Solution Manual

Faculty of Engineering & IT
P O BOX 3624
Ongwediva
http://www.unam.na
Department of Electrical Engineering
TECC3792 Renewable Energy Technologies

Test 1: MEMO
(24 August 2017)
Question 1: [20 Marks]

1.1. List and explain FIVE (5) incentives or measures that can be used to promote the
penetration of renewable energy in Namibia. [10]
1.2. With the help of clearly labelled diagrams and equations, explain the following
types of solar radiations acting on solar cell.
a) Direct Beam Radiation (𝐼𝐵 ). [3]
b) Diffuse Radiation (𝐼𝐷𝐻 ). [3]
c) Reflected Radiation (𝐼𝑅𝐶 ). [4]
Solutions:
1.1. Note: Several answers are possible, as long as the proposal leads to promotion of
Renewable Energy (RE)). Here are some possible answers.
 Independent Power Producers (IPP) – This will ensure that there is sufficient
investment through public-private partnerships.
 Net-Metering and feed-in-tariffs – This will increase PV domestic
installations and create employment.
 Carbon Credit Trading – RE projects receive certificates that can be traded
in carbon markets for income.
 Government subsidies – Most RE projects have high initial costs.
Government subsidies would encourage more people to invest in RE
projects.
 Revolving RE funds or soft loans – This will make funds available at
reasonable repayment conditions.
1.2.
a) Direct Beam radiation (IB ) – This is the radiation that is traveling on a straight
line from the sun down to the surface of the solar cell.
Where:
A – Apparent extraterrestrial flux
k – Optical depth
m – Air mass ratio
b) Diffuse Radiation (𝐼𝐷𝐻 ) – This radiation accounts for the sun rays that are
scattered by particles present in the atmosphere. They fall on the solar cell from
no particular direction.
Where:
C – Sky diffuse factor
c) Reflected Radiation (𝐼𝑅𝐶 ) – This is the component of radiation which is

reflected from surfaces other than air particles.
Where:
𝜌 – Reflectance

A client wants a quick design for a system to pump 7560 litres per day from a depth of 60 m. You decide to use
a 45 V submersible pump with an estimated efficiency of 35% along with PV module having rated current of 3 [10]
A at a rated voltage of 16 V. The insolation is estimated to be 6 kWh/m2 a day in the design month. Assume a
20% losses for the panels due to all known factors.
Since this is only a quick estimate, piping friction losses will be estimated at 5% of the static head.
Design the PV system by answering the following questions.
2.1. Determine the pumping rate (litres per second). Assume the system will operate for
6 hours at peak sun. [3]
2.2. Find the total dynamic head. [4]
2.3. Determine the required input power (Pin ) of the pump. [4]
2.4. Determine the number of modules in series. [3]
2.5. Determine the number of strings in parallel. [4]
2.6. Sketch your PV array. [2]
Solutions:
2.1. Determine the pumping rate (litres per second).
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 7560
𝑄 = 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒×3600 = 6×3600 = 0.35 litres per second
2.2. Find the total dynamic head.

Static Head = 60 m
Friction Head = 5% of static head
Total Dynamic Head (H) = Static Head + Friction Head = 60 + (0.05 × 60) = 63 m
2.3. Determine the required input power (Pin ) of the pump.

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌×𝐻×𝑄 9.81×63×0.35
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = = 618 W
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 0.35
2
2.4. Determine the number of modules in series.
The pump voltage is 45 V, therefore number of modules in series should be
𝑛𝑠 = (𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒/𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒) = 45/16 = 2.8 ≈ 3 modules giving 48 V @ 3 A.
2.5. Determine the number of strings in parallel.

The number of parallel strings is given by:
𝑃𝑖𝑛 618
Parallel strings 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛 = 3×16×3×0.8 = 5.36 ≈ 5 strings.
𝑠 ×𝑉𝑅 ×𝐼𝑅 ×0.8
Alternative way:
Given the system voltage of 48 V @ 3A, the required number of strings are such that the power
618
VI × 0.8 ≥ 618. Therefore the required current is: I ≈ 0.8×48 = 16.1 A. Since each string has 3
16.1
A, the number of strings is: 𝑛𝑝 = = 5.36 ≈ 5 strings.
3
2.6. Sketch [2]
Total [40]
3
Faculty of Engineering & IT
P O BOX 3624
Ongwediva
http://www.unam.na
Department of Electrical Engineering

Test 1: MEMO
(03 September 2018)

1.1. List and explain FIVE (5) reasons why Namibia should turn to renewable energy
generation. [10]
1.2. Using appropriate diagrams, explain the difference between string and central inverter
configurations in PV systems. List TWO (2) advantages and disadvantages of each
configuration. [10]
Solutions:
1.1. Note: Several possible answers.
 Renewable energy sources produce less emission of greenhouse gases and
pollutants, and causes less severe impacts on ecology and environment.
 Renewable energy resources are unlimited in their availability over time.
 Solar energy is available over wide geographical areas in contrast to fossil fuels and
nuclear fuels.
 Many forms of renewable energy utilization are scalable. Small-scale renewable
energy installations provide energy needs of household and communities in the rural
and remote areas.
 Diversification of energy supply to include renewable energy helps to improve the
energy security of the country.
1.2. String inverter – This is when an inverter is used for a string of panels. [1]
Advantages: [2]
 Easy to service the inverter without shutting down the entire installation.
 High Efficiency.
 High design flexibility. More strings can be easily added or removed.
Disadvantages:[2]
 No panel level MPPT and monitoring.
 Higher voltage levels leading to higher costs and safety hazards.
 Highly affected by shading.
Central Inverter – This is when a single inverter is used for several strings of
panels.[1]
Advantages:[2]
 Low cost per watt.
 High Efficiency.
 Ease of installation (single or fewer units).
Disadvantages:[2]
 Large size.
 Noisy.
 When it fails, the entire system might stop functioning.
 Not easy to service without shutdown.

Consider the design of an off-grid, pumped hydro system for a PV powered small cabin located
next to a pond as shown in Figure 1. Suppose the energy demand is estimated to be 10 kWh/day
with a peak load of 3 kW. A tank will be placed on a nearby hilltop 30 m (100 ft) above the turbine.
The connecting pipes that run to and from the tank are each 244 m (800 ft)
Figure 1: Question 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒×𝑔×𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2.1. The potential energy in the water is expressed as 𝐸 = . Assuming an
3.6×106
average of 15% head losses in the pipeline and 80 % conversion efficiency for the
turbine, how many litres of water needs to flow from the upper tank to the pond to meet
[4]
daily energy demand?
2.2. Determine the size of the storage tank needed to provide a full day’s worth of backup
energy when renewables (PV system) do not supply any power. Assume maximum
[3]
allowed tank drainage is 75%.
2.3. Assuming piping losses are 20% during peak demand, what flow rate (L/s) from the tank
[4]
would be needed to supply the 3 kW peak demand?
2.4. How much energy would a photovoltaic system have to provide to meet the average
daily demand for energy. Assume 15% piping losses in each piping run and 75%
[5]
efficient pump.
2.5. In an area with 5.5 kWh/m2/day insolation, size a photovoltaic system to supply the 10
[4]
kWh/day needed by the household. Assume a derate factor of 0.75.
Solutions:
𝜌𝐴𝑔∆ℎ×𝐻 𝑉×𝑔×𝐻
2.1. Using the equation: 𝐸 = = 3.6×106
3.6×106
Or using basic potential energy = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑉×9.8×30
𝐸 = 10 𝑘𝑊ℎ = × 0.85 × 0.80 → 𝑉 = 180 000 litres
3.6×106
2
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 180000
2.2. Tank size = = = 240 000 litres
0.75 0.75
2.3. The flow rate (Q) is determined from the following relationship:
𝑃 3000
𝑃 = 𝜂 × 9.81 × 𝑄 × 𝐻𝑁 → 𝑄 = 𝜂×9.81×𝐻 = 0.80×9.81×(30+6) = 10.62 L/s
𝑁
2.4. The house needs 10 kWh/day. The pump is 75 % efficient, the total piping losses are 30 %, the
turbine/generator is 80% efficient. Therefore the total efficiency of the system is:
𝜂𝑇 = 0.75 × 0.70 × 0.80 = 0.42 or 42 %.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 10
Total Demand = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 0.42 = 23.81 kWh/day
2.5.
Total [40]
3
Test 1: MEMO
(19 August 2019)

1.1. List FIVE (5) reasons why Namibia should turn to renewable energy generation. [5]
1.2. Explain why the theoretical efficiency of silicon solar cells is below 50% [5]
1.3. Using appropriate diagrams, explain the difference between string and central inverter
configurations in PV systems. List TWO (2) advantages and disadvantages of each
configuration. [10]
Solutions:
1.1. Note: Several possible answers.
• Renewable energy sources produce less emission of greenhouse gases and
pollutants, and causes less severe impacts on ecology and environment.
• Renewable energy resources are unlimited in their availability over time.
• Solar energy is available over wide geographical areas in contrast to fossil fuels and
nuclear fuels.
• Many forms of renewable energy utilization are scalable. Small-scale renewable
energy installations provide energy needs of household and communities in the rural
and remote areas.
• Diversification of energy supply to include renewable energy helps to improve the
energy security of the country.
1.2. Apart from the fact that only 49% of the solar spectrum is available to Silicon cells
for power production, the efficiency of silicon cells is below 50% percent because of the
following:
• Insufficient energy to push electrons into the conduction band
• Photons with excess energy which is wasted.
• Recombination of holes and electrons without contributing to current flow.
• Photons that are either blocked, reflected or pass through.
• Losses due to internal resistance.
1.3. String inverter – This is when an inverter is used for a string of panels. [1]
Advantages: [2]
• Easy to service the inverter without shutting down the entire installation.
• High Efficiency.
• High design flexibility. More strings can be easily added or removed.
Disadvantages:[2]
• No panel level MPPT and monitoring.
• Higher voltage levels leading to higher costs and safety hazards.
• Highly affected by shading.
Central Inverter – This is when a single inverter is used for several strings of
panels.[1]
Advantages:[2]
• Low cost per watt.
• High Efficiency.
• Ease of installation (single or fewer units).
Disadvantages:[2]
• Large size.
• Noisy.
• When it fails, the entire system might stop functioning.
• Not easy to service without shutdown.

Analyse the PV/battery system in Figure 1, which includes 4 PV modules each with rated current
and voltage as shown, and four (4) 160 Ah, 6 V batteries with 90% Coulomb efficiency. An 85%
efficient inverter (no MPPT functionality) feeds the AC load.
Figure 1: Question 4
2
2.1. With 5.5 kWh/m day insolation and 12% module loss due to dirt, wiring losses, etc.
Estimate the energy that would reach the loads per day. (Assume all PV current
passes through the batteries before it reaches the inverter). [5]
2.2. If the load requires 1 kWh/day, for how many cloudy days in a row can previously
fully charged batteries supply the load with no further PV input? Assume 80%
maximum discharge. [5]
2.3. Suppose the system is redesigned to include the MPPT and a 97% efficient charge
controller. How much energy (kWh) would reach the load? [8]
2.4. Compare your answers in 2.1 and 2.3. [2]
2
Solution:
2.1. Using the peak hours approach, we have:
2.2.
2.3. The energy delivered to batteries would be:
2.4. The system with MPPT would deliver 44% more energy to the load compared to the
previous design.
Total [40]
3
Test 3: MEMO
(21 October 2021)

