CHAPTER-III

REFLECTION OF THE IDEAS REGARDING DRAMA

AND DANCE IN THE TṚTĪYAKHAṆḌA OF THE
VIṢṆUDHARMOTTARAPURĀṆA

Drama and Dance, two art forms are interrelated and that is why the

necessity of the discussion of these two art forms together seems to be very relevent.

In Sanskrit, the term nāṭya stands for Drama and nṛtta stands for Dance. Both these

words have come from the same root i.e., nṛt which means to dance.1 Drama and

Dance, both are basically related to human impulses and emotions, which give rise

to movements of limbs and gestures. It is quite difficult to decide that how and when

the dramatic instinct of human being took a concrete form as it had been developing

from the Vedic age. The ideas are still growing with the growth of the society. Some

great treatises like the Nāṭyaśāstra, Abhinayadarpaṇa etc. are seen to discuss these

two art forms i.e., Drama and Dance together in different ways. As the root is the

same in these two forms of arts i.e., nāṭya and nṛtta – there must be some similar

base lines between the concepts connected to these two. The Tṛtīyakhaṇḍa i.e., the

third part of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa also discusses these two art forms

together. But the Daśarūpaka admits their separate existence and says that Dance is

totally different from Drama as Drama is based on rasa and Dance is based on tāla

and laya. 2 So though Drama and Dance are interrelated and cannot be separated

from each other, but these two concepts have their own significances, which can be

taken up as subjects of separate discussions.

1
naṭa nṛttau/ Dhātupātha, 310
2
rūpakaṁ tatsamāropād daśadhaiva rasāśrayaṁ/ nṛttaṁ tālalayāśrayam/ Daśarūpaka, 1.7&9

48
III.1 Drama

Whenever and wherever men have progressed beyond the mere struggle for

existence, there has been theatre in some sense. It is clearly stated by Sheldon

Cheney in his book.3 Though the exact point of the origin and evolution of Drama

cannot be determined as it is hidden under varied forms and confused accounts, the

seed of the Drama is originally sprouted in various dialogue hymns of the Ṛgveda.

Those particular hymns of the Ṛgveda are obviously presented through the dialogues

of different characters which created a dramatic sense to the readers. So it can be

said that the amalgamation of prose and verse in Sanskrit drama may be counted as a

legacy of dialogue hymns of the Ṛgveda. Viśvāmitra-nadī-saṁvāda-sūkta (3.33),

Yama-yamī-sūkta (10.10), Pururūvā-uravaśī-sūkta (10.95), Saramā-Paṇi-sūkta

(10.108) etc. are famous dialogue hymns of the Ṛgveda and those can be taken as

roots of the dramatic dialogue.4 Drama is an amalgamation of nṛtta i.e., Dance5, gīta

i.e., Music6 and vādya i.e., musical instrument7 and it is considered as tauryātrika in

Amarakośa.8 Indian tradition, preserved in the Nāṭyaśāstra, the oldest of the text of

the theory of Sanskrit drama, claims for the divine origin of Sanskrit drama and

points out a close connection with the sacred Vedas themselves. 9 A.B Keith has

clarified this exhaustively in his book.10

3
Sheldon Cheney, Theatre: Three thousand years, p.1
4
A.B. Keith, The Sanskrit Dramai in its origin, Development, Theory and Practice, pp.13-15
5
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.303
6
Ibid., p.187
7
Ibid., p.501
8
tauryātrikaṁ nṛttagītavādyaṁ nāṭyamidaṁ trayam/ Amarakoṣa, 1.7.30
9
evaṁ saṅkalpya bhagavān sarvavedānanusmaran/
nāṭyavedaṁ tataścakre caturvedāṅgasambhavam// Nāṭyaśāstra, 1.16
10
A.B. Keith, The Sanskrit drama in its Origin, Development, Theory and Practice, p.12

49
III.1.1: Origin of Drama:

A divine and traditional origin of Drama is found in Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra.

It is explained there that in ancient time, there had been prevailing a chaotic

situation in the society and people were addicted to sensual pleasure and were

obsessed with greed, jealousy, and anger.11 As the Vedas were not accessible to the

śūdras and women, the dramaturgy had been developed as the Fifth Veda. 12 To

fulfill the demand of the society, Brahmā- the creator recalled the four Vedas to his

mind and after taking different elements from each of the four Vedas, He created the

Fifth Veda i.e., the Nāṭyaveda. The book tells us that the text of the Nāṭyaveda was

derived from the Ṛgveda, songs were taken from the Sāmaveda, the acting part was

deduced from the Yajurveda and the sentiments were taken from the Atharvaveda.13

After that Brahmā passed on this Nāṭyaveda to Bharata. Thereafter, with the help of

the Tāṇḍava form of dance by lord Śiva and also with the help of the apsarasas,

gandharvas i.e., celestial musicians 14 and singers, a play was enacted under the

supervision of Bharata in the Indradvaja festival for the first time. 15 Thus the

tradition of giving knowledge through entertainment came up in the form of Sanskrit

drama. As time passed on, this form of art achieved much popularity and the rules

11
grāmyadharmapravṛtte tu kāmalobhavaṁśa gate/
īrṣākrodhādisaṁmūḍhe loke sukhitaduḥkhite// Nāṭyaśāstra,1.9
12
na vedavyavahāro’yaṁ saṁśrāvyaḥ śūdrajātiṣu/
tasmāt sṛjāparaṁ vedaṁ pañcamaṁ sārvavarṇikam// Ibid..,1.12
13
jagrāha pāthyamṛgvedāt sāmabhyo gītameva ca/
yajurvedādabhinayān rasānātharvaṇādapi // Ibid.,1.17
14
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.181
15
nāṭyasya grahaṇaṁ prāptaṁ brūhi kiṁ karavāṇyaham/
etattu vacanaṁ śrutvā pratyuvāca pitāmahaḥ//
mahānayaṁ prayogasya samayaḥ samupasthitaḥ/
ayaṁ dvajamahaḥ śrīmān mahendrasya pravartate// Ibid.,1.53-54

50
and regulations of staging a drama got formal recognition in the pages of the book of

rhetorics at different point of time.

III.1.2 Characteristic Features of Sanskrit Drama:

Sanskrit dramas are distinguished from other drama in some prominent

directions. These are noted in different books of Rhetorics. In this context the third

part of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa gives a brief but effective discussion. The

characteristic features of Sanskrit drama as revealed in the third part of the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa are taken up here for discussion.

According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in Sanskrit drama, the main plot

is based on the review of Purāṇas in the light of history or the accounts of gods.16

Dramas are associated with vṛttis i.e., actions and rasas i.e., sentiments. Moreover,

sometimes in Sanskrit dramas, kālas i.e., period of time indicates the era of the

particular king of the concerned period.17 According to this source, Sanskrit drama

consists of more than five acts but it should not cross ten acts.18 The Sāhityadarpaṇa

also admits it.19 The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says that at the very beginning of the

Sanskrit drama, praveśaka i.e., the introducer 20 should introduce the plot of the

drama that has been continuing for many days and this narration must be very

brief.21 In the Sāhityadarpaṇa also, the description of those incidents which have

already been happened are suggested in the very beginning of the Drama and the

16
itihāsānusāreṇa purāṇānāṁ samīkṣitam/
caritaṁ tridaśānāṁ vā nāṭakaṁ tatra kīrtitam// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.17.7
17
sarvāstu vṛttayastatra tatra sarve tathā rasāḥ/
kālaprayogaṁ ca tathā yuktyā saṁdarśayennṛpaḥ// Ibid., 3.17.9
18
pañcāvarāṅkaṁ tatproktaṁ tathādaśaparaṁ śubham/ Ibid., 3.17.10
19
pañcādikā deśaparāstatrāṅkāḥ parikīrtitāḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.8
20
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.369
21
bahudaivatikaṁ vṛttaṁ kartavyaṁ tu praveśakam/
saṁkṣepoktiśca kartavyā kartavyo nahi vistaraḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.17.16

51
technical term of this part of a Drama is known as mukha or āmukha.22 Accordig to

the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, disturbing incidents like death, dethronement, siege,

fight etc. are totally abandoned in Sanskrit dramas. 23 The Sāhityadarpaṇa also

agrees on it. 24 Drama should be performed under a maṇḍapa i.e., pavilion 25 . 26

According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the pavilion should be oblong or square.

The square one should be thirty two hands and the oblong one should be double of it

in size.27 In the beginning of the Drama the devatāpūjanaṁ should be done.28 A

nāndīśloka i.e., a benedictory verse 29 must be recited at the very beginning of a

Drama for a successful ending.30 Viśvanātha Kavirāja also says that- to remove all

kinds of obstacles and inauspiciousness, the recitation of nāndīśloka is very

important.31 The nāndīśloka is recited by the sūtradhāra.32 This rule seems to be

followed by each and every dramatist of the Sanskrit literature. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says that at the end of the Drama, vāstupūjana i.e., the

worship of vāstupuruṣa should be made by offering flowers.33 In the very beginning

of the Drama each and every character should be introduced and that is why the

presence of every character is made mandatory just after the unveiling of the

22
mukhaṁ śleṣādinā prastutavṛttāntapratipādako vāgviśeṣaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6. p.399
23
maraṇaṁ rājyavibhraṁśo nagarasyoparodhanam/
etāni darśayennāṁke tathā yuddhaṁ ca pārthiva// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.17.12
24
dūrāhvānaṃ vadho yuddhaṃ rājyadeśādiviplavaḥ/
vivāho bhojanaṃ śāpotsargau mṛtyu rataṃ tathā// Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.16
25
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.417
26
nāṭyaṁ maṇḍapa eva/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.4
27
āyataṁ caturastraṁ tu dvātriṁśaddhastasammitam/
caturastraṁ na kartavyamāyataṁ dviguṇāyataṁ// Ibid.,3.20.5
28
ādāveva tu kartavyaṁ tridaśānāṁ tu pūjanam/ Ibid., 3.20.7
29
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.284
30
…..tato nāṭyaṁ nāndīpūrvakamiṣyate/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.20.8
31
tathā'pyavaśyaṁ kartavyā nāndī vighnopaśāntaye/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.23
32
nāndyante sūtradhāraḥ/Ibid., 6. p.397
33
…...puṣpāñjaliḥ pradātavyā nāṭyānte / Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.9

52
curtain.34 This is to be noted here that in most of the dramas of Bhāsa, the names of

the main characters are introduced through the very first verse of the drama and this

is generally called the mudrālaṁkāra. Thus the Svapnavāsavadatta of Bhāsa opens

with the verse where the characters Udayana, Vāsavadattā, Padmāvatī, Vasantaka

are introduced before the audience.35

III.1.3: Elements of Drama:

There are various literary and material elements in Sanskrit dramas which

have been discussed in different works in different ways. Basically, the

Alaṁkāraśāstras of Sanskrit literature discuss different literary and material

elements of Sanskrit dramas in a broad and systematic way. Those particular

elements have established Sanskrit dramas more attractive and resourceful. The third

part of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa has also furnished a clear discussion regarding

these elements of Sanskrit drama. Different elements of Sanskrit dramas like acting,

costume and make up, bodily movements of the actors, dramatic postures, dramatic

style, characters, expression of emotions and sentiments as found in the third part of

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa are discussed here.

a) Acting:

The Sanskrit term used for acting is abhinaya. The word abhinaya is derived

as abhi+nī+ karaṇe ac.36According to the Śabdakalpadruma, abhinaya is the way to

convey or represent one’s emotion to others.37 Drama is the way to create the divine

pleasure in connoisseurs’ mind through the representation of different sentiments

34
tato javanikākṣepaiḥ pratipātrapraveśanaṁ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20. 9
35
udyanavendusavarṇāvāsavadattābalau balasya tvāṁ/
padmāvatīrṇapūrṇau vasantakamrau bhujau pātāṁ/ Svapnavāsavadattaṁ,1.1
36
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.73
37
abhinīyate hṛdgatakrodhādibhāvaḥ prakāśyate anena/ Ibid., Vol.1, p.73

53
and for these, it needs the help of abhinaya. Moreover, the scholars of nāṭya define

it as the imitation of others.38 Acting or abhinaya is of four varieties viz., āṅgika,

vācika, āhārya, and sātvika. 39 The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa also accepts this

division. 40 The āṅgikābhinaya represents the physical movements. 41 This type of

acting establishes the importance of gestures and postures in the path of acting. The

second variety of acting which is called vācikābhinaya is that kind of acting which is

expressed by words. 42 The term vācika itself establishes the importance of

conversation or utterance of words for the process of acting. Āhāryābhinaya is

conveyed by decoration or ornamentation. In the Nāṭyaśāstra, it is said that the

entire production of a play depends on āhāryābhinaya and the extraneous

representation deals with the rules of costumes and make-up. 43 Till today, this

process is followed and the actors go for their make-up in the greenroom which is

generally situated in the back stage.

The last variety is called sātvikābhinaya that deals with the feelings,

emotions and expressions, conveyed by the actors. Flow of tears, horripilation,

sweating, throbbing of heart and faultering speech come under the sātvikābhinaya.44

It is important to note here that in the Nāṭyaśāstra the word bhāvabyañjaka is used

for the sātvikābhinaya. When the inner ideas of a dramatist are expressed by means

of words, gestures, facial expressions and the representation of sattva, those are

38
parasyānukṛtirnāṭya nāṭyajñaiḥ kathitaṁ nṛpaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.1
39
Nāṭyaśāstra, 8.9
40
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.20.14-15.
41
tatra āṅgiko’ṅgairnidarśitaḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa, 39
42
vāciko vācayā proktaḥ…../ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.20
43
āhāryābhinayo nāmaṁ jñeyo nepathyajo vidhiḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 21.3
44
aśruprapātaromāñasvedanaṁ spandanaṁ tathā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.19

54
called bhāvas.45 In the Abhinavabhārati commentary, the word bhāva and sattva are

established by Abhinavagupta in a similar sense through the term cittavṛtti i.e., the

state of mind or feeling.46

b) Costume and Make up:

Costume and make up are the two important concerns of a Drama which

transforms the actors according to their respective roles. In the Nāṭyaśāstra, Bharata

advises to pay attention in costume and make-up for a healthy and successful

dramatic production.47 Different kinds of dramatic characters are initially indicated

by their attire and make up which represent them in front of the viewers without any

effort.48 Abhinavagupta also admits it.49 In the 27th chapter of the third part of the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, a detailed discussion is found about various costumes,

ornaments and make over of different dramatic characters which are included in

āhāryābhinaya. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, There are four kinds of

costume and make up viz., prasta, alaṁkāra, aṅga-racanā and sajjīva. 50 The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says that Prasta denotes the making of artificial masks of

45
vāgaṅgamukharāgaiśca satvenābhinayena ca/
kaverantargataṁ bhāvaṁ bhāvayan bhāva ucyate// Nāṭyaśāstra,7.2
46
vāgaṅgamukharāgātmanā’bhinayena sattvalakṣaṇena cābhinayena karaṇena kaveḥ sādhāraṇaṁ
tadāpi varṇanānipuṇasya antargato’nādiprātanasaṁskārapratibhānamayo na tu laukikabiṣayajo
rāgānta eva deśakālādibhedābhāvātsarvasādhāraṇībhāvenāsvādayogyastaṁ bhāvayan
āsvādayogyīkurvan bhāvaścittavṛttilakṣaṇa evocyate/sattvaṁ cittaikāgryaṁ tajjanitaṁ ca kṛtakaṁ
baṣpādipraptyavasthātmakaṁ ceti yathāyogyaṁ mantavyaṁ/
Abhinavabhāratī, Nāṭyaśāstra, p. 277
47
āhāryābhinayo…..kāryaḥ prayatnastu nātyasya śubhamicchatā// Nāṭyaśāstra, 21.3
48
nānāvasthā prakṛtayaḥ pūrvaṁ nepathyasūcitāḥ/
aṅgādibhirabhivyaktimupagacchantyayatnataḥ// Ibid., 32.3
49
āhāryasya sarvapaścādabhidhānaṁ vāgādyabhinayebhyo’sya bahiraṁgatvādityānupūrvyamiti
kecit/taccāsat, āvedita pūrvamāhāryasya prādhānyādeva tvadya sarvānugrāhakatvaṁ
sarvopajīvyatākhyāpanāya paścādabhidhānam/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.753
50
caturvidhaṁ tu vijñeyaṁ prastolaṁkāra eva ca/
tathāaṅgaracanā caiva jñeyā sajjīvameva ca// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.27.2-3.

55
gods, demons, demi gods, different animals and birds etc. by clay, wood, cloth,

leather and iron.51 In the Nāṭyaśāstra, the word pusta is used instead of prasta.52

Pusta is again divided into three types in the Nāṭyaśāstra viz., sandhima i.e., joined

object that means which are focused through joining, vyājima i.e., indicating object

that means which are focused through vyāja that is in guise and ceṣṭima that means

which are focused through ceṣṭā i.e., moving object. 53 The tradition of using

different masks of gods, demons, birds etc. in Drama is still followed in Rāsa

festival of Assam. Alaṁkāra deals with the decoration of garlands and ornaments.54

In the Nāṭyaśāstra four kinds of ornaments 55 and five kinds of garlands 56 are

accepted. In the Sanskrit dramas ornaments like ear-rings, bracelets, headgears etc.

are seen to be collected from nature. This is informed in many of the Sanskrit

dramas. In the Abhijñānaśakuntala, as for example, Śakuntalā is seen to wear

flowers, leaves etc. as her ornaments.57 She is also seen to remain dependant upon

nature for her garments. She was wearing the skin of tree as her daily garment.58 Her

clothes were supplied by trees.59 The colours of dresses of different characters are

also discussed in the third part of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa

51
mṛdā vā dāruṇā vāpi vastreṇāpyatha carmaṇā/
lohairanukṛtirvāpi pusta ityabhidhīyate// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.,3.27.3-4
52
caturvidhaṁ tu nepathyaṁ pusto’laṁkāra eva ca/
tathāṅgaracanā caiva jñeyaṁ sajjīvameva ca// Nāṭyaśāstra, 21.5
53
pustastu trividho jñeyo nānārūpapramāṇataḥ/
sandhimo vyājimaścaiva ceṣṭimaśca prakīrtita// Ibid., 21.6
54
alaṁkārastu vijñeyo mālyābharaṇavāsasāṁ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 27.5
55
caturvidhaṁ tu vijñeyaṁ dehasyābharaṇaṁ budhaiḥ/
āvedhyaṁ bandhanīyāṁ ca prakṣepyāropyake tathā// Nāṭyaśāstra, 21.12
56
veṣṭitaṁ vitataṁ caiva saṁghātyaṁ granthimaṁ tathā/
pralambitaṁ tathā caiva mālyaṁ pañcavidhaṁ smṛtaṁ// Ibid., 21.10
57
vanadevatākaratalairāparvabhāgotthitairdattānyābharaṇāni/ Abhijñānaśakuntalaṁ,4.5
58
…..valkalenāpi tanvī/ Ibid., 1.18
59
kṣaumaṁ kenacidindupāṇḍu taruṇā…./ Ibid., 4.5

56
 This Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa notifies that the colour of every costume of

every character should be different. As for example, the costume of dhīrodātta type

of hero is suggested as not to be very loud where as it suggests that the costume of

king should be graceful.60 In the Nāṭyaśāstra also the dress of a king is suggested to

be variegated in colour 61 which definitely brings graceful look. On the other hand,

the attire of the pratināyaka i.e., the villain, should be very gaudy and the costumes

of rest of the characters should be according to the country and their professions.62

This part of Drama shows a wide range of options on the basis of various concerned

sources.

