Reviewer in Purposive Communication
Language System of Rules
I. NATURE OF LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE
- can be defined as the tool used in the
communication process.
- It is through language that we are able to express
our thoughts, share our feelings, and communicate
our views and perspectives about things.
- However, language can also be the source of
misunderstanding sometimes.
- That is because there is no one-to-one
correspondence between words and meanings,
and even between gestures and meanings.
- It is therefore important that we are familiar with a
particular language so that we can understand it
and use it in the communication process.
Take for instance the following example:
Karon is a word found both in Hiligaynon and
Cebuano languages referring to the concept of time. But
while karon in Cebuano means ‘now’, karon in Hiligaynon
means ‘later’.
DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE
1. “Language is a system of conventional spoken,
manual (signed), or written symbols by means of
which human beings, as members of a social
group and participants in its culture, express
themselves.” – David Crystal, Writer and Editor,
Honorary Professor of Linguistics, Bangor
University
2. Language A systematic means of communicating
ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized
signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having
understood meanings. – Merriam Webster
Dictionary
3. Language is a purely human and non-instinctive
method of communicating ideas, emotions, and
desires by means of a system of voluntarily
produced symbols.Sapir (1921)
4. Language is the process whereby humans
communicate and interact with each other by
means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary
symbols. Hall (1969)
5. . Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols
used for human communication. Wardaugh(1972)
❖ Based on the following definitions of language
above, the most common thing among them all is
that a language is a wonderful and dynamic
human capacity that enables us to communicate
ourselves to others by the use of a system of
rules. This system of rules is the very reason that
a language can be called a language which
linguists also agree on
❖ Since a language is composed of a system of
rules, it is also said that only human beings are
truly capable of producing a language. Animals
may produce sounds of their own and
communicate with other animals, however, the
sound they produce often reflect their state of
emotions. Also, these sounds are not organized
into a meaningful system with rules unlike humans
which can communicate their desires such as
sharing of foods through many different ways such
as uttering the word, raise a question, give a
statement, or using a hand gesture by extending
the arm with food to others.
To understand more the system of rules, definitions and
examples are given below:
1. Phonology – refers to the sound system of a
language which includes the sounds used in a
certain language and how these sound can be
combined to produce a word. It can also be broken
down into smaller units known as phonemes.
● Phoneme – basic unit of sound.
Example: the sound /l/ in love
2. Morphology – the system of how words are
formed. Words combined are also determined by
individual languages.
● Morpheme – smallest meaningful unit in
a language. Example: affixes (anti, dis,
re, in, etc.)
3. Syntax – refers to the word order, word
placement, and word combination that create
meaning. Also refers to the creation of a
grammatically correct sentence.
4. Semantics – refers to the study of meaning that is
used to understand human expression through
language.
5. Pragmatics – studies the way in which context
(condition or location) contributes to meaning.
Example: use of polite words when talking to
teacher.
❖ Furthermore, when people use language and they
can understand each other, they are said to belong
in the same speech community.
❖ This is so because they share the same set of
rules in the language system. Since people share
the same set of rules in a speech community, they
can eventually acquire the language while growing
up. This refers to the process of language
acquisition.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
● is the process where people acquire their first
language commonly called native language or
mother tongue. It is a process where humans
acquire the capacity to see and understand
language and the ability to produce words to
communicate with other people in their speech
community.
❖ However, aside from acquiring our first language,
people also discovered that learning other
languages is necessary for various reasons and
purposes. These languages are called second
languages that people may learn through formal
instruction at school or informal learning on their
own. This also refers to language learning
LANGUAGE LEARNING
● refers to the ability to communicate in the
second/foreign language.
What do you think will happen if you, for example, who
speaks a mother tongue and English, stay in Japan for work,
where the people speak Nihonggo as their mother tongue
and a little bit of English? Will you be able to communicate
well with them? Despite having different mother tongues and
languages used, eventually, you will be able to communicate
as you slowly learn and understand each other’s language
though of course, it would be a challenge to both parties.
This phenomenon is called language contact.
LANGUAGE CONTACT
● refers to the contact between people having or
speaking different languages either written or
spoken.
It also leads to the formation of new languages that is
understandable to both of the speakers. Speakers’
languages may also change as they constantly communicate
with one another, thus resulting in language change.
 LANGUAGE CHANGE the sender.
● The receiver is the one who decodes
● is the phenomenon by which permanent and processes the information conveyed
alterations are made in the features of language by the sender.
over time. ● The primary responsibility of the receiver
is to understand the message.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE 3. Message— is the body of information that is sent
(Fromkin and Rodman, 2003) by the sender to the receiver.
1. Wherever humans exist, language exists. ● It refers to anything that is
2. All languages change through time. communicated by the sender to the
3. All grammars contain rules for the formation of receiver.
words and sentences of a similar kind. 4. Channel— is what connects the sender to the
4. Similar grammatical categories (e.g. noun, verb, receiver.
etc.) are found in all languages. ● It is the means of accessing the
5. Any normal child, born anywhere in the world, of message sent by the sender to the
any racial, geographical, social, or economic receiver.
heritage, is capable of learning any language to ● For example, mobile phones are
which s/he is exposed to. commonly used as channels of
The differences we find among languages cannot communication nowadays.
be due to biological reasons 5. Feedback— is the response of the receiver to the
sender.
II. COMMUNICATION MODELS, TYPES, PURPOSES, AND ● Feedback is not always available in the
PRINCIPLES communication process.
