UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS

GOV. PACK ROAD, BAGUIO CITY

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

BIODIVERSITY OR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long-established
terms, species diversity and species richness.
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life. This can refer to genetic variation, species
variation, or ecosystem variation within an area, biome, or planet. The number of species of plants,
animals, and microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in these species, the different ecosystems
on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs are all part of a biologically diverse Earth.
Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be highest at low latitudes near the equator, which seems to be
the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity.
Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface
temperature is highest and in mid-latitudinal band in all oceans.

Importance of biodiversity
Why Is Biodiversity Important? Who Cares? Does it really matter if there aren’t so many species?
Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an
important role to play.
For example, a larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops; greater species
diversity ensures natural sustainability for all life forms; and healthy ecosystems can better withstand and
recover from a variety of disasters.
And so, while we dominate this planet, we still need to preserve the diversity in wildlife.

1. Resistance to catastrophe
Monoculture, the lack of biodiversity, was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters in
history, including the Irish Potato Famine, the European wine industry collapse in the late 1800s, and the
US Southern Corn Leaf Blight epidemic of 1970.
Higher biodiversity also controls the spread of certain diseases as e.g. viruses will need adapt
itself with every new species.

DISDAVANTAGES OF MONOCULTURE:

1. Growing the same crops year in year out depletes valuable soil nutrients that plants rely on, so
this deficiency is compensated for by using increasing amounts of fertilizers.
2. Monocultures are more susceptible to certain weeds and insect pests which mean that
pesticides are used to protect against that. Weeds and insect pests can spread faster in a monoculture
because of the lack of biological diversity – when one plant is susceptible to a pest, it means that all other
plants of the same species are likely to suffer from it.
3. The effects of both pesticides and fertilizers on health and our environment are well known
with a lot of these chemicals finding their way into groundwater sources and in the air where they create
further pollution.
A most recent and alarming example is the impact of one class of pesticides, neonicotinoids, to
the bee population. The impacts on honey bees cannot be stressed enough as a lot of our fruit, vegetables
and crops are pollinated by bees.
4. In addition to the environmental and health risks of monoculture, monoculture favours the
cultivation of specific crops and breeds. This not only means more limited options for the consumer, but it
also means that our farming practices are impacting our planet’s biodiversity.
The Livestock Conservancy estimates that nearly 200 endangered livestock breeds may become
extinct due to our overreliance on very few and highly specialized breeds.

2. Food and drink

Biodiversity provides food for humans. About 80 percent of our food supply comes from just 20
kinds of plants. Humans use at least 40,000 species of plants and animals a day. Although many kinds of
animals are utilized as food, again most consumption is focused on a few species. There are also many
people in the world who depend on these species for their food, shelter, and clothing.
There is vast untapped potential for increasing the range of food products suitable for human
consumption, provided that the high present extinction rate can be stopped.

3. Medicines

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 A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources; in
most cases these medicines cannot presently be synthesized in a laboratory setting. About 40% if the
pharmaceuticals used in the US are found from natural compounds found in plants, animals, and
microorganism. Moreover, only a small proportion of the total diversity of plants has been thoroughly
investigated for potential sources of new drugs. Many medicines and antibiotics are also derived from
microorganisms.

4. Industrial materials
A wide range of industrial materials are derived directly from biological resources. These include
building materials, fibers, dyes, resins, gums, adhesives, rubber and oil. There is enormous potential for
further research into sustainably utilizing materials from a wider diversity of organisms.

5. Intellectual value
Through the field of bionics, a lot of technological advancement has been done which may not
have been the case without a rich biodiversity.

6. Better crop-varieties
For certain economical crops (e.g. food crops), wild varieties of the domesticated species can be
reintroduced to form a better variety than the previous (domesticated) species. The economic impact is
gigantic, for even crops as common as the potato. Rice, which has been improved for thousands of years
by man, can through the same process regain some of its nutritional value that has been lost.

6. Other ecological services

Biodiversity provides many ecosystem services that are often not readily visible. It plays a part in
regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere and water supply. Biodiversity is directly involved in
recycling nutrients and providing fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have shown that
humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs; for example insect pollination cannot be
mimicked by man-made construction, and that activity alone represents tens of billions of dollars in
ecosystem services per annum to mankind.

7. Leisure, cultural and aesthetic value

Many people derive value from biodiversity through leisure activities such as enjoying a walk in
the countryside, birdwatching or natural history programs on television.
Biodiversity has inspired musicians, painters, sculptors, writers and other artists. Many cultural
groups view themselves as an integral part of the natural world and show respect for other living
organisms.

