fora Laws, Policies, and Programs for Philippine Women [- e Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: 1. name Philippine laws that protect and empower women; 2. explain the importance of policies that protect and empower women; and 3. state the aims of these policies for women and for the society as a whole. - @ Pre-work for the Chapter Divide yourselves into groups of five members each. Look for news articles or current events that show how women are regarded or treated by powerful people in the country. Discuss with your group what you notice. Do you think these actions empower women?Human Rights Approach The way the world is structured places certain groups at , disadvantage. These groups have particular rights that are specific to their needs, which include sexual and reproductive health care, protection against gender-based violence, and the right to non. discrimination in education and the workplace. The respect for and promotion of these rights are necessary because they help expand women’s access to resources and their roles in communities, for instance. Thus, the human rights approach to women’s development is essential since it can serve as a means to increasing awareness about women: their plight and particular needs. If these human rights-based development initiatives are ratified and accepted by states, they can be an effective instrument for enforcing the promotion and protection of women's rights. It is the reason why most women advance gender equality using the rights-based approach. When organizations expose violations of rights and ask their governments to rectify the situation, they often refer to internationally recognized and guaranteed rights. Laws have been passed responding to these demands for the protections of women’s rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) of 1979, the Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA) of 1994, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of 2000, and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of 2015 are among the many documents advocating gender equality and human development. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is “a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations.” Its underlying premise is to provide all people the same basic human rights, regardless of sex or gender. These rights are fundamental human entitlements of a person, first, because his or her existence a8 a person has intrinsic value, and second, because certain entitlements are necessary for one to realize his or her humanity. Without these rights entitlements on individuals, human growth is almost impossible. Therefore, in the rights-based approach, human rights "34 United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, accessed January 23, 2017. http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights.must be protected and promoted. All humans have the right to life, the right to a nationality, the right to education, the right to a livelihood, etc. These rights ratified by an overwhelming majority of the members of the United Nations are fundamental to the realization of a genuine human existence. They are universal and necessary to all human beings. However, women have particular 137 rights due to their particularities or specificit International Treaties for Women’s Protection International instruments provide a context for gender mainstreaming initiatives in the Philippines and serve as a basis for the assessment of these initiatives.'* Because the Philippines is a signatory to these instruments, it must create programs or laws to operationalize them. The Beijing Platform for Action, the MDGs, and the CEDAW all advocate gender equality in the national and international spheres. These instruments were identified by the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW), the government agency that promotes gender equality and women’s empowerment. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women The CEDAW” (also known as the International Bill of Rights of Women) is “the only human rights treaty which affirms the reproductive rights of women and targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations.”' ‘ Ibid. "® Philippine Commission on Women, International Commitments, accessed January 23, 2017, http://www.pcw.gov.ph/international-commitments. "* United Nations, Text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, accessed January 23, 2017, http://www.un.org/ womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm. ‘© Philippine Commission on Women. Women's Empowerment, Development, and Gender Equality Plan, 2013-2016 (Manila: Philippine Commission on Women, 2013). Accessed January 22, 2016, http://library ,pew.gov.ph/sites/default/files/WEDGE_ Plan_2013-2016_O.paf. 1031975-1985 The United Nations Decade of Women. This period gave attention to women’s issues in the global perspective. While the initial focus of : 6 this decade was on domestic violence, other various forms of violence against women were later added such as domestic violence, trafficking and sexual exploitation, and women in detention and in armed conflict General Assembly Resolution on Domestic Violence was adopted. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) was adopted. CRC is concerned with the protection of the dignity of children. It contains specific notes against abuse and violence, including domestic abuse and child trafficking. The CEDAW was adopted. eer Conference on Population and Development was Upon recognition of the relationships between violence against women and reproducti i casen ee Nore ie health and rights, from the health = female genital mutilation, IDS as a result of violence. governments to take legal a jolence and harmful practices such to women’s increased risk of HIV and Its Program of Action called upon women and girls. nd policy measures against violenceNovember 25th was designated the United Nations International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women (which also marked the United Nations formally joining the “16 Days of Activism against Gender Violence” proclaimed and commemorated by the international women’s movement since 1991). The Beijing Platform for Action identified specific areas of action for governments to take in the prevention and response to violence against women and girls. The issue of violence against women is featured as a chapter, and is one of the 12 areas for priority 3 action with an expansive definition of forms of Violence, Source: Philippine Commission on Women, Inter: % n Women, hitp://www.pew.gov.ph/interational-commitments (accessed Jon The United Nations Secretary- General launched an unprecedented global campaign UNITE to End Violence Against Women calling on governments, civil society, women’s organizations, young people, the private sector, the media, and the entire UN system to (1) adopt and enforce national laws that address and punish all forms of violence against women and girls; (2) adopt and implement multi-sectoral national action plans; (3) strengthen data collection on the prevalence of violence against women and girls; (4) increase public awareness and social mobilization; and (5) address sexual violence in conflict by 2015. Member-states adopted the agreed conclusions during the 57th Commission on the Status of Women on the prevention and elimination of all forms of violence against women. hilippine Commission tional Commitments, PI ae wary 23, 2017)-t= = Created by the United Nations’ C Y -ommittee on the Elimination of s to identify the differen, TeastemSnata ainst Women, it see! ination Against ae, a a h =r may experience discrimination, and suggests © wo a Pp laces where this problem. The CEDAW defines policy strategies to overcome thls oe af Tac ty discrimination as “any distinction, exclusic + F 1S a S : : 7 he basis of sex which has the effect or purpose OF impairing on the 7 iti j ercise wom or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment, oF ¢x i : en, i ity of men irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equali vo * and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, : vial economic, social, cultural, civil, or any other field. EDAW must commit itself Any state or country that adopts the C Specifically, a state must to ending discrimination against women. work: * “to incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women; © toestablish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women against discrimination; and * to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations, or enterprises.”!? The Magna Carta of Women (MCW) “establishes the Philippine government's pledge of commitment to the CEDAW.”'3 Beijing Platform for Action The Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA) “emphasizes that women share common concerns that can be addressed only by working together and in partnership with men towards the common goal of [gender] equality around the world.”" It was a result of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women held in 1985. The BPfA aims for the complete Participation of women ‘“ United Nations, Text of the Convention, art. 1. '@ United Nations, Text of the Convention, ' Philippine Commission on Women, Intemational Commitments. ™ United Nations, Beijing Platform for Action (New York: UN, 1995).LAWS, POLICIES, AND PROGRAMS FOR PHILIPPINE WOMEN in all spheres of life through the shared responsibility of men and women at home, in the workplace, and in the public sector. It seeks a people-centered sustainable development. The BPfA is a landmark act that recognizes the subordinate position of women in the globe, and aims to promote and protect their full rights while diagnosing problems related to women's issues. It proposes strategic objectives and concrete actions that can be taken by various concerned agents to address these issues. The aim of this platform for action was the enactment of policies and programs addressing women concerns within five years of its creation in 1995. The UN mandated its Commission on the Status of Women to monitor the integration of gender perspectives on critical issues highlighted in the BPfA.'° The BPfA has special considerations for the girl-child, indigenous women, women workers, and women who were victims of violence in armed conflicts. It also focuses on the social dimension of growth, recognizing that structural adjustment plans had left behind women and had led to a feminization of poverty—the phenomenon in which majority of the world’s poor are women. To ensure gender equality, the BPfA formulated the 12 critical areas of concern that need urgent action:!4 1. the persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women; 2. inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to education and training; 3. inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to health care and related services; 4. violence against women; 5. the effects of armed or other kinds of conflict on women, including those living under foreign occupation; 6. inequality in economic structures and policies, in all forms of Productive activities and in access to resources; —— "* Philippine Com mission on Wo ; Gender, men, Women's Empowerment, Development and nis Nations, Fourth World Conference on Women, Bejing 1995, United Nations. ti ee January 23, 2017, http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beljing/fwewn. 107inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision-making at all levels; 8. insufficient mechanisms at all levels to promote the advancement of women; 9. lack of respect for and inadequate prom: of the human rights of women; otion and protection quality in women’s access to 10. stereotyping of women and ine re tion systems, especially in and participation in all communica the media; 11. gender inequalities in the management of natural resources and in the safeguarding of the environment; and 12. persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl-child. Gender mainstreaming as a strategy for gender equality was established as an outcome of this Fourth United Nations World Conference on Women. It was then seen as the “most important mechanism to fulfill the commitment made to the Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA) in 1995.”'