UNIVERSITY OF SRI JAYEWARDENEPURA

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

Bachelor of Engineering Technology Honors Degree

Fourth Year Second Semester Assignment 01

Transportation and Highway Engineering ETB 4503

NAME : Bandaranaike A.R.M.D.I

ASSIGNMENT NO : Number 1

DEPARTMENT : Construction and building

services technology.
BATCH : 2015/16 (1st batch)

INDEX NO : EGT/16/411

DATE OF SUB : 06/09/2020.

Question 01

a) Identify and discuss sustainable transport challenges in developing countries. (Students are
required identify minimum five challengers and discuss to support the answer.)

Sustainability is one of the most paramount goals that every country is aiming to
achieve. In the construction industry also, professional experts are tending to design and
construct sustainable infrastructures, which also leads to make a most economical
environment within the country. For every country, transportation is vital for the economic
growth and personal welfare. With the revolution of technologies developing countries has
begun to implement new construction strategies, with the sophisticated equipment. As a
result of that, sustainably built freeways, highways, modified heavy railways can be seen
even in developing countries. But the thing is the way to achieve the sustainable fixed
facilities is full of constraints, so that both the government and private facility oriented
organizations are facing troubles.
 Difficult to meet growing demand.
One of the major problems that the developing countries are facing is growth of
the population. When the population is increasing, the demand for the resources available
in the country is also increasing. But the growing population cannot impact on the
transportation just as a single aspect, because the demand for the fixed facilities, individual
economic growth has also a significance influence. Most of the people are commuting
from their residential place to activities centres. With the increased population and the
economic aspects, the population moving to the capital cities increased. As a result of,
growing individual economic most of the people have tended to use private vehicle rather
than travelling by public transportation means. The overall result is that, a high density
stream of vehicles in traffics. To avoid inconvenience occurs due to heavy transport
streams, government has to take action to implement new strategies to make the life easier.
In addition to that, most of the people are having long commuting links between their
residences and the activity centres which is either affected on social problems, such as
isolation as well as poorer health. Therefore for the easiness governments has initiated
expressways combining so may sub and major cities. But for the rising economic and
population of people the demand for the express ways are increased but a huge barriers are
going on this matter because, with the rising populations there are limited extent of spaces
to construct more freeways, highways and arterial roads. Although the flyovers are good
solution for the space needs, there are places that flyovers are impractical to construct.
After making so many freeways, highways, flyovers etc the maintenance must be
obviously carried out, so the
estimations would be rather expensive and therefore it will make a huge draw back on the
way to achieve sustainability.

 Air pollution, emission of GHGs

Air pollution and GHGs emission is one thing that cannot be neglected when
approaching a sustainable transportation in the country, and equally occurs in all most
every country in the world. Therefore it has become a major challenge. Air pollution is a
common constraint in transportation sector has become an impediment to the quality of life
and even the health of urban populations. In developing countries, this this has become a
tragical issue because most of them are not having regulations to perform periodical tests
for vehicles, awareness programs and means to conduct regular servicing programs for
vehicles and correct usage etc. The reason behind this is, smog created by vehicles is
having hazardous gases due to improper combustion. Although mobility enhancements of
vehicles would be rather efficient and productive, this causes to increase the GHG gas
emission in massive extents. Polluted air would circulate upper boundaries of urban areas
and cause for severe environmental degradations as well as bad human’s health conditions.
When there is pollution happen due to the transportation system, in spite of how much
getting productivity, efficiency, and minimized resources usage, the method would not be
sustainable, because it is harmful for both the environment and human. Therefore the
government authorities and expert must have a proper idea about how fixed facilities
should be provided to drive a regulated extent of vehicle stream per day.

 Road safety.
Rapid growth of the vehicle stream can be quietly observed in developing countries
during passed years. Most of the people are moving to use private motor vehicles due to
several drawbacks of the public transportation system. As for the easiness of travelling,
utilization of motor bicycles has also increases. In addition to that, the number of non-
motorized vehicles has not been reduced with the usage of motor vehicles. So, the safety of
roads has been tragically threatened due to the existence of dissimilar modes of vehicles.
Due to the increase of the density of vehicles in the road, traffic congestions are frequent in
those countries. Except that matter, most of the time, people live in developing countries,
are not very much familiar with the traffic rules and get in to break it always, and law
enforcement agencies in those countries has not establish rules for the safety for
transportation property. Due to these reasons, number of accidents happened in a year is
very high in developing countries compared to the developed countries. As an example, in
India, a total of 134,513 people lost their lives to road accidents in 2010 compared to
32,885 road fatalities in the US during that year. This directly effects on the sustainability
of the country because when the number of accidents are increasing in a particular country
that means, number of victims, deaths and road repairing and refurbishments rise, hence it
leads to waste scares resources. Moreover, when an accident happened in somewhere, it
causes to make a long traffic congestion and inefficient condition on the road. On another
perception, the unsafe conditions on the road rise due to the differences between the traffic
and population characteristics. In developing countries, the population is very high with
respect to the traffic. Therefore the probability to happen accidents is high. After
considering all the consequences of unsafe on the road, it is convenience to realize how
much its impact to the sustainability.

