Annual Sessions of IESL, pp.

[75 - 84], 2018

© The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Practices of large Volume Concrete Pouring in

High-rise Building Foundations
Samitha U. Jayakody and K.A. Bandhuka P Kuruppu

Abstract: Reinforced Concrete buildings, especially high-rise buildings continue to increase in

complexity, size and extent, speed and high compressive strength in concrete. Since the construction
industry booms in Colombo, Sri Lanka, it has given high priority by the stakeholders of the industry.
As a result, engineers, contractors, and ready-mix suppliers etc. are faced with new challenges. In
addition to the quality considerations in a mass concrete pour, the operational considerations like
planning, designing, organizing, controlling are vital. The quality aspects of concrete specially
pertaining to thermal issues too are to be given prominent attention.

Traditionally and practically concrete which demands cement more than 325Kg/m 3 and sections
beyond 1m in depth will be susceptible to substantial thermal related issues. In today’s concrete
buildings, it is not uncommon to have a 2m-thick concrete elements such as transfer beam, rafts and
demands higher grade concrete mixes. Foundations, customary for tall buildings tend to cause the
most concern. The ITC tower building raft foundation was 3.5m in height and 10,000 m3 in total
volume. It was divided into two parts and the first and the largest pour was about 6,500 m3.

In large concrete elements, the interior is considered to be hydrating in an essentially adiabatic

process. Because of the low thermal conductivity of concrete, the heat of hydration from its interior is
prevented from being released into the environment, thus a negligible amount of heat is lost, compare
to exterior of concrete element. The resulting large temperature differential between the interior and
exterior of a concrete element may lead to thermal cracking.

1. Introduction another tower of 140 metres height. The project

A major concrete pour of 6500 cubic-metres was
done at ITC One Colombo One project (Figure
1) located on the 5.87 acres of land on Galle
Face Road, Colombo - 01 adjacent to the Taj
Samudra hotel in August 2017.
has a unique feature of a Sky Bridge with a
swimming pool at 100-metres height
connecting the Residential Tower with the
Hotel Tower. The major construction work in
the project started in January 2017 with the
mobilization of the general contractor, Larsen
and Toubro Limited, a major engineering
organization from India working in various
countries across the globe. Subsequently Sri
Lankan sub-contractors were finalized for the
civil and structural work.

The Residential Tower which is the taller one is

being constructed by International
Construction Consortium (Pvt.) Ltd (ICC), a
highly reputed Sri Lankan engineering
construction company. The major concrete
pour is for the raft foundation of the Residential
Tower in the project which has been done with
some special features. As per the available
Figure 1 – ITC Colombo One Hotel and records, this single pour of 6,500 m³ concrete is
Residences the largest single concrete pour in Sri Lanka.

ITC One Colombo One project is a mixed

development project of two tall towers on the
Galle Face road, consisting of 135 units of high-
end residential apartments in a 224-metre tall
tower and a five-star hotel of 350 keys in
Eng.S.U.Jayakody, M.Eng. (Saitama, Japan), B.Sc. Eng.
(Moratuwa, Sri Lanka), Director-Projects (CSEC).
Eng. K.A.B.P. Kuruppu, B.Sc. Eng. (Moratuwa, Sri
Lanka), Planning Engineer (ICC Pvt. Ltd.)

