cheapest system such as acids and alkalies.
installation and maintenance is easy Installation is easy compare to casing-capping
Less skilled person are required Cheap compare to other wiring except cleat
Inspection is easy wiring
Disadvantage - Disadvantage
Temporary wiring Not recommended in situations exposed to sun
Appearance is not good and rain
Possibility of mechanical injury Not used in damp places
Not used in damp places. Only suitable below than 250V
ii. Casing capping wiring - Conduit wiring system
The casing is used at distance of 60 cm - 60 cm. Conduit wiring system consists of either VIR or
PVC or VIR cable used. PVC cables taken through tubes or pipes and
Wooden casing - capping is replace by PVC terminated at the outlets or switchs/sockets. The tube
casing capping. or pipe is known as "conduit".
cost higher compare to cleat and batten wiring. Type of conduits
Advantage 1. Rigid steel/metal conduit
Provides good insulation 2. Rigid PVC/ non-metallic conduit
Provides good mechanical strength 3. Flexible steel conduit
Easy to inspect by opening the capping 4. Flexible PVC/ non-metallic conduit
Disadvantage - Advantage
Costly system and Risk of fire Provides protection against mechanical damage
Labour cost more, skilled labour required and fire
Not used in damp places Water proof
iii. Lead sheathed wiring Life is long
In lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring the Replacement of defective wiring is easy
cables used are insulated wires. TRS or PVC, Appearance is very good.
with metal outer covering of about 1 mm thick.
Disadvantage
The metal covering is known as sheathing and is
PVC conduit does not provide protection
made of lead- Al alloy containing about 95% of
against fire
lead.
metal conduit wiring is very costly
Advantage
Provide protection against mechanical injury Metal conduit wiring require more time
Can be used in damp situations Needs skilled labour
It has longer life Complicated to manage defects in the wiring
• General requirements of electrical installation (k) Diversity
(a) Layout wiring (l) Diversity factor for sub circuit
(b) Conductors
• Rating of lamp, fan and socket outlet point
(c) Rating of lamp, fan and socket point
(d) Joint box and looping in system Incandescent lamp 100 watt
(e) Reception and distribution of main supply Ceiling and table fan 100 watt
(f) Arrangement of apparatus on switchboards Ordinary socket outlet point 100 watt
(g) Single phase supply Fluorescent lamp 60 watt
(h) Three phase, four wire supply Power socket outlet point 1000 watt
(i) Sub distribution board Tubelight point 40 watt
(j) Sub-circuits Mercurry vapour lamp 125 watt
Comparison between wiring system
Particulars Cleat wiring Casing-capping wiring Batten Conduit
wiring wiring
Type of wiring Temporary Permanent Permanent Permanent
Life Short Fairly long Long Very long
Cost Low Medium Medium Highest
Mechanical protection None Fair None Very good
Possibility of fire Good Less Good Nill
Protection from dampness None A little None Good
Type of labour required Semi-skilled Highly skilled Semi-skilled Highly skilled
Installation Very easy Difficult Easy Difficult
Inspection Easy Easy Easy Difficult
Repair Easy Little bit difficult Easy Difficult
Popularity Nill Fair Nill Very high
Appearance Not good Good Better Best
Wiring material and accessories (4) Lead sheathed -
Types of wire Used at damp places
i. On the basis of voltage Available at 250/440 V grade
1. 250/440 V 2. 650/1100 V • Calculation as circuit -
ii. On the basis of insulating material (i) Light and fan circuit - Maximum 800 watt
V.I.R. (Vulcanised India Rubber) 10 point (include fan, light and 5A socket)
P.V.C. (Poly vinyl chloride) (ii) Power circuit - Maximum 3000 watt,
T.R.S. or C.T.S. cable Flexible cable 2 point (include 15A socket)
lead sheathed cable Weather proof cable
• Size of conductor
(1) V.I.R. cable
Used in cleat, casing-capping and conduit Light fan circuit Power circuit
wiring Al wire - 1.5 mm (1/1.4 Al wire - 2.5 mm2
2
Al/Cu conductor mm) (1/1.8 mm)

Available in 250/440V or 650/1100V both voltage Cu wire - 0.96 mm ( 1/1.2 Cu wire - 1.93 mm2
2
grade mm) (3/0.915 mm)

Replace by P.V.C.
• General rules of wiring -
(2) P.V.C. cable
Height of energy meter from floor - 1.5 m
Used in cleat, casing-capping T.R.S. and
conduit wiring Height of distribution board from floor - 1.5 m
Al/Cu conductor Height of light point board from floor - 2.5 m
Available in 250/440 V and 650/1100 V both Height of ceiling fan board from floor - 2.55 m
voltage grade Height of switch board from floor - 1.25 m
(3) T.R.S. or C.T.S. cable - Height of 5A socket board from floor - 1.28 m
Used in batten wiring Height of 15 socket board from floor - 1.50 m or
Used at damp places 25 cm
Available at 250/440 V grade Height of socket in bathroom - 1.5 m
• Fuse and fuse unit - suffering from electric shock
Fusing current - It is minimum current at IE Rule 49 Leakage on consumer's premises
which the fuse element melts and thus IE Rule 54 Declared voltage of supply to consumer
disconnects the circuit protected by it.
IE Rule 55 Percentage change in frequency at
consumer’s end ± 3%
IE Rule 61 Connection with earth
• Properties
IE Rule 74 Materials strength
1. Low melting point
2. Low resistivity • Breaking strength of all the
conductors not less than 317.51kg.
3. Low metal vapour conductivity
IE Rule 76 Maximum stress: safety factor
4. Low losses
5. Free from oxidation and corrosion • Safety factor of stay wire, Guard
wire, bearer wire is 2.5
6. High thermal conductivity
• Minimum safety factor of
7. Low temperature coefficient
conductor is 2
• Fuse wire material - Ag, Cu, Pb-Sn alloy
IE Rule 77 Clearance above ground of lowest
• Types of fuse - conductor
1. Rewireable or kit-cat fuse IE Rule 78 Clearance between conductors and
2. Cartridge type fuse unit trolley wires
3. High rupturing capacity fuse (HRC) IE Rule 79 Clearance from buildings of low and
• Rewireable fuse - medium voltages lines and service
Fusing current lines.
Fusing factor = >1 IE Rule 80 Clearance from buildings of high and
Current rating of fuse
extra high voltage line
Fusing factor is always greater than 1 IE Rule 81 Conductors at different voltage on same
• Range of fusing factor 1.6 to 2 supports
• Cartridge type fuse - There fuse consists of the IE Rule 85 Maximum intervals between supports
heat resisting ceramic body enclosed by a metal cap IE Rule 86 Conditions to apply where tele
at both ends. The filling material such as chalk, communication lines and power lines
plaster of Paris, quartz or marble dust surrounds the are carried on same supports
body space which acts as an arc quenching and
IE Rule 88 Guarding
cooling medium.
IE Rule 89 Service line from overhead lines
IE Rule 90 Four earthing is usually installed at 1.6
HRC fuse - km
HRC fuses are used to protect the circuit from IE Rule 91 Safety and protective devices
short circuit in HV switchgear IE Rule 92 Protection against lightning
Used for backup safety INDIAN STANDARDS
These type of fuses are used in stator of motor IS : 4648-1968 Guide for electrical layout in
Type of fuse Fuse rating residential buildings
Kit-kat use 5 A to 3000 A IS : 2309-1989 Code of practice for protection of
Cartridge fuse 2 A to 63 A buildings and allied structures
against lightning.
HRC fuse 30 A to 1000 A
IS : 3043-1987 Code of practice for earthing
D-type 100 mA to 10 A
IS : 732-1989 Code of practice for electrical
IE Rule 30 Service lines and apparatus on wiring installations
consumer's premises
IS : 8061-1976 Code of practice for design, installation
IE Rule 33 Earthed terminal on consumer's and maintenance of service lines upto
premises and including 650 V.
IE Rule 35 Warning plate greater than 400V IS : 8437-1997 Guidance on effect of current
IE Rule 43 Provisions applicable to protective passing through human body
equipments eg-fire extinguishers IS : 9409-1980 Classification of electrical
IE Rule 44 Instructions for restoration of person equipment.

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
Nature of light • Candela:-It is the unit of luminous intensity of a
source.
• Luminous Flux :- Flux contained per unit solid
angle of a source of one candela or standard
candela.
1Lumen = 0.0016 watt
• Lumen-hour :- It is the quantity of light delivered
in one hour by a flux of one lumen.
• Luminous intensity (I) or Candle-Power-
luminous flux radiated out per unit solid angle in
Low wave length- 0.000015 × 10–6 m to 0.001 dφ
that direction. I =
× 10–6 m dω
• Different colour and wave length :- I → Luminous intensity, dφ → Luminous flux.
d ω → Solid Angle. , If d ω = 4π
φ = 4 πI
• Mean spherical candle power :-
Total flux in lumens
• Most sensitive colour-Green (5500 A) M ⋅S⋅ C⋅ P =
4π
• Relation between speed, wavelength and
• Mean Hemispherical Candle Power :-
frequency:-
flux emitted in a hemisphere
v = n λ = 3 × 10 8 m / sec M⋅H⋅C⋅P =
2π
• Radiations from a Hot body :-
Energy radiated out in the • Reduction factor- A source is given by the ratio.
formof light MSCP
Radiants efficiency = R.f. =
Totalenergy radiated out by MHCP
the hot body
It is also referred to as spherical reduction factor.
Radiant's efficiency depends on the temperature of • Illuminance or Illumination (E)- The illumination
the source of a surface is measured by the normal luminous
Maximum radiant efficiency would occur at about flux per unit area received by it.
6200oC and even then the value of this maximum
E×A φ
efficiency would be 20%. φ= E=
η× P A
1A =10−8 cm = 10−10 m
φ → Luminous flux, A → Area.
Wave length of Red light → 0.00 0078 cm • Luminance (L) of an Extended Source -
Wave length of Violet light → 0.00 00 39 cm ∆I Cd
L=
∆A Cos θ m 2
A
Solid Angle ( ω) = steradian ∆A → Area, ∆I → Luminous Intensity
r2
• Luminous Existence (M) of a surface :-
Relation between solid angle and plane angle-
ω = [2π(1 − cos θ / 2)] Steradian ∆φ lm
M=
∆A m 2
Where – M = π L in the case of a uniform diffuse
source.
• Transmittance (T) of an Illuminated Diffuse • Maintenance factor :- (0.4 to 0.8)
Reflecting surface :- It is defined as the ratio of the Illumination under normal working condition
total luminous flux transmitted by it to the total flux M ⋅ F =
Illumination when everything is clean
incident on it. The relation between luminous
existence (M) of a surface transmitting light and E(normal)
illuminance (E) on the other side. M.F. =
E(Ideal)
M = T × E or T = M / E
• Depreciation factor :-
• Reflection Ratio or coefficient of Reflection or Average illumination in ideal condition
Reflectance (ρ) :- It is given by the luminous flux D⋅F=
Average illumination in normal condition
reflected from a small area of the total flux incident
upon it (or) ratio of luminous existence. E(Ideal)
D.F. =
M E(normal)
Illuminate ( ρ ) =
E 1
Normal value - 1.2 to1.5 M ⋅ F∝
• ρ < 1, ρ = 0 for ideal blackbody, ρ = 1 for perfect D⋅F
reflector.
Remember point
• Lamp efficiency : Specific output of a lamp is the
ratio of luminous flux to the power intake. Name Unit Symbols
It unit is lumen/watt Luminous flux Lumen F or φ
Remember point Luminous Intensity Candela I
(candle power)
Reflected light
Reflection factor = Luminance (or) Cd/m2 L/B
Incident light
Brightness
Beam lumen Luminous Existence lm/m2 M
Beam factor =
Lamp lumen Illumination. lm/m2 or lux E
Lies between 0.3-0.6 always less than 1. Solid Angle Steradian ω
• Utilization factor or coefficient of utilization (0.3 Lamp efficiency lm/watt η
to 0.5) Laws of Illumination or Illuminance :-
Utilization factor (η) i. E is directly proportional to the luminous intensity
Lumen actually received on working plane φ(Utilised) (I) of the source. E ∝ I
= =
Total lamens emitted by light source φ (Total)
ii. Inverse square law :- The illumination of a surface
• Utilization Depends on is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
Scheme of light i.e. (Direct or indirect light).
1
Height of Lamp. of the surface from the source. E ∝
Color of wall and ceilings. r2
The value of utilization factor when, direct lighting- iii. Lambert cosine law :- Angle made by the normal
0.4 to 0.6, indirect lighting - 0.1 to 0.5. to the illuminated surface with the direction of the
• Depreciation of maintenance Factor incident flux.
Illumination under actualcondition φ I φ cos θ

Depreciation factor = E1 = E= cos θ E2 =
Illumination when everything A r2 A
is perfectlyclean
E D = E A cos3 θ − for finding Illumination at same
For clean fitting → 1/1.3
height in street
For Dirty fitting → 1/1.5
• Space and Height ratio (S⋅H⋅R) • Lighting Schemes
i. Direct Lighting Scheme- 90% light directly
Horizontal distance between two lamp
S⋅ H ⋅ R = projected on the work place and 10% light projected
Height of lamps above working plane upward
S⋅H⋅R always lies between 1 to 2. ii. Indirect Lighting Scheme- only 10% of light
It is depends on the nature of the polar curve of a projected on the work place and 90% light projected
lamp when used along with it reflector. upward.
iii. Semi-Direct Lighting Scheme :- 60 to 90% of light Proof-reading, drawing, sustained 100-200
directly projected on the work place and 10 to 40% reading, fine assembling, skilled
light Indirect projected on the work place. bench-work.
iv. Semi Indirect Lighting Scheme :- 60 to 90% of
Drawing offices, art exhibition, usual 60-100
light indirectly projected and 10 to 40% of light
reading.
directly projected on the work place .
v. General Purpose Lighting Scheme:-Illuminaries In museums, drillhalls, for work of 40-60
employed which have almost equal light distribution simple nature not involving close
downwards (50%) and upwards (50%). attention to fine details.
Purpose and places lm/m2 Usual observation as in bed-rooms, 20-40
Precision work, displays, tasks waiting rooms, auditoriums and
requiring rapid discrimination, extra above 500 general lighting in factories.
fine machine work, around needles of
sewing machines. Hospital wards, yards, railway 5-10
Fine engraving, inspection of fine 200 - 500 platforms and corridors.
details having low contrast.
• Incandescent lamp Ductility.

Types of Filament Power Melting Sufficient mechanical strength to withstand
Incandescent point vibrations.
lamps Their light has no stroboscopic effects.
Carbon Carbon 3 to 4 watt/CP 3400 °C
filament
Very near to the natural light.
Lamp Initial cost minimum.
Vacuum Tungsten 1.2 watt/CP 3370 °C Running cost maximum.
lamp Suitable for domestic, industrial street lighting
Gas filled Tungsten 0.6 watt/CP 3370 °C and flood lights.
tungsten
• Characteristics of Incandescent lamps :-
filament lamp
i. Lumen o/p ∝ V 3.3 ii. Lumen o/p ∝ I5
Remember point 1
iii. Life ∝ 1.3 iv. W ∝ V 1.43
Only 5 to 10% of electric energy are convert to V
light and reaming convert to heat. v. lm/watt ∝ V 2
Filled inert gasses are like nitrogen or argon.
Luminous efficiency of 12 lm/W. Remember point
It was found that an admixture of 85% argon
and about 15% nitrogen gave best results.
Average working life of 1000 hours.
• Properties
A high melting and hence operating
temperature.
A low vapour pressure.
A high specific resistance and a low
temperature coefficient.
• LED- Light emitting diode is an optoelectronic Higher efficiency → The efficiency of LED's to
device which works on the principle of electro- convert power to light energy is 10-15 times
luminance. greater than that of the tungsten lamp.
Not use of mercury
• The semiconductor material used in LED-
Not produces toxic
Material Cooler Voltage in Volts Not emitted ultraviolet rays.
Gallium Arsenide Green 2 Volt Life → 40000 - 60000 hours.
(GaAs) Maintenance cost low.
Gallium Phosphide Green 2.2 Volt Illumination quality high.
(GaP) It's possible to uniform and controlled
Gallium Arsenide Red 1.8 Volt illumination.
Phosphide (GaAsP) • Phosphor colour in fluorescent lamp :-
• Advantage of LED :- Phosphor Colour
° °
Temperature Range - 0 C-70 C Zinc Silicate Green
Switching time - 1 ns Cadmium Silicate Yellow-pink
Less power consumption Magnesium Tungstate Blue-white
Economical and Reliable
Small size and portability Calcium Tungstate Blue
Lamp Color Initial cost Running cost Position Starting Efficiency Life Use
time
Sodium Yellow Maximum Less than Horizontal 5 to 6 50-70 lm/w 3000 h open spaces, high
Vapour filament lamps minutes ways, street
lamp. but more than lighting
fluorescent lamps
Mercury Greenish High but Much less than Vertical 5 to 6 40 lm/w 3000 h Open space
vapour lamp blue lesser than incandescent minute yards, parks,
that of lamps but higher highway lighting.
fluorescent than fluorescent
lamps tubes
Neon lamp Red High Low Vertical 1 Second Around 15- 50000 h Advertise,
40 lm/w Voltage tester
Fluorescent White maximum minimum Horizontal 1 second 50-100 4000 h Semi-direct
lamp / vertical lm/w lighting domestic,
industrial,
commercial,
roads and halls
Halogen Yellow/ High Moderate Horizontal Instantly 25-30 lm/w 2000- Studio spot light,
lamp Blueish 4000 h Road lighting
videography
Carbon arc Natural High Low Horizontal Instantly 12 lm/watt Cinema
lamp Color or projectors
Vertical
ELECTRIC HEATING- (iv) Ease of control (v) Special heating Requirement
Electric heating is extensively used both for domestic (vi) Higher efficiency (vii) Better working
and industrial applications. conditions (viii) Heating of Bad conductors
• Electric heating Domestic (ix) Safety. (x) Lower attention and maintenance
(i) Room heaters (ii) Immersion heaters for water cost.
heating. (iii) Hot plates for cooking (iv) Electric • Methods of heat transfer :-
kettles (v) Electric irons (vi) Pop-corn plants (vii) KA ( T1 − T2 ) t
Electric ovens for bakeries (viii) Electric toasters. 1. Conduction → H = → Molecule
x
• Industrial application
(i) Melting of metals (ii) Heat treatment of metals 2. Convection → H = a (T1 − T2 ) → Hot and cold air
like annealing, tempering, soldering and brazing
 4 4

(iii) Moulding of glass (iv) Baking of insulators 3. Radiation → H = 5.72 ek  T1  −  T2   →
 100   100 
(v) Enamellings of copper wires     
• Advantages of electric heating Hot body to cold body
(i) Cleanliness' (ii) No pollution (iii) Economical
• Requirement of a good Heating element :- The arc is stuck by short circuiting the electrodes
High specific resistance. manually or automatically.
High melting point (Temp). Used for melting non-ferrous metals. and iron
Low temperature coefficient of resistance. foundries.
High oxidising temperature. • Induction heating :-
Positive temperature coefficient of resistance Induction heating is based on the principle of
Mechanical strength high. transformer working.
• Heating element material :- V2
Nickel and Chromium → Nickel 80% + Chromium The heat proceeded =
R
20%). → 1150°C The value of current induced in the charge depends
Nickel, Chromium and Iron → •Ni 65% + Cr 15% + on-(i) Magnitude of primary current (ii) Turn ratio
Fe 20%) → 850°C of the transformer (iii) Co-efficient of magnetic
Molybdenum → 1650°C coupling.
Tungsten → up to 2000°C Low frequency Induction furnaces are used for
Graphite → above about, 600°C to 3000°C melting and refining of different metals.
• Temperature control of resistance furnaces :- High frequency Induction furnaces are used for
Intermittent switching hardening and soldering
By changing the number of heating elements. • Core type induction furnace :-
Variation in circuit configuration. Magnetic coupling between primary and secondary
is very poor. Approx 10Hz applied on primary
High leakage and low power factor.
• Drawbacks :-
It suffers from pinching effect.
Not suitable for intermittent service.
• Vertical core type (or) Ajax -Wyatt furnace :-
• Direct resistance heating :- This furnace is widely used for melting and refining
Both A.C and D.C supply use. of brass and other non-ferrous metals
Charge may be in the form of powder, small solid, Suitable for continuous operation.
pieces or liquid. Power factor of 0.80-0.85 with normal supply
High efficiency. frequency
• Indirect resistance heating :- Efficiency – about 75%
Heat delivered to the charge either by radiation or Standard size varies from 60-300 kW, all single
convection or by a combination of these two. phase,
Automatic temperature Control can also be • Coreless Induction furnace :-
provided. Magnetic coupling between the primary and
• Direct arc furnaces :- secondary windings is low.
High voltage is applied across an air gap for striking Power factor lies between 0.1 and 0.3
the arc. Static capacitors are invariables, used in parallel
Electrode are made of carbon/graphite. with the furnace to improve it's power factor.
Temperature range - 3000°C - 3500°C Used for steel production and for melting of non-
By using a step-up transformer fed from a variable ferrous metals like brass, bronze, copper and
ac supply. aluminum.
Application → production of steel High frequency induction heating is used.
• Indirect arc furnace :- • Advantages :-
Cylindrical in shape Fast in operation
Uniform quality of product For dehydration of food which is sealed in air-tight
Operated intermittently. containers.
Operation is free from smoke, dirt, dust and noises. For quick drying to glue which is used for book
Low erection and operating costs. binding purposes.
Their charging and pouring is simple. ELECTRIC WELDING- It is the process of
• High frequency eddy-current heating (10KHz to joining two pieces of metal or non-metal at faces
400 KHz) rendered plastic or liquid by the application of heat
Negligible wastage of heat because the heat is or pressure or both.
produced in the body to be heated. Welding Utilize-chemical Utilize-
Heat can be made to penetrate any depth of the body processes energy Electrical
by selecting proper supply frequently. energy
• Application :- Fusion welding Gas welding, Carbon arc
(1) Surface hardening (2) Annealing (3) Soldering. (Non pressure thermit welding. welding, Metal
• Dielectric heating welding) arc welding,
It is also called high-frequency Capacitive heating. Note → It Electron beam
The supply frequency is high (10-50MHz). involves welding,
The applied voltage is up to 20kv melting of the Electros lag
The overall efficiency of dielectric heating is about parental metal welding,
50% Electro gas
• Dielectric loss :- welding.
ε0εr A Non-Fusion Forge welding, Resistance
P = 2π f CV 2 tan δ C= cos φ = tan δ welding Note Gas non-fusion welding
d
→ It does not welding,
Where, tan δ → P.F.of insulating material
melting of the Explosive
• Advantages of dielectric heating parented metal welding, Friction
Heat is generated within the dielectric medium. welding,
Uniform heating. Ultrasonic
It is only method used to heat insulating material or welding
non conducting material.
• Selection of the welding process :-
• Application of dielectric heating 1. Kind of metals to be joined.
For gluing of multilayer plywood boards. 2. Cost Involved.
Drying of tobacco after glycerin has been mixed 3. Nature of products to be fabricated.
with it for making cigarettes. 4. Production techniques.
Baking of biscuits and cakes in bakeries with the
help of automatic machines.

• Formation of electric arc b. A.C welding machine :-
The arc consists of lighter electrons which flow from Advantages- This A.C welder which can be
cathode to anode and heavier positive ions which operated from either a single-phase or three phase
flow from anode to cathode. supply has the following advantages.
It is found that nearly two third (2/3) of the heat is Low initial cost, Low wear, No arc blow
developed at the anode which burns into the form of Low operation and maintenance cost. .
a crater where temperature riese a value of 3500°C - • Disadvantages :-
4000°C. The remaining one third (1/3) of the heat is
Its polarity cannot be changed.
developed near the cathode in case of D.C.
It is not suitable for welding of cast iron and non-
• In A.C
ferrous metals.
It may be noted that with ac supply heat is
developed equally at the anode and cathode due to Carbon Arc welding :-
rapid reversal of their polarity. The arc utilize for arc No pressure is used.
welding is low-voltage, high current discharge. No shielding atmosphere is utilized.
The voltage required to strike a dc arc is about 50-55 It uses non-consumable carbon or graphite electrode
V and that for ac arc is 80-90V . It can used AC as well as DC supply. when DC used
The voltage drop across the arc is nearly 15-20 V. the electrode is mostly negative (DCSP).
It is difficult to maintain the arc with a voltages less Maximum current range 15A to 600A.
than 14V or more than 40 V. Electrodes → Carbon or Graphite.
• Effect of arc length - In metal arc welding, a fairly Electrodes length → 300 mm.
short arc length is necessary for getting good welds. Electrodes dia. → 2.5 to 12 mm.
• Polarity in DC welding :- Graphite electrodes are harder, more brittle and last
• DCRP :- longer than carbon electrode.
Electrode-Positive , Workspaces - Negative. • Application :-
• DCSP (Straight polarity) :- (Mostly used) Used with carbon arc welding are butt joints, flange
Electrode → Negative. joints, lap joints and fillet joints.
Work pieces → Positive. Suitable for welding galvanized sheets using copper-
• Electrode for metal arc welding :- silicon-manganese alloy filler metal.
An electrode is a filler metal in the form of a wire or Useful for welding thin high-nickel alloys.
rod which is either bare or coated uniformly with flux. Stainless steel of thinner gauges is often welded by
The contact end of the electrode is left bare and clean the carbon-arc process with excellent results.
to a length of 20-30mm. for inserting it into electrode • Advantages :-
holder. The molten pool can be easily controlled by simply
Arc Welding Machines varying the arc length.
It is easily adaptable to automation.
a. D.C welding machines :-
It can be easily adapted to inert gas shielding of the
i. Motor generator set :-
weld.
• Advantages :-
It can be used as excellent heat for brazing welding
It permits portable operation.
and soldering.
It can be used with either straight or reverse polarity.
It can be employed on nearly all ferrous and non- • Disadvantage :-
ferrous, materials. A separate filler rod can be used if any filler
it can use a large variety of stick electrodes material is required.
It can be used for all positions of weldings. The major disadvantage of the carbon-arc process is
• Disadvantages :- that arc blow occur due to magnetic arc blow
It has high initial cost. specially.
Its maintenance cost is higher. Tungsten inerts gas (TIG)process
Machine is quite noisy in operation. • Electrode :- Uses a bare non-consumable tungsten
It suffers from arc blow.
electrode and also used zirconiated or thorieted
ii. A.C Transformer with rectifier :-
tungston.
Such a transformer-rectifier welder is most-adaptable
for shield arc welding because it provides both d.c and • Filler material :- It uses an inert gas to shield the
a.c polarities. It is very efficient and quiet in operation. weld puddle from atmospheric contamination.
These welders are particularly suitable for the welding • Power supply :-
of. (i) DCSP power supply. (ii) DCRP power supply.
Pipes in all positions, long life (iii) A.C high frequency power supply.
Non-ferrous metals. • Advantages:-
Low alloy and corrosion-heat and creep-resisting steel It provides maximum protection to weld bead from
Mild steels in thin gauges. atmospheric contamination.
No post-weld cleaning is necessary. 4. Projection welding :-
It gives relatively fast welding speeds. It is, mass production form of spot welding.
TIG welds are stronger, more ductile and more Electrode life increased owing to used low current
corrosion-resistant than those of shield metal arc density and low pressure.
welding. It is used where certain part can not be welded by
• Applications :- spot welding.
(1)Aluminum and its alloys (2) Magnesium and its Welding of refrigerator.
alloys. (3) Stainless steel (4) Mild steel, low-alloy Evapourator and condenser.
steel, medium-carbon steel and cast iron (5) Copper
and alloys (6) Nickel and alloys. Electrical Traction
MIG Welding Electric traction means a locomotion in which the
It is also called inert-gas consumable. driving force is obtained from electric motors.
Argon is used to weld non-ferrous metals though It is used in electric trains, tramcars, trolley buses
helium gives better control of porosity and arc and diesel-electric vehicles.
stability. Types of traction system
• Welding Equipment :- • Non-electric traction system :-
Welding power supply. Not use of electrical energy at any stage.
Inert gas supply with a regulator and flow meter.
MIG torch. Direct steam engine Drive
Depending on amperage, a water cooling unit. • Advantage
• Electrode :- Simple, easily speed control
It is a bare wire fed to the MIG gun by a suitable • Disadvantage
wire feed mechanism. Low efficiency approximate up to 8%.
• Advantages of MIG welding :- It has strictly limited overload capacity.
Gives high deposit rates from 2 to 8 kg/h. This system is not clean because ash, dirt, smoke are
Requires no flux. present.
Requires no post-welding cleaning. Maintenance cost high.
Adaptable for manual and automatic operations. Speed very low.
Used for a wide range of metals both ferrous and The wear of the tracks is high because the speed
non-ferrous.
obtained from the steam engine is backward
• Application - Aluminum and its alloys Nickel and
(Reciprocating).
its alloys Copper alloys Carbon steels low-
alloy steels high strength steels titanium. They take more time to come to the working
condition.
Resistance welding • Electric traction system
1. Butt welding Use of electrical energy.
a. Upset or simple butt welding
Supply voltage - 2 to 8V, Current- 50A • Advantages of electric traction
It's use to weld, tube, rod, wire. Cleanliness.
b. Flash butt welding Maintenance cost of electric traction locomotive is
Supply voltage - 1 to 20V. nearly 50% of that for a steam locomotive.
Some metal rod, tube and wire are weld. Maintenance time is also much less.
Low power loss from simple butt welding. Starting time of an electric locomotive can be started
Less time required. Weld joint are strong. at a moment's.
2. Spot welding (Intermittent welding) High starting torque.
Electrode are made of pure copper. Accelerations of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h as against 0.6 to 0.8
Spot welding depend upon generation of heat. km/h/sec in steam traction
Spot welding application of forging pressure. High schedule speed.
Power to be not take continuous i.e. power take Increased traffic handling capacity.
second to several second. Regenerative braking in electric traction system is
Voltage → 2V, Current 5000A. used.
Power factor → 0.3-0.5 lag. Absence of unbalanced forces.
Spot welding provided Mechanical strength and
used for sheet having thickness (10 - 22 mm). • Disadvantage of electric traction :-
Initial cost is very high.
3. Seam welding :- (Continous welding)
The reliability of this system depends on the
Electrode are in form of roller.
availability of electricity.
It's roll used in spot wildings.
Not used in copper or copper alloy material. In case of any power interruption, the work of the
The flow of current through the electrode should be entire system comes to a standstill.
Intermittent. Their electrical circuit is relatively complicated and
Current is interrupted 300 to 1500 times in a the problem of voltage drop and current leakage is
minutes. sometimes difficult of solve.
Battery electric drive 3. Pantograph collector :-
• Advantage Used – Railways, Speed – 100 or 130 km ph
Quick start Speedy operation. Collect – 2000 to 3000 A
Easy control Convenient to use • Types of railway services
Low maintenance cost Neat and clean Specification city or urban Suburban Main
Dust-smoke free Reliable line
• Disadvantage Acceleration 1.5 to 4.0 km 1.5 to 5.0 0.6 to
Limited efficiency Limited speed.
phps km phps 0.8 km
Limited speed to work.
phps
Disadvantage of diesel-electric traction
Less overload capacity and life. Retardation 3 to 4 km ph ps 3 to 4 km 1.5 km
Its maintenance cost and operating cost are high. phps phps
Their speed control and starting torque are Max speed 100 km/hr 120 km/hr 160
unsatisfactory. km/hr
Gear box is used for speed control.
Distance 1 km or less 3 to 5 km more
between two than
station 10km
Free running approximately very low very
or coasting zero High
• Typical speed/time curve :-
Systems of railway electrification