 Lack of integrated planning.

This is another kind of major drawback which cause to make a large barrier on the
sustainability of transportation in developing countries. With the development of countries,
different types of improvements and modifications are suggested and hence the existing
roads have to be altered appropriately. However, the specialists in developing countries are
not having much experiences and knowledge about how to refurbish the existing road by
fulfilling other relevant requirements also. Due to the disorganized road infrastructure,
people will not be able to acquire anticipated facility from the transportation, because it
may cause to make huge traffic congestions. The inefficient transportation system causes
production losses and negativity in people’s mind therefore directly affected on the
sustainability of that particular country. Well planned transportation roots cause to
overcome future accidents. Especially when constructing expressways, highways or
arterial ways through forests, there are so many facts that must be considered when
planning the structure. The road must be passing through an area with less population of
animal’s behaviour. However it is not the only thing to be taken into account. There are
lots of facts such as, electricity cable lines, vegetation, water ways etc need to be thought.
But in developing countries it could be seen that, wild animal attacks on vehicles when
driving through those areas. With the modernizations of the world, most of the developing
countries are having freeways, however, the design of the roads have got very heavier
infrastructures that make people inconvenient as well as, those freeways are mostly
approachable only for main cities. This is especially because, higher populations, poor
space organizations in urban areas, high needs for commuting purposes. Most of the
provisions in developing countries are not getting transit railway facilities because the
nature of the existing transportation ways and urbanization. Metro transit highways or
railways are some of the best transportation means that reduce traffic jam congestions in
large quantities. However since most of the countries are aiming to achieve the success
through inland developments, they have become unable to plan metros under cities and
arterial roadways. As most of the constructions and developments have been established in
different urban areas, it has become a very difficult to design a metro under the floor. Even
metro is somewhat a strange word for the people live in developing countries but, almost
every developed country is having metro for the easiness of transportation. Lack of
knowledge and planning skills has led to loose opportunities like that.

 Non- inclusive constructions.

In most of the developing countries, that is a usual thing to be seen that, there are two
kinds of profiles that are highly developed and hasn’t been put through development
strategies. So there huge society variation in developing countries, since people in one part
is going forward with the sophisticated environment while the other part is going with
traditional life cycle. That means one part of the country is getting more attention for the
development. Especially those developments are going in most cramped urban areas. Non-
inclusive constructions are the building which has been constructed to facilitate only one
party or, building still which could not be facilitated for a particular purpose. The non-
inclusive constructions are frequent thing that can be seen most urban areas. Those
constructions have been able to make a space problem. Hence it has become a major
problem to organize transportation ways inside the city. Unorganized urban planning also
has an influence on this matter. When panning to construct a highway, freeway, railway,
distributing ways or any other types of way, some buildings act as barriers and, those
buildings has to be demolished. This is a costly thing and the construction would not be
sustainable and to offset the disbursement a long time would be required.

 Rising up the number of bicycles, motorcycles and taxis.

In developing countries, number of bicycles, motor bicycles and taxis has occupied a
large density from the usual day to day vehicle stream. Most developing countries have
reserved a separated lane only for cyclists on the road, for the betterment for themselves as
well as convenient for the other drivers and passengers. But in developing countries
although the road dividing can be seen frequently, divided lanes for a type of vehicles are
rare. But people are moving to use private vehicles rapidly, due to several incapabilities of
public transportation sectors. Other than going for comfortable four-wheel or three-wheel
motor vehicles, majority prefer to use bicycles or motor cycles for the easiness of driving
and cheap to own. With the raised population of bicycles, the density of the vehicle stream
has rapidly gone up. Other thing is most of the cyclist doesn’t obey highway codes. This
dangerous behaviour has become a threat for every commuter. Now two-wheel vehicles
has become a threat for public transportation system, because motor bikes are having a
greater mobility to access job and services than buses and van especially in urban areas.
Although motor bikes and bicycles are convenient modes of transportation for commuters,
it is an insecure method and due to the rapid usage of two-wheel vehicles, people live in
developing countries are experiencing heavier traffic congestions. A road having large
number of accidents and traffic congestion is less sustainable because, at those moments,
resource usage and mortality rates go up with inefficient and ineffective environment.