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75 ENGINEER
Guinness world record (Figure 2) for the largest
continuous concrete pour is 21,580 m³
(28,225.57 yd³) and was achieved by Abdul
Wahed Bin Shabib, RALS Contracting L.L.C
and Alfa Eng. Consultant (all UAE), in Dubai,
UAE, from 18 to 20 May 2017.
Figure 2 – Largest continuous concrete pour
(Guinness world record – Dubai, UAE)
The major pour was a raft foundation for the
residential building consisting of four
basements, a ground floor and 49 upper floors.
The operation was done by ICC, who
coordinated the technical and logistics plan and
led the team along with the consultant
structural designer, architects and the
compliance team who maintained the quality
and high level of safety during the pour.
This major concrete pour was started Friday the
5th of August and continued till Monday the
07th August 2017 continuously and operated
with 5 pump cars and nearly 1300 truck-mixer
loads from three concrete suppliers namely
Access Engineering, Informex and International
Construction Consortium (ICC).
The entire operation was carried out by ICC
with around 400 workforce and 80 staff in 3
days in a row. A well-organized traffic
management system had already in placed
along with a comprehensive safety and security
arrangement on site with the blessings and
cooperation of Police, Military and Colombo
Municipal Council.
1.1 Literature Review
Whenever large volume of fresh concrete is
poured during the construction of large
homogeneous structures such as dams, bridges,
water retaining structures and foundations,
consideration is always given to the amount of
heat that will be generated[7]. The concrete
hydration is an exothermic reaction that can
produce high amounts of heat during curing,
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especially in the first few days or weeks after
casting [1]. This heat production can produce
high temperatures at the centre of the mass
concrete due to the insulating effect of the
concrete. Since the concrete surface
temperatures are lower due to the heat
dissipated into the ambient environment,
temperature gradients are formed. These
changes in temperature create volumetric
changes, i.e. expansion from heating and
contraction from cooling in the concrete. When
these volumetric changes are restrained by the
supports and the more mature interior concrete,
tensile stresses are formed on the concrete’s
surface. If the surface tensile stresses become
higher than overall tensile strength of the
concrete, cracking normally occurs. The
cracking is even magnified in early age concrete
that is still developing its full strength [4].
Although the effects of thermal gradients on
mass concrete is well known in developed
countries, there is no agreed maximum
allowable temperature differential value
between the centre of a mass concrete element
and its surface. Bobko et al. [3], have modelled
the thermal behaviour of hydrating mass
concrete with some degree of success and have
fixed the temperature differential at 20°C
(35°F). However, in the country where this
temperature differential value was developed, a
several agencies have established their own
guidelines to regulate and control the adverse
effect of thermal cracking in mass concrete
depending on the time and location where such
massive concrete projects are taking place [6].
This confirms the fact that heat generation in
mass concrete structures varies for the tropics
and the temperate zones for the same type of
cement [5]. But in the tropics, specifically Sri
Lanka, these values do not even exist. Thus the
thermal behaviour of the pour was modelled in
computer simulation and the recorded values
were compared with the mock-up block
readings. The model study and experimental
results of the mock-up sample were recorded to
be with in the tolerable limits. Further
modelling was carried out on the full scale FEM
model and the recorded results too found to be
within the limits thus increased the confidence
level of the actual operation.
Keywords: Mass concrete, Portland
cement, Fly ash, Initial placing temperature,
Heat of hydration, Adiabatic temperature rise,
Peak temperature, Temperature differential,
Compressive strength, mass concrete;
2
hydration; temperature; thermal cracks; finite
element model

2. Planning

2.1 Execution plan

This was a challenging task and a new

experience for the team as it was going to be the
largest single pour of concrete in Sri Lanka. The
major activities related to the pour were;
Figure 4 – Use of permanent steel formwork
reinforcement work, formwork, concrete work,
sheets as separators
logistics, quality and safety assurance.
The raft covered the entire foot print of the
2.1.1 Reinforcement work
residential tower; however the entire raft was
not poured in once. As shown in Figure 5; Zone
Around 1250MT of steel was used for the raft,
T04 and T05 were done together continuously
Top mesh, bottom mesh and all additional bars
in first pour, which lead to a record breaking
were in 40mm diameter. As the height of raft
pour volume of 6500m3. Raft of zone T06 and
was 3.5m, it looked like a giant reinforcement
T03 was done later and that volume (3000m3)
cage. For the continuation of bars, 40mm
too was a large pour operation in the
diameter mechanical couplers were used.
construction field of Sri Lanka.
Figure 3 shows how it was from inside the raft
reinforcement work.

Figure 3 – Reinforcement work in 3.5m raft

Figure 5 –Plan showing the area of mass pour
2.1.2 Formwork
2.2 Pour Plan
Formwork of the boundary of the raft (North
end and west end) was done with conventional
2.2.1 Zoning for mass structural concrete
methods while the east end and west end were
pour
covered by the diaphragm wall.
Considering the possibility of reaching the
Apart from this; construction joints were done
pumping booms to the pouring locations,
separating the raft into 05 areas, this separation
concrete supply rate and traffic control; Zone
was done as a contingency plan in order to face
T04 and T05 were again separated in to 5 parts
any miss-functioning of concrete supply. For
with permanent steel formwork sheets.
these construction joints; a permanent steel
formwork sheet (Hy-rib) was used. All the
As mentioned the raft was separated into 05
design calculations for each formwork system
zones such as T04 into T04A, T04B and T04C;
were done and checked prior to the execution.
T05 into T05A and T05B. Figure 6 shows the
Figure 4 shows the permanent steel formwork
plan of all pouring zones.
sheets used for separation.

