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HW 1 Solution
HW 1 Solution
1 . Suppose that G is a group such that x2 = e for all x ∈ G. Show that G is an abelian group.
Proof. for any x, y ∈ G. since (xy) was in G, by hypothesis (xy)2 = e. we have (xy)(xy) = e .
Then x(xy)(xy) = xe = x. Since xx = e , yxy = x. finally we have yx = (yx)e = (yx)(yy) =
(yxy)y = xy. Thus xy = yx .
2. Let G be a group. For any a ∈ G , define a0 = e. For any positive integer n, define an = an−1 a,
For any positive integer m , define a−m = (am )−1 .
(a) For any n ∈ Z , show (an )−1 = a−n = (a−1 )n .
(b) For any n, k ∈ Z , an ak = an+k .
(c) For any n, k ∈ Z , (an )k = ank .
Lemma. Let G be a group . For any a ∈ G and any m ∈ Z , the followings are true .
aam = am+1 = am a
a−1 am = am−1 = am a−1
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Proof (b). for any n, k ∈ Z , we consider the following cases .
(n = 0 or k = 0), (n > 0 and k > 0), (n < 0 and k < 0), (n < 0 and k > 0), (n > 0 and k < 0)
case 1 : n = 0 or k = 0 , This is trivial. you should verify this by yourself .
case 2 : n > 0 and k > 0 . we induction on k .
for k = 1 , then an ak = an a1 = an a |{z}
= an+1 = an+k
by def
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3 . Let R be set of all real numbers and let n ∈ N . Let
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Proof (Proving subgroup SL(n, R)). For proving SL(n, R) is a subgroup of GL(n, R) . we need to
show the followings .
1 . SL(n, R) ⊆ GL(n, R) .
2 . SL(n, R) ̸= ∅
3 . for any A, B ∈ SL(n, R) ,AB −1 ∈ SL(n, R)
For convenience , we write S = SL(n, R) .
For 1 , this is true by its definition .
For 2 , we can easily see that In in S .
For 3 , for any A, B ∈ S . Note : we have BB −1 = In . by properties listed in above , we have
1 = det(In ) = det(BB −1 ) = det(B)det(B −1 ) . since B ∈ S , 1 = det(B −1 ) . so we have the following
.
det(AB −1 ) = det(A)det(B −1 ) = 1 × 1 = 1
For proving SL(n, R) is not an abelian group for all n > 1 . we need to define two matries .
Let n > 1 and n ∈ N . we definte matries E12 , E21 in Mn (R) by the following definition .
For any i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}
( (
1 if i = 1 and j = 2 1 if i = 2 and j = 1
E12 (i, j) = and E21 (i, j) =
0 if for otherwise 0 if for otherwise
Some important properties about E12 and E21 is
1 : E12 E12 = 0n
2 : E21 E21 = 0n
3 : E12 E21 = E11
4 : E21 E12 = E22
Where 0n is n by n matrix with all entries are zero . E11 , E22 are matries defined similarly as matries
defined above . Now we shall prove that SL(n, R) is not an abelian group for n > 1 .
AB = (In + E12 )(In + E21 ) = In + E12 + E21 + E12 E21 = In + E12 + E21 + E11
BA = (In + E21 )(In + E12 ) = In + E12 + E21 + E21 E12 = In + E12 + E21 + E22
But (AB)(1, 1) = 2 and (BA)(1, 1) = 1 . Thus AB ̸= BA . There SL(n, R) is not an abelian group
.
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4 . Let R be the set of real numbers and let n be an integer with n ≥ 1.
Let O(n, R) = {A ∈ GL(n, R)|AAt = In } where At is the transpose of A.
Show that O(n, R) is a subgroup of GL(n, R). Note that O(n, R) is called the orthogonal group of
degree n over R.
We now need two lemmas listed in your linear algebra book .
Proof (4). For proving O(n, R) is a subgroup of GL(n, R) , we need to show the followings .
1 : O(n, R) ⊆ GL(n, R)
2 : O(n, R) ̸= ∅
3 : for any A, B ∈ O(n, R) , AB −1 ∈ O(n, R) .
For convenience , write O = O(n, R)
For 1 : This is true from its definition .
For 2 : Note : In ∈ GL(n, R) and In Int = In . Thus In ∈ O
For 3 : for any A, B ∈ O Then AAt = In and BB t = In .From lemma listed in above , we know B t
is the invertible matrix of B . Hence B t = B −1 .we have the following
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5 . Prove that the set of all 3 × 3 matrices with real entries of the form
1 a b
0 1 c
0 0 1
Proof (5). Let T be set of all matrix with form listed in above .
For proving T is a group , we need to show the followings .
1 : T is closed under usual matrix multiplication .
2 : The usual matrix multiplication is associative .
3 : T contains a multiplicative identity .
4 : For any element in T has inverse .
any A, B ∈ T . we write them by
For 1 : For
1 a b 1 d e
A= 0 1
c and B = 0 1 f where a, b, c, d, e, f ∈ R
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 d + a e + af + b
Now , we multiply them directly . AB = 0 1 f + c so AB ∈ T
0 0 1
For 2 : we know matrix multiplication is associate .
For 3 : clearly I3 ∈ T and it is multiplicative identity for T .
For 4 : for any C ∈ T . Write C by
1 g h
C = 0 1 i , Where g, h, i ∈ R .
0 0 1
1 −g −h + gi
Take D = 0 1 −i then D ∈ T
0 0 1
clearly CD = DC = In .
By 1, 2, 3, 4 ,we can conclude that T is group under usual matrix multiplication .
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6 : Let G be a finite group. Prove that, given a ∈ G, there is a positive integer n, depending on a,
such that an = e .
Before we prove this statement , we need a lemma in set theory .
Proof (6). For any a ∈ G . Since for any positive integer n , an ∈ G , we can define a function f .
For any n ∈ N, f (n) = an .Since G was a finite set ,By above lemma
we have f is not one-to-one function . By definition of 1-1 function , we have f (i) = f (j) and i ̸= j
for some i, j ∈ N . This shows ai = aj and i − j ̸= 0 . Without loss of generality we assume that
i > j , so ai−j = ai a−j = aj a−j = a0 = e and i − j ∈ N .
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8 . Suppose that G is a nonempty set closed under an associative operation such that the following
conditions hold.
(a) Given a, y ∈ G, there is an element x ∈ G such that ax = y.
(b) Given a, w ∈ G, there is an element u ∈ G such that ua = w .
Show that G is a group.
1 :g = te (1)
2 :g = dv (2)
we have :
eg |{z}
= e(dv) = (ed)v |{z}
= dv = g
by 2 by ed = d
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10 . Let G be a group. Suppose that{Ai |i ∈ Λ} is a family of subgroups of G.
Show that ∩i∈Λ Ai is a subgroup of G .
(ab−1 )k =
|{z} ak b−k = e(bk )−1 = e−1 = e
G is abelian
−1
By definition of H ,ab ∈ H . By 1, 2, 3 ,we can conclude that H is a subgroup of G .
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12 . Let G be a group and let a ∈ G. Let CG (a) = {x ∈ G|xa = ax} be the centralizer of a in G and
let Z(G) be the center of G. Prove that Z(G) = ∩a∈G CG (a).
Proof (12). Before we prove this statement ,we recal definition of Center of G .
By 1, 2, 3 , we have C = AB is a subgroup of G .
Proof (b). The answer is no. For a counterexample, we consider symmetry group of {1, 2, 3} ,
namely S3 . First we list its all elements :
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
ζ1 = ζ2 = ζ = ζ4 = ζ5 = ζ6 =
1 2 3 2 1 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 2
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