Direct current system- 600V, 750V, 1500V, 3000V.
2
Single-phase ac system -15-25kV, 16 , 25kV and
3 • Average and schedule speed :-
50Hz. 1. Crest speed :- It is the maximum speed •Vm)
Three-phase ac system- 3000-3500V at 162/3 Hz attained by a train during the run.
Composite system- involving conversion of single-
phase ac into 3-phase ac or dc. distance between stops
2. Average speed =
• Kando system Actual time of run
It is used to convert single phase to 3-φ supply or 3-
distance between stops
φ supply to single phase supply at same frequency 3. Schedule speed =
1-φ, 16kV, 50Hz supply use in kando system. actual time of run + stop time
• Advantages of 25-kV, 50Hz AC system • Power output from Driving axles :-
Light overhead catenary. output power = Ft × v
Less number of substations.
Lower cost of fixed installation. Ft → tractive effort, v → train velocity
Higher coefficient of adhesion.  1000  Ft × v 
Higher starting efficiency. output power = Ft ×   watt = kW 
 3600  3600 
Type of current collector
1. Trolley collector :- If η is the efficiency of transmission gear then power
Use for tramways and trolley buses. Fv
Suitable for comparative low speed (24 to 32 km ph) output of motor is – = t watt
3600η
• Drawback
Poor contact between wheel and trolley. • Energy consumption :-
It cannot be operate in either direction of motion output of drving axles
There is every possibility of its jumping off the Energy consumption =
trolley wire. ηmotor × ηgear
2. Bow collector :- (Made by Cu, Al, Carbon) • Adhesive weight -It is given by the total weight
Use – Tram ways, bow – 0.8 to 0.9 meter carried on the driving wheels. Its value is Wa = xW,
operation – High speed where W is dead weight and x is a fraction varying
• Replaced by – Pantograph. from 0.6 to 0.8.
Coefficient of adhesion Electric drive
Adhesion between two bodies is due to interlocking Advantage
of the irregularities of their surfaces in contact. Simplicity Cleaness
The adhesive weight of a train is equal to the weight Easy and smooth control Flexibility in layout
to be carried on the driving wheels. Compactness Reliability
It is less than the dead weight by about 20 to 40%. Long life Easy start
F Wide range Less space required.
Coefficient of adhesion ( µ a ) = t Low cast (initial as well as maintenance cost).
Wa
Disadvantage
Wa = adhesive weight, Ft = tractive effort to slip the It can cause noise pollution.
wheels. The application of the drive is limited because it
Remember point cannot use in a place where the power supply is not
available.
µa = 0.25 to 0.30 for clean, dry rail It has a poor dynamic response.
µa = 0.0 to 0.15 for moist, greasy, or frosty rail The output power obtained from the drive is low.
surface.
• µ improves due to the presence of :-
i. Dry sand on rails ii. Rust on rails iii. Dust on rails.
• µ reduces due to presence of :-
i. Dew to rails ii. oil and grease on rails. •Comparison between individual Drives and
General features of traction motor group drive :-
• Electric features :- Properties Individual Group drive
i. High starting torque. drive
ii. Series speed-torque characteristic Initial cost High Low
iii. Simple speed control Flexibility More Less
iv. Possibility of dynamic/regenerative braking Safety More safe Less safe
v. Good commutation under rapid fluctuations of Reliability High Less
supply voltage. Space required More Less
• Mechanical features :- Over load capacity Less Higher
i. Robustness and ability to withstand continuous Maintenance cost More Less
vibrations. Speed control Easily possible Difficult
ii. Minimum weight and overall dimensions. Mechanical power Less losses More losses
iii. Protection against dirt and dust. transmission losses
Braking in traction Total Hp More Less
Electrical and mechanical braking is used. Appearance Good Not Good
Mechanical braking provides holding torque. Any one application Lathe machine Textile
Electric braking reduces wear on mechanical brakes. of each industry.
Electric Braking • Specific applications of electric drive
1. Regenerative braking :-
(a) Equalizer connection (b) Cross connection
In this method, no energy is drawn from the supply
during the braking period and some of the energy
feedback to the supply system.
The braking torque generated in this motor is in the
opposite direction of rotation of the rotor.
It can be applied to both DC and AC motors.
2. Plugging -
In this method, the motor is reconnected to the
supply in such a way that it has to develop torque in
opposite direction to the movement of the rotor.
It can be done by reversing the connections of the
armature.
3. Dynamic braking-
For dynamic braking the armature is disconnected
from supply and external resistance is connected
across armature waste kinetic energy, thus a braking
performed here.
Dynamic braking is also known as rheostatic
braking.
• Bearing :- It supports to the rotating parts of the
machine.
i. Ball or roller bearings
Used up to 75 kW. Long life
Low friction loss Less space occupy
Need less maintenance
Allow much smaller air gap
Such bearing are costlier and noisy, particularly used
for high speed motor.
ii. Sleeve /Bush bearings (for FHP motor)
Sleeve bearings (also known as journal bearings or
plain bearings) facilitate linear movement between
two parts.
It reduces vibration and noise by absorbing friction
between two moving parts using a sliding motion.
• Advantage
Lower cost Less maintenance.
Greatly reduce noise. Easier installation.
Higher load capacity.
Made from bronze, steel or stainless steel.
• Transmission of power- There are various methods
of transmitting developed mechanical power by a
motor to driven the machine.
1. Direct drive- Nearly 100% efficient and needs
minimum space but is used where there is a Principle of air conditioning - Air conditioning
possibility of arranging the driving member. process are based on vapour compression
2. Belt drives refrigeration cycle, to minimize the air temperature
Least expensive drives with the help of a condenser compressor, expansion
Used where a speed change is desired in the valve, and evaporator. The complete cooling process
transmission of power and where it is not absolutely is a heat transfer taking place among the room air
essential to maintain a fixed ratio between the and refrigerant gas.
driving and driven shaft. Applications of refrigeration
3. Flat belts i. Domestic Refrigeration -
Used for line shaft drives and can transmit a They are used as home freezers to keep fruits, food,
maximum power of about 250kW. water and beverages cool and safe.
The power transmission by a flat belt increases in
Their capacity is 60 liters, 165 liters, 265 liter, 500
proportion to its width and varies largely with its
quality and thickness. 1 1
liter and ton to ton
There is a slip of 3-4% in the belt drive. 20 2
4. V-belts drive - A short center and silent drive with a ii. Commercial Refrigeration- Large capacity
negligible slip (say about 1%) and is suitable for refrigerators are used in shops, hotels, and
motors of ratings up to 450kW. restaurants to keep medicines, soft drinking water
5. Rope drive- Rope drive gives negligible slip and is and food items safe.
able to take sudden load. iii. Industrial Refrigeration- Major industrial
6. Chain drive- More efficient and capable of refrigeration includes such as ice plant, ice cream
transmitting larger amount of power. plant, breweries, food packing plant, soil industry
7. Gear drive- A short centre positive drive and is and industrial plant such as oil refining equipment,
used when a high-speed motor is to drive a low chemical plant. and rubber manufacturing etc.
speed machine. iv. Marine Transportation Refrigeration- For
Electrical cooling transporting meat and other foodstuffs, medicines
etc.
Air Conditioning- Homer, offices, public buildings,
factories, departmental stores, cars, buses, railways,
airplanes, ships etc.
Refrigerants-A refrigerant is such a working
substance that by absorbing heat from the cold body.
It has the property of transferring heat to the hot
body. It absorbs heat in the evaporator and removes
heat in the condenser.
Refrigerants are mainly divided into two Working pressure is less.
categories It's critical temperature and latent heat are high.
i. Primary Refrigerants - Those refrigerants which It is colorless, but it has a smell like chloroform
passes through the whole cycle are called primary. hence it's erosion is detected.
Example : NH3, CO2 and Freon12 etc. It is flammable but does not burn easily.
ii. Secondary Refrigerants - In this category those Fluorinated Hydrocarbons
cold substances come which transfer heat from a 1. F-11 (Monofluoro Tricolor Methane)
remote point to the evaporator of the system. 2. F-12 (Difluro Dichloro Methane)
Example: Cold water, brine, Ice. etc. 3. F-16 (Trifluro Monochloro Methane)
Properties of refrigerants :- 4. F-21 (Mono Fluro Bichloro Methane)
Specific Heat Specific heat of 5. F-22 (Difluro Monochloro Methane)
vapour low. 6. F-113 (Trifluro Chloro Ethane)
7. F-114 (Tetra Fluro Dichloro Ethane)
Thermal conductivity High.
Unit of refrigeration
Boiling point Low The value of the heat energy required to
Freezing point Low continuously melt 1 ton of ice in one day (24 hours)
Critical temperature High at 0°C is called 1 ton refrigeration.
Latent Heat High 1Ton = 3500 watt.
Flammability and explosion Very Low/
Non explosion Electroplating- The process of electro-
Viscosity Low deposition of metal upon metallic surfaces is called
Toxicity Non toxic electroplating.
Corrosion Non corrosion Main advantages of electroplating
Odor and leak tendency Non leak It give shining appearance to the metallic articles.
Insulation Present the property of It protects the metallic surfaces from corrosion.
Insulation It gives reflecting properties to the reflectors.
Chemical stability Constant It replaces the worn out material.
Availability and cost Good availability and The various basic requirements of electroplating-
low cost Cleaning operation
Coefficient of Performance High Deposition of metal.
Polishing and buffing.
Need of electro-deposition :-
Extraction of metals.
Reconstruction of metals.
Purification of metals.
Repair & maintenance of metals.
Protection against corrosion.
Decoration.
Basic principle of electro-deposition : The
opposing emf produced in elecrolyte due to
absorption of gaseous ions by the electrolyte from
two electrodes is known as polarisation.
1. Ammonia (NH3) Electrolyte : Electrolyte are simple inorganic
Properties : Highly toxic, flammable, good thermal compounds. when these are dissolved in water, It
properties, highest refrigerating effect per kg of gets ionized and splits into positive ions and
refrigerant. negative ions when a direct current is passed through
Uses : It is widely used in large industrial and this solution the anion starts moving towards the
commercial refrigeration systems. positive electrode and the cation towards the
It is mostly used with the vapour absorption negative electrode
refrigeration cycle like ice plants, cold storage, Main electrolytes :-
packing plants, etc. i. Dilute H2SO4, HNO3, HCl,
2. Carbon dioxide(CO2) ii. KOH, NaOH,
Properties:- Colorless, non-toxic, non-flammable, and iii. MgSO , NaCl, AgNO , CuSO .
4 3 4
non-corrosive gas, it gives a low refrigeration effect. Chemical equivalent weight or equivalent weight
Uses :- It is used in the marine refrigeration system.
Atomic mass a
3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Chemical equivalents = =W =
Properties :- Working pressure low. Boling point is Valency v
- 10°C at atmospheric pressure. Laws of electrolysis -
4. Methyl chloride(CH3Cl) First law- According to Faraday’s first law of
Properties electrolysis the mass (m) of elements deposited at an
Its boiling point - 23.7°C electrode is directly proportional to the charge (Q).
m ∝ Q, m ∝ it, m = Zit Types of primary cell :-
Voltaic cell :-
Where – m = mass
Voltage → 1.08V Anode → –ve (Cu)
Z = Constant of the electro-chemical equivalent.
Second law : The mass of an element deposited or Cathode → +ve (Zn plate) Electrolytes → H2SO4
liberated during electrolysis is directly proportional Remember point
to the chemical equivalent weight of that element. Container of voltaic cell is made of glass.
m ∝ chemical equivalent weight of the element (E) Daniel Call :-
Voltage → 1.1V Anode → –ve (Zn)
m1 E1 Z1 E
= = = Constant = 96500 Cathode → + ve (Cu) Electrolytes → H2SO4
m 2 E 2 Z2 Z
Remember point
Remember point
Daniel cell called the gravity cell or crowfoot cell
Anode → Oxidation → Loss of electrons Internal resistance → low.
Cathode → Reduction → Gain of electrons. Lachlanche cell
Electrolysis is possible only when d.c. potential is Voltage 1.5 V
applied to the electrodes. Anode Carbon rod or plate
Back e.m.f or Polarization Potential : The emf set Cathode Zinc plate or container
up in the voltmeter which opposes the external dc Electrolytes An aqueous solution of amonium
voltage is called back emf of the electrolyte. chloride.
Remember point Remember point
The value of back emf is different for different Internal resistance of lachlanche cell is – 1 to 5 Ω
electrolyte It is use in electric bell, telephone.
For acids and alkalis → 1.7V. Leclanche cell is used to conduct current
For particular salt and generally lies between – 0.5V intermittently.
to 2V. Dry cell
Faraday Constant (F)- Faraday constant is the Voltage 1.5V
quantity of charge required to liberate/deposit one
Anode Carbon rod
gram equivalent of the substance during electrolysis.
Cathode Zinc pot
1F = 96500C Electrolytes Paste of NH4Cl + ZnCl2 + plaster of
Current Efficiency paris.
Current efficiency = Remember point
Actual amount of free or deposited matter
Size of dry cell is 6mm × 2.5mm.
Theoretical quantity calculated by faraday 's law Dry cell used in torch.
The current efficiency is about 80% to 98%. A dry cell is declare unfit to function if it is
Energy Efficiency electromotive force remains only 50% of it's
Theoretical value of energy marked value.
Energy efficiency =
Actual energy expenditure Clark cell :-
Equipments Required for electroplating :- Voltage 1.43V
Source-D.C. low voltage and heavy current. It may Anode Mercurous sulphate
be motor generator set or selenium metal rectifiers Cathode Zinc/Zinc sulphate
Agitating plant. Electrolytes Saturated zinc sulphate.
Filter plant Weston cell :
Steel vats (P.V.C. Lining or lead lining) Voltage 1.318V
High speed buffing machine. Anode Amalgam of mercury with cadmium
Silicon heaters for maintaining temperature Cathode Pure mercury
Steel vats or P.V.C. buckets for washing the job. Electrolytes Solution of cadmium sulphate
Battery Lithium cell :-
Voltage 2.95V
Cell :- A single electrochemical unit, i.e. one anode, Anode lithium
one cathode, and the electrolyte called cell. Cathode Intercalated lithium compound
Battery :- A collection of cells in series or parallel Electrolytes Lithium hexa fluro phosphate (LiPF6)
called battery, and a battery is a source of emf in which Remember point
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Type of calls Lithium battery from other batteries have high
1. Primary cells :- A cell in which chemical action is charge density and cost per unit.
not reversible is called a primary cell. Lithium batteries are widely used in portable
Primary cell is single use power source. electronic devices.
Mercury cell :- (Button cell) Remember point
Voltage 1.35V
When cell is fully charged –
Anode Zinc-mercury
+Ve plate (Anode) is PbO2 (dark chocolate
Cathode Paste of HgO and carbon Brown)
Electrolytes Paste of ZnO in KOH. –Ve Plate (cathode) is Pb (slate grey)
Remember point Negative plate = 1 + Positive plate
At discharing (lead acid cell)- both plate colour
Mercury battery is a non-rechargeable whitish
electrochemical battery. 1
Capacity ∝
2. Secondary cell :- Rate of discharge
A cell in which chemical action is reversible is Hydrogen gas is produced during charging a lead
called a secondary cell - acid battery.
Secondary cell is used for multi power sources. Use of lead-acid cell is automation car.
Types of secondary cell :- The internal resistance of lead acid cell is very
1. Lead-acid cell :- low.
Plates – During the charge of the lead acid cell the
(+) Ve plate Lead peroxide (PbO2)- dark temperature should not exceed to 50°C
(Anode) chocolate brown In order to avoid the effect of corrosion in lead
acid cell a layer of vaseline or petroleum jelly is
(–)Ve plate Spongy lead (Pb) - Grey colour
coated
(Cathode)
The electrolyte level in the lead-acid cell should
Voltage 2.2V be 10 to 15 mm above the top of the plates.
Separators Preventing contact between 2. Nickel - Iron (Edison cell) -
positive and negative plate. Voltage- 1.36 V
Made of specially treated cedar Active material
wood, glass wood mat, micro Nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)4 or apple green
porous rubber, micro porous Nickel peroxide NiO2 for the positive plate.
plastics etc. Powder iron and its oxide for the Negative plate
A separator must posses high The electrolyte is 20% solution of caustic potash
electrical resistance and (KOH)
mechanical strength. Chemical change- KOH → K++ OH–
Container Made of vulcanized rubber or During Discharge
molded hard rubber K+ → Anode → Positive plate
Specific 1.21 OH– → Cathode → Negative plate
gravity Positive plate- Ni(OH)4 + 2K → Ni(OH)2 + 2KOH
Chemical changes Negative plate- Fe + 2OH → Fe(OH)2
Discharging Charging During Charging
H2SO4 → 2H++SO4– – H2+ move to cathode K+ → Cathode → Negative plate
Current inside cell SO4– – move to anode OH– → Anode → Positive plate
cathode to anode Positive plate - Ni(OH)2 + 2OH → Ni(OH)4
H2+ move to anode At cathode – Negative plate - Fe(OH)2 + 2K → Fe + 2KOH
PbSO4 + H2 → Pb + Remember point
H2SO4
The specific gravity of the electrolyte remains
SO4 – – move to cathode At anode - practically constant both during charging and
PbSO4 + 2H2O + SO4 discharging.
→ PbO2 + 2H2SO4 Internal Resistance of an alkali cell = 5×lead acid
At anode → (PbO2) cell.
PbO2 + H2 + H2SO4 → They are comparatively lighter.
PbSO4 + 2H2O The plates of such cells have greater mechanical
strength because of all steel construction.
At cathode → (Pb) 17% graphite is added to increase conductivity.
Pb+SO4 → PbSO4 20% barium hydroxide (Active material)
3. Nickel - Cadmium It has high internal It has a low internal
Voltage-1.25 V resistance resistance
Active material It has an irreversible It has a reversible
Ni(OH)4 For the positive plate exactly as in the chemical reaction chemical reaction.
nickel-iron cell. Its design is smaller and It design is more
A mixture of cadmium or cadmium oxide negative lighter complex and heavier.
plate. Capacity of Battery- The capacity of a battery is
The electrolyte is the same as in the nickel-iron cell. given in terms of ampere - hours on discharge this is
Chemical changes- Similar to nickel - iron cell. determined by the following factor.
During discharge i. Final limiting voltage of the cells.
Positive plate- Ni(OH)4 + 2K →Ni(OH)2 + 2KOH ii. Humber design and dimensions of plates.
Negative plate- Cd + 2OH →Cd(OH)2 iii. Discharge rate iv. Design of separators.
During charging v Quantity of electrolyte. vi. Density of electrolyte .
Positive plate- Ni(OH)2 + 2OH →Ni(OH)4 vii. Temperature.
Negative plate- Cd(OH)2 + 2K →Cd+2KOH Efficiency of a battery- The efficiency of a battery
is defined as the ratio of the output of a cell or a
Remember point battery to the input required to restore the initial
The number of positive plate is more than the state of charge under specified condition of the
temperature current rate and final voltage.
negative plate.
Used for commercial air lines, military airplanes 1. Ampere hours efficiency :- (Quantity efficiency)
and helicopters for starting main engines or It is the ratio of output ampere-hours to the input
auxiliary turbine and for emergency power supply. ampere-hours cell.
Ampere hours on discharge
4. Silver - Zinc = ×100%
Voltage- 1.86V Ampere hours on recharge
Active material May be about 85% to 95%
Silver Oxide (Ag2O) → Positive plate 2. Volt efficiency :-
Zinc (Zn) → negative plate Average voltage during discharge
=
Chemical change → Average voltage during recharge
Discharge
Ag 2O + Zn ↽ Charge
⇀ 2 Ag + ZnO 3. Watt hours efficiency :- (Energy efficiency)
Watt hours output on discharge
Specific capacity → 4 to 5 times greater than that of = × 100%
other type of cells. Watt hours input on recharge
Remember point May be about 75%
Remember point
There efficiency is high and self discharge is
small. Current capacity increase → Cell connected in
Silver-zinc battery can withstand much heavier parallel.
discharge current than other types. Voltage capacity increase → Cell connected in
Its higher cost. series.
Isopropyl alcohol used for cleaning of electronic
assemblies.
Primary cell Secondary cell E.m.f of storage battery depend on nature of
Lower initial cost Higher initial cost electrode.
Higher life-cycle cost Lower life-cycle cost if MnO2 is work as depolariser in dry cell.
charging in convenient Battery box is made of hard rubber
and inexpensive Specific density of electrolytes in storage cell at full
charging - 1.250 to 1.280
Have high energy density They are smaller energy
Specific density of electrolytes in storage cell at
and slow in discharge and density
discharging - 1.18 or below 1.18.
easy to use
The reading in the hydrometer of a semi-charged cell
There are no fluids in the There are made up of wet is 1.22.
cells hence it is also cells (flooded and liquid The process of charging and discharging a new cell
called as dry cells. cells) and molten salt is called cycling.
(liquid cells with
The ratio of normal charging current and slow
different composition)
charging current is 1:100.

ELECTRICAL MACHINE-I
DC Machine
In dc machine, number of commutator segments are

equal to the number of armature coils.
The main function of commutator in a DC machine
is to change AC voltage into DC voltage and vice-
versa.
For DC Generator commutator is known as
'mechanical rectifier' or 'rotating rectifier'.
For DC Motor commutator is known as 'mechanical
inverter' or 'rotating inverter'.
Remember point
According to voltage and current requirement,
Armature winding can be connected in two ways-
1. Lap winding.
2. Wave winding.
Remember point Lap winding Wave winding
It is a complete winding so, It is incomplete winding
Yoke of large DC machine is made of 'cast steel' and for mechanically balanced. so, mechanically
small DC machine 'cast iron' is used. unbalanced. To make it
• Commutator- balance, a 'dummy coil' is
It is a rotating part of DC machine. used.
It lies at rotor shaft. Here, number of parallel Here, number of parallel
It maintains electrical connection between rotating path is equal to number of path is always equal to two
rotor and stationary brushes. pole. A=2
It is made of ‘Hard drawn copper’ and ‘mica
A=P
insulation’ provided to insulate the commutator
segments. Here equalizer ring used to Winding where ‘dummy
Due to the limitation of commutator, DC generators stop circulating current. coil’ is used called 'forced
are not usually designed beyond 650V. winding'.
Number of brushes are Number of brushes are To have pole core.
equal to number of parallel always two because of • Comparison between DC Generator and DC
path. two parallel path. Motor
A=P = No. of brushes A=2 DC Generator DC Motor
Lap winding used for low Wave winding used for It converts mechanical energy It converts electrical
voltage and high current high voltage and low into electrical energy. energy into mechanical
current. energy.
Commutator pitch for Commutator pitch for Direction of induced emf is Direction of rotation is
progressive lap winding is progressive wave winding find out by fleming’s right find out by fleming's
YC = 1 and for is YC = 2 (C+1) and for hand rule. left hand rule.
retrogressive lap winding is retrogressive wave Its rating is in 'kW' (kilo-watt). Its rating is in 'HP'
YC = –1 winding is (Horse-power).
−2(C + 1) It generates emf which is It produces a torque
YC =
P PφNZ which is
Eg = = KφN
Front pitch for progressive Front pitch for progressive 60A PφZIa
lap winding is Yf = Yb +2 wave winding is T= = KφIa
PZ 2πA
and for retrogressive lap Yf = 2YC –Yb and for where , K = = constant.
60A PZ
winding is Yf = Yb–2 retrogressive wave Where, K= =
winding is Yf = 2YC +Yb 2πA
constant.
Conductor current for lap Conductor current for In DC Generator 'Voltage In DC Motor 'Speed
Ia Ia controlled’ phenomena is used. controlled’ phenomena
winding is, IC = wave winding is IC =
A 2 is uses.
• Brushes Magnetic neutral axis rotates Magnetic neutral axis
It is a stationary part of DC machine. in the direction of the rotation rotates in the opposite
Brushes are made of carbon. of generator. direction of the rotation
Width of carbon brushes should be equal to the of motor.
width of 2 to 3 commutator segments. Polarity of interpole is next Polarity of interpole is
Carbon brushes provides self lubrication also. main pole ahead to the the next main pole
Copper brushes are preferred for low voltage and direction of rotation. behind to the direction
high current. of rotation.
Graphite brushes are preferred for high voltage and In DC Generator armature In DC Motor armature
low current. reaction affects 'generated reaction affects'
For DC Generator brushes are used to receive DC voltage'. Torque'.
current from commutator. In DC Generator maximum In DC Motor maximum
For DC Motor brushes are used to provide DC flux occurs 'under trailing pole flux occurs 'under
current to commutator from dc supply source. tip'. leading pole tip'.
• Stator's work-
E g /I f →Magnetic T/Ia→Electrical
To provide magnetic path. o
characteristics.
To protect inner parts from outer atmospheric characteristics.
conditions.
D.C. Generator D.C. motor
Separately Separately
excited excited
generator motor.
Ia = IL, VT = Eg–IaRa = Eg–IaRa-brush drop Is = Ia , Eb = Vs –IaRa = Vs–IaRa–brush drop

DC shunt D.C. shunt
generator motor
Ia = Ish + IL Is = Ia + Ish , Eb = Vs – IaRa

VT = Eg–IaRa = Eg–IaRa–brush drop = Vs – IaRa – brush drop

DC series D.C. series
generator. motor
Ia = Ise = IL , VT = Eg – Ia (Ra+Rse)
= Eg – Ia (Ra+Rse) –brush drop Ia = Ise = IL , Eb = Vs – Ia (Ra+ Rse)
Vs –Ia (Ra+ Rse) –brush drop
Short shunt compound
compound motor
Short shunt
generator
DC Compound generator
DC Compund motor
Ia = Ish + Ise Is = Ia+Ish
VT = Eg – IaRa –IseRse Eb = Vs –IaRa–IseRse
Or Eg–IaRa –IseRse – brush drop
Long shunt compound

compound generator
Long shunt
motor
Is = Ish + Ia
Ia = Ish + IL Eb = Vs – Ia (Ra+Rse)
VT = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse) or Vs –Ia (Ra+Rse) – brush drop.
Or Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse) -brush drop
DC Generator’s characteristics-
DC shunt DC series
generator generator
Compound Cumulative compound Generator Differential compound

Generator-
• DC Motor’s Characteristics-
Speed verses current
(N / Ia)

Torque verses Armature
current (N /Td)
Speed Verses Torque

(N /Td)
• Some Important Formulas for DC Machine-

Formulas for DC Generator Formulas for DC Motor
PφNZ PφNZ
• Eg = • Eb = = KφN
60A 60 A
Constant loss (Wc ) PφZIa
• Load current (IL) = • T= = KφIa
Armature Resistance (R a ) 2πA
• Prime mover's output = Total losses + Generator's • E b = V T – I aR a
output. • Driving Power = Output Power + Stray losses
• Total losses = Stray losses + Total copper losses
Output power
stray load losses (due to A.R.). • B.H.P. =
• Stray losses = Iron losses + Frictional losses 746
• Total copper losses = Ish2 R sh + Ia2 .R a • Armature Torque = Shaft Torque + Lost Torque.
• Electrical power produced in armature = Eg . Ia • Driving Power = Eb. Ia
P E g .Ia Pout
• Mechanical efficiency = out = • Overall efficiency = ×100
Pin E g .Ia + Total losses Pin
• Electrical efficiency • VT = Eb+IaRa+VBD (Where, VBD = Voltage drop

P VT .IL across brushes)
= out = N − N fℓ
Pin VT .I L + Totalcopper losses • Speed regulation = nℓ
N fℓ
• Overall efficiency
Generator 's output VT .I L Input − Losses
= = • Efficiency =
Generator 's Input VT .I L + Total losses Input
Vnℓ − Vfℓ • Shaft torque (Tsh) =
Po
• Voltage Regulation of generator =
Vfℓ 2πN
• Characteristics of DC Generator- • Relation between back emf and rotor speed of
Characteristics Relation Known as E b2 φ 2 N 2
DC Motor =
Open circuit E go /If Magnetic E b1 φ1 N1
characteristics Characteristics
• Relation between speed of parallel and series
Internal Eg/Ia Total Characteristics
T
characteristics connection- N parallel = 4 N series Tparallel = series
External 4
Vt/IL Load Characteristics
characteristics Tests For Determination of
Swinburne's test (No-load Constant losses.
• Condition for maximum developed mechanical
test).
V Retardation test (running Stray losses in case of DC
power- E b =
2 down test). shunt machine.

Hopkinson test Performance of machines • Leakage Co-efficient-
(Full load test.) regarding commutation and Total Flux
(Regenerative test). temperature rise. Leakage Co-efficient (λ) = ≥1
Useful Flux
(Heat run test).
• Armature Reaction-
Field test (Series motor test). Stray losses in case of DC
The effect of armature flux on the main field flux is
series machine. known as armature reaction.
Brake test (direct test). Efficiency of small motor. • De-magnetizing ampere turn per pole-
Open circuit test. Core losses. A TD  2θe  Ia Z
Short circuit test. Copper losses. = . .
P  180º  A 2P
Function Quadrant Speed Torque Output • Total ampere turns per pole-
power Where,
Forward I + + +
Ia → Armature current
Motoring 
ATT Ia Z  Z → Total number of
Forward II + + – = . 
Braking P A 2P  conductor
A → Number of parallel path
Reverse III – – + 
Motoring P → Pole.
Reverse IV – + – • Cross-magnetizing ampere turns per pole-
Braking
ATCM Z Ia  180º −2θe 
= .
• Types of starter- P 2P A  180º 
Two-point starter – Only for DC series motor.
Three-point starter – For DC shunt motor. • Compensating winding ampere turn per pole-
Four-point starter– For DC shunt motor and DC ZC Z  Pole arc 
=  
compound motor. P A.P  Pole pitch 
• Essential conditions for voltage build up in DC • Reactance Voltage in commutation-
generator- 2LI
Shunt field resistance (Rsh) < Critical resistance(RC) eT =
tC
Rotor speed (Nr) > Critical speed (NC).
• Application of D.C. Machine
DC Generator's Application DC Motor is application
DC Shunt Generator DC Shunt Motor- Speed is fairly constant and
• As a battery charger. • As an exciter. requires medium starting torque.
• As power supply. • For electro-plating. • Lathe machines • Blowers and fans
• Used where constant voltage is required. • Milling machines • Drilling machines
• Machine tools
• Centrifugal and Reciprocating pumps
DC Series Generator DC Series Motor- Used where high starting torque
• Used as Booster requires, no-load condition is dangerous at variable
• As a supply for arc lamps speed.
• Used for series arc lighting. • Cranes • Hoists • Elevators • Trolleys • Conveyors.
• Electric locomotive.
• Elevator • Punches •Not suitable for any

• Shears • Rolling mills practical applications

Transformer • There is no rotating part in transformer hence
• A transformer is a static device which transforms friction and windage losses are zero that’s why
power from one side to other side without changing efficiency of transformer is maximum among all the
the frequency with the help of 'Faraday's law of machines.
electromagnetic induction'. There are generally two types of transformers-
Note:- A transformer changes voltage and current 1. Core-type
and does not changes power and frequency because
both remains constant. 2. Shell-type
• Comparison between core-type and shell-type transformer-
Core-type Shell-type
Core is surrounded by winding. Winding is surrounded by core.

Cylindrical type windings used. Sandwich type windings used.
Has only one magnetic flux path. Have two magnetic flux paths.
Contains two limbs and two yoke. Contains three limbs and two yoke.
Core has only one window Core has two window.
Preffered for high rating of large transformer. Preffered for low rating of small
transformer.
Easy to repair. Difficult to repair.
Has more leakage flux hence more losses so less efficiency. Has less leakage flux hence less losses so
more efficiency.
Has less mechanical protection to coil. Has better mechanical protection to coil.
Requires more conductor material Requires less conductor material.
Called series magnetic circuit. Called parallel magnetic circuit.
Total magnetic flux flows through the entire core. There are two magnetic paths so the total
flux flows through the central limb.
Its outer winding has H.V. (high voltage) Its outer winding has L.V (low voltage)
Used strips L-L/U.I Used strips E.I/U.T
• Comparison between 'Power Transformer' and Transformer.
'Distribution Transformer'- • Transformer classifications-
Power transformer Distribution 1. Based on construction.
transformer • Core type • Shell type • Berry type
Transfers more power. Transfers low power. 2. Based on rating or utility.
Voltage may be step up or Voltage is always step • Power transformer • Distribution transformer
step down. down. 3. Based on cooling system.
Indoor located. Outdoor located. • Air cooled • Oil cooled • Self cooled
4. Based on the voltage level.
Used for transmission and Used to distribute the
• Step-up transformer • step-down transformer
generating stations. power near to load. 5. Based on the phase.
Load fluctuations are very Load fluctuations are • Single phase • Three phase
low. very large comparison to 6. Based on winding.
power transformer. • Single winding (Auto-transformer)
Its capacity is in MVA. Its capacity is in kVA. • Two winding (Core or shell type)
Designed for maximum Designed for maximum 7. Based on measurement or instrument
efficiency at 100% load. efficiency at 50 to 75% • Current transformer (C.T.)
load. • Potential transformer (P.T.)
Designed for full load Designed for about half 8. Based on connections-
efficiency for a higher load efficiency and for a • Star-delta • Star-star • Delta-star
value of flux density. low value of flux • Delta-Delta • V-V connection • T-T connection
density. Remember point
Tap changer not uses Tap changer uses only C.T. is a step up transformer while P.T. is a step
for distribution down transformer
• Components of a Transformer- Flash point-
1. Windings- In transformer there are two winding It is the minimum temperature at which transformer
used, which are primary and secondary winding. oil begins to convert into gasses.
The primary winding is the coil which draws power Flash point → 140ºC
from the source and secondary winding is the coil • Pour point-
which delivers the power to the load. It is the minimum temperature at which transformer
oil freezed.
Pour point → –30 to –40ºC
7. Conservator tank- Whenever a transformer is
loaded then the winding’s temperature increases by
which volume of oil inside the transformer
increases. A conservator tank provides space for
expanded oil.
Remember point
Conservator tank is used to 'take up construction and
Remember point expansion of transformer oil'.
H.V. winding- It has a large number of turns of thin It is partially filled with transformer oil.
wire. 8. Breather- When the load on the transformer
• L.V. winding- It has a less number of turns of thick decreased then transformer takes breath, so breather
wire. is used to filter out the moisture content from the air.
2. Iron core- In the transformer iron core is used to Remember point
facilitate low reluctance path for the flux linkage Breather is used to arrest the flow of moisture when
between the primary and secondary winding. outside air enters in the transformer.
Remember point It is connected with conservator tank.
Silica gel is used in breather to absorb the moisture
In Large transformers generally soft iron core or
content.
CRGO (cold rolled grain oriented steel) is used to
reducing the hysteresis losses.
Core is also laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
3. Transformer tank 9. Buchholz relay-
It is also named as transformer body which is made It is used to protect transformer from internal faults
of steel metal (mild steel) with a high thickness. like- short-circuit, inter-turns fault and insulation
It is used to protect, hold the bushings and cooling failure.
purpose.
4. Yoke- It is the horizontal position of the core is
known as yoke.
Limb- It is the vertical position of the core which
contain windings.
5. Bushings- In the transformer, HV (High voltage)
and Low voltage line terminals are taken out from
tank through bushings.
Remember point
• Bushings provides a very effective insulation
between line conductor and tank or earth.
• Bushing’s size depends on size of tank and supplied
voltages. Remember point
6 Transformer oil- It is a gas operated relay.
It is used to provide insulation and cooling purposes. It is connected between main tank and conservator
Generally mineral oil and synthetic oil used as tank.
transformer oil. It is used for transformer rating more than 500 kVA.
Dielectric strength of transformer oil is 33kV/mm Used only for oil filled transformer.
• Transformer oil requirements- 10. Oil level indicator-
High thermal conductivity. Low Density. It is used to indicate and to monitor the oil level in
High specific heat. Non-toxic conservator tank.
Good Arc quenching properties. Known as magnetic oil level gauge (MOG).
• Transformer oil should have- Advantages-
1. high flash point 2. Low viscosity Continuous oil level monitoring.
3. Low pour point 4. Low Volatility Initiate alarm at empty oil level.
11. Tap changer- Efficiency is 100%. Efficiency is 95-99%.
The main purpose of a tap changer is to regulate the Core permeability is infinite Core permeability is finite.
output voltage of a transformer. which corresponds to zero
There are two types of tap changer- core reluctance.
1. On-load tap changer 2. Off-load tap changer It is impossible to construct All constructed
Tap changer is like a link which connect the winding an ideal transformer. transformers are practical
terminals. transformers.
Remember point • Humming noise-
Tap changer always connected to H.V. side because Noise in transformer is called 'humming noise'.
of low current so less sparking occurs. Humming comes due to 'magnetostriction'.
• Requirement of 'Tap changer'- • All day efficiency
To counter the input supply voltage changes on load. It is used for distribution transformer.
To supply a desired voltage to the load. Energyoutput in kWh for 24hr
All day efficiency =
12. Radiator tubes for cooling- Radiator tubes are used Energyinput in kWh for 24 hr
in transformer for the cooling purposes by using
• Air-core transformer-
radiator tubes increases the heat dissipation area thus
If core of transformer is replaced by air then
cooling phenomenon performed in transformer.
transformer is called air core transformer.
• Transformer cooling methods
• For dry type transformer
Air Natural Cooling - upto 5kVA
Air Blast (AB) Cooling – upto 25 kVA
• For oil immersed transformer
Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) Cooling - upto 10
MVA.
Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) Cooling- upto 30
MVA.
Oil Forced Water forced (OFWF) Cooling- upto 60
MVA. Remember point
Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) Cooling - above 60
Area under B-H curve is zero for air core
MVA.
transformer.
13. Explosion valve- It is a safety device which is used
to prevent damage of the transformer tank by B-H curve is linear for air-core transformer.
releasing the excessive pressure generated inside the • Isolation transformer-
transformer. It is used to isolate the circuit.
Explosion valve's layer known as 'Diaphram' made Has turns ratio 1 : 1.
thinner than transformer tank's layer. • Stacking factor =
• Ideal Transformer Net cross sectional area of core
≤1
The transformer which is free from all types of Gross cross sectional area of core
losses is known as an ideal transformer.
• Transformation Ratio (K):-
E 2 N 2 I1
= = = K , K=1→ Isolation T/F.
E1 N1 I 2
K>1→Step up T/F., K<1→Step down T/F.
• Transformation turn ratio (A):-
E1 N1 I 2
= = =A
E 2 N 2 I1
• Practical Transformer
The practical transformer has some winding H.V
resistance, some leakage flux so, there are a little-bit • EMF Equation of Transformer- K = L.V
losses. E1 = 4.44 φm f N1 , E 2 = 4.44 φm f N 2
• Comparison between 'Ideal Transformer and
Practical Transformer'- • Losses in transformer- A transformer has mainly
Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer two types of losses.
There is no losses. There are core and copper Core loss Copper loss
losses. It is a constant losses. It is a variable losses.
There is no leakage flux. There is small amount of Caused by the alternating Caused due to winding
leakage flux. magnetic flux in the core. resistance.
Voltage regulation is zero. Voltage regulation is Core losses = P e + P h Copper losses
never zero. = I12 .R 1 + I 22 .R 2
Where,
I0 = Iµ2 + I 2w
Bm → Maximum flux density, V→ Volume of core
f → Supply frequency, t → Thickness of core Iµ = I0 sinφ0
Comparison between Eddy current loss and Iw = I0 cosφ0
Hysteresis loss- Remember point
Comparative Eddy current Hysteresis loss
factor loss No-load power factor is small due to large
Definition It occurs because It occurs magnetising current.
of the relative because of the P.F at no-load is 0.2 – 0.3.
motion between reversal of the No-load power (W0) = V1 I0 cosφ0.
the core and the magnetism. Condition for maximum efficiency-
magnetic flux. Core losses = copper losses i.e. Wi = Wcu
Formula Pe = k e Bm f t V
2 2 2
Ph = k h Bm f .V
1.6 Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency
Minimizing By making the By using iron losses (Wi )
= full load kVA ×
method core of thin silicon steel Copper losses at full load ( Wcu )
lamination. material.
V V Wi
Bm ∝ Bm ∝ hence, New kVA = Fullload kVA.
f f Wcu
If
Dependency of If V = constant . Voltage Regulation-
V/f ratio f V
= constant V − Vfℓ
then, Pe ∝ f 2
f V.R. = nℓ
then, Ph ∝ f Vnℓ
V
If ≠ constant . V Where,
f If ≠ constant Vn – Vf → Voltage drop. Vn → No-load voltage.
then, Pe ∝ V 2 f ℓ ℓ ℓ
then, I 2 R 2 cos φ2 ± I 2 X 2 sin φ2

% V.R =
Ph ∝ V1.6 .f −0.6 E2
Dependency of iron loss and copper loss at different V.R = R P.U. cos φ ± X P.U. sin φ
load-
Iron losses remains always constant at any load but where,
copper loses changes according to load. +ve sigh for lagging power factor.
Copper loss at any load (Pcu) = x .Pcu ( fl )
2 –ve sigh for leading power factor.
Condition for zero voltage regulation-
where,
−Vr −R 2
x → Load condition ratio. tan φ = =
Pcu(fl) → Copper loss at full load. Vx X2
Total losses at full load- = Wi + Wcu Condition for maximum voltage regulation-
Remember point V X
tan φ = x = 2
No-load current of a practical transformer is 3-5% of Vr R 2
full load current ( Iµ > I w ) . • Testing of Transformer-
At loaded condition the ampere turns or MMF are Open Circuit test Short circuit test
balanced. To find core losses. To find copper losses.
To find shunt branch To find series branch
parameter (R0, X0). parameter (R01, X01).
Its performed at L.V. Its performed at H.V.
side at rated voltage and side at reduced voltage (5
rated frequency. – 10%), rated current and
rated frequency.
Where, Instruments are Instruments are
Iw = Active or watt connected at L.V. side connected at H.V. side.
full current.
Readings by Readings by
Iµ = Reactive or instruments instruments
wattless current.
Wattmeter → core Wattmeter → Cu losses
I0 = No-load current.
losses. Ammeter → Rated
φ = Phase angle.
Ammeter → I0 (no-load current of H.V. side.
V1 = Supply voltage.
E1, E2 = Induced
current) Voltmeter → Reduced
voltage. Voltmeter → Supply voltage of H.V. side.
voltage means rated
I0 = Iµ + Iw voltage.
• Sumpner test/Back to Back test/Heat and run Used for variable voltages.
test- Transformation ratio for auto transformer is-
By this test total heat developed in transformer due L.V.
K=
to core loss and copper loss can be calculated. H.V.
Two identical transformer connected back to back. • Total transfer power = Inductively + Conductively
Used to find efficiency and temperature rise of • Inductively transfer power = (1–K). Input power.
transformer
• Conductively transfer power = K. Input power
• Efficiency of Transformer-
• Increase in kVA rating-
Output power Output power
η= = Sauto =
1
.S2− winding
Input power Output power + Losses 1− K
V2 I 2 cos φ2 • Saving in conductor- Cauto = ( K ) .C2− winding
η=
V2 I2 cos φ2 + Pi + Pcu • Open delta connection (V-V connection)-
• Parameters and Referred Values- Used when one bank of transformer is damaged.
When secondary referred When Primary referred V − V rating = 57.7% of ∆ ∆
to primary side to secondary side
• Scott connection (T-T connection)-
2 2
N  N  Used to convert 3-φ to 2-φ and Vice versa.
R 01 = R1 + R 2  1  R 02 = R 2 + R1  2 
 N2   N1  • Vector Grouping-
2 2
Y : Y connection → 0 : 0 ∆ : ∆ connection → 0 : 0
N  N  ∆ : Y connection → 30º lag.
X 01 = X1 + X 2  1  X 02 = X 2 + X1  2 
 N2   N1  Y : ∆ connection → 30º lead.
N 
2
N 
2 Parallel Operation of transformer
Z01 = Z1 + Z2  1  Z02 = Z2 + Z1  2  • Necessity of parallel Operation-
 N2   N1 
To fulfill the increased demand of load.
N  N  As per requirement, transformer can be switched on
V01 = V1 + V2  1  V02 = V2 + V1  2 
or off.
 N2   N1 
To increase the reliability of system.
N  N  For easy transportation and low maintenance cost
E 01 = E1 + E 2  1  E 02 = E 2 + E1  2 
 N2   N1  • Conditions For parallel operation-
Same frequency rating.
N  N 
I01 = I1 + I2  2  I02 = I 2 + I1  1  Same kVA ratings.
 N1   N2  Same percentage Impedance and X/R ratio.
• Auto Transformer- Same voltage Ratio and Turns Ratio.
Same voltage Regulation.
• Must necessity condition for parallel operation-
The phase sequence must be same.
The vector grouping must be same.
Same polarity.
Remember point
When two transformers have different ratings, and
operating in parallel then they will share the load
(Fig of auto-transformer) according to their ratings.
It is a single winding transformer. When two transformers are running in parallel and
there ratings are same, then they will share load
Winding is connected inductively as well as
according to p.u. impedance.
conductively.
1
Power transfer occurs through Induction as well as Load sharing ∝ .
conduction. Zpu

ELECTRICAL MACHINE-II
Synchronous machine •
Method to make Synchronous Motor self started-
3-φ synchronous motor is not self started so, they
needs following starting methods-
1. By external prime mover.
2. By pony motor.
3. By damper winding.
Note:- Damper winding used only for salient type
rotor.
• Hunting- It is known as 'phase swing'.
Hunting comes due to sudden change of load on a 3-
φ synchronous motor by which its speed oscillates
about synchronous speed (Ns) and torque angle (δ)
Stator also oscillates at reference, this phenomenon called
as hunting.
Causes of hunting due to-
Sudden load variation on synchronous motor.
Fault in stator winding.
Fault in supply system.
Fault in field supply system.
Harmonics in 3-φ supply system.
Armature winding on stator and field winding done
Effect of Hunting-
on rotor.
Motor will be more heated. Net work done decreases.
Laminated silicon steel used.
Bearings may be damaged. Stress developed at shaft.
Concentrated winding used.
Open slots are used. • Remedies or Methods to overcome from hunting-
1. By using 'fly wheel'.
Rotor 2. By using 'damper bars'.
Salient Pole type Cylindrical Pole type Fly wheel- It is a heavy wheel connected at shaft of
the motor.
Damper bars- Provided on pole face of the rotor.
Armature Reaction in Synchronous
machines-
Practically 12-20 poles are Practically 2 poles used. • Armature Reaction- The effect of armature flux on
used. main field flux is known as armature reaction.
It has large diameter and It has large axial length Note:- When the armature is on no-load, then very
small axial length. and small diameter. low value of armature current flows in the armature
It has non-uniform air-gap. It has uniform air-gap. hence armature reaction can be neglected at no-load.
Has more noise and Has low noise and P.F. at Alternator Synchronous
mechanical losses. mechanical losses. motor
Unity Cross- Cross-
Has low synchronizing Has high synchronizing magnetizing. magnetizing.
capacity. capacity. Zero (lag) Demagnetizing. Magnetizing.
Hunting occurs here. Negligible hunting. Zero (lead) Magnetizing. Demagnetizing.
Preferred for low speed Preferred for high speed Cos φ (lag) Partially Partially
alternators. alternators. demagnetizing magnetizing and
Ex- Used in Hydro plant. Ex- Used in thermal plant. partially cross partially cross-
magnetizing. magnetizing.
Comparison between DC Generator and Cos φ (lead) Partially Partially
Alternator- magnetizing demagnetizing
DC Generator Alternator partially cross and partially
It has rotating armature It has rotating field and magnetizing. cross-
and stationary field. stationary armature magnetizing.
Its size are generally large. Its size are generally small. • V-curve and Inverted V-curve ( Λ -curve)-
Has lower output ratings. Has higher output ratings V-curve- Draws between field current (If) and armature
Has lower range of RPM. Has higher range of RPM. current (Ia).
Λ -curve- Draws between field current (If) and P.F. Used for mechanical Used for P.F. correction.
(cosφ). loading.
Curves Synchronous Alternator Less efficient. More efficient.
motor It is cheaper. It is costly
V-curve (It Comparison between DC Motor and
draws Synchronous Motor-
between If D.C. Motor Synchronous Motor
& I a) It works on D.C. only. It works on 3-φ AC and
DC both.
Note:- D.C. supply
Inverted V- provided to rotors field
curve (It winding.
draws It runs at various speed It runs at single speed that
between If depending upon the kinds means at synchronous
& cos φ) of load.
speed NS =
120f
P
It is small in construction. Comparatively large in
Comparison between 3-φ Induction motor and
construction.
Synchronous motor.
It has brush and No brush and commutator
3-φ Induction motor Synchronous motor
commutator segments for segment requires because
Self started. Not self started. commutation to convert DC of no conversion takes
Operates at lagging P.F. Operates at leading, in AC. place.
Only. lagging and unity P.F.
Only one winding is Needs two winding main
Runs always less than Runs always at enough for its operation. winding and field
synchronous speed. synchronous speed.
winding for its operation.
Singly excited motor. Doubly excited motor.
Synchronous motor Alternator
Torque equation for synchronous motor- 1. EMF equation of Alternator-
3Vt E f E = 4.44k p .k d φfTp or E = 4.44k w φfTp
T= sin δ
ωs .Xs
Where, Winding Factor (Kw) = Kp.Kd
Vt → terminal voltage, Ef → excitation voltage Where,
3 Kp - Pitch Factor , φ - Useful flux per pole
δ → torque angle, → constant
ωS Kd - Distribution Factor, Tp - Turn per phase.
XS→ synchronous reactance
f - frequency of induced emf,
• Note- XS = X ℓ + X A.R. , ZS = R a2 + XS2
2. Average emf per phase-
Where,
Xℓ - leakage reactance, Ra- Armature resistance E = 2φfZ = 4φfTp
XA.R.- Armature reaction across reactance Where,
Zs -Synchronous impedance
• Xs ≃ 0.99 P.U. , • Xs > XA.R > Xℓ > Ra Z → conductors in series per phase
Applications- Z = 2Tp
• Used for constant speed that means for synchronous Application-
speed only.
• Used to deliver 3-φ power supply in power system.
• Used for power factor correction.
Winding factor (Kw) = Kp.Kd Where,
Vector sum of induceed emf Chording angle (α) = 180 – coil span
per coil
1. Pitch factor (K p ) = 180
Arithmetic sum of induced Slot angle ( β ) =
emf per coil pole pitch
= cosα/2 m - Pole pitch per phase.
sin m β / 2 Number of slot
2. Distribution factor (K d ) = Note- Pitch factor =
msin β / 2 Number of pole