*” Signatories of the BPfA must adopt national policies and programs that incorporate gender mainstreaming,'* defined as: “the strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic, and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. It is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies, or programs in all areas and at all levels." \? Heidi Hela Holt Zachariassen, “From the Bottom Up: Lessons about Gender Mainstreaming fhe Arles rom Dign's Women Empowerment and Gender Equality (WEGE) rogramme, fer & Development 20, no. 3 (November 8, 2012): 481~ d December 14, 2014, doi:10.1080/13552074,2012.731749. apres '® Philippine Commission on a '® Philippine Commission on Wom and Regulations (Manila: Philip January 23, 2017, http://pew.g act_9710.pdt. : ‘en, Magna Carta of Women: Implementing Rules pine Commission on Women, 2010), sec. 4, accessed }Ov.ph/sites/default/files/documents/laws/republic_‘s. Pouicies, AND Programs TOW PHILIPPINE Sore 9 ose Gender issues and gender mainstreaming are the adopted mechanism of the Philippine government to address gender needs.'*° Millennium Development Goals The MDGs are a collection of eight goals that focus on major issues of the underprivileged people around the globe. They were drafted by the UN in 2000 as a way to combat the most pressing issues of developing countries. The goals focus on reducing poverty, hunger, disease, and gender inequality, as well as ensuring access to water and sanitation by 2015. The MDGs promote international commitment to meeting women's needs and women’s empowerment. Three of the eight MDGs focus on education and/or gender: Goal 2, “to achieve universal primary education”; Goal 3, “to promote gender equality and empower women”; and Goal 5, “to improve maternal health.”"*" All state parties to the UN Millennium Declaration in 2000 committed to incorporating these goals into their own development agendas. A country that is a signatory of the MDGs must commit to addressing these concerns.’ Sustainable Development Goals The new SDGs aim to address the root causes of poverty and inequality in the world today. The SDGs are built from the Millennium Development Goals and aimed at continuing the latter's goals and completing the targets by 2030. Below is one specific goal concerning gender equality along with its associated targets.'* ' Ibid, '8' United Nations, United Nations Millennium Development Goals Beyond 2015, accessed January 23, 2017, htip://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/bkga.shtm|. '® Philippine Commission on Women, Womei7's Emeowerment, Development, and Gender Equality Plan, 2013-2016. "® United Nations, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable solution 70/1 (October 21, 2015). http://www. Development, General Assembly Res un.org/ga/search/view_doc. _aspesymbol=A/RES/70/1 /&Lang=E.SDG 5: Achieve gender equ girls. ality and empower all women and Goal 5 has the following targets: End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere. Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation. Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early, and forced marriage and female genital mutilation. Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate. Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision- making in political, economic, and public life. Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences. Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance, and natural resources, in accordance with national laws. Enhance the use of enabling technology, particularly information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women. Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.Gender-specific targets of the SDGs include “the end of all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.” Numerous forms of discrimination against women still occur today. These include violence against women and girls, cultural practices that harm women, the lack of valuation of women’s work, the limited participation of women in the political field, and the inadequate access to sexual and reproductive health and rights for women. Women’s participation in the public arena is being pursued, making sure they are well-represented in the political and economic domains. The inclusion of women in technology is also added as a development target because technology can be used to empower women and create a more equitable society. The last target is the thrust for social welfare and social protection for all. A consistent theme in these international guidelines is the call for legislation, policies, and programs that promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. Perhaps the strict enforcement of these policies should be taken into account as well. Laws and Policies for Women in the Philippines Filipino women have been active participants in almost every aspect of positive social change in the Philippines. The current laws protecting Filipino women’s rights are a testament to our foremothers’ determination to fight for gender equality. The formalization of women’s rights started during the post-Martial Law era, when the 1987 Constitution declared the equality of women and men before the law. Women’s rights are mandated by the Philippine Constitution. Women play a vital role in nation-building. Their inclusion in societal structures and processes are key toward equality and development.’ Republic Act 7192, or the Women in Development and Nation-Building Act, stems from this portion of the Constitution. The Act tasked the then National Commission on the aS es “1987 Philippine Constitution, art. I, § 14.Role of Filipino Women (NCREW), now the Philippine Commission of Women (PCW) to provide assistance “in ensuring the formulation i i ive governme and nationwide implementation of gender-responsive 8 iment ”155 "The NCREW is “the primary n women and gender equality men’s concerns, the PCW policies, programs, and projects. policy-making and coordinating body o1 concerns. As the oversight body on wo acts as a catalyst for gender mainstreamin concerns, and lead advocate of women’s empowe and gender equality in the country.”!% The PCW is an advisory body to the President and Cabinet members on issues concerning gender and development. By forming six clusters with civil society partners and government organizations, the PCW addresses the concerns and issues highlighted in the CEDAW. It is the monitoring body for the implementation of gender mainstreaming in the country." g, authority on women's rment, gender equity, The national government then aimed to adopt gender mainstreaming to address gender issues in all aspects of life. Executive Order No. 348 created the Philippine Development Plan for Women (PDPW) for the period 1989-1992. It was the first development plan to integrate women's interests. It listed the Philippine objectives for gender mainstreaming and projects until 1992.'* The Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive Development (PPGD) was later drafted to supplement the PDPW. This 30-year perspective plan from 1995 to 2025 covers the following domains: the individual, the family, as well as socio-cultural, economic, political, and legal issues. The PPGD considers gender and development mainstreaming a priority concern and seeks to achieve gender equity in all public programs and policies. It was created to integrate a gender-responsive framework within development plans, policies, budgets, and programs under '* Philippines, Office of the President, Further Defining the Composition, Powers and Functions of the National Commission on the Role of Flipino Women, Executive Order 208 (October 10, 1994), 1. mi eed ms Philippines, Office of the President, Creating the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women, Presidential Decree No. 633 (January 7, 1975). "»” Philippine Commission on Women, Herstory, accessed Jan : epee Core ory, january 23, 2017, http://www. '® National Commisison on the Role of Filipino Women {NCRFW), Implementing Guidelines for the Philippine Development Plan for Women (PDPW, Memorandum Order No. 89-1 (1989, April) (PDPW}, NCRFW“ the Philippine government. The PPGD was adopted as the country’s “= = implementing vehicle for the Beijing Platform for Action. Like the ~ BPfA, it pays special attention to women in difficult circumstances by analyzing national policies and programs that affect these women. Thus, the additional thrusts on consciousness-raising, advocacy, and affirmative action are included in the plan.'” All government departments, bureaus, offices, agencies, as well as affiliates or government-controlled corporations are required to formulate and realize a gender and development (GAD) plan of action that would incorporate gender perspectives in their institutional frameworks. GAD planning includes allocation of at least five percent of an agency's total budget to GAD-related programs, policies, and projects such as gender mainstreaming.'® The Philippine government produced two recent publications on gender mainstreaming. These are the successors of the PDPW and PPGD, which were created more than two decades ago. The first is the Harmonized Gender and Development Guidelines published in 2010 by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), PCW, and the Official Development Assistance Gender and Development Network.'*' The guidelines are concrete responses to the Magna Carta of Women, which also calls for gender mainstreaming in all government programs and policies. The document outlines sector-specific implementations of the GAD perspective in gender-responsive planning. The other publication is the Women's Empowerment, Development and Gender Equality (EDGE) Plan 2013-2016 published by the PCW. It addresses previous gaps in the PDPW and PPGD, ' Philippine Commission on Women, Plan Framework of the Philippine Plan for Gender- Responsive Development 1995 -2025 (Manila: Philippine Commission on Women, 1996), accessed January 23, 2017, http://www.pew.gov.ph/publication/plan- framework-philippine-plan-gender-responsive-development-1995-2025. '® Philippine Commission on Women, Guidelines for the Preparation of Annual GAD Plans and Budgets and Accomplishment Reports to Implement the Magna Carta of Women, PCW-NEDA-DBM Joint Circular No. 2012-01 (Manila: Philippine Commission ‘on Women, 2013), accessed January 23, 2017, http://www.pcw.gov.ph/sites/ default/files/documents/resources/pew-neda-dbm-jc-2012-01.pf. “ National Economic and Development Authority, Harmonized Gender and a Development Guidelines for Project Development, Implementation, and Monitonng Ond Evaluation, 2nd ed., (2010). p. ii.while calling attention to emerging issues on gender-responsiveness, It aims to address women’s issues through women's economic inclusion and creation of concrete mechanisms for the gende; responsive provisions of the previous Philippine Development Plan (PDP). The Women’s EDGE Plan promotes the integration of a gender lens into all aspects of planning, with an emphasis on the efficient use of the annual GAD plan and budget by government agencies and local government units. The government has enacted numerous laws to protect Philippine women from gender-specific forms of discrimination and violence. Meanwhile, policymakers continue to file women-specific bills as exemplified in the following press release by a woman senator.'