Threats of biodiversity or loss of biodiversity

It has long been feared that human activity is causing massive extinctions. Despite increased
efforts at conservation, it has not been enough and biodiversity losses continue. The costs associated with
deteriorating or vanishing ecosystems will be high. However, sustainable development and consumption
would help avert ecological problems.

1. Habitat destruction
Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical forest
destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overpopulation, deforestation, pollution and global
warming or climate change.
Example: Deforestation and increased road-building in the Amazon Rainforest are a significant
concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource extraction and
further threats to biodiversity.

2. Introduced species or invasive species or alien species or exotic species

The term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would
normally keep them constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting
native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native
species.
The widespread introduction of exotic species by humans is a potent threat to biodiversity. When
exotic species are introduced to ecosystems and establish self-sustaining populations, the endemic species
in that ecosystem, that have not evolved to cope with the exotic species, may not survive. The exotic
organisms may be predators, parasites, or simply aggressive species that deprive indigenous species of
nutrients, water and light. These exotic or invasive species often have features due to their evolutionary

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background and environment that makes them competitive, and similarly makes endemic species
defenceless and/or uncompetitive against these exotic species.
Example: Male Lophura nycthemera (Silver Pheasant), a native of East Asia that has been
introduced into parts of Europe for ornamental reasons.

3. Genetic pollution
Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e.
uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping.
Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a
numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species.
Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena
can be especially detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The
abundant species can interbreed with the rare species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always
apparent from morphological (outward appearance) observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is
normal adaptation, and not all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization
with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species' existence.

4. Overexploitation
Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on
land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal
wildlife trade.
The international trade of endangered species is second in size only to drug trafficking. About
25% of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is less than the level
that maximizes their sustainable yield.

5. Hybridization, genetic erosion and food security

In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional
hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were
further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local
climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge
gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and
genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.
GM organisms have genetic material altered by genetic engineering procedures such as
recombinant DNA technology. GM crops have become a common source for genetic pollution, not only
of wild varieties but also of domesticated varieties derived from classical hybridization.
Genetic erosion coupled with genetic pollution may be destroying unique genotypes, thereby
creating a hidden crisis which could result in a severe threat to our food security. Diverse genetic material
could cease to exist which would impact our ability to further hybridize food crops and livestock against
more resistant diseases and climatic changes.

6. Climate change
Global warming is also considered to be a major potential threat to global biodiversity in the
future. Climate change has seen many claims about potential to affect biodiversity but evidence
supporting the statement is tenuous. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant
morphology and is acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges, phenology, and weather, but
the major impacts that have been predicted are still just potential impacts. We have not documented major
extinctions yet, even as climate change drastically alters the biology of many species.
For example coral reefs - which are biodiversity hotspots - will be lost in 20 to 40 years if global
warming continues at the current trend.
Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole. Climate change has started
affecting bear populations.

7. Human overpopulation
From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to
reach a plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century. Sir David King, former chief scientific
adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive growth in
the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single
factor."

Number of species or Global biodiversity

According to Mora and colleagues, the total number of terrestrial species is estimated to be
around 8.7 million while the number of oceanic species is much lower, estimated at 2.2 million.

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 The authors note that these estimates are strongest for eukaryotic organisms and likely represent
the lower bound of prokaryote diversity.
Scientists estimate between 10 to 30 million species on Earth. Only about 1.75 million have been
named and catalogued.
Most of insects, fungi and microscopic creatures remain unidentified. Their existence is a
mystery.

Biodiversity Status of the World

 Bacteria - 25,000 species
 Virus - 6,000 species
 Fungi - 70,000 species
 Plants - 320,000 species
 Invertebrates - 400,000 species (excluding insects)
 Insects > 1000,000 species (approximately 360,000 of which are beetles)
 Mammals 4,900 species
 Birds 9,800 species
 Amphibians and reptiles 13,000
 Fish 28,000 species

Megadiverse countries
The megadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the Earth's species
and are therefore considered extremely biodiverse.

Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries in 1998. In alphabetical order, the

17 megadiverse countries are:

 Australia  India  Peru

 Brazil  Indonesia  Philippines
 China  Madagascar  United States
 Colombia  Malaysia  South Africa
 Democratic Republic  Mexico  Venezuela
of the Congo  Papua New Guinea
 Ecuador

One of the patterns that dictate where extreme biodiversity occurs is the distance from the equator
to the poles of the earth. Therefore, most of the Megadiverse countries are found in the tropics: the areas
that surround the Earth's equator.
Why are the tropics the most biodiverse areas in the world? The factors that influence
biodiversity include temperature, rainfall, soil, and altitude, among others. The warm, moist, stable
environments of the ecosystems in tropical rainforests in particular allow floral and fauna to thrive.