6. Interference/Noise— is what impedes the
● Every day of our lives, we deal with people, we communication process.
communicate with people— with family, with ● It refers to the distractions that interfere
friends, with teachers, with colleagues, even with with the accurate transmission and
strangers. reception of the message from the
● It is through communication that we are able to sender to the receiver.
forge friendships and form social, business, Types of Interference
romantic, and all other forms of relationships. ● Internal— psychological or
● Moreover, without communication, no idea will physiological noise within the
ever be expressed, and no problem will ever be communicator.
solved. It is through communication that world ● External— noise in the form of sights
leaders are able to solve international disputes and sounds.
● Simply put, communication is the exchange of ● Semantic— language barrier between
ideas, thoughts, and information from one source the communicators.
to another. 7. Situation/ Context— refers to all the interrelated
● And all the spheres of human existence continue conditions in the communication process.
to thrive, continue to succeed because of ● Sometimes, the context or situation
communication. helps in the success of the
● Engineering, technology, education, religion, communication process, and sometimes
government, economics— all these and more it does not.
continue to advance because of communication OTHER COMMUNICATION MODELS
MODE OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS 1. Shannon and Weaver Communication Model
2. SMCR Communication Model
3. Schramm Communication Model
4. Transactional Communication Model

SHANON AND WEAVER COMMUNICATION MODEL

ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

➢ The model was designed by Claude Shannon and
1. Sender— is the source of the message, the one
Warren Weaver in 1949 mirroring radio and
who encodes the message.
telephone technologies.
● The sender is the one who transforms
➢ This model is said to be the first major model for
thoughts into messages.
communication.
● The primary responsibility of the sender
➢ They constructed this model based on the
is to convey the message in the most
following elements: information source, which is
comprehensible way possible.
the producer of the message; transmitter, which
2. Receiver— is the recipient of the message from
encodes the message into signals; channel, which
 adapts signals for transmission; and destination,
where the message arrives.
➢ Shannon and Weaver also recognized that there
could be interference or noise in the transmission
of the message.
SMCR COMMUNICATION MODEL
➢ The SMCR model was designed by David Berlo in
1960 which is an expansion of the Shannon and
Weaver communication model.
➢ SMCR stands for
Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver and it
separates the elements of communication into
distinct parts.
➢ The participants in the communication process
(the sender and the receiver) are governed by
factors like communication skills, attitude,
knowledge, social system, and culture when they
communicate.
SCHRAMM COMMUNICATION MODEL
GENERAL FORM OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication
➢ This model was designed by Wilbur Schramm in
1954 which describes communication along
different major dimensions.
➢ It outlines what types of things are communicated
(message), by whom (sender), in which form
(form), through which medium (channel), and to
whom (receiver).
➢ Between or among the communicators,
communication may include sharing of knowledge
and ideas, giving of advice or commands, or
asking questions, among others.
TRANSACTIONAL COMMUNICATION MODEL
➢ The transactional model operates on the premise
that the communicators simultaneously engage in
the act of sending and receiving of messages.
➢ The model was proposed by Barlund in 2008, and
it posits that how the individual communicates
determines the way the message will be
interpreted.
➢ Furthermore, this model suggests that both the
sender and the receiver have their own personal
filters when they send or receive messages.
➢ These filters may include factors like gender, age,
culture, and value system, among many others,
which may alter the intended meaning of the
message
III. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
❖ Every day of our lives, we deal with people, we
communicate with people— with family, with
friends, with teachers, with colleagues, even with
strangers.
❖ We communicate in a variety of ways.
❖ But we have to remember that our success or
failure in the communication process may depend
on which among these ways to use at any given
communicative context to maximize our success.
❖ As Barry and Fulmer (2004) suggest, the key to
effective communication is to match the
communication channel with the goal of the
message.
❖ Spoken communication makes more sense when
the sender is conveying a sensitive or emotional
message, needs feedback immediately, and does
not need a permanent record of the conversation.
❖ Written media may be a better choice when the
sender:
● wants a record of the content,
● has less urgency for a response,
● is physically separated from the
receiver,
● doesn’t require a lot of feedback from
the receiver,
● or when the message is complicated
and may take some time to understand.”
- refers to the sharing of information, ideas,
thoughts, and feelings between individuals using
speech or spoken communication.
● Examples of verbal communication are
face-to-face conversations, telephone
conversations, video chat, speech
delivery, and television and radio
broadcasts
● Conversation is said to be the most
common form of verbal communication
because we do this in our day-to-day
interaction with others.
➢ Types of Conversation (Angel, 2016)
A. Dialogue - is a cooperative, two-way
conversation. The goal is for participants to
exchange information and build relationships with
one another.
● Example: Two undecided voters talking
to each other about the candidates,
trying to figure out who they want to vote
for.
B. Debate - is a competitive, two-way conversation.
The goal is to win an argument or convince
someone, such as the other participant or
 third-party observers.
● Example:
Two family members from opposite
sides of the political spectrum arguing
over politics.
C. Discourse - is a cooperative, one-way
conversation. The goal is to deliver information
from the speaker to the listeners.
● Example:
A professor giving a lecture on
international politics.
D. Diatribe - is a competitive, one-way conversation.
The goal is to express emotions, browbeat those
that disagree with you, and/or inspire those that
share the same perspective.
● Example:
A disgruntled voter venting about the
election’s outcome.
➢ Some Suggestions for Effective Verbal
Communication
● Know your audience
● Know your topic
● Plan your presentation
● Be familiar with the venue
Non-verbal Communication
- refers to the transmission of a message without
the use of words.
● Instead, the message is conveyed
through gestures, body language,
posture, facial expressions, eye contact,
touch, and tone of voice.