 Problems involved with social needs.

The society influences on the transportation industry in developing countries are really
high. When the needs to achieve access and the mobility are increasing, more facilities
have to be provided. It has been found that, worldwide over 1 billion people lack access to
roads, 98 percent of them in developing countries. For the 72 percent that live in rural areas
in poor countries, poor mobility is particularly apparent. So as a government it is a
responsible to provide transportation facilities for the people even for the commuting as
well as for personal requirements. When considering about the social impacts on
transportation sector in a developing country, there several factors to be evaluated.
Significant impact of the transportation as a quality of life is a major concern and one of
them. The accessibility and the lack of adequate spaces are the most prominent problems
that has been arises which act as a barrier to achieve the quality of life. Therefore, there
must be a postulate to achieve a balance between benefits of transport users and the effects
felt by the other members of society. Geometrical barriers has also act as a major
influence, because it is a frequent thing to notice that, most of the people are utilizing risky
methods to gain access from one place to another through roads, hills etc. Most developing
countries are having fewer amounts of procurements for the transportation or, they are
expending more money to develop unessential road facility developments. So people are
less concentrated and having negative impact on the facility oriented firms. On the other
hand, the qualities of road facilities in rural areas are not much good and most of the
people live in those areas are suffering from it. Another impact is that, travel time and
expenses. The mobility of the public transportation in rural areas takes a look of very
slower. The main reason for that is lack of public transportation means and therefore to
keep travelling time. The lack of the quality of road also has a greater influence on this
issue. Therefore most of the commuters have to be late on there working premises and, for
the people who are living those areas get trouble with their day to day chores. Sometimes,
the ticket price would be higher especially for poor people and government legislations
must be improved to settle the bus and train ticket prices, in order to be possible for
everyone to use public transportation. Otherwise, people will move to use private
transportation means and therefore traffic congestion in the country increases while, the
reducing the amount of surplus received for the country via public transportation.
Reliability of transporting schedule, accessibility to markets, time, day and seasonal
variations in above factors etc. are the main social needs and have become problems in
developing countries. All the mentioned factors have both the direct and indirect influences
on the sustainability of the country. Another perspective of social problems that arise with
sustainable transportation strategies is social impact on the facility provisioning. That
means, as developing countries are having more population compared to the field spaces,
some freeways, highways, and railways have to be developed through some extent of
population occupying area. Hence, in that situation remonstrance coming from the society
due to the fact that they are hesitant to move another place leaving where they have been
dwelling is a usual thing. This is a kind of challenge for the governments that to change the
people’s mind and to donate a reasonable procurements and essential facilities to evacuate
the region where the road has to be constructed.
Therefore in order to make the country sustainable, developing countries are
having enormous challengers and those countries need more potential to take the risk and
face it.
b) Identify Public Transport Modes in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka is a south Asian country which is having middle income and regarded as a
developing country in the world. Therefore the country is having a moderately qualified
transportation ways compared to the other developed countries. Transportation in Sri
Lanka can be divided in to two parts, as passenger transportation and freight
transportation. In Sri Lanka there are three main public transportation classifications such
as, land transportation, air transportation, and water transportation. With the revolutions
of the construction industry Sri Lanka also has taken the footstep to construct
expressways, highways, and refurbish existing highways and arterial ways by dividing
into lanes, boarding the ways and so on. Currently Sri Lanka is having southern express
way which serving southern part of the country to travel to the capital city within
minimum period of time. In addition to that there are Colombo to Katunayaka
expressway and outer circular expressways which facilitate openings to many main cities
in Sri Lanka. In addition to that, there are around 17 airports in Sri Lanka which are
distributed across the country. The 17 includes, 4 international and 13 domestic airports,
however from all of those, two main international airports which are Bandaranayake
International Airport, Katunayake and Mattala Rajapaksa international airports are the
most using public air transportation system situated in Sri Lanka. Other airports are
mostly used for military purposes. When taking a look on water transportation sector, in
Sri Lanka ocean shipping systems frequently carry out for tourism purposes other than to
travel broad for carrier purposes.
With the increased population and individual income variations, people are
commuting to activity centers, to do their carriers. Population coming to Colombo city
which is regarded as the capital of Sri Lank from rural areas, far away is very high.
Therefore in Colombo area there is a good and regulated public transportation system
which people can travel the destination even by transit highway or railways. Transit
highway facilities are given via buses, which are available to catch whenever necessary
inside the Colombo city and, transit railways facilitate trains from Colombo to down or
upper country sides which had made the commuting easier. When considering other
provisions Sri Lanka, rarely traffic jam congestion can be seen. Hence plenty of public
transportation method cannot be seen. However in addition to main public transport
means like buses and trains, it is frequent to see taxis and trishaws which also act as
public transporting method around the country.
When considering the water transportation, Sri Lanka has not yet implemented
inland public transportations by vessels. But there are some upcoming suggestions to
make inland transportation nearby Colombo area, such as Wellawatta to Battaramulla
line, Fort to Union place (along Bere lake) and Mattakkuliya to Hanwella (along Kelani
river). But inland water transportation is not very essential for other provisions since
traffic jam congestion is not a frequent thing in those areas. So in Sri Lanka inland water
transportation do not exist. But when considering about ocean transportations, there are
vessels that are used for the public transportations but those are available only to take
tours for both local and foreign tourists, not to transport Sri Lanka to another country.
Whereas ocean vessels are very much popular as a mode for freight transportation in Sri
Lanka.
International air transportation is a common thing in every country. In Sri Lank,
people can take the facility of international air transportation by going for two main
international airports situated in Katunayake and Hambanthota. Domestic air
transportation is not open to ordinary people to fulfill their commutation needs and day to
day activities, but those domestic airlines are utilized by military purposes and
participated other authorized parties in front of special occasions.