The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa has also suggested different types of make up

for different characters. Aṅga-racanā meaning painting of limbs of different

characters, also falls under the category of makeover. The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa

speaks that it should be done according to the caste, position, superiority and

country of respective characters. 63 As for example, this book suggests that gods

should be white in colour;64 Vāsuki should be black in colour;65 demons, Kuvera and

Piṣācas should have the colour of water;66 Brahmins should be white in colour like

moon; 67 kings and rich people should have the complexion of lotus 68 etc. The

60
dhīroddhatānāṁ veśaḥ syānna catyarthasamulvaṇaḥ/
syādrājñāṁ lalita iṣyate………./ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.3.20.16-17
61
citro veṣastu kartavyo nṛpāṇāṁ/ Nāṭyaśāstra.3.32.131.
62
pratināyakaveśastu kartavyaśca tathoddhataḥ/
anyeṣāṁ sadṛśo veśo deśakarmāśrayo bhavet// Ibid., 3.20. 17-18
63
alaṁkārastu vijñeyo mālyābharaṇavāsasā/
nānāvidhaḥ samāyoge hyaṅgopāṅgavinirgataḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.27.5-6
64
devānāṁ…….kāryā gauravarṇakāḥ// Ibid., 3.27.17
65
śyāmastu vāsukiḥ…/ Ibid., 3.27.18
66
daityāśca dānavāścaiva rākṣasā guhyakānugāḥ/
piśācā jalasaṅkāśā sammitāni tu varṇataḥ// Ibid., 3.27.18-19
67
……candravarṇā dvijāḥ……/ Ibid., 3.27.23
68
rājānaḥ padmavarṇābhā ye cāpi sukhino janāḥ/ Ibid., 3.27.25

57
Nāṭyaśāstra also agrees on it.69 This is important to note that this type of notes and

rules give a social implication of the performance. Applying of moustaches and

beard can be called an important make-up in facial decoration. The Nāṭyaśāstra says

that after painting the face and other limbs the characters are provided with beard
70
according to their territory, profession and spiritual rites. According to

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the kings, ascetics, ministers, priests, judges, lovers etc.

should be mustached and bearded and the colour of their beard should be white

except those of the kings and lovers. 71 All these are the important points in a

theatrical performance to project the concerned character in a clear and conspicuous

way. The use of crown is also a very important part of ornamentation. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, three types of crown are accepted for gods, kings, princes

and commander-in chiefs.72 In the Nāṭyaśāstra also three types of crown are referred
73
to. These are pārśvāgata, mastakī and kirīṭi. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa the characters from lower cast like daityas, dānavas,

rākṣasas, pannagas etc. are categorised as having the right to put turbans on their

heads.74

69
varṇānāṁ tu vidhiṁ jñātvā vayaḥ prakṛtimeva ca/
kuryādaṅgasya racanāṁ deśajātivayaḥśritāṁ// Nāṭyaśāstra,21.89
70
evaṁ kṛtvā yathānyāṁ mukhāṅgopāṅgavartanaṁ/
śmaśrukarma prayuñcīta deśakarmakriyānugama// Ibid., 21.108.
71
divyā ye puruṣāścaiva tathā vidyādharāśca ye/
śṛṅgāriṇo narendrāśca citraśmaśrudharāstathā/
śuddhaṁ tu liṅgināṁ kāryaṁ tathāmāyapurodhasāṁ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.27.28-29
72
Ibid.,3.27.33-34
73
uttamā ye ca divyānāṁ teṣāṁ kāryā kirṭinaḥ/
madhyamā maulinaścaiva kaniṣṭā pārśvamaulinaḥ// Nāṭyaśāstra, 21.142
74
daityadānavayakṣāṇāṁ pannagānāṁ sarakṣasām/
ekapaṭṭāstu vistīrṇā kartavyā mukuṭāḥ śubhāḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.27.34-36

58
 The last variety of costume and make-up is sajjīva which denotes the

entrance of animals on the stage in disguise.75 The Nāṭyaśāstra also talks about it in

the same way.76 In Sanskrit drama to show the act of different animals, this type of

costume and make up relates the wearing of masks of various animals by the

characters on the stage.77

c) Bodily Movements:

The āṅgikābhinaya includes the histrionic representation of the limbs which

is simply known as physical gestures. In the Nāṭyaśāstra, three kinds of physical

gestures are accepted. The gestures expressed with major classification of the body

parts are termed as śarīra i.e., physical expression, mukhaja i.e., facial expression

and ceṣṭākṛta i.e., different movements of the entire body.78 The movements of the

aṅgas fall in the śarīra type of gesture and the expressions of upāṅgas fall under the

mukhaja type of gesture. The aṅgas i.e., major classification of the body parts are

six in numbers viz., head, hands, chest, sides, waist and feet. The upāṅgas denote

different parts of the face. These are also six in numbers viz., eyes, eyebrows, nose,

lower lip, cheeks and chin. 79 The movements of limbs used to bear a great

importance in dramatic representation. These are discussed in detail here.

i) Head Movements: In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, seven types of

movements of the head are recorded. These are termed as ākasmika, kampita,

udyuta, vidhuta, parivāhita, udvāhita and abadhuta. Among those ākasmika

75
praveśastu tiraścāṁ vai sajjīva iti saṁjñitaḥ/ Ibid.,3.27.44
76
yaḥ prāṇināṁ praveśo vai sa sañjīva iti smṛtaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra,21.157
77
teṣāṁ parastena kartavyā prakṛtiḥ puruṣāṁtarā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.27.45
78
trividhastvāṅgiko dṛṣṭaḥ śārīro mukhajastathā/
tathā ceṣṭākṛtaścaiva śākhāṅgopāṅgasaṁyutaḥ// Nāṭyaśāstra, 8.11
79
tasya śirohastoraḥpārśvakaṭīpādataḥ ṣaḍaṅgāni/
netrabhrūnāsādharakapolacibukānyupāṅāni// Ibid., 8.13

59
 denotes giving lecture, asking questions and natural talk. 80 Kampita i.e.,

shivering head shows anger, threatening, arguing etc.81 Udyuta i.e., slowly

shaken head shows grief, astonishment etc. 82 Vidhuta type of movement

expresses suffering by cold or old age or because of the consumption of

83
liquor. Parivāhita type of movement shows achievement, joy and

sportiveness. 84 Udvāhita movements shows raised head with pride 85 and

abadhuta movement indicates massages, conversation etc. In the Nāṭyaśāstra

also, similar types of opinion has been given.86 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa

nine kinds of head movements are accepted.87 In the Abhinayadarpaṇa the

varieties viz., udvāhita, kampita and parivāhita are seen to be accepted like

the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.

ii) Chest Movements: There are five kinds of chest movements accepted by the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa as well as the Nāṭyaśāstra88.These are- ābhugna,

nirbhugna, prakampita, udvāhita and sama.89 Different movements of chest

indicate different situations in a Drama. The terms ābhugna and nirbhugna

projects the word bhugna which means being crooked because of illness90.

80
svabhāvādṛjunorvāmakṣepeṇākasmikaṁ sakṛt/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.24.1
81
bahuśaḥ kathitaṁ yacca tadā kampitamiṣyate/
roṣatarjanatarkeṣu pratijñāsu ca dṛśyate// Ibid., 3.24.2-3
82
śiraso recanaṁ yattu śanaistadyutamiṣyate/ Ibid., 3.24.3
83
vidhutaṁ nāmataḥ proktaṁ tathā pārścavikampanaiḥ/
śītagraste jvarārte ca matte ca jvarite bhavet// Ibid., 3.24.4-5.
84
parirārhitaṁ sādhane vismaye harṣe līlāyāṁca tadiṣyate/ Ibid., 3.24.6
85
sakṛdudvāhitaṁ cordhaṁ tadudvāhitamiṣyate/
ucchrāye darśane garve tattathordhvanirīkṣaṇe// Ibid., 3.24.1-7.
86
Nāṭyaśāstra,8. 17-29
87
samamudvāhitamadhomukhamālolitaṁ dhutaṁ/
kampitaṁ ca parāvṛttamutkṣiptaṁ parivāhitaṁ// Abhinayadarpaṇa, 49.
88
Nāṭyaśāstra, 10.1
89
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.24.25
90
bhugnaḥ…rogādinā kuṭilīkṛtaḥ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3. p.518

60
 The movement called ābhugna denotes the position in which someone acts

to be killed by weapon or suffering from heart diseases. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa speaks that in this position the actor should hold

the chest by hand.91 This posture can be observed even in modern theatrical

performances. In the term nirbhugna, the word bhugna is preceded by the

prefix nir, which is used to denote the opposite form.92 So, the opposite of

the word bhugna is nirbhugna which means not crooked. Justifying the

meaning of the term nirbhugna, the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa suggests that

in the position of nirbhugna, the actor should slightly stiff the chest to show

the status of pride. At the time of laughing, weeping or showing fear, the

chest is thrown up and it is called prakampita movement.93 In the udvāhita

movement, the cheast postion is kept slightly upward to show normal

breathing and also yawning. 94 Again when the chest is kept in a normal

position with elegant posture it is called sama.95

iii) Waist Movements: The term kaṭi is used to denote the waist part in

Sanskrit. This word is used in both masculine and feminine gender in

Sanskrit. 96 The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa seems to take the word kaṭi in

feminine gender and makes the divisions of waist movements in feminine

gender. Five types of waist movements are accepted here. These are-

prakampitā, vicchinā, nivṛttā, recitā and udvāhitā. This book explains all

91
śastakṣate vighāte ca hṛdroge ca tadiṣyate/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.24.27
92
nir…pratilomyam/ Nirukta, 1.3
93
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.24.27-28
94
udvāhitaṁ yadūrdhvaṁ tu tadudvāhitamucyate/
ūrdhvaṁ nigamite kāryaṁ jṛmbhiteṣu prayogataḥ/ Ibid., 3.24.29-30
95
samaṁ nāma vijñeyaṁ sauṣṭhaveṣu tat/ Ibid., 3.24.30
96
kaṭiḥ, puṁ, strī…Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.9

61
 these in a projected manner. Prakampitā i.e slightly shaking movement

should be adopted in the walking of hunch backs, dwarfs and persons of

short height.97 Recitā should be adopted in going for a walk and udvāhitā

should be taken in sportive movement by uplifting the waist part in a certain

way. 98 In vicchinā movement, the middle portion of waist should be

undulated and adopted to show doing exercise and looking over the

shoulders.99 When someone turns back and the actor focus the back of that

person, at that time the actor should take the nivṛttā movement.100

iv) Side Movements: There are five kinds of side movements accepted in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa and these are- samunnata, nata, prasārita,

vivartita and apasṛta. Samunnata movement should be adopted to show

retreat. The term nata denotes the action of saluting someone.101 According

to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa nata movement is adopted in approaching

someone. The prasārita movement shows triumph, happiness and joy. The

term prasārita means expanded. 102 Vivartita movement is taken to take

circular movement and apasṛta movement is taken to show fear103 whereas

the Nāṭyaśāstra suggests it as the movement adopted in returning.104 In the

97
niścitodvāhanāccaiva tathaivaodvāhitā matā/
nīca vāmanakubjānāṁ gatau kāryāṁ pakampitā// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.24.41
98
recitā recite kāryā anyā līlāgate tridhā/ Ibid., 3.24.43
99
vyāyāme tvatha samprāpte vyāvṛttaprekṣiteṣu ca/
chinnā kāryā kaṭistajajñairnivṛttā vartiteṣu ca// Ibid.3.24.42
100
paraṅgmukhasyābhimukhī nivṛttā parikīrtitā/ Ibid., 3.24.40
101
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit- English Dictionary, p.525
102
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.766
103
asya caivopagamanādbhavedapasṛtaṁ punaḥ/
nataṁ tvapasṛte kāryaṁ connataṁ tūpasarpite//
prasārite praharṣādau trāse cāpasṛte punaḥ//Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.40.34
104
……..vinivṛte tvapasṛtaṃ…./ Nāṭyaśāstra, 10.17

62
 Nāṭyaśāstra, the side movement called unnata is mentioned which suggests

the position of going backward.105 The side movement called samunnata is

not accepted in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

v) Nose Movements: In Sanskrit the term nāsikā is used to denote nose. Nāsikā

is a feminine term and that is why in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa as well as

in the Nāṭyaśāstra, the varieties of nose movements have been mentioned in

feminine gender. Six kinds of nose movements are accepted in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa106 as well as in the Nāṭyaśāstra.107 These are- natā,

mandā, vikṛṣtā, socchvāsā, vikūṇitā and svābhāvikī. If a person feels good

smell by taking long breath with his nose, the movement is called socchvāsā

and if the smell is pungent than the nostrils automatically become contracted

upward and this position is called vikṛṣta movement.108 Likewise natā i.e.,

bent nostrils denote pleasant state, mandā i.e., lowered nostrils denote the

unpleasant state, vikūṇitā i.e., nostrils drawn together shows disgust and
109
svābhāvikī denotes nose in normal position. In this context the

Nāṭyaśāstra explains the positions of nose as- in natā position, the lobes of

the nose should cling for a while.110 In mandā, the lobes should be in rest

position. Rest of the positions is explained by the Nāṭyaśāstra as it is found

in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.111

105
…….unnataṃ cāpasarpaṇe/ Ibid., 10.16
106
natā mandā vikṛṣṭā ca socchvāsā kūṇitānatā/
svābhāvike ca kartavyā prayoge nāsikā budhaiḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.25.62-63
107
Nāṭyaśāstra, 8.126-127
108
vikṛṣṭā kuñcitā cordhvaṁ socchāsā bāyupūritā/Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.25.64
109
natā tu rucite kāryā mandā śoke vidhīyate/
vikūṇitā jugupsāyāṁ śeṣā svābhāvikī matā// Ibid., 3.25.65-66
110
natā muhuḥśliṣṭapuṭā……../ Nāṭyaśāstra, 8.127
111
Ibid., 8.128

63
d) Dramatic Postures:

In Drama characters are projected through their postures. So, various

postures connected to sitting, standing and lying down positions always convey

certain amount of important information to viewers about the dramatic characters.

This way a massage is created through a non verbal communication by the actors

and it reaches directly to the minds of the viewers. Before the curtain gets up, the

actors should stay in some particular postures on the stage and as soon as the curtain

gets up, the audience can assume the particular situation by seeing the postures of

the actors. There is a detail discussion about different kinds of dramatic postures for

different situations in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. These are taken up here for

discussion.

i) Sitting Postures: In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, nine kinds of upaveśana

i.e., sitting postures are accepted for Drama. These are named as svastha,

mandālasa, klānta, svasthālasa, viṣkumbhita, kaṭuka, muktajānu, jānūgata

and vimukta.112 The word svastha denotes the position of ease.113 When a

person is sitting at ease by holding legs at a distance, keeping hands on waist

and thigh and raising the chest in a relax mood, it is called svastha posture.114

In this context the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa seems to follow the

Nāṭyaśāstra.115 The word mandālasa is the alamgamation of two words viz.,

112
svasthmandā lasaklātaṁ svasthālasamathāpi ca/
viṣkumbhitaṁ tatkaṭukaṁ muktajānu tathā samaṁ/
jānūgataṁ vimuktaṁ ca sthānakānyupaveśane// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.22.1-2
113
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.631
114
viṣkumbhitāñcitau pādau vakṣaḥ kiñcitsamunnatam
hastau kaṭyūruvinyastau svasthau svasthopaveśane// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.22.2
115
hastau kaṭyūruvinyastau svasthe syādupaveśane/
pādaḥ prasāitaḥ kiñcidekaścaivāsanāśrayaḥ// Nāṭyaśāstra, 13.197

64
 manda i.e., slow116 and ālasa i.e., lazyness.117 To show worry, sadness and

separation as well as excitement, the actor should stretch one leg and sit on

other and this position is called mandālasa posture. 118 In the 4th act of

Abhijñānaśakuntala, it can be seen that Śakuntalā was worried and was lost

due to the separation with her husband Duṣyanta. If the drama

Abhijñānaśakuntala has to be enacted in a stage, the character of Śakuntalā

has to sit in the mandālasa posture as this posture is suggested to take in

grief by the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. Moreover, after placing one knee on

ground in muktajānuka posture the lover tries to please the beloved.119 The

word Klānta denotes fatigue.120 So, the posture called Klānta indicates the

situation of being grabbed by a strong person or bitten by an enemy or being

depressed.121

ii) Lying Down Postures: Some particular postures are recommended in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa as śayyāsthāna, which are adopted by the actors at

time of lying down in a Drama. These postures are- sama, ākuñcitaka,

prasārita, vivartita, udvāhita and nata.122 When a person is relaxing on a bed

116
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p. 425
117
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.181
118
ekaḥ prasāritaḥ pāastvanyaścaivāsanāśritaḥ/
pārśvaṁ nataṁ tathā kāryaṁ sthānaṁ mandālasaṁ tu tat/
cintāyāṁ tu tathautsukye nirvede virahe tathā// Viṣṇudharmottaeapurāṇa,3.22.4
119
ekaṁ jānu yadāsye ca mahīpṛṣṭe vidhīyate/
jñātavyaṁ bhūmipaśreṣṭha muktajānukamāsanam/
etatkṛtavyalīkānāṁ priyāṇāṁ samprasādane// Ibid., 3.22.13-14
120
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.169
121
cibukāpāśitau hastau bāhuśīrṣācitaṁ śiraḥ/
sarvābhinayanaṁ caiva vijñeyaṁ klāntanāyakaṁ/
balinā nigṛhītasya ripuṇā khaṇḍitasya ca/
śokaglānasya ca tathā sthānametadvinirdiśet// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.22.5-7
122
samākuñcitakaṁ caiva prasāritavivartite/
udvāhitaṁ nataṁ ṣoḍā śayyāsthānāni nirdiśt// Ibid.,3.21.1

65
 with up warding face and loose hands, that posture is called sama.123 The

ākuñcitaka posture establishes the fact that a person is suffering from cold

and it is reflected by curving all limbs and contracting knees. 124 The

prasārita and udvāhita posture are almost similar as in both position one

hand is used as pillow and the person is sleeping at ease.125 Lord Viṣṇu is

seen to be in this position at the time of resting on the bed of anantanāga. In

the vivartita postion, the actor should bring his face down to show that the

person is hit by weapon or he is acting the role of a dead or a drunken

person.126 The nata posture is used to show laziness, tiredness and physical

exertion by loosing hands and strengthening the thighs.127

The discussion about sitting and lying down postures are not seen in the

Nāṭyaśāstra as well as in the Abhinayadarpaṇa.

e) Gatiprasāra: Gati i.e., gait128 and prasāra i.e., extension129 identify the special

kind of Gait-sequence which are taken by the actors according to their needs in the

stage. Some particular gaits as stated in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa are discussed

here.

123
uttānitaṁ mukhaṁ caiva sāstamutkakaraṁ tathā/
samaṁ vāmaprasuptasya sthānakaṁ tu vidhīyate// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.21.2
124
sarvairākuñcitairaṅgaiḥ śayyāviddhe ca jānunī/
sthānamākuñcitaṁ nāma śītārtānāṁ prayojayet/ Ibid., 3.21.3
125
ekaṁ bhujaṁ samādhāya saṁprasāritajānukam/
sthānaṁ prasāritaṁ nāma sukhasuptasya kārayet//
aṁsopari śiraḥ kṛtvā kuryurakṣobhameva ca/
udvāhitaṁ tu vijñeyaṁ līlāyāḥ śaṁsane prabho// Ibid., 3.21.4 & 6
126
adhomukhe sthitaṁ caiva vivartitamiti smṛtaṁ/
śastrakṣate mṛe kṣiptaṁ mattonmatteṣu tadbhavet// Ibid., 3.21.5
127
tasyā yadetatprasṛtaṁ tu jaṁghe strastau karau taṁ natamuddiśnti/
ālasyakhedaśramamokṣaṇeṣu kāryastu tasyābhinayaprayogaḥ// Ibid., 3.21.7
128
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.180
129
Ibid., p.372

66
 a) Svābhāvika-gati: The word svābhāvika means natural. 130 So, the term

svābhāvika gati denotes natural gait. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in natural gait the knees are lifted up to waist.131

b) Sthira-gati: Sthira-gati denotes the steady movements. To show walking in

fever, hunger, disease, tiredness due to penance, dissimulation, excitement,

love and sorrow or ease, slow gait should be adopted by the artist.132 The

lover who goes to meet his or her secret lover adopts the sthira-gati.133 In

darkness or if a deformed creature is visible or if a person walks a long way,

the gait of a person becomes automatically slow down.134

c) Śīghra-gati: Śīghra-gati or quick gait 135 should be adopted in fear, terror,

anger, joy, rapid and urgent actions, on hearing distasteful information, on

136
seeing unbelievable things, searching of crime factors etc. In the

Mṛcchakaṭika of Śudraka, the heroin Vasantasenā was moving speedily in

terror as she was followed by some cunning persons like Vīṭa, Ceṭa and

Śakāra and her gait was crossing over the speed of wind137. This can be taken

as a menifstation of śīghra-gati.