➢ Non-verbal cues that can enhance or hamper the
effectiveness of verbal communication
1. Facial Expressions
2. Eye Contact
3. Body Language
4. Posture
5. Space
Written Communication
- It refers to the type of communication that uses the
written language.
● It includes the traditional pen and paper
letters and documents, electronic
documents, e-mail, SMS or text
messages, memos, written reports, and
everything else transmitted through the
written language.
Other Forms of Communication
❖ Intrapersonal Communication
- McLean (2005) defines intrapersonal
communication as communicating with
oneself, and that may include self-talk,
acts of imagination and visualization,
and even recall and memory.
❖ Interpersonal Communication
- This type of communication refers to the
exchange of ideas, information, feelings,
and attitudes between two or more
people.
❖ . Public Communication
- This refers to the delivery of a message
to a particular group of people, as when
a political candidate delivers a political
campaign speech to the listeners.
❖ Visual Communication
- This refers to the transmission of
information and ideas using symbols
and images.
❖ Mass Communication
- Mass communication is a process in
which a person, group of people, or an
organization sends a message through
television, radio, print media, and social
media to a large group of anonymous
and heterogeneous people and
organizations.
❖ Computer-Mediated Communication
- Computer-mediated communication is
often referred to as CMC. CMC is “the
use of an application computer to control
multimedia interactive and
message-based communication”
(Walters, 1995).
IV. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
What is Visual Communication?
● Visual communication refers to the use of any
image to communicate an idea. Visual
communication may take place through pictures,
graphs, and charts, as well as through signs and
symbols.
● These visual images inform, educate, or persuade
a person or an audience.
● We communicate in a variety of ways.
● But we have to remember that our success or
failure in the communication process may depend
on which among these ways to use at any given
communicative context to maximize our success.
❖ Among the most important figures who explored
visual communication and sight-related theories is
Aldous Huxley.
❖ He suffered from near blindness when he was
young because of an illness, but it sets the stage
for his becoming one of the most influential
intellectuals to have explored the field of visual
communication.
❖ For him, seeing is the sum of sensing, selecting,
and perceiving. One of his most famous quotes is
“The more you see, the more you know.”
TRACING THE HISTORY OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
● sets of evidence that visual communication is the
oldest form of communication:
1. Cave paintings
- Cave paintings are believed to be a
primitive form of communication that
were etched or drawn on cave walls and
ceilings.
- These paintings include representations
of animals, landscapes, and religious
images, among others.
A painting in Chauvet Cave, Ardèche, France
2. Petroglyphs
- These are images carved on rocks
believed to have originated by the
Neolithic people some 10,000 to 12,000
years ago.
NEOLITHIC PERSON
 5. Cuneiform
- One of the
world’s earliest systems of writing is
the cuneiform script invented by the
Sumerians.
- They did so not
to write stories or letters but to
organize labor and resources
- Their population
had grown larger and their society
had become complex, hence the
need for accounting and
accountability.
- The writing system employed signs to
These images are also believed to have deep cultural and represent numbers, things, words, and
religious significance to the societies that created them. the sounds of words.
A cuneiform tablet showing a tally of goats and sheep, from
Tello,Southern Iraq.
6. Hieroglyphics
- It contained a
combination of logographic, alphabetic,
and ideographic elements used by the
Ancient Egyptians.
- It is said that
hieroglyphs emerged from the
pre-literate artistic traditions of Egypt.
- As writing
developed and became more
widespread, simplified glyph forms
A petroglyph known as “Meerkatze” found in Mesak, developed.
Settafet, Libya - They eventually
3. Geoglyphs became the basis on which Phoenicians
- These are drawings or designs on the structured the modern alphabetic
ground produced by arranging gravel, system.
stones, or soil. Egyptian Hieroglyphs
- The purpose of geoglyphs is rather - Indeed, visual communication has come
uncertain, although some researchers a long way, and it is now one of the most
believe that they were built for religious common forms of transmitting ideas and
purposes. information.
- Some of the most widely known - We are bombarded with a variety of
geoglyphs are the Nazca Lines in Peru. signs and symbols all around us which
makes the transfer of information readily
available.
- In an academic context, the study of
symbols and visual communication is
called semiotics.
- Broadly, the purpose of semiotics is to
analyze how people make meaning out
of images and symbols, and how those
images and symbols are analyzed and
interpreted.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN ANALYZING VISUAL
The Nazca Lines in Peru, depicting the Hummingbird.
IMAGES
(Source: Google Images)
1. Personal Perspective
4. Pictograms, Ideograms, and Logograms
● This view posits that the analysis of an
- Pictograms are images that represent
image depends on the individual’s
physical objects.
thoughts and values and the way he or
- Pictograms (pictures which resemble
she looks at things using his or her own
what they signify) and ideograms
personal lens.
(pictures which represent ideas) were
2. Historical Perspective
the basis of early written symbols.
● This perspective refers to the
- They were used by various ancient
determination of the importance of the
cultures all over the world since around
work based on the medium’s timeline.
9000 BC and began to develop into
● Historical perspective may be used to
logographic writing systems around
support a personal perspective which
5000 BC.
may make it more valid.
3. Technical Perspective
The dog illustration is a pictogram. The red
● This perspective takes into account how
circle and bar is an ideogram meaning “not
different media convey messages
allowed.”
differently based on the platform used.