1.1. Explain what wave power is and how it can be harvested for electricity generation?
Briefly discuss the FOUR (4) methods that have been tested and how they operate. [14]
Solution:
1.1. Wave power is the capture of energy of the waves due to wind to generate electricity and
can harvested using several methods. Wave power devices extract energy from the surface
motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface [2].
Methods:
Terminator – partially submerged structures oriented perpendicular to the direction of the
wave to force water into the device while trapping air above. The wave action causes the
captured water column to move up and down like a piston, forcing the air though an opening
connected to a turbine to generate power. [3]
Attenuator – These are long devices aligned parallel to the direction of the wave such that
their front end points into the oncoming wave. They ride the waves like a ship, extracting
energy by using restraints at the bow of the device and along its length. The differing heights
of waves along the length of the device causes flexing where the segments connect. The
segments are connected to hydraulic pumps or other converters to generate power as the
waves move across. [3]
Point Absorbers –These are floating platforms, not oriented in a particular way toward the
waves that move relative to each other due to wave action. They utilize the rise and fall of
the wave height at a single point for energy conversion. The relative up and down bobbing
motion caused by passing waves is used to drive electromechanical or hydraulic energy
converters to generate power. [3]
Overtopping Device – Made up of a reservoir, water is forced onto the resevoir by waves
causing a slight buildup of water pressure like a dam. Water is then rejected/released from
the reservoir through the turbine. The energy of the falling water is used to turn hydro
turbines to generate power. [3]
2.1. Explain the following terms with respect to biomass for power
a) Combustion [3]
b) Gasification [3]
c) Pyrolysis [4]
2.2. List THREE (3) advantages and THREE (3) disadvantages of biomass for electricity. [6]
Solution:
2.1.
Combustion – Is when the biomass is being burned in higher pressure boiler to generate
steam. The steam is then fed into a steam engine to generate electricity.
Gasification – This is achieved by partial combustion of biomass in low oxygen
environment, leading to the release of a gaseous product. The resulting gas can then be
used in combustion engines, micro-turbines, fuel cells or gas turbines.
Pyrolysis - In pyrolysis, the partial combustion is stopped at a lower temperature (450°C to
600°C), resulting in the creation of a liquid bio-oil. The pyrolysis oil can then be used as a
fuel to generate electricity.
2.2. Advantages [any THREE]
 Improved forest health,
 Carbon Neutrality (O2 in, CO2 out),
 Reliable (comparable to coal),
 Value addition to some products,
 Affordable.
Disadvantages [any THREE]
 Low energy density,
 Seasonal/annual fluctuation in biomass supply,
 Land use competition (food or biomass),
 Risk of deforestation,
 Requires plenty of water.
2
An in-stream tidal power system consisting of an underwater 11 m diameter, horizontal axis turbine
delivers its rated power of 300 kW in 2.4 m/s currents.
3.1. List and explain three (3) methods used to harvest tidal energy [6]
3.2. What is the efficiency of this system at that current speed? [5]
3.3. In those currents what will be the blade rpm and the blade tip speed if it operates with
a TSR = 5.0. [4]
3.4. Assume the system operated the whole year in waters with average power of 323 kW
while the average efficiency of the system is 60% of its rated power. How much
energy would the turbine deliver and what would be its capacity factor? [5]
Solution:
3.1. The following methods are used to harvest tidal energy:
 Barrages or dams – is a dam-like structure used to capture the energy from masses of
water moving in and out of a bay or river due to tidal forces.
 Tidal fences – is a continuous row of vertical axis turbines mounted in a fence spanning
across channels or long straights between large bodies of land such as an estuary or bay.
 Tidal Turbines – Turbine installed under water and is rotated by the water moving due
to tidal effect.
3.2. First we find the power available in the tidal flow as:
300
So, the efficiency is 𝜂 = 673 = 0.446 = 44.6%
3.3.
3.4.
TOTAL [50]
END.
3
Tutorial 3: MEMO
(19 August 2021)
1. A PV array has the row’s width of the solar panel of 2.5 m. The rows of PV modules
are tilted at an angle of 25° facing north. The azimuth angle of the sun is 120° and the
elevation angle is 12° at the beginning of solar energy collection.
Determine the spacing between the rows of the PV array so that there is no shading
between the adjacent rows.
Solution:
The diagonal spacing between adjacent rows:

𝑋 = 𝑊 sin 𝛽 cot 𝛼 = 2.5 sin 25° cot 12° = 4.97 m
The spacing between adjacent rows:

𝐷 = 𝑋 cos 𝜓 = 4.97 cos(180° − 120°) = 2.49 m
2. Given a 36-cell photovoltaic module with the I-V and P-V characteristics shown
below. The I-V characteristic of the module can be represented by the equation:
𝑉
𝐺
𝐼 = 5.0 × 1000 − 7.056 × 10−7 × [𝑒 [1.51×36×0.0257] − 1] A
Solution:
Determine:
a) The rated voltage is found from the I-V curve to be 18 V. The rated current
can either be found using the I-V curve or the expression given.
18
1000 [ ]
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 5.0 × 1000 − 7.056 × 10−7 × [𝑒 1.51×36×0.0257 − 1] = 4.72 A
b) The short-circuit current at 600 W/m2 is calculated when 𝑉 = 0:

600
ISC,600W/m2 = 5 × 1000 = 3 A
The open-circuit voltage is calculated, when I𝑆𝐶 = 0:
V
OC,600W/m 2
600 −7
[
1.51×36×0.0257
]
0 = 5.0 × − 7.056 × 10 × [e − 1]
1000
3
VOC,600W/m2 = 1.51 × 36 × 0.0257 × ln (7.056×10−7 ) = 21.32 V
c) The rated voltage, rated current, and rated power output of the PV array
consisting of 8 paralleled strings of 14 modules with the above characteristics
connected in series.
Rated voltage of the array = 18 × 14 = 252 V
Rated current of the array = 4.72 × 8 = 37.76 A
Rated power output of the array = 252 × 37.76 = 9515.52 W
d) The analytical expression for I-V characteristic of the array in (c).

Varray
G
Iarray = 8 × 5.0 × 1000 − 8 × 7.056 × 10−7 × [e[1.51×36×14×0.0257] − 1] A
Varray
G
Iarray = 40 × 1000 − 5.6448 × 10−6 × [e[1.51×504×0.0257] − 1] A
2
3. Suppose the I –V curve for a PV module exposed to 1-sun (1 kW/m2) of insolation is
as shown below:
a) What load resistance R would result in the maximum power delivered to the
panel at 1-sun? How much power would that be (watts)?
b) Suppose the hour-by-hour insolation striking this single panel is given in the
following table.
If current (at any given voltage) is directly proportional to insolation, carefully

draw the hour-by-hour I –V curves for the module. For the resistive load
determined in (a), what would be the energy (Wh) delivered by this panel in a
day’s time?
c) If the module is equipped with a maximum-power-point tracker, what energy
would be delivered in a day’s time? What percentage improvement does the
MPPT provide?
Solution:
a) From the graph we have:
𝑉𝑚 20
𝑅𝑚 = = =4
𝐼𝑚 5
2
𝑃𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚= 100 W
b) Use excel/spreadsheet to calculate the total energy
c) Assume the panel would operate at max power all the time, regardless of the
load.
3
4. You are to size a grid-connected PV system to deliver 4000 kWh/year in a location
characterized by 5.5 kWh/m2-day insolation on the array.
a) Find the DC, STC rated power of the module assuming a 0.72 derate factor.
b) Determine the collector area required if, under STCs, the modules are 18%
efficient.
Solution:
a) Using the peak hour or full sun estimation:
b)
4
Tutorial 5: MEMO
(16 September 2021)
1. A horizontal-axis wind turbine with rotor 20 meters in diameter is 30% efficient in 10

m/s winds at 1 atmosphere of pressure and 15◦C.
a) How much power would this turbine produce in those winds?
b) Estimate the air density on a 2500 m mountain top at 10◦C.
c) Estimate the power the turbine would produce on that mountain with the same
wind speed assuming its efficiency is not affected by air density.
Solution:
2. An anemometer mounted at a height of 10 m above a surface with crops, hedges and
shrubs, shows a wind speed of 5 m/s. Assuming 15◦C and 1 atm pressure, determine
the following for a wind turbine with hub height 60 m and rotor diameter of 60 m:
a) Estimate the wind speed and the specific power in the wind (W/m2) at the
highest point that a rotor blade reaches.
b) Repeat (a) at the lowest point at which the blade falls.
c) Compare the ratio of wind power at the two elevations using results of
(a) and (b).
Solution:
a. At the highest point (90 m) the rotor will see:
90 0.20
𝑣90 = 5 (10) = 7.76 m/s
and the specific power will be:
𝑃90 1
= 2 𝜌𝑣 3 = 0.5 × 1.225 × 7.763 = 286.214 W/m2
𝐴
b. At the lowest point of the rotor (40 m), the parameters are:
c. The ratio of power top-to-bottom is:

286.214
Power Ratio = 175.894 = 1.63
𝑃 𝐻 3𝛼 90 3×0.2
Or using: 𝑃90 = (𝐻90 ) = (40) = 1.63 …the same
40 40
2
3. Consider an 82 m, 1.65 MW wind turbine with rated wind speed of 13 m/s.
a) At what rpm does the rotor turns when it operates with TSR of 4.8 in 13 m/s
winds? How many rotations per second is that?
b) What is the tip speed of the rotor in those winds?
Solution:
a)
b)
4. Consider a design of a home built wind turbine using a 350 W permanent magnet DC
motor as a generator. The goal is to deliver 70 kWh in a 30 day month.
a) What capacity factor would be required for the machine?
b) If the average wind speed is 5 m/s, and Rayleigh statistics apply, what should
the rotor diameter be if the CF correlation of equation (7.63) is used?
c) How fast would the wind have to blow to cause the turbine to put out its full
0.35 kW if the machine is 20% efficient at that point?
d) If the TSR is assumed to be four (4), what gear ratio would be needed to match
the rotor speed to the generator if the generator needs to rotate at 600 rpm to
deliver its rated power?
Solution:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 70

a) 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) = 0.35×30×24 = 0.2778 = 27.78%
b)
1 𝑃
c) 𝑃 = 𝜂 2 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 → 𝑣 = 3√ 1 = 11.78 m/s
𝜂 𝜌𝐴
2
𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝜋𝐷×RPM (rotor)
d) 𝑇𝑆𝑅 = = =4
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣×60
𝑇𝑆𝑅×𝑣×60
RPM (rotor) = = 604 rpm
𝜋𝐷
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑃𝑀 600
Gear Ratio = = 604 ≈ 1
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑃𝑀
3
5. Assume that pitch control of the rotor blades of the wind turbine is implemented and
the operation of the wind power plant is as shown in the figure below.
Explain the operations of the wind power plant as indicated by the regions on the
figure.
Solution:
Region A: Low speed region.
The wind speed is below the cut-in value. The operation of the turbine in this region is
inefficient and sometimes the turbine even consumes power from the electricity grid.
The rotor is kept in a braked position until a minimum wind speed known as the cut-in
speed is available.
Region B: Maximum power coefficient region.

The rotor speed varies with wind speed. At a particular wind speed in this region the
pitch angle is adjusted so as to operate the turbine at the optimum tip-speed ratio that
gives the output at the maximum power coefficient 𝑐𝑃,𝑚𝑎𝑥 corresponding to the wind
speed. The wind turbine thus extracts the maximum available power from the wind in
this region.
Region C: Constant power region.

The wind speed is high in this region. The rotor speed is limited to the maximum
permissible value by pitch control. The output of the power is also limited to the rated
value so that the generator is not overloaded. Still at higher wind speeds, braking of
some form (e.g. eddy-current brake) may be applied to assist the speed regulation.
Region D: Cut-out or furling-speed region.

The wind speeds in excess of the cut-out value are considered damaging to the blades,
the generator and other components of the wind power plant. The generator is shut
down and the rotor is kept in a brake position and turned out of the wind direction if
possible. The blades are turned into the wind using pitch control to bring the angle of
attack to zero (furling).
4
6. An 82 m, 1.65 MW fixed speed wind turbine has a rated wind speed of 13 m/s. It is
connected through a gearbox to a 4 pole, 50 Hz synchronous generator.
a) Determine the gear ratio the gearbox should have if the turbine is designed to turn at
14.29 rpm?
b) What is the tip speed ratio when the wind is blowing at rated speed?
c) What is the overall efficiency of the machine at its rated wind speed?
d) The power curve of this machine indicates that it will deliver half of its rated output in
8 m/s winds. What is its efficiency and TSR at that wind speed?
e) What would be the TSR with 8 m/s winds if the generator could switch from 4 poles to
six (6)?
Solution:
a) Find the generator shaft speed.
120∙𝑓 120∙50
𝑛= = = 1500 rpm
𝑝 4
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 1500
Gear Ratio = 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
= 14.29 = 105
b) The TSR at 13 m/s is:
𝜋𝐷×𝑁 𝜋×82×14.29
TSR = = = 4.72
60×𝑣 60×13
c) Overall efficiency:
1 1 𝜋
𝑃𝑤 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑤3 = × 1.225 × × 822 × 133 = 7106 × 103 W
2 2 4
1650
𝜂𝑇 = 7106 × 100% = 23.2%
d) At 8 m/s, the efficiency and TSR will be:
1 1 𝜋
𝑃𝑤 = 2 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑤3 = 2 × 1.225 × 4 × 822 × 83 = 1656 × 103 W
0.5×1650
𝜂𝑇 = × 100% = 49.8%
1656
𝜋𝐷×𝑁 𝜋×82×14.29
TSR = = = 7.67
60×𝑣 60×8
e) The new generator speed will be:
120∙𝑓 120∙50
𝑛= = = 1000 rpm
𝑝 6
The new turbine speed would be:
1000
Rotor speed = = 9.5 rpm
105
𝜋𝐷×𝑁 𝜋×82×9.5
New TSR = = = 5.1
60×𝑣 60×8
5
Chapter 4: Solar Resource SOLUTIONS
Chapter 4: Problems

________________________________________________________
4.1 Consider the design of a “light shelf” for the south side of an office building
located at a site with latitude 30o. The idea is that the light shelf should help
keep direct sunlight from entering the office. It also bounces light up onto
the ceiling to distribute natural daylight more uniformly into the office.
Upper LATITUDE 21.5o
window
2 ft Light
shelf
4 ft X1 X2
Lower window
S Not allowed

Figure P4.X
As shown, the window directly above the light shelf is 2-‐feet high and the
window directly below is 4-‐ft. What should the dimensions X1 and X2 be to
be sure that no direct sunlight ever enters the space at solar noon?
SOLN: The worst day will be at the winter solstice when the sun is lowest in the sky,
at which point the declination is -‐23.45o.
From (4.7) the noon altitude angle of the sun is
βΝ = 90 – L + δ = 90 - 30 - 23.45 = 36.55o
36.55 o
2 ft 45o !
2
X1 = = 2.7 ft
X21!ft
X2! tan 36.55 o
4 ft 4 ft
4
X2 = = 5.4 ft
tan 36.55 o
4.2 Rows of buildings with photovoltaics covering vertical south-‐facing walls
need to have adequate spacing to assure one building doesn't shade the
collectors on another.
gmasters Pg.4. 1 2/7/13

For$no$shading$between$8$am$and$4$pm,$d/H$≥$?$
!"#$%"$&'()*%+$,-./--%$01$(2$(%)$3$425$)67$8$9$
PVs$
H
S
d

a. Using the shadow diagram for 30oN in Appendix F, roughly what ratio of
separation distance (d) to building height (H) would assure no shading
anytime between 8 am and 4 pm?
b. If the spacing is such that d = H, during what months will the rear building
receive full solar exposure.
a. SOLN: 8 am and 4 pm are just about 3 squares back, so with the peg being H, that
means the separation d is about 3 H… d/H ≥ 3. (or, more accurately, d/H ≥
2.8)
b. SOLN: Looks like full sun for all of spring and summer, but shading begins in
October and runs into February .