130
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary,, p.633
131
svabhāvenottuṅgagatau kāryaṁ jānukaṭīsamaṁ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.29.1
132
vikṛte cāvahitthe ca tathautsukyasamanvite/
śṛṅgāre caiva śoke ca svacchandagamane tathā//
eteṣveva tu sarvatra sthirā kāryā gatirbudhaiḥ/ Ibid., 3.29.2
133
Ibid.,3.29.9-10
134
sattve tu vikṛte dṛṣṭe gatirvisphuritekṣaṇā/
…………mandāpyandhakāre gatirbhavet//
dīrghādvani gatasyāpi śanairmandaparikramā/ Ibid., 3.29.18,19&30
135
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.557
136
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.29.4-7
137
kiṁ tvaṁ padairmama padā viśeṣayantī/
vyālīva yāsi patagendrabhayābhibhūtā//
vegādahaṁ pravisṛtaḥ pavanaṁ nirudhyāṁ/
tvannigrahe tu varagātri na me prayatnaḥ// Mṛcchakaṭikaṁ, 1.22

67
 d) Skhalita-gati: The word skhalita means stumbled.138 So, the term skhalita-

gati obviously denotes irregularity in walking. The movements of the drunken

person and mad man are always irregular and unstable.139

e) Śṛṅgāriṇī-gati: A person in elegant and stylish dress up walks in rhythmic

footsteps with particular movements of arms along with the legs. One looks

very graceful in it and it is generally adopted at the time of meeting with the

beloved. That is why this type of gait is related to Śṛṅgāra i.e., love. 140

Moreover, this type of gait is seen in the walking of dūtī i.e., female

messenger141.142

Besides these three kinds of way of walking, in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, some particular gaits are recommended for some

characters of Dramas. As for example: the gait of Vīṭa should be graceful and that of

Kañcukī should be shaky and unstable.143 Again in the gait of Ceṭa, the eyes should

be upward acting as thinking of something. 144 Viduṣaka’s movement should be

funny.145 In Sanskrit Dramas, the character of Viduṣaka is portrayed as a depicter of

146
humour which demands a comical gait to make audience laugh. In the

Abhijñānaśakuntala, to get respite from the stay in the hermitage, Viduṣaka was

138
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.618
139
mattasya tu gatiḥ kāryā skhalitā pārśvayordvayoḥ/
unmattasyāpi kartavyā gatistvabhinayakramā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.29.30-31.
140
gatiḥ śṛṅgāriṇī kāryā svasthakāmitasambhave/
sasauṣṭhavasamāyuktairlayatālavaśonugaiḥ// Ibid., 3.29.7-8
141
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.256
142
dūtīdarśitamārgastu hṛdyaveśaparikrame/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.29.8
143
viṭasyāpi tu kartavyā gatirlalitavikramā/
kañcukīyasya kartavyā kampitā skhalitā gatiḥ// Ibid., 3.29.28
144
gatau rameta ceṣṭānāṁ dṛṣtiścāryavicāriṇī/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.29.33
145
vidūṣakasya kartavyā gatirhāsyapradā tathā/ Ibid., 3.29.34
146
hāsyakaraḥ kalaharatirvidūṣakaḥ syāt/ Sāhityadarpaṇa,3.42

68
seen to adopt the gimmick of breaking down of his limbs147 which automatically

looks funny and generates a lighter environment.

In the Abhinayadarpaṇa gaits are based on the movements of some living

creatures viz., swan, peacock, deer, eleaphant, tortories, lion, serpent and frog.148 In

the Abhinayadarpaṇa, gaits are explained along with some particular hand gestures.

It shows that footsteps are to be followed by some hand postures. In the gait of swan

i.e., haṃsa, the actor or dancer should place one foot after another. The distance

between two feet should be half a cubit and the hands should be in kapitthahasta.149

The gait of mayura i.e., peacock steps can be made by standing on toes and moving

both the knees alternately. In this gait the actor or dancer should hold kapitthahasta

with both hands. 150 The gait of mṛga itself identifies the footsteps of mṛga i.e.,

deer.151 To adopt this gait the actor or the dancer should run forward or sideways

with tripatāka hands.152 The gait of gaja i.e., elephant is always noticed as slow

gait. 153 The Abhinayadarpaṇa suggests holding patāka hands in this gait. 154

According to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, in the gait of turaṅga i.e horse, the śikhara and

patāka hands should be hold with left and right hands respectively.155 In the gait of

147
aṅgabhaṅgavikala iva bhūtvā sthāsyāmi/ Abhijñānaśakuntalaṁ,2.p.55
148
haṁsī mayūrī ca mṛgī gajalīlā turaṁgiṇī/
siṁhī bhujaṅgī maṇḍūkī gatiḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,309
149
parivartyaṃ tanuṃ pārśvaṃ vitastyantaritaṃ śanaiḥ/
ekaikaṃ tat padaṃ nyasya kapitthaṃ karayorvaha//
haṃsavadgamanaṃ yattu sā haṃsī gatirītitā/ Ibid., 311
150
prapadābhyāṃ bhūbi sthitvā kapitthaṃ karayorvahan/
ekaikajānucalanānmayūrī gatirīritā/ Ibid., 312
151
mṛgavad gamanaṃ…../ Ibid.,313
152
……………tripatākakarau vahan……………/
purataḥ pārśvayoścaiva yānaṃ mṛgagatirbhavet// Ibid., 313
153
……gatirmandaṃ gajalīleti viśrutā/ Ibid., 315
154
pārśvayostu patākābhyāṃ karābhyāṃ vicaraṃ stataḥ/ Ibid., 314
155
vāmeṇa śikharaṃ dhṛtvā dakṣiṇena patākikāṃ…. turaṅgiṇī gatiḥ/ Ibid., 316

69
siṃha i.e., lion, the actor or dancer should stand on toes first and then jump forward

speedily.156 The śikharahasta is adopted with both hands in this gait.157 Frog step is

suggested to do exactly as the gait of siṃha in the Abhinayadarpaṇa.158

f) Dramatic Style:

Dramatic style is generally referred to by the word vṛtti in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. There are four kinds of vṛttis i.e., dramatic styles

accepted in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. These are Bhāratī, Sāttvatī, Kauśiki and

Ārabhaṭī. 159 The way or style of delivering speech or dialogues in a Drama is

regarded as Bhāratī-vṛtti.160 The Sāhityadarpaṇa also agrees on it.161 According to

the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Sāttvatī-vṛtti mainly displays vīrarasa and Ārabhaṭī-

vṛtti exhibits raudrarasa.162 The Sāhityadarpaṇa agrees on it.163 Because, according

to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, Sāttvatī-vṛtti is associated with the qualities of power,

heroism, leaving, forgiveness and straightness 164 and the vīrarasa is seen to be

delineated by these qualities.165 Abhinavagupta states that Sāttvatī-vṛtti is the action

of mind and Ārabhaṭī-vṛtti is the action of body. 166 The state of utsāha is the

156
pādāgrābhyāṃ bhuvi sthitvā pura utplutya vegataḥ……siṃhagatirbhavet/ Ibid., 317
157
karābhyāṃ śikharaṃ dhṛtvā yānaṃ / Ibid., 319
158
karābhyāṃ śikharaṃ dhṛtvā kiñcit siṃhīsamā gatiḥ/
maṇḍūkī gatirityeṣā……// Ibid., 311
159
bhāratī sātvatī caiva kauśikyārabhaṭī tathā/
catastro vṛttayaḥ proktā….// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20. 56
160
vākyapradhānā tu bhāratī/ Ibid., 3.20.56
161
bhāratī saṃskṛtaprāyo vāgvyāpāro naṭāśrayaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.21
162
tathā vīarasaprāyā vijñeyā sātvatī nṛpa/
tathā raudrapracārā ca bhavatyārabhaṭī sadā// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.57
163
……..vīre sāttvatyārabhaṭī punaḥ/rase raudre ca…….// Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.122
164
sātvatī bahulā sattvaśauryatyāgadayārjavaiḥ/ Ibid., 6.128
165
atha vīro nāma uttamaprakṛtirutsāhātmakaḥ…sthairyaśauryadhairyatyāgavaiśāradyād…/
Nāṭyaśāstra, p.262
166
manovyāpārarūpā sātvikī sāttvatī/ teṣāmiyamārabhaṭī kāyavṛttiḥ/ Abhinavabhāratī , p.16

70
sthāyībhāva of vīrarasa.167 It increases energy and excitement to mind and projects

the heroic sentiment through the sañcāribhāvas i.e., transitory feelings of mind like

dhṛti i.e., firmness168, mati i.e., intellect169, garva i.e., pride170, smṛti i.e., memory171,

tarka i.e., speculation 172 and romāñca i.e., horripilation 173 . 174 On the other hand,

krodha is the sthāyībhāva of raudrarasa and it is all about the actions of body.175 So

if the view points of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa and Abhinavagupta are compared,

it can be noticed that Sāttvatī-vṛtti which exhibits vīrarasa remains as the action of

mind and Ārabhaṭī-vṛtti which exhibits raudrarasa remains as the action of limb.

Kauśiki- vṛtti is associated with the sentiment of love i.e., śṛṅgāra.176

g) Characters:

Characters play an important role in any type of literary composition.

Specially, in a dramatic performance the characters play the lead role. Actually the

dramatist projects his ideas through the behaviors of different characters. Characters

may be of two types viz., individual and typical. The individual characters are

defined through the network of specialization and are portrayed along with its

individual characteristics. As for example, the characters like Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa, Sītā,

Duṣyanta, Śakuntalā etc. can be taken up. On the other hand, a character stands as a

representative of a particular class or group of people is known as typical character

167
uttamaprakṛtirvīra utsāhasthāyibhāvakaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa,3.232
168
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.275
169
Ibid., p.418
170
Ibid., p.184
171
Ibid., p.629
172
Ibid., p.231
173
Ibid., p.472
174
sañcāriṇastu dhṛtimatigarvasmṛtitarkaromāñca/ Sāhityadarpaṇa,3.234
175
muṣṭiprahārapātanabikṛtacchedāvadāraṇeścaiva/
saṁgrāmasaṁbhramādyairasyoddīptibhavet prauḍā// Ibid., 3.228
176
śṛṅgāre kauśikī……/ Ibid., 6.122

71
in Sanskrit drama. As for example, the characters of Sūtradhāra, Vīta, Śakāra,

Vidūṣaka, Kañcukī, Dūta, Naṭa etc. can be taken as typical character. Though Vedas

are regarded as the forerunners of Sanskrit drama, the Sanskrit drama took an exact

and concrete form under the influence of epics. Sanskrit dramas mainly depend upon

the two epics i.e., Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata for their theme, plot, characters and

expansion. 177 Because of being based on the epics for theme, the characters of

Sanskrit dramas are mostly like king, queen, deity, demon, sage and sometimes

Brahmins and merchants. In the Nāṭyaśāstra, it is stated that the first Drama was

enacted with the characters of gods and demons.178 The qualities of characters used

in a Drama are explained elaborately in the third part of Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.

In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, five types of hero are accepted. These are-

dhīroddhata, dhīralalita, dhīrapraśānta, dhīrodātta and uddhata. But the

Sāhityadarpaṇa accepts only four and the uddhata variety is absent in this book.179

In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, it is narrated that gods should be dhīroddhata i.e.,

brave and courageous; kings should be dhīralalita i.e., firm, brave and sportive;

sages should be dhīrapraśānta i.e., calm and brave, Brahmins and merchants should

be dhīrodātta i.e., brave and noble minded and demons are uddhata i.e., rash, brave

but haughty.180 Point to be noted here is that the word dhīra is associated with each

of the varieties. The term dhīra means firmness.181 So, it can be said that according

177
nāṭakaṁ khyātavṛttaṁ syāt/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.7
178
vinodajananaṁ loke nāṭyametad bhaviṣyati/
devatānāmasurāṇāṁ rājñāmatha kuṭumbināṁ// Nāṭyaśāstra,1.120
179
Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.31
180
devā dhīroddhatā jñeyā uddhatā dānavādayaḥ/
nṛpāśca dhīralalitā dhīrāstadanujīvinaḥ/
praśāntadhīrā ṛṣayaḥ praśāntāstatpadānugāḥ//
dhīrodāttāstathā viprā udāttā vaṇijo matāḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.12-14
181
dhīraḥ dhairyānvitaḥ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.768

72
to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, all the four types of hero should be associated with the

quality of firmness. The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa is totally silent about other

characters like the heroin, other female characters, viduṣaka etc. It can be noted here

that instead of accepting the Brahmins as dhīrodātta type of hero as accepted in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the Sāhityadarpaṇa includes Brahmins in the

dhīrapraśānta type of hero.182 The Nāṭyaśāstra also gives same view point with the

Sāhityadarpaṇa in this matter.183

Here it is to be noted that the nāyaka or hero is the predominant character of

a Drama. The Rhetorics generally recommend the dhīrodātta type of nāyaka for

Sanskrit dramas. The Sāhityadarpaṇa also admits it.184 Generally, the kings as well

as heroes like Duṣyanta, Rāma, Yudhiṣṭhira etc. of Sanskrit dramas are always

appreciated and people gives example of their heroism of braveness and noble

nature. They are geberally regarded as dhīrodātta type of hero. But in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, kings are included in the dhīralalita type of hero which

can be marked as a speciality in this regard. Actually the dhīralalita type of heroes

are generally addicted to sportive activities like dancing, singing etc.185 This kind of

hero generally gives all responsibilities on his minister and spends times with sports

and entertainment activities.186 This may not be the projected qualities of a king.

Vatsarāja Udayana, the hero of Svapnavāsavadattaṁ and Ratnāvalī falls under this

182
sāmānyaguṇairbhūyān dvijādiko dhīraśāntaḥ syāt/ Sāhityadarpaṇa , 3.34
183
dhīrapraśāntā vijñeyā brāhmaṇā vaṇijastathā/ / Nāṭyaśāstra,34.20
184
prakhyātavaṁśo rājarṣidhīrodāttaḥ pratāpavān/
divyo’tha divyādivyo vā guṇavānnāyako mataḥ// Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.9
185
……kalāparo dhīralalitaḥ syāt/ kalā nṛtyādikā/
yathā ratnāvalyādau vatsarājādiḥ/ Ibid., 3.34
186
dhīralalitaṁ lakṣayati- niścinta iti/ niścinto mantrivargādiṣu sthāpitabhāratvāt udvegarahitacittaḥ/
Lakṣmīṭīkā, Ibid., p. 98

73
catagory. Kings like Duṣyanta and Rāma are appreciated, instead of Vatsarāja

Udayana. So the view point of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa regarding the qualities

of a king can be taken for explanation and demands reason to establish the practice

behind it. It may be said that the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa has followed the

Nāṭyaśāstra in this regard. 187

The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa is totally silent in the discussion of other

important characters of Sanskrit drama like that of the heroin, other female

characters, viduṣaka etc.

h) Sentiment:

Rasa or Sentiment is a very important component in poetry. Through the

delineation of different sentiments different way, the connoisseurs can relish the

taste of a poetic piece. vākyaṁ rasātmakamaṁ kāvyaṃ188- establishes that rasa i.e.,

sentiment is the soul of a kāvya or poetry. There are two broad divisions of kāvya in

Sanskrit viz., dṛśyakāvya and śravyakāvya.189 Drama belongs to dṛśyakāvya variety

and for this reason it can be said that rasa i.e., sentiment is the soul of Drama too.

The famous commentator Abhinavagupta also says that- no meaning comes forward

without sentiment.190 The primary meaning of rasa refers to taste or to savour or to

relish, but metaphorically it means the emotional experience of beauty in poetry.191

The sentiment is that which touches our heart and fills it with a great sensation, after

reading or hearing a piece of poetry or viewing a performing art. But the point to be

noted here is that only suggestive type of literary piece has the capacity to reflect the

187
….dhīralalitāḥ nṛpāḥ…./ Nāṭyaśāstra,34.19
188
Sāhityadarpaṇa, 1.p.24
189
dṛśyaśravyatvabhedena punaḥ kāvya dvidhā mataṁ/ Ibid., 6.1
190
na hi rasādṛte kvaścidapyarthaḥ pravartate/ Abhinavabhāratī , p.227
191
P.V. Kane, History of Sanskrit poetics, p. 356

74
sentiment or rasa, as rasa itself is always suggestive. Mammaṭabhaṭṭa, the author of

the Kāvyaprakāśa accepts three kinds of kāvya viz., dhvanikāvya,

guṇībhūtavyaṅgakāvya and citrakāvya. Among those the dhvanikāvya is regarded as

the best type of poetry, where the suggestive sense stays as the predominant one.192

But in the Sāhityadarpaṇa, only two varieties of kāvya are accepted which are-

dhvanikāvya and guṇībhūtavyaṅgakāvya.193 The third variety i.e., citrakāvya is not

accepted in the Sāhityadarpaṇa. Moreover, there are three kinds of meaning of

words which are vācyārtha, lakṣārtha and vyaṅgārtha.194 The vācyārtha is known

by abhidhā, lakṣārtha is known by lakṣaṇā and vyaṅgārtha is recognized by

vyañjanā.195 Thus it can be said that Abhidhā denotes the primary meaning, where

the dictionary meaning of the word is predominant. 196 Lakṣaṇā denotes the

secondary meaning which is established after the failure of the primary sense though

it is based on the primary meaning.197 And vyañjanā denotes the suggestive sense of

a word. The suggestive sense or meaning is the main component of poetry and

supporting it, Mammaṭa says - idamiti kāvyaṁ budhairvaiyākaraṇaiḥ

pradhānabhūtasphoṭarūpavyaṅgyavyañjakasya śabdasya dhvaniriti vyavahāraḥ

198
kṛtaḥ. The suggestive sense is referred to as dhvani in Sanskrit poetics.