• SCR (Short Circuit Ratio)-
SCR, determines reactive power supply capability of
an alternator.
If required to produce rated open
circuit voltage(Voc ) • Slip test - Used to find Xd and Xq.
• SCR = V
If required to produce rated short Reactance across d-axis ( X d ) = max
circuit current (Isc ) I min
Where, If = field current
Reactance across q-axis ( X q ) =
Vmin
.
1 1 1 I max
• SCR = ≈ So, SCR =
Zs Xs Xs • Voltage regulation in Synchronous Generator- It
is the rise in voltage at the terminals when the load
• SCR-
For cylindrical rotor synchronous machine = 0.6 - 0.9 is reduced from full load rated value to zero value,
For salient pole synchronous machine = 0.9-1.5 when the speed and field current remains constant.
For synchronous condenser = 0.4 Vnℓ − Vfℓ
V.R. =
For modern alternator = 0.5 Vfℓ
• SCR ∝ Air-gap length ∝ Size ∝ Cost ∝ Pout
Voltage Regulation For -
∝ Stability ∝ Excitation ∝ Synchronizing power
Resistive load-always +ve
∝ Synchronizing power coefficient Inductive load -always +ve
Power equation-
Capacitive load- may be → +ve, or –ve, or zero.
1. For Cylindrical rotor 2. For Salient rotor
EV  V2  1 1   X
P = f t sin δ
EV
P =  f t sin δ +  −  sin 2δ 
For max V.R. tan φ =
Xs  X d 2  X q Xd   R
EV Where, R
Pmax = f t , ( δ = 90º) E V For minimum V.R. tan φ =
Xs f t
sin δ - electromagnetic X
V X V.R. of Alternator
[ E f cos δ − Vt ] power.
d
Q= EMF Method MMF Method Zero power
Xs
Factor Method.
Where, V2  1 1 
 −  sin2δ - The value of V.R. The value of The value of
P - Active power. 2  Xq Xd  measured in this V.R. measured V.R.
Pm - Max power. method is greater in this method measured in
Reluctance power
Q - Reactive power.
Note: PReluctance ≈ (15 – 20%) than actual value. is less than this method is
Ef - Field excitation. actual value. acceptable.
of total power.
Vt- Terminal voltage. That means
dP 'most
• Synchronizing power coefficient (Psyn.)=
dδ accurately'.
EV Known as Known as Known as
Psyn = f t .cos δ Hence, Psyn = Pmax .cos δ ‘pessimistic ‘optimistic ‘potier triangle
Xs method’. method’. method’.
Three-Phase Induction Motor (3-φ I.M.)
Note: Squirrel cage rotors are two types- 1. Single cage 2. Double cage.
Comparison between single cage rotor Comparison between 3-φ Induction
and double cage rotor- Motor and Transformer-
Single Cage Double Cage 3-φ Induction Motor Transformer
Starting torque is low. Starting torque is high. Uses distributed windings. Uses concentrated
It has low rotor resistance The outer cage bars have windings.
and motor draws high high resistance and low Winding factor 'Kw' Winding factor 'Kw' = 1.
starting current. reactance so motor draws = Kp.Kd .
low starting current. Loading types are Loading types are
The effective leakage The effective leakage electrical, magnetic and electrical and magnetic.
reactance is low. reactance is high. mechanical.
For same rating, cost is For same rating, cost is Flux nature is 'Average Flux nature is
low. high due to double cages. flux'. 'maximum flux.
Comparison between Squirrel cage and No-load current 'Io'= 30 to No-load current 'Io' =
Slip ring Induction Motors- 40%. 3-5%.
Squirrel Cage I.M. Slip Ring (Phase E = 4.44 φavgf Kw.N. E = 4.44 φmf N.
wound) I.M. It is rotating machine. It is stationary device.
Rotor consist of bars Rotor consist of a three Comparison between AC Motors and DC
which are shorted at the phase winding. Motors.
ends with the help of end AC Motors DC Motors
rings. AC Motors can be single All DC Motors are
It is permanently shorted, Resistance can be added phase or three phase. single phase.
external resistance can't be externally. Generates more heat Generates less heat, hence
added. comparatively. less energy is wasted.
Starting torque is low but Starting torque is high In AC Motors armatures In DC Motors, the
running torque is high. but running torque is do not rotate while armature rotates while
low. magnetic field magnetic field does not
Rotor resistance starter Rotor resistance starter continuously rotates. rotate.
can't be used. can be used. AC Motors requires an DC Motors do not
Speed control by rotor Speed control by rotor effective starting require any external help
resistance is not possible resistance is possible. equipment, like capacitor to start operation.
Due to simple construction The rotor are very to start operation.
the rotor are cheap. costly. Average starting torque. Very high starting torque.
Almost 95% induction Only 5% of induction Simple to install. complicated to install.
motors uses this type of motors are industry uses Repairing of AC Motors Repairing of DC Motors
rotor. this type of rotor. are not costly. are costly.
Applications- Applications- Some facts about 3 - φ Induction Motor-
• Drilling machines • Lifts • Elevators • It is a singly excited and self started motor.
• Water pumps Grinders • Cranes • Hoists • It is a transformer whose secondary is shorted.
• Lathe machines • Compressors • Known as a rotating transformer.
Remember point • Known as Asynchronous motor because it follows
synchronous speed (Ns).
• The speed of stator field with respect to-
• It's starting torque (Tst) is lower than dc shunt motor.
Stator structure → Ns
• Equivalent circuit of 3-φ I.M. at starting (at stand
Rotor structure → Ns - Nr = s.Ns still) is similar to equivalent circuit of transformer
Rotor field → Ns - Ns = 0 when secondary is short circuited.
• The speed of rotor field w.r.t.- Working of 3-φ I.M.-
Stator structure → Ns • 3-φ supply is fed to 3-φ stator winding.
Rotor structure → Ns - Nr • Rotating flux of constant value (1.5φm) produced.
Stator field → Ns - Ns = 0 • Rotating flux passes through air-gap and cuts rotor
conductor.
• EMF is induced in the rotor conductor.
• Hence rotor bars or conductors forms a closed
circuit so current flows through rotor conductors
Features about 'Double Cage I.M.'- whose direction given by Lenz's law, is such as to
Top layer Bottom layer oppose the cause of production.
• Less leakage reactance • More leakage • To reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running
(X ↓) but more reactance (X↑) but in the same direction as that of the flux and tries to
resistance R>X less resistance X>R catch up to the rotating flux, thus rotor of induction
• More starting current • Less starting current motor rotates.
Mode of operation of 3 - φ induction motor Cogging-
Motoring Braking mode Generating mode Cogging occurs when the number of stator slots are
mode equal to the number of rotor slots.
0<S<1 S>1 0 > S or S = –ve
Ns and Nr is
Also known as magnetic locking.
Ns > Nr opposite to Nr > Ns
In cogging motor refused to start.
each other but
N s > N r. Remember point- To reduce the cogging, the
Slip (s) lies Slip (s) is Slip is negative. number of stator slots should never be equal to that
between 1 to 0. greater than of rotor slots.
one.
Torque-slip characteristics of 3-φ I.M. -
Circle Diagram-
It represents rotor current.
Frequency can't be determined.
Remember point - Circle diagram used to find
output power, input power losses, slip, torque and
efficiency of induction motor.
Advantage of Skewed Rotor-
Reduces magnetic locking (cogging).
Reduces magnetic humming.
Develops uniform torque
Improves starting torque.
Reduces harmonics.
Speed control of 3 - φ Induction Motor
From stator side From rotor side
By pole changing method. By rheostat (Rex)
connected with rotor
terminal.
By supply frequency By emf injected
changing method. method.
By voltage control method. By cascade control
method.
V
By control method.
f
Test of 3 - φ induction motor
Remember point- Pole changing method not
No load test Block rotor test used for SRIM (Slip ring induction motor) i.e. only
It is similar to It is similar to used for SCIM.
transformer's 'open circuit transformer's 'short Speed control from rotor side like, rheostat, emf
test' . circuit test'. injected and cascade control all are not used for
To calculate iron losses. To calculate copper SCIM (Squirrel cage induction motor).
losses. Supply frequency changing and voltage control
To find shunt branch To find series branch method are used for both SCIM & SRIM.
parameter, Ro & Xo. parameter, Ro1 & Xo1. Type of starter used in 3 - φ Induction Motor
Crawling and cogging in 3-φ I.M. -
For squirrel cage For slip ring induction
• Crawling- induction motor motor
It comes due to harmonics (space harmonics) DOL (Direct online starter) Rotor resistance.
developed in the motor. used upto 5 H.P.
In crawling 3-φ I.M. has a tendency to run at a very Star delta starter (used upto Injected slip frequency
Nsth 15 H.P.) emf in the rotor.
low speed that means at speed compared to
7 Auto-transformer (used
synchronous speed. above 15 H.P.)
Remember point Remember point
To reduce crawling 'skewed rotor' is used. DOL starter restricted to low H.P. motor
Crawling can be reduced by reducing fifth (5th ) and DOL starter takes largest starting current (Its starting
seventh (7th) harmonics, which can be done by using current is equal to ISC).
a chorded or short pitched winding. No controlling done for DOL starter.
2 Note:- s → Slip, fr → Rotor frequency, f → Supply
T I  frequency, Xr → Rotor reactance, X → Stator
For DOL starter- st =  st  sfℓ
Tfℓ  Ifℓ  reactance
• Rotor current at stand still condition (s = 1)
2
Tst 1  Ist  E2
For star delta starter- =   sfℓ I2 =
Tfℓ 3  Ifℓ 
R 22 + (X 2 )2
DOL starter used only for overload protection not
• Rotor current at running condition-
for voltage and current control.
Normal supply voltage is provided to DOL starter. sE 2
I2
Starting of 3-φ I.M. R 22 + (sX 2 ) 2
DOL starter 2
Tst  Ist  • Rotor power factor-
(Direct online starter) =   .sfℓ
Tfℓ  Ifℓ  R2 R2
cos φr = =
Star-Delta starter  Tst  1  Ist 
  =   .sfℓ
2 Zr
{ R 22 + (sX 2 ) 2
 Tfℓ  3  Ifℓ  • Torque in Induction Motor (Tc)-
Auto-transformer 2 Internal mechanical power developed in rotor
Tst  I  Tc =
= x 2  st  .sfℓ Rotor speed in mechanical radian per second
Tfℓ I
 fℓ 
Single Phase (1-φ) Motor or Fractional
Remember point- The ratio of starting torque to
full load torque for star-delta starter is 57.7% of
Horse Power(FHP)-
DOL starter
Ratio of Torque- When stator impedance and
magnetizing reactance are neglected then-
Tfℓ 2s .s T 2s
= 2 fℓ m2 , st = 2 m
Tmax sfℓ + sm Tmax s m + 1
Tst s 2 + s2
= 2fℓ m
Tfℓ (s m + 1).sfℓ
Most important formula for 3-φ I.M. - Special Purpose Motors-
s K E2 R 1. Stepper Motor. 2. Servo Motor.
T = 2 2 22 Some features of single phase induction motor-
R 2 + (sX 2 )
• Not self started. • Closed slots used.
Note:- because at starting s = 1 • P.F. 0.6 lagging.
K E2R • Have maximum 4 poles.
So, Tst = 2 2 22
R 2 + X2 • Phase displacement between starting and running
winding is nearly 90°.
E 22 R • Known as ‘fractional H.P. motors’.
• Tmax = , smax = 2
2X 2 X2 • Operates on 1-φ supply (230V, 50Hz).
Note:- Tst and Tmax both are directly proportional to • Known as ‘domestic motor’.
supply voltage. • Widely used in houses, offices and controlling etc.
• Pg : Pcu : Po = 1 : s : (1–s) Remember point
• Rotor copper loss = s.Pg A single-phase motors are truly a two-phase
1  machines.
• Output power (Po) = R′2  − 1 Aluminium bars are molded on the slots and short-
s 
circuited at both ends with rings.
Where, Pg → Air gap power.
The purpose of starting winding in a 1-φ I.M. is to
Po or Pm → Output power or Mechanical power.
produce rotating magnetic field in conjunction with
• Slip-speed = Ns – Nr the running winding.
N − Nr 120f
• Slip = s • Ns = At starting the current through the starting winding
Ns P of 1-φ I.M. is nearly in phase with voltage.
• Nr = Ns (1–s) • Stator → Main winding + Auxiliary winding.
Effect of slip on rotor parameter- Rotor → Squirrel cage rotor.
• fr = s.f • X r= s X • In a 1-φ I.M. the stator winding produces a flux
• Er = s.E which is 'only alternating not rotating.
Comparison between 1-φ I.M. and 3-φ I.M. - Remember point –
Parameters Single phase I.M. Three phase • If the rotor rotates at speed Nr in the forward
(1-φ I.M.) I.M.(3-φ I.M.) direction then forward slip-
Starting Not self started. Self started.
N − Nr
Source Requires 1-φ AC Requires 3-φ (sf) = s =s
source. AC source. Ns
Size Large. Small. • If the rotor rotates at speed Nr in the reverse
Slip Have two slips i.e. Has only one direction, then backward slip-
forward & slip i.e.
N − ( − N r ) Ns + N r
backward slip. forward slip . (sb) = s = = (2 − s)
Direction of By changing By changing Ns Ns
reversal eighter main or any two phase
Hence, sf + sb = s + 2–s = 2 sf + s b = 2
auxiliary winding. sequences.
Auxiliary Requires. Not requires. • Being Ns = –Ns in forward and reverse direction
winding resulting torque on rotor is zero that's why rotor
Slots Closed. Semi closed. remains at standstill condition, hence does not
Output power Low. High. rotates in any direction. If a small force is applied in
Winding Distributed. Concentrated. any direction of the rotor then it began to rotate in
Temperature More temperature Low that direction.
rise. temperature
• Cross field theory- To overcome from the starting
rise.
Cost Cheaper . Expensive. problem of 1-φ I.M., we create a phase difference
Known as Domestic motor. Industrial between main and auxiliary winding by this a torque
motor. exist on rotor and rotor began to rotate in particular
Application Domestic use. Industrial use. direction. Tst = Im. Is sinα
The operation of 1-φ Induction Motor can be Where,
described by two methods- Tst - Starting torque , Im -Main winding current.
1. Double revolving field theory. Is → Starting winding (auxiliary winding current).
2. Cross-field theory. α - Phase angle between Im & Is.
Double Revolving Field Theory- According to this
theory, a stationary pulsating field of a single-phase Remember point:- Cross-field theory of single-
motor can be resolved into two rotating field of its phase induction motor is related to create a phase
half amplitude in opposite direction at synchronous difference between voltage and current by which a
speed. torque exist on rotor.
There are many ways to make a single-phase
induction motor to make self started, according to
starting methods the motor named like capacitor
start motor, permanent capacitor motor, capacitor
start and capacitor run motor and split-phase motor.
Single phase induction motor’s Chart:
Split Phase type Capacitor start inductance Permanent capacitor Capacitor start
(resistance start type) run motor motor (capacitor capacitor run (Two
motor) value capacitor
motor)
• Main winding- It has low • The main winding and • It has no centrifugal • Cs - Paper capacitor.
Rm and high Xm. auxiliary winding both switch. • CR - Electrolytic
• Auxiliary winding- It are similar hence • Capacitor is capacitor.
has low Xa and high Ra. capacitor is used to connected with • A two value capacitor
• The stator winding comprises make phase difference auxiliary winding. motor starts with the
of two windings main winding between Im and Ia . • Both winding works help of high capacitor
and auxiliary windings both • It is a improved form of together and placed and runs with a low
are placed at 90°. split phase I.M. 90° electrically. capacitor.

• Centrifugal switch is • In a capacitor start 1-φ • Higher P.F. = 0.9 • High starting torque.
connected with auxiliary I.M. The current in the • Efficiency=0.6 ≈ • Here capacitor is
winding. starting winding leads 60%. connected in
• A centrifugal switch the voltage. Applications- starting as well as
disconnects the auxiliary • It is costly than split - • Ceilling Fan running winding but
winding when achieves phase. • Blowers at running condition
70-80% of speed. • It has 75º phase • Direct connected fan CS (paper capacitor)
• The current in a starting difference and high • Oil burners is opened by
winding of a split-phase starting torque. centrifugal switch.
1-φ I.M. is leading w.r.t. • It has 0.7 lagging power • P.F. high 0.85.
current of the main factor. Applications-
winding. • Applications - • Air compressor
• It has 30º phase • Compressor • Conveyer • Refrigerator
difference and medium • Pumps • Air conditioner • Conveyors
starting torque. • Small lathes •Pumps
• Applications-
• Washing machine • Fans,
• Blowers. • Oil burners.
• Small machine tools.
Shaded-pole single-phase motor- Remember points :
• In 1-φ I.M., only shaded pole motor is self started
remainings are not self started motor.
• 1-φ I.M. according to their increasing order of
cost -
Shaded pole motor<Permanent capacitor <
Capacitor start<Capacitor start capacitor run
• 1-φ I.M. according to their increasing order of
starting torque -
Shaded pole<Permanent capacitor<Capacitor start
• It rotates from unshaded to shaded. capacitor run<Capacitor start.
• Stator - Saliant pole type. Comparison between single phase synchronous
• Rotor - Cage type. motor and three phase synchronous motor-
• Its efficiency is 5-35%. 1-φ Synchronous Motor 3-φ Synchronous motor
• Used where least torque is required. Self started. Not self started.
• Its direction can't be changed. Singly excited. Doubly excited.
• It is cheaper i.e. least expensive FHP motor. No need of slip ring. Used two slip ring to fed
Applications- field supply.
• Hair dryer • Toys Distributed winding is Concentrated winding is
• Small fans • Electric clock used. used.
• Time phonographs
Single Phase Synchronous Motor
Reluctance Motor Hysteresis Motor
• Stator- It has laminated construction made up of • Stator- It's stator is designed to produce a
stampings. synchronously revolving field from a 1-φ supply.
• Rotor- same as salient pole and not have any • Rotor- It consists of smooth cylindrical of
winding. magnetically hard steel, without winding and teeth.
• At starting time this motor runs at sub-synchronous • At starting this motor starts with eddy current and
speed and at steady state it runs at synchronous speed. hysteresis both but at running condition runs only
• It is a motor which depends on reluctance torque with hysteresis loss.
for its operation.
• Reluctance torque is the torque induced in an iron • Its rotor is made of smooth cylindrical hard
object in the presence of external magnetic field. chrome steel.
• It will align itself with the magnetic field to • It has no teeth and no winding on rotor.
minimize the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
• It is free from mechanical and magnetic vibration.
• It accelerate from rest to full speed at stant.
• The laminated construction keeps iron losses to • It operates at constant speed and performs noise
minimum. less operations.
• The stampings are made up of material from • Its torque is directly proportional to hysteresis loss.
silicon steel which minimize the hysteresis loss.
Applications- Applications-
• Recording instrument • Signaling devices • Recording player • Tap recorder and sound
• Timers • Clock timers • Synthetic fibre • Timing devices • Electric clocks
Single Phase Commutator Motor-
Repulsion Motor Universal Motor
• It works on the combined principle of repulsion • It works on both AC and DC supply.

and induction.
• Has highest starting torque.
• Stator- Similar to 1-φ I.M. • It is known as 1-φ series motor.
• Rotor- Here two rotor winding are used one is • Its speed range lies between 3000 rpm- 12000
squirrel cage and other usual dc winding rpm.
connected to the commutator and a short-circuit
set of two brushes. • Field winding and armature winding connected in
series.
• It has lap and wave both types of windings. • Its speed is inversely proportional to load.
• Its direction of rotation can be changed by • Direction of rotation can be changed either by
changing position of brushes. changing field or armature winding.
• Its speed is generally controlled by 'Gear trains'.
• The angle between brush axis and stator field axis • It is preferred for high speed and high starting
must be equal to 45°. torque.
• By adjusting the position of short-circuit brushes • Torque pulsation is minimized by both rotor and
on the commutator, the starting torque can be load inertia.
developed in the rotor.
• It has highest power to weight ratio.
• Its field structure has non-salient pole • It has high starting torque and a variable speed
construction. characteristics.
• It runs at dangerously high speed at no-load.

Applications- Applications-
•Hoists •Machines in Textile •Printing presses • Electric shaver •Mixer •Portable tools
•High speed lifts •Electrical locomotives •Drilling machines •Table fans •Sewing machine
•Film winding machine •Vacuum cleaner •Vacuum cleaner •Coffee grinders• Food processor
Note:- Repulsion motor is second priority used in vacuum cleaner after universal motor.
Special purpose motors-
Stepper Motor Servo Motor
It gives step by step output, this step by step output A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that
also called as 'detent torque'. allows for precise control of angular or linear position,
velocity and acceleration.
It is a digital to analog converter. It consists of electric motor, feedback device and
electronic controller.
It is widely used because of compatibility with digital There are mainly two types of servo-motors.
system. • AC servo-motor • DC servo-motor.
It has no brushes, windings and commutator on rotor. AC servo-motor generally preferred for low power use.
Operation of stepper motor at high speed called DC servo-motor preferred for high power use.
'Slewing'.
It is a constant power device. Note:- DC servo-motor operates more efficiently than
AC servo-motor.
It produces high torque at all speed.
It operates at very low speed.
Applications- Applications
• Small robotics • X-Y plotters • Digital watches • Radar • Computers • CD/DVD players
• Computer printing drive • Process control system • Robotics • Toys
Remember point It is more prone to It is less prone to error
error due to no because of feedback.
Total revolution
Step angle (β) = × 360° feedback.
Number of steps
It provides very low It provides very high torque
torque at higher speed. at higher speed.
TR N − Nr 360°
or × 360° = s × 360° = No vibration in It has vibration at standstill
N N s .N r mN r
stepper motor at position.
Where,
standstill position.
Ns → No. of stator poles (teeth).
Nr → No. of rotor poles (teeth). No encoder used. Used an encoder.
m → No. of stator phases. Suitable for Not suitable for fluctuating
Comparison between Stepper Motor and Servo- fluctuating loads. load.
Motor- Tuning/Gain Tuning/Gain adjustment
Stepper Motor Servo Motor adjustment not required.
It operate in a open It operate in a close loop required.
loop that means has that means has feedback Small size Big size.
no feedback arrangement.
arrangement. Cheaper Costly.
It loose the torque at It maintains the torque at No hunting during Hunting during stop
high rotational speed. high rotational speed. stop position. position.

POWER ELECTRONICS & DRIVES
Ideal Characteristic
Switches Symbol Characteristic Voltage/Current
Rating
Diode 500V
500A
BJT 1400 V
(N-P-N) 400 A
MOSFET 1000 V
(n-Channel) 50 A
IGBT 1200 V
500 A
SCR 7000 V
5000 A
GTO 5000 V
3000 A
TRIAC 1200 V
40A
Characteristic of Power Diodes • Reverse Recovery characteristic

• Diode V-I Characteristics (Forward
characteristics)
1/ 2
 2Q R 
t rr = t a + t b = t off t rr =  
 di / dt 
1/ 2
 di 
IRM =  2QR 
Maximum applied reverse voltage = P.I.V  dt 

Softness factor ( S) =
tb Thyristor
ta
• Static V-I characteristics of Thyristor-
• Types of power diode
Param General Fast Schottkey
eters Purpose Recovery Diode
Diode Diode
trr 25 µ sec 5µ sec or less In nano sec
Voltage 50V to 5kV 50V to 3 kV Reverse
Rating voltage
blocking
capability
limited to 100
Volts
Current 1 A to 1000 A 1 A - 1000 A 1 A to 300 A
rating
Applica Battery Choppers High
-tion charging frequency • Latching current- It is minimum value of during
UPS Commutati Instrument- turn on process to maintain conduction when gate
Welding on circuits ation
signal is removed.
Electric SMPS Switching
traction Induction Power • Holding current- It is minimum value of anode
heating supplies current below which thyristor will return to forward
• Power Transistors- blocking state or thyristor will turn off
BJT MOSFET IGBT
Bipolar device Unipolar Bipolar ILatching > I Holding
device device
or
Low ON state High ON state Low ON
voltage drop voltage drop state voltage ILatching = (2 to 2.5) IHolding
drop Operating Junction1 Junction 2 Junction 3
Low On state High ON state Low ON mode
conduction power conduction state
Forward Forward Breakdown Forward
loss power loss conduction
power loss conduction
Negative Positive Positive Forward Forward Reverse Forward
temperature temperature temperature Blocking
coefficient for coefficient for coefficient
Reverse Reverse Forward Reverse
resistance resistance for resistance
Blocking
High switching Low switching Low
power loss power loss switching Remember point
power loss
Low input High Input High Input a. The Break down voltage reduces by increasing the
Impedance Impedance Impedance magnitude of gate signal.
Current controlled Voltage Voltage b. Latching current is used in turn on process &
device controlled controlled
holding current is used in turn off process of SCR.
device device
1200 V, 800A (10- 500V, 140A, 1200V, c. IL>IH
20)kHz 1MHz 500A, 50kHz d. After SCR turn ON Gate loose its control that why it
Secondary Break Secondary Secondary is called partially controlled device.
down will occur Break down Break down
Triggering methods of SCR-
will not occur will not
occur. Gate triggering
Parallel operation is Parallel Parallel Forward voltage triggering
not advisable operation is operation is dv
possible possible. triggering
dt
Application: UPS, SMPS Inverters
charging batteries choppers. Temperature triggering Light triggering

• Switching characteristic of SCR - Pav - Average rate of heat generated of a thyristor
TJ - Junction temperature, θ - Thermal resistance
TC - Case temperature, TS - Sink temperature
TA - Ambient temperature, [ θJA = θJC + θCS + θSA ]
• Series operation of SCR -
nVbm − Vs
Static equalizing resistor ( R ) =
( n − 1) ∆Ib
{∆Ib = Ib max − Ib min }
I = I1 + I b min , I = I 2 + Ib max
Delay time (td) :- The time at which gate current

reaches 0.9 Ig to the instant at which anode current
reach 0.1 Ia.
Rise time (tr) :- The time at which anode current to
rise from 0.1 Ia to 0.9 Ia.
Peak time (tp) :- The time at which anode current to
rise from 0.9 Ia to Ia.
Turn-on time = td + tr + tp
• Gate characteristics of SCR –
C=
( n − 1) ∆Q
nVbm − VS
ES = Vg + Ig R S
• UJT (Uni-junction transistor)
Pg = Vg Ig
• Protection of thyristor -
A UJT is made of n-type lightly doped silicon base

and p-type heavily doped embedded material.
To overcome R and R-C triggering circuit, a UJT
Over current protection of SCR → Fuse + C.B. triggering circuit is used.
Over voltage protection of SCR → VARISTOR Equivalent circuit -
High dV/dt protection of SCR → Snubber circuit
High di/dt protection of SCR → Inductor
Thermal protection of SCR → Heat Sink
Over current protection of gate → Resistance (R1)
Over voltage protection of gate → Zener diode
Gate protection against noise → Capacitor C1
• Heating and cooling of SCR -
Instrinsic stand-off ratio -
R B1
η= η - (0.51 to 0.82)
R B1 + R B2
Peak point voltage (VP)= η VBB + VD
TJ − TC TC − TS TS − TA TJ − TA
Pav = = = = for turn-on UJT VE = VP
θJC θCS θSA θJA UJT exhibits negative resistance behaviour.
Diode circuit with DC source
Resistive Load Vs
i(t) =
R
RC Load  dVC 
VC (t) = Vs (1 − e − t / RC )
V Vs
i(t) = s e − t / RC   = τ = RC =
Source Voltage(Vs )
R  dt  t =0 RC  dVC 
 
 dt t =0
RL Load VS  − t 
R R
− t  di  VS
i(t) = 1 − e L  VL(t) = VS .e L
  =
R   dt  t = 0 L
LC Load C  1 
i(t) = VS sin ω0 t  ω0 =  VC (t) = VS (1 − cos ω0 t) VL (t) = VS cos ω0 t
L  LC 
RLC Load R 1 R
Characteristic equation s 2 + s+ =0 Damping factor α= = ξω0
L LC 2L
Ringing frequency ωr = ω02 − α 2 in rad/ sec
VS −αt
• Case-1 Roots complex Under damped i(t) = e sin ωr t
ωr L
• Case -2 Roots real Over damped i(t) =

VS
L α −ω
2 
2
0
{(
sinh  α 2 − ω02  t
 )}
VS −αt
• Case-3 Roots equal Critically damped i(t) = .te
L
Performance Parameter Voltage ripple factor Vr

( FF )
2
(VRF) VRF = = –1
If Vavg
VS = RMS value of supply phase voltage Transformer Pdc
IS = RMS value of supply phase current including Utilization factor TUF =
fundamental and harmonics. VS IS
(TUF)
IS1 = RMS value of fundamental component of Distortion factor (g) Is1
supply current IS g=
Is
Pdc = Vavg Iavg = DC output power
Vavg = Average output voltage. Single phase half wave controlled
Iavg = Average output current and uncontrolled rectifier
Input power factor IS
P.F = 1 cos φ
IS
RMS value of I h = Is2 − Is21
harmonic
components
Harmonic factor of Is2 − Is21
Ih
Input current H.F = or H.F =
Is1 Is21 (Two quardant operation)
Form factor Vs Based on pulse number - Quality of rectifier (Ripple)
FF = Pulse number (m) = The no. of output pulse for one
Vavg cycle of AC source voltage.
Displacement factor cos φ1 Output of ripple frequency = mf = f0
Ripple voltage (Vr) 2π
Vr = Vs2 − Vavg
2
Pulse width/ period =
mf
Single phase half Single phase half wave Motor terminal Motor torque Te = k a φIa
wave Diode Rectifier controlled rectifier. voltage For no saturation in the magnetic
Vt = E a + Ia ra circuit
Motor back Motor torque Te = kIa2
Emf
Ea =
k a φωm = k m ωm
Motor torque Motor back Emf E a = kIa ωm
• R-Load • R-Load Te = k m Ia
Vm Vrms =
Vrms = Angular speed Angular speed of motor
(r + r )
1/ 2
2 Vm  sin 2α  of motor V
 (π − α) + ωm = t − a s
V0 =
Vm
2 π 2  V −I r
ωm = t a a KIa K
π V km
PIV = Vm V0 = m (1 + cos α)
2π Single phase Full wave controlled Rectifier
P = I 2rms R PIV = Vm γ T = π–α RL Load
V .I Continuous Discontinuous
P.F = rms rms β=π tc = π/ω
2V cos α V
VS .Irms V0 = m V0 = m ( cos α – cos β )
π π
• R–L Load • R-L Load 1
Vm Vm 
( β – α ) + ( sin 2α – sin 2β )
V V Vrms = 1 2
V0 = m (1 – cos β) Vrms =
V0 = m (cos α − cos β) 2 2π  2 
2π 2π
Vm π–α 2π – β
I0 = (1 – cos β) V tc = tc =
2πR I0 = m (cos α − cos β) ω ω
2πR
γD = β π < β < 2π − α
RLE Load
γT = β − α Continuous Discontinuous
2π−β 2V cos α V0 =
1
 Vm ( cos α – cos β ) + E ( π + α – β ) 
tC = V0 = m π
ω π
2π + θ1 – β
• R-E Load • R-E Load Vrms = Vm tc =
1 V sin ωt − E ω
I0 = [2Vm cos θ I0 = m π–α
2πR R tc =
ω
−E(π − 2θ)]  E 
V0 = I0 R + E θ1 = sin −1   R Load
 Vm 
PIV = Vm +E V
1 V0 = m (1 + cos α )
γ D = π − 2θ V0 = [Vm (cos α − cos θ2 ) π
2π 1
+ E(2π + α – θ2 )] V  1 2
Vrms = m ( β – α ) + ( sin α – sin β ) 
γ T = π − θ1 − α 2π  2 
π + 2θ1 π
tC = tc =
ω ω
Advantage of F.D – Comparison of semi controlled full wave
1. Improves power factor bridge rectifier
2. Load current waveform is improved Param Symmetrical Asymmetrical FWD + full
eters wave converter
3. Negative spikes in output voltage are removed.
4. Load performance is better V0 Vm Vm Vm
(1 + cos α ) (1 + cos α) (1 + cos α )
5. As energy stored in L is transferred to R during the π π π
freewheeling period. Hence overall converter
efficiency improves. Isrms π−α π−α π−α
DC Drives- I0 I0 I0
π π π
Separately- DC Series motor
Excited DC ITavg I0/2 π − α π − α
I0   I0  
motor  2π   2π 
Voltage across Motor terminal voltage
field winding Vt = Ea + Ia (ra + rs)
IDavg I0 π − α α
I0   I0
Vf = If . rf 2  2π  π
Three phase half wave controlled and
uncontrolled rectifier 240º −α 3Vmℓ
tC ≃ Vavg = (1+ cos α)
3φ half wave 3-φ half wave controlled π 2π
uncontrolled rectifier rectifier (3 pulse) • For α > 60º (valid for Note- In half wave
3 3Vm • α ≤ 30º (continuous
V0avg = only R load) controlled rectifier
conduction)
2π
3 3 3Vmℓ
Vavg = Vm cos α for Vavg = [1+ cos(α + 60º)]
2π π α < 60º → 6 pulse
• α > 30º only for R load 180º −α α ≥ 60º → 3pulse
(discontinuous conduction) tC =
ω
3Vm π
Vavg = (1 + cos( + α))
2π 6
Commutation technique
3–φ full wave controlled Bridge Rectifier (6
pulse)- Natural/Line commutation- If nature of supply
3–φ full controlled Bridge 3–φ half controlled supports commutation process then it is called
Rectifier bridge rectifier or natural commutation. Eg. Rectifiers, AC voltage
semiconverter controller, step-down cyclic converter.
•For α ≤ 60º RL-Load & • For α ≤ 60º
RLE load for any α value 3Vmℓ Forced commutation- DC supply not support the
Vavg = (1+ cos α) commutation process. Eg. Chopper, inverter, step-up
3V 2π
Vavg = mℓ cos α
π • For α ≥ 60º cycloconverter.
Class A (Load Commutation) Class B-Commutation (Current commutation)
4L Resonant current
Over all circuit must be under damped R 2 <
C C
IC = − VS sin ω0t = –IP sin ω0 t
L
Class A commutation possible in DC circuit only not in C
AC. Peak resonant current I P = VS
L
It is also known as resonant commutation or self C Vab
commutation Circuit turn off time t C =
I0
Reverse voltage across main thyristor
  I 
Vab = VS cos sin−1  0 
  IP 
Auxiliary thyristor conduction time = π LC
Class C commutation (Complementary commutation) Class D commutation (Impulse commutation)
Case 1- T1 → ON & T2→ OFF at t = 0 Also known as Impulse commutation, voltage

V C
IC = S e− t / R 2 C , VC (t) = VS (1 − e− t / R 2C ) commutation. Capacitor current IC = VS sin ω0 t
R2 L

Case 2 - T1 → OFF & T2 → ON at t = t1 C
−2VS − t / R1C Peak value of current I P = VS
IC ( t ) = e , VC (t) = VS [2e−t / R1C −1] L
R1
1 2  Circuit turn off time, t c = C
Vs
Peak current through T1 IT1 = VS  + 
 R1 R 2  I0
2 1  Circuit turn off time for auxiliary thyristors (TA),

Peak current through T2 , IT2 = VS  +  π
 R1 R 2  t c1 = LC
2
Circuit turn off time for T1 & T2 Peak value of current through auxiliary thyristor
t C1 = R 1C ℓn(2) , t C2 = R 2 C ℓn(2) ( TA ) = I0
• Chopper α
Step Down Chopper Step up chopper I rms = VS
R
f = Chopping frequency
T = Chopping period
• Steady state Time Domain analysis of Type-A
Chopper.
Load current continuous Load current
Discontinuous
1 V −E
V0 = V 1 − e − Ton / Ta  E
1− α
VS
I max = S  − T / Ta 
− I max = S
R
(1 − e−TON / Ta )
Average Voltage R  1− e  R
V0 = αVS 1 Imin = 0
Vrms = VS
(duty cycle) α 1− α Vs  eTON / Ta − 1  E
I min =  T / Ta −
T TON R e −1  R
= ON =
T TON + TOFF
V0 = fTON VS
Vrms = α VS
• Classification of Chopper
Class A Class-B
First quadrant chopper Second quadrant chopper

Step-down chopper, in which power always flow from Power flow from load to source
source to load.
Used to control the speed of DC motor Used for regenerative braking of DC motor
Step-up chopper
Class C Class D

Single phase half bridge inverter
Single Phase half Single Phase half Single phase half Single phase half bridge
Bridge Inverter with R bridge inverter with bridge Inverter for RL Inverter with RLC load
Load L load load
V V V Vdc
Vrms = dc Vrms = dc Vrms= dc V0 =
2 2 2 2
∞
2Vdc π γeach diode = φ; γeach diode = φ ;
V0 (t) = ∑ sin nω0 t γ each diode = γ each thyristor = γeach thyristor = π –φ γeach thyristor = π − φ
n =1,3,5 nπ 2
P01 = V01rms I01rms
2Vdc γD = γT = π ∞
2Vdc φ
V01 (t) =
π
sin ω0 t I0 (t) = ∑ |Z × tc =
n =1,3,5 n | nπ ω
sin ( nω0 t − φn )
2Vdc I01max ω0 L ∞
2Vdc
I0 (t) =
Rnπ
sin nω0 t IT01(rms) = φn = n × tan −1 I0 (t) = ∑ |Z sin(nω0 t + φn )
2 2 R n =1,3,5 n | nπ
Q01 = V01rms I01rms. | Zn |= R 2 + n 2 ω20 L2
2Vdc ∞
2Vdc F.D.F = cos φ1
I01 =
Rπ
sin ω0 t I0 (t) = ∑ 5n 2ωo Lπ P01= Y01rms I01rms cos φ1 | Zn |= R 2 + (nω0 L −
1 2
)
n =1,3,5 nω0 c
Q 01 = V01rms101rms sin φ1
2VdC sin n ( ω0 t − π / 2 )  
V01rms = 1
π φn = tan −1  nω0 L − R
 n ω0 c 
Remember point For RLC Load
• In case over damped or lagging load self commutation is not possible. In this case force commutation
required mean another circuit arrangement required.
• In case under damped or leading load self commutation is possible
Single phase full bridge Inverter
Single phase full bridge Single phase full bridge Single phase full Single phase full
Inverter for R Inverter for L bridge Inverter for bridge Inverter for
RL RLC
Vrms = Vdc V0rms = Vdc V0rms = Vdc V0rms = Vdc
γeach thyristor = π ; γeach diode = 0 γdiode = γthyristor = 180º γeach diode = φ ; γ0each = φ ; γT each= π–φ
γeach thyristor = π– φ
∞ ∞ ∞
4Vdc I0 max I 4Vdc 4Vdc
V0 (t) = ∑
n =1,3,5 nπ
sin nω0 t ITavg =
8
; ITrms = 0 max
2
I0 (t) = ∑
n=1,3,5 | Zn | nπ
× I0 (t) = ∑
n =1,3,5 | Z n | nπ
×
sin ( nω0 t − φn ) sin ( nω0 t + φn )