® The protests against the dictator Ferdinand Marcos’ burial at the Libingan ng mga Bayani sparked outrage throughout the nation. Various people marched against this law. Many of those marching were young women— from grade school students to young professionals. These women had their pictures posted on various social media sites. Their pictures drew hateful comments that attacked the women. However, the political views of the women were not targeted, their gender was. These comments involved catcalls to comments that suggested rape and other forms of sexual violence. These attacks were not made on male protesters. This happens because there is a lack of laws that protect women from online harassment. Last November 22, 2016, Senator Risa Hontiveros filed three bills to combat sexual harassment and violence against women. These are called the Tres Marias bills. '* Philippine Commission on Women. Women's Empowerment, Development, and Gender Equality Plan, 2013-2016, ee : aes \® “Press Release - Hontiveros files “Tres Marias” bills vs, gender-based electronic violence, peer-to-peer sexual harassment and rape,” Latest News. November 22, 2016, accessed January 23, 2017, https://www.senate.gov.ph/press. release/2016/1122_hontiveros! asp. :POLICIES, AND PROGRAMS FO! ABM SO RNG These include strengthening the following laws: =—— + the Anti-Rape Act (Senate Bill No. 1252), * the Anti-Sexual Harassment Bill (Senate Bill No. 1250), and + the Gender-based Electronic Violence (Senate Bill No. 1251). The following proposals were made as there are many gaps in the current laws protecting women. Peer-to- peer sexual harassment is not covered by the Anti-Sexual Harassment Bill. The Anti-Rape Law cannot address arising forms of gender-based violence. Gender-based electronic violence must be criminalized. These bills will help address the culture of violence against women, such as the legitimized abuse of women who choose to make a stand. r Qe Guide Questions 1. What is the advantage of a human rights approach to women’s development? 2. How do international treaties provide a context for initiatives on gender mainstreaming in the Philippines? 3. What are some Philippine laws or proposed bills addressing women issues? 4. How would women, and the general public, benefit from policies or laws that protect and empower women? 5. What are the stated aims of some Philippine women-specific policies and guidelines mentioned in this chapter? Why are they necessary? > © Activity Look back on your research regarding women’s issues in your chosen women's sector in Chapter 5. Reflect on the data you have gathered and list the laws that may be relevant to addressing these Problems. Evaluate the potential effectiveness of these policies.Theories on the Origin of Women’s Oppression i eo Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: 1. state his or her own understanding of the roots of sexual discrimination; and 2. explain why discrimination is not necessary for the development of human civilization and how it evolved based on historical circumstances. — @ Pre-work for the Chapter Read some famous myths about women in the beginning of time. Well-known examples are the stories of Eve and Pandora. Try to articulate how the sources of these stories view women and their role in society. Reflect on how this view makes you think about women.The low status of women is something, worth wondering about. How did it happen that half of the world’s population j, systematically discriminated? Why do women have lower status than men? Every person deserves the same rights, regardless of his or her gender. Aside from the basic rights one merits due to humanity, one | must also give value to the traditional role of women. Women are | crucial in food production and preparation." For most of humanity | collective history, women ensured the survival of the species through | foraging and gathering activities. Foraging provided 90% of an | individual's dietary requirements while hunting provided only 10%," Women bear children and, for the most part, raise their children from infancy up to their early years. Women are also a source of the cultural and emotional education of children, teaching them how to navigate the social order. Their primary task in many cultures is taking care of the family. They were also the first healers given their extensive knowledge of herbs. It is not only the women’s roles that make them important, it is also their biology. Women bear part of the essential DNA that makes us human.'® At some point in all ancient cultures, perhaps even at present, women were hailed mediators to the gods.” Many theories explain why women are oppressed, but so fat, none are conclusive. Discussed in this chapter are some of these theories as compiled in the work of Rosalind Miles, a feminist writer, journalist, and historian who has researched the hidden role of women throughout history. These theories will be supplemented by the findings of other researchers. All these researchers and theories demonstrate that discrimination against women is not a natural phenomenon but a situation that evolved through time. ' Rosalind Miles, Who Cooked the Last Su 's His jpper? The Wome! (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1988), 21-22. nero eee "6 Ibid., p. 20. “ Ibid., p.18. ‘8 Ibid. cf. ch. 2.G One prominent theory on the oppression of women concerns the shift of paradigms: from ancient civilizations that worshipped the earth goddess to the male suppression of this goddess. Indeed, mysterious women-centric cults existed prior to the phallocentric cults. The progression from female-centric to male-centric worship was a slow and violent process. It is one theory on the root of women’s oppression. According to Miles, women were less valued and their status were threatened with the expansion of phallus worship around 1500 BC." She explains that early civilizations’ first great gods were women. There is evidence of the worship of a mother goddess figure 5,000 years ago in the major civilizations of the world. This mother figure