Ānandavardhana, the founder of Dhvani school of Sanskrit poetics and also the

192
idamuttamamatiśayini vyaṅgye vācyād dhvanirbudhaiḥ kathitaḥ/ Kāvyaprakāśa, 1.4
193
kāvyaṁ dvanirguṇībhūtavyaṅgyaṁ ceti dvidhā mataṁ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 4.1
194
artho vācyaśca lakṣyaśca vyaṅgyaśceti tridhā mataḥ/Ibid., 2.2
195
vācyo'rtho’bhidhayā bodhyo lakṣyo lakṣaṇayā mataḥ/
vyaṅgyo vyañjanāyā tāḥ syustisraḥ śabdasya śaktayaḥ/ Ibid., 2.3
196
sa mukhyo’rthastatra mukhyo vyāpāro’syābhidhocyate/ Kāvyaprakāśa,2.8
197
mukhyārthbādhe tadyoge ruḍhito’tha prayojanāt/
anyo’rtho lakṣate yatsā lakṣaṇāropitā kriyā// Ibid.,2.9
198
Ibid., p.6

75
author of Dhvanyāloka speaks about two broad divisions of the suggestive meaning

in the following way-

yo’rthaḥ sahṛdayaślāghyaḥ kāvyātmeti vyavasthitaḥ/

vācyapratīyamānākhyo tasya bhedāvubhau smṛtau// 199

It establishes that the meaning that satisfies the soul of the connoisseur is the

soul of poetry and it is divided into two varieties viz., vācyārtha and

pratīyamānārtha. Vācyārtha is the primary meaning which is explicit in nature and

pratīyamānārtha is the suggestive meaning. The pratīyamānārtha is influenced by

the vācyārtha and divided into three subvarieties. They are- vastumātra,

alaṁkāramātra and rasamātra. 200 These three varieties of pratīyamānārtha are

accepted as the three varieties of Dhvani i.e., suggestive sense. 201 It is worth

notifying that in the Locana commentary on the Dhvanyāloka by Abhinavagupta, it

is clearly mentioned that the rasadhvani or rasa is mainly the soul of poetry and

other two divisions are included in it.202 So it can be said that Ānandavardhana also

accepts the suggestive sense i.e., rasadhvani or rasa as the soul of poetry. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa also, rasa is said to be the core of Drama and without it

Drama can not produce a theme.203

199
Dhvanyāloka, 1.2
200
sa hyartho vācyasāmarthyākṣiptaṁ vastumātramalaṅkārarasādayaścetyanekaprabhedaprabhinno
darśayiṣyate/ Ibid., 1, p.37
201
evaṃ ‘pratīyamānaṃ punaranyadeva’ itīyatā dvanisvarūpaṃ vyākhyātaṃ/…….
pratīyamānamātre’pi prakrānte tṛtīya eva rasadhvaniriti mantavyaṃ/ Dhvanyāloka, locana
commentary, p.63
202
tena rasa eva bastutaḥ ātmā, bastvalaṅkāradhvanī tu sarvathā rasaṁ prati paryavasyete iti
vācyādutkṛṣtau tāvityabhiprāyeṇa dhvaniḥ kāvyāsyātmeti sāmānyenoktaṁ/ Locana commentary,
p.62
203
nāṭyasya mūlaṁ tu rasaḥ pradiṣṭo rasena hīnaṁ na hi vṛttamasti/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,
3.30.28

76
 The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa accepts nine rasas or sentiments in Drama.

These are- śṛṅgāra i.e., erotic, hāsya i.e., humour, karuṇa i.e., pathos, raudra i.e.,

furious, vīra i.e., heroic, bhayānaka i.e., terrible, adbhuta i.e., wonder, bībhatsa i.e.,

odious and śānta i.e., quietism.204 It is important to note that according to Bharata,

śāntarasa was not included in the group of nāṭyarasas. 205 But the subsequent

scholars have included śānta in the group of nine sentiments. On the basis of this

academic confrontation, the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa marks its existence by

accepting the śāntarasa as an independent sentiment.206 Moreover, it also says that

śāntarasa is generated from vairāgya207 i.e., absence of worldly desires or passions.

Śāntarasa is quite impossible to establish in a Drama and it does not become

interesting as Drama is all about movement. But the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa

clearly asserts that there are nine sentiments in a Drama including śāntarasa. 208

Mammaṭa also gives his view point in the same spirit in his Kāvyaprakāśa and

accepts nine sentiments. 209 Again the Sāhityadarpaṇa also mentions the eight

sentiments together and states the existence of the śāntarasa separately. 210 The

reason may be that- Drama is all about acting, performing and expressing. But in the

delineation of śāntarasa it is impossible to express or perform something, because

here nirveda is the sthāyībhāva. The durable psychological state of śāntarasa

happens to be nirveda or vairāgya which goes against motion, emotion, action etc. It

is clearly perceived by Mammaṭa and he expresses this situation in his work

204
Ibid., 3.30.1
205
śṛṅgārahāsyakaruṇā raudravīrabhayānakāḥ/
bībhatsādbhutasaṁjñau cetyaṣṭau nāṭye rasāḥ smṛtāḥ// Nāṭyaśāstra, 6.15
206
śānto rasaḥ svatantraḥ……./Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.2
207
śāntasya tu samutpattirnṛpa vairāgyataḥ smṛtā/ Ibid., 3.30.9
208
nava nāṭye rasāḥ smṛtāḥ/ Ibid., 3.30.1
209
navarasarucirāṁ…..bhāratī kaverjayati// Kāvyaprakāśa, 1.1
210
Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.182

77
clearly.211 So, the inclusion of śāntarasa in Drama by the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa

provokes discussion and demands reason of establishment. There can be a very

effective discussion regarding the varieties of rasa found in the Nāṭyaśāstra and the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.

1. Śṛṇgāra: Śṛṇgāra or the sentiment of love is very important in kāvya

specially in dramas. Because, Sanskrit poetics advices to portray either

śṛṇgāra or vīra as the predominant sentiment in a Sanskrit drama.212 It is the

sentiment of love and desire where the manifestation of the activities of

Kāmadeva i.e the god of love can be noticed.213 Rati i.e erotic emotion is the

sthāyībhāva or permanent feeling of śṛṇgāra.214 Śyāma i.e dark blue is the

colour of this sentiment215. Viṣṇu is the God of this sentiment.216 It is of two

kinds viz., saṁbhoga i.e., love in union and viraha i.e., love in separation.217
218
The Nāṭyaśāstra also admits it in the same spirit. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa both the terms viraha and vipralambha are used to

denote the second variety of śṛṇgāra sentiment. But most of the Rhetoricians

of Sanskrit poetics like Mammaṭa 219 and Viśvanāthakavirāja use the term

vipralambha only.220

211
ahau vā hāre vā kusumaśayane vā dṛṣadi vā
maṇau vā loṣṭhe vā balavati ripau vā suhṛdi vā/
tṛṇe vā straiṇe vā mama samadṛśo yānti divasāḥ
kvacitpuṇyāraṇye śiva śiva śiveti pralapataḥ// Kāvyaprakāśa,4.44
212
eka eva bhavedaṅgī śṛṅgāro vīra eva vā/ Sāhityadarpaṇa,6.10
213
śṛṅgaṁ hi manmathodbhedastadāgamanahetukaḥ/ Ibid.,3.183
214
tatra śṛṅgāro nāma ratisthāyibhāvaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, p.246
215
śṛṅgārastu bhavecchyāmaḥ…../ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.30.4
216
śṛṅgāro viṣṇudaivataḥ…../ Ibid., 3.30.6
217
śṛṅgāro dvibidhaḥ proktaḥ sambhogādvirahāttathā/ Ibid., 3.30.16
218
sambhogavipralambhakṛtaḥ śṛṅgāraḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 6. p.246
219
tatra śṛṅgārasya dvau bhedau – sambhogo vipralambhaśca/ nāgeśvarīṭīkā, Kāvyaprakāśa, p.41
220
vipralambho’tha saṁbhoga ityeṣa dvividho mataḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.30.16

78
 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, there are ten kinds of

vipralambha śṛṇgāra which are based on different kāmāvasthās i.e., stages

of love or desire.221 But in the Sāhityadarpaṇa four types of vipralambha

śṛṇgāra are accepted viz., pūrvarāga, māna, pravāsa and karūṇa.222 Again

in the Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammaṭa, vipralambha śṛṇgāra is divided into five

kinds viz., abhilāṣa, viraha, īrṣā, pravāsa and śāpahetuka.223

2. Hāsya: The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says that hāsyarasa is generated from

some irrelevant or funny conversations or attires 224 which bring humour to

the viewers’ mind and the viewers start laughing. The Nāṭyaśāstra speaks

that, the comic sentiment is created through the determinants like deformed

dress or ornaments, impudence, greediness, quarrel, use of irrelevant and

inappropriate words etc. 225 According to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, deformed

movements of hands and feet are also the cause of laughing.226 Hāsa is the

sthāyibhāva of this sentiment.227 Sita i.e., white is the colour228 and Pramatha

is the God of this sentiment.229 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, it

is of two kinds viz., ātmastha i.e., self laugh and parastha i.e other’s

laugh. 230 This books places the grade of laughing in three standards viz.,

uttama, madhyama and adhama.231 Uttama is the best form of smile where

221
vipralambhe tu nirdiṣṭāḥ kāmāvasthāstathā daśa/ Ibid., 3.30.17
222
sa ca pūrvarāgamānapravāsakarūṇātmakaścaturdhā syāt/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.187
223
aparastu abhilāṣa-virahe-rṣā-pravāsa-śāpahetuka iti pañcavidhaḥ/ nāgeśvarīṭīkā, p.42
224
asambandhāttathā veśādbhavatīti viniścayaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmotstarapurāṇa,3.30.12
225
vikṛtaveṣālaṅkāradhārṣṭyalaulyakuhakāsatpralāpavyaṅgadarśanadopodāharaṇādirbhivibhāvaitpadyate/
Nāṭyaśāstra, p.254
226
vikṛta…ceṣtādeḥ kuhakādbhavet hāsya…/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.214
227
hāsyo nāma hāsasthāyibhāvātmakaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, p.254
228
sito hāsyaśca vijñeyaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.5
229
hāsyaḥ pramathadevaḥ/ Ibid.,3.30.6
230
ātmasthaśca parasthaśca dvividhaḥ sa ca kīrtitaḥ/
ātmasthaśca svayaṁ hāsātparasthaḥ parahāsanāt/ Ibid., 3.30.12-13
231
uttamādhamamukhyānāṁ trividhaḥ ca bhavettadā/ Ibid., 3.30.13-15

79
 teeth are not visible; madhyama is the middle form where teeth are visible

and adhama type of laughing is associated with tears and noise.232

3. Karuṇa: Karuṇa i.e., pathos is the sentiment delineated in the circumstances

of sorrow. The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says that it is enacted through

frightened limbs, crying in grief, pale and dry face.233 This sentiment arises

at the death of the beloved one or lovable friends or because of loss of

wealth.234 In this context the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa is seen to follow the

Nāṭyaśāstra. 235 According to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, pathos arises in loss of

desired things as well as in attainment of unwanted things. 236 Śoka is the

sthāyibhāva of karuṇarasa.237 Kapota i.e., the colour of pigeon is the colour

238 239
of this sentiment. Yama is the God of this sentiment. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, it is said that to project the karuṇarasa, the acting

is to be done by frightened limbs, sighs, crying in lamentation, pale face and

drying up of mouth.240

4. Roudra: Like the earlier treatises, the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa relates that

roudra is the sentiment that arises from anger.241 Krodha is the sthāyibhāva

232
alakṣitadvijaṁ caiva uttamānāṁ smitaṁ bhavet//
tathā darśitadantantu madhyamānāṁ prakirtītaṁ/
sātraṁ tadadhamānāṁ syātsasvanaṁ ca mahībhujām// Ibid., 3.30.14-15
233
trastagātrādviniḥ śvāsaparidevitarodanaiḥ/
mukhavaivarṇya śoṣaiśca tasyehābhinayo bhavet// Ibid., 3.30.23
234
iṣṭabandhuviyogena dhananāśena pārthiva/
śoko bhavati tasya syādruditābhinayakriyā/ Ibid., 3.31.4
235
karuṇastu śāpakleśavinipataneṣṭjanaviṣayogavivhavanāśavadhabandhanasamutthonirapekṣabhāva/
Nāṭyaśāstra,p.246
236
iṣṭanāśādaniṣṭāpteḥ karuṇākhyo raso bhavet/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.222
237
atha karuṇo nāma śokasthāyibhāvaprabhavaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, p.258
238
kāpotaḥ karuṇaḥ ca eva/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa 3.30.6
239
karuṇo yamadaivataḥ/ Ibid., 3.30.7
240
trastagātrādviniḥśvāsaparidevitarodanaiḥ/
mukhavaivarṇya śoṣaiśca tasyehābhinayo bhavet// Ibid., 3.30.23
241
krodhādbhavati raudrasya rasasya tu samudbhavaḥ/ Ibid., 3.30.24

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 of raudrarasa.242 Rakta i.e., red is the colour243 and Rudra is the God of this

sentiment. 244 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa anger is of four

types. The first one is referred to as ripuja which means anger arising from

enemy. The Sāhityadarpaṇa also admits it.245 The second one is referred to

as guruja which means anger arising from elderly persons. The third one is

bhṛtyaja which means anger arising from servant and the last one is

praṇayodbhava which means anger arising from love. 246 But anger is not

classified in the Nāṭyaśāstra as well as in the Sāhityadarpaṇa. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa again says that the facial expressions of anger viz.,

redness of eyes, cocked of eyebrows, face full of perspiration etc., should be

used to project raudrarasa in performance.247 In the Nāṭyaśāstra, it is said

that raudrarasa is full of conflict of arms. So according to this treatise, when

the raudrarasa is displayed in the stage, the movements and deeds of the

actors should be terrible and fearful. 248 The Nāṭyaśāstra relates that this

sentiment is projected by fights, striking, cutting, distortion, loud noise of

battle etc.249 According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the raudrarasa is presented on

the stage through some special acts like release of many missiles, beheading,

cutting off trunk and arms.250

242
raudro nāma krodhasthāyibhāvātmakaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, p.259
243
rakto raudraḥ prakīrtitaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa 3.30.4
244
raudro raudrādhidevaśca…../ Ibid., 3.30.7
245
raudraḥ…..ālambanamaristatra/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.227
246
ripujo gurūjaścaiva bhṛtyajaḥ praṇayodbhavaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.31.5
247
raktatvanetrabhrukuṭikrodhāmarṣaiḥ sasāhasaiḥ/ Ibid.,3.30.24
248
śastraprahārabhūyiṣṭa ugrakarmakriyātmaka/ Nāṭyaśāstra,6.66
249
yudhaprahāraghātanavikṛtacchedanavidāraṇaiścaiva/
saṁgrāmasaṁbhramādyairebhiḥ saṁjāyate raudraḥ// Ibid., 6.64
250
nānāpraharaṇamokṣaiḥ śiraḥkabandhabhujakartanaiścaiva/ Ibid., 6.65

81
 5. Vīra: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa gaura i.e., radish white is

the colour of this sentiment.251 Mahendra is the God of this sentiment.252 The

Nāṭyaśāstra states that the vīrarasa relates to the superior type of persons

and has excitement as its basis.253 Utsāha is the sthāyibhāva of vīrarasa.254

This sentiment is enacted in stage through the consequents like firmness,

heroism, sacrifice, diplomacy and the like.255

6. Bhayānaka: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa Bhayānaka is the

sentiment of fear which arises from the commitment of a self committing

offence. 256 In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, bhayānakarasa is accepted as

the result of bībhatsa.257 In the Nāṭyaśāstra, Bharata gives numerous causes

of fear viz., horrible noise, sight of ghosts, sound of jackal and owls, scene of

dark forest, sight of death or imprisonment of dear ones etc.258 Bhaya i.e.,

fear is the sthāyibhāva of bhayānakarasa.259 Kṛṣṇa i.e black is the colour260

261
and Kāladeva is the God of this sentiment. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, it is to be enacted on stage by the gestures of

trembling hands, pale face, drying up of lips and throat etc.262

251
gauro vīrastu vijñeyaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.5
252
vīro mahendradevaḥ syāt/ Ibid., 3.30.8
253
vīro nāma…utsāhātmakaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra,p.262
254
vīra utsāhasthāibhāvakaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.232
255
sthairyaśauryadhairyatyāgavaiśāradyādibhiranubhāvairabhinayaḥ prayoktavyaḥ/
Nāṭyaśāstra, p.262
256
svāparādhasamudbhūtaṁ bhayaṁ nāmeha jāyate/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.31.9
257
utpattirbībhatsācca bhayānaka/ Ibid., 3.30.3
258
sa ca bikṛtaravasatvadarśanaśivolūkatrāsodvegaśūnyāgārāraṇya
praveśasmaraṇasvajanabadhabandhadarśanaśrutikathādibhirvibhāvairutpadyate/
Nāṭyaśāstra, p.264
259
bhayānako nāma bhayasthāyibhāvātmakaḥ/ Ibid., p.264
260
kṛṣṇaścaiva bhayānakaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.5
261
kāladevo bhayānakaḥ/ Ibid., 3.30.7
262
trastagātrādviniḥ śvāsaparidevitarodanaiḥ/
mukhavaivarṇya śoṣaiśa tasyehābhinayo bhavet// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa., 3.30.23

82
 7. Adbhuta: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Adbhuta is the

sentiment that arises from wonder. 263 Vismaya is the sthāyibhāva of

adbhutarasa.264 Pīta i.e., yellow is the colour 265 and Brahma is the god of

this sentiment. 266 The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that adbhutarasa

arises from vīrarasa. 267 According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, this sentiment is

projected through some determinates like the sight of heavenly beings,

achievement of unexpected things or fulfillment of desires. 268 Moreover,

some resultants are used to adopt for conveying this sentiment to the

audience. These are- expanded eyes, bristling of hair, horripilation,

perspiration and movement of fingers.269

8. Bībhatsa: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the sentiment of

bībhatsa arises from jugupsā i.e., disgusting 270 sight and it is showed by

shaking of nose.271 The Nāṭyaśāstra agrees on it and accepts jugupsā as the

sthāyibhāva of bībhatsarasa. 272 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,

Nīla i.e., blue is the colour273 and Mahākāla is the god of this sentiment.274

Bharata says that bībhatsarasa is to be represented through some activities

263
āścaryeṇa samutpattiradbhutaṁ tatprakīrtitaṁ/ Ibid., 3.30.25
264
adbhuto nāma vismayasthāyibhāvātmakaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra,p.266
265
pītaścaivādbhutaḥ smṛtaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.5
266
adbhuto brahmadaivata/ Ibid., 3.30.8
267
vīrāccaivādbhutotpatti/ Ibid., 3.30.3
268
adbhuto nāma vismayasthāyibhāvātmakaḥ/ sa ca divyadarśanepsitamanorathāvā…./
Nāṭyaśāstra,p.266
269
prasphuritākṣiromāñcairaṅgulībhramaṇādibhiḥ/
svedena cābhineyaḥ syādadbhutaḥstu tathā rasaḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.27
270
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.222
271
jugupsayā ca bhavati bībhatsasya samudbhavaḥ/
nāsāvighūrṇanāttarasya codvegena tathaiva ca// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.25-26
272
bībhatso nāma jugupsāsthāyibhāvātmakaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra,p.266
273
….nīlo bībhatsameva ca…./ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.30.6
274
….. bībhatsasya mahākālaḥ…./ Ibid.,3.30.7

83
 such as stopping the movements of the limbs, narrowing down the mouth,

vomiting, spitting, shaking of limbs in disgust etc.275

9. Śānta: Śama is the sthāyibhāva of śāntarasa. 276

According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the colour of śāntarasa is recognized as

svabhāvavarṇa i.e., natural colour.277 Paraḥ purūṣa is regarded as the god of

this sentiment.278 But according to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, Śrīnārāyaṇa is the

god of this sentiment.279

Thus, from the discussion on the various elements of different sentiments as

reflected in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa and the other sources, the following table

can be generated.

Sentiments Sthāyībhāvas Gods Colours

Śṛṇgāra Rati Viṣṇu Śyāma i.e., Dark blue

Hāsya Hāsa Pramatha Sita i.e., White

Karuṇa Śoka Yamadeva Kapota i.e., The colour of pigeon

Raudra Krodha Rudra Rakta i.e., Red

Vīra Utsāha Mahendra Gaura i.e., Reddish white

Bhayānaka Bhaya Kāladeva Kṛṣṇa i.e., Black

Bibhatsa Jugupsā Mahākāla Nīla i.e., Blue

Adbhuta Vismaya Brahmadeva Pīta i.e., Yellow

Śānta Nirveda Paraḥpuruṣa Svabhāvavarṇa i.e., Natural colour

275
sarvāṅgasaṁhāramukhanetravikūṇanollekhananiṣṭhīvanodvejanādibhiranubhāvairabhinayaḥ
prayoktavyaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, p.266
276
śāntaḥ śamasthāyibhāva/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.245
277
śāntasvabhāvavarṇastu/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.30.4
278
śāntasya devo vijñeyaḥ paraḥ purūṣa eva tu/ Ibid., 3.30.8
279
śāntaḥ………śrīnārāyaṇadaivataḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 3.246

84
III.1.4: Types of Drama:

Dṛṣyakāvyas in Sanskrit are mainly divided into two groups, viz., rūpaka and

uparūpaka. The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa accepts twelve types of rūpaka viz.,

nāṭaka, nāṭikā, prakaraṇa, prakaraṇī, utṣṛṣṭakāṅka, bhāṇa, samavakāra, ihāmṛga,

vyāyoga, vīthī, ḍima and prahasana. But Bharata accepts ten kinds of rūpaka in the

Nāṭyaśāstra. 280 The Sāhityadarpaṇa also seems to follow the Nāṭyaśāstra in this

context.281 In the Daśarūpaka also ten kinds of rūpakas are discussed.282 Actually

prakaraṇī and utṣṛṣṭakāṅka, these two types are not accepted by the Nāṭyaśāstra,

Sāhityadarpaṇa and Daśarūpaka as the divisions of rūpaka. The varieties of

rupakas other than the nāṭaka are taken up for narration here.