4.3 Consider the challenge of designing an overhang to help shade a south-‐facing,
sliding-‐glass patio door. You would like to shade the glass in the summer to
help control air-‐conditioning loads, and you would also like the glass to get
full sun in the winter to help provide passive solar heating of the home.
Suppose the slider has a height of 6.5 ft, the interior ceiling height is 8 ft, and
the local latitude is 40o.
a. What should be the overhang projection P to shade the entire window at
solar noon during the solstice in June?

b. With that overhang, where would the shade line, Y, be at solar noon on the
winter solstice?
P"
βN"
Y"
8)*"""6.5"*"
South"

Figure P4.X
a. SOLN: To shade the window in June
Summer solstice β N = 90 − L + δ = 90 − 40 + 23.45 = 73.45 o
Y 8
P= = = 2.377 ft
tan β N tan 73.45 o
b. SOLN: In winter, when you want the sun, the shade line will be at
Winter solstice β N = 90 − 40 − 23.45 = 26.55 o

Y = P tan β N = 2.377 tan 26.55 o = 1.188 ft
So, the shade line is 8 ft -‐ 1.188 ft = 6.8 ft above the floor, so the entire
window is in the sun.
c. The shadow distance Y for a south-‐facing window when it is not solar noon is
given by
P tan β
Y=
cos φS
Will the bottom of the shadow line designed for solar noon still shade the
window at 10 am?
SOLN: 10:00 am is 2 h before solar noon, so H = 2h x 15o/h = 30o. From (4.8)
sin β = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ
= cos 40 ⋅ cos 23.45 ⋅ cos 30 + sin 40 ⋅ sin 23.45
β = 59.82 o
From (4.9)
cos δ sin H cos 23.45 ⋅ sin 30
sin φS = = = 0.912
cos β cos 59.82
φS = 65.846 o
From the above equation

P tan β 2.377 tan 59.82

Y= = = 9.99 ft
cos φS cos 65.846
So, the shadow still covers the window (ignoring edge effects). In fact, it will
be shaded all day long so designing for solar noon is a good strategy.
4.4 Suppose you are concerned about how much shading a tree will cause for a
proposed photovoltaic system. Standing at the site with your compass and
plumb bob, you estimate the altitude angle of the top of the tree to be about
30o and the width of the tree to have azimuth angles that range from about 30o
to 45o west of south. Your site is at latitude 32o.
Using a sun path diagram (Appendix C), describe the shading problem the tree
will pose (approximate shaded times each month).
SOLN: The tree shades the site from roughly 2 pm to 3 pm from roughly mid-‐November
through mid-‐January.

4.5 Suppose you are concerned about a tall thin tree located 100 ft from a
proposed PV site. You don’t have a compass or protractor and plumb bob, but
you do notice that an hour before solar noon on June 21 it casts a 30 ft shadow
directly toward your site. Your latitude is 32o N.
a. How tall is the tree?
b. What is its azimuth angle with respect to your site?
c. Using an appropriate sun path diagram from Appendix C, roughly what are the
first and last days in the year when the shadow will land on the site?
SOLN:
a. It is the summer solstice so δ = 23.45o and it is an hour before solar noon so
the hour angle is 15o. From (4.8) the altitude angle of the sun is


= cos 32 cos 23.45 cos15 + sin 32 sin 23.45 = 0.962
β = 74.23o
From h/30 = tan 74.23o the tree height is h = 30 tan 74.23o = 106 ft
b. From (4.9) the azimuth angle of the tree is
⎛ cos δ sin H ⎞ ⎛ cos 23.45 sin15 ⎞
φS = Asin ⎜ = Asin ⎜ = 60.9 o
⎝ cos β ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ cos 74.23 ⎟⎠
c. The altitude angle of the tree relative to the site is β = Atan(106/100) = 46.7o
From the sun path diagram for 32o and using the altitude of the tree as 46.7o
and the azimuth 60.6o it looks like the site is shaded briefly each day from early
September to early April.
S!
61o!
PV!
106’!
PV!
74.2o! 46.7o!
!0!!!!!!!!!!!!30’!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!100’!

4.6 Using Figure 4.18, what is the greatest difference between local standard time and solar
time for the following locations? At approximately what date would that occur?
a. San Francisco, CA (longitude 122o, Pacific Time Zone)
b. Boston, MA (longitude 71.1o, Eastern Time Zone)
c. Boulder, CO (longitude 105.3o, Mountain Time Zone)
d. Greenwich, England (longitude 0o, Local time meridian 0o)
SOLN:
Using (4.14) ST – CT = 4(Local Meridian – Local Long) + E
The extremes of the equation of time Emax ≈ +16.5 min around n = 303, or about October
30, and Emin ≈ -‐ 14.6 min around n = 44, or about February 13. Using time zones from
Table 4.3:
a. San Francisco: MAX = 4(120 – 122) + E = -‐8 –14.6 = -‐22.6 minutes around February 13
b. Boston: MAX = 4(75 – 71.1) + E = 15.6 + 16.5 = 32.1 minutes around October 30
c. Boulder: 4(105 – 105.3) + E = -‐ 1.2 -‐ 14.6 = -‐15.8 minutes around February 13

(check -‐1.2 + 16.5 = 15.3 around October 30… not quite as bad)
d. Greenwich: MAX = 4(0 – 0) + E = 16.5 minutes around October 30

4.7 Calculate the following for (geometric) sunrise in Seattle, latitude 47.63o, longitude
122.33o W (in the Pacific Time Zone), on the summer solstice (June 21st).
a. Find the azimuth angle of sunrise relative to due south.
b. Find the time of sunrise expressed in solar time.
c. Find the local time of sunrise. Compare it to the website
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/RS_OneDay.html. Why do they differ?
SOLN:
a. From (4.16) and (4.9) realizing β = 0 at sunrise:
(4.16) cos H = − tan L tan δ = − tan 47.63tan 23.45 = −0.4755 so H = 118.39 o
cos δ sin H cos 23.45 sin118.39
(4.9) sin φS = = = 0.807
cos β cos 0
so φS could be either 53.81o or 180-53.81 = 126.19o
Test this using (4.11)
tan δ tan 23.45
cos H = cos118.39 = −0.475 and = = 0.396
tan L tan 47.63
tan δ
since cos H < then φS > 90
tan L
So the azimuth angle at sunrise is 126.19o toward the north-east (which is obvious
from any sun path diagram).
b. Sunrise can be found from the hour angle
H 118.39 o
Sunrise = = = 7.893h = 7h 53.56 min before solar noon
15 o / h 15 o / h
That is, in solar time, Sunrise = 4:06.44 am.
c. For local time, we need to use the equation of time. From Table 4.1, June 1st is
day number n = 152. So June 21st is n = 172.
360 360
( 4.13) β= ( n − 81) = (172 − 81) = 90 o
364 364
E = 9.87 sin 2B − 7.53cos B − 1.5 sin B
(4.12)
= 9.87 sin ( 2 ⋅ 90 ) − 7.53cos 90 − 1.5 sin 90 = −1.5 min
For Seattle. longitude 122.33o in the Pacific Time Zone, with local time meridian 120o
CT = ST - 4 (min / o )(Local time meridian - Local longitude) − E( min)

CT = 4:06.44 am – 4 (120 – 122.33) –(-1.5) = 4:06.44 + 10.94 minutes = 4:17 am

(The navy website shows it to be 4:12 am in 2012… the 5 min difference is due to
their use of the top rim of the sun instead of the center of the sun and they don't
ignore refraction.. both features lead to their sunrise being about 5 minutes earlier
than our geometric sunrise).
Daylight Savings Time for geometric sunrise is an hour later 5:17 am.
4.8 Suppose it is the summer solstice, June 21 (n = 172) and weather service says
sunrise is 4:11 am pacific standard time and sunset is at 8:11 pm (PST). If we
ignore the differences between geometric and weather service sunrise/sunset times
we can use our equations to provide a rough estimate of local latitude and longitude.
a. Estimating solar noon as the midway point between sunrise and sunset, at what time
will it be solar noon?
b. Use (4.12 - 4.14) to estimate your local longitude.
c. Use (4.17) to estimate your local latitude.
SOLN:
a. The total day length is 8:11 pm - 4:11 am = 16 h, so solar noon would be at about
4:11 + 8 h = 12:11 pm
That is, clock time is 11 minutes later than solar time.
b. From (4.12 ) and (4.13)
360 360
B= (n − 81) = (172 − 81) = 90 o
364 364
E = 9.87sin2B − 7.53cos B − 1.5sin B
= 9.87sin 2⋅ (90) − 7.53cos(90 ) − 1.5sin(90) = −1.5 minutes
Using the local time meridian for Pacific Standard Time of 120o in (4.14)
(
ST = CT + 4 min/ o ( Local time meridian-Local longitude ) + E(min) )
12 : 00 = 12 :11 + 4 (120 − Longitude) − 1.5
11 + 480 − 1.5
Longitude = = 122.4 o
4
c. With sunrise being 8 h before noon, the sunrise hour angle is
⎛ 15 o ⎞
Sunrise hour angle H SR = ⎜ ( hours before solar noon )
⎝ hr ⎟⎠

⎛ 15 o ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ x ( 8 ) hrs = 120 o
⎝ hr ⎠
cos H cos120 o
from (4.17) tan L = − =− = 1.15 Lat = 49 o
tan δ tan 23.45 o

(Actually, this is Seattle, Lat 47.6o and Long 122.3o so we're a bit off, as
could be expected).
4.9 A south-‐facing collector at latitude 40o is tipped up at an angle equal to its latitude.
Compute the following insolations for January 1st at solar noon:
a. The direct beam insolation normal to the sun’s rays
b. Beam insolation on the collector
c. Diffuse radiation on the collector
d. Reflected radiation with ground reflectivity 0.2.
SOLN:
a. Beam normal to rays
A = 1160 + 75sin ⎡ (n − 275)⎤ = 1160 + 75sin ⎡ (1− 275)⎤ = 1235

360 360
⎣ 365 ⎦ ⎣ 365 ⎦
k = 0.174 + 0.035sin ⎡ (1− 100 )⎤ = 0.1393

360
⎣ 365 ⎦
⎡ 360
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ (1 − 81)⎤⎥ = −23.0 o
⎣ 365 ⎦
β N = 90 − L + δ = 90 − 40 − 23 = 27 o
m= ( 708 sin β )2 + 1417 − 708 sin β = ( 708 sin 27 )2 + 1417 − 708 sin 27 = 2.197
I B = Ae− km = 1235e−0.1393x 2.197 = 909.4W / m 2
b. Beam on collector
cosθ = cos β cos (φS − φC ) sin ∑ + sin β cos ∑
= cos 27 cos ( 0 − 0 ) sin 40 + sin 27 cos 40 = 0.9205
I BC = I B cosθ = 909.4x0.9205 = 837.1 W / m 2
cosθ = cos β cos(φS − φ C ) sin Σ + sin β cos Σ
= cos27o cos(0 − 0 o ) sin 40o + sin 27o cos40 o = 0.9205
IBC = IB cosθ = 908.7 W / m ⋅ 0.9205 = 836.5 W/m

2 2

c. Diffuse
⎡ 360 (n − 100)⎤ = 0.095 + 0.04sin ⎡ 360 (1− 100 )⎤ = 0.05535
C = 0.095 + 0.04sin
⎣ 365 ⎦ ⎣ 365 ⎦
⎛ 1 + cos ∑ ⎞ ⎛ 1 + cos 40 ⎞
I DC = C ⋅ I B ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.05535x909.4 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 44.4 W / m
2
⎝ 2 2
d. Reflected

⎛ 1 − cos ∑ ⎞
I RC = I B ρ ( C + sin β ) ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ 2

⎛ 1 − cos 40 ⎞
= 0.2 ⋅ 909.4 ( 0.05535 + sin 27 ) ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 10.8 W / m
2
⎝ 2
e. Total insolation on the collector
IC = IBC + IDC + IRC = 836.5 + 44.4 + 10.8 = 892 W / m 2

4.10 Create a “Clear Sky Insolation Calculator” for direct, diffuse and reflected radiation
using the spreadsheet shown in Figure 4.26 as a guide. Confirm that it gives you 859
W/m2 under the following conditions: August 1, 30o latitude, tilt 40o, southwest facing
(-‐45o), 3 pm solar time, reflectance 0.2.
Use the calculator to compute clear sky insolation under the following conditions (times
are solar times):
a. Jan. 1, latitude 40o, horizontal insolation, solar noon, reflectance =0
b. Mar. 15, latitude 20o, south-‐facing collector, tilt 20o, 11:00 am, ρ = 0.2.
c. July 1, latitude 48o, south-‐east collector (azimuth 45o), tilt 20o, 2 pm, ρ = 0.3.
SOLN:
a. 463 W/m2
b. 1035 W/m2
c. 744 W/m2

4.11 The following table shows TMY data (W/m2) for Denver (latitude 39.8o) on July 1 (n =
182, δ = 23.12o). Calculate the expected irradiation on the following collector surfaces.
Notice answers are given for some of them to help check your work.

