Name: Rahul Chauhan

Roll No: 23AE60R13

Subject: Combustion of solid fuels and propellants

Q1. Write a summary of performance parameters of Rocket.

The performance parameters of Rocket are:
1. Specific Impulse (𝑰𝒔𝒑 ) – It is a measure of how efficiently a reaction mass
engine generates thrust. It is defined as the ratio of the thrust produced by a
rocket engine to the rate of fuel consumption.

𝑭 𝑰𝒕 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇
𝑰𝒔𝒑 = = =
𝒎̇𝒈 𝒎𝒑 𝒈 𝒈
Where, 𝒎̇ = mass flow rate of propellant
𝒎𝒑 = mass of the propellant
𝑰𝒕 = total Impulse
𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 = effective exhaust velocity
A higher 𝐼𝑠𝑝 means the less propellant mass needed to produce the same
thrust or the higher the exhaust velocity. It can be used to compare rockets of
different sizes and to describe how well a rocket or jet engine performs.

2. Thrust (F) – Thrust is the force that pushes a rocket forward. It is calculated
by multiplying the mass flow rate of the propellant by its exhaust velocity. A
general thrust equation for an airbreathing engine is given by:
𝑭 = 𝒎̇𝒆 𝒖𝒆 − 𝒎̇𝒊 𝒖𝒊 + (𝑷𝒆 − 𝑷𝒊 ) 𝑨𝒆
Where, 𝒎̇𝒆 = exit mass flow rate
𝒎̇𝒊 = inlet mass flow rate
𝒖𝒆 = exit velocity
𝒖𝒊 = inlet velocity
𝑷𝒆 = exit pressure/atmospheric pressure
 𝑷𝒊 = inlet pressure
For rocket, 𝑷𝒊 = 𝟎 (𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒), 𝒎̇𝒊 𝒖𝒊 = 𝟎 (𝑛𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡)
Equation becomes,
𝑭 = 𝒎̇𝒆 𝒖𝒆 + 𝑷𝒆 𝑨𝒆

3. Total Impulse (𝑰𝒕 ) – Total impulse is the total amount of momentum

imparted to a rocket by its motor over a burn time. It is calculated by
multiplying the thrust of the motor by the time it is fired. Total impulse is
measured in Newton-seconds (N-s).
𝒕
𝑰𝒕 = ∫ 𝑭𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟎

For a constant thrust and negligible start and stop transients, then
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑭𝒕
Where, b = burning time
Total impulse is used to calculate how high a rocket can be propelled. It is
also used to compare launch vehicles and individual stages.

4. Effective exhaust velocity (𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 ) – It's defined as the ratio of the thrust
generated to the mass rate of consumption of fuel or propellant carried
within the rocket.
𝑭
𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 =
𝒎̇

5. Thrust coefficient (𝑪𝑭 ) – The thrust coefficient of a rocket is a

dimensionless multiplication factor that indicates how much the nozzle
amplifies the thrust. It is defined as the ratio of the thrust to the notional
force.
𝑭
𝑪𝑭 =
𝑷𝒐𝒆 𝑨∗
Where, 𝑷𝟎𝒆 = nozzle pressure
𝑨∗ = Throat area
 The thrust coefficient is a key parameter for the performance of a rocket. The
average value of the thrust coefficient for many rocket motors is about 1.2.

6. Characteristic velocity (𝑪∗) – It’s a measure of the effectiveness with which

the combustion in a rocket engine produces high temperature and pressure,
equal to the exhaust velocity divided by the thrust coefficient.
𝑷𝒐𝒆 𝑨∗
𝑪∗ =
𝒎̇
It is used to compare different propulsion systems and propellants.
7. Exhaust velocity (𝒖𝒆 ) – Exhaust velocity is the speed at which exhaust
gases exit a rocket's engine nozzle. It's measured by dividing the thrust (in
Newtons) by the fuel use (in kilograms per second). The result is a velocity
in meters per second. It is given as:

𝒖𝒆 = √2𝐶𝑝 (𝑻𝒐𝒆 −𝑻𝒆 )

Where, 𝑻𝒐𝒆 = nozzle temperature.

𝑪𝒑 = Specific heat at constant pressure

8. Specific propellant consumption (SPC) – It is defined as the inverse of

specific impulse and is given by:
𝟏 𝒈
𝑺𝑷𝑪 = =
𝑰𝒔𝒑 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇

9. Mass ration (MR) – Mass ratio is defined as the final mass (𝒎𝒇 ) after
rocket operation (or after propellants were consumed) divided by the initial
mass (𝒎𝟎 ) before rocket operation:
𝒎𝒇
𝑴𝑹 =
𝒎𝟎