1) Nāṭikā: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in nāṭikā, there should

be four acts and the pre dominant sentiment should be Śṛṇgāra. 283

Nāṭyaśāstra also agrees with this viewpoint and said that nāṭikā should

contain loads of female characters, dances, songs, love, enjoyment etc. 284

According to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, the lady born in royal family having the

interest on Music, Dance etc. should be the heroin of a nāṭikā.285

280
nāṭakaṁ saprakaraṇamaṅko vyāyoga eva ca/
bhāṇaḥ samavakāraśca vīthī prahasanaṁ ḍimaḥ//
ihāmṛgaśca vijñeyā daśame nāṭyalakṣaṇe/
eteṣāṁ lakṣaṇmahaṁ vyākhyāsyāyanupūrvaśaḥ// Nāṭyaśāstra,18, 2-3
281
nāṭakamatha prakaraṇaṁ bhāṇavyāyogasamavakāraḍimāḥ/
ihāmṛgāṅkavīthyaḥ prahasanamiti rūpakāṇi daśa// Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.3
282
Daśarūpaka, 1.8
283
evaṁ vidhā saśṛṇgārā caturaṅkā tu nāṭikā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 17.19
284
strīprāyā caturaṅkā lalitābhinayātmikā suvihitārthā/
bahunṛttagītapāthyā ratisambhogātmikā caiva// Nāṭyaśāstra,18.61.
285
syādantaḥpurasambaddhā saṅgītavyāpṛtāthavā/
navānurāgā kanyātra nāyikā nṛpavaṁśajā/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.270

85
 2) Prakaraṇa: The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that the plot of a prakaraṇa

should be imaginary.286 While the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says only one

line about prakaraṇa, the Nāṭyaśāstra gives three requirements of a

prakaraṇa in an expanded way. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the characters

in a prakaraṇa are Brahmin, merchant, minister, priest and officer. 287

Following the Nāṭyaśāstra, the Sāhityadarpaṇa states that the hero of a

prakaraṇa should be a Brahmin, minister or a merchant.288 In a prakaraṇa

the heroin is suggested to come from a good family or sometimes to be a

courtesan by her profession.289

3) Prakaraṇī: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, prakaraṇī also

should be imaginary like prakaraṇa and contain four acts.290 This is a new

inclusion in the group.

4) Utṣṛṣṭakāṅka: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the plot of

utṣṛṣṭakāṅka should be taken from history or it should be imaginary, the

dramatic style should be bhāratī and the karuṇa should be the pre dominant

sentiment.291

5) Bhāṇa: Bhāṇa is a one act drama and full of fights and it should be

presented by only one actor who has to talk through speeches in air.292 The

Nāṭyaśāstra has the same view point with the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa in

286
kṛtaṁ prakaraṇaṁ tadvatsvayamutpādya vastunā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 17.19
287
vipravaṇikasacivānāṁ purohitāmātyasārthavāhānām/
caritaṁ yannaikavidhaṁ jñeyaṁ tatprakaraṇaṁ nāma// Nāṭyaśāstra, 18.48
288
bhavetprakaraṇe….nāyakastu vipro’mātyo’thavā vaṇikaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.224
289
nāyikā kulajā kvāpi, veśyā kvāpi dvayaṁ kvacit/ Ibid., 6. 226
290
evaṁ prakaraṇī kāryā caturaṅkāpi sā bhavet/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,17.20
291
itihāsānubandho vā svayamutpādya vā kṛtaḥ/
bhāratīkaruṇaprāyo nivṛttaṁ samanantaraṁ// Ibid., 17.21
292
ekāṅko yuddhabahulasvātmaśaṁsāparastathā/
ākāśakathanairyuktastvekapātrakṛtakriyaḥ// Ibid.,17.23

86
 this matter. According to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, the one and only character of a

bhāna is projected to be a cunning person.293

6) Samavakāra: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in samavakāra,

the heroes may be gods or demons and it consists of twelve heroes.294 The

Sāhityadarpaṇa states that there should be three acts in a samavakāra.295

7) Īhāmṛga: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, īhāmṛga consists of

296 297
many acts. But the Sāhityadarpaṇa fixes it in four acts. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that in īhāmṛga a gandharva i.e., a

demigod 298 should be the hero and śṛṇgāra should be the pre dominant

sentiment which arises from the unsatisfaction of sexual enjoyment.299

8) Vyāyoga: The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that in Vyāyoga, actions of

one day are showed through one hero. The sentiment should be dṛpta.300

Though dṛpta is not included in the list of nine rasas, the Abhinavabhāratī

clarifies that dṛptarasa is endowed with ojaguṇa and it is originated from

vīra and raudra sentiments.301

9) Vīthī: In vīthī, there is no hero. According to the Sāhityadarpaṇa, in a vīthī,

the hero should be imagined and the voice of the hero should be heared

293
bhāṇaḥ syāddhūrtacarito../ Sāhityadarpaṇa,6.227
294
proktaḥ samavatārā kyastridaśāsuranāyakaḥ/ Ibid., 17.24
295
…samavakāre….trayo’ṅkāstatra…/ Ibid.,6.234
296
īhāmṛgo’tha bahvaṅkastathā…/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.17.25
297
īhāmṛgo…caturaṅkaḥ prakīrtitaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.245
298
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.181
299
īhāmṛgo’th….gandharvanāyakaḥ/
śṛṅgārabahulaḥ kāryo’tṛpta yonirasāśrayaḥ//Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.17.25
300
ekāhiko dṛptaraso vyāyogaścaikanāyakaḥ/ Ibid., 3.17.26
301
dīptaṁ kāvyamojoguṇayuktaṁ, dīptarasādyā vīraraudrādyāḥ tadubhayaṁ yoniḥ kāraṇāsya/
Abhinavabhāratī, p.670

87
 through ākāśabhāṣita i.e., a sound or voice in the air 302 . 303 This type of

dṛṣyakāvya consists of thirteen acts.304 But in the Sāhityadarpaṇa, only one

305
act is considered. Bharata accepts thirteen kinds of vīthī in the

Nāṭyaśāstra.306

10) Ḍima: The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that the plot and the hero of ḍima

should be well known.307 In the Nāṭyaśāstra it is said that six sentiments

except śṛṅgāra and hāsya are to be associated in a ḍima.308According to the

Sāhityadarpaṇa, ḍima consists of four acts.309 This book relates that the hero

of a dima should be a devatā, gandharva, yakṣa, rākṣasa, mahānāga, bhūta,

preta or piśāca.310

11) Prahasana: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the prahasana

should be full of humorous disputations and it should have only one act and

the characters like courtesans, viṭas are basically seen here. 311 In the

Nāṭyaśāstra, two forms of prahasana are accepted. One is śuddha i.e., pure

type of prahasana which contains some comic conversations of some

designated persons like bhagavatas, tāpasas, bhikṣus, śrotrīyas, vipras etc.312

The another one is saṅkīrṇa i.e., mixed type of prahasana where the

302
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.74
303
vīthyāṁ…ākāśabhāṣitairukteścitrāṁ pratyuktimāśritaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.253
304
vīthī trayodaśāṅkā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.17.26
305
vīthyāmeko bhavedaṅkaḥ/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.253
306
Nāṭyaśāstra, 20.114-115
307
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.17.27
308
śṛṅgārahāsyavarjaḥ śeṣairanyaiḥ rasaiḥ samāyuktaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra,20.84
309
dimaḥ…catvāro’ṅkā matā/ Sāhityadarpaṇa, 6.242
310
dimaḥ….nāyakā devagandharvayakṣarākṣasomahānagāḥ/
bhūtapretapiśācādyāḥ…/ Ibid., 6.243
311
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.17.28
312
bhagavattāpasabhikṣuśrotriyaviprātihāsasaṁyuktam/
nīcajanasaṁprayuktaṁ parihāsābhāṣaṇaprāyam/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 20.103

88
 courtesans, servants, eunuchs, viṭas and cunning and unchaste women come

into view with their immodest appearance, attires and movements.313

III.2. Dance:

Dance is a variety of performing art which is exercised in a graceful way

through bodily movements, gestures, expressions, sentiments, rhythm and songs.

The practice of this art form has been continuing from the Vedic society and the

sages were involved in its initiation. The Ṛgveda has numerous references on

Dance.314 Various Vedic mantras prove the existence and practice of this art form in

the Vedic age.315 In the Ṛgveda, Indra is considered as a dancer who also made

others to dance and spread joy.316 In the 92nd hymn of the 1st Maṇḍala of Ṛgveda,

the Goddess Uṣā is portrayed as a lady dancer.317 In the Atharvaveda, gandharvas

are also considered as excellent dancers.318 In the Vājasaneyīsaṁhitā of Yajurveda, a

dancer is mentioned.319 So, it can be said that the practice of this art form had been

continuing from the Vedic age. In the Puranic literature also, we find a great amount

of discussion about this art form in an elaborated way.

320
The Sanskrit word naṭana is used to denote Dance. In the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, three varieties of naṭana i.e., Dance are found. These are- Nāṭya,

Nṛtta and Nṛtya.321 Nāṭya i.e., Drama has already been discussed. Nṛtta is that kind

313
tatprahasane prayojyaṁ dhūrtaviṭavivādasampannaḥ/
vīthyaṅgaiḥ saṁyuktaṁ kartavyaṁ prahasanaṁ yathāyogam/ Ibid., 20.107
314
….. jagāma nṛtyate../ Ṛgveda,10.18.3
315
…..nṛtyamāno amṛta…/ Ibid.,5.33.6
316
indra yathā hyasti te‘parītaṁ nṛto śavaḥ/ Ibid., 8.24.9
317
adhi peśāṁsi vapate nṛtūrivāporṇute vakṣa ustreva barjaham/ Ibid.,1.92.4
318
ānṛtyataḥ śikhaṇḍino gandharvaḥ/ Atharvaveda, 4.37.7
319
nṛttāya sūtaṁ…/ Yajurveda.30.6
320
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.278
321
……………..naṭanaṁ trividhaṁ smṛtaṁ/
nāṭyaṁ nṛttaṁ nṛtyamiti munibhirbharatādibhiḥ// Abhinayadarpaṇa,11

89
of Dance which does not express any kind of bhāva i.e., state of mind or emotion.322

In Nṛtta the performer does not convey the emotion or feelings of his mind to the

audience. Instead of it, the dancer just dances for ownself. On the other hand, nṛtya

suggests rasas i.e., sentiments and bhāvas i.e., states of mind.323 The Daśarūpaka

also admits it.324According to the Daśarūpaka, Nṛtta depends upon tāla and laya.325

Moreover, Nṛtta is declared as deśi. 326 In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the term

Nṛtta is seen to be used to denote Dance. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Nṛtta is divided into two types viz., nāṭya and lāsya.327

Nṛtta is again classified here into two forms viz., sukumāra and uddhata.328 As per

purāṇa this Sukumāra is an elegant type of dance style which is generally performed

by women. 329 On the other hand, uddhata is an aggressive kind of dance form

performed by men.330

According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, nāṭya i.e., Drama is refined by

nṛtta and makes it more elegant.331 But point to be noted here is that Drama is all

about visualization. So, the process of conveying emotions through expressions is

very important in Drama. Thus the audience can ralish the sentiments potrayed in

the Drama. So, to establish the sentiments, expressions of inner feelings is most

important to manifest in a Drama by the actors. But as nṛtta does not associated with

322
bhāvābhinayahīnaṁ tu nṛttamityabhidhīyate/ Ibid.,15
323
rasabhāvavyañjanādiyuktaṁ nṛtyamitīryate/ Ibid., 16
324
bhāvāśrayaṁ nṛtyaṁ/ Daśarūpaka,1.9
325
nṛttaṁ tālalayāśrayaṁ../ Ibid., 1.9
326
…….deśi tathā paraṁ/ Ibid., 1.9
327
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.20.2
328
sukumāraṁ tathā uddhataṁ nṛttaṁ dvividhamucyate/ Ibid., 3.20.54
329
strīprāyaṁ sukumārakaṁ/ Ibid., 3.20.55
330
uddhūtaṁ puruṣaprāyaṁ/ Ibid., 3.20.55
331
tasya saṁskārakaṁ nṛttaṁ bhavecchobhāvivardhanaṁ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.20.1

90
bhāva and abhinaya, it is not accepted to be present in nāṭya. If we go through the

view point of Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa in this context, it can be said that nṛtta

enhances the beauty of a Drama externally. There is not any contribution of nṛtta in

establishing the soul of the Drama i.e., rasa.

III.2.1 Origin of Dance:

In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, an interesting story is narrated in

connection with the origin of Dance. Once two demons named Madhu and Kaiṭabha

had stolen four Vedas from Brahmā.332 Being worried, Brahmā went to Lord Viṣṇu

and asked for help.333 Lord Viṣṇu was ready to help Brahmā and got up from his bed

on the śeṣanāga and searched those two demons in the ocean. 334 In that very

moment goddess Lakṣmī noticed the graceful movements of limbs and charming

steps of the feet of Lord Viṣṇu and she got impressed by it.335 At the arrival of Lord

after completing his task, Goddess Lakṣmī expressed her feelings in front of the God

and asked about the extremely charming strides presented in the water by Lord.

Then the Lord said that he had created the Nṛtta, which should be executed with the

graceful movements of limbs, sense organs and the movements of feet. 336 Thus,

Lord Viṣṇu created the Nṛtta. The point to be noted here is that, according to the

Nāṭyaśāstra, and the Abhinayadarpaṇa, lord Śiva is the originator of Dance 337

where as the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa accepts Lord Viṣṇu as the creator of this art

form.

332
tato jagṛhaturvedānbrahmaṇastau narādhipa/ Ibid., 3.34.6
333
Ibid., 3.34.6-7
334
utthāya salilāttammādbabhramā salilāśaye/ Ibid., 3.34.8
335
aṅgahāraiḥ sulalitaistathā padaparikramaiḥ/
tathā bhramantantaṁ devaṁ dadarśāyatalocanā/ Ibid.,3.34.9
336
nṛttamutpāditaṁ hyetanmayā padmanibhekṣaṇe/
aṅgahāraiḥ sakaraṇaiḥ saṁyuktaṁ saparikramaiḥ// Ibid.,3.34.16
337
nāṭyaṁ nṛttaṁ tathā nṛtyamagre śambho prayuktavān/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,3

91
III.2.2. The Gestures and Postures Connected to Dance:

Projection of dancing postures in proper way, is very important and

necessary in any kind of Dance performance. Correct postures make the dance form

more elegant and charming. As dancing is a kind of performing art, so it is all about

expressing and showing something with gestures and postures. That is why the

proper gestures and postures should be maintained in Dance. As the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa speaks only about Nṛtta, a kind of naṭana, here the

concept of Dance is not endowed with sentiments or emotions. It is solely depended

upon some physical movements, which represent some particular acts. Thw postures

connected to Dance as stated in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa are discussed here.

III.2.2.i) Hand Postures:

The hand postures are termed as hastamudrās in Sanskrit. The hastamudrās

are very essential to denote some particular action or state in dancing and these

mudrās are formed with the help of hands and fingers. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa the necessity of hand gestures are highly recommended as

according to this book, Dance depends on the actions of the hands. 338 In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa mainly three kinds of hastamudrās are discussed and

those are termed as hasta. These three kinds of hastas are- asaṁyuktahasta,

saṁyuktahasta and nṛttahasta.

a) Asaṁyuktahasta: The term Asaṁyukta denotes that which is not

connected.339 Asaṁyuktahastas are the dancing postures made only by single

hand. It may be called as single hand gesture. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, twenty two kinds of asaṁyuktahastas are

338
sarvaṁ karāyattamidaṁ hi nṛttaṁ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.26.97
339
asaṁyutāstāvadete bhavanti/ natvete’saṁyutā eva/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.363

92
 mentioned. These are- patāka, tripatāka, kartarīmukha, ardhacandra, arāla,

śukatuṇḍa, muṣṭi, śīkhara, kapittha, khaṭakāmukha, sūcyāsya, padmakośa,

ahiśīrṣa, mṛgaśīrṣa, kāngūla, kola-padma, catura, bhramara, hamsāsya,

haṁsapakṣa, sandamśa and mukula.340 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa twenty

eight kinds of hand gestures are accepted. 341 The hastamudrās viz.,

ardhapatākā, mayūra, candrakalā, siṁhamukha, tāmracūḍa and triśula are

not mentioned in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. But the Abhinayadarpaṇa

accepts these varieties. The Nāṭyaśāstra again accepts twenty four kinds of

single hand gestures.342 In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, twenty two types of

single hand gestures and there applications in Dance are elaborately

explained which have been taken up here for discussion.

1) Patāka: The word patāka indicates dhvaja in Sanskrit343which means flag or

banner.344 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa in patākahasta, all the

fingers are straightened and thumb is bent.345 Abhinavagupta comments in

the Abhinavabhāratī that this hand posture is looked like a flag and that is

why it is named as patāka.346 The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that the

dancer uses the patākahasta to obstruct prahāra i.e., stike or beat in a Dance

performance. Moreover, to show the blowing of wind and raining, this hand

posture is used in Dance. Sometimes eagerness is also denoted with this hand

340
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.1-3
341
Abhinayadarpaṇa, 81-92
342
Nāṭyaśāstra,9.4-7
343
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.22
344
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.311
345
prasāritāgrā sahitā yasyāṅgulyo bhavanti hi/
kuñcitaśca tathāṅguṣṭhaḥ sa patāka iti smṛtaḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.14
346
patākākāratvātpatākaḥ/ ataeva patākāpyanenaivābhineyā/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.343

93
 posture.347 In the Abhinayadarpaṇa, it is said that the patākahasta is used to

denote the beginning of a drama. Moreover, this hand posture is used to

symbolize some natural phenomenon like cloud, forest, bosom, river, wind

etc.348

2) Tripatāka: The word tripatāka itself identifies the importance of the number

three. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa in tripatākahasta, three

fingures should be straightened in a patākahasta where the ring finger is

bent.349 Abhinavagupta also keeps his view point in the same way.350 The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that this posture is used to denote some

activities like calling a person, putting crown on head, wipe off tears,

auspicious touch on head, covering of ears, movements of serpent and bees

etc. 351 According to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, the tripatāka hand is used to

denote some objects like crown, arrows, tree, the ketakī flower, lamp etc.