TMY TMY TMY TMY

Time GHI DNI DHI
5.00 - - -
6.00 92 334 40
7.00 273 608 68
8.00 476 744 93
9.00 667 820 114
10.00 825 864 128
11.00 938 889 138
12.00 998 901 143
13.00 1,000 901 143
14.00 944 890 138
15.00 835 866 129
16.00 637 677 172
17.00 455 608 134
18.00 172 51 154
19.00 67 104 49
a. South-‐facing, fixed 40 tilt, reflectance 0.2, solar noon.

o
SOLN:
⎡ 360
( n − 81)⎤⎥ = 23.45 sin ⎡⎢ (182 − 81)⎤⎥ = 23.12 o
360
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢
⎣ 365 ⎦ ⎣ 365 ⎦
β N = 90 − L + δ = 90 − 39.8 + 23.12 = 73.32

= cos 73.32 o cos ( 0 − 0 ) sin 40 + sin 73.32 cos 40
= 0.9183
I BC = DNI cosθ = 901x0.9183 = 827.4 W/m 2
⎛ 1 + cos ∑ ⎞ ⎛ 1 + cos 40 ⎞
I DC = I DH ⎜ ⎟ = 143 ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 126.3 W/m
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2
⎛ 1 − cos ∑ ⎞ ⎛ 1 − cos 40 ⎞
I RC = ρ I H ⎜ ⎟ = 0.2x998 ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 23.3 W/m
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2
I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 827.4 + 126.3 + 23.3 = 977 W/m 2

b. South-‐facing, fixed 30o tilt, reflectance 0.2 solar noon. (ans: 1024 W/m2)
c. Horizontal, north-‐south axis, tracking collector (HNS), reflectance 0.2, at 11:00 am
solar time.
SOLN:
gmasters Pg.4. 10

2/7/13
⎡ 360
( n − 81)⎤⎥ = 23.45 sin ⎡⎢ (182 − 81)⎤⎥ = 23.12 o
360
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢
⎣ 365 ⎦ ⎣ 365 ⎦
= cos 39.8 cos 23.12 cos15 + sin 39.8 sin 23.12 = 0.8729
β = 69.04 o
cos δ sin H cos 23.12 sin15
sin φS = = φS = 41.72 o
cos β cos 69.04
cosθ = 1 − ( cos β cos φS ) = 1 − ( cos 69.04 cos 41.72 ) = 0.964

2 2

I BC = DNI cosθ = 889x0.964 = 857 W/m 2
⎡ 1 + sin β / cosθ ⎤ ⎡ 1 + sin 69.04 / 0.964 ⎤

I DC = I DHI ⎢ ⎥ = 138 ⎢ ⎥ = 136 W/m 2
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ 1 − sin β / cosθ ⎤ ⎡ 1 − sin 69.04 / 0.964 ⎤
I RC = ρ I H ⎢ ⎥ = 0.2x938 ⎢ ⎥ = 3 W/m 2
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 857 + 136 + 3 = 996 W/m 2
d. Horizontal north-‐south axis, tracking collector (HNS), reflectance 0.2, at solar noon
(ans: 1006 W/m2).
e. Two-‐axis tracker, reflectance 0.2, at solar noon.
SOLN:
cosθ = 1
I BC = DNI cosθ = 901x1 = 901 W/m 2
⎛ 1 + sin β ⎞ ⎛ 1 + sin 73.32 ⎞
I DC = I DH ⎜ ⎟ = 143 ⎜ ⎟ = 140 W/m 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 − sin β ⎞ ⎛ 1 − sin 73.32 ⎞

I RC = ρ I GHI ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 0.2x998 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 4 W/m
2
⎝ 2 2
I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 901 + 140 + 4 = 1045 W/m 2

f. Two-‐axis tracker, reflectance 0.2, at 11:00 am solar time. (Ans. 1029 W/m2)

g. One-‐axis tracker, vertical mount (VERT), tilt = 30o at 11:00 am solar time,
reflectance 0.2. (Ans: 1019 W/m2)
h. One-‐axis tracker, vertical mount (VERT), tilt = 30o at solar noon, reflectance
0.2.
SOLN:
gmasters Pg.4. 11

2/7/13
I BC = I DNI sin ( β + ∑ ) = 901sin ( 73.32 + 30 ) = 876.7 W/m 2
⎛ 1 + cos ∑ ⎞ ⎛ 1 + cos 30 ⎞
I DC = I DHI ⎜ ⎟ = 143 ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 133.4W / m
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2

⎛ 1 + cos ∑ ⎞ ⎛ 1 − cos 30 ⎞
I RC = ρGHI ⎜ ⎟ = 0.2x998 ⎜ ⎟ = 13.4W / m 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 876.7 + 133.4 + 13.4 = 1024 W/m 2

4.12 Download TMY3 data for Mountain View (Moffett Field, latitude 37.4), CA
from the NREL website (http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/1991-‐
2005/tmy3). The raw data is in CSV format. By opening the CSV file in Excel,
you can convert it to normal rows and columns of data. Be sure to save it then
as an Excel file.
a. Use TMY3 to find the irradiation on a south-‐facing photovoltaic module with a
fixed 18o tilt angle on September 21 (equinox) at solar noon. Assume 0.2
reflectance.
b. Compare that to clear-‐sky irradiation on that module.
SOLN:
a. Here's a portion of the data page

It's an equinox, so δ = 0 and β = 90 -‐ Lat + δ = 90-‐37.4 = 52.6o, Φ S= 0 = ΦC.

= cos 52.6 cos ( 0 − 0 ) sin18 + sin 52.6 cos18 = 0.9432
I BC = I DNI cosθ = 865x0.9433 = 815.9 W / m 2
⎛ 1 + cos ∑ ⎞ ⎛ 1 + cos18 ⎞
I DC = I DHI ⎜ ⎟ = 125 ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 121.9 W/m
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2
⎛ 1 − cos ∑ ⎞ ⎛ 1 − cos18 ⎞
I RC = ρ I GHI ⎜ ⎟ = 0.2x832 ⎜ ⎟⎠ = 4.1 W/m
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2
gmasters Pg.4. 12

2/7/13
I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 815.9 + 121.9 + 4.1 = 942 W/m 2

b. Clear sky insolation from our clear-‐sky spreadsheet is
IC = 855 + 95 + 4 = 954 W/m2 versus 942 for a "typical" Sept 21.

4.13 In Example 4.13 the average irradiation in September on a 30o fixed-tilt, south-
facing collector in Oakland (latitude 37.73, horizontal insolation 7.32 kWh/m2-day,
reflectivity 0.2) was estimated to be 6.7 kWh/m2-day. Repeat that calculation if the
collector tilt angle is only 10o.
SOLN: From the example, the fraction of irradiation that is diffuse was found to be
0.259. That doesn't change, so the diffuse horizontal radiation is still
I DH = 0.259 ⋅ 7.32 = 1.90 kWh/m 2 -day
The diffuse radiation on the collector is given by (4.55)
⎛ 1 + cos Σ ⎞ ⎛ 1 + cos10 o ⎞
I DC = I DH ⎜ ⎟ = 1.90 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.886 kWh/m 2 -day
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The reflected radiation on the collector is given by (4.56)
⎛ 1 − cos Σ ⎞ ⎛ 1 − cos10 o ⎞
I RC = ρ IH ⎜ ⎟ = 0.2 ⋅ 7.32 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.01 kWh / m 2 − day
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
From (4.51), the beam radiation on the horizontal surface is still
I BH = I H − I DH = 7.32 − 1.90 = 5.42 kWh/m 2 -day
To adjust this for the collector tilt, first find the sunrise hour angle on the collector
from (4.59)
HSRC = min cos { −1
(− tan L tan δ ), cos−1 [− tan( L − Σ) tan δ ]}
{ (
= min cos −1 − tan 37.73o tan 21.35 o , cos −1 ⎡⎣ − tan ( 37.73 − 10 ) tan 21.35 o ⎤⎦ ) o
}
{
= min 107.6 o ,101.9 o = 101.9 o = 1.778 radians }
The beam tilt factor (4.58) is thus
cos(L − Σ ) cosδ sin HSRC + HSRC sin( L − Σ) sin δ
RB =
cos L cosδ sin HSR + HSR sin L sin δ
cos ( 37.73 − 10 ) cos 21.35 o sin101.9 o + 1.778 sin ( 37.73 − 10 ) sin 21.35 o
o o
=
cos 37.73o cos 21.35 o sin107.6 o + 1.878 sin 37.73o sin 21.35 o
= 0.988
So the beam insolation on the collector is
gmasters Pg.4. 13

2/7/13
I BC = I BH RB = 5.42 ⋅ 0.988 = 5.36 kWh/m 2 -day

Total insolation on the collector is thus
I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 5.36 + 1.89 + 0.01 = 7.26 kWh/m 2 -day
That's a 7.26 / 6.7 = 1.08 .. an 8% increase (it will be a decrease in the winter,
though).

gmasters Pg.4. 14

2/7/13
Chapter 8 More Renewable Energy Systems SOLUTIONS
Chapter 8 PROBLEMS
8.1 A perfect Carnot heat engine receives 1000 kJ/s of heat from a high
temperature source at 600oC and rejects heat to a cold temperature sink at
20oC.
a. What is the thermal efficiency of this engine?
b. What is the power delivered by the engine in watts?
c. At what rate is heat rejected to the cold temperature sink?
d. What are the entropy changes of the source and the sink?
SOLN:
a. What is the thermal efficiency of this engine?
Since it is a perfect heat engine, (8.6) gives
TC (20 + 273.15)
η = 1− =1 − = 0.6643 = 66.43%
TH (600 + 273.15)
b. How many kW of output power would be delivered by this engine?
P = η Pin = 0.6643⋅1000 kJ/s ⋅1 kW/(kJ/s) = 664.3 kW

c. At what rate is heat rejected to the cold temperature sink?
QC = (1 − η )QH = (1 − 0.6643) ⋅1000kJ / s = 335.7kJ / s

d. What is the entropy change of the source and sink?
QH 1000kJ / s
ΔS(source) = = = 1.145kJ / s ⋅ K loss
TH ( 600 + 273.15 ) K
QC 335.7kJ / s
ΔS(sink) = = = 1.145kJ / s ⋅ K gain
TC ( 20 + 273.15 ) K
As expected, they the net change is zero.
8.2 Suppose an ocean thermal energy conversion system (OTEC) uses the
difference in temperature between 25oC water at the ocean's surface and 5oC
water several hundred meters below the surface to power a Rankine cycle
engine.
a. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency of the system ?
SOLN: From (8.6)
TC 5 + 273.15
ηmax = 1 − = 1− = 0.067 = 6.7%
TH 25 + 273.15
b. If the system runs at 40% of the Carnot efficiency, what flow rate of water
through the system would be needed to generate 1 MW of electrical power (the
density of seawater is 103 kg/m3 with a specific heat of 4.2 x 103 Jkg-‐1K-‐1 )?
gmasters Pg. 8. 1 2/7/13

SOLN: The heat source must provide

1 MW
Thermal input = = 37.3 MWt
0.40 x 0.067
It does so by dropping the temperature by 20oC.
QH = ρcmΔT

1J / s 10 3 kg 4.2x10 3 J ⎛ m3 ⎞
QH = 37.3x10 6 W ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ 
m ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⋅ 20K
W m3 kgK
QH 37.3x10 6
m = = 3 = 0.444m 3 s = 7.0x10 3 gpm
ρcΔT 10 x4.2x10 3 x20
That is a pretty substantial flow rate.
8.3 A solar pond consists of a thin layer of fresh water floating on top of a denser
layer of salt water. When the salty layer absorbs sunlight it warms up and
much of that heat is held there by the insulating effect of the fresh water above
it (without the fresh water, the warm salt water would rise to the surface and
dissipate its heat to the atmosphere).
a. What is the maximum efficiency of a heat engine operating between the 90oC
salty layer of a pond and the 20oC freshwater layer?
SOLN:
TC 20 + 273.15
Carnot η =1- = 1− = 0.214 = 21.4%
TH 90 + 283.15
b. If a real engine is able to achieve 20% of the efficiency of a Carnot engine, how
many kilowatt hours of electricity could be generated per day from a 100-‐m x
100-‐m pond that captures and stores 30% of the 6 kWh/m2 solar radiation
striking the surface?
SOLN:
Energy = 0.20 x 0.214 x 100 x 100m 2 x 0.30 x 6 kWh/m 2 = 772 kWh/d ( )
8.4 A portion of the wave energy conversion performance (kW) of the 750-‐kW
Pelamis system is shown in Fig. P8.4. Suppose this machine is located in the
vicinity of a buoy having the wave scatter diagram shown in Table 8.5.

