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HYDROGEN ATOM
Schrodinger equation in 3D spherical polar coordinates:
!2 ⎡ 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂⎞ 1 ∂2 ⎤
− ⎢ r +
2 µ ⎣ r 2 ∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠ r 2 sin θ ∂θ ⎜⎝
sin θ + ( ) (
⎥ ψ r,θ ,φ + U r,θ ,φ ψ r,θ ,φ = Eψ r,θ ,φ
∂θ ⎟⎠ r 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ 2 ⎦
) ( ) ( )
−Ze2
with Coulomb potential U (r) =
4πε 0 r
Rewrite as
⎡ 2 ∂⎛ 2 ∂⎞ ⎤
⎢ −! ⎜ r ⎟
∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
()
+ 2 µr 2 ⎡⎣U r − E ⎤⎦ ⎥ ψ r,θ ,φ + L̂2ψ r,θ ,φ = 0 ( ) ( )
⎣ ⎦
Y
ml
Angular momentum: solutions are spherical harmonic wavefunctions
( )
ψ r,θ ,φ = R r Yl m θ ,φ () ( )
with L̂2Yl m (θ ,φ ) = ! l ( l + 1)Y (θ ,φ )
2
l
m
l = 0,1,2,...
!2 d ⎛ 2 dR r ⎞ ⎡ ! l l + 1
2
() ⎤ ( )
− ⎜
2 µr 2 dr ⎝
r ⎟ + ⎢
dr ⎠ ⎢⎣ 2 µr 2
+ U r − E ⎥R r = 0 () ()
⎥⎦
()
Solutions R r are the H atom radial wavefunctions
32
⎛Z⎞
()
R r = 2⎜ ⎟
⎝ a0 ⎠
e
− Zr a0
exponential decay away from nucleus
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #21 page 2
with
Energy eigenvalues:
−Z 2 e2 −Z 2 µe4
E= = n = 1,2,3,...
8πε 0 a0 n2 8ε 02 h2 n2
Radial eigenfunctions:
12
⎡ ⎤
( )
n − l − 1 ! ⎥ ⎛ 2Z ⎞
l +3 2
⎛
− Z r na0 2l +1 2 Zr
⎞
Rnl ()
r =− ⎢
⎢ ⎜
⎥ ⎝ na ⎠⎟ r le Ln+ l ⎜ ⎟
( )
3
2n ⎡ n + l !⎤ ⎝ na0 ⎠
⎣⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦⎥
0
( )
where L2ln++1l 2Zr na0 are the associated Laguerre functions, the first few of which are:
n=1 l=0 L11 = −1
⎛ ⎞
n=2 l=0 L12 = −2!⎜ 2 − Zr ⎟
⎝ a0 ⎠
l =1 L33 = −3!
⎛ 2 2 ⎞
n=3 l=0 L13 = −3!⎜ 3 − 2Zr + 2Z r 2⎟
⎝ a0 9a0 ⎠
⎛ ⎞
l =1 L34 = −4!⎜ 4 − 2Zr
⎝ 3a0 ⎟⎠
l=2 L55 = −5!
Normalization:
( ) ( )
2π π
Spherical harmonics ∫ 0
dφ ∫ dθ sin θ Yl m* θ ,φ Yl m θ ,φ = 1
0
() ()
∞
Radial wavefunctions ∫ 0
dr r 2 Rnl* r Rnl r = 1
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #21 page 3
( ) () ( )
ψ nlm r,θ ,φ = Rnl r Yl m θ ,φ
( ) ( )
2π π ∞
∫ dφ ∫ sin θ dθ ∫ r 2 dr ψ nlm r,θ ,φ ψ n ' l ' m ' r,θ ,φ = δ nn 'δ ll 'δ mm '
*
0 0 0
() ( )
since components Rnl r Yl m θ ,φ are normalized and orthogonal.
3/ 2
1 ⎛Z⎞
n=1 l=0 m=0 ψ 100 = ⎜ ⎟ e− σ = ψ 1s
π ⎝ a0 ⎠
3/ 2
1 ⎛Z⎞
n=2 l=0 m=0 ψ 200 = ⎜ ⎟ (2 − σ ) e −σ / 2
= ψ 2s
32π ⎝ a0 ⎠
3/ 2
⎛Z⎞
1
l =1 m=0 ψ 210 = ⎜ ⎟ σ e− σ / 2 cosθ = ψ 2 p
32π ⎝ a0 ⎠ z
3/ 2
⎛Z⎞ 1
l =1 m = ±1 ψ 21±1 = ⎜ ⎟ σ e− σ / 2 sin θ e± iφ
64π ⎝ a0 ⎠
or the alternate linear combinations
3/ 2
⎛Z⎞
1 1
ψ2p = ⎜ ⎟ σ e− σ / 2 sin θ cos φ = (ψ 21+1
+ ψ 21−1 )
x
32π ⎝ a0 ⎠ 2
3/ 2
⎛Z⎞
1 1
ψ2p = ⎜ ⎟ σ e− σ / 2 sin θ sin φ = (ψ 21+1
− ψ 21−1 )
y
32π ⎝ a0 ⎠ 2i
n En (a.u.)