 ● The analysis of the image takes into just so we can achieveaqq what we
consideration its different technical want.
aspects like lighting, focus, tone,
position, and presentation. GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL LISTENING
4. Ethical Perspective 1. Be Courteous and Attentive
● This perspective considers the moral ● Just as speakers have the ethical
and ethical responsibilities shared by obligation to prepare for their speeches,
the artist or the producer of the image, the listeners have the ethical obligation
the subject, and the viewer. to be courteous and attentive during the
5. Cultural Perspective delivery of the speech.
● This perspective brings to the fore the 2. Avoid Prejudging the Speaker
idea that all cultures use symbols to ● Jumping to conclusions about the points
communicate meanings within groups. of the speaker even before the speech
● It involves the analysis of metaphors begins is one of the major barriers to
and symbols used in the work that effective listening.
convey meaning within a particular ● This doesn’t mean that you have to
society at a particular time. agree with everything that the speaker
6. Critical Perspective says.
● This perspective allows the audience to ● Listen to the speaker even if you don’t
look at the larger issues associated with agree with him or her.
the image, meaning, the issues 3. Maintain the Free and Open Expression of
transcend the image and shape a Ideas
reasoned personal reaction. ● A democratic society depends on the
free and open expression of ideas.
V. COMMUNICATION ETHICS ● Just keep in mind that ensuring a
person’s right to express his or her ideas
ETHICS IN GENERAL doesn’t mean agreeing with those ideas
❖ Ethics deals with the issues of right and wrong in
human affairs.
❖ We are faced with ethical dilemmas when we ask
ourselves whether what we do is fair or unfair,
moral or immoral, honest or dishonest, and just or
unjust.
ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION
❖ Since communication is an everyday activity, it
should also observe ethical standards because
ethical communication gives rise to trust.
❖ Only when people perceive us as ethical and
trustworthy will we be able to make them believe in
what we say.
1. Be Truthful
● Truthfulness is fundamental to all forms
of communication.
● Communicators who are caught lying
will lose their credibility and the goodwill
of the audience, which are essential to
influencing them
2. Show Respect for the Power of Words
● Words are powerful.
● They can make or break careers, launch
wars, or bridge peace, among others
3. Invoke Participatory Democracy
● Communication ethics is a joint
responsibility between the speaker and
the audience.
● For example, speakers should put
themselves in the shoes of the listeners
and see if they are treating the listeners
as they would like to be treated, with
respect.
4. Demonstrate Mindfulness of Cultural Diversity
● Ethical communicators construct their
speeches being mindful of cultural
differences-- that means being careful
not to offend others with the things that
they say.
5. Treat People as Ends, Not Means
● The best interest of the audience should
be the ends sought by the speaker. We
should refrain from manipulating people

VI. MODES OF COMMUNICATION: PUBLIC SPEAKING
PUBLIC SPEAKING
❖ Communicating information to a live audience is
known as public speaking, sometimes known as
oration or oratory. The content being shared is
deliberately intended to entertain, educate, and
persuade. One of the most crucial abilities
someone may acquire is public speaking.
Speaking in public well encourages chances and
creativity. It would be practically hard to advance in
the workforce and in life in general without
effective communication abilities. Speaking in front
of an audience is a highly significant and feared
type of communication.
5 TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
➢ PERSUASIVE
- Persuasive speech is to influence or
convince the audience to adopt a
particular viewpoint, belief, or course of
action. The speaker aims to present
strong arguments, evidence, and
emotions to make your case compelling
and convincing to the audience
➢ MEMORIZED
- Memorized speech delivery is when a
speaker recites a written speech that
they have committed to internal memory
with no written prompts. This can be
advantageous to the speaker, as it
allows them to maintain eye contact with
the audience.
➢ EXTEMPORANEOUS
- To put it simply, it is said or done without
thought beforehand. The speech sounds
more natural when delivered impromptu
because it isn't forced or overly
prepared. Furthermore, a speaker using
this adaptable delivery style can modify
their speech in response to nonverbal
cues from the audience, such as signs
of excitement, curiosity, dissatisfaction,
or confusion
➢ DEMONSTRATIVE
- The main objective of a demonstrative
speech is to instruct the audience on
how to carry out a procedure,
accomplish a goal, or finish a certain
assignment. Using a demonstration, the
objective is to impart new or improved
skills to your audience.
➢ INFORMATIVE
- An informative speech gives information
to an audience using verbal descriptions
and, sometimes, accompanying visuals
or demonstrations. Aims to provide
information about valuable discoveries
and educate people on significant
topics.These speeches are often
educational and objective, so they use
facts and evidence to establish
credibility and give people accurate
information to consider when making
decisions.
VII. TERMS, EXPRESSIONS AND IMAGES AND IMAGES
REFLECTING DIFFERENT CULTURES
How Can We Understand Each Other?
● Communication of any type usually happens very
quickly.
● Communicating “across” cultures is even more
complicated because we tend to interpret
messages in split seconds based on the past
experiences and the cultural grids that were
passed down to us in our home cultures.
● We base much of our understanding on the verbal
and nonverbal cues available to us.
● Verbal cues are the words and sounds people emit
when communicating.
● Nonverbal cues are facial expressions, gestures,
and other things that don’t require sound, but still
offer a message.
● Communication must be placed into a framework
of understanding or it is meaningless.
● That framework is based on assumptions from our
home culture and any other cultures that we have
come into contact with.
What is cultural ignorance?
● Communicators who fail to realize that persons
from different cultures may not look, think, or act
as they themselves do run the risk of having those
with whom they interact judge them to be
insensitive, ignorant, or culturally confused.
● Cultural misunderstandings often lead to lost
opportunities and increased levels of tension
between people.
● The following examples demonstrate the extent to
which cultural ignorance affects communication:
● McDonald’s fast-food chain unintentionally
offended thousands of Muslims when it printed an
excerpt from the Koran on its throwaway
hamburger bags. Muslims saw this as
sacrilegious. The mistake could have been
avoided if McDonald’s had displayed greater
sensitivity and awareness.