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77 ENGINEER

Figure 6 – Zoning for Mass Structural
Concrete Pour
2.2.2 Pouring sequence
The plan was to complete zone by zone thus
avoiding the risk of any break down and
formation of cold joints in the raft. During the
operation there were 8 pump cars and 5 in
operation from selected locations and 3 on
standby.
Figure 7 illustrates the pump cars and
stationery pump locations. The order of
pouring was namely from T04A, T04B, T05A,
T04C and T05B and volumes were 960, 2030,
1100, 1050 and 1300 m3 respectively.
Figure 10, illustrates the concrete supply routes
during the operation. At each pump location,
quality assurance and quality control units
were installed where all slump checks were
carried out and test cubes were done and kept.
All pour records at each pump location were
reported to the central control point.
Figure 7 – Pump cars and stationary pump
locations
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78
P1 – Pump car 01
P2 – Pump car 02
P3 – Pump car 03
P4 – Pump car 04
P4a – Stationary pump
P5 – Pump car 05
D - Distributor
Figure 8 shows the pour completion of zone
T04A and P1, P3, P4a, P5 in operation.
Figure 8 – P1, P3, P4a and P5 in operation
2.3 Quality plan
Major concern of this operation is maintaining
the specified quality levels throughout the
entire operation. Quality control and quality
assurance activities were scheduled to assure
the customer that the quality targets will be
met. The special concrete mix design of grade
C50 at 56 days was poured for the entire raft.
Three concrete ready-mix plants were involved
in the operation.
2.4 Details of the tests carried out
Grade of Concrete shall be, C50@56 days with
OPC + 40% Fly ash and admixture: Hypercrete
plus M was added as the admixture.
Cube Casting for Strength
 One set – To be checked at 3, 7, 14, 28,
42, 56, 90, 180 – 3 cubes each
• Others according to the frequency
Cube Casting for Durability
• Water Permeability – 6 Cubes (56,90)
• Water Absorption – 6 Cubes (56,90)
• Initial Surface Absorption – 6 Cubes
(56,90)
• Chloride Diffusion Coefficient – 3
Cubes (56)
• Chloride & Sulphate Levels – 2 Cube
(56,90)
• Total Cubes for Durability = 23 Cubes
Cylinder casting for durability
• 150 mm Cylinders for MOE – 6
Cylinders (56 Days,90 Days)
4
 • 100 mm Cylinders for RCPT (Cl-
penetration test)– 6 Cylinders (56
Days,90 Days)
Beam Casting for Tensile Strength
• 150 x 150 x 750 mm Beams (7,56)
2.4.1 Arrangement of thermo couples and
monitoring of heat hydration.
Temperature controlled concrete is used in to
any concrete exceeding the thickness of 1.5m.
Since the raft slab thickness is 3.5m, the
concrete in the raft should be regulated and
controlled to confirm the stipulated
temperature standards. The placed concrete
was thus carefully designed with appropriate
ingredients to comply with temperature
controlled concrete and modelled before usage
by a mock-up test and total computer
simulation using FEM for the total bulk
concrete block. Thermo couples were
adequately placed and monitored for nearly a
month after the placement. Post cast
precautions like adequate curing and protection
of the concrete was also made. Crack free
concrete was thus ensured.
The temperature of the concrete was controlled
with the help of cold water/ ice flakes or other
suitable methods (with the prior approval). The
temperature of the concrete was recorded
below 280C during loading at the batching plant
and placed in the raft before it reaches 320C.
The exposed surface of the concrete was
insulated once the setting time is reached with
polystyrene sheets and polythene layers to
maintain the difference between core
temperature and the surface temperature
within a limit of 15°C. This temperature should
be maintained for at least a period of 96 hours,
and no means of water curing will be done
during this period of time.
Thermocouples were used to monitor the
temperature of the Bottom, the core and the
surface. The temperature variance was
monitored at equal intervals of 1 hour
throughout the first 4 days and at 2 hours on
the following 3 days (132 readings in total)
during its hardening process. At no instance the
peak temperature should not exceed 85°C. The
thermocouples and the data-logger were
calibrated before the experiment is conducted.
During large pours where concreting might
have to be done in layers, retarders shall be
used to ensure, the top most layer of the
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previously poured concrete remain in plastic
state and effectively bond to create a
homogeneous concrete with the new layer of
poured concrete.
2.4.2 Heat of Hydration and temperature
monitoring of Mock-up Concrete
sample.
A mock-up concrete pour was done and the
temperatures of the core and the surface were
monitored at site. The mould was of the size of
2m x 2m x 1.5m with a reinforcement cage of