1 -1/2
2 -1/8
3 -1/18
4 -1/32
5 -1/50
! !
∞
0
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #21 page 5
2 -1/8
1 -1/2 -109,680
λ(A)
ν(1012 Hz)
( )
2
Electron probability density given by ψ r,θ ,φ
Probability that a 1s electron lies between r and r + dr of the nucleus:
( ) ( ) ( )
2π π −1 −2r / a0 2
∫
0
dφ ∫ dθ sin θ ψ 1s* r,θ ,φ ψ 1s r,θ ,φ r 2 dr = 4π π a03
0
e r dr
1l=
P ORBITALS: wavefunctions
( ) (r a ) e
−1/ 2 −r / 2a0
m = 0 case: ψ 210 = ψ 2 p = 32π a03 0
cosθ
z
⇒
ψ 2 p independent of φ symmetric about z axis
z
radial nodes n - l -1 = 0 ()
(note difference from 2s: Rnl r depends on l as well as n)
angular nodes l =1
total nodes n -1 = 1
( ) (r a ) e
−1/ 2 −r / 2a0
ψ 2 p = 32π a03 0
sin θ cos φ
m = ±1 case: Linear combinations give
x
= ( 32π a ) ( r a ) e
−1/ 2 −r / 2a0
ψ2p 3
0 0
sin θ sin φ
y
0.5
()
0.4
r 2 Rnl2 r a0
() 220nlrRra
0.3
0.6 0.6
0.2
0.5 0.5
0.1
2s
0.4 0.4
1s 0.6
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.3 0.3
0.5
0.2 0.2
0.1
0.4
0.1
2p
0.6
0.3
0 0
0 5 10 15 20
0 25
5 10
30 15 20 25 30
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.6
3s
0.3
0
0.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.2
0.4
0.1
3p
0.3
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.2
3d
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
s = r/a0
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #21 page 8
μ=− e
L
2me
eBz
Ĥ = Ĥ 0 + L̂
2me z
Z 2 e2 eB
E= 2
+ z m
8 0 a0 n 2me
Applied
magnetic field
No magnetic
m = +1
field
2p m=0
m = -1
Energy
1s m=0
2p →
1s Emission spectra
One line Three lines
Complex functions ψ 21−1 and ψ 21+1 are eigenfunctions of L̂z with eigenvalues ±m! .
ELECTRON SPIN
Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit (1925) showed that these were two angular
momentum states – the electron has intrinsic angular momentum – "SPIN"
angular momentum
Pauli Exclusion Principle (1925): no more than 2 electrons per orbital, or,
no two electrons with all the same quantum numbers. Additional quantum
number, now called ms, was postulated.
Theoretical Justification
Dirac (1928) developed relativistic quantum theory & derived electron
spin angular momentum
1
Ŝ 2α = s ( s + 1) � 2α Ŝ 2 β = s ( s + 1) � 2 β s= always
2
1 1
Ŝ zα = ms �α mαs = Ŝ z β = ms �β msβ = −
2 2
∫ α α dσ = ∫ β β d σ = 1
* *
σ ≡ spin variable
∫ α β dσ = ∫ β α d σ = 0
* *
Ψ ( r, θ , φ , σ ) = ψ ( r, θ , φ ) α (σ ) or ψ ( r, θ , φ ) β (σ )
e.g. for H atom the ground state total wavefunctions (in atomic units) are
12 12
⎛ Z3 ⎞ ⎛ Z3 ⎞
Ψ 1 = ⎜ ⎟ e − Zrα Ψ 1 = ⎜ ⎟ e − Zr β
100
2 ⎝π ⎠ 100−
2 ⎝π ⎠
which are orthogonal and normalized. Note the quantum numbers are now
nlmmS
5.61 Physical Chemistry 24 Pauli Spin Matrices Page 1
The basic idea is that we can write any electron spin state as a linear
combination of the two states α and β:
ψ ≡ cαα + cβ β
Note that, for now, we are ignoring the spatial part of the electron
wavefunction (e.g. the angular and radial parts of ψ). You might ask how we
can be sure that every state can be written in this fashion. To assure
yourself that this is true, note that for this state, the probability of finding
2 2
the electron with spin “up” (“down”) is cα ( cβ ). If there was a state that
could not be written in this fashion, there would have to be some other spin
state, γ, so that
ψ ≡ cαα + cβ β + cγ γ
2
In this case, however, there would be a probability cγ of observing the
electron with spin γ – which we know experimentally is impossible, as the
electron only has two observable spin states.