∞
4Vdc ∞
4Vdc ωL P01 = V01rms I01rms cos φ1
I0 (t) = ∑
n =1,3,5 nπR
sin nω0 t I0 (t) = ∑
n =1,3,5 n ω0 Lπ
2
× φn = n × tan −1
R Q01 = V01rms I01rms sinφ1
sin n ( ω0 t − π / 2 ) | Zn |= s 2 + (nω0 L)2
2
P01 = I01rms .R P01 = V01rms I01rms cos φ1 = 0 P01 = V01rms ×  1 
Q01 = V01rms I01rms sin φ1 = V01rms I01rms cosφ1  nω 0 L − n ω C 
−1
PS 01 =
VdC
= I S 0 1( avg ) φ n = tan  0

2 I01 rms Q01 = V01rms I01rms sinφ1  R 
 
 I01max
∵ IS01(avg ) =
 π  1 
| Zn |= R 2 +  nω0 L − 
 nω0 C 
Remember point for RLC Load-

i. Case-1 - XL>XC → Overdamped → the thyristor is not self commutated. It is force commutated (Lag P.F)
ii. Case -2 - XC>XL → Underdamped → the thyristor is self commutated (Lead p.f)
φ  −1  X C − X L 
iii. Circuit turn off time- t C = ∵ φ = tan  
ω0   R 

3 Phase Bridge Inverter Current Source Inverter
0 0 For R Load For C load
180 Phase 120 Phase
V I0rms = Is I I
(V )p rms =
3
2
VdC ( VP )rms = dC
6
V0rms = I0rms × R IT(avg ) = s ; IT(rms) = s
2 2
∞
∞
nπ Is Is 4I
VP( t ) = ∑
2VdC
sin nω0 t VP (t) = ∑
2VdC
sin ITavg = ITrms = I0 (t) = ∑ s sin nω0 t
n = 6k ±1 nπ = ±
n 6k 1 n π 3 2 2 n =1,3,5 nπ
∞ ∞
nπ 4I 4Is
sin(nω0 t + ) I0 (t) = ∑ s sin nωt V0 (t) = ∑ ×
6 n =1,3,5 nπ n =1,3,5 nπ
∞
4Is R  1 
2VdC 2VdC π V0 (t) = ∑ × sin nω0 t   sin nω0 t −
nπ
V01rms = ( V01 )rms = sin n =1,3,5 nπ  nω0 C  2
π π 3
2 2 V0 max = Is π / 4C
( V01 )rms 3 ( V01 )rms 3 g= ,THD = 48.43
g= = g= = π
(V )
p rms
π (V )
p rms
π
P01 = I01rms
2
R , γT = π I01max
IT01rms =
1 T.H.D. = 31% 2
T.H.D.= − 1 = 31%
g2 Voltage Controllers
3V 2
3VP 2 Half wave AC voltage Full wave AC voltage
PY = = 3I P2 R
P
PY = = 3I P 2 R controller controller
R R
Pulse width modulated Inverters
• Single-pulse modulation-
Output Voltage
∞
4Vdc nπ
V0 (t) = ∑ sin sin nd sin nωt
n =1,3,5 nπ 2
Pulse width = 2d Rms value of output voltage Rms value of output
RMS value of output voltage V 1 voltage for R-Load
Vrms = m [ {(2π − α) V 1
 2d 
1/ 2 2 π Vrms = m [ {( π − α )
Vrms = Vdc   sin 2α 1/ 2 2 π
π + }]
2 1
+ sin 2α}]1/ 2
1 2
THD = −1 Average value of output Rms value of output
g2 voltage voltage for RC Load
Remember point V
Vrms =
Vm
[(β − α) +
1
V0 = m (cos α − 1)
2π 2π 2
2π
For nth harmonic elimination pulse width 2d = (sin 2α − sin 2β)]1/ 2
n
• Multiple pulse width modulation-
Remember point for full wave AC
Output voltage Voltage controller-
∞
8Vdc nd For RL Load output voltage is controllable only
V0 = N × ∑ sin nγ sin sin nωt
n =1,3,5 nπ 2 ωL
When α > φ where φ = tan −1
π − 2d d R
γ= + Range of α for getting controllable output voltage
N +1 N
φ ≤ α ≤ 180º
Condition to eliminate nth harmonic
π 4π Average value of output voltage would be zero.
(i) γ = (ii) 2d = Integral Cycle Control-
n n
Integral cycle control for n on-cycle and m off cycles
• Sinusoidal pulse width modulation-
• Rms value of output voltage
Average Voltage
Vavg = mVdc sin ωt m-modulation index. V n  n
Vrms = m = Vs k ∵ k =
2 n+m  n+m
Remember point
kV 2
• Power delivered to Load P = s
mVdc R
Peak value of pole voltage is
2 • Input power factor p.f = n
= k
Peak value of pole to pole (line) voltage is mVdc n+m

CONTROL SYSTEM
Types of system Mechanical Electrical
Translational Rotational Force- Force-
voltage current
analogy analogy
Force (F) Torque (T) Voltage (V) Current (I)
Mass (M) Inertia (J) Inductance Capacitan-
(L) ce (C)
Friction Torsional Resistance 1/R
constant Friction (R)
(B) Constant
(B)
Spring Torsional Reciprocal of 1/L
Constant spring Capacitance
• Examples of closed loop and open loop (K) Constant (1/C)
system- (K)
Displacement Angular Charge (Q) Flux (φ)
Closed loop Open loop (x) displaceme
Electric iron Traffic light controller. nt (θ)
Autopilot system Electric washing machine. Velocity Angular Current Voltage
• dx velocity dQ dφ
A missile launching Automatic coffee server. x= =v d θ i= e=
dt • dt
system x= =ω dt
Radar tracking system Bread Toaster. dt
Human respiratory
system • Servomechanism
Servo Transfer function
Economic inflation
Application
• Advantages and Disadvantages of closed Armature θ(s) Km ω(s) Km
= , =
loop over open loop system controlled DC E a (s) s(sτm + 1) E a (s) (sτm + 1)
Advantage Disadvantages servomotor
Km = motor gain constant
Accurate and reliable System is complex and τm = motor time constant
costly. Field controlled θ(s) Km
DC servomotor =
Bandwidth of the system Gain of the system reduces E f (s) s(sτf + 1)(sτmech + 1)
increases with negative with negative feedback
τf = Field winding time constant
feedback
τmech = Mechanical time constant
Reduced Effect of Stability depends on
parameter variation. (ex- system components.
AC servomotor ω(s) Km
=
RLC network) So, System may become VC (s) (τm s + 1)
unstable. Potentiometer E 0 (s)
Reduced effect of non- = KP
X i (s)
linearities
KP = Potentiometer gain constant.
Better performance Tachometer E(s)
= K tg e∝ω
Modeling of control system ω(s)
• Mathematical model of control system. Ktg = Tachogenerator constant.
• Advantages of AC servomotor over DC
servomotor
1. Having small area of brush contact so losses are less.
2. Used for low power applications.
3. More efficient, reliable, reduces radio frequency
and noise.
4. In absence of a commutator, requires less
maintenance and have longer life.
Transfer Function, Block Diagram
and Signal flow Graph-
Signals
Types of Graph Representation Y = GX1 ± X 2
signal
Unit step 1; t > 0
signal u(t) = 
0; t < 0
r (t) = t u (t) Y = GX
Ramp At ; t > 0 • Signal flow graphs - Graphical representation
signal r(t) = 
 0 ;t < 0 of set of linear algebraic expressions.
Mason's Gain Formula
n
Parabolic  At 2 ∑P ∆ K K
signal  ;t > 0 Transfer function = K =1
p(t) =  2 ∆
 0 ;t < 0
 Where, n = Total number of forward path
Impulse 1 ;t = 0 PK = Path gain of Kth forward path
signal δ(t) = 
0 ; t ≠ 0 ∆ = 1– (Sum of gains of all individual loops) +(sum
∞ of gain products of all possible combination of two
∫−∞ δ ( t ) dt = 1 non-touching loops) – (sum of gain products of 3
d d d non-touching loops) + ...........
(At2/2) = At, (At) = Au(t), u(t) = δ(t)
dt dt dt ∆ K = Value of ∆ which is non-touching Kth forward
path.
• Feedback characteristics of control
system-
∂T / T G ∂T
• Advantages and disadvantage of transfer Sensitivity STG = =
∂G / G T ∂G
function approach
Advantages Disadvantages (S )
T
G closed loop < ( STG )
open loop
(for negative feedback)
Output of the system can Applicable only for linear
be easily determined. time invariant system. Feedback can increase or decrease the sensitivity of
Poles and zeros of the Initial condition must be a system.
system are directly taken as zero.
identified.
• Effect of feedback-
Stability can be easily Applicable only for single Positive feedback Negative feedback
determined. input and single output. Gain increase with Gain decreases with
Gives simple Controllability and positive feedback negative feedback.
mathematical algebraic observability cannot be
G(s) H(s) G(s) H(s)
equation. determined, as in state T.F. = T.F. =
variable approach. 1 − G(s) H(s) 1 + G(s) H(s)
Internal states of system
cannot be determined. System stability will System stability will
decreases. increases.
• Block diagram
Block diagram Equivalent Block • Concept of Dominant pole
diagram and equation
Y = (G1G 2 )X For dominant pole-

ISP
≥5
SP
Y = G1X ± G 2 X

Time Domain analysis Velocity error constant, K V = lim s G(s) H(s)
s→0
• Steady state error (ess) Acceleration error constant,
Input A A A K a = lim s 2 G(s) H(s)
Step   Ramp  2  Parabolic  3  s→0
Type  
s s   s  • Transfer function of system
Zero order First order Second order
0 A ∞ ∞ system system system
1+ KP X 0 (s) b0 X0 (s) b0 ω2n
= =K = T.F =
1 0 A ∞ Xi (s) a 0 Xi (s) a1s + a 0 s + 2ξωns + ωn2
2
KV T.F = K K Ex- All

2 0 0 T.F = indicating
A Ex- Sensors 1 + Ts
instruments,
Ka and transducers Ex-Thermal RLC network
3 0 0 0 system, liquid
Where, level system
Position error constant, K p = lim G(s) H(s) etc.
s →0
• Second order system

System Step response (c(t)) Roots (Pole location) Graph
Undamped c ( t ) = 1 − cos ωn t s = ± jωn (imaginary)

ξ=0
Underdamped ωn
0 < ξ <1 c(t) = 1− e−ξωn t −ξωn ± jωn 1 − ξ2
1− ξ 2
(Complex conjugate)
× sin ( ωd t + φ )
Critical damped c ( t ) = [1 − e−ωn t (1 + ωn t )] −ωn , − ωn

ξ =1 (Real and equal)
Overdamped
c(t) = 1− e
( )
− ξωn −ωn ξ2 −1 t
−ξωn ± ωn ξ 2 − 1
ξ >1
(Real and unequal)

ξ=0 0<ξ<1 ξ=1 ξ>1
 
− ξωn −ωn ξ2 −1  t
 
e
2nd order
ωn
c(t) = 1− e −ξωn t ×
1− ξ 2 c ( t ) = 1 − e−ωn t (1 + ωn t ) 
sin ( ωd t + θ )
Concept of Damping- Stability Analysis of Control System

Damping Series RLC Parallel RLC
ξ  R C   1 L 
ξ =  ξ = 
 2 L   2R C 
Undamped R=0 R=∞
• Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion-
For system to be stable, coefficient of first column
ξ= 0
Underdamped of Routh array made from its characteristic equation
L 1 L must have same sign.
0<ξ<1 0<R <2 <R<∞
C 2 C If system is not stable then number of sign change in
Critical L 1 L first column of Routh tabulation is equal to the
damped R=2 R= number of roots lies in right half of s-plane.
ξ =1 C 2 C
Coefficient of ROZ (Row of Zeros) in R-H array
Overdamped L 1 L d
ξ>1 R>2 R< = Coefficient of A(s)
C 2 C ds
Time Response Specification A(s) = Auxiliary polynominal
Time domain 1st 2nd order For 3rd order system (as3 + bs2 + cs +d = 0 )
Parameter order Stable IP > EP bc > ad
Delay time (td) 0.693τ (1 + 0.7ξ ) / ωn (sec) Unstable EP > IP ad > bc
Marginal Stable IP = EP ad = bc
Rise time (tr) 2.2τ ( π − θ ) / ωd Where,
φ = cos −1 ( ξ ) IP = Internal product, EP = External product.
ωd = ωn 1 − ξ 2
• Root Locus (Given by W.R. Evans)
Root locus is drawn with the help of spirule.
Peak time (tp) – ( nπ / ωd ) When (P-Z) > 0 root locus drawn from open loop
Maximum peak – 1−ξ2 poles to the open loop zeros or infinity.
e −πcotθ = e −ξπ /
overshoot (Mp) Locus Range of open loop gain
Settling time (ts) 4τ 4τ = 4 / ξωn Root locus K→0 to ∞
(2% tolerance band) Complementary Root K→ 0 to – ∞
3τ = 3 / ξωn Locus
(5% tolerance band) Complete Root Locus K → – ∞ to ∞

• Method of Root Locus
Steps for Root Locus Formula
Number of asymptotes (P–Z)
P = number of open loop poles, Z = number of open loop zeros.
Angle of asymptotes (2q + 1) × 180º 2q × 180º 
θA = {for complementary Root locus - θA = 
(P − Z) P−Z 
Centroid Σ (Real part of open loop poles) - Σ(Real part of open loop zeros)
σA =
|P− Z|
Break away or Break in dK
point Solution of =0
ds
Angle of departure or φD = 1800 + φ and φA = 1800 − φ
angle of arrival
φ = φz − φp { φz = sum of all angle made by remaining zero.
φD = sum of all angle made by poles.}
Frequency Domain Methods • Bode plot
| M |dB = 20log K
d | M |dB
Slope = dB / decade
d log ω
If n poles at origin then initial slope = -20n dB/dec
And Phase angle ∠φ = −90n 0
• Polar plot If n zeros at origin then initial slope = +20n dB/dec
Magnitude And Phase angle ∠φ = +90n 0
G( jω)H( jω) ⇒ put s = jω then a + jb = a 2 + b 2 6dB/octave = 20 dB/decade
Constant M-circles and constant N-circles
Phase angle
M-circles N-circles
∠G(jω)H(jω) ⇒ puts = jω then ∠(a + jb) = tan −1 b / a
M 1 1
Phase Margin and Gain Margin - Radius = Radius = +
1 − M2 4 4N 2
GM 1 GM = +ve {for
GM = stable system}  M2   −1 1 
G( jω) H( jω) ω=ω Centre =  ,0  Centre=  , 
 2 2N 
pc
 1− M
2
PM PM = 180º +∠G(jω)H(jω) ω=ω PM = +ve{for 
gc
stable system} Minimum and Non-minimum phase system- A
ωpc > ωgc transfer function is said to be minimum phase if it all
poles and zeros are in the left half of the s-plane.
A transfer function is said to be non-minimum phase
if one or more zeros present in the right half of s-
plane.
All pass system- It is system in which zeros lies on

R-H of s-plane, poles lies on L-H of s-plane and
• Nyquist plot symmetrical about imaginary axis. For all pass
system magnitude and phase angle is 1 and –1800
Nyquist stability criteria N = P − Z
respectively.
P = Number of open loop poles in RHS of s-plane
Z = Number of closed loop zeros in RHS of s-plane.
N = Number of encirclements about (–1+j0) by
G(s)H(s) plot (anticlockwise encirclement taken as
positive).
For system to be stable Z = 0 and N = P
Compensators and controllers • Effect of Compensators
• Compensator Effect of Lead Effect of lag Effect of lag-
Characte Lead Lag compensator Compensator compensator lead
ristic compensator Compensator
1+ aTs a>1 0<a<1
T.F. = Improves Improves Introduces
1+ Ts
transient steady state both steady
 a −1
φm =sin−1  0º < φm < 90º −90º < φm < 0º response. response. state and

 a +1 Increase Reduces the transient
margin i,e stability margin response
Pole-Zero
plot improves Decreases improvement.
stability bandwidth
Increases Does not
RC bandwidth. affect transient
Network  S  S response.
  < 
 Noutput  Ninput
Industrial controller
Proportional Proportional proportional P-I-D Derivative Feedback
controller Derivative Integral (Tachometer
controller feedback)
K p↑ Improves damping Improves damping Combined ξ↑
ess↓ Reduce maximum Reduce maximum advantage tr ↑
overshoot overshoot of all ess ↑
ξ↓ Bandwidth ↑ tr ↑ three
Whenξ < 1, % MP↑ Improves gain Bandwidth ↓ controller
Margin, Phase Improves GM,
margin. PM and Mr.
ts ↓ ; tr ↓ ess↓
−1
State space analysis Transfer function, T.F = C [sI − A ] B + D
• Advantages of state Variable Approach State transition matrix (STM)
1. Applicable for linear, non-linear, time variant or −1
e At = φ ( t ) = L−1 ( sI − A ) 
time invariant system.  
2. Consider initial conditions. Properties of state transition matrix
3. Internal states of the system can be determined φ ( 0 ) = I (identity matrix), φ−1 ( t ) = φ ( − t )
4. Applicable for multiple input multiple output
φ ( t )  = φ ( kt ) φ ( t1 + t 2 ) = φ ( t1 ) φ ( t 2 )
K
(MIMO) system.
5. Controllability and observability can be determined.
φ ( t 2 − t1 ) φ ( t1 − t 0 ) = φ ( t 2 − t 0 )
Controllability and observability-
Controllability Observability
• Y = CX + DU
X = AX + BU
Q c =  B : AB : A 2 B : ....A n −1B
According to kalman's Test:
System is controllable if
Rank of Q C = order of system
Det : Qc ≠ 0 System is observable
if (Rank of Qo
= order of system)
Det.Q o ≠ 0

SIGNAL AND SYSTEM
Basic continuous-time signals c. Ramp Signal
a. The unit step Function The unit step function u(t)
also known as the Heaviside unit function, is defined
as {
r(t) = t
0
t>0
t<0 }
1 t>0

u(t) = 1/ 2 t = 0 d
0 r (t) = t u (t), r (at) = a r (t), r(t) = u(t)
 t<0 dt
d. Parabolic function
 t2
•  t≥0
Properties of Unit-step function p (t) =  2
u (t) + u (-t) =1, u (t) – u (–t) = signum function 0 t<0

1 + sgn(t)
u (t) =
2
b. Signum function d 3p(t) d 2 r(t) du(t)
= = = δ(t)
1 t>0 dt 3 dt 2 dt
 e. Sinc function
Sgn (t) = 0 t =0
 −1 t < 0 sin πt
 sinc ( t ) =
πt
Area [sinc(t)] = 1
Energy [sinc(t)]
c. Rectangular Function/Gate function =1
f. Sampling function
t
x(t) = A rect   sin t
T Sa ( t ) =
t
 −T T Sa ( πt ) = sinc ( t )
x(t) = A <t< 
2 2
0 elsewhere 
d. The unit impulse function/Dirac delta function Basic Discrete-time signals
∞ t = 0 a. The unit step sequence
δ(t) =  The unit step sequence u(n) is defined as
0 otherwise
1 n≥0
u(n) =  ,
0 n< 0
• Properties of impulse function
∞
Area under impulse function is 1 ∫ −∞
δ(t) dt = 1  u(n) + u(−n) = 1 + δ(n), n = 0 
 n ≠ 0 
Impulse function is even function for all time  1
δ(t) = δ(− t) The Unit impulse sequence
1 1 n=0
Scaling properties : δ(at) = δ(t) δ(n) =  ;
a 0 n≠0
f (t) δ (t) = f (0) δ(t) f (t) δ (t − a) = f (a) δ(t − a)
∞ ∞
∫−∞
f (t) δ(t)dt = f (0) ∫−∞
f (t) δ(t − a)dt = f (a)
Properties of Discrete time impulse
d
• δ(t) = δ′(t)[doublet function] i. Discrete time impulse is an even function of time
dt δ[n] = δ[− n]
∞ −df (t)
• ∫−∞ f (t) δ′(t)dt = dt t=0 ii. Scaling property
δ [mn] = δ [n]

The scaling property does not exist in discrete time Power + Energy → Power
impulse function because it depends on the b. Even & odd Signal
amplitude. • Even signal : f (– t) = f (t) • Odd signal: f (– t) = –f (t)
Scaling of discrete time signal f (t) + f (− t)
• f (t) = fe (t) + f0 (t), • fe (t) =
2
f (t) − f (− t)
• fe (t) =
2
• Even × Even = Even , • Odd × Odd = Even
• Odd × Even = Odd
a a
• For even signal = ∫ f (t) dt = 2 ∫ f (t) dt
−a 0
a
iii. Product property: • For Odd signal = ∫ f (t) dt = 0
−a
(i) x [n] δ [n] = x (0) δ [n] • Derivative of even signal = Odd signal
(ii) x [n] δ [n – n0] = x [n0] δ [n –n0] • Derivative of Odd signal = even signal
 −b  • Integral of Odd signal = even signal
(i) x [n] δ [an ± b] = x   δ [n ± b/a] • Even conjugate : f * (– t) = f (t)
 a 
∞ • Odd conjugate f * (– t) = – f (t)
iv. ∑ x [n] δ [n − n
n =−∞
0 ] = x[n 0 ] c. Periodic and Non-periodic signal
A signal x(t) is said to be periodic, if it satisfied the
n2
condition- x(t) = x(t + T) , T is fundamental period.
∑ x[n] δ [n − n 0 ] = x[n 0 ] n1 ≤ n 0 ≤ n 2
n = n1 2π
• Period (T) =
Classification of signal ω
a. Energy and power signal • Steps for finding the fundamental period of the
Energy Power signal
For continuous time 1 T x ( t ) = x1 ( t ) + x 2 ( t ) + x 3 ( t ) ........
T →∞ 2T ∫− T
∞ P = lim | x(t) |2 dt
E = ∫ | x(t) | dt
2 • Identify the individual periods (T1, T2, T3…..)
−∞
T T T
For discrete time 1 N • Calculate the ratio of 1 , 1 , 1 .........
∑
2
N Pavg x(n) = Lim x(n) T2 T3 T4
Ex(n) = Lim ∑ x(n)
2 x →∞ 2N + 1 n =−N
N→∞
• If the ratio is rational number
n=−N
Period (T)= LCM of [T1,T2,T3……….]
• The condition for discrete time sinusoidal to be
• ω0 m
Signal Area Energy periodic = m - number of cycles repeating
2π N
x ( t ) = sin c ( t ) 1 1
N - fundamental period.
x ( t ) = πt 2 1 1/ 2 c. Causal, anti causal and Non-causal signal
• Causal Signal- A signal is said to be causal if it is
t Aτ A2τ
x ( t ) = Arect   defined for only positive value.
τ x(t) = 0, t < 0 x[n] = 0, n<0
t Aτ 2 2
x ( t ) = Atri   A τ • Anti causal Signal A continuous time signal x(t) is
τ 3 said to be anti causal-
x ( t ) = e − at u ( t ) 1 1 If x(t) = 0 t > 0, x (n) = 0, n≥0
• Non causal Signal A signal which exists both
a 2a positive and negative time is said to be non-causal
x ( t ) = sgn ( t ) 0 1/a signal.
• For an energy signal the average power is zero Linear Time Invariant Systems
• System
• For a power signal the energy is ∞. A system is defined as a physical device that generates
• The frequency & phase of the signal will not effect the expected output with the available Input.
the power calculations. y (t) = T {x(t)}
E Classification of systems
If x (t) → Energy signal (E), Then- x(at) → i. Linear systems and Non- Linear systems A
a system that obeys the superposition and
x (t – t0) → E, x(– t) → E homogeneity principle is said to be linear system,
Ax (t) → A2 E, A + x (t) → ∞ (infinite) else non linear system.

• Superposition (Additivity) v. Stable and unstable systems- A system is bounded
If x1(t) → y1(t), x2(t) → y2(t) input bounded output i.e. BIBO stable if for any
Then x1(t) +x2(t) → y1(t) + y2(t) bounded input X the corresponding output Y is also
• Homogeneity (scaling) bounded.
ax1(t) + bx2(t) → ay1(t) + by2(t) Ex. stable system→ y(t) = ex(t)
• Some Examples- vi. Invertible and Non-Invertible system -If it is
System System System System possible to define an inverse system of a given
Nature Nature system, then the system is invertible, otherwise it is
y(t) = x (ℓnt) Linear y(t) = et x (ℓnt) Linear called non-invertible system.
t
Ex. y(t) = ∫ x(t) dt (Invertible)
t k
y(t) = x (e ) Linear y(t) = x (t) Non-
−∞
Linear
y(t) = x (sint) Linear y(t) = x (t) + k Non- d
Linear y(t) = x(t) (Inversesystem)
dt
y(t) = x (| t |) Linear y(t) = sin {x(t)} Non-
Linear Convolution-
y(t) = x (t2) Linear y(t) = ex(t) Non- ∞
Linear r (t) = f (t) ⊗ h (t) = ∫ f (τ) h (t − τ) dτ
−∞
y(t) = sint x (t) Linear y(t) = | x (t)| Non-
Linear Properties of Convolution
y(t) = ℓnt {x (t)} Linear y(t) = x* (t) Non- • f (t) ⊗ δ (t) = f(t) • f (t – t0) ⊗ δ (t) = f (t– t0)
Linear • f (t) ⊗ δ (t – t0) = f (t– t0)
y(t) = |x| x (t2) Linear y(t) = sgn Non-
• f (t – t0) ⊗ δ (t – t1) = f (t– t0 – t1)
{x(t)} Linear
ii. Time-Invariant and time variant systems- A • d d d
r(t) = f (t) ⊗ h(t) = f (t) ⊗ h(t)
system is called time-variant if a time shift in the dt dt dt
input signal causes the same time- shift in the output d m r(t) d n f (t) d m − n h(t)
signal. • = ⊗
dt m dt n dt m − n
If x(t) → y(t), then x (t – t0) → y (t – t0)
System System System System • Commutative property : f(t) ⊗ h(t) = h(t) ⊗ f(t)
Nature Nature
y(t)= tx(t) T.V. y(t) = Re{x(t)} T.V. • Distributive property : Parallel combination
y(t) = x(–t) T.V. y(t) = Im{x(t)} T.I.V. f(t) ⊗ [h1(t) + h2(t)] = f(t) ⊗ h1(t) + f(t) ⊗ h2(t)
y[n]= x[2n] T.V. d T.I.V.
y(t) = x (t) • Associates property: Series or cascaded
dt combination f(t)⊗[h1(t) ⊗ h2 (t)] = [f(t) ⊗ h1 (t)] ⊗
y(t) = x[sin(t)] T.V. y[n] = x[n]–x[n–1] T.I.V.
y(t) = x[t–4] T.I.V. |t| T.V. h2 (t)
y(t) = ∫−∞ x ( τ ) dτ Discrete time LTI system
y(t) = x(t)+u(t) T.V. T.I.V.
•
t
y(t) = ∫−∞ x ( τ )dτ Convolution-
∞
y(t) = Even{x(t)} T.V.
y[n] =
n
∑ x [n ]
T.I.V.
r [n] = f [n] ⊗ h[n] = ∑ f (k) h (n − k)
K =−∞
n =−∞
y[n] = Odd{x(t)} T.V. |n| T.V. • Properties of convolution
y[n] = ∑ x(k) f [n] ⊗ δ[n] = f [n] f [n] ⊗ δ[n] = δ [n]
k =−∞
f [n-n0] ⊗ δ[n-n1] = f [n-n0-n1]
iii. Causal and non-causal system- A system is said to δ [n-n0] ⊗ δ[n-n1] = δ [n-n0-n1]
be causal, if the present output depends upon the
present input and past values of input but not on the The Laplace Transform
future values. A system is called non-causal if is not The Bilateral (Two-sided) Laplace Transform
causal. ∞
Ex. of causal system → y(t) = x ( t ) X(s) = ∫ −∞
x(t)e −st dt
• All memory-less systems are causal, but not vice- Inverse Laplace Transform
versa 1 c + j∞
iv. Static and dynamic systems- A system is said to be
static or memory less if the output at any instant
X(t) = ∫
2 πj c − j ∞
X(s)est dt
depends only on the input at that instant otherwise, Unilateral Laplace Transform
the system is a dynamic system with memory. ∞
Ex. of static system→ y(t) = 2x(t)

X(s) = ∫ 0
x(t)e −st dt

• Laplace Transforms Pairs te − at u ( t ) 1 Re ( s ) > − Re ( a )
(s + a )
2
x(t) X(s) ROC
δ(t) 1 All s
− te − at u ( − t ) 1 Re ( s ) < − Re ( a )
u(t) 1 Re(s)>0
(s + a )
2
s
–u(–t) 1 Re(s)<0 cos ω0 t u ( t ) s Re(s)>0
s s + ω02
2
tu(t) 1 Re(s)>0
sin ω0 t u ( t ) ω0 Re(s)>0
s2
s + ω02
2
tku(t) k! Re(s)>0
s k +1 e − at cos ω0 t u ( t ) s+a Re ( s ) > − Re ( a )
e u (t) Re ( s ) > − Re ( a ) (s + a )
2
− at
1 + ω20
s+a
e − at sin ω0 t u ( t ) ω0 Re ( s ) > − Re ( a )
−e − at u ( t ) 1 Re ( s ) < − Re ( a )
(s + a )
2
+ω 2
s+a 0
• Properties of the Laplace Transform

Property Signal Transform ROC
Linearity a1 x 1 ( t ) + a 2 x 2 ( t ) a 1 X1 ( s ) + a 2 X 2 ( s ) R ' ⊃ R1 ∩ R 2
Time shifting x(t – t0) e − st0 X ( s ) R’ = R
Shifting in s e x (t)
s0 t
X (s − s0 ) R ' = R + Re ( s0 )
Time scaling x(at) 1 s R’ = aR
X 
|a| a 
Time reversal x(–t) X(–s) R’ = –R
Differentiation in t dx ( t ) sX(s) R'⊃ R
dt
Differentiation in s − tx ( t ) dX ( s ) R’=R
ds
Integration t 1 R ' ⊃ R ∩ {Re ( s ) > 0}
∫ x ( τ ) dτ
−∞
s
X (s )
Convolution x1 ( t ) * x 2 ( t ) X1 ( s ) X 2 ( s ) R ' ⊃ R1 ∩ R 2
∞
a n u [n] 1 |z|>|a|
Z-Transform- X(z) = ∑
n =−∞
x(n)z − n
1 − az −1
∞ −a n u [ − n − 1] 1 |z|<|a|
Unilateral Z-Transform X(z) = ∑ x(n)z −n
1 − az −1
n =0
na n u [ n ] az −1 |z|>|a|
1
∫ X(z)z
n −1
Inverse Z-Transform X(n) =
2 πj c
dz (1 − az ) −1 2
Some Common Z-Transform pairs − na n u [ n − 1] az −1 |z|<|a|

x(n) X(z) ROC
(1 − az ) −1 2
δ[n ] 1 All z
[ n + 1] a n u [ n ] 1 |z|>|a|
u[n] 1 |z|>1
1 − z −1
(1 − az ) −1 2
–u[–n-1] 1 |z|<1 [cos ω0 n ] u [ n ] z 2 − ( cos ω0 ) z |z|>1

1 − z −1 z 2 − ( 2 cos ω0 ) z + 1
δ[n − m] z–m All z except
0 if (m>0) or [sin ω0 n ] u [ n ] ( sin ω0 ) z |z|>1
∞ if (m<0) z 2
− ( 2 cos ω0 ) z + 1

Some properties of the Z- Transform
Property Sequence Transform ROC
Linearity a1 x 1 [ n ] + a 2 x 2 [ n ] a1X1 ( z ) + a 2 X 2 ( z ) R ' ⊃ R1 ∩ R 2
Time shifting x(n – n0) z − n0 X ( z ) R ' ⊃ R ∩ {0 <| z |< ∞}
Multiplication by Z n
0 z x [n]
n
0  Z R ' =| Z0 | R
X 
 Z0 
Multiplication by e jω0 n e jω0 n x [ n ] X ( e − jω0 z ) R’ = R
Time reversal x[-n] 1 1
X  R'=
Z R
Multiplication by n nx [n] dX ( z ) R' = R
−z
dz
Accumulation n 1 R ' ⊃ R ∩ {| z |> 1}
∑ x [n] X (z )
k =−∞ 1 − z −1
Convolution x1 [ n ] * x 2 [ n ] X1 ( z ) X 2 ( z ) R ' ⊃ R1 ∩ R 2
Fourier Series
• It is an approximation process by which any non-
sinusoidal waveform is converted into sinusoidal
waveform.
• A Fourier analysis also called as a harmonic
analysis.
• Dirichlet's conditions : conditions for Fourier series
to exist. 3. Exponential Fourier series-
∞
∫ f (t) dt < ∞ 1 T
1.
T
f(t) = Σ Cn e jnω0 t Where, C0 = a0 =
n =−∞ T ∫
0
f (t)dt
2. There must be finite number of maxima and minima 1 T

in a given time period for f (t). Cn =
T 0
f (t)e − jnω0 t dt ∫
3. There must be finite number of discontinuities in a
Note- Exponential Fourier series is compact form of
given time period for f (t).
Fourier series.
Fourier series representation of
continuous time periodic signals
1. Trigonometric Fourier series
∞
f(t) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
n cos ω0 t + b n sin ω0 t)
Where, ω0 = Fundamental frequency Positive and negative frequency indicate different

a0 , an , bn = Trigonometric Fourier series coefficient phase of rotation, they maintain same magnitude but
nω0 = nth harmonic of ω0 different phase. Relation between exponential and
Trigonometric Fourier series
1 T 2 T
a0 =
T 0∫ f (t)dt , an =
T 0 ∫
f (t)cos nω0 t dt
an = (Cn + C–n),
a
Cn = n − j n
b
2 2
2 T
bn =
T 0∫ f (t)sin nω0 t dt
bn = j (Cn – C–n),
an
C–n = + j
2
bn
2
• Here a0 is the value of constant component of the Effect of symmetry of Fourier coefficients
signal f(t). 1. Odd Symmetry -
• The Fourier coefficient an and bn are maximum
amplitude of nth harmonic component.
2. Polar form of Trigonometric Fourier series
∞
f(t) = C0 + Σ Cn cos(nω0 t − φn )
n =1
b 
Where, C0 = a0 , Cn = a 2n + b2n , φn = tan −1  n  For signals with odd symmetry, the Fourier
 an  coefficients a0 and an are zero.
2. Even symmetry-
x(t) = x (–t)
x (t ± T/2) = –x(t)
For signals with even symmetry, the Fourier
coefficient bn is zero. For signals with half-wave symmetry, the Fourier
series will consist of odd harmonic terms of sine and
3. Half-wave symmetry-
cosine signals.
Function Cn Fourier Coefficient Trigonometric Fourier series
Real (Neither even nor Generally complex a0 ≠ 0 DC term, sine terms and cosine terms
odd) Cn = C*− n an = b n ≠ 0 are present
Even Real (Even in nature) a0 ≠ 0 DC term and cosine terms are present
an ≠ 0
bn = 0
Odd Imaginary a0 = 0 Only sine terms are present
(odd in nature) an = 0
bn ≠ 0
Half wave
symmetry
Cn = 0 ; For n = even an = 0
}
;a =0
bn = 0 0
Odd sine and odd cosine terms are
present
; n = even
Even and half wave
symmetry
Cn = Real & even
Cn = 0 ; n = even
an = 0
}
;a =0
bn = 0 0
Only odd cosine terms are present
n = even
Odd and half wave
symmetry
Cn = imaginary &
odd
an = 0
bn = 0}; n = even
Only odd sine terms are present
Cn = 0 ; n = even
Properties of Exponential form of Fourier series Periodic
∫ x( τ)y(t − τ)dτ Tcndn
coefficients convolution
T
Property Continuous time Fourier series
periodic signal coefficients Symmetry of x(t) is real c n = c*− n |cn|=|c–
real signals
Linearity Ax (t) + By (t) Acn + Bdn n|; ∠cn = –∠ c–n
Time shifting x (t ± t0) cne ± jmω0 t 0 Re {cn} = Re
± jmω0 t
{c*-n }
Frequency e x(t) c nµm
shifting Im {cn} = –Im
* * {c–n}
Conjugation x (t) c –n
Real and even x(t) real and cn are real and
Time reversal x(–t) c–n
even even
Time scaling x(αt); α > 0 [x(t) cn (No change
Real and odd x(t) real and odd cn are
is period with in Fourier
imaginary and
period T/α] coefficient)
odd
Multiplication x(t) y(t) +∞
Where, cn → Fourier series coefficient of x(t)
∑
m =−∞
c md n − m
dn → Fourier series coefficients of y(t)
Fourier Series Representation of Discrete Time
Differentiation d jnω0cn
x(t) Periodic Signals-
dt Fourier series representation of x[n], with period
Integration t 1 'N' is given as-
−∞∫ x (t) dt
jnω0
cn
N −1  2π 
jk n N −1  2π 
− jk n
∑ ∑
1
(Finite valued x[n] = cke  N  ,Where, ck = x[n]e  N 
and periodic k =0
N n=0
only if a0 = 0) ck is periodic with period 'N', ck = ck+N
Properties of Discrete Time Fourier Series Common Fourier Transform pairs
Property Continuous Fourier series x(t) X ( ω) x(t) X ( ω)
time periodic coefficient δ(t) 1 e − at u ( t ) ,a > 0 1
signal jω + a
Linearity Ax[n] + By[n] Ack + Bdk δ ( t − t 0 ) e − jωt0 te − at u ( t ) ,a > 0 1
( jω + a )
2
Time shifting x[n ± n0]  2π 
jk   n 0
N
ck e
Frequency  2π  ck µ m
1 2πδ ( ω) e − a|t| , a > 0 2a
± jM   n
shifting e  N  x[n] a 2 + ω2
Conjugation x*[n] c*–k e jω0 t 2πδ ( ω − ω0 ) 1 e − a|ω|

Time reversal x[–n] c–k a + t2
2
u(t) 1 sgnt 2
Time scaling x(m)[n] 1 πδ ( ω) +
c k (Period mN) jω jω
 n m
=  x   ; if n u ( −t ) 1
 m πδ ( ω) −
jω
is a multiple of
m cos ω0 t π  δ ( ω − ω0 ) + δ ( ω + ω0 )
0 ; otherwise
Multiplication x[n] y[n] N −1 sin ω0 t − jπ  δ ( ω − ω0 ) − δ ( ω + ω0 )
∑c b
l =0
l k −l
Properties of the Fourier transform

First difference x[n] –x [n –1]  
 2π  Property Signal Fourier
 − j  k 
  ck
1 − e
N
 transform
 
Linearity a1x1 ( t ) + a 2 x 2 ( t ) a1X1 ( ω) + a 2 X2 ( ω)
Running sum n  
∑ x[k] 

1
 2 π 

 ck
k =−∞
− jk
 1 − e  N   Time shifting x(t – t0) e − jωt 0 X ( ω)
 
