Forging

ME 333 PRODUCTION PROCESSES II
CHAPTER 5
METAL WORKING PROCESSES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic

deformation is used to change the shape of metal workpieces.
Deformation results from the use of a tool, usually a die in metal forming, which
applies stresses that exceeds the yield strength of the metal.
The metal therefore deforms to take a shape determined by the geometry of the
die.
Stresses applied to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive.
However, some forming processes stretch the metal, while others bend the
metal, still others shear the metal.
To be successfully formed, a metal must posses certain properties.
Desirable properties for forming usually include low yield strength and high
ductility.
These properties are affected by temperature.
Ductility is increased and yield strength is reduced when work temperature is
raised.
28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 1
PROCESSES
5.1.1 DEFINITIONS
Plastic Deformation Processes
Operations that induce shape changes on the workpiece by plastic deformation
under forces applied by various tools and dies.
Bulk Deformation Processes

These processes involve large amount of plastic deformation. The cross-section
of workpiece changes without volume change.
The ratio cross-section area/volume is small. For most operations, hot or warm
working conditions are preferred although some operations are carried out at
room temperature.
Sheet-Forming Processes
In sheet metalworking operations, the cross-section of workpiece does not
change—the material is only subjected to shape changes. The ratio cross-section
area/volume is very high.
Sheet metalworking operations are performed on thin (less than 6 mm) sheets,
strips or coils of metal by means of a set of tools called punch and die on machine
tools called stamping presses. They are always performed as cold working
operations.
PROCESSES
5.2 FORGING
Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing. It is
the oldest of the metal working processes.
Most forging operations are carried out hot, although certain metals may be cold
forged.
The two broad categories of forging processes are open-die forging and closed-die
forging.
Closed-die forging uses carefully machined matching die blocks to produce forging to
close dimensional tolerances.
h0
hf
Flash Gutter Flash
(çapak haznesi) (çapak) Fig. 5.7 Forging
A0h0 = Afhf
processes
Open die forging Closed die forging
PROCESSES
According to the degree to which the flow of the metal is constrained by the dies
there are three types of forging:
1. Open-die forging
2. Impression-die forging
3. Flashless forging
Fig. 5.8 Three types of forging: (a) open-die forging, (b) impression die forging, and (c) flashless
forging

PROCESSES
Open-die forging
Known as upsetting, it involves compression of a work between two flat dies, or

platens. Force calculations were discussed earlier.
Fig.5.9 Sequence in open-die forging

illustrating the unrestrained flow of material.
Fig. 5.10 Open-die forging of a multi
Note the barrel shape that forms due to
diameter shaft
friction and inhomogeneous deformation in
the work

PROCESSES
Impression-die forging
In impression-die forging, some of the material
flows radially outward to form a flash:
Fig. 5.11 Schematics of the impression-die

forging process showing partial die filling at
the beginning of flash formation in the
center sketch, and the final shape with flash
in the right-hand sketch
Fig. 5.12 Stages (from bottom to top) in
the formation of a crankshaft by hot
impression-die forging
PROCESSES
Flashless forging
The work material is completely surrounded by the die cavity during compression and
no flash is formed:
Fig. 13 Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with the workpiece, (2) partial compression,
and (3) final push and die closure. Symbol v indicates motion, and F - applied force.
Most important requirement in flashless forging is that the work volume must equal
the space in the die cavity to a very close tolerance.
PROCESSES
Coining
Special application of flashless forging in which fine detail in the die are
impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the workpiece.
There is a little flow of metal in coining.
Fig.14 Coining operation: (1) start of cycle, (2) compression stroke, and (3) ejection of
finished part

PROCESSES
5.2.1 FORGING EQUIPMENT
Forging equipment may be classified with respect to the principle of operation:
a) Forging hammers (Şahmerdan):
The force is supplied by a falling weight. These are energy-restricted machines

since the deformation results from dissipating the kinetic energy of the ram. Their
capacity is expressed with energy units.
Raising Rollers
PE = m g h = W h
W Upper Die
Lower Die
Fig. 5.15 Drop forging hammer