● Americans tend to value personal achievement
and individualism. In contrast, Asian and Native
American cultures stress group cohesion and
loyalty, placing greater emphasis on group rather
than individual achievement.
● On the other hand, poor cross cultural awareness
has many consequences, some serious, others
comical.
● These are some of the cross cultural blunders that
could have been avoided if we are culturally
sensitive.
● A company advertised eyeglasses in Thailand by
featuring a variety of cute animals wearing
glasses.
● The ad was a poor choice since animals are
considered to be a form of low life and no
self-respecting Thai would wear anything worn by
animals.
● When former President George Bush went to
Japan with Lee Iacocca and other American
business magnates, and directly made explicit and
direct demands on Japanese leaders, they
violated Japanese etiquette.
● To the Japanese (who use high context language),
it is considered rude and a sign of ignorance or
desperation to lower oneself to make direct
demands.
● These are some terms, expressions and images
reflecting different cultures.
● Failing to develop insights into cultural nuances
and differences can be costly.
● Recognizing and responding to differences among
cultures allows for more meaningful relationships.
 ● At the same time, one has to be mindful that not
everyone from a particular culture exhibits the
same characteristics and communication traits.
VIII. CULTURAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES AFFECTING
COMMUNICATION
Cultural and Global Issues Affecting Communication
Cultural Differences: Influences on Cultural Identity
● Our cultural identity is based on our group
memberships which are determined by gender,
age, racial, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic,
political or even national affiliations. German et al.
(2003) defines culture as a social group’s system
of meanings.
Racial and ethnic identities
- are similarly socially constructed. Some racial and
ethnic groups, for example, share experiences of
oppression.
Religious identity
- is at the root of countless contemporary conflicts
occurring in the Middle East, India and Pakistan,
and Bosnia- Herzegovina.
Socioeconomic identity
- frames how we respond to issues of our day. The
widening gap between the ultrawealthy and the
middle and lower classes in the different parts of
the world is contributing to their developing
different attitudes on a wide array of issues.
National identity
- refers to our legal status or citizenship. People
from different countries have been U.S. citizens for
generations, yet some still perceive them as
foreigners.
ETHNOCENTRISM VS. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
➢ Ethnocentrism,
- the tendency to see your own culture as
superior to all others, is a key
characteristic of failed intercultural
communication efforts.
➢ Cultural relativism
- is the opposite of ethnocentrism. When
you practice cultural relativism, instead
of viewing the group to which you
belong as superior to all others, you
work to try to understand the behavior of
other groups on the basis of the context
in which the behavior occurs rather than
from your own frame of reference.
STEREO AND PREJUDICES
➢ Stereotypes
- are mental images or pictures we carry
around in our heads; they are shortcuts,
whether positive or negative, that guide
our reactions to others.
➢ Prejudice
- describes how we feel about a group of
people whom, more likely than not, we
do not personally know.
WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE
INTERCULTURALLY
1. Refrain from formulating expectations based
solely on your own culture.
- When those you interact with have
diverse communication styles, it is
critical that you acknowledge the
differences and accept their validity.
2. Recognize how faulty education can impede
understanding. It is important to identify and
work to eliminate any personal biases and
prejudices you have developed over the years
3. Make a commitment to develop communication
skills and abilities appropriate to life in a
multicultural world.
Your ability to develop intercultural communication
skills depends in large part on how many of the
following promises you are willing to make:
➢ I will make a commitment to seek information from
persons whose cultures are different from my own.
➢ I will try to understand how the experiences of
persons from different cultures lead them to
develop perspectives that differ from mine.
➢ I will pay attention to the situation and the context
when I communicate with persons from different
cultures.
➢ I will make every effort to become a more flexible
communicator.
➢ I will not insist that persons from other cultures
communicate with me on my terms.
XI. SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
➢ Informative Speech
➢ Persuasive Speech
➢ Demonstrative Speech
➢ Entertainment Speech
INFORMATIVE SPEECH
- the action or activity of gathering information
about consumers' needs and preferences.
- E.G. A FELLOW STUDENT PRESENTING
HIS/HER RESEARCH. IN PAPER/ RESEARCH
PRESENTATIONS OR ACADEMIC FORA,
SPEAKERS AIM TO GIVE SIGNIFICANT
INFORMATION TO THE AUDIENCE.
PERSUASIVE SPEECH
- This aims to persuade or convince people to
change the way they think or do something or start
doing something they are not currently doing.
- E.G. A FELLOW STUDENT PRESENTING
HIS/HER RESEARCH. IN PAPER/ RESEARCH
PRESENTATIONS OR ACADEMIC FORA,
SPEAKERS AIM TO GIVE SIGNIFICANT
INFORMATION TO THE AUDIENCE.
- It relies on three (3) forms of rhetoric:
➢ ethos - the speaker’s credibility
➢ pathos - the speaker’s ability to appeal
to the audience’s emotions
➢ logos- the speaker’s ability to use logic
and reasoning in delivering their speech.
DEMONSTRATIVE SPEECH
- the action or activity of form of informative speech
where the speaker’s primary purpose is to teach
the audience how to complete a task, and is
largely accomplished by demonstrating the task
through a series of steps.
- Gathering information about consumers' needs
and preferences.
- In this genre, the speaker conveys information and
demonstrates how to perform a particular task.
- The primary objective is to educate and engage
the listeners by providing step-by-step instructions,
visual aids, and real-time demonstrations.