Figure 1: marine public transportation mode.

Figure 2: trishaws in Sri Lanka.

c) “Sri Lanka faces a huge problem with public transport which is driving commuters to use
private transport. It is estimates that 65% of the road space is used by 38% of the
passengers; the increase in the use of private vehicles is the major cause of traffic
congestion” Identify and discuss methods which can use to upgrade public transport
system in Sri Lanka. (Students are required to propose at least five facts to support the
answer).

As a developing country, Sri Lanka has taken several steps to minimize traffic jam
congestions by increasing the number of transit railways, freeways, flyovers etc. But
especially in Colombo area heavier traffic congestion in the morning and the evening has
become a common thing. So it has become a controversial issue that is difficult to find a
solution. As a result, most of the people are move to use private vehicles; the density of
the vehicle stream has been increasing rapidly since passed ages. According to the
estimations on daily records, 93% of transportations modes are being used for passenger
transporting purposes. On the other hand, the traffic congestions arises due to heavier
density of vehicle stream influence in indifferent ways negatively one both human lives
and the environment. With the increase of the number of vehicles in the road obviously,
the percentage of GHG emission would go up due to the exhaust, and the possibilities to
happen accidents also score in higher rank. One of the critical things that make the people
move to commute on their own vehicles is uncomfortable conditions inside public
transportations due to the crampedness. Another most important thing is the irregular
train servicing turns especially for short distance services. Therefore the public
transportation system is always getting crowded because of this matter. Therefore this
matter indirectly impact on people to find comfortable commuting ways.
In order to avoid traffic congestions inside the city, water ways can be used in an
effective way if there is a river or cannel connecting crowded spots. Inland water ways
are one of the most popular transportation modes that can be frequently seen in foreign
countries. However, inland transportation is an unfamiliar thing for the transportation
sector in Sri Lanka. But inland transportation system is having a huge impact to enhance
the efficiency and the productivity on fixed facilities given by the facility oriented
organization. But up to now, Sri Lankan authorities have already taken the first foot steps
to develop inland transportation systems in the capital city. There are proposed project
though Bere lake, Kelani River and Diyawanna lake connecting most traffic congestions
involving cities. As well as they are planning to give this opportunity considering all the
factors regarding populations of people who are commuting with the city, biodiversity in
 the reservoir, existing constructions etc. In order to expand the demand for inland water
transportation, the system must be carried out for affordable turns then people may attract
to the transportation system.

Figure 3: Inland water transportation.