PROCESSES
b) Mechanical forging presses are stroke-restricted machines since the length of

stroke and available load at positions of stroke represent their capacity. Their
capacity is expressed with load.
c) Hydraulic presses are load restricted due to pressure in oil. Their capacity is
expressed with load.
PRESS SPEED RANGE(m/s)

Pressurized oil
Hydraulic 0.06-0.30
Mechanical 0.06-1.5
Gravity Drop Hammer 3.6-4.8

WW
Power Drop Hammer 3.6-9.0
HERF Machine (High Energy
6.0-24.0
Rate Forming)
Fig. 5.16 Hydraulic press

PROCESSES
Fig. 5.17 Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating unit at the right of the scene.

PROCESSES
5.2.2 FORGING LOAD
In determination forging load for free upsetting (open die), two assumptions can
be made for simplicity:
1. Material is perfectly plastic

2. No friction between material and die surfaces.
o
Stroke
 W
Load (P)

PROCESSES
P0 = A0 0 and P = A 0
where
P: forging load (press force)
A: area and
o: flow strength
V  0V
Volume = A0h0 = Ah = Const.  A = then..P =
h h
h0
h0
The work done
W =  Pdh =  0V ln
hf
hf

PROCESSES
If there is friction:  0V d
P= (1 + ) Schey Equation
h 3h
For Closed die forging
P = c1 0 AT
AT : total cross sectional area and
c1 = 1.2-2.5 for open die forging
c1 = 3.0-8.0 for simple shape closed die forging
c1 = 8.0-12.0 for complex shape closed die forging

PROCESSES
5.3. ROLLING
Rolling is a metal deformation process where the thickness of the metal is reduced
by successive passes from rolls.
Fig.18 The process of flat rolling

PROCESSES
The metal emerges from the rolls traveling at the higher speed than it enters
T-t A o − Af
Reduction ratio = 100 or Reduction in Area = x100
T Ao
Hot rolling
(after recrystallization
new fine grains)
T t
A0 Af
Cold rolling (elongated grains)

PROCESSES
Flat Rolling
Fig. 19 Side view of flat rolling and the velocity

diagram indicating work and roll velocities
along the contact length L

PROCESSES
Two-high mill
Three-high mill
HOT WORK Four-high mill
Fig. 5.20-a Various configurations of rolling mills

PROCESSES
Planetary roll
(For high reduction)
Cluster mill
(For stronger material)
COLD WORK
Fig. 5.20-b Various configurations of rolling mills

PROCESSES
5.3.1 STEEL ROLLING

▪ Rolling into intermediate shapes-blooms, billets, slabs.
• Processing blooms, billets, slabs into plates, sheets, bar stock, foils.
• Steel is cast into ingots. Theare storedy in that shape. When milling is
necessary, ingots are heated in soaking pits, up to 1200oC. Ingots are rolled into
intermediate shapes: A bloom has a square section above 150x150 mm. A billet
is smaller than a bloom with square section from 40x40 mm up to bloom. Slabs
have a rectangular section with min. width 250 mm and min. thickness 40 mm.
The strips are rolled from slabs.
Steps in rolling
The preheated at 1200oC cast ingot (the process is known as soaking) is rolled
into one of the three intermediate shapes called blooms, slabs, or billets.
* Bloom has a square cross section of 150/150 mm or more

* Slab (40/250 mm or more) is rolled from an ingot or a bloom
* Billet (40/40 mm or more) is rolled from a bloom

PROCESSES
These intermediate shapes are then rolled into different products as illustrated in the figure:
Fig. 5.21 Production steps in rolling

PROCESSES
Shape rolling
The work is deformed by a gradual reduction into a contoured cross section (I-
beams, L-beams, U-channels, rails, round, squire bars and rods, etc.).
Ring rolling
Thick-walled ring of small diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger
diameter:
Fig. 5.22 Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a ring

PROCESSES
Thread rolling
Threads are formed on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two thread dies:
Fig. 5.23 Thread rolling with flat dies

PROCESSES
Gear rolling
Gear rolling is similar to thread rolling with three gears (tools) that form the gear
profile on the work
Fig. 5.24 Gear rolling between three gear roll tools