Criteria:
The principle criterion is endemism, first at the species level and then at higher taxonomic levels
such as genus and family. To qualify as a Megadiverse country, a country must have at least 5000 of the
world’s plants as endemics.

Biological diversity in the Philippines

The Philippines includes more than 7,100 islands covering 297,179 km2 in the westernmost
Pacific Ocean. The Philippines lies north of Indonesia and directly east of Vietnam.
The country is one of the few nations that is, in its entirety, both a hotspot and a megadiversity
country, placing it among the top priority hotspots for global conservation.

Unique and Threatened Biodiversity

The patchwork of isolated islands, the tropical location of the country, and the once extensive
areas of rainforest have resulted in high species diversity in some groups of organisms and a very high
level of endemism.
The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with sixteen new species of
mammals discovered in the last ten years. Because of this, the rate of endemism for the Philippines has
risen and likely will continue to rise.

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1. Plants
At the very least, one-third of the more than 9,250 vascular plant species native to the Philippines
are endemic. Gingers, begonias, gesneriads, orchids, pandans, palms, and dipterocarps are particularly
high in endemic species. For example, there are more than 150 species of palms in the hotspot, and
around two-thirds of these are found nowhere else in the world. Of the 1,000 species of orchids found in
the Philippines, 70 percent are restricted to the hotspot.
It is said that as many as 9,000 flowering plants can be found in the country, including 200 fruit
trees. Among the endemic fruit trees in the Philippines are durian, mabolo, pili and bignay.

2. Vertebrates

a. Birds
There are over 530 bird species found in the Philippines hotspot; about 185 of these are endemic
(35 percent) and over 60 are threatened.
Perhaps the best-known bird species in the Philippines is the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga
jefferyi), the second-largest eagle in the world.
Among the hotspot’s other threatened endemic species are the Negros bleeding heart
(Gallicolumba keayi), Visayan wrinkled hornbill (Aceros waldeni), Scarlet-collared flowerpecker
(Dicaeum retrocinctum), Cebu flowerpecker (Dicaeum quadricolor), and Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua
haematuropygia).
One of the most endangered species is the exotic Kalangay or the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua
haematuropygia), which belongs to Psittacidae or the family of parrots. Some cockatoos can live up to 50
years. They are known for mimicking human voices. Most of them measure 33 centimeters in length and
weigh 0.29 kilogram. The remaining population of kalangays, between 1,000 and 4,000, is now restricted
to Palawan, particularly in St. Paul's Subterranean River National Park, Pandanan Island and El Nido
Marine Reserve.

3. Mammals
At least 165 mammal species are found in the Philippine hotspot, and over 100 of these are
endemic (61 percent), one of the highest levels of mammal endemism in any hotspot.
The largest and most impressive of the mammals in the Philippines is the tamaraw (Bubalus
mindorensis), a dwarf water buffalo that lives only on Mindoro Island. (The Largest Endangered Animal).
Other mammals endemic to the Philippines include: the Visayan and Philippine warty pigs (Sus
cebifrons and S. philippensis); the Calamianes hog-deer (Axis calamaniensis) and the Visayan spotted
deer (Rusa alfredi), which has been reduced to a population of a few hundred on the islands of Negros,
Masbate and Panay; and the golden-capped fruit bat (Acerodon jubatus), which, as the world's largest
bat, has a wingspan up to 1.7 meters.
One of the world's rarest mammals lives in the dwindling forest of Panay Island. It is the
Philippine spotted deer (Cervus alfredi), considered by many as the most endangered deer in the planet.
The smallest bat in the world is the Philippine bamboo bat (vespertilionid), which belongs to the
vespertilionid family. This bat measures about four centimeters (1 1/2 inches) in length and has a
wingspan of 15 cm. Approximately, it weighs 1.5 grams (1/20 ounce).
The Negros naked-backed fruit bat (Dobsonia chapmani), which was thought to be extinct in the
Philippines, has recently been rediscovered, on the islands of Cebu in 2000 and Negros in 2003.
In many respects, the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) is different from other animals.
Considered as the world's smallest primate or monkey, it measures only about twelve centimeters in
length.
Palawan bearcat is neither a bear nor a cat. Known in Southeast Asia as binturong, the bearcat is a
species of its own, with population in the forests of Palawan, Borneo, Burma and Vietnam. It belongs to
the family of Viverridae (civets).
South of Palawan, lies the Balabac Island, home of the world's smallest hoofed mammal - the
Philippine mouse deer. Locally known as Pilandok (Tragalus nigricans), this ruminant stands only about
40 centimeters at the shoulder level.
Dugongs or sea cows, the only herbivorous marine mammals, are often sighted in Philippine
waters, particularly near Palawan province and southern Mindanao. A dugong can live more than 70
years.
The bare-backed fruit bat or Dobsonia chapmani, believed to have become extinct in 1970s as a
result of the combination of forest destruction, disturbance by guano miners, and hunting.
One of the most distinct creatures on Earth lives in the Philippines. It doesn't have wings but it
can glide across 100 meters of space in a single leap. Like the lemurs of Asia, it moves around at night.

