CE3020

1. Answer ALL parts of this question.

(a) Briefly discuss the three fundamental factors that limit the efficiency of solar
panels. Illustrate your answer with appropriate diagrams and show how
these factors contribute to the Shockley-Queisser Limit of 32%.
(5
marks)

(b) In 2016, a UK household considered to invest the sum of £5700 on a

renewable energy system, which could generate 3.2 MWh of energy per
year for 25 years. They could also deposit the money in a bank at 1.25%
interest rate, compounded annually for the same period. A technology
vendor informed the household that the UK Feed-in-Tariff for this
technology was 4p per kWh generated at the time, plus 16p per kWh gained
through reduced energy bills.

(i) Estimate the payback period for the renewable energy system, to the
nearest whole number of years. Show your calculations.
(2
marks)
(ii) Estimate the net income that can be generated from the renewable
energy system over its 25-year lifetime. Show your calculations.
(2 marks)
(iii) Calculate the gross income that could be obtained by depositing the
money in the bank at the given compound interest rate for 25 years.
(2 marks)
(iv) As a renewable energy expert, would your answers from 1d(ii) and
1d(iii) be sufficient to recommend the better investment for the
household? Justify your decision.
(2
marks)

(c) A photocatalyst with a surface area of 1 m2 splits water using UV light

at a quantum yield of 30%. The absorption of UV light is 60% and 2% of
sunlight is UV.

(i) Calculate the number of moles of H2 gas produced in 6 hours of steady

sunlight under AM1.5.
(4
marks)
(ii) The hydrogen produced by the photocatalyst is fed into a fuel cell that
operates at 95% combustion efficiency. Using relevant data from the
APPENDIX, calculate the energy yield from this process.
(2
marks)
(iii) Calculate the overall efficiency of the photocatalysis process.

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(2
marks)

d) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the principle of operation

of a sulphur-based Bond Heat Storage system for thermal energy
storage.
(4 marks
2. Answer ALL parts of this question.

(a) Describe how silicon can be doped to make n-type and p-type
semiconductor materials. For each type of doped silicon, illustrate your
answers with appropriate drawings containing at least nine atoms.
(5 marks)

(b) (i) List four benefits of using geothermometers in geothermal energy

exploration and exploitation.
(2 marks)

(ii) The pH of a 100 mL geothermal fluid was found to be 6.00 using a

quartz (silica) geothermometer based on adiabatic steam loss by
boiling. Given that the pKa1 of silicic acid (H4SiO4) is 9.83,
estimate the temperature of the geothermal reservoir from which
the fluid was obtained. The equation for the geothermometer is:
1522
T ( ° C )= −273.15
5.75−log ⁡[SiO2 ]
(6 marks)

(c) Using suitable examples, describe the three ways by which solar
energy can be exploited for use as renewable electricity or heat.
(5 marks)

(d) FIGURE Q2d shows a square-shaped photovoltaic module operating

under AM1.5. The module is made up of a 10 by 10 array of identical
circular cells, each with efficiency of 15%.

FIGURE Q2d
If the distance between adjacent cells is equal to a quarter of their
diameters and the array is surrounded by a border equal in width to the
radius of each cell:
(i) Calculate the packing factor of the module.

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(4 marks)
(ii) Calculate the efficiency of the module.
(1 mark)
(iii) Using your answer in Q2d(ii), briefly discuss the engineering
implication of the packing factor on the efficiency of solar modules.
(2 marks)

3. Answer ALL parts of this question.

(a) A triple-junction concentrating solar cell operating at 50 suns under

AM1.5 produces a current of 1000 A at an overall efficiency of 38%.
The cell block has a rectangular surface of 20 cm by 30 cm. A 200 W
pump is used to transfer cooling fluid through the cell block to prevent
overheating. Calculate the voltage across the cell.
(5 marks)

(b) What is meant by thermal energy storage (TES)? State two benefits of
TES. Briefly describe the three main characteristic features of thermal
energy storage systems.
(5 marks)

(c) A wind turbine has the features shown in FIGURE Q3c.

FIGURE Q3c

The density of air is 1.25 kg m–3. Using information from FIGURE Q3c
and the relevant formulae in the APPENDIX:

( u1 +u 4 )
(i) Show that the velocity at the rotor u2= .
2
(3 marks)
(ii) Calculate the axial induction factor (a) for this turbine.
(2 marks)
(iii) Show that the power output from the turbine is
2
P=2 ρ A u2 u1 a ( 1 – a ) . Hence, calculate the value of P.
(5 marks)

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(d) Explain the term p-n junction and list the four stages involved in the
formation of p-n junctions
(5
marks)