PROCESSES
5.3.2 LIMITING ROLLING CONDITION
B
R
A
V0
Pr F
h0 Vf hf
Tback Tfront
LP
Plain strain conditions are valid for rolling (i.e. no change in width of plate) and
speed of neutral plane (N) is equal to tangential speed of rolls:
b ho vo = b hf vf = b h v b: width
PROCESSES
The angle  between the entrance plane and the centerline of the rolls is called angle of
contact or angle of bite. For the workpiece to enter into the gap between the rolls, horizontal
component of the normal force Pr and the frictional force F should be equal or frictional force
should be bigger.
B
R
A
V0
Pr F
h0 Vf hf
Tback Tfront
LP
F Sin
FCos  Pr Sin    Tan
Pr Cos
F
 Tan where F = Pr
Pr
F
  =  Tan limiting condition for rolling.
Pr
PROCESSES
5.3.3 ROLLING FORCE
The following parameters should be considered in rolling force calculations:

• The roll diameter
• Flow strength of material which is affected by strain rate and temperature
• Friction between rolls and the work piece
• The presence of front and/or back tension
2 1 Q  L p
P=  0  (e − 1)b Rh  Q= and L p = R h
3 Q  hm
R: radius of rolls,
hm: mean thickness between entry and exit, and
h: reduction in thickness.

PROCESSES
5.3.4 ROLLING CALCULATIONS
Vr
W0
V0
Wf
R
Vf
t0/2
tf /2
t0 w0l0 = t f w f l f Volume
t0 w0v0 = t f w f v f Volume rate
v0  vr  v f
PROCESSES
There is a point where v = vr which is called no-slip point or neutral point.
Before and after this point slipping and friction occur between roll and workpiece.
The amount of the slip can be measured by means of the forward slip: v f − vr
S=
vr
 T − t t0 − t 
The reduction ratio sometimes used as draft  r = =  d = t0 − t f
 T t0 
In practice max. draft: d max =  2 R (i.e. μ=0 no draft)
μ : coefficient of friction
R : roll radius
μ ~ 0.1 0.2 0.4
cold warm hot

PROCESSES
Length of contact:
L = R Power:
θ: angle of contact (rad.) P = NT on each roll
N: rotational speed of roll

Force:
F =  0 wL two rolls P = 2 N (0.5FL )

P = NFL
0 : average flow stress
w : width
Torque:
T = 0.5FL

PROCESSES
Example:
A 300x25 mm strip is fed through a rolling mill with two powered rolls each of 250
mm radius. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll
speed of 50 rpm. The flow stress of work material is 180 MPa and the coefficient
of friction between roll and work is about 0.12. Determine if the friction is
sufficient to permit rolling operation to be accomplished. If so calculate the roll
force, torque and horsepower.
RCosØ
12.5
11
RCos = 250 − (12.5 − 11)   = 6.28
for limiting rolling conditions   Tan  0.12  Tan (6.28 )

0.12  0.11 feasible

PROCESSES
OR draft d = 25 − 22 = 3mm
d max =  2 R = (0.12)2 250 = 3.6mm
d  d max feasible

L = R = 250  6.28  = 27.4mm
180
N
F =  0 wL = 180 2
 300mm  27.4mm = 1.4797MN
mm
1m
T = 0.5FL = 0.5  (1.4797 106 N )  27.4mm 3
= 20.272kNm
10 mm
 1rev 1 min 2  1m
P = NFL =  50   (1.4797  10 N )  27.4mm 3
6
 min 60 sec 1rev  10 mm
P = 212.287kw
P = 212.287  1.34
P = 284.46hp

PROCESSES
5.4 EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a Bulk Deformation Process in which the work is forced to flow through a
die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
Extrusion is the process by which a block of metal is reduced in cross-section by
forging it to flow through a die under pressure. In general, extrusion is used to
produce cylindrical bars or hollow tubes, but irregular cross-sections may also be
produced. Lead, tin, aluminum alloys can be cold extruded. Horizontal type presses
are used. Speed is depends on temperature and type of material used.
Fig. 5.25 Typical shapes produced by extrusion

PROCESSES
5.4.1 EXTRUSION TYPES
Extrusion is performed in different ways therefore different classifications are

available:
• Direct and indirect extrusion
• Hot and cold extrusion
• Continuous and discrete extrusion
Fig. 5.26 Direct extrusion to produce hollow or semihollow cross section

PROCESSES
Direct extrusion
Fig. 5.27 Direct extrusion to produce solid cross section. Schematic shows the various
equipment components.