- E.G. DEMONSTRATING HOW TO MAKE
CUSTARD PUDDING TO THE AUDIENCE
STEP-BY-STEP.
ENTERTAINMENT SPEECH
 - It is a speech that is designed to captivate an
audience’s attention and regale or amuse them
while delivering a message.
- Entertaining speeches are often delivered on
special occasions (e.g., a toast at a wedding, an
acceptance speech at an awards banquet, or a
motivational speech at a conference), which is why
they are sometimes referred to as
special-occasion speeches.
- E.G DELIVERING A SPEECH TO YOUR
BIRTHDAY PARTY ABOUT YOUR HILARIOUS
CHILDHOOD MEMORIES.
X. SPEECHES ACCORDING TO DELIVERY
SPEECH DELIVERY
➢ One of the most crucial aspects of giving a
speech, aside from speech preparation, which
includes planning, organizing, practicing, and
conducting research.
➢ Delivery is the speaker's physical (vocal and
bodily) actions during a speech.
➢ The main purpose of delivery is to enhance, not
distract from, the message
TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING TO DELIVERY
➢ Impromptu
➢ Extemporaneous
➢ Manuscript
➢ Memorized
IMPROMPTU
- The word impromptu means without preparation or
organization.
- An impromptu speech is when you’re asked to
speak in public without prior notice.
- This is sometimes referred to as “off the cuff” or
“spur of the moment”.
- E.G A TEACHER ASKED YOU TO RECITE LAST
WEEK’S TOPIC
ADVANTAGES
● Improves verbal communication
● Develops confidence
● Builds leadership and communication skills
● Ability to think quicker
● Able to express your thoughts and feelings
DISADVANTAGES
● Can stuck in between of delivering the speech
● Difficulty in getting new thoughts and ideas
● Lost the attention of the audience
EXTEMPORANEOUS
- An extemporaneous speech is actually a
well-prepared speech that relies on research, clear
organization, and practice delivery.
- It is a prepared speech but not memorized.
- E.G MAKING A TOAST AT A WEDDING.
ADVANTAGES
● Sounds natural speaking
● Can pay attention to the audience feedback.
● The outline created can also aid the speaker to
remember the important point in his/her speech.
DISADVANTAGES
● The speaker might forget something.
● It is difficult to be sufficiently prepared the day
before your speech.
MANUSCRIPT
- Speeches from a manuscript is an iteration of
every word in a written message, it is written
completely and will then be read out
- An ineffective speech delivery when used for
persuasion, it deadens the relationship between
the speaker and the audience. This is more
effective in legal considerations, newscasts, and
acting.
- E.G TALKING ABOUT THE TERMS AND
SERVICES OF A COMPANY TO A NEW
CUSTOMER
ADVANTAGES
● control of time.
● control of word choice.
● The only mistakes that usually occur when reading
a word at a time in order are mispronounced
words.
DISADVANTAGES
● it’s typically an uninteresting way to present.
● loss of eye contact to the audience.
● loss of natural speaking style.
MEMORIZED
- A rote recitation that is engraved in the memory of
the speaker
- It is commonly used with actors/actresses when
they perform for an audience
- E.G TITANIC (*QUEUE “MY HEART WILL GO
ON” FLUTE VERSION*)
ADVANTAGES
● You get more time to make eye contact
● Less use of filler words and distracting speech
● Appropriate use of space and body language
DISADVANTAGES
● Forgetting the content
● Unnatural and lack of spontaneity
● A difference in your delivery style will notify your
audience if you are losing the flow of thought and
beginning to ramble.
XI. COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
What is Computer Mediated Communication?
➢ Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) is any
form of communication between two or more
individual people who interact and/or influence
each other via separate computers through the
Internet or a network connection - using social
software.
➢ CMC does not include the methods by which two
computers communicate, but rather how people
communicate via computers.
➢ CMC promotes self-discipline and requires one to
take more responsibility for their own learning.
➢ CMC, includes everything from structured projects
to open projects in which students are free to work
on "messy"--but authentic--problem solving.
➢ Traditional classroom interaction places the
teacher at the center of all activities as transmitter
of knowledge and orchestrator of student
interaction.
➢ Even if students engage in collaborative small
group tasks, the teacher is usually around and
monitors students’ progress while providing input
on how to solve a particular task—a condition
which may hinder “reflection and facilitative
interaction”.
➢ CMC, includes everything from structured projects
to open projects in which students are free to work
on "messy"--but authentic--problem solving.
➢ Traditional classroom interaction places the
teacher at the center of all activities as transmitter
of knowledge and orchestrator of student
interaction.
➢ Even if students engage in collaborative small
group tasks, the teacher is usually around and
monitors students’ progress while providing input
 on how to solve a particular task—a condition
which may hinder “reflection and facilitative
interaction”.
➢ Computer mediated technology provides tools that
are useful in promoting collaborative learning
activities that can mediate communication
between learners.
➢ Furthermore, it allows students, in groups, to
collaborate with each other in an exchange of
opinions, experiences, and interpretations of
course content
➢ Examples of CMC can include:
● Emails
● Mailboxes
● shared network group folders
● discussion boards (or fora/forums)
● frequently updated hyperlinked
webpages.
TYPES OF COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
Asynchronous Communication
- Asynchronous activities are independent of
real-time and are comprised of activities, such as,
viewing a web page, composing an Electronic Mail
(e-mail), watching a video clip, or downloading a
file.
- CMC can include anything that is text -based, uses
ICT as a technological base and can be used for
two way transmission of ideas.