Peak Wave Period T P (s)
H S (m) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 17 20
3.0 0 91 180 246 402 424 417 369 343 331 229 144 93
2.5 0 7 93 171 279 342 351 320 274 230 174 100 65
2.0 0 0 66 109 199 219 225 205 195 162 112 64 41
1.5 0 0 26 62 112 141 143 129 110 91 63 36 23
1.0 0 0 11 27 50 62 64 57 49 41 28 0 0
0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Figure P8.4

a. What is the energy available (kWh/m/yr) in the waves at that location that
have a 2-‐m significant wave height and an 8-‐s peak wave period?
SOLN: From Table 8.5, there are 272 hours of 2-‐m, 8-‐s waves. From (8.10) the
power they contain is
P = 0.42 ( H S ) TP = 0.42x2 2 x8 = 13.44kW / m
2

So their energy content is 13.44 kW/m x 272 h/yr = 3656 kWh/m/yr (which
agrees with Table 8.6).
b. Assuming power take-‐off losses of 25%, how much energy (kWh/yr) would be
delivered by the Pelamis machine from those same 2-‐m, 8-‐s waves?
SOLN: From Table P8.4, this machine delivers 219 kW in these waves, so
Energy = 219 kW x 272 h/yr x 0.75 = 4.47 x 103 kWh/yr
c. This Pelamis (sea snake) is 180-‐m long. What fraction of the energy in the
waves that impact this machine is actually delivered?
delivered 4.47x10 3 kWh/yr
SOLN: η = = = 0.0068 = 0.68%
available 3656 kWh/m/yr x 180m

8.5 The following table (P8.5) is an hours-‐per-‐month wave scatter diagram for the
month of August for the same buoy described in Table 8.5 in the chapter.

Peak Wave Period T P (s)
H S (m) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 17 20
3.0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.5 0 0 0 0 3 9 3 2 0 0 0 0 0
2.0 0 0 0 4 19 42 12 7 4 2 1 0 0
1.5 0 0 2 24 52 74 32 19 9 6 9 15 1
1.0 1 4 10 30 37 68 42 28 16 16 47 40 5
0.5 1 1 1 3 3 9 5 3 2 5 9 4 0
0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table P8.5
a. Compare the average power (kW/m) in waves with 3-‐m significant wave
height versus 2-‐m height if both have a peak wave period of 9 s.
SOLN: From (8.10)
P(3m) = 0.42 ( H S ) TP = 0.42 x 32 x 9 = 34.0 kW/m
2

P(2m) = 0.42 ( H S ) TP = 0.42 x 2 2 x 9 = 15.1 kW/m
2
That's a ratio of 34/15.1 = 2.25

b. How much energy (kWh/m) would waves with significant wave heights
between 2.25 m and 2.75 m have during this month?

SOLN: From the table there are 3 h @ 7s, 9 h @ 8s, 3h @ 9s and 2 h@ 10s. Since all
have the same Hs = 2.5 m, it is easy to use (8.10) to give
Energy = 0.42 ( H S ) TP kW/m x h/mo
2

= 0.42x ( 2.5 ) [ 3hx7 + 9hx8 + 3hx9 + 2hx10 ] = 367.5 kWh/m/mo
2
c. How much energy would the 1-‐MW turbine in Table 8.7 deliver in this month
for those 2.5-‐m waves? Assume 95% availability, an 85% directionality
factor, and a 90%-‐efficient generator.
SOLN: With 3 h at 7s and 231 W, 9h @ 8s and 269 W, 3h @9s and 325 W, and 2h
@10s and 401 W:
Shaft = 231W x 3h + 269W x 9h + 325W x 3 h + 401W x 2h
= 4891 Wh/mo = 4.89 kWh/mo
Delivered = 4.89 x 0.95 x 0.85 x 0.90 = 3.55 kWh/mo/m for these 2.5 m waves.
8.6 An in-‐stream tidal power system consisting of an underwater 11-‐m-‐diameter,
horizontal axis turbine that delivers its rated power of 300 kW in 2.4 m/s
currents.
a. What is the efficiency of this system at that current speed?
SOLN: First find power in the flow from (8.11)
1 π
P = ρ Av 3 = 0.5x1025x x112 x2.4 3 = 673x10 3W = 673kW
2 4
320 kW
so, the efficiency is η = =0.48 = 48%
673 kW
b. In those currents what will be the blade rpm and the blade tip speed (m/s and
mph) if it operates with a TSR = 5.0?
SOLN: Since TSR = tip speed/water speed,
Tip speed = 5 x 2.4 m/s = 12 m/s = 26.8 mph
And the rpm would be
rev 12 m/s x 60 s/min 12x60
= = = 20.8 rev/min
min π D (m/rev) π x11
c. If placed in a region with sinusoidal current oscillations with peak speed of
2.5 m/s, what would be the average power that the water would provide to
this turbine?
SOLN: Using (8.15)
2 2 π
Pavg,water = ρ AVm3 = x1025x x112 x2.5 3 = 323x10 6 W = 323kW
3π 3π 4

d. If we assume the average turbine efficiency is 60% of its value at rated power,
how much energy would the turbine deliver and what would be its capacity
factor?
SOLN: At an average efficiency of 0.60 x 48% = 28.8% this machine would deliver
Energy = 0.288 x 323 kW x 8760 h/yr = 0.815 x 106 kWh/yr
Actual 0.815x10 6 kWh/yr
CF = = = 0.31
Possible 300 kW x 8760 h/yr
8.7 Suppose a 300-‐kW tidal power system is located in the current regime
described below (Fig. P8.7). Also shown are data for the power curve of the
turbine.
Tidal Speed
Probability Power (kW)
(m/s)
0.0 0.000 0
0.5 0.243 0
1.0 0.278 25
1.5 0.222 90
2.0 0.150 220
2.5 0.077 300
3.0 0.030 300
3.5 0.000 300
Table P8.7
a. Estimate the annual energy that would be delivered by 1.5 m/s tidal speeds
(actually, between 1.25 and 1.75 m/s).
SOLN: Hours @ 1.5 m/s = 0.222 x 8760 h/yr = 1944 h/yr
Energy = 1944 h/yr x 90 kW = 175,025 kWh/yr
b. Estimate the total annual energy delivered and the overall capacity factor for
the turbine.
SOLN: Easier to do on a spreadsheet:
Tidal Speed h/yr @ Energy
Probability Power (kW)
(m/s) speed (kWh/yr)
0.0 0.000 0 - -
0.5 0.243 0 2,129 -
1.0 0.278 25 2,435 60,882
1.5 0.222 90 1,945 175,025
2.0 0.150 220 1,314 289,080
2.5 0.077 300 675 202,356
3.0 0.030 300 263 78,840
3.5 0.000 300 - -
Totals = 1.00 8760 806,183
delivered 806,183 kWh/yr
CF = = = 0.307
possible 300 kW x 8760 h/yr

8.8 Suppose 200 gpm of water is taken from a creek and delivered through 800 ft of
3-‐in diameter PVC pipe to a turbine 100 ft lower than the source. If the
turbine/generator has an efficiency of 40%,
a. Find the electrical power that would be delivered by the generator.
SOLN: From Fig. 8.34, at 200 gpm, 3-‐in. PVC loses about 6 ft of head for every 100
ft of length. Since we have 800 ft of pipe, the friction loss is
Friction Loss = 800 ft x 6 ft/100 ft = 48 ft of head loss
That is 48 percent of the 100 feet of available elevation head.
From (8.20) power delivered from the system will be
ηQ ( gpm ) H N ( ft ) 0.40x200x (100 − 48 )
P ( kW ) = = = 0.785kW
5300 5300
b. What diameter pipe would be needed to keep the flow speed around 5 ft/s or
less?
SOLN:
To keep flow to less than 5 ft/s
Q 200 gal/min π
A= = 3
= 0.08912 ft 2 = D 2
v 5 ft/s x 60 s/min x 7.4805 gal/ft 4

4x0.08912 ft 2 144in 2
D= x = 4.04 in
π ft 2
Choose 4-‐in PVC pipe (speed will be slightly higher than the guideline)
c. Assuming locally available PVC pipe comes in 1-‐in diameter increments (2-‐in,
3-‐in, etc), pick a pipe size closest to the above suggested diameter and find the
power delivered by the generator with this pipe.
SOLN: From Fig. (8.34), friction loss will now be about 1.8 ft/100 ft
Friction loss = 800 ft x 1.8 ft/100 ft = 14.4 ft
Power delivered would now be
ηQ ( gpm ) H N ( ft ) 0.40x200x (100 − 14.4 )
P ( kW ) = = = 1.29kW
5300 5300
... an increase of about 65% compared with the 0.785 kW using 3-in pipe
8.9 Equations (8.21) and (8.22) for a rectangular weir are based on water height h
above the notch being at least 2 inches while the notch width W must be at least
3h. Design a notch (width and height) that will be able to measure the
maximum flow when the minimum flow is estimated to be 200 gpm. What
maximum flow rate could be accommodated?

W>3h
water h > 2 in

Figure P8.9
SOLN: To keep the water height at least 2 in above the notch at the lowest flow rate,
(8.22) suggests
Q 200
W (in) ≤ 1.5
+ 0.2h = +0.2 x 2 = 24.8 in
2.9h 2.9 x 21.5
The narrower the notch, the higher the water will rise above the weir. To
keep the weir from overflowing at high water rates, we want the widest weir
possible. So choose W = 24.8 in.
To satisfy the W > 3h constraint ,
h < W/3 = 24.8/3 = 8.27 in
The flow rate that would correspond to h = 8.27-‐in with W = 24.8-‐in is
Q = 2.9 (W − 0.2h ) h 3/2 = 2.9 ( 24.8 − 0.2x8.27 ) ⋅ 8.27 3/2 = 1595gpm
8.10 Suppose 300-‐m of elevation separate the upper and lower reservoirs of a
pumped hydro system. Each has an average surface area of 10 hectares
(100,000 m2) and their surfaces are allowed to vary in elevation by 1 m. If
the penstock efficiency is 90% and the turbine/generator efficiency is 80%
what is the average power that could be delivered over a 12-‐h period?
SOLN: From (8.23), daily energy available from the 100,000 m2 upper reservoir
when it drops 1 m is
ρ ( kg / m3) g ( m / s 2 ) Δh ( m ) xA(m 2 )xH ( m )
E=
3.6x10 6 J / kWh
1000x9.81x1x100x10 3 x300
E= = 81, 750kWh
3.6x10 6
Accounting for the penstock and turbine/generator efficiencies and averaging
over a day
81, 750kWh / dayx0.80x0.90
Pavg = = 4905kW
12h / day
8.11 Consider the design of an off-‐grid, pumped-‐hydro system for a photovoltaic-‐
powered small cabin located next to a pond. . Suppose the demand is
estimated to be 10 kWh/day with a peak demand of 3 kW. A tank will be

placed on a nearby hilltop 100 ft above the turbine/generator. Connecting
pipe runs to and from the tank are each 800 ft.
Storage%
800%8% 800%8%piping%
H"="100%8% Turbine/Generator%80%%
elevaCon%
Pump%
75%%
pond%
10%kWh/day,%3%kW%peak%

Figure P8.11
a. Assuming an average of 15% head losses in the pipeline and 80% conversion
efficiency for the turbine/generator, how many gallons of water needs to flow
from the upper tank to the pond in a day's time?
SOLN: Using the basic potential energy = weight x height (or 8.23)
V(gal) x 8.34 lb/gal x 100 ft
E(kWh) = 10kWh = 6
x0.85x0.80 = 2.14x10 -4V
2.655x10 ft-lb/kWh

10
V= = 46,815 gal
2.14x10 -4
b. Size the upper storage tank (gallons) to provide a full day's worth of back-‐up
energy when the renewables don't supply any power. Assume maximum
allowed tank drainage is 75%.
SOLN: Tank size = 46,815 gal / 0.75 = 62,420 gal
c. Assuming piping losses are 20% during peak demand what flow rate from the
tank would be needed to supply the 3 kW peak?
SOLN: Using (8.20) with 20% head losses and 80% conversion efficiency
5300xP ( kW ) 5300x3
Q ( gpm ) = = = 248 gpm
η ⋅ H G ( ft) 0.80x(100 − 20)
d. Using the choices given in Fig. 8.34, what size pipe would keep losses to
around 20% at peak demand?
SOLN: With the assumed head loss of 20 ft, the loss is 20 ft/800 ft = 2.5 ft per 100 ft
of piping at 250 gpm. From the figure, it looks like 4-‐in PVC at 250 gpm loses
about 3 ft/100-‐ft, so to meet our goals you should probably move up to the 5-‐
in PVC (with 1.5 ft/100 ft loss).