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Its head resembles that of a dog while its body has similarities with the flying squirrel of Canada. In
Mindanao, people call it "kagwang". Around the world, it is known as colugo or the flying lemur.

4. Reptiles
Reptiles are represented by about 235 species, some 160 of which are endemic
(68 percent).
The Philippine flying lizards from the genus Draco are well represented here, with about 10
species. These lizards have a flap of skin on either side of their body, which they use to glide from trees to
the ground.
An endemic freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) is considered the most threatened
crocodilian in the world.
Other unique and threatened reptiles include Gray's monitor (Varanus olivaceus) and the
Philippine pond turtle (Heosemys leytensis).
There are more than 220 species of turtles in the world, but only seven are considered marine
(saltwater). Five of these species are present in the Philippines, namely: Green (Chelonia mydas),
Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Loggerhead (Caretta caretta), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)
and Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea).
A newly discovered monitor lizard, Varanus mabitang, from Panay is only the second monitor
species known in the world to specialize on a fruit diet.
The saltwater crocodile, which can be found in the Philippines and other Asian countries, is
considered as the world's largest reptile. Scientifically known as Crocodylus porosus, it is different from
Mindoro's freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), which is a relatively smaller species.
An adult saltwater crocodile measures between six to seven meters (20-23 feet) and weighs about two to
three tons. There were tales that a 27-foot saltwater crocodile was killed near Lake Taal in Batangas in
1823. It reportedly took 40 men to bring the body ashore. When the men cut the crocodile's body open,
they found the body of a horse in seven pieces.

5. Amphibians
There are nearly 90 amphibian species in the hotspot, almost 85 percent of which are endemic;
these totals continue to increase, with the continuing discovery and description of new species.
One interesting amphibian, the panther flying frog (Rhacophorus pardalis), has special
adaptations for gliding, including extra flaps of skin and webbing between fingers and toes to generate lift
during glides.
The hotspot is also home to the Philippine flat-headed frog (Barbourula busuangensis), one of the
world's most primitive frog species.

6. Freshwater Fishes
The Philippines has more than 280 inland fish, including nine endemic genera and more than 65
endemic species, many of which are confined to single lakes.
An example is Sardinella tawilis, a freshwater sardine found only in Taal Lake.
Donsol, a fishing town in Sorsogon province, serves as a sanctuary to a group of 40 whale sharks
(Rhincodon typus), which are considered as the largest fish in the world. Locally known as "butanding",
whale sharks visit the waters of Donsol from November to May. They travel across the oceans but
nowhere else have they been sighted in a larger group than in the waters of Sorsogon. They measure
between 18 to 35 feet in length and weigh about 20 tons (World's Largest Fish).

The world's smallest freshwater fish is found in the Philippines. The dwarf goby (Pandaka
pygmaea) measures 1.2 centimeters or less than half of an inch, the tiniest known vertebrate. American
Ichthyologist Albert Herre first discovered it in Malabon River in 1925.
The Philippines is also the home of sinarapan, the world's smallest commercial fish. Sinarapan,
scientifically known as Mistichthys luzonensis, is a goby found only in Lakes Bato and Buhi in
Camarines Sur province. Sinarapan grows to an average length of 1.25 centimeters, only slightly longer
than the dwarf goby.

7. Invertebrates
About 70 percent of the Philippines’ nearly 21,000 recorded insect species are found only in this
hotspot. About one-third of the 915 butterflies found here are endemic to the Philippines, and over 110 of
the more than 130 species of tiger beetle are found nowhere else.
Both Tridacna gigas, one of the world's largest shells, and Pisidum, the world's tiniest shell, can
be found under Philippine waters. Tridacna gigas grows as large as one meter in length and weighs 600
pounds while Pisidum is less than 1 millimeter long.