Convolution N −1 Nakdk
Frequency e jω0 t x ( t ) X ( ω − ω0 )
∑ x[r]y[n − r] shifting
r =0 Time scaling x ( at ) 1  ω
X 
Perseval's Power Theorem- Parseval's power |a |  a 
theorem is given by Time reversal x(–t) X ( −ω)
For continuous time signals, Duality x(t) 2πX ( −ω)
T ∞ ∞
∑c ∑
1 1
dx ( t ) jωX ( ω)
∫ x(t)
2 2
P= dt = n = a 02 + (a 2n + b n2 ) Time
T n =−∞
2 n =1 differentiation
0 dt
For discrete signals, Frequency ( − jt ) x ( t ) dX ( ω)
N −1 N −1 differentiation dω
∑ ∑c
1 2 2
P= x[n] = k Integration t 1
N n =0 k =0 ∫−∞ x ( τ )dτ πX( 0) δ( ω) +
jω
X( ω)
The Fourier Transform- Convolution x1 ( t ) * x 2 ( t ) X1 ( ω ) X 2 ( ω )

∞ 1 ∞
x1 ( t ) x 2 ( t )
∫ x(t)e − jωt dt , x(t) = ∫ X( ω)e jωt dω Multiplication 1
X(ω) = X1 ( ω) *X2 ( ω)
−∞ 2π −∞ 2π

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Linear Algebra Unit matrix a ij  = 0
i≠ j
• Basic Operation a ij  = 1
AT = A AB = A B i= j
Upper a ij  = 0, i > j | A |= product
A n = (| A |)
n KA = K n A triangular of leading
matrix diagonal
a11 a12 If a11 = a12 = 0 or b 21 = b 22 = 0
A= elements
b21 b22 2×2 A =0 Lower a ij  = 0,i < j
If a11 = b 21 or triangular
a12 = b 22 ;| A = 0 | matrix
Remember point
Symmetric
matrix
[ A] = [A ]
T
• Area of a triangle whose vertices are (x1,y1) , (x2,y2) Skew symmetric [ A ]T = − [ A ]

and (x3,y3) is matrix
x1 y1 1 Orthogonal A.AT = I | A |= ±1
1 matrix
Area of triangle = x 2 y 2 1 | A || AT |= 1
2 A–1 and AT also
x 3 y3 1
orthogonal
• Area of a quadrilateral can be found by dividing it
into two triangles.
Hermitian A = Aθ Diagonal
(A )
matrix element = real
= (A)
θ T
• The condition for three points to be collinear is
x1 y1 1
1
Skew A = −A θ Diagonal
x 2 y 2 1 =0 Hermitian element = zero
2 matrix or pure
x 3 y3 1
imaginary
Eigen value Eigen vector Unitary matrix A.A θ = I | A | = ±1
∑ ( λi ) = Traceof Matrix
i
[ A − λI][ X] = 0 Idempotent A2=A | A | = 0 or 1
matrix
AX = λX
Nilpotent AK=0 A| and trace = 0
∏ ( λi ) = A matrix
i
Remember point
Hermitian (Eigen value = Real)
• Inverse of square matrix : For a non singular
Symmetric → Purelyreal matrix A
Skew symmetric→purely imaginary A −1 =
1
adj ( A )
Singular→zero |A|
AA −1 = A−1A = I
Remember point
| A − λI |= 0 is characteristic equation
Rank of matrix
ρ ( A ) ≤ min ( Row,column ) ρ( A + B) ≤ρ( A) +ρ( B)
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem-
ρ ( AB ) ≤ min ρ ( A ) , ρ ( B )  ρ( A − B) ≥ ρ( A) −ρ( B)
a0An + a1An–1 + .............a n I = 0
Types of square matrix ( ) (
ρ AT A = ρ AAT ) ( )
ρ Aθ = ρ ( A ) and
Type of Property = ρ ( A ) = ρ(A ) ρ ( AA ) = ρ ( A )
θ
T
square matrix
Diagonal  a ij  ≠ 0,  a ij  = 0 Remember point
i= j i≠ j
matrix • If A is zero matrix, the ρ(A) = 0
• If A is not a zero matrix ρ ( A ) ≥ 1
Scalar matrix a ij 
i= j • If A is non singular n×n matrix then
= K ( constant ) ρ(A) = n (∵| A |≠ 0 )
Solution of linear simultaneous equation Standard formula of differentiation
[A:B] ρ(A) ≠ ρ(A : B) ρ(A) = ρ(A : B) Function Derivative Function Derivative
Augmented In consistent consistent k(constant) 0 −1 x 1
sin
matrix =No solution
1.
ρ(A) =ρ(A:B) a a − x2
2
n n–1
x nx x −1
= number of cos −1
variable a a2 − x2
(unique solution) logx 1/x x a
tan −1
2.
ρ(A) = ρ(A: B) a x + a2
2
ex ex x −a
<number of cot −1
a x + a2
2
variable
ax axloga x a
(infinite solution) sec−1
a x x2 − a2
Calculus
Concept of continuity Concept of sinx cosx x −a
differentiability cosec −1
a x x2 − a2
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) f (a + h) – f (a)
x→a x→a lim
h→0 h cosx –sinx sin h x cos h x
lim f (a – h) = lim f (a + h)
h→0 h→0 f (a – h) – f (a) 2
= lim = f (a) tanx sec x cos h x sin h x
h→0 –h cotx –cosec2x sin h–1 x 1
Standard Result of limits
x2 +1
sin x
=1 1
lim lim   = 0 sec x sec x tan x cos h–1 x 1
x →0 x x →∞  x 
tan x x x2 −1
=1  1
lim lim(1+ x)
1/x –1
x →0 x = lim1+  = e cosec x –cosecx cotx tan h x 1
x→0 x→∞ x
x2 −1
Mean value theorem:
lim cos x = 1 log (1 + x )
x →0 lim =1 Rolle's theorem Lagrange's theorem
x →0 x f (a) = f (b) f (a) ≠ f (b)
xn − a n a x −1 f '(c) = 0 c ∈ (a,b)
lim = na n −1 lim = ℓ n (a ) f (b) – f (a)
x →a x − a x →0 x f '(c) =
b–a
sin x cos x
lim = lim =0 Definite Integration
x →∞ x x →∞ x
• Conditions for L- hospital’s rule • ∫ ab f ( x)dx = f (b) – f (a)

0 ∞ 0 ∞ • ∫ ab f (x)dx = ∫ ab f (t)dt
, , ∞ × ∞, 00 ,1∞ , ∞ 0 , ∞ − ∞, , , ∞ ∞ ,0 × ∞, 0∞
0 ∞ ∞ 0
• ∫ab f (x)dx = – ∫ ab f (x)dx
f (x) f '( x )
If lim indeterminants form then lim • ∫ ab f ( x)dx = ∫ ac f ( x)dx + ∫ cb f ( x )dx a < c < b
x →a g ( x ) x →a g ' ( x )
Properties of differentiation • ∫ ao f ( x )dx = ∫ oa f (a – x )dx.

n
2 ∫ o f ( x )dx even f 
a
d d
kf ( x ) = k f ( x ) • a
∫–a f ( x )dx =  
dx dx  0 odd f n 
d d d
 f ( x ) ± g ( x )  = f (x) ± g(x) 2 ∫ a f ( x ) dx2 if f (2a – x) = f ( x) 
dx dx dx • ∫ o2a f ( x)dx =  o 
d d d  0 if f (2a – x) = – f ( x) 
f ( x ) .g ( x ) = g ( x ) . f ( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x )
dx dx dx Application of definite integral
d d
g(x) f (x) − f (x) g(x) Application Formula
d  f (x)  dx dx
  = Area of Cartesian form x 2 y2
dx  g ( x )  g(x)
2
Quadrature ∫ ∫ dy dx
x1 y1
If h(x) is composite function as h(x) = g[f(x)]
d d d polar form βr2
dx
h(x) = g  f ( x )  . f ( x )
dx  dx
∫α 2 dθ or ∫∫ rdr dθ
s

length of cartesian form
b  2  dr 2  ∫ sec xdx = log(sec x + tan x) + c ∫ sec xdx =
curve ∫  r +    dθ
 dθ   π x

a
log tan  +  + c
polar form 4 2
β  2  dr 2 
∫α
 r +    dθ
 dθ  
∫ cosec xdx = ∫ cosec xdx =
 − log(cosecx + cot x) + c  x
volume of x–axis b log  tan  + c
∫ πy dx 2
revolution a
 2
y–axis
∫a
b
πx2dy ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx =
1 1 x 1
θ=0 2π 3
β x a 2 − x 2 + a 2 sin −1   + c x a2 + x2
θ = π/2 ∫α 3 r sin θ dθ 2 2 a 2
1 x
β 2π + a 2 sinh −1   + c
∫α 3 r cos θ dθ
3
2 a
Remember point
volume as triple integral
double and ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z ) dx dydz
v Integration of ∫ sin m x cosn x dx m, n is positive integers.
triple
integral
double integral
∫∫ f (x, y)dx dy
s
i. m → odd & n → even, for integration put t = cosx
ii. m → even & n → odd, for integration put t = sinx
Standard formula of integration iii. m & n → odd, for integration put t = cosx or sinx
x n +1 1 x iv. m & n → even for integration put t = cosx or sinx
∫ = sin −1 +c
∫ x dx = n + 1 + c, ( n ≠ −1)
n
a −x
2 2 a Series expansion :
1 dx x • Taylor's series -
∫ = − cos−1 + c
∫ x dx = log x + c a −x 2 a 2
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a)f ′(a) +
(x − a)2
f ′′(a) +
2!
∫ e dx = e +c dx 1 −1 x
x x
∫ a 2 + x 2 = a tan a + c (x − a)3
f ′′′(a) + ......∞
ax dx −1 −1 x 3!
∫ a dx =
x
+c ∫ a2 + x2 = a cot a + c When a = 0 this series become Maclaurin series.
log e a
• Maclaurin's series -
∫ cos xdx = sin x + c dx
1 −1 x
∫ x x2 − a2 = a sec a + c f (x) = f (0) + xf ′(0) +
x2
f ′′(0) +
x3
f ′′′(0) + ......∞
2! 3!
−1
∫ cosec ( x ) cot ( x ) dx dx −1 x
∫ x x2 −a2 = a cosec a +c ex = 1 +
x x 2 x3
+ + + .......∞
= −cosec ( x ) + c 1! 2! 3!
x x 2 x3
∫ sin xdx = − cos x + c ∫ sinh xdx = cosh x + c e− x = 1 − + − + .......∞
1! 2! 3!
∫ sec x tan xdx = sec x + c ∫ cosh xdx = sin hx + c e +e
x −x
x 2 x 4 x6
= cosh(x) = 1 + + + .......∞
2 2! 4! 6!
∫ sec xdx = tan x + c dx
2
∫ x + a2
2
= e −e
x −x
x 3 x5 x 7
= sinh(x) = x + + + .......∞
( )
2 3! 5! 7!
log | x + x 2 + a 2 | +c x 2
x x4
3
log(1 + x) = x − + − .......∞ |x| < 1
2 3 4
∫ cos ec xdx = − cot x + c dx
2
∫ x2 − a2
=  x 2 x3 x 4 
log(1 − x) = −  x + + + .......∞  |x| < 1
( )  2 3 4 
log | x + x 2 − a 2 | +c
1 1+ x x3 x5 x 7
log = x + + + + .......∞ |x| < 1
∫ cot xdx = log sin x + c ∫
dx
= 2 1− x 3 5 7
x2 − a2 x x5 x 7
3
sin x = x − + − + .......∞
1 x −a 3! 5! 7!
log +c
2a x+a x2 x 4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + .......∞
2! 4! 6!
∫ tan xdx = log sec x + c ∫ tan xdx = 1 2 17 7
− log(cos x) + c tan x = x + x3 + x5 + x + .......∞ |x| < π/2
3 15 315

Gamma function ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂u ∂u
∞ n−1 a +b + C 2 + d + e + fu = φ(x, y)
Γ(n) = ∫o e−t t dt (n > 0) ∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
2
∂x ∂y
2
b − 4ac > 0 Hyperbolic
1
• Γ  = π • Γ(n) = (n –1)! 2
b – 4ac = 0 Parabolic
2
b 2 – 4ac < 0 elliptic
nΓ(n) n → fraction 
• Γ ( n + 1) =  
 n! n → integer  One dimensional wave ∂2 y 2 ∂ y
2
 1 equation = c
• Γ  –  = –2 π ∂t 2 ∂x2
 2 One dimensional heat flow ∂u ∂2 u
Beta function = c2 2
∂t ∂x
1
β (m, n) = ∫ x m −1 (1 – x) n –1 dx (m > 0, n > 0) Laplace equation ∂ 2 u ∂2 u
0 + =0
Γ(m)Γ(n) ∂x 2 ∂y2
• β(m,n) = Euler's Theorem- If u is a homogenous
Γ(m + n)
function of degree n in x and y then
 m +1   n +1  ∂u ∂u
Γ Γ  y
x +y = nu Where, u = x n f  
sin x.cos x dx = 
π/ 2 2   2 
∫ ∂x ∂y
m n
• x
0 m+n+2
2Γ   Complementary function
 2 
dn y d n−1y
Maxima and Minima + k + ....... + K n y = 0
dx n −1
1
dx n
• One independent variable
dy d2y
=0, > 0(minima) 1. (D – m1 )(D – m1 ) = 0
dx dx 2 m1x m2x
d2y m1 ≠ m2 , CF = c1e + c2 e
< 0(maxima)
dx 2 2. m1 = m 2 CF = (C1 + C 2 x )e mx
• Two independent variable 3. m = a + ib CF = e ax (c1 cos bx + c 2 sin bx )
∂f ∂f ∂2 f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f Particular integral
= 0, = 0, r = 2 ,s = ,t = 2
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x∂y ∂y dn y dn–1y
n + K1 + ....... + Kn y = X
2
rt – s > 0 r > 0 → minima dx dx n–1
rt − s 2 > 0 r < 0 → maxima 1. When X=eax If f(a) = 0
1 ax 1 ax 1 ax
rt − s 2 = 0 → further investigation. PI = e = e ⇒x e
f (D) f (a) f '(a)
2
rt − s < 0 → neither maxima nor minima 2. When X=sin(ax+b) or cos(ax + b)
Differential equation 1 1
Differential equation solution 2
sin(ax + b) = sin(ax + b)
f (D ) f (–a 2 )
Separation of variables. f1 ( x )
∫ dx + 1 m −1
f1 (x)g1 (y)dx + f 2 (x) f 2 (x) 3. X = x m , x = {F(D)} x m
f (D)
g 2 (y)dy = 0 g 2 (y)
∫ dy = c Vector calculus
g1 (y) Application Formula
linear first order equation, Gradient  ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ 
I.F = e ∫
Pdx
grad (φ) = ∇φ =  î + j + k φ
dy
+ p(x)y = Q(x) y.I.F = ∫ Q.I.Fdx + c  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
dx Divergence  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
div(F) = ∇ ⋅ F =  î + ˆj + kˆ  .
Exact Method: ∫ Mdx +  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
M(x,y)dx+N(x,y)dy=0,
∂M ∂N
∫ (termof N,not (
îF + ˆjF + kF
1
ˆ
2 3 )
= containing x)dy = c Curl î ˆj
∂Y ∂x kˆ
Homogeneous equation y = vx ∂ ∂ ∂
curl(F) = ∇ × F =
dy y dy dv ∂x ∂y ∂z
= φ  = v+x
dx x dx dx F1 F2 F3

Fundamental theorem's of vector • Standard deviation, σ = variance
Green's Stoke's Theorem Gauss Theorem Binomial Poisson Distribution
Theorem distribution
P(r) = n Cr Pr qn−r mr e− m
∫ ( φdx + ψdy ) = ∫ F ⋅ dr =
c c ∫∫ F ⋅ nds =
s
P(r ) =
r!
m → mean
∫∫ curlF ⋅ nds
s
ˆ ∫∫∫ divF ⋅ dv
v
1 –
( x–µ )2
 ∂ψ ∂φ  • Normal Distribution f (x) = e 2σ2
∫∫  ∂x − ∂y  dx d
R σ 2π
– λx
λe x ≥ 0
• Exponential Distribution f (x) =  
Complex Variable's  0 x < 0
Cauchy Riemann In polar form Numerical Method
equation ∂u 1 ∂v ∂u ∂v Name of formula
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂y ∂r = r ∂θ and ∂θ = –r ∂r Method
= , =–
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x Trapezoidal xo +nh h
rule ∫xo f (x)dx = [(Y0 + Yn ) +
2
• Cauchy's integral formula
2(Y1 + Y2 + .....Yn –1 )
For simple pole Residue-
Simpson's x o + nh h
f (z)
dz = 2π if (a) Res f(a) = lim(Z − a)f(z) ∫x o f (x)dx =
[(Y0 + Yn ) +
∫c z→a 1 3
z−a rule 4(Y1 + Y3 + ....Yn –1 ) + 2(Y2 +
3
For multiple pole 1 Y4 + ......Yn −2 )
Res(z = a) =
f (z) (n − 1)! 3 x + nh
f (x)dx = 3h [(Y0 + Yn ) +
∫c dz simpson's rule ∫x oo 8
(z – a) n n −1
d n  8 3(Y1 + Y2 + Y4 + Y5 + ..... + Yn −1 ) +
2πi  dn−1   n −1 [(z − a) f (z) 
 n−1 ( z − a) f(z)   dz z = a
n
= 2(Y3 + Y6 + ......Yn −3 )
(n −1)! dz z=a
Weddle's Rule x o + nh 3h
∫x o f (x)dx = [Y + 5Y1 +
10 0
• Residue theorem Y2 + 6Y3 + Y4 + 5Y5 + 2Y6 +
∫c f(z)dZ = 2πi × (sum of residue at poles inside or on c) 5Y7 + Y8 + .......
Probability of statistics Bisection a+b
Method I.F=
Favourableevents n(E) 2
P(E) = =
Total number of events n(S) Newton- f (x n )
X n +1 = x n –
Rapshon's f '(x n )
• Mutually exclusive events → P(A ∩ B) = 0
method
• Independent events → P(A ∩ B) = P(A).P(B) Euler's Method (i) Yn +1 = Yn + hf (x n , y n ) .
 E  P(E1 ∩ E 2 ) (Runge-kutta
• Conditional probability − P  1  = → forward
first order)
 E2  P(E 2 ) (ii) Yn +1 = Yn + nf (x n +1Yn +1 ) .
• 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1 → Backward
• P(E) = 1 − P(E) Runge-Kutta Yn +1 = Yn + K
method(4th 1
• P(E1 ∪ E 2 ) = P(E1 ) + P(E 2 ) − P(E1 ∩ E 2 ) order) K= ( K + 2K1 + 2K3 + K 4 )
6 1
• P(E1 ∩ E 2 ) = P(E1 ∪ E 2 ) = 1 – P(E1 ∪ E 2 )
K1 = hf(xn ,yn ),K2 = hf ×
a+b
• Mean x = 1 1
(x n + h, y n + K1 )
2 2 2
(b − a)2 1 1
• Variance σ2 = K3 = hf (x n + h, yn + K2 )
12 2 2

K 4 = hf (x n + h, y n + K 3 )
BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Electronics Components symbol-
• Comparison of Different types of resisters-

Type of Resistive Range Power Tolerance Cost Noise High Temp.
resistor material rating frequency Coefficient
response
Carbon Carbon- upto 20MΩ upto 2W +5% to ± Moderat Low Better Low
Composition Clay 20% e
Carbon and carbon or upto20 MΩ More than ± 1% to ± Cheap High Normal More than
metal film thin layer of carbon 5% carbon
metal composition composition
Wire wound wire upto100 kΩ upto 200 W ≃ ± 1% Costly Very Low Poor Medium
wrapped
around an
insulating
core
• Comparison of Different types of capacitors-
Type of Dielectric Range Voltage Rating Tolerance Leakage Polarity Application
Capacitor (Dielectric current
constant)
Paper Capacitor Impregnated 0.0005 µF to 100V to several ± 10% Low No AC, DC, High
paper (2-6) 10 µF thousand volts voltage and High
Current
Polyester Polyester 0.0005µF to upto 2000V ± 10% Low No tuned circuit,
capacitor (2.0) 10µF Digital computer
Ceramic Ceramic 3 pf to 2µF 3V to 6000V ± 10% to ± Low No Coupling capacitor,
capacitor (80-1200) 20% Bypass capacitor
Mica capacitor Mica 1 pf to 1 µF 500 V, 40kV at ± 0.5% Low No Temperature
(3-8) high frequency varying
Electrolyte Aluminium 1µF to several 1V to 500V ± 10% High Yes Filter circuit,

Capacitor Oxide (7) thousands µF coupling capacitor
Energy Bandgap Eg = Ec − E v NV → density of states in valance band.
• Doping - The process of adding of impurity into
E g = Energy Bandgap pure semiconductor.
E c = Energy levelof conduction band Doping increases carrier concentration.
E v = Energy levelof Valance band
In metals the conduction bands is either partially

filled or overlaps the valance band.
In insulator energy band gap is very High.
In semiconductor energy band gap is relatively
small.
• Fermi Level
1
F(E) = ( E −E F ) / KT 
K= 1.38×10−23J/k • Standard Doping Level
1+ e
Fermi level is energy state having probability 50% Moderatedoping ⇒ 1: 106 to108  → N and P type SC
of being occupied by an electron if there is no Lightlydoping ⇒ 1:1011 → N − and P − type SC
forbidden band.
Energy Level Diagram Highly doping ⇒ 1:103 → N + and P + type SC
Conductor → Metallic Bond

Semiconductor 
→ Covalent Bond
Insulator → Ionic Bond
The Fermi Level in intrinsic semiconductor lies near
the forbidden gap.
The Fermi Level in P-type semiconductor lies above
the valance band
The Fermi Level in N-type semiconductor lies below
the conduction band.
Fermi Energy- The Energy of the electron at 0K is • Elemental SC
called Fermi energy (Unit → eV) only single element C, Si, Ge, Lead
fermi Energy = maximum kinetic energy of electron • Compound SC
at least two elements GaAs
1 2E F
EF = mv 2 V= • Direct/Indirect Band gap Semiconductor:
2 m
Light is produced in the direct band gap.
If the Fermi function is F(E) of any electron, then
the Fermi function for the hole = 1–F(E) Heat is produced in the indirect band gap.
Fermi level in Intrinsic SC- Direct Band gap SC- GaAs, GaN, GaSb, CdS, InAs,
ZnS
E C + E V KT  N C 
EF = − ln   Indirect Band gap SC- Si, Ge, AlAs, AlSb, PbSe,
2 2  NV  GaP.
Fermi level in n-type SC - • Intrinsic SC - Extremely pure semiconductor.
N  • Extrinsic SC – Doped with specific impurities.
E F = E C − KT ln  C 
 ND  • Effect of Doping on conductivity
Where, NC → density of states in conduction band 1 : 108 → 12 times 10 : 107 → 120 times
ND → donor concentration 1 : 106 → 1200 times
Remember point
Fermi level in p-type SC - E F = E V + KT ln  N V 
 NA  A semiconductor at absolute zero, behaves as a
Where, NA → acceptors concentration perfect insulator.

In a intrinsic SC the resistivity (inverse of Where, Jn(drift) = Drift current density due to
electrons
conductivity) decreases as the temperature increases.
Jp (drift) = Drift current density due to holes.
Hence the semiconductor have negative temperature n, p = Concentration of electron and holes
coefficient of resistance. respectively
• Electrical Neutrality E = Applied electric field
n- type and p- type are electrical Neutral. • Total current Density
ND + p = NA + n J n (x) = qµ n n(x)E(x) + qD n
dn(x)
J(x) = J n (x) + J p (x)
Where. ND → Donor, NA → Acceptor dx
p → Positive charge, n → Negative charge. dp(x)
J p (x) = qµ p p(x) E(x) − qD p J(x) = overallcurrent density
1 dx
• Energy Band gap. (Eg)- E g ∝
temp. • Metal - Conductivity σ = n i q µ
Ge Si GaAs n − type →σ = n i q µ n
Eg0K 0.785 eV 1.21 eV 1.52 eV • Semiconductor -
Eg300K 0.72eV 1.1 eV 1.42 eV p − type →σ = n i q µ p
• Mass Action Low-: n ⋅ p = n i 2
• Intrinsic Semiconductor - σ = n i q( µ n + µ p )
Where, n = concentration of electron
Where, σ = Conductivity, ni = Carrier Concentration
p = concentration of Hole.
µn = Mobility of electrons, µp = Mobility of Holes
n i = Intrinsic carrier concentration. q = Charge
ni2 • Mobility of charge Carriers
Minority carrier = It is drift velocity per unit electric field.
majority carrier
m2
Minority carriers depend on → Temperature unit →
Majority carriers depend on → Doping V−s
ni2 It defined how fast the charge carrier travels from
Minority carrier = V
Doping one place to another and is given by - µ = d
E
KT T
Thermal Voltage - VT = VT = Where, Vd = drift velocity , E = Electric field
q 11600 Mobility Ge Si GaAs
VT = 26mV VT = Thermal voltage e– mobility 3800 1300 5600 to 8500
cm2/Vsec cm2/Vsec cm2/Vsec
• Einstein Relation hole 1800 500 c 400cm2/Vsec
The relation between diffusion coefficient (D) , 2 2
mobility cm /Vsec m /Vsec
mobility (µ) and temperature (T)
Mobility of charge carriers decreases with increases
D n D p KT Dn Dp
= = = VT = VT temperature and varies as -: µ ∝ T − m
µn µ p q µn µp
Where, m is constant
• Diffusion process
Diffusion is the Natural process of the random In Ge → m = 1.66 for e and 2.33for hole
motion of the individual molecules. In Si → m = 2.5for e and 2.7 for hole
Diffusion happens due to concentration gradient.
Diffusion current density is given by Mobility also varies with applied electric field
dn(x) dp(x)
J n (diff ) = +q D n : J p (diff ) = −q D p ⋅
dx dx
Where,
Jn(diff) = diffusion current density of electron
Jp (diff) = diffusion current density of holes.
Dn = electron diffusion coefficient.
Dp = Hole diffusion coefficient.
n(x)= Profile of electron with respect to x. At small electric field mobility is constant
p(x) = Profile of holes with respect to x. At very High electric field product of mobility and
• Drift process- Transport of carrier under the electric field becomes constant and is equal to
influence of applied electric field. saturation value of Drift velocity.
J n (drift) = nq µ n E J p (Drift) = nq µ p E Overall mobility is Given by -:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ................ • is called Hallcoefficient R H . i.eRH = = = =
µ µ1 µ 2 µ3 ρ ρ ne n.q pq
Where, µ = overall mobility P = Hole concentration , n = electron concentration
µ1 , µ 2 , µ3 → mobility corresponding to different e or q = charge of electron
BI
scattering Mechanism. • Hall voltage (VH) can also be given as VH = R H
1.24 W
• Wave length of light (λ) - λ = µm
E g (eV) Remember point
Hall effect is utilized in determining whether a
Eg = Energy gap of the material in Electron Volt
given material is metal, n-type SC, p-type SC.
For visiblelight λ = 0.38µm to 0.76 µm For Metal, value of VH is lesser compared to SC.
Hall voltage Negative for Metal or n-type SC.
For infrared λ > 0.76 µm
Hall voltage is positive for p- type SC.
• Important point related to Si Hall voltage Zero for intrinsic SC.
Si has better thermal stability. It can used in finding mobility of charge carrier,
It is more suitable for used in switching application. concentration of charge carriers and type of SC.
High power handling capacity. It is utilized in Hall effect multiplier.
Uses in High power device Ex. SCR. DIAC, TRIAC In Metal Hall coefficient (RH) increase with
Frequency application, Low leakage current (nA) temperature
Atomic Number → 14, atomic weight → 28.086 In pure Semiconductor, (RH) decreased with
• Important point related to Ge temperature.
It is Higher Conductivity due to large mobility. In extrinsic SC, RH is independent of temperature.
Relatively more suitable for High frequency Hall Voltage range → µV→Metals, to mV→ SC
Application. Mobility of majority carrier Calculate ⇒ Hall
Higher Leakage current (µA), atomic Number →32 effect
atomic weight → 72.63 Mobility of minority carrier Calculate ⇒ Hayness
• Important point related to GaAs or schokely experiment.
It is a Direct Band gap Semiconductor.
Covalent Band present, Switching time very small. Remember point
Used in microwave device. Conductivity of extrinsic SC at 0K is Zero.
Large conductivity than, Ge > Si Conductivity of extrinsic SC initially increases
• Used- LED, LASER, Tunnel diode, Varactor diode, when temperature rises above 0K.
PIN diode Conductivity of extrinsic SC decreases with
• Diffusion Length increases in temperature above normal temperature.
Diffusion Length for electrons is given by At curie temperature, conductivity becomes equal
to intrinsic conductivity.
L n = D n τn
Conductivity increases with increase in doping
Where, Ln= Diffusion length, Concentration.
Dn= Diffusion coefficient, τn = Carrier life time • PN Junction diode
• Intrinsic Concentration (ni)
− Eg
n = p = n i n i = A 0 T 3/ 2 e 2KT
n i 2 ∝ T3
A0 = material constant
n i ∝ T 3/ 2
Hence ni varies non-linear with temp., At T= 300k
Si-n i =1.5 × 1010 atom / cm3 Ge-n i =2.5 × 1013 atom / cm3
BI
• Hall Voltage = VH = Ed or VH =
ρW
Where, E = Electric field
d = Distance between upper and Lower surface of
2εV0  N A + N D 
specimen or height of specimen Width of Depletion layer- W =  
W = Width of specimen., B = Applied magnetic q  NA ⋅ ND 
field
Where, NA= Accepter concentration
I = Current flowing in specimen, ρ = Charge density
ND = Donor concentration, Ge → µA, Si→nA
ε = ε0 εr = 11.7 for Si, 16 for Ge Io → 1oC increase → 7% ↑ in Io
εr = relative permittivity, ε0 = Permittivity in free space. Io → 10 oC increase → 2 Io or double.
• About depletion layer Semiconductor Cut-in voltage operating temp.
It is formed due to the diffusion of majority carrier.
Immobile ions and covalent bonds are present in it. Ge 0.3V -60 oC to +75 oC
The depletion layer has negative ions on the p side Si 0.7V -60 oC to +175 oC
and positive ions on the n side. for 1 oC rise in temperature it decreases by 2.5 mV
Normally its thickness is 0.5 µm.
The depletion layer blocks the majority and passes it dv
= −2.5 mV / o C
1 dt
to the minority W =
Doping • Diode Resistance-
Depletion layer also known as transition layer or (i) Forward resistance (10Ω to 100Ω)
space charge width.
Number of free electron in depletion layer is zero.
If we reverse bias the diode by voltage V then in
formulae of depletion width V0 is replaced by
V0 + V .
Depletion width increases with reverse bias and
decrease with forward biased. V
• DC Resistance = R f =
• Width of depletion Layer Depends on I
Doping concentration , Contact potential
It is the Resistance of Diode when signal is not
The type of material used for fabrication (ε)
applied.
N N  KT
• Contact potential - V0 = VT ln  A 2 D  VT = ηVT
 ni  q • AC Resistance r = for η → 1for Ge,2forSi
If
V0 ⇒ Contact potential
Contact potential also known as potential barrier, Where, η = Recombination factor
Built-in potential hill, diffusion voltage, Built-in If = forward current VT = Thermal voltage
voltage
Static Resistance is always greater than AC
• It cannot measure with a voltmeter-
Due to the formation of the depletion Layer Resistance.
due to diffusion (majority) Aε
due to drift (minority) • Junction Capacitance = C j =
W
due to potential Barrier.
Where, A - Area of cross-section of diode
• Current Equation - If = Io e Vd / ηVT − 1
W - Width of depletion region
Where, Io = Reverse Saturation or Leakage Current
ε - Permittivity of material
Vd = forward biased voltage
η = Recombination factor Depletion layer in a p-n junction behave as a parallel
plate capacitance and capacitance is given by
VT = Thermal voltage
1
• Leakage Current
dQ A  2qε NA ND  2
Also known as minority carrier current, thermally Cj = =  
generated current, reverse saturation current d(V0 − V) 2  (V0 − V) N A + N D 
T2 − T1
Where, V = Applied voltage, A = Area of cross- section
Io (T2 ) = Io (T1 ) × 2 10
1
Where,Io(T2)=Reverse saturation current at temperature Cj ∝
(V0 − V)1/ 2
T2
Io(T1) = Reverse Saturation current at temperature In case of reverse bias transition capacitance CT is
T1 same as junction capacitance.
Here T2 > T1 Transition Capacitance also known as Depletion
Does not depend on applied voltage. layer capacitance.
It's only depends on temperature. Transition capacitance C T ∝ V − n
For better performance Io should be small or
negligible.
Forward biased capacitance also known as Diffusion
capacitance CD or storage capacitance.
1
Junction Capacitance C j ∝ ⇒ C j ∝ Doping
W
Typical value of Diffusion capacitance 0.02 µf
τI F
Diffusion Capacitance C D = Farads.
ηVT
CD always greater than CT Reverse Biasing Voltage
• PN- Junction diode- • Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

Ideal Diode Real or practical Diode
(Si)
• I-V Characteristics-:
Ideal diode Real Diode
Forward biased Forward biased
Reverse biased Reverse biased
Semiconductor Devices
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Zero Biased PN Junction Diode This is an Active Device.
It works on the principle of electro-luminescence.
It will emitt light when properly excited.
Depletion layer is large as compared to Normal
diode.
If is fabricated using direct band gap material
(GaAs).
It emits light due to a large number of recombination
at junction.
• Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
Colour of light depends on concentration of dopend.
It is always operated under forward biased.
With a forward current of 20 mA, LED gives out the
maximum intensity of light.
In reverse bias it works like a normal diode.
• Light color depends
On the wavelength and frequency of radiated light
Type of concentration of doped.
• Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode • Typical LED characteristics-
Semiconductor Material Wavelength Colour
GaAs 850-940 nm Infra-Red
GaAsP 630-660 nm Red
GaAsPN 585-595 nm Yellow
AlGa P 550-571 nm Green
SiC 430-505 nm Blue

GaInN 450 nm White • V-I Characteristics
Power dissipation in LED-mW
• LCD- (Liquid crystal Display)
It is a passive Device.
Dynamic light Scattering
Power dissipation is in µW
Response time is in msec.
Operating life is 50,000+ hrs
Use as display device.
In a Reverse Bias tunnel diode work as Register.
Material used is liquid crystals that are activated by
Negative Resistance property lies between valley
electric current.
point (VV) and Peak point (VP).
• LDR-(Light Dependent Resister)
In exponential region tunnel diode behaves as a
LDR most commonly used photo sensor.
normal diode.
LDR is a bidirectional resistor.
Tunnel diode is a voltage control device.
Range of resistance 5Ω to 0.75 MΩ .
Symbol Equivalent Circuit
Material used for fabrication is CdS, Se.
• Photo Conductors
A photo conductor or photoconductivity is an
electrical and optical phenomenon where a material
turns into conductive more electrically because of Commercial and high quality Tunnel diode is made
the electromagnetic radiation absorption like by Ge.
infrared light, ultraviolet light, visible light, or • Zener diode
gamma radiation. It is also called Zener breakdown diode.
Extrinsic excitation (from donor level to CB or from Slightly doped (1:105)
VB to accepter level) require lesser energy than
Fabricated by using Si material.
energy gap.
• Photo conductivity equation is given Operates on the principle of tunneling effect
Always operates under reverse bias.
by. E g = hν = hc Mainly used in voltage regulation application.
λ
Maintains constant voltage across a load if properly
Where, h → Plank's constant
biased
c → Speed of light in Free space.
Also called constant voltage Device.
λ → Wavelength of light incident on SC
In forward Bias Zener diode will be work as normal
• Tunnel Diode
Invented in 1957 by LEO ESAKI. PN junction diode.
Also called ESAKI Diode. Cut-in voltage →0.6V to 0.7V
3
Doping concentration. 1:10 (Highly doped) Zener diode commercial available → 8.5V to 300V
Narrow depletion layer. (100 to 200 ) For voltage regulator circuit Zener diode will work
Highly doped PN Junction. zener breakdown region
Exhibits tunneling effect due to very narrow • Symbol
depletion layer.
Low noise Device.
Fastest switch. (pico second) Ex. of Zener Diode ⇒ IN4728, IN4729
Negative Resistance Device
Very small size and low cost and easy to fabricate. • Zener Breakdown phenomenon
power dissipation negligible. Zener Breakdown is due to large electric field.
works on the principle of tunneling effect. It is due to tearing off or rupturing off covalent bond
It is used in designing microwave oscillators, as a in depletion layer.
relaxation oscillator, in designing of pulse and Zener Breakdown occurs below 6V.
switching circuits and as parametric amplifier. Zener Breakdown voltage Decrease with
• Disadvantage- Two terminal device therefore there is temperature increase NTC
no proper isolation between input and output section • Avalanche Breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown is due to collision. It is used in remote control sensor, in designing of
This collision is due to electron multiplication and optocouplers and to read audio track recorded on
impact Ionization. motion picture film.
Avalanche Breakdown occur above 6V. When photo diode is forward biased it behaves as a
Avalanche Breakdown voltage increase with normal diode and effect of light on current is zero.
Temperature increase or PTC • Symbol of photo diode
• Varactor Diode
It is a Higher graded diode or linear graded diode.
Always operated in Reverse Bias. • Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)
Also called varicap diode. Basically a photo diode along with Avalanche effect.
Low noise microwave device used. Avalanche photo diode can handle Large amount of
1 1 power compared to photo diode.
Transition capacitance C T ∝ CT ∝
( VRB ) Its response time is smaller than photo diode.
n
3 VRB
Avalanche photo diode is widely used in fibre optic
1 1 communication because of its high sensitivity.
n= linear graded n = → for abrupt junction
3 2 • Solar cell
VRB = Reverse bias voltage Its principle of operation is photo Voltaic effect.
Terminal of voltage of solar cell can't exceed the
Symbol Equivalent Circuit barrier potential of diode that's why an array solar
cells is used to achieve higher voltage.
We can measure terminal voltage of solar cell using
voltmeter.
Popularly used solar cells are Se cells Ni-Cd cells
PbS cells.
• Application Ni-Cd cell one rechargeable cells used in satellites.
Tuned circuit FM Modulation Mixer It is used in automatic traffic signal lightening.
Design of VCO Used in PLL Generally operates under open circuit condition.
Parametric Amplifier. It can be operate in forward biased condition and has
• Photo Diode cut-in voltage equal to zero.
Principle of operation is photoconductive effect. • Opto-Couplers
Photo sensitive material are CdS, Se, ZnS. These are optically coupled but electrically isolated.
It is also called light operated switch Opto-couplers are faster than conventional Devices
Ge-Photo diode respond to visible light while Si- Widely used in industrial application where very
photo diode respond to infrared light. good dc isolation (better than transformers) is
Photo sensitive coating is provided at junction only. required.
Compared to normal diode, photo diode has large
• PIN DIODE
depletion width obtained from lower level doping.
It is always operated under reverse biased condition. It is p + − I − n + diode. I represents intrinsic material
As compare to normal diode it is 10 times faster,
100 times higher sensitive but power handling If I is replaced by p-type then called pπn diode
capacity is low. and if I is replaced by n-type then called p γ n diode.
Magnitude of photo current increases with increase
in intensity of light falling at junction. In PIN diode lightly doped intrinsic SC is sand
Current in photo diode is given by witched between highly doped p and n.
It has low response time because of high resistivity
I = IS + IO 1 − e v / ηvT  of I-region.
Where, IS - Short circuit current of photo diode It is two terminal, three layer, having single junction
Io - Reverse saturation current device
V- applied voltage, VT → Thermal Voltage It is always operated under reverse biased condition.
Photo current flows from n to p region. When whole I-region is covered by depletion layer
Photo current is a minority carrier current. then it is called swept out condition.
It does not provide gain. In PIN diode if whole I region is not swept out then
Photo current is a diffusion current. signal loss will occur.
It is used in handling microwave power, as
microwave mixer as a duplexer in designing of

transmit receive switch in designing of anti transmit- Switching speed is controlled by thermalization of
receive switch. hot-injected electrons across the barrier.
• Schottky diode Use high frequency application.
Also known as hot-carrier diode. Ex. (IN5817)
Cut-in voltage is quite small. Symbol :
Metal semiconductor junction.
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
Power supply I DC =
I rms V
VDC = rms
f.f. f .f
V 1.57 1.11 1.11
form factor, f .f = rms
VDC
Peak factor or crest 2 1.414 1.414
Rectifiers- convert A.C to D.C factor
• Ripple Factor-. 1.21→ 1φ 0.48→ 1φ
Ripple factor 0.48
V 
2 0.17→ 3φ 0.05→ 3φ
γ=
rms of AC component
DC value
γ =  rms  − 1 γ= F.F. −1
V
2
( ) PIV Vm 2Vm Vm
 DC  Vrms, Irms Vm Im Vm Im Vm Im
, , ,
• Half wave Rectifier- 2 2 2 2 2 2
TUF 0.286 0.692 0.812
Efficiency (η) 40.5% 81.2% 81.2%
Output frequency f 2f 2f
Number of Diode 1 2 4
Bipolar Junction Transistor
. • Characteristics –
• Full wave centre tapped Rectifier- Bipolar Junction Transistor was invented by William
Shockley, John Barttain and Bardeen bell lab in
1948.
It is a Current Controlled Device. (CCD)
Noisy device due to presence of minority carriers.
Thermal stability is lesser because of leakage current
or reverse saturation current.
Transistor action take place in base region.
A transistor is 3 layer, 3 terminal, 2 junction
• Full wave Bridge Rectifier. semiconductor device.
It consist of either two n-type and one p-type layers
of material is called n-p-n transistor or two p-type
and one n-type material is called p-n-p transistor.
In transistor current flow due to both majority as
well as minority carrier that’s why called a bipolar
device.
Its input impedance is low and output impedance is
High.
• Comparison of Various Rectifier: In transistor all the major currents are diffusion
Parameter Half Full wave Full wave currents.
wave center Bridge Base current is recombination current.
rectifier tapped Current conduction in p-n-p transistor is carried out
Average value Vm I m 2Vm 2 I m 2Vm 2 I m by hole whereas in n-p-n transistor it is due to
, , ,
π π π π π π electrons.