10. Propellant mass fraction (𝝃) – It is the ratio of propellant mass (𝒎𝒑 )) to
the initial mass (𝒎𝟎 ):
𝒎𝒑
𝝃=
𝒎𝟎
Q2. Brief description on solid propellants.
Solid propellants rockets are the oldest type of rocket. They are relatively
simple in construction. The term motor is used for solid rocket, while the term
engine is used for liquid rocket. Solid rocket engines are used on air-to-air and
air-to-ground missiles and on model rockets and as boosters for satellite
launchers. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, propellant charge
(identified as grain), igniter, and nozzle. This grain contains both of the solid
fuel and solid oxidizer components combined within a cylindrical combustion
chamber or case. The propellant is casted into the rocket shell having a central
cavity of different shapes including star shaped that serves as combustion
chamber. Thrust-burning time profile depends on this cavity. A liner provided
between the case and the propellant protects the case from high temperatures
developing inside the propellant layers. An electrical signal is sent to the igniter
which creates hot gases that ignite the main propellant grain. Once the flame
front is established, combustion is self-sustaining. The rate of burning is
proportional to the exposed surface area. As the propellant burns, a “flame
front” is produced which moves into the propellant until all the propellant is
burned. The hot exhaust gases produced in combustion are used to propel the
rocket.
Solid propellant must have the following features:
1. High chemical energy to generate maximum thrust and specific impulse.
2. High density to enable packing a large quantity of propellant in a small
volume.
3. Low molecular weight thus the exhaust gases achieve high acceleration.
4. Easy to ignite.
5. Burns steadily at predictive rate.
6. Easy to fabricate.
7. Smoke-free and nontoxic.
There are basically three types of propellant grains, namely:
1. Homogeneous or colloidal propellants - Fuel and oxidizer are contained in
the same molecule which decomposes during combustion. Typical examples are
nitro-glycerine (NG) and nitrocellulose (NC). Most propellants are double based
(few single-based and triple-based propellants are found). Double-based
propellants are combinations of nitro-glycerine (NG) and nitrocellulose (NC),
with small quantity of additives. It has nontoxic and smokeless exhausts.
2. Composite or heterogeneous propellants - These are mixtures of oxidizing
crystals and a powered fuel (usually aluminium) held together in a binder
(synthetic rubber or plastic). Sometimes light metal powders are added to
increase the energy of the combustion process and fuel density. They are more
stable than homogenous and preferred in long-term stored rockets. However,
addition of light metals makes their exhaust toxic and smoky.
3. Composite modified double-based propellants - They are a heterogeneous
combination of the double-based homogenous (colloidal) propellants and
composite propellants.
Advantages:
 Compact and smaller in size compared with liquid rocket.
 Do not require propellant feeding system or turbopumps as liquid off rocket.
 High thrust-to-weight ratio.
 Require little maintenance.
 Safe and reliable and thus can sit for years before firing.
Disadvantages:
 Once ignited cannot be shut.
 Used only once

Q3. Brief discussion on premixed and diffusion flame.

 Diffusion flame is a phenomenon in which the fuel and oxidizer are
separated before combustion and come together in the reaction zone by
means of molecular and turbulent diffusion. In this case, since the air inlet
control valve is closed, the atmospheric air becomes the oxidizer. The
burning rate of diffusion flames are determined by the rate at which the fuel
and oxidizer are brought to the reaction zone in proper proportions.
Diffusion flames tend to produce more soot than premixed flames through
agglomeration of carbon atoms. The soot tends to become incandescent and
gives the flame its characteristic orange yellow color. Also, because of
natural convection, the combustion products flow upwards and fresh ambient
oxygen is carried towards the flame. This gives the flame a characteristic
elongated shape.
 Premixed flames, in contrast, occur when fuel and oxidizer is mixed prior to
the reaction. Premixed flames can progress through deflagration (where it
travels at subsonic speeds) or through detonation. On the slant edge of the
 flame cone, the direction of flow velocity of mixture is opposed in direction
to one of the components of the flame burning velocity. Hence, the vertex
angle (α) of the flame cone is determined by the ratio of the burning velocity
(u) to the flow velocity of the fuel-air mixture (ug). The color of the
premixed flame depends upon the fuel used as well as the fuel-air ratio. The
brightness of the flame is maximum at stoichiometric ratio of fuel and air
and decreases progressively with increase or decrease in fuel-air ratio.
 Premixed flames have a narrow reaction zone, while diffusion flames have a
wider region for chemical reactions and composition changes.
 Diffusion flames have a less-localized flame front than premixed flames. In a
diffusion flame, combustion only occurs at the flame surface, where the fuel
and oxygen meet in the right concentration.
 In a premixed flame, the fuel gas is mixed with an oxidizer like air or oxygen
before it reaches the burner. In a diffusion flame, only fuel is supplied to the
burner.
 Diffusion flames are usually cooler than premixed flames because the
mixing step limits the overall combustion.
 A diffusion flame can exist at lower characteristic flow times and scalar
dissipation rates. The flow time in a premixed flow is fixed by the burning
velocity