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 A shell called glory of the sea (Connus gloriamaris) is also found in the Philippines and
considered as one of the most expensive shells in the world.

Biodiversity hotspots
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is
under threat from humans.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by Norman Myers in two articles in “The
Environmentalist” 1988 & 1990 revised after thorough analysis by Myers and others in “Hotspots:
Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot-map, a region must
meet two strict criteria:
1. it must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics
2. it has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

Around the world, 25 areas qualify under this definition, with nine other possible candidates.
These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a
very high share of endemic species.

Endemic species
An ‘Endemic Species’ is one that is only found in that region and nowhere else in the world. As
such they are of conservation concern because they are not widespread and may be confined to only one
or two protected areas.
Some have become national, or regional, emblems.

Threats and Protection of endemic species

Since they are often confined to very small areas, and sometimes to unusual and sensitive habitats
within these localities, many endemic species are endangered.
Some of the principal causes of habitat degradation and loss in these ecosystems are:
1. Agriculture
2. Urban growth
3. Surface mining and mining of oil, metals and minerals
4. Large scale logging operations
5. Slash-and-burn techniques employed by some cultures
6. Invasive species introduced either intentionally or accidentally

Indigenous species
A species is defined as native (or indigenous) to a given region or ecosystem if its presence in
that region is the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention.
Every natural organism (as opposed to a domesticated organism) has its own natural range of
distribution in which it is regarded as native. Outside this native range, a species may be introduced by
human activity; it is then referred to as an introduced species within the regions where it was
anthropogenically introduced.

DIFFERENCE OF ENDEMIC SPECIES AND ENDIGENOUS SPECIES

An endemic species is one whose habitat is restricted to a particular area. The term could refer to
an animal, a plant, a fungus, or even a microorganism.
The definition differs from “indigenous,” or “native,” species in that the latter, although it occurs
naturally in an area, is also found in other areas.

Alien Species
They are sometimes also called "exotic," "introduced," "non-native," "non-indigenous" or
"invasive" species.
Alien species are plants, animals and microorganisms from one part of the world that are
transported beyond their natural range and become established in a new area.
An alien species is most commonly thought of as a macroscopic or obviously visible plant or
animal; however, some of the most significant alien species are micro-organisms which have conveyed
diseases or parasites to distant lands, where there may be insufficient endemic defenses or immunities.

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 Alien species that have negative effects on native species, or cause economic or environmental
problems are generally referred to as "invasive" species.
Their introduction to a new ecosystem threatens biodiversity, food security, human health, trade,
transport and economic development.

Alien species can get established if given advantages such as:

1. an agreeable climate;
2. no or few natural predators, parasites or diseases;
3. an abundance of food plants or prey that lack protection against the newcomer; and
4. an ability to out-compete native species and corner the best resources.

Some introduced alien species in the Philippines and their effects on ecosystems
1. The janitor fish (South American catfish) originally imported as aquarium cleaners, escaped
and infested the Philippines’ Laguna Lake and Marikina River, disrupting balance in the lake’s and
river’s ecosystem. It damaged fish cages and fishing nets, affecting fish production and the fish catch of
locals. It also damaged important waterways, causing the collapse of riverbanks.
2. The golden apple snail cost Philippine rice farmers USD28 to 45 million annually. The snail
wrought havoc to Vietnam’s rice fields, where it was introduced in 1988 to the public for culturing in
backyard ponds as an alternative high-protein food for duck and fish. Some snails escaped and spread to
nearby ponds, trenches and rice fields, where they quickly reached pest status. The government eventually
banned snail farming, and spent vast sums of money on control programs and public awareness
campaigns.(Perhaps the best -- or worst -- example was the Taiwanese golden apple snail, introduced by
the government in the 1970s as a possible alternative food source for farmer).
3. The water hyacinth (Water Lily) was brought into the country purely to decorate fishponds.
Now this floating water plant reproduces wildly, clogging water systems and preventing sunlight from
reaching other aquatic vegetation.
4. The knife fish (African catfish) look similar to “arowana,” making them a popular ornamental
fish that grows up to 10 kilos and more. The knife fish multiplies better than the janitor fish, a type of
African catfish that was introduced into the country by hobbyists who let their fish loose, swimming their
way from ponds to creeks and the rivers before lodging in Laguna de Bay.
“The horrible-looking knife fish has low value in the market. Although there are buyers, they
buy this fish for P5 to P15 per kilo. Not many people are keen to eat this fish because it is carnivorous,
exotic and not part of the regular fish staple. The buyers use knife fish for fish ball that is why it is also
very cheap”.
5. The Chinese softshell turtle is carnivorous and aggressive, preferring to forage at night to feed
on fish, crustaceans, mollusks and insects.
6. The Black Snake Head "DALAG" If you have this in ponds it will eat fingerlings or shrimps.