e. How much energy would a photovoltaic system have to provide to meet the
average daily demand for energy. Assume 15% piping losses in each piping
run and a 75%-‐efficient pump.
SOLN: The house needs 10 kWh/day. The pump is 75% efficient, the piping losses
over both the supply and return lines totals 30%, the turbine/generator is
80% efficient, which makes the round-‐trip efficiency only
Round trip efficiency = 0.75 x 0.70 x 0.80 = 0.42 = 42%
Total demand = 10 kWh/d / 0.42 = 23.8 kWh/day
f. In an area with 5.5 kWh/m2/day insolation, size a photovoltaic system to
supply the 10 kWh/day needed by the household. Assume a derate factor of
0.75.
SOLN: Using (6.7)
23.8 kWh/d = Pdc,stc(kW) x h/day full sun x derate = kWp x 5.5 x 0.75
Peak power dc, stc rating = kWp = 5.77 kW


CHAP 6: PV Systems SOLUTIONS
PROBLEMS CHAPTER 6
6.1 A clean, 1 m2, 15% efficient module (STC), has its own 90% efficient inverter. Its
NOCT is 45oC and its rated power degrades by 0.5%/oC above the 25oC STC.
1"m2" kWh"="?"
dc"
6"kWh/m2" ac"
"PV"
90%"

Figure P 6.1
a. What is its standard test condition (STC) rated power of the module?
b. For a day with 6 kWh/m2 of insolation, find the kWh that it would deliver if it
operates at its NOCT temperature. Assume the only deratings are due to
temperature and inverter efficiency.
SOLN:
a. The STC output of this module Pdc,STC = 0.15 x 1 m2 x 1 kW/m2 = 0.15 kW
b. Operating at its NOCT temperature,
Temp derating = [1 -‐ 0.5%/oC x (45-‐25)oC] = 0.90
Inverter derating = 0.90
Total derating = 0.90 x 0.90 = 0.81
Energy = 0.15 kW x 0.81 x 6 h/d = 0.729 kWh/day

6.2 NREL's PVWATTS website predicts that 5.56 kWh/m2-‐day of insolation on a
south-‐facing, 40o tilt array in Boulder, CO, will deliver 1459 kWh/yr of ac
energy per kWdc,STC of PV modules.
a. Using the "peak-‐hours" approach to performance estimation, what overall
derate factor (including temperature effects) would yield the same annual
energy delivered?
SOLN:
kWh/yr = Pdc,STC x Overall Derate x (h/daypeaksun) x 365d/yr
1459 kWh/yr
Overall Derate = = 0.7189
1 kW x 5.56 h/day x 365d/yr
b. Since PVWATTS' derate value of 0.77 includes everything but temperature
impacts, what temperature induced derating needs to be included to make the
peak-‐hours approach predict the same annual energy?
(Overall Derate = PVWATTS Derate x Temperature Derate).
SOLN:


1459 kWh/yr
Boulder Overall Derate = = 0.7189
Overall Derate 0.7189
Temperature Derate = = = 0.9337
Default 0.77 0.77
which is a 1 -‐ 0.9337 = 0.066 = 6.6% loss due to temperature.
c. Use the PVWATTS website to find the overall annual temperature derate
factors for a cold place (Bismarck, ND) and a hot place (Houston, TX). Use the
same south-‐facing, 40o tilt array.
SOLN:
Bismarck: PVWATTS predicts 1352 kWh/yr per kW dc, STC from 5.00
kWh/m2-‐day insolation:
1352 kWh/yr
Bismarck Overall Derate = = 0.7408
Default 0.77 0.77
Houston: PVWATTS predicts 1193 kWh/yr from 4.69 kWh/m2-‐day:
1193 kWh/yr
Houston Overall Derate = = 0.6969

Default 0.77 0.77
So performance is cut by 3.8% in cold Bismarck and 9.5% in hot Houston.
6.3 You are to size a grid-‐connected PV system to deliver 4000 kWh/yr in a
location characterized by 5.5 kWh/m2-‐day of insolation on the array.
a. Find the dc, STC rated power of the modules assuming a 0.72 derate factor.
SOLN:
kWh/yr = PR (kW) x ( h/day full sun ) x 365 day/yr x Derate
4000 kWh/yr
PR (kW) = = 2.77 kW
5.5 h/day x 365 day/yr x 0.72
b. Find the PV collector area required if, under standard test conditions, these
are 18%-‐efficient modules.
SOLN:

Pdc,STC = A m 2 ⋅ ( ) 1mkW ⋅ η 2

2.77 kW
A= 2
= 15.39 m 2
1 kW/m x 0.18
c. Find the first-‐year net cost of electricity ($/kWh) if the system costs $4 per
peak watt ($4/Wdc,STC), it is paid for with a 5%, 30-‐yr loan, interest on the
loan is tax deductible, and the owner is in a 29% marginal tax bracket.
SOLN:
0.05 (1.05 )
30
CRF ( 5%, 30yr ) = = 0.06505 / yr

(1.05 )30 − 1
System Cost = $4/W x 2770 W = $11,080
Annual payments = $11,080 x 0.06505/yr = $720.8
1st year interest = 0.05 x $11,080 = $554
Reduced taxes = $554 x 0.29 = $160.7
1st year cash flow = $720.8 -‐ $160.7 = $560
1st year PV cost = $560/4000 kWh = $0.14 = 14 ¢/kWh
6.4 The beginning of a financial spreadsheet for a PV system is shown below. Fill
in the row for year 2.
year payment interest delta bal loan bal tax savs net cost $/kWh
0 $8,000.00
1 $ 500.00 $400.00 $100.00 $7,900.00 $120.00 $380.00 $0.19000
2 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Table P 6.4
SOLN:
Payment the same $500/y
Interest rate x $8000 = $400, therefore i = 5%/yr ,so 5%x$7900 = $395
Delta Bal = $500 -‐ $395 = $105
Loan Bal = 7900 -‐ 105 = $7795
Tax savs (yr-‐1) = $120 = MTB x $400 so MTB = 25%
Tax savs (yr 2) = 25% x $395 =$118.50
Net Cost = $500 -‐ $118.50 = $381.50
Year 1: $/kWh = $0.19 = $380/kWh, so kWh = 2000/yr
Year 2: $/kWh = $381.50/2000 kWh = $0.19075/kWh

year payment interest delta bal loan bal tax savs net cost $/kWh
0 $8,000.00
1 $ 500.00 $400.00 $100.00 $7,900.00 $120.00 $380.00 $0.19000
2 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
2 $ 500.00 $ 395.00 $ 105.00 $ 7,795.00 $ 118.50 $ 381.50 $ 0.19075
6.5 Recreate the cash flow spreadsheet provided in Table 6.6 and see whether
you can reproduce those same results.
a. In what year do you first see a positive cash flow?
SOLN: Year 6
b. What is the present value of the cash flow in year 14?
F F F $126.21
SOLN: P = n = n P = n = = $63.75
(1 + d ) (1 + d ) (1 + d ) (1 + 0.05 )14
c. What NPV do you get when you set the discount rate to be the same as the
IRR?
SOLN: NPV = 0
d. Eliminate the down payment and see what happens to the IRR. Then try
paying for the whole system with cash. Again, compare IRR and comment.
SOLN: Base case IRR = 7.37%;
Without down payment IRR = 11.63%
With no loan, IRR = 4.02%
… the less of your own money you put in the better your IRR.
e. Find the NPV and IRR for a 4-‐kW system in an area with 5.5 kWh/m2-‐day
insolation, using a derating of 0.72. Keep everything else the same.
SOLN: IRR = 6.86% ; NPV = $533.77
6.6 A grid-‐connected PV array consisting of sixteen 150-‐W modules can be
arranged in a number of series and parallel combinations: (16S, 1P), (8S, 2P),
(4S, 4P), (2S, 8P), (1S, 16P). The array delivers power to a 2500-‐W inverter.
The key characteristics of modules and inverter are given below.

INVERTER MODULE
Maximum AC power 2500 W Rated power Pdc,STC 150 W
Input voltage range for MPP 250 V - 550 V Voltage at MPP 34 V
Maximum input voltage 600 V Open-circuit voltage 43.4 V
Maximum input current 11 Amp Current at MPP 4.40 A
Short-circuit current 4.8 A

Table P 6.6
Using the input voltage range of the inverter maximum power point tracker and
the maximum input voltage of the inverter as design constraints, what

series/parallel combination of modules would best match the PVs to the
inverter? Check the result to see whether the inverter maximum input current
is satisfied. For this simple check, you don't need to worry about temperatures.
SOLN: The PV modules have VOC = 43.4V and VR = 34V. The SB2500 has an MPPT
range of 250-‐550V and a maximum input voltage of 600V.
(16S, 1P) has VOC = 16 x 43.4 = 694 V which is too high X
(8S, 2P) has VOC = 347 V, which is OK. VR = 8 x 34 = 272 V which is OK
(4S, 4P) has VR = 4 x 34 = 136 V which is too low X
(2S, 8P) and (1S, 16P) also are below the MPPT range X
Therefore (8S, 2P) is the best arrangement for the array. Checking its current
2P means 9.6A max, which fits under the 11A max. So it is fine with current.
6.7 Redo Example 6.5 using the 85.7-‐W CdTe modules described below and the
same Sunny-‐Boy 5-‐kW inverter to supply about 5,000 kWh/yr in an area with
5.32 kWh/m2/day of insolation. Assume the same 0.75 derate factor.
Module characteristics:
Peak power: 87.5 W
Rated voltage VMPP : 49.2 V
Open-circuit voltage VOC : 61 V
Short-circuit current ISC: 1.98 A
Temperature coefficient of power: -0.25%/K
Temperature coefficient of VOC : -0.27%/K
Temperature coefficient of ISC: -0.04%/K
NOCT: 45oC
a. What dc-‐STC power (kW) would be required to provide 5,000 kWh/yr?
kWh/yr
Pdc ( kW) =
h/day @1 kW/m 2 x 365 day/yr x derate
SOLN:
5000
= = 3.43 kW
5.32x365x0.75
b. Before worrying about the inverter, how many modules would be required?
3.43 kW 1000 W
SOLN: modules= x = 39.2
87.5 W/mod kW
c. Using the 600-‐V maximum allowable voltage on a residential roof, what is the
maximum number of modules in a single string if the coldest temperature
expected is -‐5oC? Using this constraint, what is the best number of strings and
modules per string?
SOLN: With nominal VOC = 61V, and 0.27%/K change per degree below 25oC

VOC (max) = 61V ⎡⎣1-0.0027 ( -5-25 ) ⎤⎦ = 65.9 V/module
600V
Max # modules/string= = 9.1
65.9V/module
d. Use the coldest ambient temperature to help determine the maximum number
of modules per string need to be sure the MPP stays below the 480-‐V that the
inverter needs for proper tracking.
SOLN: MPP is given as 49.2 V with a 0.27% increase per degree below 25oC:
VOC (max) = 49.2V ⎡⎣1-0.0027 ( -5-25 ) ⎤⎦ = 53.2 V/module
480V
Max # modules/string= = 9.0
53.2V/module
e. What is the minimum number of modules per string to satisfy the inverter
constraint that says it needs at least 250 V to properly maintain maximum
power point tracking. Assume the hottest ambient temperature is 40oC.
⎛ NOCT − 20 ⎞ ⎛ 45 − 20 ⎞
Tcell = Tamb + ⎜ ⎟ S = 40 + ⎜ ⎟⎠ 1 = 71.25 C
o
⎝ 0.8 ⎠ ⎝ 0.8
VMPP ( hot ) = 49.2 ⎡⎣1 − 0.0027 ( 71.24 − 25 ) ⎤⎦ = 43.06V
250 V
min # modules/string = = 5.8
43.06 V/module
So we need at least 6 modules per string.
f. The maximum allowable DC input current for the inverter is 21A. What is the
maximum number of strings that would be allowed?
21A
SOLN: max# strings = = 10.6
1.98A / string
g. Using all of these constraints, choose the best combination of strings and
number of modules per string to satisfy the design.
SOLN: From (c) and (d) the maximum modules/string = 9
From (e) the minimum modules/string = 6
From (f) the maximum number of strings is 10
We need about 40 modules.
4 strings of 10 modules WON'T WORK
5 strings of 8 modules WORKS
6 strings of 7 modules WORKS, but provides more than needed
7 strings of 6 modules WORKS, but provides more than needed

The best combination is 5 strings of 8 modules. It is closer to the design goals
and it uses more modules per string, which raises voltages and reduces line
losses.
6.8 You have four PV modules with identical I-V curves (ISC = 1 A, VOC = 20 V) as
shown. There are three ways you could wire them up to deliver power to a dc-‐
motor (which acts like a 10-‐Ω load):
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1 module, 1-sun
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Figure P 6.8
Draw the I-‐V curves for all three combinations on the same graph. Which
wiring system would be best? Briefly explain your answer.