Where, IC = Collector current; VCE = collector to
emitter voltage.
Power dissipation in saturation and cut off region is
almost zero.
Power dissipation is maximum in active region.
Emitter Cut off current ICBO is given by - :
ICBO ≅ ICO but actually it is given slightly greater
than ICO
Base Cut off current ICEO is given by
ICEO = (1 + β ) ICO ICO → reverse saturation current
across reverse biased collector junction.
IC β I α
ICEO > ICBO > ICO α= = β= C =
IE 1+β IB 1 − α
Where , α = Current gain of common base.
β = Current gain of common emitter.
Current gain of common collector
ΙΕ 1
γ= = β +1 =
IB 1− α
β for dc analysis is greater than
β for ac Analysis.
Emitter injection efficiency
iEp iΕn
γΕ = for p-n-p γΕ = for n-p-n
Configuration Input node Output node iEp + iEn iEp + iEn
Common base (CB) E C Where, iEp = Emitter current due to holes.
Common collector (CC) B C iEn = Emitter current due to electrons.
Common Emitter (CE) B E Base transport factor
Doping E > C > B iC i
B= for p-n-p B = C for n-p-n
iEp iEn
• Width C > E > B
Mode JEB JCB
Property Application Current gain α in term of γE and B α = ΒγΕ
Saturation forward forward
Very low ‘ON Value of γE and B is very close to 1 and in ideal
bias bias
resistance Switch’ condition it is 1.
Cut-off Reverse Reverse
Very High ‘Off Switch’ In diffusion transistor base current is only due to
bias bias
Resistance diffusion.
In drift transistor base current is due to diffusion and
Active forward Reverse
Excellent Amplifier
drift phenomenon.
bias transistor
bias
Recombination agent used to trap charge carriers is
Action gold.
Reverse Reverse forward Poor Attenuator • Early Effect
Active bias bias transistor Increase in depletion region width due to increase in
Action reverse biased across collector base junction is
• Current in BJT called Early Effect.
• Total collector current Due to early effect effective base width decreases.
Due to early effect α increases by little amount but β
IC = βI B + ICEO IC = βI B + (1 + β ) ICBO increases by large amount.
ICEO = Collector to emitter leakage current. • Common base configuration
IE = IB + IC + ICBO or IE = I B + IC
ICEO = (1 + β ) ICBO
Where, IE = Emitter Current, IB = Base current,
β → Current gain of common emitter. IC = Collector current,
Power dissipation in a transistor is given by – ICBO = Collector to base leakage current
PT = IC × VCE
unity
Power Gain Medium Very Large Less
Leakage Very small Very Large Very
Current Large
Phase Shift 0º 180º 0º
Application Voltage and Voltage, for, Better
power Current and Impedance
Amplification power matching.
Input Output Amplification
• DC Load Line
DC Load Line is the Locus of all possible operating
point at which BJT remains in active region.
IB ≅ 2% of I E IC = 98% of I E
• Common Emitter Configuration −1
Slope of DC load line -
R dc
• AC load line
Input Output
−1
Slope of AC load line -
R ac
Slope of AC load line is greater than slope of DC
load line
β range from 20 to 500
I B < ICsat / β (Active region).
• Common Collector Configuration
I B > ICsat / β (Saturation region).
VCC
IC max = [where VCE = 0 at saturation)
RC
• Thermal Runaway - Transistor can be
seriously affected by the temperature rise. The two
of the most temperature sensitive quantities are VBE
Common collector configuration also known as and IC We know that IC = βI B + (1 + β ) ICBO
Emitter follower.
Voltage gain is always less than one so never used
for amplification purpose.
Char. CB confi. CE confi. CC confi.
Input Very low (20 Low Very
Resistance Ω) (1 KΩ) large
(1 MΩ)
Output Very Large (1 High Low
Resistance MΩ) (10 KΩ) (1 KΩ)
Current Gain Less than High (100) High
unity (100)
Voltage Gain Large (1000) High (100) Less than
VCC – VBE
IB = IC = βI B
RB
VCC – VCE
IC = VCE = VCC – IC R C
RC
Circuit is called fixed biased circuit due to constant

or fixed base current IB. S = 1 + β Since S is very
Large IC will be unstable.
• Thermal resistance – • Collector to Base Bias circuit
Tj – TA
θ= (ºC/Watt or ºK/Watt) VCC – VBE
PD IB = IC = βI B
R B + (1 + β ) R C
Tj → Collector junction temperature
TA→ Ambient temperature in Kelvin VCE = VCC – ( IC + I B ) R C
PD→ Power dissipated across collector junction
• Condition to avoid thermal run away
VCC
VCE <
2
Transistor Biasing Circuit
• Emitter Bias or Self Bias circuit
• Bias Stabilization
If ICO, VBE and β changes simultaneously then net VCC – VBE
IB = IC = βI B
change in IC. R B + ( β + 1) R E
∂IC ∂I ∂I
∆IC = ∆ICO + C × ∆VBE + C ∆β VCE = VCC – ( R C + R E )
∂ICO ∂VBE ∂β
∂IC
Where, = S (Current stability factor)
∂ICO
∂IC
= S' (Voltage stability factor)
∂VBE
∂IC
= Sβ = S′′ (Amplification stability factor) • Potential Divider Bias Circuit
∂β
Vth − VBE
IB = IC = βI B
Sideal = 1 Alternate evaluation of S =
1+ β R th + ( β + 1) R E
∂I
1– β B VCE = VCC – IC ( R C + R E )
∂IC
Practically S should be less than 20. R 1R 2
R th =
Needs of biasing of BJT- R1 + R 2
i. To operate the BJT in active region so that it can be R2
used as amplifier. Vth = VCC
R1 + R 2
ii. To maintain IC stable so that the operating point does
not drift and thermal run away does not happen. • Darlington Amplifier
Known as super β circuit Used as buffer.
• Fixed biased circuit Used where very high input impedance and high
current gain required.
Cascade of two common collector amplifier or
Cascade of two common drain amplifier.
Amplifier type Configuration
CE-CC Cascade amplifier
CC-CC Darlington pair

CE-CB Cascode amplifier • Relation between three parameters of
• Multistage Amplifier JFET- µ = g m × rd
Upper cut-off frequency of overall configuration is-
f H* = f H 21/ n − 1
• In saturation region current through FET
2
Lower cut-off frequency of overall configuration is-  V 
IDS = I DSS  1 – GS  ID = K ( VGS – VT )
2
fL V
f L* =  P 
2 −1
1/ n
Where, IDSS -Saturation Current at VGS = 0
• FET (Field Effect Transistor) VP- Pinch off Voltage,
IDS - Saturation current at any VGS
• Trans-conductance gm
IDSS  VGS  2
g m = –2 1 –  or g m = I DS I DSS
VP  VP  VP
• n-channel Junction field effect transistor
(JFET)
in FET Gate always Reverse biased.

Drain characteristics Transfer
characteristics
Majority carrier device.
Smaller in size compared to BJT.
Zero Leakage current.
Drain and source can be interchanged due to
symmetrical nature of FET while BJT is
asymmetrical device.
In JFET channel is wedge shaped.
Width modulation is a process of varying channel
width by variation of VDS .
In n-channel JFET channel width is narrow near • p-Channel JFET
drain. Drain characteristics Transfer Characteristics
Input impedance of MOSFET is greater than JFET.
FET has a major application as voltage dependent
resistor.
• Parameters of JFET
Transconductance Drain Resistance Amplification
(gm) (rd) factor (µ)
∆ID ∆VDS ∆VDS
gm = rd = µ=
∆VGS ∆ID ∆VGS ID = Constant
VDS = Constant VGS = Constant
Unit of gm → unit of rd → ohm It is no unit • Symbol of JFET

mA/volt or (Ω)
Amp/volt or
Mho ( ℧ )
∆VGS - Change in gate voltage, ∆VDS - Change in
Drain voltage, ∆ID - Change in Drain current.

• Enhancement Type MOSFET- The main
difference between the construction of enhancement
type MOSFET and depletion type MOSFET is that
the channel is not constructed in enhancement type
MOSFET
• MOSFET- (Metal – Oxide Semiconductor Field • n-type Enhancement MOSFET-
Effect Transistor)
Very high input impedance and very high switching
speed.
MOSFET is used as a Voltage controlled capacitor.
Also known as IGFET (Insulated Gate FET).
• n-Channel Depletion Type MOSFET
Symbol for Enhancement type MOSFET-

• n-Channel-
• Transfer Characteristics
• P-Channel-
Remember point
For a MOSFET operating in saturation region,
• P-Channel Depletion type MOSFET- channel length modulation effect causes decreases
in output resistance.
In triode region FET works as voltage variable
resistor (VVR)
For Depletion MOSFET channel is diffused and
current flows even if VGS is zero.
It Operation in two mode depletion mode and
enhancement mode For VGS greater than threshold
voltage it works in enhancement mode.
Symbol for Depletion Type MOSFET • Comparison between BJT, JFET and MOSFET
n-Channel MOSFET- BJT JFET MOSFET
Bipolar Device Unipolar Device Unipolar Device
Low input High input Very high input
impedance (102Ω impedance (108Ω impedance
to 106Ω) to 1012Ω) (1010Ω to 1015Ω)
Current controlled Voltage control Voltage control
device Device capacitance
• P-Channel MOFET- source
Sensitivity and Sensitivity and Sensitivity and
voltage gain high. voltage gain low voltage gain low
More noise Less noise Less noise
Low thermal High thermal High thermal application circuit
stability stability stability Moderate High speed Very high speed
Drain resistance is Drain resistance
high is low
for low current used in amplifier used in digital
Comparison of different type of coupling-
Type of coupling Coupling Frequency cost Impedance Use
device response Matching
RC Coupling Capacitor Excellent in audio Less Not good Voltage Amplification
frequency range
Transformer Transformer Poor More Excellent Power amplification and
coupling impedance matching
Direct coupling No coupling Best at low Least Good for low frequency
Device used frequency and dc Amplification
• Difference Between Voltage and power Amplifier Collector current flow for more than half sinusoidal
Parameter Voltage Power Amplifier but not fully sinusoidal.
Amplifier Distortion is more than Class-A but less than class-
B.
β High (> 100) Low (5 to 20)
Power drain is more than class-B but less than class-
RC High (4-10 kΩ) Low (5 to 20 Ω) A
Coupling Usually RC Transformer • Class C-amplifier- It is operated either is deep
Coupling Coupling saturated or in deep cut-off region
Input Voltage Low (a few High (2-4V) 1
mV) Resonant frequency of tank circuit Fr ≅
2π LC
IC Low (≃ 1mA) High (> 100mA) 2
VPP
Power output Low High AC load power class C amplifier P L =
8R L
O/P High (≃ 12Ω) Low (200 Ω) It has highest conversion efficiency among all power
impedance amplifiers.
Classification of power Amplifier Highest distortion.
• Class -A amplifier It is used in tuned power amplifier and radio
Transistor operates in active region at all time. frequency amplifier.
R Power Conduction maximum Figure of
Unloaded voltage gain of CE amplifier, A = − C Amplifier Angle Efficiency merit
re
Class-A 360º 50% 2
r Class-B 180º 78.5% 2.4
Loaded voltage gain, A v = − C
re Class-AB 180º-360º 50-78.5% 0.4-2
2 Class-C < 180º ≥ 90% < 0.25
V
Maximum AC load power PL( max ) = PP Remember point
8R L
PL(max) Cross over distortion occur- Class B amplifier
Stage efficiency η = × 100% Cross over distortion reduced- Class AB amplifier
PS
Feedback Amplifiers
Class A amplifier produces least distortion in the • Feedback- The processes of injecting a fraction of
output among all power amplifiers. output energy of same device back to its input is
• Class-B amplifier known as feedback.
Q Point is located at cut off on both DC and AC load
Positive (Regenerative or Direct) feedback-
line.
• Amplifier - Introduces 180º phase shift.
V
Collector-emitter voltage at Q-point VCEQ = CC • Feedback Network : Introduces 180º phase shift.
2 A
AC load power of a class B push-pull amplifier Af =
1 − Aβ
V2
PL = PP Negative (Degenerative or inverse) feedback
8R L Amplifier - Introduces 180º phase shift.
Output signal is half sinusoidal. Feedback Network : Introduces 0º phase shift.
Power drain is almost zero. A
• Class -AB amplifier Af =
1 + Aβ
Operating point is located between the limits of class
Return difference-(de-sensitivity)
A and B .
• Difference between unity and loop gain is called Offset voltage 0 2 mV
return difference (D) - D = 1 + Aβ Offset current 0 20 nA
CMRR ∞ 106 or 120 dB
Sensitivity
• In the case of negative feedback, if, Slew rate ∞ 0.5 to 1V/µ sec
∂A Voltage Gain ∞ 2×105
• - % Change without feedback.
A i +i
• Input Bias Current- Ibias = 1 2
∂A f 2
- % Change with feedback.
Af Its value between 80nA to 500nA.
• Input offset current- i oc = i1 ∼ i 2
Its value between 20nA to 200nA.
• CMRR (Common Mode Rejection ratio)-
Vocm = A cm Vcm
Vcm - Common mode input, Acm - Common mode
Gain
Vocm - output of common mode configuration.
V0 = A OL Vd + A cm Vcm
A dm A dm
• CMRR = • CMRR = 20 log10 dB
A cm A cm
Characteristics Types of feedback
Voltage Voltage Current Current CMRR is High - rejection of noise High.
series shunt series shunt When Emitter Resistance R E ↑ than CMRR ↑
Voltage gain Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease Adm = difference mode gain
Bandwidth Increase Increase Increase Increase
Acm = common mode gain
Harmonic Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease
Distortion or noise V −R C −R C
A cm = out = =
Input Impedance Increase Decrease Increase Decrease Vin( cm ) re + 2R E 2R E
Output Impedance Decrease Decrease Increase Increase
Used Common Collector Common Cascading • Slew Rate-
• SR ≥ A CL V6m ω , V • SR ≥ 2πFVm , V
collector to base emitter amplifier
bias • SR ≥
dv
dt max 10 µ sec S
Operational Amplifier-
• Internal part. Where, Vm = Peak value of sinusoidal input or
output
ω = 2πf =input signal of frequency.
Slew rate depends on input signal frequency and
output amplitude.
• History about OP - AMP- Golden rule about op-amp-
First patent for vacuum tube op-amp - 1946 Op-amp mostly ideal op-amp (A0L = ∞, Ri= ∞)
First Commercial op-amp available - 1953 Virtual ground and virtual short Applicable only-
First discrete IC-op-amp- 1961 Op-amp 741 –1967 ideal op-amp, with Negative feedback.
First Commercially successful monolithic op-amp-1965 Virtual Ground an virtual short not applicable only-
Op-amp is a voltage controlled voltage source device. Positive feedback, Open loop case, Practical op-
• Pin Diagram of 741 IC- amp.
Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR)
∆Vio µv
PSRR = , or dB
∆V v
∆Vio = Change in input offset voltage
∆V = Change in supply voltage.
Property Ideal Practical op-amp • Linear op-amp Circuits-
op-amp i. Inverting Amplifier-
Open loop gain (AOL) ∞ 106
Input Resistance (Ri) ∞ 1 MΩ
Output Resistance (R0) 0 50 to 100 Ω
Bandwidth ∞ 5MHz
Vi
V0 = − I0 Ranti log
ηVT
Rf
AV = −
Ri
Schmitt trigger-
ii. Non-inverting Amplifier-
Rf
AV = 1 +
Ri
 R2 
VTH = βVsat   Vsat VHTL = VTH − VTL
iii. Difference Amplifier-  R1 + R 2 
 R2 
VTL = −β Vsat =  −  Vsat
 R 2 + R1 
Instrumentation Amplifier
R2  R4   R2 
V0 = − V1 +   1 +  V2
R1  R 3 + R 4   R1 
R2 R4
if =
R1 R 3
R4 R
then, V0 = [ V2 − V1 ] = 2 ( V2 − V1 )
R3 R1  1 + 2R  V − V1
 R p  ( 1
V0 =  V − V2 ) Current in R p , I = 2
Non-linear op-Amp circuits- Rp
 
Integrator
V2 − V1
Point C voltage V2 + R
Rp
+ VC ( 0+ )
1
V0 =
RC ∫ Vdt
i
V2 − V1
Point D-voltage V1 − R
Rp
Also know as low pass filter.
Differentiator-
dVi
V0 = − RC
dt
Also know as high pass filter.

Logarithmic Amplifier-
Vi • Application of Multivibrators:
V0 = −ηVT ℓ n 1. Bistable multivibrator- Flip-Flop, Memory,
I0 R
Mathematical operation etc.
Where, η = Recombination factor 2. Monostable Multivibrator-
VT = Thermal voltage Pulse generator, delay circuit, gating circuit etc.
I0 = Reverse saturation current of diode. 3. Astable multivibrator- Oscillator, Timing Circuit,
Antilog Amplifier Square wave Generation etc.
• Differentiator
Input Output Tcharge = RC, Tdischarge ≅ 0 T0 = 1.1Tcharge
Square wave / Spikes, impulse
Also used in frequency division
Rectangular wave
Used in relay switching, Generation time delay
Triangular wave Square wave
Sine wave Inverted cosine Oscillator
DC Zero Type of Frequency of Waveform
RC <<< TP RC-Time constant, TP - Propagation delay component Oscillation generation
RC Oscillator Audio frequency Sinusoidal
• Integrator
LC Oscillator Radio frequency Square wave
Input Output
Spikes or impulse Square or rectangular Crystal Radio frequency Triangular wave,
Oscillator Sawtooth wave etc.
Square wave Triangular wave
Sine wave Cosine wave Audio frequency oscillator - up to 20 KHz
DC or Step Ramp Radio frequency oscillator - 20 Khz to 30MHz
Rectangular Sawtooth wave Very High frequency - 30 MHz to 300MHz
Ultra High frequency oscillator - 300 MHz to 3 GHz
RC >>> TP
Microwave frequency oscillator - 3 GHz to
• Fixed Voltage IC Regulators- thousand GHz
i. 78XX- It provide fixed output positive voltage
Barkhausen’s Criteria for Oscillation-
7805 → V0 = +5V,7812 → V0 = +12V
1
ii. 79XX - It provide fixed Negative DC voltage. 1. Positive feedback 2. Aβ = 1 or β =
A
7905 → V0 = −5V,7912 → V0 = −12V
3. The phase shift around the loop is zero or integer
For proper operation of IC voltage at input PIN should
multiple or 2π : < Aβ = 2πn, n∈0, 1, 2,……
be atleast 2V higher then the voltage at output.
• IC 555 Timer
It is used in Tone, and Alarm Generation.
It is used in Generation of square wave, sawtooth
wave.
It is available in 8-pin DIP package.
It is made up Bipolar technology and CMOS
technology.
• PIN Diagram-
1
• Tuned Collector Oscillator- f =
2π L1C1
1
• Hartley Oscillator- f =
2π ( L1 + L2 + 2M ) C
IC 555 as Astable multivibrator
1
Tcharge = (R A + R B ) C Tdischarge = R B C • Colpitt Oscillator- f =
 CC 
2π  1 2 ×L
THigh = 0.69(R A + R B ) C TLow = 0.69R B C  C1 + C2 
T0 = THigh + TLow T0 = 0.69(R A + 2R B ) C • Phase Shift Oscillator
1 1.45 1 1
f0 = = f= Hz , β = − (Feedback Factor)
T0 (R A + 2R B )C 2πRC 6 29
IC 555 as monostable multivibrater • Wein Bridge Oscillator

1 1 voltage
f0 = than f =
2π R 1C1R 2 C 2 2πRC Output Less than the Multiples of input
When R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C voltage input voltage voltage
1 Energy Not required Requires

β= for oscillation R 2 ≥ 2R1 For oscillation storage (capacitor is used
3
component as energy storage
• Crystal Oscillator
element)
1
Series resonance frequency f s = Shape of Shape changes Shape remains
2π LC
output (rectangular, same as input
Parallel resonance frequency waveform sinusoidal, waveform.
1 CC0 triangular etc)
fp = where Ceq =
2π LCeq C + C0 DC level Remain same DC level get
shifted
Remember point
Quartz has excellent physical characteristics which Applications In transmitters, In voltage
do not get affected by time and temperature, hence receivers, multiplying
crystal oscillator provides highly stable f0. amplitude circuits, Sonar,

selector, noise Radio system.
• Clipper and clamper comparison chart
limiter etc.
Parameters Clipper Clamper
Definition Clipper removes Clamper shifts the
the amplitude of DC level of the
the output output voltage
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Amplitude Modulation
Modulation- Modulation is a process by which mA c

some characteristics parameters of a carrier wave is cos [ 2π(f c + f m )t ]
SDSB− FC ( t ) = A c cos(2πf c t) +
2
varied in accordance with the modulating wave.
mA c
Demodulation-The process of recovering the + cos [ 2π(f c − f m )t ]
message signal from the modulated wave is known 2
as demodulation (reverse process of modulation). The shape of envelope is same as the shape of
Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSB-FC) baseband signal.

More power dissipation. Total channel bandwidth using vestigial lower
Easy modulation and de-modulation. sideband = 7 MHz.
Transmission bandwidth (B.W.)T = 2fm Ηz Used in TV, Video transmission, Radio navigation
Known as A3E. and military communication.
Modulation Index of AM Generation of AM wave
A max − A min A m  I   2 Linear method – i. Collector modulation ii. Base
m= = = 2  t  − 1 Modulation iii. Switching modulation
A max + A min A c  Ic   Non linear method- Square law modulation
Used a band pass filter (L-C tuned circuit)
m t = m12 + m 22 + m32 + ...... Semiconductor diode or transistor is used as non
Critical Modulation (m = 1) Under Modulation (m < 1) linear device.
Over Modulation (m > 1) Output voltage ∝ (input signal)2
Merits of Collector modulation
A2
Carrier Power ( Pc ) = c Better linearity
2R High collector efficient
m 2 A c2 m 2 Pc High power output per transistor.
Side band power ( PSB ) = = Demerits of collector modulation
4R 2 Needs more modulating power (Audio power).
 m2  Applications- Used in AM transmission systems.
Total Power ( PT ) = Pc  1+  Merits of base modulation- Needs low power as
 2 
compare to collector modulation.
PSB m2 Demerits of base modulation-
Efficiency (η) =
PT 2 + m2 Low power output and low collector efficiency
as compare to collector modulation.
PSB = 33.33% of Pt Pc = 66.66% of Pt [when m=1] Low linearity due to complication in proper
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier adjustment.
(DSB-SC) Application-TV transmission and generation of SSB
Ac A m signal.
SDSB-SC (t) = cos 2π ( fc − f m ) t + cos 2π ( fc + fm ) t 
2  Generation of DSB-SC- Product modulation
are two types-
Transmission bandwidth ( BW )T = 2f m Hz Balance modulation Ring modulation.
Power saving = 66.66%. Generation of SSB-SC
The envelope shape of DSB-SC is differ to the shape i. Filter method
of base band signal. ii. The third method or weaver’s method
Complicated demodulation. iii. Phase shift or phase cancellation method
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier Generation of VSB
i. Analog multiplier ii. Envelope detector
(SSB-SC)
SSB-SC is known as J3E.
Demodulation of AM wave
Method
Noise figure of merit in SSB = 1.
i. Square law detector ii. Envelope detector.
SSB is known as H3E.
Square Law Detector
Bandwidth figure of signal to noise ratio for SSB = Known as non-linear or small signal detector.
3kHz.
Output voltage V0 ( t ) = a1vi ( t ) + a 2 vi2 ( t )
AA
SSSB−SC (t) = c m cos  2π ( f c + f m ) t  (USB) • Envelope detector
2
Known as linear detector
AA
SSSB−SC (t) = c m cos  2π ( f c − f m ) t  (LSB) One diode and one RC filter are used.
2 Condition for minimum distortion-
Transmission bandwidth, ( BW )T = f m Hz. i. R s C <<
1
ii.
1
<< R L C <<
1
fc fc fm
Power saving = 83.33%.
Costly and complex High power handling capacity and low
Used in point to point communication. distortion.
There are two type of distortion in envelope
Vestigial sideband (VSB) detector-
VSB known as C3F. i. Diagonal clipping
One sideband is transmitted completely while only a ii. Negative peak clipping
vestige of the other sideband is transmitted. • Synchronous detector
Transmission bandwidth, ( BW )T = ω + fv Hz. One multiplier with L.O. and LPF.
Demodulation of DSB-SC
i. Coherent detection or synchronous detection.
ii. Costas receiver
iii. Squaring loop
• SSB Demodulation
Synchronous detector
Angle Modulation
i. Frequency modulation
ii. Phase modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Pulse modulation-
SFM(t) = AC cos[ 2πf c t + 2πk f ∫ m ( t ) dt ] • Sampling theorem- The sampling theorem specifies
Frequency deviation ∆f = k f A m Hz the minimum-sampling rate at which a continuous-
time signal needs to be uniformly sampled so that
∆f k f A m
Modulation index- m f = = the original signal can be completely recovered or
fm fm reconstructed by these sample alone.
m f ≤ 1 (Narrow band FM) 1
Fs ≥ 2f m , Ts ≤
m f > 1 (Wide band FM) Carrier swing = 2∆f 2f m
Transmission Bandwidth- ( BW )T(FM ) ≃ 2(∆f + f m ) • Sampling period (Ts)- Time between two samples.
1 1
 1  • Sampling rate = =
(mf+1) 2fm = 2∆f  1 +  {Carson's bandwidth sampling period Ts
 mf  Pulse Amplitude modulation (PAM)-
rule} The amplitude of pulses varies with the
∆f instantaneous sample values of a message signal.
Deviation Ratio- D =
ω There are two types of PAM-
Low noise and low interference. i. Double polarity PAM
Costly and complex modulator and demodulator ii. Single polarity PAM.
circuits. • Generation
For tone modulation, deviation ratio is inversely
proportional to message signal frequency.
Phase deviation ( ∆φ ) max = k p .A m
Generation of FM wave- • Demodulation
i. Varactor diode modulator 
 direct method
ii. Reactance modulator 
iii. Armstrong modulator - indirect method
Modulation index m f << 1 in Armstrong modulator. Amplitude of pulse of PAM wave, is not constant
Varactor diode modulator used in automatic (but in PPM and PWM amplitude is constant)
frequency control, remote tuning and FM and PM More noise effect
generation. Used in instrumentation system, A/D converter and
Demodulation of FM wave generation of PCM.
Frequency discriminator Pulse width Modulation (PWM)
Slope detector, The sample of message signal are used to vary the
Balance slope detector duration of individual pulses.
Phase discriminator Generation- PWM can be generated by sawtooth
foster seeley discriminator generator and comparator.
Ratio detector Demodulation-
PLL detector method.
Phase modulation (PM)
For single tone modulation, deviation ratio is
independent of message signal frequency. No needs of synchronization between transmitter
and receivers.
SPM (t) = A c cos  2πf c t + ∆φ cos ( 2πf m t ) 
Pulse widths are different
Modulation index, m P = ∆φ = kp.Am Comparison of PAM, PWM, PPM
Equivalence Between FM and PM B.W Power efficiency Complexi
(SNR) ty
PAM Less Lowest Lowest
PWM High Moderate Moderate
PPM High Highest Highest
Pulse Position Modulation(PPM) • Amplitude shift keying (ASK) - Amplitude of a
The position of pulse relative to the position of high frequency carrier is varied in accordance with
unmodulated pulse is varied in accordance with the digital data (0, or 1)
message signal. On-OFF signaling is used.
Generation Less SNR, probability error (Pe) is high.
Lowest noise immunity
2
Transmission bandwidth BT = = 2R b
Tb
Demodulation • Frequency shift keying (FSK)
Transmission Bandwidth BT = 2Rb + (f1–f2)
In case of FSK Pe is less and SNR is high
Constant transmitter power and pulse amplitude Multiplexing is difficult, Used in modem.
Synchronization is needed between receiver and NRZ signaling is used.
transmitter. Frequency of carrier is varied in accordance with
PPM System is a noise free system digital data (1or 0).
Pulse code modulation (PCM)- • Phase shift keying (PSK)
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a method used to Phase of high frequency carrier varied is accordance
digitally represent sampled analog signal. with digital data (1 or 0).
Main process of PCM transmitter-sampling, NRZ signaling is used.
quantizing and encoding and receiver - regeneration Transmission Bandwidth BT = 2Rb = 2×bit rate
(cleaning and reshaping), decoding and filtering. Probability of error is less., SNR is high.
Best among all shift keying schemes.
• M-ary signaling
2R b
For M-ary PSK B.W =
log 2 M
Bit rate
Boud rate =
log 2 M
Sample the analog signal then quantize it to convert Information theory
into levels and encode it and then send it in the form 1 1 1
of digital codes. I= log 2   bits I = log10   decit, I = ln nat
If there is n bit quantizer and sampling rate is fs then P P P
m
bit rate will be R b = n fs bits / sec 1
Entropy- H = ∑ Pi log 2 bits / symbol
R b nfs i =1 Pi
(B.W.)min= = , (B.W.)max= Rb
2 2  S
Channel capacity- C = Blog 2  1 +  bits / sec
V − Vmin  N 
Step size (∆) = max (L = 2n)
L Channel capacity for a binary symmetric channel is
Quantization noise power for uniform quantization CS = 1 + P log 2 p + (1 − P) log 2 (1 − P)bits / symbol
∆2 Broadcast receiver IF
(Nq)= AM 438 kHz –465 kHz (mainly
12
Signal to noise ratio in dB (SNR)db = 1.8+6n use 455 kHz)
Sampling Period AM SSB 1.6 MHz – 2.3 MHz
Bit period = FM 10.7 MHz
No. of bit
T.V 26 MHz – 46 MHz
1 Radar 30 MHz – 60 MHz
Sampling period (Ts) =
2f m • T.V. Transmission
B.W of P.C.M = 2fm [n (N+1) +1] Picture signal-5.75MHz, sound signal -0.25MHz
Transmission bandwidth BT = 1.544 MHz AM Range of AM band = 540 to 1650 kHz
Ruggedness to channel noise and other interference. Maximum (fm) = 5kHz
Efficient generation of the coded signal along the Bandwidth = 10kHz
transmission path is possible. Modulation Total power Bandwidth Application
Security of information. Technique (PT) (BW)
Complex encoding and decoding. AM or P C +P SB 2f m medium
Long transmission bandwidth. DSB-FC wave,
Digital Modulation system short
wave
DSB-SC PSB 2fm ______

VSB-SC PSB fm<BW< picture The modulated message signal is passed through the
< PT < PSB 2fm signal in audio amplifier are power amplifier to achieved the
2
T.V desired signal.
SSB-SC fm Telephony Automatic gain control- The automatic gain
PSB
control (AGC) within a superhet radio enables the
2 gain of the receiver to be controlled to level the
Radio Receiver audio output.
Sensitivity- Ability to amplify weak signals. Antenna
Selectivity- Ability to reject unwanted signals. Antenna is an electrical device (conductor) which
Fidelity- Ability to reproduce all the frequency converts electrical energy into radio waves and vice-
components, which are present in original signal. versa.
Crystal receiver or straight receiver An antenna consist of a transmitter of a receiver,
used for sending and receiving electromagnetic
waves.
It is generally a metallic object, used to convert high
frequency current to electromagnetic waves and
vice-versa.
Radiate any signal from transmitter to space.
Impedance matching between transmission line and
Crystal receiver circuit is simple. free space.
Poor selectivity and sensitivity. Antenna Current distribution
Low output at receiver due to absence of amplifier. Resonant Standing wave pattern
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver- Non-resonant Traveling wave pattern
Isotropic Antenna or omni directional antenna- It
is a standard reference Antenna radiating equally in
all direction.
Radiation pattern is spherical
Directive gain- The ratio of power density radiated
in that direction by the antenna to the power density
that would be radiated by an isotropic antenna.
Directivity- Ability of an antenna to radiate in a
TRF receiver circuit is simple. particular direction.
Sensitivity-high, Instability Power gain- Ratio of power radiated by the antenna
Easy alignment at transmission range (535 kHz- in the direction of maximum gain to developed a
1640 kHz). certain field strength and the power that must be
Bandwidth variation over the tuning range. radiated by an isotropic antenna to developed the
Insufficient adjacent frequency rejection. same field strength.
Super Heterodyne Radio Receiver-(SHRR)- Effective area- Ratio of power received at the
antenna load terminal to the power density in
watt/m2 of the incident wave.
λ2
A eff = .G m
4π
Bandwidth- Difference between the frequency at
Image frequency rejection which the received power falls to one-half of
f si = f LO + fi f LO = f s + f i f si = fs + 2fi maximum in the direction of maximum radiation.
Antenna efficiency- It represents the fraction of
FLO → Local oscillator frequency total energy supply to the antenna which is
Fs → Signal frequency , Fsi → Image frequency converted into electromagnetic waves.
f f
Rejection- α = 1 + Q 2ρ2 , ρ = si − s Rr
fs fsi η=
R r + Rd
They incoming signal frequencies are converted into
a fixed frequency called the intermediate frequency Rr = radiation resistance, Rd = loss resistance
(IF) by the mixture. Rr = 36.5Ω (for quarter wave monopole)
The IF of 455kHz is used in commercial radio Rr = 292Ω (for folded dipole)
receivers. Half wave dipole antenna- The fundamental radio
The IF is demodulated to recover the message antenna of metal rod or thin wire which has
signal.

physical length of half wavelength in free space at It is a broadband antenna
the frequency of operation. It is a low gain omni-directional antenna.
A λ / 2 antenna is also known as hertz antenna. It is used to VHF and UHF in transmission and
• Electric field distribution - reception.
It is used to airports.
π  •
cos  cos θ  Helical Antenna- It is widely used for space and
|E0| =
60 I m  2  satellite communication because of its high
r sin θ directivity and circular polarization.
• Magnetic field distribution- • Duplexer- A duplexer is an electronic device that
π  allows bi-directional (duplex) communication over a
cos  cos θ  single path in Radar and radio communication
| Hφ | =
Im  2  system it Isolates the receiver from the transmitter
2πr sin θ while permitting them to share a common antenna.
• Radiated power, Pmax = E θ × H φ • Full-duplex- Full-duplex data transmission means
that data can be transmitted in both directions on a
Prad = I 2rms × 73
signal carrier at the same time.
2
 dℓ 
• Power Radiated Pr = Irms 2
× 80π2  
λ
• Higher the radiation resistance higher the ability of • Half duplex- In a half-duplex or semi duplex
antenna to radiated power system, both parties can communicate with each
• Directivity of half wave dipole is 1.63 other, but not simultaneously; the communication is
• Directivity of Hertzian dipole is 1.5 one direction at a time. An example of a half-duplex
• Antenna array- An antenna array is the system of device is a walkie-talkie, a two-way radio that has a
similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater push-to-talk button.
directivity in a desired direction
sin N ( ψ / 2 )
• Array factor = N - Number of antenna
sin ( ψ / 2 )
• Broad side array- Broad side array is an array Advanced communication
which gives a radiation pattern whose main beam is Network topology
perpendicular to the axis of the array. • Bus Topology- Bus topology is used when a
A number of dipoles of equal size are used network installation is small.
The elements are spaced equally • Ring Topology- Each computer is connected the
All the dipoles are fed in the same phase next computer, with the last one connected to the
The null-to-null beamwidth of broadside array first.
• end fire array- If maximum radiation occurs at • Star Topology- All computers are connected to a
θ=0 or π then this is called end fire array for central location where they are all connected by a
maximum radiation. device called a hub.
A number of dipoles or elements of equal size are • Mesh Topology- There is a dedicated point to point
used link from one device to another.
The element are equally spaced • Bridge- A bridge is a device that allows you to
The elements are fed with different phases. segment a large network into two smaller, more
Null- to-Null to beam width of an end-fire array. efficient network. A bridge can pass packets of
• Yagi-Uda Antenna- It is a directional antenna information to the correct location.
consisting of two or more parallel resonant antenna • Routers- Router can be used to connect networks
elements in an end-fire array; these elements are that may not be similar. Routers provide
most often metal rods cutting as half wave dipoles. connectivity between two LANs or two WANs over
Directivity can be increases by adding more large geographical distance.
directors. OSI model
Used in VHF range, point to point and fixed • Open system Interconnection Reference model
frequency communication network due to high developed in 1984 by the international standards
directivity. organization (ISO).
• Rhombic Antenna- It is made of four sections of • It is a way of sub-dividing a communications
wire suspended parallel to the ground in a diamond system into smaller parts called layers.
or "rhombus shape". Layer Protocols Types
Non-resonant high directional broad band antenna. Application DNS, FTP, HTTP, NFS,
Used in HF transmission and reception and point to SMTP, Telnet, Netconf
point communication. Presentation MIME, XDR, TLS, SSL Host Layers
• Discone Antenna Session Named pipes, NetBIOS,