In the Philippines, some of the alien invasive plant species are:

1. large-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophyla)

2. paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera)
3. hagonoy or Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata)
4. coronitas or baho-baho (Lantana camara)
5. ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala)
6. Chinese creeper (Mikania micranth)
7. yemane or gmelina (Gmelina arborea)
8. Acacia mangium
9. Eucalyptus camaldulensis
10. Dipterocarpus grandiflorus
11. water fern (Salvinia molesta)
12. water hyacinth

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,
also known as the Washington Convention)
It is a multilateral treaty, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of
members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than
33,000 species of animals and plants.

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 The trade is diverse, ranging from live animals and plants to a vast array of wildlife products
derived from them, including food products, exotic leather goods, wooden musical instruments, timber,
tourist curios and medicines.

The Philippines became a signatory of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) on Nov. 16, 1981.

A) Appendix I (800 species) includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of
these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
Notable animal species listed in Appendix I include the red panda (Aluris fulgenis), gorilla
(Gorilla gorilla), the chimpanzee species (Pan spp.), tigers(Panthera tigris subspecies), Asiatic lion
(Panthera leo persica), leopards (Panthera pardus), Jaguar (Panthera onca), Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus),
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), some populations of African Elephant (Loxodonta africana), the
dugong and manatees (Sirenia), and all Rhinoceros species (except some Southern African subspecies
populations).

B) Appendix II (32,500 species) includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but
in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.

Examples of species listed on Appendix II are the Great White Shark (Carcharadon carcharias),
the American black bear (Ursus americanus), Hartmann's mountain zebra (Equus hartmannae), African
grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), green iguana (Iguana iguana), queen conch (Strombus gigas), Mertens'
Water Monitor (Varanus mertensi).

C) Appendix III. This Appendix contains species that are protected in at least one country, which
has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.

Examples of species listed on Appendix III and the countries that listed them are the two-toed
sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) by Costa Rica, African civet (Civettictis civetta) by Botswana, and the
alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii) by the USA.

Conservation of the Philippine Tarsier

The Philippine tarsier is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade of
Endangered Species (CITES) to carefully monitor the international trade of the species.
By virtue of Proclamation 1030 by President Fidel V. Ramos, the Philippine tarsier was declared
as a specially protected faunal species of the Philippines. The proclamation prohibits the “hunting, killing,
wounding, taking away or possession of the Philippine tarsier and the conduct of activities destructive to
its habitat”.
The Philippine Tarsier Foundation, Inc. (PTFI) was established to implement the Philippine
Tarsier Conservation program. The foundation maintains a protected sanctuary of tarsiers in Corella,
Bohol. The tarsier sanctuary is promoted for eco-tourism to educate more people on the value of the
primate and also to generate funds for the various projects of PTFI.

Conservation of Philippine Eagle

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has placed the Philippine eagle
on their list of critically endangered species on 2008.
They are calling the efforts of the Philippine government and the Filipino people to conserve the
eagle because it is nearing extinction.
The Philippine Eagle Foundation, Inc. (PEFI) in Davao City, Mindanao is working in the
conservation of the bird as well as its habitats.

Tridacna gigas
All species of Tridacna or giant clams are protected under the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Seven of the world’s eight giant species can be found in the Philippines, all protected by R.A.
8550 (Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998), which states that the taking of rare, threatened or endangered
species as listed in CITES and as determined by the DENR, is unlawful.

Awesome Endangered Sea Turtles

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 In 1996, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species listed sea turtle species as critically
endangered. The threats to their survival include habitat loss, slow reproductive rates, hunting, marine
debris and habitat pollution.

Local forest turtle getting extinct

The Philippine Forest Turtle (Siebenrockiella leytensis), commonly found in Palawan, is now
among the 25 endangered tortoises and freshwater turtles in the world, with an extremely high risk of
getting extinct.

Indopacific Crocodile
Scientific Name : Crocodylus porosus
In the Philippines it was the common crocodile being found in almost all rivers, major lakes and
marshlands, and coastal areas. It was primarily found in freshwater habitats and estuarine situations.
Size: Up to lengths of 7 meters. An Indopacific Crocodile of 6 meters was recently caught in
North Cotabato and another of over 5 meters in Zamboanga. This species grows to sufficiently large size
that it is known to be a predator on humans.
The Philippine population is listed as an Appendix I species of CITES which regulates all trade in
this species.