SOLN: (A) 4 IN PARALLEL IS BEST
Why: At 1 sun A and B look to be about equal… each delivering 2A at about 20V,
with perhaps a slight edge for B since at higher temperatures it will be less
affected by the drop in Voc. B also looks slightly better at 1-‐sun given the tiny
bit of curvature around the knee.
However: Over the course of a day, A is far better since at less than 1-‐sun A is
not affected until you get less than 0.5 Sun (500W/m2) of insolation, and by
then B is really terrible.

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6.9 The summer TOU rate structure shown in Table 6.7 includes an off-‐peak
energy charge of $0.0846/kWh for usage up to 700 kWh/mo and $0.166/kWh
for usage above that base. During the peak demand period it is a flat
$0.27/kWh.
a. What will the customer's bill be for 1000 kWh used off peak and 800 kWh on
peak?
SOLN:
Off Peak = 700 kWh x $0.0846/kWh + 300 kWh x $0.166/kWh = $109
On Peak = 800 kWh x $0.27/kWh = $216
Total = $325/mo
b. Suppose the customer signs up for the TOU + CPP rate structure. During three
days, a critical peak pricing period is announced during which time electricity
costs $0.75/kWh. If they use 100 of their 800 peak period kilowatt-‐hours
during that time, what will their bill be that month.
Off Peak = 700 x $0.0721 + 300 x $0.1411 = $93
On Peak (non CPP) = 700 x $0.27 = $189
On Peak (CPP) = 100 kWh x $0.75/kWh = $75.
Total Bill = $93 + 189 + 75 = $357/mo
That's a bit more than their standard bill of $325.
c. Suppose the customer shuts off their power during those CPP periods, what
would now be the utility bill?
Off Peak + On Peak (non CPP ) = $93 + $189 = $282
That's a savings of $325 (base) -‐ $282 = $43
6.10 A small office building that uses 40,000 kWh/month during the summer has a
peak demand of 100 kW. An 80-‐kW photovoltaic system is being proposed
that will provide 20,000 kWh/mo. The before and after demand curves are
shown in Figure P 6.10.

120 120
Original Demand Original Peak
100 100 kW 100
40,000 kWh Off-Peak Max
70 kW
Power (kW)
80 80 On-Peak
Demand
Power (kW)
with PVs
60 60 On-Peak Max
20,000 kWh
40 30 kW
40
PV Supply
20 20
20,000 kWh
0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time (hrs) Time (hrs)

Figure P 6.10
The utility rate schedule includes demand charges that vary depending on
whether the customer has signed up for time-‐of-‐use rates or not. And the TOU
rates have a demand charge that varies with on or off peak periods.
Non TOU Rates TOU Rates
Energy Charge ($/kWh) $ 0.06 $ 0.05
Demand Charge ($/mo/kWp) $ 12.00 $ 14.00 on peak
$ 5.00 off peak
Table P 6.10
a. What would be the utility bill without the PVs when the non-‐TOU rate schedule
has been chosen?
SOLN: Non-‐TOU, no PVs:
Bill = 40,000 kWh x $0.06/kWh + 100 kW x $12/mo-‐kW = $3600/mo
b. Which rate structure would be the best for the customer if they install the
PVs. How much money would the PVs save with that rate structure?
SOLN: Non-‐TOU with PV: Bill = 20,000 kWh x $0.06 + 70 kW x $12/kW = $2040/mo
TOU with PV:
= $20,000 kWh x $0.05/kWh + $14/mo-‐kW x 30 kW + $5/mo-‐kW x 70 kW
= $1770/mo
Better to use the TOU rates with PV, which means the
PVs save $3600 -‐ $1770 = $1830/mo
6.11 A 100-‐kW PV system is being proposed for a commercial building in an area
with 5.5 kWh/m2-‐day insolation. The before tax-‐credit cost of the system is
$5/Wp. Assuming a 0.72 derate factor:
a. What is the annual electricity production that might be expected?
SOLN: Energy = 100kW x 5.5 h/d x 365 d/yr x 0.72 = 144,540 kWh/yr
b. What is the MACRS depreciable basis for the system after a 30% tax credit has
been taken?

SOLN: The system cost is $100 kW x $5000/kW = $500,000

tax credit is 30% x 100 kW x $5000/kW = $150,000, Half of that is $75,000
So the depreciable basis is $500,000 -‐ 75,000 = $425,000
c. For a corporate tax rate of 38% and a discount rate of 7%, find the present
value of the MACRS depreciation.
SOLN:
Investment $500,000
30% Tax credit $150,000.0
Depreciable basis $425,000.0
Corporate tax rate 38%
Corporate discount rate 7%
Year MACRS Depreciation Tax Savings Present Value
1 20% $85,000.0 $32,300.0 $ 30,186.92
2 32% $136,000.0 $51,680.0 $ 45,139.31
3 19.20% $81,600.0 $31,008.0 $ 25,311.76
4 11.52% $48,960.0 $18,604.8 $ 14,193.51
5 11.52% $48,960.0 $18,604.8 $ 13,264.97
6 5.76% $24,480.0 $9,302.4 $ 6,198.58
Totals 100% $ 425,000.00 $ 161,500.00 $ 134,295.05
d. What is the effective net system cost after the tax credit and MACRS
depreciation. Effective $/kW cost of the system?
Effective cost = $500,000 -‐ $150,000 -‐ $134,295 = $215,705
Cost per watt = $215,705/100,000W = $2.157 /Wp Wow..
6.12 In Example 6.9, the time-‐of-‐day (TOD) factors for a PPA were worked out for a
PV array that faces due south. Since those TOD factors favor afternoon
generation, consider the following clear-‐sky hourly insolation values for those
same collectors now facing toward the southwest.
Insolation
Solar Time
(W/m2)
6 60
7 92
8 282
9 484
10 670
11 821
12 923
1 967
2 947
3 862
4 716
5 516
6 272
Compare the revenue generated by the south-‐facing versus southwest-‐facing

collectors under the following conditions:
gmasters Pg. 6. 10

2/7/13
a. One hour at solar noon on a summer weekday.

SOLN: At noon on a weekday, TOD = 3.13 so
$/day = 1000 kW x 0.923 h of full sun x 0.75 x 0.10 $/kWh x 3.13 = $216.67
(versus $228.41 for south-‐facing)
b. One week at solar noon in the summer.
SOLN: On weekends, TOD = 0.75
$/day = 1000 kW x 0.923 h of full sun x 0.75 x 0.10 $/kWh x 0.75 = $51.92
One week SW = 5 d x $216.67/day + 2 day x $51.92/day = $1187.19
South facing
One week = 5 x $225.36 + 2 x $54.00 = $1239.80 (a bit more than SW)
c. One week at 3 pm in the summer.
SOLN: Southwest:
5 days = 1000 kW x 0.862 h x 0.75 x 0.10 $/kWh x 3.13 x 5 = $1011.77
2 days = 1000 kW x 0.862 x 0.75 x 0.10 x 0.75 x 2 = $96.98
1 week = $1011.77 + $96.98 = $1108.74
SOUTH: (from the Example)
$/week = 5 x $161.04 + 2 x $38.15 = $881.50
SW beats it by $1108.74 -‐ $881.50 = $227/week
d. Create a spreadsheet to work out the entire month's revenue to compare to the
$32,334 that a south-‐facing collector will generate. What is the average PPA
price paid per kWh generated?
SOLN: Revenue = $34,713/mo vs $32,334
Avg PPA = $0.203/kWh vs $0.189/kWh
gmasters Pg. 6. 11

2/7/13
Pdc,stc 1000 kW Lat 40 Tilt 30

# days 22 Weekdays Azimuth (SW, AZ = - 45o)
#days 8 Weekends
DeRate 0.750
PPA $ 0.10 $/kwh base rate
Weekdays Weekends
Insolation Revenue Revenue
Solar Time kWh/day del TOD X TOD X
(W/m2) $/day $/day
6 60 45 0.75 $ 3.38 0.75 $ 3.38
7 92 69 0.75 $ 5.18 0.75 $ 5.18
8 282 212 1.35 $ 28.55 0.75 $ 15.86
9 484 363 1.35 $ 49.01 0.75 $ 27.23
10 670 503 1.35 $ 67.84 0.75 $ 37.69
11 821 616 1.35 $ 83.13 0.75 $ 46.18
12 923 692 3.13 $ 216.67 0.75 $ 51.92
1 967 725 3.13 $ 227.00 0.75 $ 54.39
2 947 710 3.13 $ 222.31 0.75 $ 53.27
3 862 647 3.13 $ 202.35 0.75 $ 48.49
4 716 537 3.13 $ 168.08 0.75 $ 40.28
5 516 387 3.13 $ 121.13 0.75 $ 29.03
6 272 204 1.35 $ 27.54 0.75 $ 15.30
Totals 5709 $ 1,422.16 $ 428.18
REVENUE $ 34,713 $/mo
Energy 171,270 kWh/mo
Avg $ 0.203 $/kWh
6.13 Suppose a 12-‐V battery bank rated at 200 Ah under standard conditions needs to
deliver 600 Wh over a 12-‐hour period each day. If they operate at –10oC, how
many days of use would they be able to supply?
SOLN:
600 VAh/d
Discharge rate = = 4.16 A
12V x 12 h/d

200Ah
Discharge time = = 48h
4.16A
From Figure 6.28, the C/48 discharge rate at T = -‐ 10oC is 90% of the 200 Ah
standard rating. So, with 80% maximum discharge the hours of storage is
200Ah x 0.90(temp) x 0.80(depth)
Hrs of usable storage = = 34.6 h
4.16A
Discharging them for 12 hours per day means they can provide
34.6 h
Days of storage = = 2.9 days
12 h/day
6.14 Consider the design of a small PV-‐powered light-‐emitting-‐diode (LED) flashlight.
The PV array consists of 8 series cells, each with rated current 0.3A @ 0.6V.
Storage is provided by three series AA batteries that each store 2Ah at 1.2V when
fully charged. The LED provides full brightness when it draws 0.4A @ 3.6V.
gmasters Pg. 6. 12

2/7/13
Blocking diode
+ On/Off
+
3.6V
0.4A
3 AA
LED
batteries light
- -

Figure P6.14
The batteries have a Coulomb efficiency of 95% and for maximum cycle life can be
discharged by up to 80%. Assume the PVs have a 0.90 derating due to dirt and
aging.
a. How many hours of light could this design provide each evening if the batteries
are fully charged during the day?
SOLN: 2 Ah x 0.80 = 1.6 Ah available. LED needs 0.4 A so 1.6/0.4 = 4 h of light
b. How many kWh/m2-‐day of insolation would be needed to provide the amount of
light found in (a)?
SOLN: Using (6.34)
Ah battery = IR x (h @ full sun) x PV derate x Coulomb
1.6 = 0.3 A x (kWh/m2-‐day) x 0.90 x 0.95
1.6
kWh/m 2 -day = = 6.24 … a good sunny day
0.3 x 0.90 x 0.95
c. With 14%-‐efficient cells, what PV area would be required?
SOLN: Each 14%-‐efficient cell produces 0.3A x 0.6V = 0.18 W at STC
PR (W) = 1,000 W/m2 x A (m2) x η
0.18W/cell x 8 cell
A= = 0.01028 m 2 (about 16 in2)
1000 x 0.14
6.15 4. You are to design a 24-‐volt, all-‐dc, stand-‐alone PV system to meet a 2.4
kWh/day demand for a small, isolated cabin. You want to size the PV array to meet
the load in a month with average insolation equal to 5.0 kWh/m2-‐day.
+ 24 V
Battery
+ DC loads
2.4 kWh/day
Storage
- - @ 24 V

gmasters Pg. 6. 13

2/7/13
Figure P6.15

Your chosen PVs have their 1-‐sun maximum power point at VR = 18V and IR = 5A.
Assume a 0.80 derate factor for dirt, wiring, module mismatch (i.e. 20% loss). You'll
use 200-‐Ah, 12-‐V batteries with 100% Coulomb efficiency.
a. How many PV modules are needed (you may need to round up or down)? Sketch
your PV array.
SOLN:
Demand = 2400 V-‐A-‐hr/day / 24 V = 100 Ah/day
Need 2 modules in series to get above 24V for the batteries, each string provides
5A.
Need Supply = 5A/string x 5 hr/day x N strings x 0.80= 20 N Ah/day
Strings = N = 100/20 = 5 in parallel
Total number of modules = 2 x 5 = 10 modules

b. How many 200-‐Ah, 12-‐V, deep-‐cycle batteries would be required to cover three
days of no sun if their maximum discharge depth is 75%? Show how you would
wire them up.
SOLN: Demand = 100 Ah/day x 3 days = 300 Ah @ 24V
Each battery has a usable storage of 200 Ah x 0.75 = 150 Ah @ 12V
Need 300 Ah/150Ah -‐per-‐string = 2 strings in parallel so AH add.
Need two 12-‐V batteries in series in each string to provide 24-‐V system voltage.
Total 2 strings x 2 batteries/string = 4 batteries.
24V
+ + 300Ah
- -
+ +
- -

gmasters Pg. 6. 14

2/7/13
6.16 Analyze the following simple PV/battery system, which includes four PV modules
each with rated current and voltage as shown, and four 160-‐Ah, 6-‐V batteries with
90% Coulomb efficiency. An 85%-‐efficient inverter feeds the AC load. Notice
there is no maximum power point tracker (MPPT).
5.5 kWh/m2-day 6-V,