SAP, SIP Single mode step index fibre (diameter 5µm to
Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP, DCCP 10µm)
Network IPv4, IPv6, IPX, IPsec, Multi-mode step-index fibre (diameter 50µm)
Apple Talk
Data link ATM, IEEE 802.3,
Multi-mode graded-index fibre (between 50 to 100µm)
PPP,X.25, SLIP Media Layers Co-axial wire lines or co-axial cables-
Physical IEEE (802.11, 802.15, 138 D
Characteristics impedance Z0 = log Ω
802.16, 1394), USB, K d
Bluetooth
Physical layer- bit by bit delivery.
Application layer-email service.
Network layer- routing, source to destination
service.
• IP Address- Use for global unique identification
• IPV4 Address- 32 bit address, four 8-bit field, each • General model of an optical communication system
8-bit field represents a bytes of the IPv4, end to end is as
connectivity.
• IPV6 – 128-bit address, eight 16-bit field.
Class Range Address Range N/H
A 0-127 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 8/24 Refractive Index (η)- Refractive Index is defined as
B 128-191 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 16/16
ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of
C 192-223 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254 24/8
D 224-239 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 ---- light in a medium for which we are calculating
E 240-255 240.0.0.0 to 254. 255 .255 .254 ---- refractive index,
Protocol η=
C
( η > 1)
• Transmission control protocol- V
It is reliable, port to port, byte/stream transport layer Total Internal Reflection-
protocol. By Snell's law
It supports full duplex, connection oriented.
It is slow start protocol. n l sin φ1 = n 2 sin φ2
• File Transfer protocol (FTP)- The file transfer n
φ1 = sin −1 2
protocol is a standard communication protocol used n1
for the transfer of computer files from a server to a
client on a computer network. • Numerical Aperture (N.A)- It is a measure of light
collecting ability of fibre. If establishes the
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)-
The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data relationship between acceptance angle and refractive
in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and indices of different medium involved.
so on. N.A = n 0 sin θa = (n12 − n 22 )1/ 2
HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of
MIME-like format. • Relative Refractive Index difference (∆)
• Simple mail Transfer protocol (SMTP) n12 − n 22 n
SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that ∆ = ∆ ≃ 1 − 2 N.A = n1 (2∆ )1/ 2
2n12 n1
allow software to transmit an electronic mail over
the internet is called simple mail Transfer protocol. • Losses in optical fiber
It is a program used for sending messages to other Absorption losses (Intrinsic or extrinsic)
computer users based on e-mail addresses. Linear Scattering losses (Rayleigh, Mie)
Optical communication Non linear scattering losses
• Parallel Wire Lines- Fiber bend losses
• Optical sources
276 2S LASER - Monochromatic and coherent light.
Z0 = log Ω LED - Monochromatic and non coherent light.
K d
• Propagation of waves
Frequency ranges of wave propagations are-
Ground wave- < 2MHz
K = Insulating medium of dielectric constant Sky wave/Ionospheric wave- 2MHz<f <30MHz
d = diameter of each wire space wave propagation/ LOS - > 30MHz
• Fibre Optics - Optical communication is a mode of Noise Figure and Noise Temperature
communication by which we can transfer the Noise figure is frequently used to specify the noise
information from one place of another through
(S / N)in
optical carrier waves generated within a device. N.F. =
• Types of optical Fibres- (S/ N)out

Noise figure in
terms of equivalent noise It is a mode of communication of signal between
T transmitter and receiver through satellite.
temperature N.F. = 1 + ON Perigee-Minimum distance between satellite and earth.
T
• Friis Formula as- Apogee-Maximum distance between satellite and
earth.
( F2 − 1) (F3 − 1) (F4 − 1) (Fn − 1)
F = F1 + + + + .....
G1 G1G 2 G1G 2 G3 G1G 2 G 3 .....G n −1
• Ground wave propagation
Wave propagates along the surface of earth.
Waves are vertically polarized.
Ground waves are also called surface waves.
Used up to medium frequency range.
AM is an example of ground wave propagation.
• Sky Wave Propagation 2πr 3 / 2
Electromagnetic wave propagates due to the reflection Time period of satellite orbit- T =
µ1/ 2
mechanism of ionosphere layer of atmosphere.
It is also known as ionospheric wave propagation. • Geostationary or Geosynchronous Satellites
Propagation lies between 3MHz to 30 MHz. Orbital period is same as the earth’s rotation period.
Geosynchronous satellites will be at fixed position
Critical frequency (Fc) = 9 N max
with respect to a point on earth at the same time
Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less. every day but not all the time.
• Critical Frequency- Highest frequency that will be
µ1/ 2 2π
returned down to earth by that layer after being Average angle velocity η = =
beamed straight up as it. a 3/ 2 T
Critical frequency range for F2 layer is from 5MHz Microwave
to 12MHz. Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation
• Maximum usable Frequency- with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to
Critical frequency one millimeter corresponding to frequency between
MUF = = f c sec θ
cos θ 300MHz and 300GHz respectively.
Normal values of MUF may range from of 8 to 1+ | ρ | VSWR − 1
35MHz VSWR, S = , ρ=
1− | ρ | VSWR + 1
• Skip Distance ρ → 0 to 1, S → 1 to ∞
Transmission path is limited by the skip distance at
one end and the curvature of earth at other end. d
Minimum distance on the surface on the earth from Electron transit time τ = 0.051
E
where the signal is transmitted and the reflected
signal from the ionosphere has been received. • Klystrons- A vacuum tube that can be used either as
2
a generator or ampere of power at microwave
f MUF frequencies.
Dskip = 2n −1
fc Input Cavity- Buncher, Output Cavity- Catcher
It supports large distance propagation. • Reflex Klystron- Single cavity variable frequency
It requires large size antennas. “generator of low powers and low efficiency”.
Variation in signal transmission in day and night. Used in Radar receivers.
• Space wave propagation As local oscillator in microwave receiver.
Space wave travels (more or less) in straight lines. Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier.
Space wave are limited in their propagation by the • Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)
curvature of the earth. It plays an important role in broadband amplifiers.
Space wave propagation used upto the HF range. Low noise RF amplifier.
• Radio Horizon Repeater amplifier.
The radio horizon for space waves is about four third Power output tube in satellite.
as for as optical horizon. Magnetron
The radio horizon of an antenna is given by It is known as cross field tubes or M-type tube .
d t = 4.12 h t km Used in pulse Radar.
Voltage tunable magnetrons are used for telemetry
d = d t + d r ; d = 4.12  h t + h r  km and missile applications.
• Line of sight (LOS) Propagation Fixed frequency, CW magnetrons are used for
PG ×A industrial heating and microwave oven.
Received power is given by- Pr = t t 2 o • Gunn Diode- Gunn diodes are used to build
4πd
oscillators for generating microwaves with
Satellite communication
frequencies ranging from 10GHz to THz. It is TE11 → Circular waveguide
negative differential Resistance device also called as • Cut-off wavelength of TE10 mode is maximum. So
transferred electron device oscillator. TE10 mode for rectangular wave guide is called
These Gunn oscillators are used for radio dominant mode.
communications military and commercial radar Hz = E z = 0 (TEM mode)
sources. Hz = 0, Ez ≠ 0 (TM mode)
• Avalanche Diode or IMPATT Diode- Impact Hz ≠ 0, Ez = 0 (TE mode)
Ionization Avalanche Transit-Time- • Parameters
Working principle- Avalanche multiplication Cut-off frequency,
Operating frequency range= 3GHz to 100GHz 2 2
c  mπ   nπ 
Output power- 1W(for CW) and 400W (for pulsed) ( fc ) =   + 
Efficiency- 3% (for CW) and 60% (for pulsed) 2π µ r ε r  a   b 
under 1GHz 2
f 
Group velocity ( Vg ) =
c
Noise figure = 30 dB 1−  c 
More powerful as compare to Gunn diode µ r εr f 
• Waveguide - A waveguide is a structure that guide 2
f 
Phase velocity ( Vp ) =
c
waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound, 1−  c 
with minimal loss of energy by restricting the µr εr f 
transmission of energy to one direction. 1 1 1
Cross-sectional area- circular waveguide>> Relation between λ, λg and λc = 2+ 2
rectangular waveguide λ 2
λc λg
Used at higher frequencies greater than 3 GHz.
The frequency used here is UHF and microwave Relation between Vg. Vp and c Vg × Vp = c2
regions.
2Vg = 3Vp
Band Frequency Range
L 1-2 GHz In circular wave guide TE11 mode is called dominant
S 2-4 GHz mode. So cut-off wavelength of TE11 mode is
C 4-8 GHz maximum.
X 8-12 GHz • Telegraphy- Telegraphy is the long distance
Ku 12-18 GHz transmission of message where the centre uses
K 18-27 GHz symbolic codes, know to the recipient, rather than a
Ka 27-40 GHz physical exchange of an object bearing the message.
TEM wave cannot exists in waveguide (only TE and • Codes used in telegraphy
TM exists). i. Morse code ii. Cable code iii. 5 Unit code
Dominant mode- iv.Teleprinter code or 7.5 unit code
TE10 → Rectangular waveguide
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
1. Number systems and codes For n bit, Total number of representation = 2n
There are three types of code-
Advantages of Digital Techniques
Non-Binary Represented in series of dots &
Size and cost is less.
Codes dashes Eg. MORSE Codes
Accuracy and precision are greater.
Binary Codes BCD, Excess-3, Gray Code, 8421
Information storage is easy. code, Error detecting & correcting
Weighted number system code
It is a positional weighted system. Alphanumeric ASCII-Code (07 bits + 01 parity bit)
Ex Binary, octal, hexadecimal, BCD, 8421 etc. Codes EBCDIC-Code (08 bits)
Unweighted number system Binary Coded Decimal Code (BCD)
It is non-positional weighted system Weighted Code
Ex. Gray code, Excess-3 code etc. Each individual bit of decimal no. is directly
Codes represented by its binary equivalent in the group of
Special grouped representation of numbers, letters or 04- bits.
symbols. (BCD+0011) = Excess-3 code

Excess-3 Code 2. Boolean Algebra
Unweighted Code. Law of
This code is derived from BCD Code by adding “3” Complementation
• 0 =1 • 1 = 0 • A = A
to individual bits of Coded number. • If A = 0, then A =1
It is a “Self Complementing” Code. • If A = 1, then A=0
Gray Code AND Law • A.0 = 0 • A.1 = A
Unweighted Code Reflected Code/ cyclic code • A.A = A • A.A = 0
Minimum changing code, because there is single bit OR Law • A+A = A • A+0 = A
change in consecutive step change.
• A+1 = 1 • A + A =1
Binary to Gray Code Conversion Commutative • A+B = B+A • A.B = B.A
Law
Associative Law • A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
• A.(B.C) = (A.B)C = ABC
Gray to Binary Conversion
Distributive Law • A(B+C) = AB + AC
• A+(B.C) = (A+B).(A+C)
• (A+B)(C+D) =AC+AD+BC+BD
• A + (A.B) = A + B
Transposition • (A+B).(A+C) = A + BC
Complement Representation Theorem
[ODD number]’s complement = subtract the given Consensus or • AB + AC + BC = AB + AC
number from the maximum value of that base Redundancy
number. Theorem
[ODD number +1 = EVEN Number]’s complement Idempotence • ORing-A+A+A + ........ = A
= (ODD number)’s complement +1. Law • ANDing- A.A.A ....... = A
Data Representation Demorgan’s • A.B = A + B • A + B = A.B
Number Range Theorem
Duality Theorem
Unsigned 0 to 2n-1
magnitude AND ↔ OR
Signed
magnitude
( − 1) to + ( 2 − 1)
− 2 n −1 n −1
Complementary
• Taking all literals as it is.
1’s – ( 2 –1) to + ( 2 –1)

n–1 n–1 Theorem
• Complement literals individually
complement
2’s – ( 2 ) to + ( 2 –1)
n–1 n –1
complement
3. Logic Gates
Basic Gates
Gate Symbol Diode circuit Transistor Truth table Switch table
NOT
AND

OR
Universal Gate
NAND
Gate
NOR
Gate
FET as a Switch
Gate Diagram Truth Table
JFET as
NOT Gate
MOSFET as
NOT Gate
Special Purpose Gates EX-

Gate Symbol Truth Table NOR
EX-
OR
Logic gates No. of NAND Gate No. of NOR

required Gate required
NOT 1 1 Remember point
AND 2 3
OR 3 2 Maximum possible minterm or maxterm = 2n
n –1
EX-OR 4 5 Maximum possible self dual function = 22

EX-NOR 5 4 AND-OR logic = NAND-NAND logic (Used in
Remember point SOP).
OR-AND Logic = NOR-NOR logic (Used in POS).
EX-OR gate acts as odd number of “1’s detector”. Karnaugh Map (K - Map]
EX-OR gate is a odd parity generator and detector. A systematic & simple way of minimization of
EX-OR gate is known as stair case switch. Boolean algebra.
EX-NOR gate acts as even number of “1’s detector”. “Gray Code” is used in K-map.
EX-NOR gate is a even parity generator. Number of cells = 2n, n = Number of variables.
A⊕A⊕A⊕ ………n times = 0, (if n = even) Don’t Care - Considered when this is helping in
= A, (if n = odd) minimization of Boolean algebra.
A⊙A⊙A⊙ …………n times = 1, (if n = even) Implicants = Number of minterms/maxterms
= A, (if n = odd) Prime implicants = Number of pairs
Essential Prime Implicants= Number of prime
A⊕B= A⊕B= A⊙B A⊕B= A⊙B
implicants without redundant terms
A⊙B= A⊙B= A⊕B
AND gate = Bubbled NOR gate
4. Digital Logic Circuits
OR gate = Bubbled NAND gate Combinational Circuit Sequential Circuit
NAND gate = Bubbled OR gate Present output depends only Present output
NOR gate = Bubbled AND gate on present input. depends on both
present input as well
Representation of Boolean functions
n
as past output.
Maximum logical expression or truth table = 2 2 Memory less system. Memory system.
Canonical form : Each term of Boolean expression Faster Slower
consist of each Boolean algebra either Easy to design Harder to Design.
complemented or non-complemented. No feedback present Feedback present
Sum of Product (SOP) : Each product term is No clock pulse required Clock pulse required
known as minterm. SOP form (Σm) is used when Arithmetic operation and Data storing system.
output is logic 1. Ex.- ( ABC ) + ( ABC ) + ( ABC ) Boolean operation
Ex.- Adder, Subtractor, Ex.- Flip-flop, Latch,
Product of Sum (POS) : Each product term is
Decoder, Encoder, Comparator Counter, Register etc.
known as maxterm. POS form (ΠM) is used when Multiplexer, Demultiplexer etc.
output is logic ‘0’.
Ex.- ( A + B + C ) .( A + B + C ) . ( A + B + C )
Combinational Circuits
Circuit Diagram Formula Implement by
Half Adder S = AB + AB = A ⊕ B • 5- NAND gates
C = A.B • 5- NOR gates
• 3 (2 : 1) MUX
Full Adder S=A⊕B⊕C • 2 H.A+ 1 OR gate

= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC • 9 NAND gate
Co = AB + BC + CA • 9 NOR gate
• 7 (2 : 1) MUX

Half D = AB + AB = A ⊕ B • 5 NAND gates
subtractor
Bo = AB • 5 NOR gates
• 2 (2 : 1) MUX
Full D = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC • 2 H.S + 1 OR gates

subtractor Bo = AB + AC + BC • 9 NAND gates
• 9 NOR gates
• 7 (2 : 1) MUX
In parallel adder for two n-bits numbers requires-

• n Full Adder • (n–1) FA + 1 HA • (2n–1) HA + (n–1) OR Gate
Circuit Diagram Specification
MUX Named as-
Data Selector circuit Many to One circuit
Universal logic converter Parallel to serial converter
Wave form generator Data Routing
m = 2n
where, m = output line, 2n = input line
D-MUX Named as -
Data Distributor circuit One to many circuit
Serial to Parallel Converter
Single Input to multiple output
2m = n
Where, 2m = output line, n = input line
Decoder A decoder have many Inputs and many outputs
Decoders are used to convert a particular code-
• Binary to octal (3×8 lines decoders)
• Binary to Hexadecimal (4×16 line decoders)
• BCD to decimal (4×10 line decoders)
• BCD to 7-Segment display.
• The total number of output line m ≤ 2n
Encoder Inversion of Decoder circuit is known as Encoder.
Encoder is used to convert other codes to binary
such as -
• Octal to Binary encoder (8×3 lines)
• Decimal to BCD encoder (10×4 lines)
• Hexadecimal to Binary encoder (16×4 lines)
5. Sequential Circuits Triggering Triggering is used to initiate the
Latch Flip-flop operation of latches or flip-flops.
Latches use level Flip-flops use edge Level trigger
triggering triggering.
No clock pulse Clock pulse Edge trigger
Build from gates Build from latch Clock In Flip-flop
The output changes as per The output changes as Setup Time : The time period required to hold the
the input till enable is per the input only at incoming data before the arrival of clock pulse.
high. triggering point. This is of the order of 50ns.
Hold Time : The time period required to hold the
Buffer 1 bit memory element. incoming signal information after the arrival of
• 2 Stable states clock pulse.
• Bi-stable Multi-vibrator This is in order of 10-20 ns.
Output can not predict Output can predict (0/1) Setup Time > Hold Time.

Flip- Logic Diagram Graphical Characteristics Truth Table
Flop Diagram Equation
SR Q n+1 = S + R Q n
JK Q n +1 = JQ n + KQ n
D Flip- Qn+1 = D
flop
T flip- Q n +1 = TQ n + TQ n
flop
= T ⊕ Qn
Conversion of Flip-flop Shift Register

Data can be shifted by single bit.
Four types of shift Registers
Register Presentation Clock pulse
Input Output
SISO n (n–1)
SIPO n 0
PISO 1 (n–1)
PIPO 1 0
Applications of Flip-flops
Serial and Parallel data storage, Data Transfer,
Serial to Parallel Converter, Parallel to serial converter
Latch, Counter, Frequency division, memory
Remember point Time delay for SISO shift register-
1
Race-around condition occurs in JK-FF to store 1- ∆t = N × T = N ×
bit of Information. [J = K = 1], tpd (ff) << tpw. fc
Race-around Condition always arises in N = Number of FFs. fc = Clock frequency
“Asynchronous circuits.” T = Time period of Clock pulse
To Avoid Race Around - All shift Registers made of JK-FFs.
tpw < tpd (FF) < T Edge triggering In storage registers mostly D flip-flops are used.
Master-Slave FF
7. Counters
6. Registers Counter is formed by the cascading of FFs.
Register is a memory device, which is used for data Counter are basically used for –
storage & movement. Counting of the number of clock pulses.
Register is group of flip-flop & gates. Frequency division Timers In RADAR
For n-bit data, the n-flip-flops are required.
Frequency Measurement Wave form generation BCD/Mod-10 10 6, fi
In each count the binary data is known as “State of counter (2n – M) fo =
10
counter.” Ring counter n 2n – n f
Number of states counted by a counter is known as fo = i
‘modules of counter’. n
If M = Modules = Mod = Total Number of states Johnson Ring 2n 2n – 2n fi
Twisted counter fo =
n = Number of bits or flip-flop, M ≤ 2 n 2n
M = 2n ⇒ Binary Counter or ripple counter Trick to Indentify Counter
M < 2n ⇒ Non-Binary Counter or BCD counter Triggering Output Multiplication Counter
Counters are classified in two categories. +Ve Qo = +Ve +Ve Down
i. Asynchronous Counter [Ripple Counter/Series –Ve Qo = +Ve –Ve UP
Counter] Remember point
ii. Synchronous Counter [Parallel Counter]
Synchronous counter Asynchronous counter The Ring counter and Johnson counter are not use
Same clock pulse is Clock Signal is applied for counting purpose.
applied to individual flip- only the first flip-flop. Johnson Counter also known as-
flop. • Twisted Ring counter • Mobies Counter
Any sequence can be Fixed sequence [Upper or
generate. Down] • Switch tail Ring Counter • Creeping counter
Faster Slower • Walking counter
No Decoding Error Due to propagation Delay In ring counter the phase shift between the generated
Decoding error exist. 360º
Design is complex, as Design easy, even more wave form is , where ‘n’ is the number of bits.
n
number of bits increases. number of bits. “Lock out” problem occurs in non-binary counter.
Ex. Ring Counter, Ex. Ripple Up or Ripple JK, SR, D and T are called synchronous Input.
Johnson Counter Down Counter. Reset and Set are called Asynchronous Input.
fi “Preset” always make the output to ‘1’.
Output Frequency of Counter, f o =
M “Clear” always make the output to ‘0’.
fo = O/p Frequency, fi = I/p Frequency “Glitch” is an unwanted spike in the signal.
M = Modulas of Counter = 2n MOD-16 counter could also be called a “divide-by-
Output Frequency of two Cascaded Counters 16 counter”.
Overall Mod of Counters = M.N 8. Logic Family
f Classification of Digital Logic Family
Overall Output frequency = f o = i
MN
For n-bits counter if delay for each Flip-flop is tpd
then total clock period –
1 1
TCLK ≥ n.t pd( ff ) , FCLK ≤ f max =
n.t pd( ff ) n.t pd( ff )
Types of Asynchronous Counter
i. Ripple Up Counter ii. Ripple Down Counter
iii. BCD Counter (Non-Binary) iv. Up counter
v. Down counter
Types of Synchronous Counter
i. Ring Counter / End Carry Counter
ii. Twisted Ring Counter / Johnson Counter • Characteristics of Logic families
iii. Synchronous-series carry counter, Propagation Time Delay (Tpd)
1
f CLK ≤ t +t
t pd (FF) + ( n – 2 ) t pd ( ANDGate ) t pd = PHL PLH ns
2
iv. Synchronous-parallel carry counter, t PLH > t PHL (in BJT) due to reverse recovery time.
1
f CLK ≤ t PLH < t PHL (in FET) due to large capacitance
t pd(FF) + t pd ( AND Gate )
formed.
It is the ‘fastest counter”. Power Dissipation (PD)
Counter Number Unused Output PD(avg) = ICC × VCC mW
of states, state frequency
M fo

ICCH + ICCL IC 7408 Quad-2 I/p AND Gates
ICC( avg ) = , IC 7410 Triple 3- I/P NAND Gates
2
ICCH → High Level Collector Current IC 7420 Dual 4-I/P NAND Gates
ICCL → Low Level Collector Current IC 7486 Quad 2- I/P XOR Gates
Figure of Merit (FOM) IC 7476 Master Slave, for Edge Triggered
FOM = t pd ( ns ) × PD(avg ) ( mW ) Pico Joules IC 7490 Decade Counter
IC 7805 Voltage Regulator
Fan Out IC 7505 Switching voltage Regulators.
IOH(min) 78 XX → Series of voltage Regulators.
High State Fan Out =
I IH(min) 74 XX → Logic Family.
IOL(max)
9. DACs AND ADCs
Low State Fan Out = Specification of DAC
I IL(max)
Vref VFS
Comparison of various logic families Resolution = n
=
2 –1 No. of steps
V
Resolution = n r (for BCD input)
10 − 1
Resolution 1
% Resolution = × 100 = n ×100
VFS 2 −1
Analog output voltage = Resolution × Decimal
equivalent of binary data
Full scale output voltage
= resolution × maximum decimal
VFS = n
Vr
2 −1
( )
× 2n − 1 = VFS = Vr
Time period (ns) Types of DAC -

(Slowest switch)MOS > HTL > CMOS > RTL > 1. Weighted Register DAC
DTL > TTL > ECL (Fastest switch) Output Voltage,
R
Power dissipation Vo = n–1f  2n–1 Vn–1 + 2n –2 Vn –2 + .......20 V 
HTL>ECL>TTL>RTL>DTL>MOS>CMOS 2 R
Classification of ICs – Decimal Equivalent of Binary Number-
ICs Equivalent Number of  n–1 
N =  2n–1 Vn–1 + 2n–2 Vn–2 + ........20 V  =  ∑ 2i bi 
to Logic components  i =0 
Gates Rf
Small Scale <12 Up to 99 Proportionality Factor, K = n –1 ⋅ Vref
Integration [SSI] 2 ⋅R
n–1
V
Medium Scale 12-99 100-999 Input Current to OP-Amp, Ii = n–1ref ∑ 2i bi
Integration [MSI] 2 ⋅ R i=0
Large Scale 100-999 1000-9999
Integration [LSI]
V
Maximum Output Current, Imax = n –1ref 2n –1
2 .R
( )
Very Large Scale >1000 Above 10000 Here “OP-Amp” is employed as a “summing
Integration [VLSI] Amplifier”.
Some Important ICs V0 = Resolution × Gain × N
IC’s Known As Remember point
Number
IC 714 Precision operational Amplifier LSB Resistance = (2n–1) × MSB Resistance
OP-Amp circuit Typical Value of Resistance R ranges from 2.5 kΩ -
IC 741
10 kΩ.
IC 555 Timer [Pulse Generator, Oscillator]
IC 810 Audio Driver and Audio Amplifier, 2. R-2R Ladder D/A Converter Two Types
Pre-Amplifier i. Non Inverting OP-Amp Type
IC 7400 Quad 2 I/P NAND Gates Analog Output Voltage,
IC 7402 Quad 2 I/P NOR Gates Vout = Resolution × Gain × N
IC 7404 Hex Inverter (6 NOT Gate), Digital
Inverter, Inverting Buffer
Vref  R f  Number of Comparator = 2 n − 1
Vout = × 1 + × N
2n  R1  Number of Resistors = 2 n
Priority Encoder = 2 n × n
Vref  R f   n –1 i 
 × ∑ 2 bi 
= It is fastest among all type ADC.
1 +
2n  R1   i =0  It is also known as parallel computer type ADC.
3. Successive Approximation Type ADC
Vo  R f  It is also known as SAR Type ADC.
= 1 + 
Vref  R1  Conversion time is independent of input analog
voltage.
ii. Inverting OP-Amp Type 4. Dual Slope Integrating Type ADC
Vout Rf Highest Conversion time [10 to 100 ns]
=− Slowest ADC among all ADCs.
Vref R1 + R
This ADC is used in digital “Voltmeter”.
V   –R f  Comparison of ADCs
Vout =  refn ×R + R × N ADCs Number of Conversion
 2   1  Clocks time
Vref  –R f   n–1 i  Flash Type 1 TCLK
Vout = ×  × ∑ 2 bi 
2n  R1 + R   i=0 
ADC
SAR Type n n.TCLK
V  n–1   1  ADC
Output Current, I = refn  ∑ 2i bi  × 
2  i =0

  R1 + R 
Counter type 2 n −1 (2 )T
n −1
CLK
ADC
2 n +1
Resolution of R-2R Ladder Network is,
Vref
.
Dual Slope
ADC
(2 )T
n +1
CLK
2n
Inverted Ladder (R-2R) type DAC Remember point
Vo –R f Flash type ADC is the fastest but most expensive
=
Vref R among all the ADCs.
The dual slope ADC has highest accuracy.
Vref  n–1 i   –R f  SAR type ADC is used in data acquisition
Vo = ∑ 2 bi  ×  R 
2n  i=0 applications.
The Successive approximation ADC’s are used in
Vref  n–1 i  1
Forward Current, If = ∑ 2 bi  × R
2n  i =0
application such as data loggers and instrumentation
where conversion speed is important.
Settling Time : The time required for output analog Memory :
1
voltage to settle at ± LSB of FSV is known as
2
settling time.
Specifications of ADC
Voltage Range, Vrange = Vmax – Vmin
Vrange
Resolution = n
2 –1
1 Access It is time required to access a memory
%Resolution = n ×100 Time location for reading or writing
2 –1
operation.
Dynamic Range = (6n + 1.8) dB
Average Access time-
Digital output = (Number of steps) Binary.
Types of ADC t avg = ht c + (1 − h ) ( t m + t c )
1. Counter type ADC- h= hit ratio, tc= cache time
Known as ramp type ADC tm = main memory access time.
Conversion time depends on input analog voltage. Random If the access time independent of the
Disadvantages Access position.
Larger Conversion Time
Sequential A memory in which the location can be
Slow Speed Operation
Access accessed in a sequence only in referred
2. Flash Type ADC
memory to as a sequential memory.
Also known as simultaneous type ADC.
Resolution R = Vr/2n = step size Memory A device used to store a single bit (0 or
For n bit Conversion Flash Type ADC- cell 1).
Memory A group of bits in a memory that Difference between RAM and ROM
word represent instruction or data of some type. RAM ROM
Address A number that identifies the location of It is read/write It is read only memory
word in memory. memory.
Read The operation whereby the binary word Random access Read only memory
operation stored in a specific memory location is memory
sensed and then transferred to another used to store the data It stores the instructions
device. It is called 'Fetch operation also.
that has to be currently required during bootstrap
Write The operation whereby a new word in processed by CPU of the computer.
operation placed in to a particular memory
location. It is also referred to as a 'store It is volatile memory. It is non volatile memory.
operation.
Volatile Memory unit whose component lose Static RAM Dynamic RAM
memory stored information with time
Data is store like Flip- Data is stored in MOS
SAM In this SAM the access time depends on
the position of the word at the time of flop Capacitor
request. BJT, MOSFET are used MOSFET is used.
Read/write Any memory that can be read from of Faster than DRAM Slower than SRAM
memory written in to with equal case.
(RWM) Power dissipation is Power dissipation in low
DMA interface is used for transferring more
Direct
Access data directly between an external device Density is low Density is high
memory and memory. Used as cache memory Used as main memory.
(DMA)
No refreshing is Refreshing is required
Cache memory is the fastest memory
required
ROM PROM (Programmable EPROM (Erasable EEPROM (Electrically
(Read only memory) read only memory) programmable read only Erasable programmable read
memory) only memory)
It is a type of non- It can be programmed It can be programmed. To The data can be erased by
volatile memory used by user, once erase data from it, expose it applying an electric field.
in computers and programmed, the data to ultraviolet light. To with no need for ultra light.
other electronic and instruction can not reprogram, erase all previous We can erase only portions of
device Data stored in be changed data. the chip.
ROM court
electronically
modified after the
manufactured of the
memory device.
MICROPROCESSOR AND 8051

MICROCONTROLLER
Microprocessor Word length Memory (PMOS)
capacity Intel 8008 8-bit 16 KB
Intel 4004 4-bit 640 B Intel 8080 8-bit 64 KB

(NMOS)
Intel 8085 8-bit 64 KB
(NMOS)
Intel 8086 16-bit 1 MB
(HMOS)
Intel 8088 8/16-bit 1MB
Intel 80186 16-bit 1 MB
Intel 80286 16-bit 16 GB real, 4 GB
Virtual
Intel 80386 32-bit 4 GB real, 4 GB
Virtual
Intel 80486 32-bit 4 GB real, 64 TB
Virtual
Pentium-II 64-bit 64 GB Real
Z-80 8-bit 64 KB
Z-800 8-bit 500 KB
• Bit : A binary digit '0' or '1'
• Byte : A group of eight bits
• Nibble : A group of four bits
• Word : A group of byte the compute recognizes • Number of Pins direction Inward = 21
Different Language (Summary) • Number of Pins direction Outward = 27
Low level Machine Binary form • Maximum memory that can interface with 8085 =
language language 65536 bytes ( 64K bytes)
Middle level Assembly English words Remember point
language language mnemonics
High level Modern English words It is 8 bit processor
language Computer It is manufactured from NMOS technology
Address bus : it is unidirectional (16 address line)
language
Data bus : it is bidirectional (8 data bus line)
• Assembly language : In computer programming A15 - A8 → Address bus
assembly language is a low level programming AD7 –AD0 → Data bus
language in which there is a strong correspondence Clock frequency is 3 MHz
between the language and architecture's machine It can access up to 64 KB
code instructions. 40 Pins IC package
• Assembler : It is a software that converts assembly 1. Address Bus and Data bus The address bus A15-A8
languages to machine language. Carries the most significant 8-bit of memory address
• Compiler : A program that convert High level and AD7-AD0 Carries the least significant 8-bit address
and data bus.
language program into machine level language
2. Control and status signals
(whole language)
ALE It is an address latch enable signal. It
• Interpreter : It translates high level language goes high during first T state of a
program in object codes statementwise. (Line by machine cycle and enables the lower 8-
Line). bit of the address
8085 Microprocessor : Input When status signal is used to
output differentiate between I/O and memory
/Memory operation when it is high (1), it indicate
(IO/M) I/O operation and when it is low (0) it
show memory operation.
Read This is an Active low read signal which
(RD) : indicates that the selected I/O or memory
device is to be read and data are available
on the data bus.
Write This is an active low write signal which
(
WR ) indicate that the data on the data bus are
to be written in to selected memory or
I/O location.
Ready It senses whether a peripheral is ready to

transfer data or not . if READY is high • Arithmetic instruction
(1) the peripheral is ready. If it is low (0) Instruction Op Operand Byte M- T-state
the microprocessor wait till it goes high. code cycle
It is useful for interfacing low speed ADD: Add ADD R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
device. register to
3. Power supply and clock frequency: accumulator
Vcc +5V Power supply. ADC: Add ADC R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
Vss Ground reference. register to a
X1, X2 A crystal is connected at these two pins. the accumulator
frequency is internally divided by two, with carry
therefore , To operate a system at 3MHz the ACI: Add ACI 8-bit data 2 2 7T
crystal should have frequency of 6 MHz. immediate to
CLK This signal can be used as the system clock accumulator
(OUT) for other device. with carry
4. Interrupt signals : ADI: Add ADI 8-bit data 2 2 7T
Interrupt INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, TRAP immediate to
accumulator
INTR It is an interrupt request signal.
SBB: SBB R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
INTA It is used to acknowledgement and
Subtract
interrupt.
source and
5. Reset signals : borrow from
RESET When the signal on this pin is low (0). the accumulator
IN program counter is set to zero, the buses SUB: SUB R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
are tri-stated and the microprocessor unit is Subtract
reset. register or
RESET This signal indicates that the MPU is being memory from
OUT reset. The signal can be used to reset other accumulator
device. • Logical instruction
6. DMA Request signal Instruction Op Operand Byte M- T-
HOLD Hold is an active high input signal that is code cycle state
used by another controller to request CMP: CMP R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
microprocessor to use address, data and compare with
control signal. accumulator
HLDA It is a signal which indicates that the hold CMA: CMA None 1 1 4T
request has been received after the removal Complement
of a HOLD request, the HLDA goes low. Accumulator
7. Serial I/O Ports : Serial transmission in 8085 is ANA: Logical ANA R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
implemented by the two signals. AND with
• SID and SOD : SID is a data line for serial input Accumulator
where as SOP is a data line for output. ANI : AND ANI 8-bit data 2 2 7T
Some important instruction of 8085 - immediate
• Data transfer instruction with
Instructions Op Operand Bytes M- T- accumulator
code Cycle States ORA: Logical ORA R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
MOV: Move MOV Rd/M, 1 1/2 4T/7T OR with
copy from Rs/M accumulator
Source to ORI: Logical ORI 8-bit data 2 2 7T
destination OR Immediate
MVI: Move MVI R/M 8-bit 2 2/3 7T/10T XRA: XRA R/M 1 1/2 4T/7T
Exclusive OR
immediate 8- Data
with
bit
accumulator
LXI: Load LXI Rp, 16-bit 3 3 10T
register pair Data • Branch control instruction
immediate Instruction Op Operand Bytes M- T-
LDA: Load LDA 16-bit 3 4 13T code cycle state
accumulator Address JMP: Jump JMP 16-bit 3 3 10T
direct unconditionally
STA: Store STA 16-bit 3 4 13T PCHL: Load PCHL None 1 1 6T
accumulator Address program counter
direct with HL
contents
CALL: CALL 16-bit 3 5 18T Address Maskable
Unconditional address TRAP Edge and Vectored Non - 0024H
subroutine call level Maskable
RET: Return RET None 1 3 10T RST 7.5 Edge Vectored Maskable 003CH
from subroutine RST 6.5 Level Vectored Maskable 0034H
unconditionally RST 5.5 Level Vectored Maskable 002CH
• Stack, I/O and Machine control instruction. INTR Level Non Vectored Maskable 0003H
Instruction Op Operand Byte M- T- Remember point
code cycle state
TRAP is highest priority among all the interrupt.
PUSH: Push PUSH Rp 1 3 12T TRAP is also called RST 4.5 interrupt.
register pair Priority order, interrupts are -
onto stack TRAP > RST 7.5 > RST 6.5 > RST 5.5 > INTR
POP: POP off POP Rp 1 3 10T
stack to • Flag Register
register pair It is an 8-bit register having 1-bit.
IN : Input data IN 8-bit port 2 3 10T • Sign (S) • Parity (P)
to address • Zero (Z) • Carry (CY)
accumulator • Auxiliary Carry (AC)
from a port Its bit position are -
with 8-bit D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Address S Z × AC × P × CY
OUT: Output OUT 8-bit port 2 3 10T
data from address •
accumulator Memory size : 2A × D
to a port with A → Address line, D → Data line
8 bit address Size of memory
RIM : Read RIM None 1 1 4T Number of chips required (n) =
Size of Capacity
interrupt mask
SIM : Set SIM None 1 1 4T • 8086 Microprocessor
interrupt Mask
• Addressing Mode :
Addressing Mode Example
Immediate addressing mode MVI R, 8-bit
data
Direct addressing mode STA 16-bit add
Indirect addressing mode MOV B, M
Register addressing mode MOV A, B
Implied addressing mode HLD, NOP
• Register in 8085 In 8085 there are two types of
register according to size.
1 byte register : In 8085 the 8-bit register can store
8-bit data. B,C,D,E,H,L only are 8-bit register & it
can be used by programmer.
2 byte register : In 8085 16-bit register, 16-bit
address of the memory location (BC, DE, HL, SP,
PC) are 16-bit register in 8085 microprocessor.
Stack pointer (SP) (16-bit)
Program counter (PC) (16-bit)
• Software interrupt : Remember point
Interrupt Address Interrupt Address
RST0 0000 H RST 4 0020 H It is a 16-bit processor or 16-data lines.
RST 1 0008 H RST 5 0028 H It has 20 address lines .
RST 2 0010 H RST 6 0030 H In 8086 microprocessor we use H-MOS
RST 3 0018 H RST 7 0038 H technology.
• Hardware Interrupt - Clock frequency is 5MHz.
Interrupt Triggering Vectored/Non- Maskable/ Address It has multiplexed address and bus (AD0-AD15
Vectored Non - and A16 - A19).
It can access up to 1 MB. port serve some function like interrupt
• There are 9 flags in 8086 timer input, control signal, serial
Status flags → S, Z, AC, P, CY, O communication signals RXD and TXD,
Control flags → D, I, T etc.
• Register of 8086 Pins 18 -19 These pins are used for interfacing an
General purpose register : AX, BX, CX, DX external crystal to get the system clock.
Pointer and index register : SP, BP, SI, DI, IP Pin 20 This pin provides the ground to the
Segment register : CS, DS, SS, ES circuit.
• Accumulator (AX) Base Register (BX) Pins 21-28 These pins are known as port 2. It serve
Counter Register (CX) Data Transfer Register (DX) as I/O port. Higher order address bus
Stack Pointer (SP) Base Pointer (BP) signal are also multiplexed
Source Index (SI) Destination Index (DI)
Pin 29 This is PSEN pin which stand for program
Code Segment Register (CS)
store enable. It is used to read a signal
Instruction Pointer (IP)
Data Segment Register (DS) from the external program memory.
Stack Segment Register (SS) Pin 30 This is a ALE Pin which stands for address
Extra segment Register (ES) latch enable. It is used to de-multiplex the
8051 Microcontroller : address data signal of port.
Pin 31 This is a EA pin which stands for
External Access input. It is used to
enable/disable the external memory
interface.
Pins 32-39 These pins are known as port 0, It serve
as I/O Port, lower order address and
data bus signals are multiplexed using
this port.
Pin 40 This pins used to provide power supply
to the circuit.
• In 8051 there are six types of addressing mode.