PROCESSES
Indirect extrusion
Fig. 5.28 In indirect extrusion (backward, inverse extrusion) the material flows in the
direction opposite to the motion of the ram to produce a solid (left) or a hollow cross
section (right)

PROCESSES
5.4.2 EXTRUSION FORCE AND ENERGY
Fig. 5.29 Ram pressure vs ram stroke

PROCESSES
Df
ho hf
It can be calculated similar to forging. Here, ram power and ram force are:
hf
W =  0V ln and P =  0 A0 ln
A0
h0 Af

PROCESSES
5.5 WIRE DRAWING
Drawing operation involves pulling a metal through a die by means of a tensile

force applied to the exit side. The end is grasped by tongs on a draw bench and
pulled through. There may be few successive drawing dies on continuous drawing.
Wire and Bar Drawing is a Bulk Deformation Process in which the cross-section of
a bar, rod or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening, as in the next
figure:
Fig. 5.30 Drawing of a rod, bar, or wire

PROCESSES
5.5.1 DRAWING LOAD
If friction is zero, then; Tungsten carbide die
A0
P =  0 Af ln
Af Pback Pfront
Drum Drum
Fig. 5.31 Wire drawing processes
The number of dies varies between 4 to12. The maximum possible reduction per
pas is 0.63. In practice, draw reductions per pass are well below the theoretical
limit. Reductions of 0.5 for single-draft bar drawing and 0.3 for multiple-draft wire
drawing seem to be the upper limits in industrial practice.

PROCESSES
THE END

PROCESSES

Forging

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ME 333 PRODUCTION PROCESSES II

Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic

Bulk Deformation Processes

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 4

Known as upsetting, it involves compression of a work between two flat dies, or

Fig.5.9 Sequence in open-die forging

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 5

Fig. 5.11 Schematics of the impression-die

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 8

5.2.1 FORGING EQUIPMENT

Forging equipment may be classified with respect to the principle of operation:

a) Forging hammers (Şahmerdan):

The force is supplied by a falling weight. These are energy-restricted machines

Fig. 5.15 Drop forging hammer

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 9

b) Mechanical forging presses are stroke-restricted machines since the length of

PRESS SPEED RANGE(m/s)

Gravity Drop Hammer 3.6-4.8

Fig. 5.16 Hydraulic press

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 10

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 11

5.2.2 FORGING LOAD

1. Material is perfectly plastic

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 12

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 13

For Closed die forging

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 14

Fig.18 The process of flat rolling

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 15

Cold rolling (elongated grains)

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 16

Fig. 19 Side view of flat rolling and the velocity

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 17

HOT WORK Four-high mill

Fig. 5.20-a Various configurations of rolling mills

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 18

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 19

5.3.1 STEEL ROLLING

* Bloom has a square cross section of 150/150 mm or more

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 20

Fig. 5.21 Production steps in rolling

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 22

Fig. 5.23 Thread rolling with flat dies

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 23

Fig. 5.24 Gear rolling between three gear roll tools

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 24

5.3.2 LIMITING ROLLING CONDITION

5.3.3 ROLLING FORCE

The following parameters should be considered in rolling force calculations:

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 27

5.3.4 ROLLING CALCULATIONS

t0 w0v0 = t f w f v f Volume rate

There is a point where v = vr which is called no-slip point or neutral point.

In practice max. draft: d max =  2 R (i.e. μ=0 no draft)

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 29

N: rotational speed of roll

F =  0 wL two rolls P = 2 N (0.5FL )

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 30

RCos = 250 − (12.5 − 11)   = 6.28

for limiting rolling conditions   Tan  0.12  Tan (6.28 )

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 31

 min 60 sec 1rev  10 mm

28.02.2024 CHAPTER 5 METAL WORKING 32