Four 160
6-V,160 Ah Ah
batteries
5.5 kWh/m 2/day
TAMB = 30oC
batteries,
Coulomb efficiency 90% Coulomb
90%, Max discharge 80%
+ η85%
=85% AC
efficient AC Output
Inverter
inverter Output
-
VR =VR20 V, IRI=R8A,
= 20V, = NOCT
8 A, = 0.88 Derate
45oC, PMAX drop 0.5%/oC, Dirt 0.95 (5% loss)

Figure P6.16
a. With 5.5 kWh/m2-‐day of insolation, and 12% module loss due to dirt, wiring
losses, etc, estimate the kWh/day that would reach the loads (assume all PV
current passes through the batteries before it reaches the inverter).
SOLN: Using the peak hours approach with rated current from the modules:
Wh/d = (h/d @ full sun) x IR (A/module) x n (modules) x Dirt x Coulomb x Inverter
x Battery voltage
= 5.5 hr/d x 8.0 A/module x 4 modules x 0.88 x 0.90 x 0.85 x 12 V = 1422 Wh/d
= 1.422 kWh/day reaching the load
b. If the load requires 1 kWh/day, for how many cloudy days in a row can
previously fully-‐charged batteries supply the load with no further PV input?
Assume 80% of their Ah capacity is available.
SOLN:
Batteries deliver = 2x6V x 160 Ah/string x 2 strings x 0.80 discharge x 0.85 inverter
= 2611 Wh = 2.611 kWh available
At 1 kWh/day load, this is 2.61 days of battery-‐provided energy
6.17 Suppose the system in Problem 6.16 is redesigned to include a maximum power
point tracker and a 97%-‐efficient charge controller. Assuming a typical 80%
round-‐trip energy efficiency for the batteries, and a module derate of 0.88, how
many kWh/day would reach the load with the same 5.5 kWh/m2-‐day insolation?
SOLN: With four 160-‐W modules, the energy delivered to the batteries is
To batteries = 4 x 0.160 kW x 5.5 h/d x 0.88 x 0.97 = 3.01 kWh/day
With 80% round trip battery efficiency and an 85%-‐efficient inverter, the energy
reaching the loads is
To Loads = 3.01 kWh/d x 0.80 x 0.85 = 2.04 kWh/day
gmasters Pg. 6. 15

2/7/13
This is 44% more than the non-‐MPPT system would deliver.
6.18 Following the guidelines given in Figure 6.34 for the design of off-‐grid PV
systems, design a system that will deliver an average of 10 kWh/day of ac energy
for a house located in a region with average insolation equal to 5 kWh/m2-‐day.
a. How many kWdc,STC of photovoltaics should be used?
SOLN: Using the factors from PV to load given in Fig. 6.34
10 kWh = kWp x 0.88(derate) x 1(MPP) x 0.97 (charg) x 0.80 (batt) x 0.85 (inv) x 5.0 h/d
10 kWh/d
PV kWp = = 3.45 kW
0.88 x 0.97 x 0.80 x 0.85 x 5 h/d
b. For a 48-‐V battery system, how many amp-‐hours of storage would be needed to
provide three days worth of energy with no sun? Assume maximum discharge of
80%.
3 days x 10,000 VAh/day
SOLN: Storage = =781 Ah
48V x 0.80 (depth)
c. Using the cost guidelines provided in Example 6.16, what would be the capital
cost of this system?
SOLN: PV array @ $2/Wp = 3450 W x $2/W = $6900
Battery @ $150/kWh = 781 Ah x 48V x $0.15/Wh = $5623
BOS @ $2/Wp = 3450 x $2 = $6900
Total hardware cost = $6900 + $5623 + $6900 = $19,423
BOS non hardware @ 30% of hardware = 0.30 x $19,423 = $5826
Total cost = $19,423 + $5,826 = $25,249
d. Assuming a 4%, 20-‐yr loan, what would be the cost per kWh?
SOLN:
0.04 x (1.04)20
CRF(4%,20yr) = = 0.07358/yr

(1.04 )20 -1
$25,249 x 0.07358/yr
Cost per kWh = = $0.509 = 50.94¢/kWh
10 kWh/d x 365d/yr
e. Suppose the diesel generator with efficiency curve shown in Fig. 6.35 operates at
70% of rated power while burning diesel that costs $4.50/gallon. What is its cost
per kWh generated?
SOLN: From the figure, it looks like it delivers about 8 kWh/gallon, which works out to
$4.50/gal
Cost (70%load) = = $0.563/kWh
8 kWh/gal

gmasters Pg. 6. 16

2/7/13
6.19 Consider a directly-‐coupled PV-‐pump system with PV I-V curves and
pump/system H-Q curves as shown below. Notice the start-‐up characteristics
of the pump motor as it tries to overcome static friction before it can actually
start pumping.
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a. At what time in the morning will the water start to flow?
SOLN: 10 am
b. What will the flow rate be a little after 10:00 am?
SOLN: 1.2 gpm
c. At what time in the afternoon will the flow stop?
SOLN: 3 pm (drops below 6V)
d. Assuming the equivalent circuit shown above for the pump motor, what is the
motor’s armature resistance, RA?
SOLN: R = V/I = 1/slope of initial I-‐V rise = 2V/3A = 0.67 ohms
6.20 A single PV module is directly connected to a dc water pump. The module has
41 cells, each of which has a parallel resistance of 9 Ω. The I-V curves for the
dc pump motor and the PV module under 1-‐sun of insolation are shown
below. Also shown are the hydraulic Q-H curves for the pump and its load.
gmasters Pg. 6. 17

2/7/13
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Figure P6.20
a. At some time in the morning the pump is delivering 1.5 gpm of flow. At that
time sketch the PV I-‐V curve. What must the insolation have been at that
time?
SOLN: From the pump Q-‐H curves, at 1.5 gpm the voltage is 14 V. On the pump I-‐V
curve, at 14V the current is 1 A, so the PV I-‐V curve has to shift down to that
intersection (1A, 14V). The PV I-‐V curve shifts down by 1 A, making ISC = 1.2A.
ISC dropping from 2.2 A to 1.2A is a drop of (2.2 -‐ 1.2)/2.2 = 45.5%. That
means insolation also dropped 45.5% (455 W/m2). So insolation is now
Insolation = 1000 -‐ 455 = 545 W/m2
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Voltage (V)
b. At that time in the morning, what will the flow rate drop to if one cell is
completely shaded?
SOLN: At any given current, the PV I-‐V curve drops in voltage by
ΔV = I (A) x 9 Ω + 0.5
So, for example, at 1A ΔV = 9.5V and V is now about 20.5 -‐ 9.5 = 11V, which
leads to the line drawn above. The intersection of pump and PV curves is
gmasters Pg. 6. 18

2/7/13
now at about 12V, which, from the hydraulic curves, means the flow rate is
now about 0.9 gpm (quite a drop from the 1.6 gpm before).
6.21 Suppose you are setting up a little fountain for a pond using a PV-‐powered dc
pump. Shown below are pump curves for various voltages along with a
system curve including a static head of 10 inches. The PV I-‐V curve and hourly
80! insolations are also shown.
!
12V! 80! 16V!
rve
70!
Head (inches of H20)!
Cu
rvve!
12V!
16V 16V! gpm
gpm = = ?!?
e
70! 20V
Cuur
60!
(inchesofofHH20)!
m
10V! gpm = ?!
m C
2O)
60! ste
stetem
50! 10V!
14V
Sy
SSyys
50!
40! 8V!
Head(inches
40! 12V 8V! 101010

in!
in.
30! 14V! 18V 14V! in!
30!
20! 6V! 10V
20! 6V!
Head
PV
PV!
PV!
10! 10!
Pump!
Pump!
0! Pump
0! 0 1 22! 3 4
0! 1! 3! 4!
0! Flow Rate
3! (gpm)
1! 2! Flow Rate (gpm)!
4!
Flow Rate (gpm)!
2.2
2.0
1.8 1-sun I-V
1.6
Current (A)
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Voltage (V)

Time 8 am 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 pm
2
Insolation (kW/m ) 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4
gpm = ?
Figure P 6.21
Suppose the electrical characteristics of the pump can be modeled as a simple
10-‐Ω resistance. Find the hourly flow rates (gpm) and estimate the total gallons
pumped in one day (assume insolation is constant over each one-‐hour interval).
SOLN: ISC is proportional to insolation, which establishes each hourly I-‐V curve. For
example at 10 am, insolation is 0.7, so ISC is 0.7 x 2.0 = 1.4 A. The intersection
then is at 14 V, which from the pump curves gives about 1.8 gpm.
gmasters Pg. 6. 19

2/7/13
2.2
2.0 noon
1.8 11,1
1.6
10, 2
Current (A)
1.4
1.2
1.0 9, 3
0.8
8, 4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Voltage (V)
Time 8 am 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 pm
2
Insolation (kW/m ) 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4
voltage 8 10 14 18 20 18 14 10 8
gpm 0 0.8 1.8 2.5 2.7 2.5 1.8 0.8 0
Gallons/day = (2 x 0.8 + 2 x 1.8 + 2 x 2.5 + 2.7) x 60 min/h = 774 gallons/day

gmasters Pg. 6. 20

2/7/13

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Faculty of Engineering & IT

TECC3792 Renewable Energy Technologies

Question 1: [20 Marks]

c) Reflected Radiation (𝐼𝑅𝐶 ) – This is the component of radiation which is

Question 2: [20 Marks]

2.2. Find the total dynamic head.

2.3. Determine the required input power (Pin ) of the pump.

2.5. Determine the number of strings in parallel.

2.6. Sketch [2]

TECC3792 Renewable Energy Technologies

Question 1: [20 Marks]

Question 2: [20 Marks]

Or using basic potential energy = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Question 1: [20 Marks]

Question 2: [20 Marks]

2.3. The energy delivered to batteries would be:

Question 1: [14 Marks]

The diagonal spacing between adjacent rows:

The spacing between adjacent rows:

b) The short-circuit current at 600 W/m2 is calculated when 𝑉 = 0:

d) The analytical expression for I-V characteristic of the array in (c).

If current (at any given voltage) is directly proportional to insolation, carefully

a) Using the peak hour or full sun estimation:

1. A horizontal-axis wind turbine with rotor 20 meters in diameter is 30% efficient in 10

c. The ratio of power top-to-bottom is:

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 70

Region B: Maximum power coefficient region.

Region C: Constant power region.

Region D: Cut-out or furling-speed region.

Chapter 4: Problems

gmasters Pg.4. 1 2/7/13

gmasters Pg.4. 2 2/7/13

gmasters Pg.4. 3 2/7/13

P tan β 2.377 tan 59.82

gmasters Pg.4. 4 2/7/13

sin β = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ

gmasters Pg.4. 5 2/7/13

gmasters Pg.4. 6 2/7/13

CT = 4:06.44 am – 4 (120 – 122.33) –(-1.5) = 4:06.44 + 10.94 minutes = 4:17 am

gmasters Pg.4. 7 2/7/13

A = 1160 + 75sin ⎡ (n − 275)⎤ = 1160 + 75sin ⎡ (1− 275)⎤ = 1235

k = 0.174 + 0.035sin ⎡ (1− 100 )⎤ = 0.1393

= cos27o cos(0 − 0 o ) sin 40o + sin 27o cos40 o = 0.9205

IBC = IB cosθ = 908.7 W / m ⋅ 0.9205 = 836.5 W/m

gmasters Pg.4. 8 2/7/13

IC = IBC + IDC + IRC = 836.5 + 44.4 + 10.8 = 892 W / m 2

gmasters Pg.4. 9 2/7/13

TMY TMY TMY TMY

a. South-­‐facing, fixed 40 tilt, reflectance 0.2, solar noon.

cosθ = cos β cos (φS − φC ) sin ∑ + sin β cos ∑

I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 827.4 + 126.3 + 23.3 = 977 W/m 2

gmasters Pg.4. 10

cosθ = 1 − ( cos β cos φS ) = 1 − ( cos 69.04 cos 41.72 ) = 0.964

I BC = DNI cosθ = 889x0.964 = 857 W/m 2

⎡ 1 + sin β / cosθ ⎤ ⎡ 1 + sin 69.04 / 0.964 ⎤

⎛ 1 − sin β ⎞ ⎛ 1 − sin 73.32 ⎞

I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 901 + 140 + 4 = 1045 W/m 2

gmasters Pg.4. 11

I BC = I DNI sin ( β + ∑ ) = 901sin ( 73.32 + 30 ) = 876.7 W/m 2

I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 876.7 + 133.4 + 13.4 = 1024 W/m 2

cosθ = cos β cos (φS − φC ) sin ∑ + sin β cos ∑

gmasters Pg.4. 12

I C = I BC + I DC + I RC = 815.9 + 121.9 + 4.1 = 942 W/m 2

gmasters Pg.4. 13

a. South-‐facing, fixed 40 tilt, reflectance 0.2, solar noon.

Compare the revenue generated by the south-‐facing versus southwest-‐facing