BENEFIT:
● Opportunities to think about course content
● To address a diverse set of topics in more depth
than can be done in class or in asynchronous
environment
● Thus, allowing students to conceptualize a topic
from multiple viewpoints and to contribute to each
other’s understanding (Weasenforth et al., 2002).
Synchronous Communication
● Synchronous activities occur concurrently between
two or more users including such real-time
applications as chat rooms or instant messaging
which allow users to interact simultaneously
through text, audio, and video with other users
located anywhere in the world.
● Synchronous CMC includes:
- Chat; and
- Instant messaging
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN ASYNCHRONOUS CMC
1. The levels of participation are usually very poor
with CMC for the following reasons.
2. Posts to the discussion boards need to be
frequent for people to maintain an interest in the
boards, and so if the level participation drops
below a certain degree, no further postings take
place.
3. Checking the discussion board for posts requires
learning to incorporate an additional activity to
one's routine, which often means people don’t take
part.
4. The asynchronous nature encourages people to
give participation a lower priority.
How can we solve these problems?
1. Raise the profile of postings by using discussion
board software that also sends emails to the users'
email account (and so is a combination discussion
board and mailbase).
2. Make the discussion time -dependent, so that
participants cannot procrastinate.
3. Regularly structure the discussion threads using
some of the following actions:
4. Cut and paste discussion threads that diverge or
are repeating discussions elsewhere, so that each
thread corresponds to one topic.
5. Identify specific points within the threads to prompt
particular discussions, eliciting answers to specific
questions.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN SYNCHRONOUS CMC
1. Multiple threads of discussion are created which
become too difficult to follow for some students,
particularly true of those students who are
communicating in another language other than
their first language.
2. Students on a slow connection always lag slightly
behind in the discussion.
3. The discussion tends to lose focus because of
many side discussions.
4. Some students cannot jump in because they are
slow typists.
5. Responses get out of sequence.
6. Failing to provide a platform for all students to
participate equally implicitly censors some of the
participants
How can we solve these problems?
1. The solution to this is to have a prepared set of
questions, subjects to discuss, etc. and have a
fixed order for the students to respond in.
2. Allow a certain “open time” for students to chat
with each other. This allows the students who are
less familiar with the technology to practice.
3. Also, it provides an opportunity for students who
are more familiar with the technology to introduce
some of the abbreviation and emoticons used in
chat to their less experienced peers.
4. Explain the procedure for participation: i.e. that
comments or responses have to be done in a
sequence.
5. Impose order on the discussion when required.
The lecturer’s role in a chat also includes that of
moderator. Whereas in face-to-face one’s authority
can be underlined by raising one’s voice, in chat
you can use upper case to make your point more
forcefully.
WHICH CMC SHOULD WE USE?
The major factor in selecting a CMC medium is “should the
communication be synchronous or asynchronous?” This
decision should be based on the following criteria:
● Can all of the participants meet at the same time?
● Is the activity time -dependent (i.e. to fit in with a
teaching program)? If so, then a synchronous
medium is most appropriate.
● Are the participants part-time students/spread
across time zones?
● Is the subject matter one which requires in-depth
analysis and response? If so, then an
asynchronous medium is most appropriate.
● The use of CMC
● Educators often categorize the use of instructional
CMC in three ways:
➢ For conferencing
➢ Informatics
➢ Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
INFORMATICS - (repositories or maintainers of organized
information) include library online public access catalogs
(OPACs), interactive access to remote databases,
program/data archive sites (e.g., archives of files for pictures,
sound, text, movies), campus-wide information systems,
wide-area information systems, and information managers.

XI. SPEECHES ACCORDING TO SPECIAL OCCASIONS
What is Special Occasion Speech?
➢ Ceremonial speeches are given during a
ceremony or a ritual that observes formality or
etiquette.
These types of ceremonies tend to be very special to some
people, so it shouldn’t be surprising that they are
opportunities for speech making.
1. Speeches of Introduction
- A speech of introduction should be a
complete speech and have a clear
introduction, body and conclusion.
- For an introduction, think of a hook that
will make your audience become
interested in the upcoming speaker.
- The body of your introduction should be
about the speaker’s topic, why he is
qualified, and why the audience should
listen.
- The final part is the conclusion; this is
generally designed to welcome the
speaker to the lectern.
2. Speeches of Presentation
- This speech is given to accompany a
prize or honor. When creating a speech
of presentation, it is important to ask
how long the speech will be.
- Firstly, you should ask what the award of
honor is and why the whole presentation
is important
- Second, you can explain what the
recipient of the award has accomplished
in order for the award to be bestowed.
Did he/she win a race? Did he/she write
an important piece of literature?
- Whatever the recipient has done, you
need to clearly highlight his or her work.
3. Speeches of Dedication
- This speech is delivered when a new
store opens, a building is named after
someone, or a new library is completed,
and so on.
- These speeches are designed to
highlight the importance of the project
and those whom the project has been
dedicated.
- The most difficult part of writing this
piece of front matter is choosing who
you would like to dedicate your work to.
- Some writers may find it to be the most
difficult part of the whole process.
- When choosing who to write your
dedication for, think about the process
you just went through and who helped
you get through it.
- After you have decided who you will
write your dedication for, you must
decide how you are going to identify
them.
- The next component in writing your
dedication is explaining why you chose
this person. Many authors provide a
reason for their dedication selections.
There are many ways you can address
your dedication. You could write, "I
dedicate this …", "This is dedicated to
…", "To: …", "For: …", or simply just
start writing your dedication without any
formal address
-
➢ Alternative dedications
- It has been extremely popular over the
years to write a dedication page using
alternative formats.