⎛ cα ⎞
ψ ≡ cαα + cβ β
ψ≡⎜ ⎟ →
⎝ cβ ⎠
Note that this is not a vector in physical (x,y,z) space but just a convenient
way to arrange the coefficients that define ψ. In particular, this is a nice
way to put a wavefunction into a computer, as computers are very adept at
dealing with vectors.
Now, our goal is to translate everything that we might want to do with the
wavefunction ψ into something we can do to the vector ψ . By going through
this stepbystep, we arrive at a few rules
Integrals are replaced with dot products. We note that the overlap
between any two wavefunctions can be written as a modified dot product
between the vectors. For example, if φ ≡ dαα + d β β then:
1 0 0 1
∫ φ ψ dσ = dα cα ∫ α α dσ + dα cβ ∫ α β dσ + dβ cα ∫ β α dσ + dβ cβ ∫ β β dσ
* * * * * * * * *
= dα *cα + d β *cβ
⎛ cα ⎞
(
= dα * )
dβ * ⎜ ⎟
⎝ cβ ⎠
≡ φ† iψ
ψ
Where, on the last line, we defined the adjoint of a vector:
†
⎛ x1 ⎞ * *
⎜ x ⎟ ≡ x1 x2 .
⎝ 2⎠
( )
Thus, complex conjugation of the wavefunction is replaced by taking the
adjoint of a vector. Note that we must take the transpose of the vector
and not just its complex conjugate. Otherwise when we took the overlap we
would have (column) x (column) and the number of rows and columns would
not match.
⎛ cα ⎞
∫ φ ψ dσ = 0
*
→ (
φ iψ = dα * )
d β * ⎜ ⎟ = dα *cα + d β *cβ = 0
⎝ cβ ⎠
Now, the one challenge is that we have to determine which matrix belongs to
a given operator – that is, we need to fill in the question marks above. As an
exercise, we will show how this is done by working out the matrix
representations of Ŝ 2 , Ŝz , Ŝx and Ŝy .
We can use this information to obtain the unknown constants in the matrix
S2 :
3 � 3 � ⎛c d ⎞⎛1⎞ 3 2 ⎛1⎞
Ŝ 2α = � 2α → S 2α = � 2α ⇒ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 4 � ⎜ ⎟
4 4 ⎝e f ⎠⎝0⎠ ⎝0⎠
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 3 �2 ⎞
⇒⎜ ⎟=⎜4 ⎟
⎝e⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
so
c = 43 � 2 e=0
Operating on β
3 2 � 3 � ⎛c d ⎞⎛0⎞ 3 2 ⎛0⎞
Ŝ 2 β = �β → S 2α = � 2α ⇒ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 4 � ⎜ ⎟
4 4 ⎝e f ⎠⎝1⎠ ⎝1⎠
⎛d⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
⇒⎜ ⎟=⎜3 2⎟
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝4� ⎠
Thus:
d=0 f = 34 � 2
So for S 2 we have
3 ⎛1 0⎞
S2 = �2 ⎜
4 ⎝ 0 1 ⎟⎠
We can derive Sz in a similar manner. We know its eigenstates as well:
Ŝzα = �2 α Ŝz β = − �2 β
So that the matrix must satisfy:
5.61 Physical Chemistry 24 Pauli Spin Matrices Page 5
� ⎛c d ⎞⎛1⎞ � ⎛1⎞
Ŝzα = α → ⎜e f ⎟⎜0⎟ = 2 ⎜0⎟
2 ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛c⎞ ⎛ ⎞
�
⇒⎜ ⎟=⎜2⎟
⎝e⎠ ⎝0⎠
which gives us
�
c= e=0
2
Analogous operations on β give
� ⎛c d ⎞⎛0⎞ ⎛0⎞
Ŝz β = − β → ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = − 2 ⎜ ⎟
�
2 ⎝e f ⎠⎝1⎠ ⎝1⎠
⎛d⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
⇒⎜ ⎟=⎜ �⎟
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝− 2 ⎠
�
d=0 f =−
2
Compiling these results, we arrive at the matrix representation of Sz :
� ⎛1 0 ⎞
Sz = ⎜
2 ⎝ 0 −1 ⎟⎠
Now, we need to obtain S x and S y , which turns out to be a bit more tricky.