4. Answer ALL parts of this question.

(a) A domestic water heating panel operating under irradiance of AM1.5 W

m-2 has a surface area of 4.5 m2 and is used to heat 120 L of water held
initially at 15 ºC in an insulated tank. Calculate the maximum theoretical
final temperature of the water in the tank after 5 hours of steady
sunshine if the net heat transfer efficiency of the system is 35%. The
specific heat capacity of water is 4.182 kJ kg–1 K–1
(5 marks)
(b) State the two types of diodes used in solar modules and list their
functions. List four features of a diode in reverse bias.
(4 marks)
(c) Briefly describe the principles of operation of a closed-loop
ground-source heat pump (GSHP) in the heating mode and sketch a
labelled block diagram to show its main parts. Explain two similarities
and two differences between GSHPs and Binary Power Plants in
geothermal energy exploitation.
(6
marks)

(d) A small undoped silicon cube can be used as a temperature sensor. It

can also be used as a laser sensor when a voltage of 1 V is applied to
it. Use the relevant data and information in the APPENDIX to:

(i) Calculate the resistance (R) of the undoped silicon at 25 ºC and

at 30 ºC, using the relation:
B
R= , where B = 3.51 × 1022 Ω m-3 for silicon
ni
(4 marks)

(ii) Calculate the current flowing in the undoped silicon cube when it
is illuminated by a 0.2 mW laser with photons of wavelength 600
nm at 30 °C. The quantum yield is 30%.
(4 marks)

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(iii) Estimate the fraction of current produced in the undoped silicon

cube by thermally excited electrons at 30 ᵒC.
(2 marks)

END OF QUESTIONS

APPENDIX

Ohm’s Law, V = IR Charge: 1 e = 1.60×10–19 C

Current: 1 A = 1 C s–1 Voltage: 1 V = 1 J C–1

Wein’s Displacement Law; λmax = b/T n

Quantum Yield , ϕ λ=
(T in K and b = 2.9 x10–3 m K) n ph
Energy out
Volume of a sphere = (4/3) 𝝅r3 Conversion Efficiency =
Energy∈¿ ¿
Surface area of a sphere = 4 𝝅r2

Surface area of the Sun = 6.09×1012 km2

Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant, σ =
5.7×10 –8 W m–2 K–4
Avogadro’s constant, NA = 6.02×1023 mol-1 Planck’s Constant, h = 6.23×10–34J s

Energy: 1 eV = 1.60 ×10–19 J Speed of light, c = 3.0×108 m s–1

Photon Energy, E = 1243/𝜆 (E in eV) Specific heat capacity of water is

4.2 kJ kg–1 K–1
AM1.5 = Air Mass Coefficient universally
applicable for characterising terrestrial 1 toe = 41.87 Giga Joules (GJ)
power-generating panels = 1000 W m–2
1 kWh m–2 day-1 ≈ 41.67 W m–2
Enthalpy Change of Combustion Data
ΔHc (H2) = - 285.8 kJ mol–1 1 kWh y–1 ≈ 0.114 W

Enthalpy Change of Formation Data 1 kWh ≈ 3.6 MJ

ΔHf (CO2) = -393.5 kJ mol–1

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ΔHf (CO) = -110.5 kJ mol–1

ΔHf (CH4) = -74.9 kJ mol-–
ΔHf (H2O) = -285.8 kJ mol–1

Band gaps (Eg) of semiconductors Wavelengths, 𝜆

Ge = 0.67 eV Infra-Red = 750 – 1000000 nm
Si = 1.12 eV Red = 620 - 750 nm
GaAs = 1.43 eV Orange = 590 - 620 nm
Al0.4Ga0.6As = 1.92 eV Yellow = 570 - 590 nm
GaP = 2.23 eV Green = 495 - 570 nm
In0.3Ga0.7N = 2.82 eV Blue = 450 - 495 nm
ZnO = 3.37 eV Violet = 380 - 450 nm
TiO2 = 3.37 eV UV = 10 – 400 nm
C (diamond) = 5.50 eV For UV calculations, 𝜆 = 380 nm

Solar Angles

Hour angle, 𝜔 = ( t−12

24 )
360°
Definitions

t = time (hours) based on 24-hour clock 𝜙 = latitude

Zenith angle, 𝜃z 𝛽 = angle of inclination

cos 𝜃z = sin𝛿 sin𝜙 + cos𝛿 cos𝜙 cos𝜔
𝜙 = 52.5º N for Birmingham, UK
Angle of declination, 𝛿
D = Day number

−23.45 cos ( D+36510 x 360 ° ) D = 172 for 2019 Summer solstice

D = 356 for 2019 Winter solstice

Angle of incidence, 𝜃i
cos 𝜃i = cosδ cos ( ϕ - β ) +sin δ sin ( ϕ - β )

Semiconductor properties
Reverse Saturation Current Equation:
3/2 –Eg/2kT
ni = AT e
Io = BT3 e–Eg/kT
A = 2.8 × 1022 m–3 K–3/2 for silicon
B= 0.2 A K–3 for silicon
k = Boltzmann’s constant
= 8.62×10–5 eV K–1 Diode Equation: Ij = Io(eV/kT -1)

T = temperature (K) Iph = Ij + Ipv

Eg = Band gap (eV)

Iph = photocurrent
–3
ni = electron density (m ) in conduction Ipv = current output from PV cell
band Ij = current consumed by diode

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END OF PAPER

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