Philippine Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia)

Other common names: Red-vented Cockatoo
Distribution: Once widespread throughout Philippines, but now possibly restricted to Palawan,
San Miguel Is, Tawitawi, W Mindanao (Zamboanga), Siargao and Masbate.
The Philippine Cockatoo is categorized as a critically endangered species, facing extremely high
risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. Its population has diminished to dangerously low
levels as a result of habitat destruction and heavy hunting and trading as cagebird.

GRAY’S MONITOR
Gray's monitor (Varanas grayi) is a lizard native to Luzon and Catanduanes Islands in the
Philippines.

Endangered Trees
Selected endangered, threatened and vulnerable tree species traded internationally.

1. Almaciga
2. Lauan
3. Molave
4. Nyatoh
5. Pencil cedar
6. Yakal
7. Narra --- national tree

Pitcher plants
The pitcher plant which locals call “pitsel-pitsel” and which scientist call as nephentes.
The Nepenthes truncata, an endemic species of the Philippines and considered as endangered per
listing in the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES).
The Nepenthes truncata from Mindanao, in the Phillippines, is one of the biggest Nepenthes
species in the world.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Only one species protected by CITES, the Spix's Macaw, has become extinct in the wild as a
result of trade since the Convention entered into force.
The Spix's Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii, also known as the Little Blue Macaw) , a species that has
become extinct in the wild in 2000 after the last known male disappeared according to Brazilian Institute
of Environment and Renewable Natural
Resources.

Executive Order no. 247, BIOPROSPECTING LAW (biodiversity prospecting)

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 City of Manila May 18, 1995 by President FIDEL V. RAMOS
Prescribing guidelines and establishing a regulatory framework for the prospecting of biological
and genetic resources, they’re by product and derivatives, for the scientific and commercial purposes and
for other purposes.

Bioprospecting
--- the process of searching for and extracting potential pharmaceutical compounds from
organism

Why should bioprospecting activities be regulated?

1. To establish ownership of and to protect our resources from indiscriminate and illegal
collection and utilization.
2. To promote and ensure a fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from the use of our
resources.
3. To ensure that the traditional knowledge of indigenous people used in the development of
products from our resources is recognized and properly compensated.
4. To deter biopiracy or the collection of our resources and/or use of indigenous knowledge
without permission from the government or from the holders of such knowledge.

Biopiracy
--- A situation where indigenous knowledge of nature, originating from indigenous people is exploited for
commercial gain without permission from or without compensation to the indigenous people themselves.

Patent
--- gives an individual or form the right and the privilege to a limited legal monopoly and control to make
use and sell its invention and /or discovery
--- gives an individual or a firm the right to exclude others from making, using or selling the invention to
the market

Copyright
The exclusive right to make copies, license, and otherwiseexploit a literary, musical, or artistic w
ork, whether printed, audio, video, etc.: works granted such right by law on or after January 1, 1978, are
protected for the lifetime of the author or creator and for a period of 50 years after his or her death.

Philippine copyright law is enshrined in the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines,
officially known as Republic Act No. 8293.

Biopiracy in the Philippines

1. SOIL IN ILOILO
The most well-known biopiracy in the Philippines is the theft of an antibiotic extract from a soil
in the province of Iloilo which became the world-known drug erythromycin.
It was isolated by a Philippine scientist ABELARDO AGUILAR who was then working with the
Eli Lilly Co. And who was from the province of Iloilo. Upon Aguilar’s discovery of the new drug, he was
promised by Eli Lilly a hefty share of the profits.
Despite the millions of dollars earned by erythromycin and with the Philippine government’s
intervention that Aguilar be recognized and be given a share.
Three years later, Eli Lilly sent a congratulatory letter to Aguilar to name the antibiotic
ILOSONE in honor of Iloilo province.The drug erythromycin sold under the name Ilosone has earned Eli
Lilly billions of dollars but neither Aguilar nor the Philippine government received any royalty.

2. AMPALAYA & TALONG

The ampalaya (Mamantia mordica) and talong (Solanum melongena) two important ingredients
of the Filipino diet are now the exclusive property of the US National Institute of Health(NIH),the US
Army and the New York University.
These parties are conducting intensive studies on the two crops for their potential in curing HIV
and thrombosis.

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3. BANABA
As early as 1950 a Japanese firm had patented a drug used for kidney affliction and diabetes.
Japanese provided the funding to scientists from National Institute for Science and Technology
for the screening of the potential use of the plant, all processes, output and the products now belong to the
Japanese company.
Royalties were not awarded to either NIST or the researchers involved in the project.