We remember from our operator derivation of angular momentum that we
can rewrite the S x and S y in terms of raising and lowering operators:
1 1
Sx = ( S + + S- ) Sy = (S+ − S- )
2 2i
where we know that
Ŝ+ β = c+α Ŝ+α = 0 and Ŝ−α = c− β Ŝ− β = 0
where c+ and c are constants to be determined. Therefore for the raising
operator we have
⎛ c d ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞ ⎛ c+ ⎞ ⎛c d ⎞⎛1⎞ ⎛0⎞
Ŝ+ β = c+α → ⎜e f ⎟⎜1⎟ = ⎜ 0 ⎟ Ŝ+α = 0 → ⎜e f ⎟⎜0⎟ = ⎜0⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⇒ d = c+ f = 0 ⇒c=0 e=0
And for the lowering operator
⎛c d ⎞⎛1⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞ ⎛c d ⎞⎛0⎞ ⎛0⎞
Ŝ−α = c− β → ⎜e f ⎟⎜0⎟ = ⎜c ⎟ Ŝ− β = 0 → ⎜e f ⎟⎜1⎟ = ⎜0⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ − ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⇒ c = 0 e = c− ⇒d=0 f =0
Thus
⎛0 1⎞ ⎛0 0⎞
S + = c+ ⎜ ⎟ S - = c− ⎜ ⎟
⎝0 0⎠ ⎝1 0⎠
5.61 Physical Chemistry 24 Pauli Spin Matrices Page 6
where on the last line, we have made an arbitrary choice of the sign of c+ .
Thus we arrive at the final expressions for S x and S y
� ⎛0 1⎞ � ⎛ 0 −i ⎞
⎜ Sx =
⎟ Sy = ⎜
2 ⎝1 0⎠ 2 ⎝ i 0 ⎟⎠
In summary, then, the matrix representations of our spin operators are:
� ⎛0 1⎞ � ⎛ 0 −i ⎞ � ⎛1 0 ⎞ 3 2 ⎛1 0⎞
Sx = Sy = Sz = S2 = �
2 ⎜⎝ 1 0 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ i 0 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎝⎜ 0 −1 ⎟⎠ 4 ⎜⎝ 0 1 ⎟⎠
Given our representations of S x , S y and Sz now we can work out any property
we like by doing some linear algebra. For example, we can work out the
commutator of S x and S y :
� ⎛ 0 1 ⎞ � ⎛ 0 −i ⎞ � ⎛ 0 −i ⎞ � ⎛ 0 1 ⎞
⎡⎣S x ,S y ⎤⎦ = S x S y − S yS x = ⎜ −
2 ⎝ 1 0 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ i 0 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ i 0 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ 1 0 ⎟⎠
� 2 ⎡⎛ 0 1 ⎞ ⎛ 0 −i ⎞ ⎛ 0 −i ⎞ ⎛ 0 1 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥
4 ⎣⎝ 1 0 ⎠ ⎝ i 0 ⎠ ⎝ i 0 ⎠ ⎝ 1 0 ⎠ ⎦
�2 ⎡⎛ i 0 ⎞ ⎛ −i 0 ⎞ ⎤ � 2 ⎛ i 0 ⎞
= ⎢⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟⎥ = ⎜ ⎟
4 ⎣⎝ 0 −i ⎠ ⎝ 0 i ⎠ ⎦ 2 ⎝ 0 −i ⎠
⇒ ⎡⎣S x ,S y ⎤⎦ = i�S z
It is comforting to see that the matrices that represent the angular
momentum operators obey the commutation relations for angular momentum!
It is similarly possible to work out the eigenvalues of Ŝ 2 , Ŝz and Ŝx by
computing the eigenvalues of S x , S y and Sz ; average values can be obtained
by taking (row)*x(matrix)x(column) products. We are thus in a position to
compute anything we want for these operators. As it turns out, any operator
in this 2x2 space can be written as a linear combination of S x , S y , Sz and S2 .
So, in some sense, we now have all the information we could possibly want
about spin½ systems.
possible place to practice our skills at using matrix mechanics. We will see
later on that more complicated systems can also be described by matrix
vector operations. However, in these cases the matrices will have many
more elements – sometimes even infinite numbers of elements! Therefore, it
is best to get some practice on these simple 2x2 matrices before taking on
the more complicated cases.