was celebrated and venerated for her fertility. Because of this ancient observance, it is believed that in the past, women were respected more than men, as supported by the mother goddess. In some cultures, men who wanted to be persons of power emulated women. In the Philippines, they had to take on the character and aspect of a woman'® and, in some more ancient civilizations, men’s penises were carved out into vaginas to seize the powers of the goddess. These early social orders were matriarchies that were characterized as egalitarian and that allowed for the cooperation between men and women in most areas of life.'”” This theory of early goddess-based social organization stipulates that the worship of the mother goddess lasted for as long as people experienced the development of life as a mystery and a gift. At some point, human beings changed the way they saw and experienced life. A major paradigm shift was thought to have occurred the moment people started to focus on the empirical, rather than the mythical. This new understanding of cause and effect was another ' Ibid., pp. 74-75. “Fe B. Mangahas, “The Babaylan Historico-Cultural Context,” in Centennial Crossings: Readings on Babaylan Feminism in the Philippines, ed. Fe B. Mangahas and Jenny R. Uaguno (Quezon City: C & E Publishing. Inc. 2006), 37. " Ibid., p. 56.\S — == way of seeing. re: v ality. As people became more interested in Controlfin food production through agriculture, the kind of knowledge thas focused on cause and effect became necessary. When this knowledy. was harnessed, men realized that they too played a part in fertility, their seed w: essential in creating, offsprings. Thus, the phallus cults began to prosper and the pre-eminence of the male and his orpay began to 3 ssert itself, Somehow, ancient societies concluded that the source of life was the penis and not the womb. Because life was not seen as something that emerged mysteriously from the womb but was planted there by the male organ, men appropriated for themselves the position of power in the universe. ‘I’hus, a noticeable spread and consequential increase in the cult of the male organ were observed by 1500 BC. With this development, male power in societies grew because people believed that the male bore the creative power while the female was merely the receptive vessel of life in which the seed of man developed. Women were no longer seen as active partners but as passive incubators. As male power grew, incquality also rose. Men valued only themselves as powerful, creative persons. On top of this, they did not want the power of the woman to regain its prominence and overthrow that of the man. It may explain why men became particularly oppressive to women. Men had convinced themselves that they provide the active principle of life and that women were the passive incubators of life whom men had to rule. They needed to reinforce this belief by continuously treating women lowly. The theory of the mother goddess cult seems highly speculative. However, Miles shows historical evidence of this cult through the appearance of female deities, their prevalence, as well as their destruction. The mother goddess cult is not taught in mainstream history classes. It is assumed that the erasure of this belief from history was due to the fact that history has been written mostly by victors, or in this case, men. The elimination of women’s power came with the unlearning of the fact that women not only had power and equal rights in ancient civilizations but had extraordinary authority.'S OPPRESSION sasagaoeeiic! oh Eve and the Other Western religion also influenced the negative perception of women as evidenced in the Judeo-Christian story of Eve being the first woman, and its many mythic variations. In the basic story, Yahweh was compelled to create the first human being, a male. He was called Adam and was given dominion over the earth, Adam needed a companion, so Yahweh created Eve. This companion was taken from Adam's rib—thus, she was flesh of his flesh. Although Eve was an afterthought and a mere companion, she was of Adam's flesh and to some extent, an equal. Together, Adam and Even were given a good life in the Garden of Paradise. They were warned not to eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. A wily animal, usually taken to be the devil cloaked in the form of a snake, seduced Eve to take a fruit from the tree and share it with Adam. Perhaps the snake seduced Eve because it perceived that she was the weaker one or because she was more open to listening. Whatever the reason, Adam and Eve were banished by Yahweh to live outside the Garden, and it was their lot to toil for their food. Eve had caused the downfall of humanity because she had listened to the snake. It must be noted that this story shows how a woman had deprived all humankind the abundance that the Garden of Paradise had to offer. A woman's folly had brought suffering to man. The same story template is presented in the story of Pandora. In the Greek myth, Pandora was the first woman created by Zeus as a form of petty revenge on mankind because they had received the gift of fire from Prometheus. Pandora was made to be the most beautiful and desirable woman ever created and was given to Epimetheus as a gift. Epimetheus was warned by Prometheus not to accept any gift from Zeus, but he was eventually persuaded to receive Pandora because his refusal would anger Zeus. Zeus made Pandora foolish and idle. One day, she opened the jar where Prometheus locked away all the Sprites that can cause mankind grief such as old age, sickness, and vice. Prometheus warned Epimetheus to keep the jar-closed, but theSo sa ar foolishness of a woman let the Sprites loose, stinging Epimetheus and ty.'7' In both stories, women were fall of mankind because of their Pandora and plaguing all of humani perceived as the cause of the down: weakness. Miles links the fall of the goddess cult to the rise