Addressing Mode Examples
Immediate addressing MOV A, # 0AFH. (Load
mode 0AF into A)
Register addressing mode MOV A, R5 (Copy the
content of R5 into A)
Direct addressing mode MOV R2, 45H (Copy the
Remember point content of 45H in R2)
It is 8 bit microcontroller Register indirect MOV A, @ R0 (Move
It has 128 byte of RAM and 4K byte of on-chip addressing mode content of RAM location
ROM. whose address is held by R0
16 bit bidirectional address bus into A
32 general purpose register each of 8-bit Indexed addressing mode MOVC A, @ A + DPTR
16-bit timer (usually 2, but may have more or less)
40 pins IC package Implied addressing mode RLA
Pins 1-8 These pins are known as port 1. This • Features of 8051, 8052 and 8031
port does not serve any other Feature 8051 8052 8031
instructions. It is internally pulled up, ROM 4K 8K 0K
bidirectional I/O port. RAM (Bytes) 128 256 128
Pin 9 It is a RESET pin, which is used to Timers 2 3 2
reset the microcontroller to its initial
I/P Pins 32 32 32
values.
Serial Port 1 1 1
Pins 10-17 These pins are known as port 3. This
Interrupt 6 8 6 MSM 6411 OKI 4-bit and applications
sources COP 420 National 4-bit
• Some important microcontroller ICs – 87C 552 Philips 8-bit
Intel 8155 The 8155 includes 256 bytes of RD/WR Instrumentation
TMS 7500 Texas 8-bit
memory i.e. RAM, 3 I/O ports and a 16- and simple
Instruments
bit timer.
PIC 16C 6X Microchip 8-bit industrial
Intel 8255 The 8255 is widely used programmable control
parallel I/O device. It can be 6500 Rockwell's 8-bit
programmed to transfer data under • Difference between Microprocessor and
various conditions from I/O to interrupt Microcontroller :
I/O.
Microprocessor Microcontroller
Intel 8251 (Programmable Communication
interface) Intel 8251 is also known as Microprocessors are Microcontrollers are special
universal synchronous/asynchronous designed to be used purpose digital computers
receiver/transmitter. as the CPU of requires few external component
Intel 8253 (Programmable Interval Timer) The general purpose for their working.
programmable counter is used in real computers.
time application of timing and counting Microprocessor Microcontrollers have all these as
such as BCD. contains an ALU, well as timers, I/O ports, RAM
Intel 8257 (Programmable DMA Controller) Intel general purpose and ROM on the chip.
8257 DMA Controller chip is a 40-pin registers, control and
programmable integrated Circuit. The interrupt circuits, in
DMA controller chip 8257 works in two one chip.
modes slave mode and master mode.
Microprocessor Many microcontroller requires no
Intel 8259 (Programmable Interrupt controller) It
require many external component for their
designed for the 8085 and Intel 8086
microprocessor. The 8259 combines components such as, working as all these components
multiple interrupt input source into a RAM, ROM etc for are built onto the microcontroller
signal interrupt output to the host their working. chip.
microprocessor. Microprocessors Microcontrollers have RAM,
Intel 8272 (Floppy Disk Controller) The function of have higher speed, ROM built on same chip. Since
floppy disk controller is to interface a greater data handling the microcontroller are designed
floppy disk system to a microprocessor. capacity and can for use in machine such as a
Intel 8275 (Programmable CRT Controller) an Intel address large control device, they have slower
8275 is a single chip device. Its function amounts of memory. speed and lesser address memory.
is to interface CRT raster scan display RS-232 Interface : Communication defined by RS-
with the microcomputer. 232 is serial data communication. There is a single
Intel 8279 (Programmable Keyboard/display wire, or link, for each direction of data flow, and the
interface) The INTEL 8279 is a bits of the message are sent in sequence once at a
keyboard/Display controller specially time.
developed for interfacing keyboard and The RS-232 specification is intended to provide
display device to Intel 8085,8086 and reliable communication up to a distance of soft, at
8088 microprocessor. rates up to 20,000 band. In RS-232 interface ASCII
• Other microcontroller and its applications - format is often used.
Microcontroller Name of Size Application
company
TMS 1000 Texas 4-bit
Instrument
TLCS 47 Toshiba 4-bit Toys control

PLC, SCADA AND AUTOMATION
PLC-PLC stands for "Programmable Logic d. Input & output module
Controller" A PLC is a computer specially designed
to operate reliably under harsh industrial
environments such as extreme temperatures, wet,
dry, and dusty conditions.
PLC Fundamental PLCs were invented by Dick
Morley in 1964. Since PLC has revolutionized the
industrial and manufacturing sectors. There is a wide
range of PLC functions like timing, counting,
Output Module
calculating, comparing and processing various
analog signals.
Structure of PLC A typical block diagram of PLC
consists of five parts namely.
a. Rack or chassis
b. Power supply Module
c. Central processing Unit (CPU) Input and output device used in PLC
d. Input & output Module Input Device Output Devices
e. Communication Interface Module. Switches and push buttons Valve
Sensing devices Motor Starters
Limit switches Horns and alarms
Proximity sensors Stack lights
Photoelectric sensors Control relays
Condition sensors Pumps
Temperature switches Prints
a. Rack or chassis PLC rack or chassis is a hardware
Level switches Fans
assembly that plugs communicating modules
together (like input, output, CPU, Power supply Pressure switches Solenoids
communication and additional function modules) in e. Communication interface module To transfer
a single frame. information between CPU and Communication
networks intelligent I/O modules are used.
• Some of the manufactures of PLCS
(a) Allen Bradlly
(b) Siemens
(d) Mitsubishi PLC
(e) Hitachi PLC
(f) Delta PLC
(g) Honeywell PLC
• PLC Programming Language
Textual Graphical forms
b. Power Supply Module- This module used to
Language
provide the required power to the whole PLC
Instruction List Ladder Diagrams
system.
c. CPU CPU is the brain of PLC with on octal or Structured text Function Block diagram
hexagonal microprocessor. Sequential Function chart

PLC Scan Cycle Ladder
Gate Ladder Logic

AND
OR
NOT
NAND
Difference Between compact and modular Type
PLC.
Compact Modular NOR
Input capability is fixed It can expand the capacities
and determined by the of input. EX-
manufacture. OR
They are used for small They are used for large
scale uses scale uses. EX-
A compact PLC is a Modular PLC NOT NOR
cheaper than modular cheaper than compact PLC.
PLC and it is used for TIMER IN PLC
performing stand alone
tasks.
Compact PLC are self In Modular PLC Individual
contained units, they blocks are easier to repair
are difficult to repair. since this does not affect the
entire system as a whole.
Low cost Higher cost compared to
compact PLC. TON (Timer on Delay)- Counts time-based
PLC Brands and software intervals when the instructions is true.
Brand Softwares TOFF (Timer off Delay)- Counts time-based
intervals when the instruction is false.
Allen Bradley RS Logix
RTO (Retentive Timer on)-Count-time-based
Siemens Simatic
intervals when the instructions is true and retains the
Omron CX Programmer
accumulated value when the instruction goes false or
Mitsubishi MELSOFT Series
when power cycle occurs.
General Electric Durus Terms represented in the timer block-
Honeywell HRA a. Timer base- means interval that the timer is going
FATEK Win proladder use.
Bosch Bosch Rexrot b. Preset- Means the delay period timer.
Hitachi EH-150 c. Accumulated- Current delay of timer.
ABB AC010 and AC500 d. Timer number- The timer file name.

Operation figure of ON delay timer- Control word (2)- (accumulated value)- The
accumulated word is the value that increment as
timer in timing, the accumulated value will stop
incrementing when its value reaches preset value.
Counter Instruction- Typically counters can count
from 0 to 9999, –32768 to +32767 or 0 to 65535
• Count up counter-
OFF-Delay Timer Operation figure-
Each time rung condition changing from false to

true.
When a counter up is counting, its CU bit high
DN bit high when Accumulate value greater or equal
Control words in PLC timer-
to preset value.
• Count-down counter-
Each time rung condition count when rung condition
true to false.
DN bit high when Accumulated value ≥ preset value
Enable bit (EN)- The enable bit is true (has a status

of 1) whenever the timer instruction is true. When UP/Down Counter (CTUD)-
the timer instruction is false, the enable bit is false Every+Ve edge on CU increment CV by 1
(has a status of 0) Every +Ve edge on CD decrement CV by1
Timer-timing (TT)- The timer-timing bit is true
whenever the accumulated value of timer is
changing, which means the timer is timing. When
the timer is not timing, the accumulated value is not
changing so the timer-timing bit is false.
Done (DN) bit- The done bit changes state R : Reset counter
whenever the accumulated value reaches preset LD : Load CV with the value PV
value. Its state depends on the type of timer being
used.
Control word (1)- (Preset value)- Preset value of
word is the set point of timer is that the value up to
which the timer will time. The preset word has range
of 0 through 32767 and it stored in binary form.
The preset will not store a negative number.
The Reset (RES) Instruction- The RES instruction data and reset to mask data. If you want to change
reset counting Instruction when the RES instruction the mask according to application requirements you
is enabled it resets the following. can use a mask word or file. If the mask is a file, its
Counters- length will be equal to the length of sequencer file
i. Accumulated value ii. Counter Done bit Dest- Address of the output word or file for a SQO
iii. Counter Enabled Bit to which the Instruction data from its sequencer.
Timers- Control- The control parameter is control structure
i. Accumulated value ii. Timer done Bit to do the following. Store the status byte of the
Instruction, length of sequencer file, and the
iii. Timer Timing Bit iv. Timer Enable Bit
instantaneous position in file. The control address
Reset ladder diagram example-
can not be used for any other instruction.
LENGTH- The length is the number of steps of the
sequencer file starting at position 1. The maximum
number of words is 255(in micrologix 1000
Comparison Instruction PLC controllers the max is 104 words.)
EQU= Equal LES= Less than POSITION- The position is the word location or
step the sequencer file from/ to which the instruction
move data.
Other sequencer Instruction-
a. Sequencer Load (SQL)
b. Sequencer Input (SQI)
c. Sequencer compare (SQC)
LEQ= Less than or Equal GRT= Greater than Data handling instruction
Radian to degrees (DEG)-
Degrees to Radians (RAD)-

SEQUENCER INSTRUCTION
SQO- Sequence Instruction (SQO) is an output
Instruction.
Convert to BCD (ToD)
In the above Block we have Six parameters. Convert from BCD to FRD-
File- The file is the address of sequencer file. The
file indicator (#) for the address must be used.
MASK- The mask is a hexadecimal code or the
address of the mask word or file through which the
instruction moves data. Masks bit can be set to pass

Flow Chart
Symbol Name Function
Process Indicates any type of internal operation inside the processor or memory
(Rectangle)
Input/output Used for any input/output (I/O) operation. Indicates that the computer is
to obtain data or output results
(Parallelogram)
Decision Used to ask a question that can answered in a binary format (Yes/No or
True/False)
(Diamond)
Connector Allows the flowchart to be drawn without intersecting lines or without a
reverse flow.
(Circle)
Predefined used to invoke a subroutine or an Interrupt program.
Process
Terminal Indicates the starting or ending of the program process, or interrupt

program
(Oval)
Flow lines Shows direction of flow.
(Arrows)
Remember point SCADA-SCADA (Supervisory Control and data
Time base timer parameters determines the accuracy acquisition) is used by manufactures across
of the timer. numerous industries and applications to remotely
Preset timer parameter determines the duration for monitor and automatic control of industrial
the timing circuit
processes and machines.
Accumulated time timer parameter represents the
value that increment as the timer is timing. SCADA Block Diagram
The visual programming language also called
Ladder logic.
Logic functions of PLC programming are "YES"
"AND", "OR" NOT" and "INHIBITION".
The simplest form of PLC programming, also
known as relay is ladder diagram.
For a 16 bit register largest integer number a PLC
counter function can reach is 65535.
Maximum number of Inputs and outputs that are in a
small PLC 128. • SCADA Consists of five main components,
Structure text programming is a programming outlined below:
language that utilizes statement to determine what to a. Field instrumention
execute. b. Field controllers (RTUs/PLCs)

c. Human-Machine interface systems you need physically and digitally secure
d. Network Connectivity (field Buses, Protocols, etc) places to store it.
e. Database or historian (Cloud or on-premise) Generation of SCADA System
a. Field instrumentation- A field instrument can be a 1. First Generation: Monolithic or Early SCADA
sensor, flowmeter, or anything else that monitors the systems-
process. 2. Second Generation: Distributed SCADA system
b. Field Controllers (RTUs/PLCs) RTUs and PLCs 3. Third Generation: Networked SCADA systems
collect and complete data supplied by field 4. Fourth Generation: internet of things technology,
instrumentation, preparing it for display and analysis SCADA systems.
by the human-machine interface.
c. Human-Machine interface (HMI) HMI devices
Automation
are master units that allow human to supervise the
SCADA data acquistion process.
d. Network Connectivity (field buses, protocols,
etc)- The SCADA system relies on maintaining
integrated network connectivity throughout its
operation.
e. Database or historian- After analyzing and
processing the data gathered by your SCADA
• Automation Comparison-
Automation Consideration Advantages Disadvantages
Fixed/hard • High demand value • Maximum efficiency • Large intial investment
• Long product cycle • Low unit • Inflexibility
• Automated material
handling-fast and
efficient movement of
parts
Programmable • Batch production • Flexibility to deal with • New product requires
• Products with different options changes in product long setup time
• Low unit cost for Large • High unit cost relative to
batches Fixed automation
Flexible/Soft • Low production rates • Flexibility of deal with • Large initial investment
• Varying demand variations • High unit cost relative or
• Short product life cycle. • Customized products. programmable
automation
# Automation in production system-

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTAL AND
APPLICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Use of Software in Electrical Engineering
Software Used
MATLAB (MATrix LABOratory) it helps to perform, design, analysis and optimization. This is
performing and numeric computing platform.
Simulink Simulate, analyze, renewable energy resources, transmission lines,
electrical transients, stand by switching of power supply.
PSPice (Personal Simulation Program Simulation and verification of analog and mixed-signal circuits.
with Integrated circuit Emphasis)
ETAP (Electrical Transient Analyzer Power flow Analysis, Relay coordination protection design, control
program) system design optimal power flow.
Power world Simulator Simulate high voltage power system operation on a time frame ranging
from several days.
Multisim SPICE Simulation, analysis and PCB (Printed cricuit Board) tools to
help quickly interate through designs and improve prototype
performance.
PSCAD (Power System Computer Design, analyze, optimize and Verify power electronic control and
Aided Design) systems.
LAb VIEW (Laboratory virtual develop automated research, Validation, and product test systems. test,
Instruments Engineering workbench) measurement and control with rapid access to hardware and data
insights.
Keil Microvision • Debugging program
• Compiling and Assembling programs
• Creating Hex and Axf file
PSS/E (Power system simulator for Simulate electrical power transmission networks in steady-state
engineering) conditions as well as overtime Scale of a few seconds to tens seconds.
MATLAB
A schematic diagram of MATLAB-

• Vector functions-
Min smallest component
length length of a vector
Sort sort in ascending order
Sum sum of elements
Prod Product of element
Median median value
M ean mean value std standard deviation
M ax largest component :get the row in which the
maximum element dies.
• On-line help-
help lists topics on which help is available
helpwin opens the interactive help window with a
default list
doc Opens the web browser-based help facility
MATLAB WINDOWS- look for lists help topics containing string
i. MATLAB Desktop string
ii. Figure Window demo runs the demo program
iii. Editor Window • General information
Main MATLAB Commands- Computer tells you computer type you using
• Directory Information- Clock gives you wall clock time and date as a vector
Command Function date tells you the data as a string
Pwd shows the current working directory more Control the paged output according to
Cd Changes the current working directory the screen size
dir lists contents of current directory Ver gives the license and the MATLAB
ℓs lists contents of current directory version information
path get or sets MATLAB search path bench Benchmarks your computer on running
editpath modifies MATLAB search path MATLAB compared to other computers.
Copy file Copies a file • Workspace Information
mk dire Creates a directory Who lists variable currently in workspace
• Matrix Functions Whos list variable currently in the workspace
eye identity matrix with size
zer o s Matrix of zeros What list, M-, MAT,-and Mex-files on the disk
Ones Matrix of ones Clear Clears the workspace, all variables removed
Clear xyz Clears only variables x,y,z
diag extract diagonal of a matrix or matrices
Clear all Clears all variable and function from
create diagonal matrices
workspace
Triu Upper triangular part of a matrix ClC Clears Command window, cursor moves
rand randomly generated matrix to the top
size size of a matrix home Scrolls the command window to put the
d et determinant of a square matrix curser on top
inv inverse of a matrix Clf clears figure window.
rank rank of a matrix (3) Termination-
eig eigenvalues and eigen vectors Control+C Local abort, kills the current command
Poly Characteristic polynomial execution
Built in Function of MATLAB quit quits MATLAB
• Scalar Functions- exit Similar to quit
Sin trigonometric sine Control +B Similar to (Control + c)
Cos trigonometric cosine • MATLAB FILES
tan trigonometric tangent Mfiles M-files are standard ASCII text files,
with a m extension to the file name.
a sin trigonometric Inverse sine
Mat files Mat-files are binary data files with a met
a tan trigonometric inverse tangent extension to the file name
exp exponential Fig files Fig-files are binary figure files with a fig
log natural logarithm extension that can be opened in
ab s absolute value MATLAB as figures.
Sqrt squre root P-files P-files are compiled M-files with a.p
re m reminder extension.
round round towards nearest integer Mex-files Mex-files are MATLAB-Callable c,
floor round towards negative infinity Fortran, or Java Programs, with a. mex
ceil round towards positive infinity extension to the filename.

Remember point Editing Commands Shortcut
Four generation of programming language used by Command Shortcut Command Shortcut
MATLAB Software.
Erase E Extend Ex
Numerical, Algebraic, Dynamic system analysis
done by MATLAB Software. Copy C Trim Tr
Script window is called Editor window in older
MATLAB version. Mirror Mi Break Br
MATLAB has huge built-in library of functions Offset O Chamfer Cha
MATLAB provides tool to develop GUI based
applications. Array Ar Fillet F
MATLAB is platform independent. Rotate Ro Explode X
MATLAB fundamental data type is array
In MTLAB more than fifty such toolboxes available. Move M Layer LA
MATLAB was one of the first commercial package Scale Sc Unit UN
of linear algebra.
Stretch S Zoom Z
AutoCAD
MODIFYING TOOLS- Lengthem Len Regen Re
Command Function DRAWING COMMANDS
Offset The offset command in AutoCAD is used
to create parallel lines, concentric circles, Command Shortcut Command Shortcut
new line, Polyline and parallel curves. Line L Spline Spl
Mutliline ml Ellipse El
Polyline pl Text T
Array The array is the command used to
Polygon Pol Dimension Dim
draw multiple copies of an object in a
particular pattern or order. We can also Rectangle Rec Insert I
manage the distance between the
Dount do
objects in the array.
Function
Key Description
Combination
Fillet The fillet command can be used to add F1 Online Help
round corners to the sharp eddges of
the drawing. F3 Object Osnap ON/OFF
F6 Coords ON/OFF
F7 GRID ON/OFF
F8 Ortho ON/OFF
Explode The EXPLODE Command in
AutoCAD comes in handy when you F9 GRID Snap ON/OFF
wish to disassemble a component into F11 Object snap Tracking ON/OFF
its sub-components.
CTRL+A Select all
CTRL+C Copy CLIP
CTRL+G Turn GRID ON/OFF
Scale Alters or Scales the size of existing objects. CRTL+N Create a New drawing
CTRL+O OPEN an existing drawing
CTRL+P PLOT a drawing
Leader Draws a line or series of lines with an
arrow head called leader, to point to an CTRL+S Save a drawing
object notate it.
CTRL+X Cut to clipboard
CTRL+Z UNDO
CTRL+Y Redo
Simulink Model Creation
Step to create a working model with Simulink:
Basic Simulink model a. Collect all the necessary blocks from the Library
Browser.
b. Modify the blocks so that they correspond to the
blocks of the desired model.
c. Connect the desirable blocks with lines to form the
complete system and set the overall Simulator
parameters.
d. Simulate the complete system to verify (check) that
it works.
Remember point
• Graphical block diagramming tool with
customizable set of block libraries.
• Simulink developed by math works, is a data flow
graphical programming language tool for modeling
Block libraries of Simulink simulating and analyzing multi-dynamic systems.
• It allows you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms
Commonly used blocks- into models as well as export the simulation results
into MATLAB for further analysis
• Simulink design verifier allows you to indentify
design errors and to generate test case scenarios for
model checking.
• Capable of systematic verification and validation of
models through modeling style checking, requirements
traceability and model coverage analysis.
• Sources- Used to generate various signals. Source
blocks have output but no inputs.
Example- Constant, a sin wave, a step, a Ramp, a
pulse Generator, or a uniform random number to
simulate noise, or the clock to create time index for
plotting purposes.
• Sinks- Used to output or display signals. Sink block,
have inputs but no outputs.
Example- Scope, To workspace, Floating scope,
XY Graph, ete.
• Discrete- Discrete filter, Discrete zero pole, Discrete
state-space, discrete Transfer Fcn, unit Delay.
• Signal Routing- Switch, Mux, Demux, etc.
• Math Operations- SUM, Abs, Gain, Product, slider
Gain, Sign etc.
• Continuous signal- Integrator, Transfer FCn, State-
space, zero-pole, etc.
In simulink Some other addon products provided
by MATH Works
• State flow allows developing state machine and
flow charts
• Simulink coder- allows the generation of C source
Simulink model six distinct blocks- code for teal time implementation of systems
Block Name Specification Location automatically.
Sin Wave Amplitude = 2v Sources • X PC- Target together with X86-based real time
Frequency= 1rad/s systems provide an environment to simulate and test
Scope Time range = 10s Sinks simulink and state models in real-time on the
Gain Gain=5 Math physical system.
operations • Embedded coder supports specific embedded targets.
Mux Two Inputs Signal Routing • HDL Coder allows to automatically generate
synthesizable VHDL and verilog.
Clock None Sources
• Sim Events- provides a library of graphical building
To workspace Save Format = Array Sinks blocks for modeling style queuing system.
IMED, IMRE AND ENERGY
CONSERVATION
IMED Personal account are the financial records of any
person who can be a debtor or a creditor.
• Function of Management-
Real Accounts are the records which are related to
materials like cash, goods, machines, building etc.
Nominal Accounts are records of expenses, receipts
losses, such as salary, wages, business expenses,
internet commission.
These real and nominal accounts are collectively
called impersonal accounts.
• Economic order Quantity (Q) Various providing assistance to small-scale
Industries
2UP 2U.P. District Industry centers (DICS)
Q= or Q =
C C1 × C 2 Commercial Banks
Where, State Financial corporations (SFCS)
U = Total quantity used per year Small Industries service Institutes (SISIS)
P = Procurement cost for a single order Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
C = Annual Carrying cost per unit item National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
• Profit-volume ratio (P/V) Ratio- The profit volume Development (NABARD)
(P/V) Ratio is the measurement of the rate of change National Small Industries corporation (NSIC)
of profit due to change in sales. National research Development corporation (NRDC)
Sales − Variable cos t Technical consultancy organizations commission,
P / V Ratio = × 100 (TCOC)
Sales
KHADI and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
Profit Science and Technology Entrepreur park (STEP)
• P / V Ratio = ×100
Margin of safety Micro, small and medium Enterprises
Technology-Business Incubators
Marginal contribution
• P / V Ratio = × 100 National Institute for Entrepreneurship and small
Sales Business Development (NIESBUD)
• Break Even Point Hardicon Ltd.
Fixed cost According to the TRIPS, types of intellectual
BreakEvenpoint = ×100 property rights-
selling price-Variable per unit 1. Copyright and Related Right
• Break Even sales volume- 2. Trademark
3. Patent
Fixed cost 4. Industrial Design
B.E.S.P. =
Contribution Per unit 5. Design of Integrated circuits
6. Geographical Indication
7. Protection of undisclosed Information
P.D.C.A. CYCLE
Single Tender is sought from one of the Trusted

suppliers.
Open tender is also known as press tender
Closed tender is also known as limited tender.

EXAMPLES OF Energy Conservation
CURRENT ASSET FIXED ASSETS Boiler efficiency
Cash Property, plant, Equipment • Direct Method-
Accounts receivable Real Estate Investment
Heat output
Inventory Patent, Copyright Boiler efficency = × 100
Short-term investments Load (more than one financial year) Heat input
Prepaid Expenses Biological Assets Q × (h g − h f )
Loan Good will = × 100
Petty cash Investment mode the using q × GCV
equity method Q= Quantity of steam generated per hour in (kg/hr)
Elements of Total Quality management (TQM)- q= quantity of fuel used per hour (kg/hr)
Customer's Satisfaction Do it Right First Time hg =Enthalpy of saturated heat in kcal/kg
Continuous Improvement Employee Involvement hf = Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg
Empowering the Staff Benchmarking • Blow down-
Feed Back. Feed water TDS × % Makeup
Blow down =
• Remember Point- Maximum permissible
LoB is a line of Business. TDS in boiler water
The equation 'Assets=Liabilities Equity is r elated to • Energy Efficiency Ratio-
balance sheet.' The energy efficiency ratio (EER)
Industrial Finance corporation of India (IFCI) is Output cooling energy in BTU
known as first development bank of India. =
input electrical energy in Wh
ISO 9000 standard is embedded in a quality
management system within an organisation. Energy saving tips in refrigerator
Idea stage is first stage of product planning and • Protect your fridge from heat sources
development process. • Tidy up your condenser coils
Commercialization is the last stage of product • Replace the Rubber seal on the Door.
planning and development process. • Cool off your leftovers
In Manifest conflict organizational conflict is open • Keep the door closed
aggression seen. • Take Advantage of in-door water and ICE
Entrepreneur are market risk taker. • Reduce your frost Accumulation switch
An entre preneur who owns more than one business • Initiate the power saving switch
at a time is called A portfolio entrepreneur. • Check the temperature Inside
Technological is said to be an external risk factor for • Organize and Remove Clutter your Refrigerator.
an entrepreneur. Energy units and conversions
The work done at right time is called just in time. 1Watt = 1 Joule/s
The first and foremost function of management is 1kW = 1000W
planning. 1kWh = 3.6×106 J=3.6 million Joules
Innovation can be best defined as The successful 1 Mega-Joule = 278 Wh
exploitation of new ideas. 1 BTU = 252 Cal
IMRE 1BTU = 1055 Joule
Remember Point- 1BTU/h = 0.29071W
• Predictive maintenance is also known as 'Condition 1 kilo caloric/hour = 1.163W
based maintenance' strategy. 1 CHU = 453.5 Cal
1 CHU = 1899 J
• Routine maintenance is also called as cyclical maintenance.
1 CHU = 1.8 BTU
• Reactive maintenance is also known as Breakdown 1 CHU/hr =0.527W
maintenance.
Tons of refrigeration (TR)
• Preventive maintenance also known as planned
Q × CP × (Ti − T0 )
maintenance. TR =
• Replacement of worn out part can done during 3024
breakdown maintenance. Where,
• Special inspection test conducted for overhead line Q = Mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr
after heavy rains, cyclone. CP = Coolant specific heat kcal/kg.ºC
Ti = inlet, temp or coolant to evaporator in ºC
• Breakdown maintenance also known as corrective T0 = outlet, temp of coolant from evaporator in ºC
maintenance.
Energy Conversion values used for working
• Ringing test of insulator for cracking.
out annual Energy consumption in terms of
• The maintenance performance on regular basis to MOE
reduce the likelihood of failure is preventive • 1kWh = 860 k Cal
maintenance. • 1 kg charcoal = 6900 k Cal
• Wet flashover test of Insulator is also known as rain test. • 1kg Furnace oil = 10050 k Cal
• The maintenance performed on equipment that has • 1kg HSD = 11,840 k Cal
broken down and is unusable is breakdown maintenance. • 1 kg Petrol = 11, 200 k Cal
• 1 kg Kerosene = 11, 110 k Cal f. Electric Geysers
• 1 kg LPG = 12,500 k Cal g. Color TV
• 1m3 Natural Gas = 8,00–10,500 k Cal h. Room Air Conditioners (Invert Type)
• 1 kg of oil Equivalent = 10, 000 k Cal i LED lamps
• 1 Metric Tonne of oil Equivalent = 10 ×106 k Cal Products under voluntary Labelling-
Energy saving tips in computer a. Induction Motors
• By Energy Efficient products b. Pump sets
• Use Build in power saving Features c. Ceiling fans
d. LPG stoves
• Turn Down the Brightness e. Washing machine
• Turn off the monitor Instead of using a screen saver f. Computer (Notebook/Laptops)
• Disable Devices that are Not needed g. Ballast (Electronic/Magnetic)
• Turn of the computer h. Office equipments (Printer, Copier, Scanner)
• Share Hardware where Appropriate. i. Diesel Generator
Energy saving in lighting l. Chillers
• Reduce the wattage m. Microwave ovens
• Avoid Multiple Fittings n. Deep Freezers
• Use Multiple switches o Light Commercial Air Conditioners (LCAC)
• Install Dimers Energy conservation in furnaces
• Use Lamps • Complete Combustion with minimum excess air
• Install motion Detectors • Correct heat distribution
• Go Solar • Operating at desired temperature
• Keep Lights clean • Reducing heat losses from furnace opening
• Turn the Light off • Minimum refractory losses
Benchmark parameters • Use of ceramic castings
a. Gross production related- • Make sure the filter is clean
• kWh/kg yarn produced (Textil unit) • Use a programmable Thermostat
• kWh/MT clinker or cement produced (Cement plant) • Curtains are a Great way to save ENERGY
• kWh/MT, k Cal/kg, paper produced (Paper plant) • Use celling fans
kCal/kWh Power produced (Heat rate of a power • Optimum capacity utilization
plant) • Keep a Good Humidity levels
• Million kilo Cals/MT urea or Ammonia (Fertilizer • Decorative Insulation
plant) • Make sure your Garage Door is seeded
• kWh/MT of liquid metal output (in a foundary) BENEFITS OF ENERGY SAVING-
b. Equipment/utility related- • Significantly Reduce your utility Bills
• kW/ton of refrigeration (On Air Condoning Plant) • Earn a Great return on your investment
• kWh/NM3 of Compressed air generated • Increase your property value
• kWH/litre in a diesel Power plant • Enhance your Quality life
• While such benchmarks are referred to, related • Increase your property value
crucial process parameters need mentioning for • Protect the environment
meaningful comparison among peers for instance in • Energy Savings Tips Help you Easily cut costs
the above case- • Earn Incremental Return on ENERGY efficiency
• For a cement plant-type of cement, blaine number • Investments
(fineness) i.e. Portland and process used (Wet/dry) • Insulate yourself from rising Electrics prices.
are to reported alongside kWh/MT.
• For a textile unit average count, type of yarn i.e.
GENERAL ENERGY SAVING TIPS-
polyester /cotton is to be reported along side kWh/ • Automate your house
m2 • use eco-friendly
• For a paper plant-paper type, raw material (recycling • Have your house inspected
extent), GSM quality is some important factor to be • Incorporate renewable energy sources
reported along with kWh/MT, k Cal/kg. • Plan your energy use
• For an Air Conditions plant- Chilled water • Unplug unused appliances
temperature level and refrigeration load (TR) are • Make your own energy-saving devices
crucial for comparison kW/TR • Avoid using electrical appliances if you can
Star Labelled Appliances- ENERGY SAVING TIPS IN BLOWERS
• Mandatory Appliances- • Use low-slip or no-slip belts
a. Frost Refrigerators (Frost-Free) • Check belt tension regularly
b. Tubular Florescent Lamp • Eliminate variable pitch pulley
c. Distribution Transformer • Use variable speed drives for large variable blower
d. Room Air conditioners (Cassette, Floor standing loads.
Tower, Ceiling, Corner AC) • Minimize blower inlet and outlet obstructions.
e. Direct cool Refrigerator • Clean screens and filters regularly
• Use smooth, well-rounded air inlet ducts that could • Get the family Together to watch TV.
lead to reduced electricity bill. • Tape your prime-Time favorites for later viewing.
• Eliminate duct - work leaks • Turn down the volume.
• turn blowers off when they are not needed • Turn Down the screen Lighting.
• Use energy-efficient motors for continuous or near ENERGY SAVING TIPS IN WATER
continuous operation. PUMPS-
ENERGY SAVING TIPS IN WASHING • Operate pumping near best efficiency point.
MACHINES- • Modify pumping to minimize throttling.
• Wash your clothes in cool water as often as possible • Adapt to wide load variation with the variable speed
• Pre-soak stains drive or sequenced control of smaller units.
• Wait for a full load • Repair seals and packing to minimize water waste.
• Run your machine on the shortest cycle • Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce
• Reduce the weekly loads pumping rates.
• Switch off the power at the wall • User booster pumps for small loads requiring higher
• Use Eco or speed perfect pressures.
• Use proper detergent • Select the right pump based on the usage.
• Avoid dryers • Choose the right pump size.
• Use Different washing mode • Implement the right control valves.
• Switch to solar • Make use of variable speed drives.
• By Energy Efficient Machine Energy Audit
Do's and Don’t of boiler operation
Don’t
• Operate a boiler which is not constructed the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(A.S.M.E.) Code.
• Ever leave the boiler unattended for long periods of
time.
• Operate a boiler without on adequate source of Preliminary Energy Audit-The Scope of
combustion air preliminary energy Audit is to-
• Operate a boiler without a valid certificate of a. Estimate the Scope for energy savings
inspection b. Arresting leaks (Steam, Compressed air)
• Permit unqualified personal to operate a boiler c. Controlling excess air by adjusting fan damper.
• Ever by pas the pressure controls, low water cutout, d. Shutting equipment when not needed.
or any other limit switch or control. e. Modifying process of reduce steam demand
• Ever restrict the design function of any safety value, f. Replacement with appropriate lamp and luminaries.
such as by reducing or plugging the outlet, painting, g. Converting from direct to Indirect steam heated
or removing it. equipment and recovery of condensate.
Do- h. Setup a baseline or reference line for energy
• Respect the boiler it can be dangerous. consumption
• Have the vessel inspected internally annually as (i) Identify the most likely and easiest areas for
required by state law attention.
• Test safety controls and devices on a periodic basis (j) Identify the most immediate (especially no/low cost)
(as recommended by CSD1). improvements/savings.
• Ensure boiler operators are adequately trained to Plant Survey or Mini Energy Audits-
assure safe and efficient operation • Targeted energy audits are mostly based upon the
• Allow only authorized ("R" stamp or Proper ASME outcome of the preliminary audit results.
symbol holder) repair firms to make welded repairs. • They provide data and detailed analysis on specified
target projects.
Energy saving tips in Cooking- • As an example, an organization may target its
• Be Smart with your cooking lighting or boiler system or compressed air system
• Be Good to your fridge with a view to bring about savings.
• Smart Washing and Drying • Targeted audits therefore involve detailed surveys of
• Fix Dripping Taps the target subjects/with analysis of the energy flows
• Doing the Dishes and associated with those targets.
• Clean the oven Door Detailed Energy Audit-
• Don't over-fill the kettle Detailed Energy Audit evaluates all systems and
• Buy Energy Efficient Appliances equipment which consume energy and the audit
• Use the microwave comprises a detailed on energy savings and costs.
• Don't Leave Appliances on standby Detailed Energy Audit carried out in 3 phases-
ENERGY SAVING TIPS IN COLOUR • The pre-audit phase
TELEVISION- • The Audit phase
• Watch TV on your Laptop or Desktop Computer. • The post-Audit phase

• Methodology for Conducting Detailed Energy Audit
Step No. Plan of Action Purpose/Results
Phase I-Pre Audit Phase
Step 1 • Plan and Organise • Establish/organize a Energy audit team
• Walk through Audit • Organize Instruments & time frame
• Informal Interview with Energy • Macro data collection (suitable to type of industry)
Manager, Production/Plant Manager • Familiarization with process/plant activities
• First hand observation & Assessment of current level of
operation and practices
Step 2 • Introductory Meeting with all divisional • To built up cooperation
heads and persons concerned with energy • Orientation, awareness creation
management (1-2hrs) • Issue questionnaire tailored for each department
Phase II-Audit Phase
Step 3 • Primary data gathering, process Flow • Historic data collection and analysis for setting up
Diagram and Energy Utility Diagram Baseline energy consumption
• All service utilities system diagram (e.g. single line
power distribution diagram, water, and compressed air and
steam distribution).
• Prepare process flow charts
• Design, operating data and schedule of operation
• Annual Energy Bill and energy consumption pattern
(refer manual, logbook, name plate etc.)
Step 4 • Conduct survey and monitoring • Measurements: Motor survey, Insulation, Lighting
survey etc. with portable instruments for operating data.
Confirm and compare operating data with design data.
Step 5 • Conduct of detailed trials/tests for • Trials/Tests
selected major energy equipment - 24 hours power monitoring (MD, PF, kWH etc.).
- Load variation trends in pumps, fan compressors etc.
- Boiler Efficiency trials for (4-8 hours).
- Furnace Efficiency trials.
- Equipments performance test etc.
Step 6 • Analysis of energy use • Energy and Material balance
• Energy loss/waste analysis
Step 7 • Identification and development of • Conceive, develop and refine Ideas.
Energy Conservation (ENCON) • Review ideas suggested in previous energy audit report
opportunities if any.
• Use brainstorming and value analysis techniques.
• Contact vendors for new/efficient technology
Step 8 • Cost benefit analysis • Assess technical feasibility, economic viability and
prioritization of ENCON options for implementation.
• Select the most promising projects.
• Priorities by low, medium, long term measures.
Step 9 • Reporting and Presentation the Top • Documentation, draft Report Presentation to the top
Management Management.
Phase III-Audit Phase
Step 10 • Implementation and Follow-up Implementation of ENCON recommendation measures
and Monitor the performance.
• Action plan, schedule for implementation.
• Monitoring and periodic review.
Combustion gas CO2, CO, NOx, SOx etc
ENERGY AUDIT INSTRUMENTS-
Analyzer
Energy Audit Measure
Fuel efficiency Monitor Measures oxygen and
Instruments temperature of the flue
Fyrite amount of gas percentage gas
Contact thermometer Flue gas, hot air hot water
Manometer with Pitot Pressures in air ducts
temperatures
Tube carrying exhaust flue
Thermography thermal radiation from hot
gases (boiler furnaces) and cold object.

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Electrical Engineering Capsule

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Youth Competition Times

UPPSC AE UKPSC AE BPSC AE CGPSC AE MPPSC AE RPSC AE UPSSSC

Network Theory ......................................................................................... 3-13

Electrical Engineering Capsule 2 YCT

Electrical Engineering Capsule 3 YCT

εo A Voltage equation Voltage equation

Electrical Engineering Capsule 4 YCT

turns in the coil, 'a' is cross sectional area and ℓ is

b. Inductor without initial condition

Electrical Engineering Capsule 5 YCT

Complete solution Complete solution ∑V = 0, − v1 + v 2 + v3 + v 4 = 0

Voltage controlled voltage

Current controlled current

Note: The internal resistance of practical

• Voltage Division Rule

• Current Division Rule :

Electrical Engineering Capsule 7 YCT

that any linear, bilateral and active RLC network

• Only XL is variable & RL fixed.

Maximum number of possible parameters for analysis of

g12 = – g21 g11 g12  Z1 + Z2 Z2   Y1 + Y2 −Y2 

Electrical Engineering Capsule 9 YCT

I = I2R + I 2L I = I2R + IC2 I = I2R +( IL ~IC )

Electrical Engineering Capsule 10 YCT

• Resonance condition |IL| = |IC| • Resonance Condition X C = X L , |VL|= |VC|

ω < ω0 lag Inductive ω < ω0 lead Capacitive

ω > ω0 lead Capacitive ω > ω0 lag Inductive

Electrical Engineering Capsule 11 YCT

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

J =σE B = µH (B → Mag. Flux density)

J = Electric current density µ = µ0 µr µr = Relative permeability

φ = flux , N = No. of turns in the coil

Three Phase System

i R + i Y + i B = 0 ; I L = IPh VR + VY + VB = 0 • Rank of graph = N–1 Where N= Number of node

• Degree of node = number of incoming branch at any

Electrical Engineering Capsule 12 YCT

Where N= Number of node, B = Number of branch Voltage (V) Current (I)

• Incidence Matrix Voltage Source Current Source

Series path Parallel path

Open circuit Short circuit

Order of reduce incidence matrix = [ R ]( N −1)×B

Electrical Engineering Capsule 13 YCT

dℓ = (dρ) 2 + (ρdφ) 2 + (dz) 2

Electrical Engineering Capsule 14 YCT

Electrical Engineering Capsule 15 YCT

Electrical Engineering Capsule 16 YCT

Electric field due to ρs

Electrical Engineering Capsule 17 YCT

• Inside a Conductor- E = 0, ρV = 0, Vab = 0

Tangential component of electric field in medium

Electrical Engineering Capsule 18 YCT

• Magnetic Dipole Moment M = iA.nˆ ∇ × H = σE + jωεE = Jc + Jd

Electrical Engineering Capsule 19 YCT

Case I- For frequency domain

∫ ( σE J ) dV =Ohmic power dissipation

Electrical Engineering Capsule 20 YCT

Characteristic For matching line (Zin=Z0)

Lossless Open circuit line ( ZL = ∞ ) Γ L = 1, S = ∞

Electrical Engineering Capsule 21 YCT

Electrical Engineering Capsule 22 YCT

Electrical Engineering Capsule 23 YCT

Antiferromagnetism Transition metals Mn, Cr & many Atoms have antiparallel

Ferrimagnetism (Fe3O4-magnetite), (Fe2O3- Atoms have mixed

Magnetization calculations in Important Terms Related to magnetism –