AS5020W: Propulsion II

Dr. Nagabhushana Rao Vadlamani

nrv@iitm.ac.in
 Course Content
Rocket Propulsion – Non-airbreathing propulsion

Performance of rockets (Thrust, specific impulse, characteristic velocity, Thrust

coefficient, etc)
Rocket equation, Multi-staging

Classification of chemical Rockets:

Liquid propellant (+ turbomachinery), Solid propellant, Hybrid rockets

Components of solid & liquid propellant rockets: Nozzles, Feed systems,

Injectors, Combustion chambers, Pumps, cooling strategies, etc.

Non-Chemical Rockets – Electrical, Nuclear, etc.

Rocket Engines
 Technology in nature
Rockets – Carry both fuel + Oxidiser (unlike air-breathing propulsion engines)
Technology in Nature

Hydroquinone Hydrogen peroxide

C6H4(OH)2 H2O2

Exothermic reaction when

squished into chamber
Hot chemical spray

Defense mechanism
against predator !

Squid’s movement in sea Bombardier Beetle

(Anderson & Grosenbaugh, J. Expt Biology, 2005)
https://www.youtube.com/
Contracts water + expands water through funnel
watch?v=BWwgLS5tK80
Leaps 50 m/stroke, Travels at 32 kmph !
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OIjaHIrM0U
 Historical Developments (rockets)
17th Century : (Fireworks / war-rockets) – Mysorean / Tipu’s Rockets

Nozzle end

Metal-based rocket casing

(Chemical composition studied,
Withstands higher pressure,
Clay for insulation,
Higher range was achieved than
bamboo rockets ~ 3-4 km !)
Cross-section
War-rockets from Nagara (in Mysore, India) ruled by Haidar Ali & Tipu Sultan
(Rudrappa & Nidhin JAAS, Vol. 6, 2018)

1812 - William Congreve (British) used Metal-based solid propellant rockets in US-Britain war
 Rocket Engines
Rockets – Carry both fuel + Oxidiser (unlike air-breathing propulsion engines)

Rocket Propulsion
Carry both fuel and oxidizer
Burn propellant
Expand exhaust gases through nozzle
Use reaction force to propel (Reaction engine)
 Rocket Engines
For air-breathing engines, Thrust:
(gas-turbines) ṁf
T (reaction/Thrust)
For Rockets, Thrust: Ai support Ae

u,ρ,p ṁi Thrust producer ue,ρe,pe ṁe A

Goes to Zero
(since none of the incoming air enters ṁs
rocket - Both fuel & oxidiser are carried)

For constant ueq:

Mp is Total Mass of expelled propellant

ueq is equivalent velocity

For Maximum thrust: Pe = Pa (due to maximum ue) ⇒ Specific Impulse is Impulse per unit
If Pe < Pa ⇒ over expansion ⇒ Oblique shocks weight (unit - s)
Some define it as Isp = I/Mp impulse
If Pe > Pa ⇒ under expansion ⇒ Expansion fans per unit mass (unit - m/s)
 Propulsive efficiency
For Rockets: u

ue
Useful work Wasted K.E

Notice that Propulsion

efficiency is maximum
when u = ue

Typical Energy balance diagram for chemical rocket

Rocket propulsion elements (Bilbraz & Sutton)
 Propulsive efficiency
For Rockets: Recall for air-breathing engine:

Note: In reality, for air-craft engines this drops due to shocks Recall the following figure:
1.2

0.8
ηp
0.6 Jet engine
Rocket
0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4
u/ue
 Rocket Engines
Rocket Equation: Total mass of the rocket changes considerably as the propellant is consumed
At time, t: Initial Momentum (w.r.t observer on Time t+dt
Instantaneous ground – inertial frame):
Vehicle mass=M
u+du
Velocity= u

During short interval dt, mass dm is ejected at velocity ue (w.r.t vehicle) M-dm
At time, t+dt: Final Momentum (w.r.t
Instantaneous observer on ground): dm
Vehicle mass=M-dm ue
Velocity= u+du
Time t
Hence, change in Momentum = final – initial momentum
M
= Resultant Impulse = ∑F dt

Note: (Rate of change of momentum = force)

Multiply this with time  change in momentum = impulse
 Rocket Engines
Rocket Equation: Total mass of the rocket changes considerably as the propellant is consumed
change in momentum = impulse

D
Forces acting on system: pe θ
Pressure thrust if pe ≠ pa: (pe-pa)Ae pa

Gravity: Mg cosθ Mg
Drag: D

Hence,

If (kg/s) is ejected continuously out of vehicle, then

 Rocket Engines
Rocket Equation:

If Mi is initial mass, Vehicle mass M(t) at any time t:

Derivative w.r.t time:
D
Ignoring Gravity & Drag:
pe θ
pa

Assume constant ueq and integrating the above equation: Mg

Tsiolkovsky rocket equation (1903)

Δu is total change in velocity during burning period

Mb is burnout mass i.e. Mass at the end of burning (or thrust) period

Note Δu is ideal velocity increment (as drag & gravity effects are not considered)
Staging
 Staging
Total mass of rocket stage:
ML : Payload Mass
MP : Propellant Mass
MS : Structural Mass (Engine mass + guidance & control equipment)

Initial mass of rocket: M0 = ML + MP + MS

Burnout mass after consuming propellant during firing: Mb = ML + MS

(Initial to final mass after propellant is consumed)

(Larger the better – But usually too small)

(Smaller the better i.e. Lighter support structure)

 Staging
Structural coefficient & payload carried depends on fuel & mission
Example: Apollo rocket engines with same thrust using Hydrocarbon or Hydrogen fuel

Same thrust
Larger tank & engine for Hydrogen (high structural weight)

High specific impulse for Hydrogen

From Hill & Peterson

Payload ML/M0 & structural coefficient can be plotted as a function of

velocity increment Δu using the given data & the rocket equation
1 0.15
ML/M0 (payload)

0.8 H2 Structural coefficient H2

Hydrocarbon 0.1 Hydrocarbon
0.6

0.4
0.05 ~ constant at higher Δu
0.2

0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Δu (m/s) Δu (m/s)
Higher payload with H2 Higher structural coefficient for H2
 Staging
Multistage Rockets
Propellant mass MP & Structure mass MS >> Payload mass ML Final
Payload
Portion of the structure must be
discarded once the propellant is 3rd stage
Multistaging helps
consumed & tanks are empty
(series of individual vehicles with their
own structure + tanks + engine) 2nd stage
Else, most of the energy is used to
accelerate these empty tanks rather
than useful payload
1st stage
Note: Payload for any given stage is mass of all subsequent stages

For any stage i

(Revisit single-stage definitions
of payload ratio, structural
coefficient and mass ratio)
 Staging
Multistage Rockets Consider n-stage rocket
ith stage velocity increment, Δui
(in the absence of gravity & drag )

Payload terminal velocity, un

=
sum of n velocity increments

For each stage, assuming identical:

exhaust velocities uei
structural coefficients, εi
payload ratios λi

For identical stage payload ratios

λ, overall mass ratio M01/ML can be
related to stage payload ratio λ
 Staging
Multistage Rockets Consider n-stage rocket
Using terminal velocity un: Using relation between overall mass-ratio M01/ML & λ

Get expression for un/ue i.e. Ratio of terminal velocity of payload to stage exhaust velocity
12 Notice, if the structure was mass less =0
M01/ML
10

8
un/ue

4 Same terminal velocity, un as

Little increase in un/ue after few stages
that of single stage
2 Diminishing returns with increasing stages
 Multistage is useless for
(for Є = 0.1)
0 mass less structure
0 2 4 6 8 10
Number of stages, n
 Staging
EXAMPLE
Consider single stage rocket:
Exhaust velocity ue = 3048 m/s
Payload mass = 1000 kg
Total initial mass = 15000 kg
Total structural mass = 2000 kg
Find velocity increment of the payload
Consider two stage rocket:
Same initial mass, total structural mass,
payload and exhaust velocity as that of
single-stage rocket.
Assume payload ratios and structural
coeff. Of both the stages to be same.

Find velocity increment of the payload

Hint:
Ans:
usingle-stage = 4904 m/s
Get M02
u2-stages = 6160 m/s

(3080 m/s per stage

λ=0.348, Є = 0.143
M02 = 3873 kg, MS1 = 1589 kg,
MS2 = 411 kg) Get MS1 & MS2 Find λ & Є
 Staging
Parallel Staging
Separate booster stages are “strapped-on” to central first stage
Final
Used when excessive thrust is required during liftoff Payload

Strap-on boosters are discarded once the propellant is exhausted 3rd stage
while first stage continues to burn
2nd stage
Lift off weight = Weight of serial stages 1st stage
+ number of boosters * weight of each booster

Strap on boosters to
provide liftoff thrust
BACKUP
 Rocket Engines
Rocket Equation:

Tsiolkovsky rocket equation (1903)

Additional effects:
pe θ
Gravity: Acceleration due to gravity g is not a constant
pa
g is a function of height h above Earth’s surface
of radius Re h
Mg
From Newton’s law of gravitation

Drag: Resistance of atmosphere estimated using Re

empirical drag-coefficient