The given spotter for identification is Promoters

The holoenzyme RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region about 40–60 bp in size and
then initiates transcription a short distance downstream (i.e. 3 to the promoter).

Within the promoter lie two 6 base pair sequences that are particularly important for promoter
function.

They are highly conserved between species.

Using the convention of calling the first nucleotide of a transcribed sequence as +1, these two
promoter elements lie at positions –10 and –35, that is about 10 and 35 bp, respectively,
upstream of where transcription will begin.

The –10 sequence has the consensus . This element was discovered by Pribnow, it is also
known as the Pribnow box. It is an important recognition site that interacts with the σ factor
of RNA polymerase.

The –35 sequence has the consensus TTGACA and is important in DNA unwinding during
transcriptional initiation.
The given spotter for identification is Telomeres

Telomeres are sections of DNA found at the ends of each of our chromosomes.

They consist of the same sequence of bases repeated over and over.

In humans the telomere sequence is TTAGGG.

This sequence is usually repeated about 3,000 times and can reach up to 15,000 base pairs in
length.

They help to organise each of our 46 chromosomes in the nucleus

They protect the ends of our chromosomes by forming a cap, much like the plastic tip on
shoelaces.

Each time a cell divides, 25-200 bases are lost from the ends of the telomeres on each
chromosome.

When the telomere becomes too short, the chromosome reaches a ‘critical length’ and can no
longer be replicated.

This ’critical length’ triggers the cell to die by a process called apoptosis, also known as
programmed cell death.
The given spotter for identification is Thymidine dimers

 Ultraviolet light is a physical mutagen and can induce mutation. Ultra violet radiation
(254 nm) causes formation of pyrimidine dimers (cyclobutane ring), when two
pyrimidine bases occurs together in single strand of DNA.
 Thymine dimer is most common one but cytosine dimer as well as thymine-cytosine
may also occurs. Thymine dimer is a state in which two adjacent thymine molecules are
chemically joined distorting the structure of DNA, so that impeding transcription and
replication process.
 This pyrimidine dimer formation is lethal to the cell unless it is corrected. A repair
mechanism known as photo reactivation can repair this mutation.
 When UV radiated population of bacteria is subsequently exposed to visible light of
wave length of 300-450nm, the survival rate increases and frequency of mutation
decreases. This is due to activation of photo reactivating enzyme photolyase, which
splits thymine dimer.
 In the dark, the enzyme bind with thymine dimer and in presence of visible light the
enzyme split the thymine dimers.
Upto 80% of thymine dimers existing in genome can be photoreactivated.
The given spotter for identification is Nucleosomes

 A nucleosome is the structural unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes. A nucleosome is

basically DNA segments surrounded by histone protein octamers resembling a thread
coiled around a spool. A nucleosome is the fundamental unit of chromatin.
 The nucleosome is further folded into compact structures such that it can form
chromosomes. The DNA has to be wrapped into a nucleosome so that it can fit inside
the nucleus. A human cell contains almost 30 million nucleosomes each.
 Nucleosomes were first observed by Don and Ada Olins in 1974 in an electron
microscope as a particle. The structure was, however, later illustrated by Robert
Kornberg. A nucleosome structure is made up of nucleosome core particles that are
connected by a stretch of linker DNA.

 The nucleosome core particle is made up of 146 base pairs of DNA which accounts
for 1.67 left hand superhelical turns around the histone octamer. Two copies of H2A,
H2B, H3 and H4 make up the histone octamer.
 Each nucleosome is joined to the other by linker DNA. Linker DNA are free stretches
of DNA ranging from 10-80 base pairs in length.
 The nucleosome core particle and linker DNA together generate a cylinder that is 11
nm in diameter and 5.5 nm in height.
 While observing a dividing cell at the interphase stage, one can observe the unfolding
chromatin as a beaded string. The string is the DNA segment, whereas the beads are
the nucleosome core particles.
The given spotter for identification is Muffle Furnace

The muffle furnace is an instrument that is provided with a closed chamber where the test
sample can be placed. The device comes with a heating arrangement that can be used for
combustion of the sample.

The dry ashing method with a Muffle Furnace determines the ash content of a variety of food
products.
Determination of ash and mineral content of foods is vital to be taken into consideration.
Various reasons are:
 Quality of foods depends on the concentration and type of minerals they contain
such as
appearance, taste etc.
 Processing: It includes the mineral content of foods at the time of processing as it
affects
the physiochemical properties of foods.
 Nutrition: It includes minerals that are important to a healthy diet like sodium,
calcium
etc. and others can be toxic like aluminium, lead etc.
 Nutritional labelling: The concentration and type of minerals present should be
provided
on the label of the food.
The dry ashing method with a Muffle Furnace determines the ash content of a variety of food
products.

Determination of ash and mineral content of foods is vital to be taken into consideration.
Various reasons are:

Quality of foods depends on the concentration and type of minerals they contain such
asappearance, taste etc

Processing: It includes the mineral content of foods at the time of processing as it affectsthe
physiochemical properties of foods.
Nutrition: It includes minerals that are important to a healthy diet like sodium, calcium etc.
and others can be toxic like aluminium, lead etc.

Nutritional labelling: The concentration and type of minerals present should be providedon
the label of the food.

The given spotters for identification is Kjeldahl’s apparatus

Kjeldahl Apparatus is used to determine organic nitrogen and protein contents in

achemical substance.

This estimation is done by Kjeldahl digestion method.

These units are widely used in food, environmental, urea and chemical industries.

The Kjeldahl method was developed by a brewer called Johann Kjeldahl in 1883. The
protocol is built on the principle that strong acid helps in the digestion of food so that it
releases nitrogen which can be determined by a suitable titration technique.

The steps are:

1. Digestion: In this method, a certain substance or sample is heated in the presence of
sulphuric acid. The acid breaks down the organic substance via oxidation and reduced
nitrogen in the form of ammonium sulphate is liberated. Potassium sulphate is usually added
to increase the boiling point of the medium. Catalysts like mercury, selenium, copper, or ions
of mercury or copper are also used in the digestion process. The sample is fully decomposed
when we obtain a clear and colourless solution.
2. Distillation: The distillation of the solution now takes place and a small quantity of
sodium hydroxide is added to convert the ammonium salt to ammonia. The distilled vapours
are then trapped in a special trapping solution of HCl (hydrochloric acid) and water.
3. Titration: The amount of ammonia or the amount of nitrogen present in the sample is then
determined by back titration. As the ammonia dissolves in the acid trapping solution some
HCl is neutralized. The acid that is left behind can be back titrated with a standard solution of
a base such as NaOH or other bases.
The given spotter for identification is FSSAI

FSSAI stands for “FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS AUTHORITY OF INDIA”.

It is an autonomous body established under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare,
Government of India.The FSSAI has been established under the Food Safety and Standards
Act, 2006.
FSSAI is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and
supervision of food safety.
FSSAI has been mandated to perform various functions related to quality and standards of
food.

These functions in addition to others include “Laying down procedure and guidelines for
notification of the accredited laboratories

At present FSSAI has standardized 380 food articles in 16 categories. Those food articles that
are non-standardized require product approval. It is important to note that traditional foods
and their ingredients or additives require product approval.
The FSSAI Registration is a process for all food business operators (FBOs) to apply for
getting the certificate which states that the food is safe to consume by the consumers