This hand posture shows the action of writing letters. Indra along with his

weapon i.e., vajra, is also shown with this hand posture in Dance.352

347
eṣa prahāragrahaṇe rodhane syātpratāpane/
cālitāṅgulirapyeṣa vāyuvṛṣṭinirūpaṇe//
ūrdhvagaśca tathotsāhe chatrādiṣvapyadhomukhaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.15-16
348
Abhinayadarpaṇa, 94-100
349
asyaikānāmikā vakrā tripatākā tathā bhavet/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.17
350
anāmikā vakrā kanīyasītarjanīmadhyamānāṁ tisṛṇāṁ patākavadvasthānāt tripatākaḥ
tritvasyābhineyādvā/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.343
351
āvāhane prayuñjīta mukuṭābhinaye’pyuta/
acalāṅgulirapyeṣa laghupakṣinirūpaṇe//
tayānāsikayā kāryaṁ tathaivāśrupramārjanaṁ /
maṅgalasparśanaṁ kāryaṁ śirasaśca niveśanaṁ//
śrotrasaṁvaraṇaṁ caiva kāryaṁ bhūmimukhena tu/
bhujaṅgānāmabhinayaṁ bhramarāṇāṁ tathaiva ca//Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.18-20
352
Abhinayadarpaṇa, 101-102

94
 3) Kartarīmukha: The word kartarī means scissor 353 and along with the word

mukha, it means mouth of the scissor. The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa

suggests that in the kartarīmukhahasta, the hand should be in tripatākahasta

and the forefinger is kept in the back of the middle finger.354 Here the point

is to be noted that, though forefinger is kept in the back of the middle finger

in kartarīmukhahasta, the forefinger should not touch the middle finger. The

inclusion of the word avalokinī in the definition of kartarīmukhahasta

proposed by the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa indicates it. Abhinavagupta

clearly explains it in his book.355 Moreover, when forefinger is kept in the

back of the middle finger and when it does not touch the middle finger, it

literary looks like the mouth of a scissor. But the view point of the

Abhinayadarpaṇa is totally different from that of the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa in this regard. According to the Abhinayadarpaṇa,

only two fingers i.e., forefinger and the ring finger should be spread and

strainghtened in kartarīmukhahasta 356 and the rest of the fingers should be

bent. So, it can be said that, according to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, the middle

finger is bent in kartarīmukhahasta where as in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, it remains completely straightened. Some

activities like travelling, cutting and falling are projected with this hand

gesture.357

353
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.136
354
tripatākā yadā haste bhavetpṛṣṭhāvalokinī/
tarjanī tu tadā jñeyaḥ kartarīmukhasaṁjñakaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.21
355
avalokinīti asaṁśliṣṭa iti yāvat/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.343
356
hastasya tarjanī ca kaniṣṭhikā/bahiḥ prasārite dve ca sa karaḥ kartarīmukhaḥ/
Abhinayadarpaṇa,105
357
kāryo’yaṁ parivahaneṣu bhinnaśca pataneṣu ca/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.22

95
 4) Ardhacandra: The derivation of the word ardhacandra is found in the

Śabdakalpadruma as- ardhaṁ candrasya, candrakhaṇḍaṁ 358 which means

half of the moon. The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa suggests that in

ardhacandrahasta, the ring finger touches the thumb.359 But according to the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, if the bent thumb of patāka hand is stretched out, it is

called ardhacandrahasta.360 It is important to note here that, patāka hand

with strengthened thumb looks like a half moon which justifies the present

hastamudrā called ardhacandra. But ardhacandra hand, as narrated in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, does not identify the hand posture which denotes

half moon. In spite of it, the posture of ardhacandrahasta, as stated in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa is similar with the mayurahasta as found in the

361
Abhinayadarpaṇa. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the

ardhacandrahasta is used to show growing moon. Moreover, it also

identifies a child, a tree named Tāla, the waist part of a person etc. The

acting of putting ear-rings is also showed with this hastamudrā.362

5) Arāla: The word arāla means bent or crooked. 363 According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the forefinger is slightly bent like a bow. The

thumb is bent in this hand posture and the remaining fingers are strengthen

and slightly curved. 364 This posture shows some states like depth, entity,

358
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.106
359
anāmikā tu sāṅguṣthā ardhacandre kare bhavet/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.22
360
ardhacandrakaraḥ so’yaṁ patāke’ṅguṣṭhasāraṇāt/ Abhinayadarpaṇa, 111
361
asminnāmikāṅguṣṭhau śliṣṭau cānyāḥ prasāritāḥ/
mayūrahastaḥ kathitaḥ…// Ibid., 108.
362
bālacandrābhinayane bālasyāttaravastathā/
mekhalāṁ jaghanaṁ caiva kuryāccānena kuṇdalaṁ//Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26
363
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.84
364
khaṅḍapradeśinī kāryā aṅgulyaḥ kuñcitāstathā/
śeṣā bhinnordhvavalitā arāleṅgulayaḥ kare// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.24

96
 heroism etc. With the help of this posture, the dancer can do the acting of

assembling hair and wiping of sweat. 365 But, in the Abhinayadarpaṇa, the

arāla posture is said to use in the acting of drinking poison, nectar etc.

Moreover, in this book to show the heavy storm, this posture is suggested to

be used in Dance .366

6) Śukatuṇḍa: The word śukatuṇḍa is the amalgamation of two words viz.,

śuka and tuṇḍa. Śuka means parrot367 and tuṇḍa means head368. So, the word

śukatuṇḍa denotes the head of a parrot. In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the

ring finger is suggested to be bent in the position of arālahasta to make the

śukatuṇḍahasta. 369 When the forefinger and the ring finger are curved in

arālahasta, the two bend fingers make a curve shape which looks like the

head of a parrot. Thus it justifies the name of this hand posture. According to

the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, with this posture, one can express the

individuality. 370 The Nāṭyaśāstra also gives its viewpoint in the same

spirit.371 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa, this hand gesture is said to be used in

shooting of an arrow or a spear. Moreover, it is used to do the acting of

recollecting home or the violent mood. This book also establishes that

through this posture one can present spiritual topic.372

365
gāmbhīryasatvaśauṁḍīryakeśasaṁgrahaṇādiṣu/
svedasya cāpanayane śeṣe caiṣa karo bhavet// Ibid., 3.26.25
366
…..arālakaḥ/ viṣādyamṛtapāneṣu pracaṇḍapavane’pi ca// Abhinayadarpaṇa,114
367
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.558
368
tuṇḍaṁ mukhaṁ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.632
369
arālaḥ śukatuṇḍaśca vakritānāmikāṅguliḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.26
370
nāhantvamityathaitena nityaṁ cābhinayed budhaḥ// Ibid., 3.26.26
371
nāhaṁ na tvaṁ n kṛtyamiti cārthe/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 9.53
372
bānaprayoge kuntārthe vā’’layasya smritikrame/
marmotyāmugrabhāveṣu śukatuṇḍo niyujyate// Abhinayadarpaṇa,115-116

97
 7) Muṣṭi: The word muṣṭi denotes the clenched hand. 373 According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in muṣṭi posture, the fingers are bent towards the

palm and the thumb is set on them.374 This hasta is used in some activities

like striking, hard press of the breast, holding sword, strick and spear etc.375

In the Abhinayadarpaṇa also, the muṣṭi posture is said to be used in holding

things. It speaks that to do the fight with hand this postured is adopted.376 In

the Śabdakalpadruma also, the meaning of the word muṣṭi as a technique of

fight has been used.377

8) Śīkhara: The word śīkhara means the peak of a mountain. 378

The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states that in śīkharahasta, the thumb is lifted in

the position of a fist.379 This posture is used to hold rein, goad and bow.380

According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, apart from holding rein, goad and bow this

posture is used to represent the acting of painting of lips and feet. According

to the Nāṭyaśāstra, to show the raising up of hairs, this posture is adopted.381

9) Kapittha: In the Śabdakalpadruma, the word kapittha is explained as a kind

of tree where kapi i.e., monkey comes due to the greed of fruit.382 The word

373
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.443
374
aṅgulyo yasya hastasya talamadhye’grasaṁsthitāḥ/
tāsāmuparitāṅguṣṭhaḥ sa muṣṭiriti saṁjñitaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.27
375
eṣa prahāre vyāyāme nirdayastanapīḍane /
sandhāraṇe’siyaṣṭyośca grahaṇe kuntadaṇḍayoḥ// Ibid., 3.26.28
376
sthire kacagrahe dārḍhye vastvādīnāṁ ca dhāraṇe/
mallānāṁ yudhabhāve’pi muṣṭihasto’yamiṣyate// Abhinayadarpaṇa, 117.
377
muṣṭi prahāraviśeṣaḥ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3, p.753
378
śikhara, parvatāgraṁ, śṛṅgaṁ/ Ibid., Vol.3, p.71
379
urdhvāṅguṣṭho’yameva syātkaraḥ śikharasaṁjñiteḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.29
380
eṣa raśmigrahe kāryaścāpāṅkuśadhanurgrahe// Ibid., 3.26.29
381
adharoṣṭapādarañjanamalakasyotkṣepaṇaṁ caiva/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 9.57
382
kapitthaḥ kapiḥ tiṣṭhati phalapriyatvāt lobhāt vā yatra/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.23

98
 kapittha again denotes the fruit called wood apple.383 Abhinavagupta states

that due to the shape of a wood apple, this posture is named as kapittha.384

According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in kapitthahasta, the thumb is

inside the fist. 385 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa, it is said that, when the

forefinger is bent over the top of the thumb in the śīkharahasta, this posture

is called kapitthahasta. 386 In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, this posture is

used to hold a disc or an arrow.387

10) Khaṭakāmukha: The word khaṭakāmukha is an amalgamation of two words

khaṭaka and mukha. The word khaṭaka denotes a half closed hand 388 and

mukha means mouth.389 The term mukha also denotes beginning as it is used

in the usage of mukhasandhi. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in

khaṭakāmukhahasta, the thumb remains inside the fist, and the ring finger

and the small finger are lifted and bent.390 This posture is used to denote

sacrifice, holding of an umbrella or a garland or rope, dragging and

fanning.391 Apart from holding a garland and necklace, the Abhinayadarpaṇa

also suggests the use of this posture to show the activities like picking

flowers, offering betel leaves, preparing paste, applying perfumes etc.392

383
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.132
384
kapitthākāre'smin aṅguṣṭhatarjanyāvaṅgulī/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.352
385
muṣṭimadhyagatoṅguṣṭhaḥ kapittha iti kīrtitaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.30
386
aṅguṣṭhamūrdhniśikhare vakritā yadi tarjanī /
kapitthākhyaḥ karaḥ….// Abhinayadarpaṇa,121
387
anenābhinayaḥ kāryo madhye cakre śare tathā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.30
388
khaṭakaḥ kuñcitapāṇiḥ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.271
389
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p. 441
390
utkṣiptavakrā tu yadānāmikā sakanīyasī/
asyaiva tu kapitthasya tataḥ syātkhaṭakāmukhaḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.31
391
hotre chatragraha caiva karṣaṇe vyajane tathā/
stragdāmadhāraṇe kāryohyasaṅkocosyasaṁgrahaḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.32
392
kusumāvacaye muktāstragdāmnāṁ dhāraṇe tathā//
śaramadhyākarṣaṇe ca nāgallīpradānake/
kasturikāivastūnāṁ peṣaṇe gandhavāane// Abhinayadarpaṇa, 125-126

99
 11) Sūcī: The word sūcī means a tool which is used for stitching.393It refers to

the niddle. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa in sūcyāsyahasta, the

tarjanī finger is extended in khaṭakāmukha hasta. 394 When the tarjanī is

extended in sūcī posture, it looks like pointing something with the forefinger.

The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says that the natural phenomenon like day and

night are denoted with this hand posture. It is also used to denote the eyes of

Śakra and Maheśa.395 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa, numbers like one and

hundred are shown with this posture. Paramabrahma i.e., the Supreme

Entity is also indicated with this hand posture. Moreover, this hand posture

also indicates the sun and a city.396

12) Padmakośa: The word padmakośa means the calyx of a lotus.397 According

to the the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the top of all fingers are brought

together in padmakośahasta and it looks like the nails of a swan.398 In this

regard the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa seems to take a suggested meaning of

the word padmakośa and not its etymological meaning which denotes the

internal portion of a lotus but not the nails of a swan. The uses of this posture

are not mentioned in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. But according to the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, this posture denotes some round shaped objects like

breast of a woman, ball, round shaped cooking pot, egg and bell. This

393
sūcī sīvanadravyaṁ/ Śabdakalpadruma, p.361
394
prasṛtā tarjanī cātra yadā sūcīmukhastadā / Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.33
395
niṣpādane cābhinayennetraśakramaheśayoḥ/ Ibid., 3.26.33
396
sūcīhastaḥ sa vijñeyo bharatāgamakovidaiḥ/
ekārthe'pi parabrahmabhāvanāyāṁ śate’pi ca//
ravau nagaryāṁ lokārthe tatheti vacane’pi ca/….Abhinayadarpaṇa, 128-129
397
padmasyeva kośo’bhyantaraṁ vinataṁ yasyeti tathā/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.356
398
asyāṅgulyastu vipulāḥ sahāṅguṣṭhena kuñcitāḥ/
urdhvāhaṁsanakhasyaiva sa bhavetpadmakośakaḥ//Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.34

100
 posture is also used to show the blowing buds of flowers like marigold, lotus

etc. Some kind of fruits like mango and wood apple are also portrayed with

his hand posture.399

13) Uragaśīrṣa: The name of this posture itself identifies that the hand posture

should look like the head of an uraga i.e., a serpent400. In this posture the

thumb should be in clinching form and the middle part should remain

hollow.401 According to Abhinavagupta, this posture looks like the head of a

snake and that is why this posture is named as uragaśīrṣa.402 According to

the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa as well as the Abhinayadarpaṇa, this posture is

used to show some activities like offering of water, giving information,

sprinkling, nourishing and wrestling. The Abhinayadarpaṇa states that to

easblish the picture of a snake, this hand posture is used in Dance.403

14) Mṛgaśirṣa: The word mṛgaśirṣa is the union of two words viz., mṛga and

śirṣa. The word mṛga means deer404 and śirṣa means head.405 So, it can be

said that the hand posture which is called mṛgaśirṣa identifies a posture that

looks like the head of a deer. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in

399
phale bilvakapitthādau strīṇāṁ ca kucakumbhayoḥ/
āvarte kanduke sthālyāṁ bhojane puṣpakorake//
sahakāraphale puṣpavarṣe mañjarikādiṣu/
japākusumabhāve ca ghaṇṭārūpe vidhānake//Abhinayadarpaṇa, 135-136
400
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.231
401
śliṣṭoṅguṣṭho nimnamadhyaḥ patākohiśiro bhavet/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.35.
402
nimnaṁ talaṁ madhyasyābhimukhasya, sarpaśirastulyatvāt vāsyedaṁ nāma/
Abhinavabhāratī, p.356
403
salilasya pradāne tu kāryā tena ca sūcanam/
candane bhujage mandre prokṣaṇe poṣaṇādiṣu/
devasyodakadāneṣu āsphāle gajakumbhayoḥ/
bhujasthāne mallānāṁ tu yujyate sarpaśīrṣakaḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa, 138-139
404
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.445
405
Ibid., p.557

101
 mṛgaśirṣahasta, all the fingers are bent downwards and only the small finger

and the thumb go upward.406 At this position, the hand looks like a head of a

dear with two horns. Abhinavagupta also keeps his view point in the same

way and accepts mṛgaśirṣahasta as a hand gesture which identifies the head

of a deer with two horns.407 This posture is used to denote piercing, cutting,

and moving upward of the powerful weapon.408 In the Abhinayadarpaṇa, this

posture is used to denote various things. This book states that- this posture is

used to show woman, cheek, wheel, limit, terror, quarrel, attire and to call

someone or the beloved, the lute, foot massage, female organ, holding

umbrella etc.409

15) Kāngūla: In kāngūlahasta, the middle finger is set between the forefinger

and thumb while the ring finger is bent and the little finger is quite

upward.410 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, this posture is used to

denote fruits. 411 In the Abhinayadarpaṇa, this posture is said to indicate

things as fruits, bell, birds like cakora and cātaka, coconut etc.412

16) Kolapadma: In kolapadmahasta, starting from the little finger in the hand

other fingers are separately spread. 413 But this hand is portrayed as

406
kaniṣṭāṅguṣṭhakā cordhvā tadā syānmṛgaśīrṣakaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.36
407
mṛgaśīrṣakamāha mṛgasyeva śirasthe śṛṅge yasya/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.357
408
sūcite cchedite kāryaṁ śaktyā svoccālane tathā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.37
409
Abhinayadarpaṇa, 140-141
410
tretāgnisaṁsthitā madhyā tarjanyaṅguṣṭhayoryadā/
kāṅgule nāmikā vakrā cordhvā kanīyasī/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.37-38
411
anena khalu kartavyaṁ phalānāṁ tu nirūpaṇaṁ/ Ibid., 3.26.38
412
lakucasya phale ghaṇṭikārthake /
cakore cātake nārikele ca kāṅgulo yujyate karaḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,144-145
413
āvartyante karatale yasyāṅulaḥ karasya vai/
pārśvāgatavikīrṇāśca kolapadma iti smṛtaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.39

102
 alapadmahasta in the Abhinayadarpaṇa. 414 In the Nāṭyaśāstra also it is

known as alapadma.415 In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, it is said that to say

no, to denote void and non existence, this hand posture is used. In the

Nāṭyaśāstra, this posture is suggestive of indicating prevention, sense of the

sentences like “of whom are you” and “it is not”. Moreover, in case of a

women’s reference of herself, this hand gesture is used.416

17) Catura: The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa says that in caturahasta, the middle

finger of the hand remains vertical, the thumb should be kept in the middle
417
and the rest of the fingers are stretched out. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, some colours are pointed with this hand gesture.

When the hand is raised in catura posture, it denotes white colour. When the

hand moves in circular way and in semi-circular motion in caturahasta, it

denotes yellow and red colour respectively. In compacted form it shows blue

colour. When the hand is kept in normal position with caturahasta, it denotes

black and the other remaining colours.418 Instead of showing colours, in the

Abhinayadarpaṇa this posture denotes some metals like gold, copper and

iron. This posture also shows the application of some greasy substances like

oil, ghee etc on the face.419

414
kaniṣṭhādyā vakritāśca viralāścāapadmakaḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,146.
415
hastādīnāṁ pravakṣāmi……. kāṅgulako’lapadmaśca……//Nāṭyaśāstra, 9.6
416
pratiṣedhakṛte yojyaḥ kasya tvannāsti śūnyavacaneṣu/
punarātmopanyāsaḥ strīṇāmetena kartavyaḥ/ Ibid., 9.91
417
tisraḥ prasāritāṅgulyastathā cordhvā kanīyasī/
tasyā madhyāśritoṅguṣṭhaḥ karaḥ sa caturaḥ smṛtaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.40-41
418
ūrdhvasthe ca nave śvetaṁ rakte syādardhamaṇḍalaṁ/
maṇḍalaṁ na bhavetpītaṁ nīlaṁ ca mṛditaṁ bhavet/
svabhāvasthena kṛtsnaṁ ca śeṣā varṇāstathaiva ca// Ibid., 3.26.42-43
419
kastūryāṁ kiñcidarthe ca svarṇe tāmre ca lohake/
ānane ghṛtatailādau yujyate caturaḥ karaḥ// Abhinayadarpaṇa, 150-152

103
 18) Bhramara: The name of the posture bhramara itself identifies the shape of a

bhramara i.e., a black bee.420 Abhinavagupta also admits it.421 According to

the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in the bhramarahasta, the tip of the middle

finger of the hand and the thumb should be joined together. Then forefinger

is curved and the rest of the fingers are separately raised.422 This posture is

used to show the position of holding a lotus. The acting of putting earrings is

also prescribed through this hand gesture.423 In the Abhinayadarpaṇa, this

posture is said to denote bee, parrot, wing, crane, cuckoo etc.424

19) Haṁsavaktra: The word haṁsavaktra is the union of two words viz., haṁsa

and vaktra. Haṁsa means swan425 and vaktra means mouth.426 So, the word

haṁsavaktra denotes the mouth or beak of a swan. It is worth mentioning

that, in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa the term haṁsavaktra is used where as

in the Abhinayadarpaṇa the term haṁsasya is used to denote this hand

gesture. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in haṁsavaktrahasta,

except the ring and little fingers of the hand, all the three fingers of the hand

are placed together without any interspace. In this posture, the ring finger
427
and the little finger are kept spread. But According to the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, the tip of the thumb and the forefinger are placed together