To minimize the usage of private vehicles for day to day commuting purposes, the
facilities and the comfort of public transits are really important to perceive. After having an
exhausted working day, people are willing to return home with a calm and peaceful mind.
But when considering about the public transportation means in Sri Lank, most of them are
not having proper facilities that people makes comfortable. As well as people doesn’t like
to experience a crowded and uncomfortable travel in the morning and, this matter will also
impact on the day to day productivity of particular person. Most of the buses are in a
condition that is reaching to worn out. Unnecessary vibrations, sheared seats, shutters with
broken locks are the main key points that make the people tired up. In addition to that, in
some cases, there might not be adequate number of buses for a particular route and
therefore, the bus has to take a large crowed and it also makes the people uncomfortable.
All of these make the people to commute by their own vehicles. That means, when the
number of private vehicles are increasing, the traffic congestion make a massive stream of
vehicle in the roads. So, Sri Lanka is essentially needs improved public transit facilities to
overcome the crisis. The government should take actions to check the quality of a
particular transportation facility, whether it is eligible to driven on the public roads,
whether it is having any mechanical problems etc. If that vehicle is having any
ineligibilities to put on the road, the government must advice the owners to fix it or, in a
situation that is it cannot be fixed, it must be eliminated. There are different kinds of buses
with different capabilities and comforts available in the world market like Bi-articulated
buses which is capable to carry around 250 passengers, Articulated buses that can carry

around 170 passengers, conventional buses etc. When the facilities, qualities and the
carrying capacity of public roadway transit are increasing, the density of the vehicle stream
in the road per hour can be reduced. The step that has been taken to provide double decker
buses for urban areas is a wise decision made by government. Government and private
sectors must take planes and proper actions to donate or offer loans for people to take high
quality confortable buses. In Sri Lanka, government is distributing such vehicles to drive
long distances, but it has not been fully developed. As well as both the private and
government sectors must facilitate to take loan for an affordable interest so therefore it
would be a motivation for public transportation owners to go for a sophisticated new
vehicle. So, it is essential to take necessary action to improve the quality of existing buses.

Figure 4: Bi-articulated bus

Figure 5: Double decker buses in Sri Lanka

Another thing that can be used to enhance the public transportation, system is
implementation of staff transport modes. This is not a new thing in Sri Lanka especially for
worker of garment and some other production factories. In Colombo area also thing
method can be seen in both the government and private departments and firms. But when
going out of the capital city, staff transportation system is not popular very much. When
the company provide staff transporting facility for the workers according to their
convenience of getting into, the usage of private vehicles can be reduced in a considerable
amount. In addition to that, people are conducting staff transporting vehicles as a personal
income. As a proportional, if 25 staff members are using their private vehicles, 25 vehicles
on the road can be converted into on vehicle by transporting the 25 people from the staff
bus or van. This system must be improved in commercial cities other than the capital city;
Colombo in Sri Lanka, so that will be a greater advantage to minimize the traffic
congestions and make a smooth flow of vehicles in routes.

Public transportation lanes are also a prominent physical fixed facility which regulated
in foreign countries. But in Sri Lanka, although there are divided lanes on highways and
arterial ways, the lanes have not been severed specifically for the public transportation and
private transportation. As a solution for the heavy traffic conditions, arterial and collector
roads in urban areas are reserved as one way into opposing direction to each other. Those
roads are connected by streets for the easiness of pedestrians. But due to irregular lane
separation Sri Lankan road transportation sector is having severe problems, especially
traffic jams. Especially in Vienna, San Francisco and Paris there are separately divided
lanes taxis, so that other varieties of transportation cannot be driven through those specific
lanes. Every country who use separated public transportation lanes have experienced a
comparable advantage with the countries that do not use. So, by separating exclusive lanes
for public vehicles, traffic congestion can be minimized, because private vehicles not
allowed to be driven on that lane. When dividing the lanes, it would be better to use
barriers other than using painted signs. Then drivers doesn’t get chance to break the rules
by skipping the regulated lane to the other lane. Such improvements must be carried out on
transportation fixed facilities to reduce the unnecessary traffic jam congestions.

As a developing country, Sri Lanka has achieved the advantage of expressways by

opening for the people to obtain most efficient and effective commutation. Up to now there
are several expressways that have been constructed aiming a large population. The
expressways also contribute to reduce the traffic jams on main road ways. Although it is
the quickest way to commute among all the other strategies, people hesitate to travel every
day via expressways because the bus fees are really unbearable for a daily commuter.
Although it is very convenient transportation physical facility, the higher cost per turn has
made a barrier for people to commute. By moving the people to use expressways,
inherently they will not tend to use their private vehicles. The most influencing factor for
an expensive turn is the luxury facilities of expressway public transits. Instead of luxurious
vehicles, government can implement a programme to facilitate normal buses which are
having capabilities to go on expressway based on affordable tickets or monthly payment as
a staff service. This can stimulate people to use express ways and, then the density of
vehicles on the road also will be reduced.
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