in against. women; the progression from discriminatory treatment may be connected to their goddess worship to phallus worship diminished status, The fall of the mother goddess, the rise of phallocentric worship, and the negative implications of a woman's role in the Christian Bible story fuel the negative perception of women. Women were viewed of lesser value than men, or were deemed the root of all sufferings. They were perceived to be feeble- minded, manipulative, or with no moral fortitude. In the most extreme sense, women had the potential to cause the downfall of great men. As shown by the stories of Eve and Pandora, woman was casted as the bearer of suffering because she was weak-willed and could not be trusted; she could not be allowed to be left alone lest she cause some trouble. Women were the catalyst for men to lose their reason and responsibility. Therefore, men convinced themselves that women were unfit or incapable to run governments, set standards for literature and commerce, be priests, or be left to their own devices. This sentiment can be seen echoed time and again in written texts from various cultures. Most cultures have paranoia against women since the emergence of phallocentric societies. One may even suspect that there appears a concerted but unconscious desire to suppress the possibility of women rediscovering their own preeminent position in society. ; The misogynistic treatment of women by Christianity, for instance, is puzzling. Jesus Christ was clearly a person who believed in the capabilities of women and promoted their place as leaders among his disciples. His close relationship with women, his respect for their authority, and the fact that some of them even became his closest friends and followers empowered many women to become leaders of '’' Robert Graves, The Greek Myths (London: The Folio Society, 1996), 142.the early Church. They even served as deacons. However, St. Paul in “= 1 Timothy 2:12, said that he would not “suffer a woman to teach in - Church” or have authority over man. In fact, in 1 Corinthians 11, St. Paul stated that women should be silent in Church and should be subject to man. Many of the great religions, especially when they were already established, seemed to have the inclination to marginalize women. Despite the founder's respect for women, the subsequent leaders of these religions seemed to have the need to denigrate women and assert their feebleness and inadequacy. A recognized great thinker like St. Thomas shared this notion about women: “It was necessary for woman to be made, as the Scripture says, as a “helper” to man; not, indeed, as a helpmate in other works, as some say, since man can be more efficiently helped by another man in other works; but as a helper in the work of generation . . . . Among perfect animals, the active power of generation belongs to the male sex, and the passive power to the female. And as among animals, there is a vital operation nobler than generation, to which their life is principally directed; therefore, the male sex is not found in continual union with the female in perfect animals, but only at the time of coition; so that we may consider that by this means the male and female are one, as in plants they are always united; although in some cases one of them preponderates, and in some the other. But man is yet further ordered to a still nobler vital action, and that is intellectual operation. Therefore, there was greater reason for the distinction of these two forces in man; so that the female should be produced separately from the male; although they are carnally united for generation. Therefore, directly after the formation of woman, it was said: ‘And they shall be two in one flesh’ (Gn. 2:24)."'72 The passage is an expression of the low perception of the men of the Church on women. Others see women as the consorts of the devil, the beguiler of men, and the potential cause of every human misery by offending the holy with their impurities. "St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province, vol. |, part | (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007), 466.~ —- eel It is unknown if Eve and Pandora were the first expressions of the distrust of women, but they certainly embody this disdain ne the deceitful, dangerous, and flighty character of women. In thes. stories, there appears to be a pervasive belief about women rooted in the foundational civilizations. People are inclined to believe that women are dangerous and must be controlled if not suppressed. This belief is especially true of their sexuality. In numerous and significant instances, women have been referred to as the sex that seduces man and makes him lose his orientation toward the true good—which js the eternal life beyond the flesh. Although it is puzzling why some of the world’s religions are so biased against women, the fear theory offers some explanation for it, Miles speculates that: .."mdle supremacy does more than imply female inferiority; it demands it. How then was that demand brought home to each and every woman? The first step had to be the eradication of all traces of women's previous superiority. This meant the onslaught on the worship of the Mother Goddess, on her devotees, and by extension to women's right to rule or command.""73 @ Activity Reflect on the myths of Eve and Pandora. Are there equivalent myths in your own locality? Recall these myths about women in your local culture and analyze what they say about women. Does it present a positive or negative view about women? If you were a female child growing up with such myths, what would have been your sense of worth? If you were a boy, what would you think of women and how would that affect you relationship with them? Discuss the results of your research in of myths about women in our societies, groups and explore the effects "3 Miles, Who Cooked the Last Supper?, a 92.Thus, the vicious suppression of women in many of the ©" world’s cultures can be explained. Religion is one major aspect that contributed to this suppression as evident in the negative traits attributed to women in many religious texts. A number of influential works of world literature also contaion references to the beguiling beauty of women that distracts men from their good reason and their true work. PWS TiMOM Kelle Coye The shift to agriculture is likewise a plausible theory for the suppression of women. Although more stable than hunting and gathering, agriculture is still a difficult and risky source of food. It requires the investment of manpower and longer periods of work in one area for an extended amount of time. This manpower must be committed to the work and to the community that it is feeding. Thus, human reproduction for the purpose of creating more workers became a crucial task in society. It was important to keep women at home to produce and raise children. Reproduction had to be protected and controlled, so women had to be watched. Women’s activities had to be monitored so that it could be focused on reproduction—so sexuality had to be overseen so that the community could be assured that the children they produced would become loyal members of the community. In this theory, suppression of the value of women and their awareness of their own value are evident so that they would continue to accept their role as receptive grounds for the seed of men on which the next generation of workers is to be grown. When productivity increased with the advent of new farming Processes like animal husbandry and plough-based farming, more laborers were needed to take advantage of the wealth creation from the greater productivity. Men focused on the agricultural labor because ploughing is difficult for children. At this point, women were no longer involved in food production but in laborer production. Historically, those who are involved in food production were~ a“ =| more empowered.'”" Hence, communities and were withdra women lost significance in theis wn from public life when thei, main economic life was reduced. Thei, became even more pronounced when people—mostly men—were employed as laborers in the commercial, cash economy. Women raising children were further constrained from participating in employment when paid work began to take place in locations away from the home. Because employment that would bring home cash was becoming necessary for survival, ites roles as paid workers were viewed more essential while womens functions as housewives were perceived unproductive.'” In earlier timelines of history, society had a higher regard for women than today. Women were venerated for their fertility and were worshipped for their power to bear life. Historians generally agree that at some point in history, the society shifted to becoming male-dominated. And with male domination arose inequality and participation in the withdrawal from public life oppression.'”° Oppression is often justified by essentialist reasons. Essentialist arguments assert that the oppression of women is due to the nature of their gender or their socially-constructed roles. Some people think of women as the lesser sex because of their biological make- up. Women are smaller and less bulky, hence, cannot become good warriors, laborers, or athletes. They are fundamentally built for child-bearing and child-rearing because of these bodies. Not only are their bodies weak, their minds are perceived weak as well. The woman’s mind is assumed incapable of abstract, logical thinking such that they are believed less capable of scientific and other highly academic endeavors. Women also come with natural impurities because they bleed on a monthly basis. Their moral weakness makes them unsuitable for leadership and meaningful participation in 4 Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive: Women, Ecol ndan 3 5 logy, and De\ G California: North Atlantic Books, 2016), Kindle edition, aoe ee "5 Ibid. 6 A good study of how this manifested in the “ ivilizati how this ; ‘great civilizations” is Jack Holland, A Bet Helo of Misogyny: The Woks Oldest Frejucce (London: Constable and 5 5 re details of the primor« if i Cooked the Last Supper?, ch.1. eTaes ON THE ORIGIN OF WoMmEN’s OPI religious rituals. They are also the primary source of the human's “= = fall from Paradise, thus, cannot be trusted in building a better world for mankind. Essentially, their moral and psychological makeup is blamed for their unworthiness of great acts. Whichever way it is justified and whatever its historical roots are, women are considered the lesser sex today. Before male domination and gender inequality, there seemed to be a state where women had a central role in society and much of the shared communal life was dependent on her labor. It seems that women’s status in present societies needed little justification, if at all.” The subjugation of women is not an essential or necessary state. The liberation of women from this inequality should be discussed because change can and must happen. But change will only happen if people are made aware on how the status of women was constructed. Oppression of women is made possible because of existing systems that orient people toward oppressing women, not because women are fundamentally weaker or flawed. Qe Guide Questions 1. Why were women highly regarded in ancient times? 2. What are the theories tracing the possible root causes of women subjugation and oppression in history? Explain one. 3. Massive food production and industrialization reinforced the socialized role of women as home keepers. What are the positive and negative consequences of these developments on women perception in the society? 4. What is gender essentialism? How does essentialist reasoning contribute to the oppression of women? 5. What can you do to reshape the prevalent thinking that women are of the lesser sex? sock, Ug "Miles, Who Cooked the Last Supper?, p. 19. Y