420
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.414
421
tadākṛtitvādbhramaro hastaḥ/ Abhinavabhāratī, Nāṭyaśāstra, Vol 1, p.359
422
madhyamāṅguṣṭhasandeśo vakrā caiva pradeśinī/
ūrdhvamanyāḥ prakīrṇāśca bhramaraśca tadā bhavet/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.44
423
padmādigrahaṇe kāryaṁ karṇapūre tathāpyayaṁ/ Ibid., 3.26.45
424
bhramare ca śuke pakṣe sāase kokilādiṣu/
bhramarākhyaśca hasto’yaṁ…..// Abhinayadarpaṇa,153
425
haṁsaḥ…pakṣiviśeṣaḥ / hāsa iti bhāṣā/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3, p.466
426
vaktraṁ mukhaṁ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3, p.242
427
tarjanīmadhyamāṅguṣṭhā tretāgnisthā nirantaraṁ/
bhaveyurhaṁavaktrasya śeṣā hyanyāḥ prasāritāḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.45-46

104
 and rest of the fingers should be spread in this hand posture.428 According to

the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, this posture is used to show some qualities like

slimness, lightness, weakness and softness.429

20) Haṁsapakṣa: The word haṁsapakṣa consists of two words viz., haṁsa and

pakṣa. The word haṁsa is already explained in the context of

haṁsavaktrahasta. It means swan. The word pakṣa means wings430. So the

word haṁsapakṣa denotes the wings of a swan. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, this hand posture is described as one where the

little finger of the hand is lifted crookedly and the thumb is bent.431 In the

Abhinayadarpaṇa it is instructed that the theme of using haṁsapakṣahasta,

the hand should be kept in sarpaśīrṣahasta.432 The remaining instructions of

this work are same with the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, some activities like touching, anointing and

shampooing are denoted through this hastamudrā. According to the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, the number six is denoted by this posture. Some activities

like building of a bridge, putting nail marks and covering something are also

indicated through this hand posture.433

428
madhyamādyāstrayoṅgulyaḥ prasṛtā viralā yadi/
tarjanyaṅguṣṭhasaṁśleṣāt karo haṁsāsyako bhavet/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,154
429
ślakṣṇalāghavaniḥ sāramārdaveṣu prayojayet/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.46
430
pakṣiṇāmavayavaviṣeśaḥ/ pākhā iti bhāṣa, Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3, p.2
431
tiryak piṇḍīkṛtā yasminunnatā ca kaniṣṭhikā/
aṅguṣṭhaḥ kuñcitastvevaṁ haṁsapakṣa iti smṛtaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.47
432
sarpaśirṣakare samyak kaniṣṭhā prasṛtā yadi/
haṁsapakṣaḥ karaḥ so’yaṁ tannirūpaṇamucyate/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,157
433
ṣatsaṁkhyāyāṁ setubandhe nakharekhāṅkaṇe tathā/
pidhāne haṁsapakṣo’yaṁ kathito bharatāgame/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,158

105
 21) Sandaṁśa: The word sandaṁśa means kaṅkamukha434 i.e., a pair of tong.435

Tong is a kind of tool which is used to hold something. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, when the tip of the forefinger and the thumb are

pressed together like the mouth of a tong and the middle portion of the palm

is curved in arālahasta, this posture is called sandaṁśahasta.436 This hand

posture involves the closing and opening of fingers. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa speaks of three kinds this form viz., agraja,

mukhaja and pārśvakṛta437 and it gives detailed discussion of the usages of

each one clearly. The agraja sandaṁśahasta is used for holding and

extraction of thorns or splinters. The mukhaja is used to show the activity of

plucking flowers. There are many uses of pārśvakṛta type of sandaṁśahasta

viz., colouring of picture, pressing of breast, showing of head etc. 438

According to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, sandaṁśahasta is used to show the

action of offering something to gods. The belly portion is also indicated with

this hand posture. Besides, this posture is also used to indicate something

like injury, worm, terror as well as number five. 439

22) Mukula: The term mukula has been defined clearly in the Śabdakalpadruma.

It is said that the state of a bud during blooming refers to mukula. 440 Thus,

434
sandaṁśaḥ kaṅkamukhaḥ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3, p.236
435
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.127
436
tarjanyaṅguṣṭhasaṁdaṁśastvarālasya yadā bhavet/
nirbhugnatalamadhyaśca sasandaṁśa iti smṛtaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.49
437
sandaṁśastrividho jñeyastvagrajo mukhajastathā/
tathā pārśvakṛtaścaiva tasya karmāṇi me śṛṇu/ Ibid., 3.26.50
438
sandaṁśagrahaṇe kāryaḥ śalyoddhāre tathāgrajaḥ/
ālekhārañjane caiva tarjanīpīḍane tathā/
pārśvasthaḥ śiraḥ saṁdarśane tathā/ Ibid., 26.41-42
439
udare validāne ca vraṇe kīṭe mahābhaye/
arcane pañcasaṁkhyāyāṁ sandaṁśākhyo niyujyate/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,160
440
mukulaḥ muñcati kalikātvam / īṣad vikasitakalikā, Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3, p.726

106
 when the bud starts to bloom, it is termed as mukula. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa suggests that the tips of all fingers of the hand

should be joined together to make this posture.441 When the tips of all fingers

are joined together, it makes a shape of a blooming bud. Thus, it justifies the

name of this posture. Abhinavagupta also gives his view in the same way.442

According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, this posture is formed to show

the activities like worshiping of deities and offering oblations. Moreover, to

show the lotus flower this hand posture is suggested to be used in dance

performance in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. 443 In the Abhinayadarpaṇa,

this posture is suggested to be used to denote flowers like water lily and the

flower of kadalī i.e., banana.444 It says that, the holding of five arrows by

Kāmadeva and a signet or a seal are also identified through this hand posture.

The action of eating is also shown with this hand posture.445

b) Saṁyuktahasta: The term saṁyukta refers to mean connected. So, etemologically

Saṁyuktahasta means the posture where the hands are connected. Saṁyuktahastas

or the combined hand gestures are nothing but the mutual presentation of two hands

with the postures of single hand gestures. Thirteen types of combined hand gestures

are accepted in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. These are- añjali, kapota, karkaṭa,

svastika, khaṭakāvardhamāna, utsaṅga, niṣedha, dolā, puṣpapuṭa, makara,

gajadanta, avahittha and vardhamāna. 446 In the Abhinayadarpaṇa, twenty three

441
samāgatāgrāṅguliko muktalaḥ padmakośakaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.52
442
mukulākāratvānmukulaḥ/ Abhinavabhāratī, p.362
443
devārcākaraṇe kāryo balo padmanirūpaṇe/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.53
444
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit- English Dictionary, p.248
445
bhojane pañcabāṇe mudrādidhāraṇe/
nābhau ca kadalīpuṣpe yujyate mukulaḥ karaḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,162-163
446
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.5-6

107
varieties of combined hand gestures are accepted. 447 The postures viz., niṣedha,

makara, gajadanta, avahittha and vardhamāna are not mentioned in the

Abhinayadarpaṇa. But the Nāṭyaśāstra has the same variety of saṁyuktahastas as

found in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa.448 Thirteen types of combined hand gestures

are discussed here.

1) Añjali: The word añjali denotes a cavity made by folding and joining the

open hands together or the hollow of the hands. 449 According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, añjalīhasta is a combination of patākahasta which

450
is used in the salutation of gods, teachers and ancestors. The

Abhinayadarpaṇa also gives its view point in the same way.451

2) Kapota: The word kapota means pigeon in Sanskrit.452 When the sides of

two hands are joined together it is looked like a pigeon with its wings. In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa this hand posture is called as kapotahasta and it is

used to show cold and danger.453 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa, this posture is

said to use in salutation, addressing teachers, polite acceptance or

agreement.454

3) Karkaṭa: According to the Śabdakalpadruma, karkaṭa means kulira 455 i.e.,

crab. 456 In Karkaṭahasta, fingers are passed between the fingers of both

447
Abhinayadarpaṇa, 172-175
448
Nāṭyaśāstra, 9.8-10
449
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.8
450
patākābhyāṁ tu hastābhyāṁ sasphuṭoñjalirucyate/
devatānāṁ gurūṇāṁ ca pitṛṇāṁ ceṣyate punaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.54
451
Abhinayadarpaṇa,176
452
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit- English Dictionary, p.251
453
anyonyapāśvasaktābhyāṁ karābhyāṁ syātkapotakaḥ/
śīte bhaye ca kāryo’yaṁ viniyogagame tathā// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.55
454
Abhinayadarpaṇa, 178.
455
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.35
456
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p. 155

108
 hands together and it makes the shape of a crab. This posture is used while

yawning.457 According to Abhinayadarpaṇa, this posture is used to denote

coming of a crowd, showing the stomach, filling the conch-shell, twisting

limbs, pulling branch etc.458

4) Svastika: In Sanskrit the word svastika denotes spiritual things.459 According

to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in svastikahasta, both hands are kept in

arālahasta. In this posture, the palm should be upward and lying on twisted

sides and kept on the wrists.460 This kind of hastamudrā is used to show

somethimg which is widely spread, seasons, sky, cloud, sea and the earth.461

5) Khaṭakāvardhamāna: The word khaṭakāvardhamāna is an amalgamation of

two words viz., khaṭaka and vardhamāna. The word khaṭaka denotes a half

closed hand462and vardhamāna means increasing.463 In khaṭakāvardhamāna

posture both of the hands are in khaṭaka position and one hand is placed

upon another.464 This hand posture is used in love making and bowing.465

According to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, this posture is used to denote

coronation, worshipping, marriage etc.466

457
aṅgulyo yasya hastasya aṅgulyantaraniḥsṛtā/
sa karkaṭa iti jñeyaḥ kartavyastu vijṛmbhite// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.56
458
Samūhagamane tundadarśane saṅkhapūraṇe/
aṅgānāṁ moṭane śākhonnamane ca niyujyate/Abhinayadarpaṇa,179-180
459
svastikaḥ maṅgaladravyaṃ. Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.3, p. 489
460
maṇibandhana vinyastāvarālau vardhamānakaḥ/
uttānau natapārśvasthau svastikaḥ parikīrtitaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.57
461
vistīrṇaṁ sarvametena ṛtavo gaganaṁ ghanaṁ/
samudraścābhineyaḥ syādbhūmiśa manujeśvaraḥ/ Ibid., 3.26.58
462
khaṭakaḥ kuñcitapāṇiḥ/ Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.271
463
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.494
464
khaṭakaḥ khaṭake nyasta khaṭakā vardhamānakaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.59
465
śṛṅgārārthe prayoktavyaḥ praṇāmakaraṇeṣu ca// Ibid., 3.26.59
466
paṭṭābhiṣeke pūjāyāṁ vivāhādiṣu yujyate/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,188.

109
 6) Utsaṅga: According to the Śabdakalpadruma, the word utsaṅga means

embrace.467 In the utsaṅga posture, hands are in arāla position and the palm

upwards and overturned and this posture shows the touch of other.468 In the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, the utsanga posture is suggested to denote embrace as the

word itself means. Moreover this posture is also used to show shame,

displaying ornaments, and teaching of boys.469

7) Niṣedha: The word niṣedha means prohibition. 470 In the niṣedha posture

mukula hand covers the kapittha hand and this posture is used in reducing,

throwing and pressing.471.

8) Dolā: According to the Śabdakalpadruma, dolā means a kind of swing

playing stuff, generally stays in gardens and made with wood.472 When both

of the hands are hanging downwarjd in patāka posture it is called dolā. This

posture signifies meditation, giving charity and edible things. 473 In the

Nāṭyaśāstra, this posture is said to indicate rush, grief, faint, fit of

intoxication, emotion, illness and hit by weapon.474

467
Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1, p.228
468
arālau tu viparyastābuttāau vardhamānakau/ utsaṅga iti vijñeyaḥ sparśasya grahaṇe paraḥ//
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.60
469
āliṅgane ca lajjāyāmaṅgadādipradarśane/ bālānāṁ śikṣaṇe cāyamutsaṅgo yujyate
karaḥ//Abhinayadarpaṇa,185
470
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.298
471
muktalaṁ tu yadā hastaṁ kapitthaṁ pariveṣṭayet/
sa vijñeyastadāhasto niṣedho nāma nāmataḥ//
saṁkṣipte caiva nikṣipte tathā kāryaḥ prapīḍite/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.61-62
472
dolā, udyānādiṣu krīḍārthaṃ kāṣṭādimayo hindolakaḥ. Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p. 753
473
patākau lambitau hastau doleti parikīrtitaḥ/ dhyānādidāne kartavyo bhakṣādikaraṇeṣu ca//
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.62-63
474
saṁbhramaviṣādamūrcchitamadābhighāte tathaiva cāvege/ vyādhiplute ca śastrakṣate ca
kāryo’bhinayayogaḥ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 9.142

110
 9) Puṣpapuṭa: The word puṣpapuṭa is made with two words viz., puṣpa means

flower475 and puṭa i.e., cavity476. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,

in puṣpapuṭa posture, both hands are joined together by their sides and the
477
fingers of both hands should be in sarpaśirṣa position. In the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, this posture is said to use in waving beams in front of the

image of god, as an act of adoration, taking of water, fruit etc, giving

offerings, evening and a flower invested with magical power.478

10) Makara: According to the Śabdakalpadruma, makara means sea

animals479like kumbhīra, kūrma, kāca, godhā, śaṅkava, śvaṇitaka, śiśumāra

etc.480 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in Makara posture both of

the hands in patāka posture are placed one over the other and both should be

facing downward. This posture is used in the acting of lion, tiger and deer.481

11) Gajadanta: The word gajadanta denotes the danta i.e., tusk482 of gaja i.e.,

elephant.483 In the gajadanta posture, both hands in sarpaśirṣa position are

bent towards each other along with the elbows and shoulders and this posture

is used to show carrying the mountain.484

475
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.343
476
Ibid., p.339
477
dhyānādidāne kartavyo bhakṣyādikaraṇeṣu ca/
dvitīyapārścasaṁśliṣṭaḥ pūrvaḥ puṣpapuṣṭaḥ smṛtaḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.63
478
nīrājanāvidhau vāriphalādigrahaṇe’pi ca/
sandhyāyāmarghadāne ca mantrapuṣpe ca yujyate/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,183
479
makaraḥ jalajantuviśeṣaḥ. Śabdakalpadruma , Vol.3, p.561
480
kumbhīrakūrmmanakrāśca godhāmakaraśaṅkavaḥ/
śvaṇiṭakaḥ śiśumāraścetyādayaḥ pādinaḥ smṛtāḥ// Bhāvaprakāśa, 1.2.39
481
uparyupari vinyastau tadā samakaraḥ karaḥ/
siṁhavyāghramṛgādyānāṁ kartavyo’bhinayo bhavet// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.65
482
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.245
483
Ibid., p.177
484
añcitau kūrparāsā tu yadā syātsarpaśīrṣake/
gajadantastathā nāmnā kāryaḥ śailanibarhaṇe// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.26.66

111
 12) Avahittha: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, in avahittha posture

both hands are kept in śuka tuṇḍa posture and placed on the chest. The head

part of both hands should be bent gradually and downwards.485 This posture

is used to denote weakness, fast breathing and showing the body parts.486

13) Vardhamāna: In the Vardhamāna posture, both hands in hamsapakṣa

posture are in opposite direction. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,

this posture shows lattice, window etc.487

c) Nṛttahasta: Again there are thirty kinds of nṛttahastas as mentioned in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. These are- caturasra, udvṛtta, laghumukha, arāla-

khaṭkāmukha, āviddha, vakra, saṁvyāsva, recita, ardharecita, avahittha, pallavita,

nitamba, keśavardha, latā, karihasta, pakṣodyota, ancita, garuḍa-pakṣa, daṇḍa-

pakṣa, urdhvamaṇḍalaja, ārśvamaṇḍalaja, pārśvordhvamaṇḍala, uromaṇḍalaka,

iṣṭa, svastika, padmakośa, ala-pallava, ullvaṇa, lalita and valita.488 The practice of

these nṛttahastas is strictly prohibited in sickness of body, in old age, in fear, drunk

and anxiety.489

d) Hand Gestures for Daśāvatāra: The concept of daśāvatāra was commenced

after Vedic period. In the Puranic literature, a great discussion about the ten

incarnations of lord Viṣṇu is found in a detailed way. Different purāṇas viz.,

485
śukatuṇḍau karau kṛtvā vakṣasyabhi mukhāñcitau/
śanairadhomukhau viddhāvavahittha iti smṛtaḥ/ Ibid., 3.26.67
486
daurbalyaśca site kāryo gātrāṇāṁ ca nidarśane/ Ibid., 3.26.68
487
jñeyo vai vardhamāmastu haṁsapakṣau parāṅgmukhau/
jālavātāyanādīnāṁ prayogastena ceṣyate/ Ibid., 3.26.68
488
Ibid.,3.26.7-12
489
ādhigraste jarānte ca niyamasthe jarārdite/
matte pramatte cintāyāṁ nābhineyaḥ karo bhavet/ Ibid.,3.26.93

112
Garuḍapurāṇa 490 , Padmapurāṇa 491 , Liṅgapurāṇa 492 etc. talk about the ten

incarnations of lord Viṣṇu. The word daśāvatāra is made with two Sanskrit words

daśa i.e., ten 493 and avatāra i.e., incarnation 494 . In Hinduism, lord Viṣṇu is

worshiped as the preserver of the entire world. Hindu mythology states that- to

protect the entire world from evil lord Viṣṇu takes different forms or incarnations. In

the Śrīmadbhagavadgītā also, it is stated that to establish religion and to destroy the

wicked, lord Viṣṇu menifests in every age.495

Moreover, in the Hindu scriptures, different stories are found, related to lord

Viṣṇu, where we find the magnanimity of different incarnations of lord Viṣṇu.

Moreover, a great influence of these ten incarnations of lord Viṣṇu seems to fall in

the field of Dance also. In every classical Dance form of India, the Daśāvatāranṛtya

is seen to perform in a graceful way. The gestures and postures used in

Daśāvatāranṛtya are suggestive of the forms of incarnations.

The ten incarnations of Lord Viṣṇu are- Matsya, Kūrma, Varāha, Narasiṁha,

Vāmaṇa, Paraśurāma, Śrīrāma, Halirāma or Balarāma, Kṛṣna and Kalkī.496 But in

490
Garuḍapurāṇam, Vol.1, 86.10-11
491
Padmapurāṇa, part.7, 66.51
492
Liṅgapurāṇa, part.2, 48.32-32
493
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.247
494
Ibid., p.59
495
yadā yadā hi dharmasya glānirbhavati bhārata/
abhyutthānamadharmasya tadātmānaṁ sṛjāmyahaṁ//
paritrāṇāya sādhūnāṁ vināśāya ca duṣkṛtāṁ/
dharmasaṁsthāpanārthāya sambhavāmi yuge yuge// Śrīmadbhagavadgītā, 4.7-8
496
matsyahastaṁ darśayitvā tataḥ skandhasamau karau/ dhṛto matsyāvatārasya hasta
ityabhidhīyate//
kūrmahastaṁ darśayitvā tataḥ skandhasamau karau/ dhṛto kūrmāvatārasya hasta ityabhidhīyate/
darśayitvā varāhaṁ tu kaṭipāścasamau karau/ dhṛtā varāhāvatārasya devasya kara iṣyate//
vāme siṁhamukhaṁ dhṛtvā dakṣiṇe tripatākikā/ narasiṁhāvatārasya hasta ityucyate budhaiḥ//
ūrdhvādho dhṛtamuṣṭibhyāṁ savyānyābhyāṁ yadi sthitaḥ/sa vāmanāvatārasya hasta
ityabhidhīyate//

113
the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the mention of Kalkī avatāra is not found. Point to be

noted hare is that, though in different ancient treatises, the Kṛṣna avatāra is included

in the list of ten incarnations of lord Viṣṇu, Sankardeva and Madhavdeva, the two

Vaishnava saint of Assam seem to accept the Buddha avatāra instead of Kṛṣna

avatāra. 497 The hand gestures used for the ten incarnations of lord Viṣṇu are

discussed here.