- Authors have used poems or funny
anecdotes to express their gratitude. In
the past, many dedications were often
written in the style of a formal letter.
4. Toast
- A toast is a speech designed to
congratulate, or appreciate.
- First, toasts can be delivered for the
purpose of congratulating someone for
an honor, or getting married.
- You can also toast someone to show
your appreciation for what they’ve done.
- Lastly, we toast to people to remember
what they have accomplished in life.
- When preparing for a toast, make sure
to always keep your remarks brief.
- This is given generally during the middle
of some kind of festivities.
- Focus your attention on the person/s
being toasted- not on the speaker
5. Eulogies
- Praise/ giving honor of someone who
died.
6. Speeches of Farewell
- This speech allows someone to say
good-bye to a part of his/her life as
he/she will move on to the next chapter
that awaits him/her.
- This could be that you’re graduating
from college and entering the work
force, or leaving your current job.
7. Speeches of Promotion
- Speeches are a form of writing in which
the writer imparts an important, often
galvanizing message to an audience
- Promotion speeches also recognize
others for their contributions to your
success, offer guidance to other
students, and look to the future
8. Roast
- Such speeches are done using wit,
satire and sarcasm.
- Normally intended to poke fun at
someone in an intelligent yet fun way.
- Malice should never be the intention of
such speeches.
9. Dramatic Speeches
- It is a speech of some duration
addressed by character and usually
performed on stage with characters on
play or role-playing a story.
Types of Dramatic Speeches
➢ Monologue – a long interrupted speech delivered
by a character to other characters on stage
➢ Soliloquy – a speech in which a character, alone
on stage, reveals private thoughts that the
audience is allowed to overhear.
➢ Aside – a brief remark a character makes to the
audience rather than to other characters.
➢ Dialogue – is the playwright’s main tool for
developing characters and furthering the plot. It’s
more on conversing with each other.
 10. Inspirational Speeches
- The goal of this speech is to elicit an
emotional state within an audience.
11. Speeches of Goodwill
- Are both informative and persuasive.
- You seek to persuade your audience to
be in favor of you and who or what you
represent.
- Goodwill speeches highlight shared
values, customs, beliefs, and morals.
➢ Public Relations - The
ultimate goal of this speech is
people to like the speaker and
what he/she represents.
➢ Justification - This is given
when someone attempts to
defend why certain actions
were taken or will be taken. In
this speech, speakers have
already enacted some kind of
behavior, and are attempting
to justify why the behavior is
or was appropriate.
➢ Apology - These speeches
have become more
commonplace. Everywhere
we look a politician, and
actor/actress is doing
something reprehensible and
getting caught. In fact, the
speech of apology has quickly
become a fodder for humor as
well.
XII. LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN
MULTICULTURAL SETTING
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF LOCAL AND GLOBAL
COMMUNICATION
➢ Globalization requires that we pay attention to a
related concept – diversity – the recognition and
valuing of difference, encompassing such factors
as age, gender, race, ethnicity, ability, religion,
education, marital status, sexual orientation, and
income.
Intercultural Communication
➢ When we speak about intercultural
communication, we are concerning ourselves with
the process of interpreting and sharing meanings
with individuals from different cultures
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS VARIOUS
FORMS
Interracial communication
➢ is interpreting and sharing of meanings with
individuals from different races. It occurs when
interactants are of different races.
Interethnic communication
➢ refers to interaction with individuals of different
ethnic origins. It occurs when the communicating
parties have different ethnic origins.
International communication
➢ is the communication between persons
representing different nations. It occurs between
persons representing political structures.
Intracultural communication
➢ is the interaction with members of the same racial
or ethnic group or co-culture as yours. It includes
all forms of communication among members of the
same racial, ethnic, or other co-culture groups
UNDERSTANDING ONE ANOTHER
Cultures and Co-cultures
➢ A culture is the system of knowledge, beliefs,
values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that are
acquired, shared, and used by its members during
daily living.
➢ Within a culture as a whole are co-cultures; these
are composed of members of the same general
culture who differ in some ethnic or sociological
way from the parent culture.
CO-CULTURE STRATEGIES
Assimilation
➢ is the means by which co-culture members
attempt to fit in with members of the dominant
culture.
Accommodation
➢ is means by which co-culture members maintain
their cultural identity while striving to establish
relationships with members of the dominant
culture.
Separation
➢ is the means co-culture members use to resist
interacting with members of the dominant culture.
Exploring Cultural Dialectics
Individualism Versus Collectivism
➢ Individualism refers to cultures in which individual
goals are stressed while collectivism refers to
cultures in which group goals are stressed.
➢ This means that, while the “I” may be most
important in individualistic cultures, the “we” is the
dominant force in collectivistic ones. While in
collectivistic cultures the individual is expected to
fit into the group, in individualistic cultures
emphasis is placed on developing a sense of self.
High Context Versus Low Context Communication
➢ High context communication is a tradition-bound
communication system which depends on
indirectness while low context communication is a
system that encourages directness in
communication.
High Power Distance Versus Low Power Distance
➢ Power distance measures the extent to which
individuals are willing to accept power differences.
High power distance cultures are based on power
differences in which subordinates defer to
superiors while low power distance cultures
believe that power should be used only when
legitimate.
➢
Masculine Versus Feminine Culture
➢ Cultures differ in their attitudes toward gender
roles. Masculine cultures are cultures that value
aggressiveness, strength, and material symbols of
success.
➢ Feminine cultures are cultures that value
tenderness and relationships. Among highly
masculine cultures are Japan, Italy, Germany,
Mexico, and Great Britain. Among highly feminine
cultures are Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands,
Thailand, and Chile.
-