4. SALUYOT
Tons of tons of saluyot are being exported to Japan, sold as a powder in sachet which Japanese
mix in their soup.

5. Ilang Ilang
Ilang Ilang is used in therapeutic massages of herbolarios its essential oil is a soothing and
relaxing liniment. The flower is common in Southeast Asia but the Philippine variety is noted for its
strong scent.
The flower has been patented by the house of Dior in France.

6. PHILIPPINE YEW TREE (Taxus matrana)

The tree found only in Mount Pulag contained taxol, a cancer curing chemical.
Two scientists from the University of Philadelphia were given a DENR permit to collect
specimen of the tree. The scientists stopped communicating with DENR even after a number of requests
were made by the agency to the university.

7. PHILIPPINE SEA SNAIL (Conus magus)

The Philippine Sea Snail has already been patented by Neurex, Inc, a US based pharmaceutical
company and has earned millions of dollars for the company.
Neurex, with the help of scientists from the Marine Science Institute of the University of the
Philippines and University of Utah, have been isolating from the snail a toxin called SNX-111 which is a
pain killer that is reported by scientists to be 1,000x more powerful than morphine.

Biopiracy in other countries

1. ROSY PERIWINKLE
Rosy Periwinkle is an indigenous plant to the rainforest of Madagascar where reports said that
two drugs(Vincristine and Vinblastine) were derived from this plant which generate $100 million
annually for Eli Lilly.

2. NEEM TREE
The Neem Tree (Azadiracta indica) of India, villagers have regarded the tree as a free pharmacy
and the curer of all ailments. Locals have been using 23 parts of the tree as traditional cure for wounds,
teeth and gum problems, smallpox, hysteria, leprosy, malaria, snake bites and more.
In 1994, the Europena Patent Office (EPO) granted W.R. Grace EP 0436257 for a method for
controlling fungi on plants by the aid of a hydrophobic extracted neem oil.
In 1995, a group of international non-government organizations and representatives of Indian
farmers filed a legal opposition. They submitted evidence that the fungicidal effect of Neem seed extracts
had been known and used for centuries, thereby negating requirement for patentability.
In 1999,the EPO revoked the patent after it found that according to the evidence all features of the
present claim have been disclosed to the public prior to the patent application but W.R. Grace was able to
exploit its monopoly until 2000.

3. Hoodia
Hoodia a succulent plant originates from the Kalahari Desert of South Africa. For generations it
has been known as an appetite suppressant.
But in 1995 a government organization, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
took and patented the traditional knowledge on the use of the plant before licensing it to Phytopharm (a
drug firm which is subsequently sublicensed it to Pfizer).

RA 7586: National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992

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 The Philippines now have sufficient laws governing the protection of wildlife species and their
habitats in the Philippines and the most important one is the Republic Act 7586, otherwise known as the
National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act which was enacted in June 1992.

This law provides for the establishment and management of protected areas in the Philippines.
The Act serves as the legal basis for the "In Situ" conservation of biological diversity through the
appropriate management of ecologically important areas for conservation and sustainable development.

The NIPAS law, in simpler terms, serves to "protect outstandingly remarkable areas and
biologically important public lands that are habitats of rare and endangered species of plants and animals
representative of biogeographic zones and related ecosystems."

"National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)" is the classification and administration of
all designated protected areas to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems, to
preserve genetic diversity, to ensure sustainable use of resources found therein, and to maintain their
natural conditions to the greatest extent possible;

"Protected Area" refers to identified portions of land and water set aside by reason of their unique
physical and biological significance, managed to enhance biological diversity and protected against
destructive human exploitation.

Currently, the Philippines has 236 protected areas established covering 4.02 M hectares of
terrestrial and 1.38 M marine protected areas.

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is responsible for the protection
and management of biodiversity and natural habitats in the Philippines.

The Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) of DENR manages the protected areas system
in the Philippines.

DAO 1992-25 NIPAS Implementing Rules and Regulations

PD 705: Philippine Forestry Reform Code

The PAMB is a multisectoral body chaired by the DENR with representation from the ff agencies:

local government units (LGUs),

non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
people's organizations (POs),
indigenous peoples (IPs) through their Council of Elders
and national government agencies (NGAs).

The following categories of protected areas are hereby established:

Strict nature reserve;

Natural park;
Natural monument;
Wildlife sanctuary
Protected landscapes and seascapes;
Resource reserve;
Natural biotic areas; and
Other categories established by law, conventions or international agreements which the Philippine
Government is a signatory.

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