1) Matsya avatāra: The word Matsyāvatāra stands for the incarnation of fish of

lord Viṣṇu. So, it is an authentic reason to create a shape of fish with hands

to show this āvatāra. According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the

ardhacandrahasta indicates the Matsyāvatāra.498 Point to be noted here is

that, only the single hand in ardhacandra does not look like a fish and it does

not justify the name of this hasta. But according to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, to

show the Matsyāvatāra, one hand is placed on the back of another in

patākahasta and the thumbs are spread-out 499 and it literary makes the shape

of a fish.

2) Kūrma avatāta: The word kūrma means tortoise 500 . According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, to show the kūrma avatāra, the patāka hand

vāmaṁ kaṭitaṭe nyasta dakṣiṇe’rdhapatādhikā/ dhṛtā paraśurāmasya hasta ityabhidhīyate//

kapittho dakṣiṇe haste vāme tu śikharaḥ karaḥ/ ūrdhaṁ dhṛto rāmacandrahasta ityucyate
budhaiḥ//
patāko dakṣiṇe haste muṣṭirvāmakare tathā/ balarāmasya hasta ityucyate budhaiḥ//
mṛgaśīrṣe tu hastābhyāmanyonyābhimukhe kṛte/ āyopakaṇṭhe kṛṣṇasya hasta ityucyate budhaiḥ//
patāko dakṣiṇe vāme tripatākaḥ karo dhṛtaḥ/ kalkyākhyasyāvatāasya hasta ityabhidhīyate//
Abhinayadarpaṇa, 216-225
497
Nāmgoṣā, 3
498
ardhacandro matsyaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.32 p.91
499
karapṛṣṭopari nyasto yatra hastastvadhomukhaḥ/
kiñcitprasāritāṅguṣṭhakaniṣṭo matsyanāmakaḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa, 196
500
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.157

114
 should be curved downward.501 But according to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, to

show the kūrma avatāra, the hands should be in cakrahasta. The cakrahasta

is made with two ardhacandra hands which are kept across its other. So, to

make the hand gesture of kūrma avatāra, the dancer should bend the tips of

thumb and little fingers in cakrahasta.502

3) Varāha avatāta: The varāha kind of incarnation of lord Viṣṇu denotes that

avatāra, when lord Viṣṇu transforms to the shape of a varāha i.e., a boar503.

In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa varāha avatāra is suggested to show with

the śikharahasta where the little finger is extended. 504

But the

Abhinayadarpaṇa suggests to keep both hands in mṛgaśirṣahasta and place

above another and the thumb of one hand meets that of the other.505 Point to

be noted here is that as said in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, if the little

finger is extended in śikharahasta, this hand gesture is looked like as it is of

mṛgaśirṣahasta. So, from this point of view, it can be said that the suggestion

of the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa and the Abhinayadarpaṇa regarding the

hastamudrā of Varāha avatāra is quite similar.

4) Narasiṁha avatāta: The term Narasiṁha is the union of two Sanskrit words

viz., nara and siṁha. Nara means man and siṁha means lion. So, this

incarnation of lord Viṣṇu shows his form of half man and half lion. It is the

most furious incarnation of lord Viṣṇu. According to the

501
adhomukhaḥ kubjapatākaḥ kūrmaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.32, p.91
502
kuñcitāgrāṅguliścakre tyaktāṅguṣṭakaniṣṭhakaḥ/
kūrmahastaḥ sa vijñeyaḥ kūrmārthe viniyujyate/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,197
503
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.492
504
śikharaprasāritakanīnikādho varāhaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.32 p.90
505
mṛgaśīrṣe tvanyatare svopayerkaḥ sthite yadi/
kaniṣṭhāṅguṣṭhayoryogādvarāhakara īritaḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,198

115
 Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, to denote Narasiṁha avatāra, both of the hands

are separately joined in aḥkāra mudrā. 506 Aḥkāra mudrā is nothing but a

particular kind of mukula hasta. 507 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa, it is

suggested that- to show the incarnation of Narasiṁha, the dancer should

make the tripatākahasata with right hand and with left hand the dancer

should make the siṁhamukhahasta.508

5) Vāmaṇa avatāra: The word Vāmaṇa means dwarf.509 In this incarnation, lord

Viṣṇu holds the form of a dwarf Brahmacārī. The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa

states that- Vāmana avatāra is identified with oṁ mudrā.510 In oṁ mudrā the

index finger is crocked on the extended left thumb.511 But According to the

Abhinayadarpaṇa, the hand gesture for Vāmaṇa avatāra is made with muṣṭi

hasta. The left hand should hold the muṣṭi hand up and the right hand also

holds muṣṭi hand downwards.512

6) Paraśurāma avatāra: In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the kapittahasta is

suggested to be used to identify the Paraśurāma avatāra of lord Viṣṇu.513 In

the Abhinayadarpaṇa, we find the guideline of making hastamudrā for this

avatāra as- the left hand should place in the waist and the ardhapatākahasta

is held by the right hand.514

506
aḥ kāro pṛthaglagno nṛsiṁhaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.32.p.91
507
aḥ mukulaviśeṣaḥ/ Ibid., 3.32.p.91
508
vāme siṁhamukhaṁ dhṛtvā dakṣiṇe tripatākikā/
narasiṁhāvatārasya hasta ityucyate budhaiḥ/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,219
509
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit- English Dictionary, p.941
510
oṁ vāmanaḥ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.32.p.91
511
vāsasya prasāritāṅguṣṭhasyopari yadā kubjatarjanī bhavati tadoṅkāraḥ/ Ibid., 3.32.p.90
512
ūrdhvādho dhṛtamuṣṭibhyāṁ savyānyābhyāṁ yadi sthitaḥ/
sa vāmanāvatārasya hasta ityabhidhīyate// Abhinayadarpaṇa,220
513
kapitthaḥ paraśurāmaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.32 p.90
514
vāmaṁ kaṭitaṭe nyasya dakṣiṇe’rdhapatādhikā/
dhṛtā paraśurāmasya hasta ityabhidhīyate/ Abhinayadarpaṇa,221

116
 7) Halirāma avatāra: In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the term Balarāma is

used to denote the Halirāma avatāra. According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Balarāma or Halirāma avatāra is identified with

the patākahasta. 515 The Abhinayadarpaṇa also accepts the patākahasta to

denote the gesture of Halirāma avatāra with right hand and the left hand

should hold the muṣṭi posture.516

8) Śrīrāma avatāra: In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the word Dāśarathī is

used to indicate the incarnation of Śrīrāma. The term dāśarathī means the

son of Dāśaratha i.e., Rāma.517 According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,

Dāśarathī i.e., the incarnation of Rāma is recognized with the two joined

śikhara hands.518 But in the Abhinayadarpaṇa, it is suggested that- to show

the incarnation of Śrīrāma, the artist should hold the kapitthahasta by right

hand and śikharahasta by left hand. The view point of the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa is totally different from the Abhinayadarpaṇa in

this context.

9) Kṛṣṇa avatāra: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the Kṛṣṇa

avatāra is portrayed with patāka hand. 519 But the view point of the

Abhinayadarpaṇa is totally different from the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa in

this context. According to the Abhinayadarpaṇa, to manifest the Kṛṣṇa

515
tripatāko baladevaḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.32 p.90
516
patāko dakṣiṇe haste muṣṭirvāmakare tathā/
balarāmāvatārasya hasta ityucyate budhaiḥ// Abhinayadarpaṇa,223
517
Daśarathasya apatyaṁ pumān, Śrīrāmaḥ, Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.706
518
dau śikharau yuktau dāśarathī/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.32 p.91
519
patāka kṛṣṇaḥ/ Ibid.,3.32 p.90

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 avatāra, the dancer should hold the mṛgaśīrṣa posture with both hands and

both hands should be kept like facing each other.520

10) Kalkī avatāra: The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa does not talk about the Kalkī

avatāra of lord Viṣṇu. In the Abhinayadarpaṇa, the Kalkī avatāra is

portrayed with a patāka hand held by the right hand and tripatāka hand by

the left one.521

ii) Standing Postures: In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa standing postures are

determined separately for male and female. The defference of physical structure and

way of standing position between male and female may be the reason behind this

classification. In the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa six kinds of standing postures are

discussed for men viz., vaiṣṇava, sama-pāda, vaiśākha, maṇḍala, āliḍha and

pratyāliḍha. The Nāṭyaśāstra also accepts these varieties.522 Standing with easiness

by keeping one foot in normal position and other places obliquely is called vaiṣṇava

posture. 523 The word sama denotes the equal position. 524 In samapāda position,

both the legs are placed at a distance of one tāla. 525 This posture is seen in the

auspicious performance of Brahmins.526 This posture is also used to denote jumping

of birds and sitting in chariot or aeroplanes.527 In vaiśākha type of standing posture

the gap between two feet should be two and half tālas, thighs should be inclining and

520
mṛgaśīrṣe tu hastābhyāmanyonyābhimukhe kṛte/
āsyopakaṇṭhe kṛṣṇasya hasta ityucyate budhaiḥ// Abhinayadarpaṇa,224
521
patāko dakṣiṇe vāme tripatākaḥ karo dhṛtaḥ/
kalkyākhyasyāvatārasya hasta ityabhidhīyate// Ibid.,225
522
Nāṭyaśāstra, 11.51
523
kiñcidañcitajaṁghaśca vaiṣṇavaṁ sthānamucyate/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.23.2
524
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.585
525
samapādaṁ tu vijñeyaṁ samaistālāntaraiḥ padaiḥ/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.23.3
526
anena kāryaṁ sthānena vipramaṇḍalakāraṇam/ Ibid., 3.23.4
527
balānāṁ pakṣiṇāṁ caiva varakautukameva ca/
svasthānaṁ syandanasthānāṁ vimānasthāyināmapi// Ibid.,3.23.5

118
feet are placed.528 This posture is used to show the carriage drawn by horses.529 In

The student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary of V.S Apte, the vaiśākha posture is

mentioned as a kind of attitude, mostly carried in shooting. 530 In the maṇḍala

posture the distance between two legs should be three tālas and it should be adopted

to show the striking action with bow and thunderbolt. 531 According to the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, the maṇḍala posture becomes āliḍha when the distance

between two legs is five tālas.532 The Śabdakalpadruma states that in āliḍha posture

the right leg should be extended and the left leg should be contracted. 533 This

position is used to denote furious things as well as taken at the time of fighting.534

Due to the edition of the prefix called prati which means opposite535, pratyāliḍha

posture denotes that posture which is totally the opposite of āliḍha posture. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa also agrees on it and accepts pratyāliḍha posture as the

reverse form of āliḍha posture.536 According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the soldiers release

the missiles from pratyāliḍha posture after taking an aim from āliḍha posture.537

528
dvau tālāvardhatālaṁ ca pādayoraṁtaraṁ bhavet/
añcite yatra jaṁghe tu padau pakṣasthitau tathā/
vaiśākhaṁ nāma tatsthānaṁ…. / Ibid.,3.23.6-7
529
vaiśākhaṁ nāma tatsthānaṁ…./
sthānenānena kartavyamaśvānāṁ vāhanaṁ budhaiḥ// Ibid.,3.23.7-8
530
V.S Apte, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.536
531
maṇḍalaṁ syāttrīṁstālāntarameva ca/
dhanurvajraprahāraṇaṁ maṇḍalena prayojayet// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.23.9-10
532
ādau ca dakṣiṇaṁ pādaṁ pañcatālaṁ prasārayet/ Ibid.,3.23.11
533
ālīḍhaṁ dakṣiṇajaṅghāprasāravāmapādasaṁkocarūpāvasthānaṁ. Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.1,
p. 192
534
ālīḍhaṁ…….. saṁgrāmasya nirūpaṇaṁ//
siṁhādyabhinayaṁ caiva śaktasandhānameva ca/
khaḍgayuddhe niyuddhe ca maṇḍalabhramaṇe tathā// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.23.12-14
535
Śabdakalpadruma,Vol.3, 253
536
añcitaṁ dakṣiṇaṁ kṛtvā vāmaṁ pādaṁ prasārya ca/
ālīḍhaṁ parivartante pratyālīḍhamiti smṛtaṁ// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.23.16
537
ālīḍhasahitaṁ śastraṁ pratyālīḍhena mokṣayet/ Nāṭyaśāstra,11.71

119
 There are three types of standing postures of women viz., āyata, āvahittha

and hayakrānta. The āyata posture is used at the time of offering flowers by

entering in the stage and āvahittha posture is used to show erotic gestures.538 The

Nāṭyaśāstra does not talk about the stading postures of female. Point to be noted

here is that the standing postures recommended for man in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa are also seen to adopt by the women in the classical

dances of India. In the Abhinayadarpaṇa, standing postures adopted in dance are

called as maṇḍala and there are ten kinds of standing postures are accepted in the

Abhinayadarpaṇa.539

iii) Cārī: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, cārī is nothing but the delicate

movements of limbs540. The Nāṭyaśāstra also states that cārī is the simultaneous

movement of feet, shanks and hip. 541 Moreover, the Nāṭyaśāstra gives another

definition of cārī as- the extension of single foot at one time is called as cārī.542 It

makes a dance performance more elegant and attractive. On the other hand when the
543
movements are forceful, then these are called as mahācārī. The

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa does not talk about the types of cārī. But according to the

Nāṭyaśāstra, there are thirty two kinds of earthly cārīs and sixteen kinds of aerial

538
raṅgāvataraṇe hyetattathā puṣpāñjalau bhavet…./
avahitthaṁ samākhyātaṁ sthānametannarottama/
vilāsalīlālāvaṇyaśṛṅgārātmanirūpaṇe// Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.23.20 & 22
539
sthānakaṁ cāyatālīḍhaṁ preṅkhaṇapraritāni ca/pratyālīḍhaṁ svastikaṁ ca moṭitaṁ samasūcikā/
pārścasūcīti ca daśa maṅḍalānīritānīha// Abhinayadarpaṇa, 260-261
540
sukumārāṅgavākceṣṭā cārī bhavati / Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.23
541
evaṃ pādasya jaṅghāyā ūroḥ kaṭyāstathaiva ca/ samānakaraṇācceṣṭā cārīti parikīrtitā//
Nāṭyaśāstra, 11.1
542
ekpādaprasāro yaḥ sā cārītyabhisaṃjñitā/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 11.3
543
etairabhyarthitairjñeyā mahācārī nareśvarā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,3.20.23

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cārīs.544 Again the Abhinayadarpaṇa accepts eight klinds of cārī.545 The names and

definitions of cārīs in both of these works are totally different and do not have any

similarity.

iv) Karaṇas: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, karaṇas are the co-

ordination of precise movements of legs and hands performed in a particular

posture. 546 The Nāṭyaśāstra also gives its view point in the same spirit.547 In the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, one hundred and eight kinds of karaṇas are accepted.548

But the names of ninety types of karaṇas are mentioned here. These are- talapuṣpa,

apaviddha, līna, svastika-recita, maṇḍala-svastika, urūvṛtta, nikuṭṭaka, sūcīviddha,

kaṭicchina, ardha-recita, vakṣaḥ svastika, unmatta, svastika, pṛṣṭhasvastika, dik-

svastika, amalā, ardha-sūcī, kaṭisama, ākṣiptarecita, kṣipra, ardhasvastika, sañcita,

bhujangatrāsita, ūrdhajānu, nikuncita, ardhamatallī, recakanikuṇṭaka, pādaviddha,

taḍidbhrānta, valita, ghūrṇita, lalita, daṇḍapakṣa, bhujaṅgatrastarecita, nūpura,

recita, bhramara, catura, bhujaṅgāñcita, cchinna, vṛścikarecita, latāvṛścika,

cchinnavṛścikarecita, vyaṁsitavṛścika, sūcīviddha, lalāṭtikala, kuñcita,

cakramaṇḍala, uromaṇḍala, ākṣipta, latālasita, ārgala, vikṣipta, bhramita, vilāsa,

vānarapluta, parivṛtta, nivṛtta, pārśvākrānta, nikuñcita, atikrānta, avakrānta,

dolāpāda, vivartita, nāgaprakiḍita, vipluta, garuḍapluta, gaṇḍasūcī, parikṣipta,

pārśvajānuka, gṛddhāvalīnaka, līna, viṣṇukrānta, ajāpluta, ākrānta, maṇḍita,

mayūralasita, nata, sarpita, dolāpāda, hariṇapluta, preṅkhālita, nitamba, skhalita,

544
Nāṭyaśāstra,11.8-13
545
Abhinayadarpaṇa,298-308
546
hastapādasamāyukto nṛttasya karaṇaṁ bhavet/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.20.37
547
hastapādasamāyogo nṛttasya karaṇaṁ bhavet/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 4.30
548
aṣṭottaraśataṁ caiva karaṇānāṁ prakīrtitam/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.20.54

121
parihasta, prasarpitatala, siṁhavikrīḍita, vṛṣabhakrīḍita, gaṅgāvataraṇa etc.549 The

names of eighteen types of karaṇas are totally absent in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. Though the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa states only the

names of the karaṇas and do not explain it elaborately, the Nāṭyaśāstra has a great

discussion about hundred and eight types of karaṇas in the 4th chapter.550

v) Dṛṣṭi: In Sanskrit the term dṛṣṭi is used to denote sight or glance.551 The proper

accomplishment of glances is very important in a dance form. The appropriate

movements of eyes, eyeballs and eyebrows of an artist make the performance more

charming. There are thirty six kinds of glances accepted in the

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. All these are taken under three categories. These are-

rasadṛṣtis, sthāyībhāvadṛṣtis and the rest types are not fallen under any particular

group in the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa. But in the Nāṭyaśāstra the third category is

named as sañcāriṇadṛṣtis.552 The rasadṛṣtis like kāntā , bhayānakā, hāsyā, karuṇā,

adbhutā, raudrā, vīrā, bibhatsā and śāntā show feeling of love, fear, laughter,

elegiac, wonder, fierce, heroism, ghoulish and meditation respectively. Actually

these ten kinds of glances are manifested in different modes which express different

sentiments. As for example- to show the fear, the actor turns the eyelids upward and

the tip of the eyelashes and the eyeballs move553 here and there to project the cause

of fear. Again when prodigious thing comes under notice, the actor should contract
554
the eyelashes and expand the pupils to express that he or she perceives that

549
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.20.40-53
550
Nāṭyaśāstra¸ 4.34-173
551
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit- English Dictionary, p. 492
552
sañcāriṇīnāṁ dṛṣṭināṁ saṁpravakṣāmi lakṣaṇaṁ/ Nāṭyaśāstra, 8.61
553
udvṛttapuṭapakṣmāgrā calattārā bhayānakā/ Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, 3.25.5-6
554
kiñcitkuñcitapakṣamāgrā kiñcidudvṛttatārakā/
samā vikasitā caiva sādbhutā dṛṣṭiriṣyate/ Ibid., 3.25.7-8.

122
prodigious thing for the first time. Again there are some sthāyībhāvadṛṣtis like

snigdhā, hṛṣṭā, jihmā, kruddhā, bhītā, lajjitā, dṛptā, vismitā and saumyā always

express the durable psychological states of mind. 555 As for example, the snigdhā

glance refers to the action when eyes are widened in middle and it always expresses

very sweet and charming smile.556 Moreover, in anger the eye-brows are crooked

and in fear the eye-balls become motionless.557 Again there are eighteen types of

glances which fall under third category i.e., the sañcāriṇadṛṣtis. These are- malinā,

ākekarā, śrāntā, abhitaptā, viplutā, viṣaṇnā, śankitā, trastā, śokā, nimīlitā,

vibhrāntā, kuñcitā, śūṇyā, mukulā, vitarkitā, madirā, lalitā and glānā.558

555
snigdhā hṛṣṭā ca jihmā ca kruddhā bhītā ca lajjitā/
tṛptātha vismitā saumyā sthāyibhāveṣu dṛṣṭayaḥ// Ibid., 3.25.2
556
vyākośamadhyā madhurā snigdhā prahsitā matā/ Ibid., 3.25.10
557
bhrukuṭīkuṭilā kruddhā tathā niṣṭabdhatārakā/
ākuñcitapuṭā yā tu dṛṣṭirākekarā bhavet// Ibid., 3.25.12
558
Ibid., 3.25.3-4

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