16mm tor-steel mesh at 225 centre to centre
spacing, whilst maintaining covering of 50mm
to the surface. All sides of the mould were
insulated with, first a 12mm thick plywood
followed by a 50mm thick polystyrene or PUF
layer and a 19mm thick plywood shutter. The
entire formwork was covered with a layer of
1000 gauge plastic sheet.
2.4.3 Heat of Hydration and temperature
monitoring of Mock-up Concrete
sample.
FEM was done and the results were compared
with the actual readings. See figure 9.
Figure 9 – Mock-up model
Figure 10 shows the temperature rise in mock-
up; simulated values and experimental values.
Te
m
pe
rat
ur
e
(0
C)
Age (Hrs)
Figure 10 - Mock up model and temperature
rise in the sample (Simulated vs Actual)
2.4.4 Theoretical computation of Heat of
Hydration and temperature rise.
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Empirical Calculation of Adiabatic
Temperature Rise (based on “Properties of
Concrete” by A.M. Neville and CIRIA Report
91 by Dr. T.A. Harrison)
The recorded highest temperature from the
FEM model was very significantly 85 0C.
Noticeably the highest ever temperature record
in the prototype operation and the theoretical
computation too reached approximately 85 0C.
Thus, as to bench mark anticipated temperature
rise the authors recommend both methods thus
early warning of possible ultimate temperature
rise. Figure 11 shows the complete model for
the tower raft.
Figure 11 – Max Von Mises stress
Considering the results obtained from the
model, it was decided to record the actual
temperature variance in the tower raft. Purpose
of this was to understand the thermal
behaviour of this type of a raft and to check
whether it’s okay to remove the insulation and
to continue other construction works on the
raft.
3.0 Actual temperature variance in
tower raft.
3.1 Thermocouple arrangement in the
actual raft
Figure 12 – Thermo-couples and two data
loggers arrangement on the actual raft.
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80
As shown in Figure 12, twelve numbers of
locations were selected to install thermo-
couples. This selection was based on the
arrangement of construction joints and the
requirement of distribution of monitoring
points in the tower raft.
01, 02, 03, 03b, 04, 05, 06, 07a, 07, 08, 09 and 10
are the selected locations shown in Figure 12.
3.2 Thermocouple arrangement in each
location (in vertical direction)
Figure 13 – Arrangement of thermo-couples in
each location –elevations
Figure 13 shows the arrangement of
thermocouples in each point.
3.3 Analysis of Temperature records
Figure 21 shows the Key-plan for the
temperature monitoring points in the raft and
how the zoning was done. The same zoning
notation will be used in graphs as well. Each
location was facilitated with at least 3 thermo-
couples which monitor the surface, mid core
and bottom related temperatures of the raft. For
some selected points; 5 Nos of thermocouples
installed.
Figure 12 shows the thermocouple map on the
raft.
6
 Figure 12 – Thermocouple map
Figure 13 – Temperature variance in Place 03
As per the recorded temperature variation, (Zone T04B)
almost all locations show a similar resultwhich
is elaborated in Figure 13 and Figure 14 as
well.This monitoring process of temperature
was important to take the decision; when to
remove the thermal insulation coverings on the
raft surface after the pouring operation. This
tells that further continuation of construction
works on the raft will be delayed accordingly.

The recorded temperature at the surface, mid

core and the bottom with external ambient
temperature were recorded and analysed. It
was self-explanatory that the maximum
temperatures were noted at the core. Bottom
was recorded second highest and top surface,
which was covered with a membrane curing
layer and 100mm Styrofoam cover on top
recorded the lowest figures. The total thermal Figure 14 – Temperature variance in Place 05
cover was further protected with an overlaying (Zone T04B)
thick tarpaulin sheet. Cooling rate was
recorded maximum at the bottom layer For both above Figure 13 and Figure 14, 1-Top
followed by mid core and top surface most thermocouple, 2-Mid level thermocouple
temperature was recorded constant even 2-3 and 3-Bottom most thermocouple; please refer
weeks’ time which state the effective top Figure 18 for arrangement of thermocouples in
thermal insulation cover produces appropriate each point. Readings from two selected
gradual top temperature gradient. This ensured locations are considered here since almost all
that top surface was free from even minor location observations show similar variation.
surface shrinkage cracks. Also noticed that the Total 12 Nos of points monitored.
temperature difference between any two layers
was less than 20 0C. The lowest ever recorded
was 58 0C and the highest ever temperature
recorded was 84 0C. The most reasonable
reason would be the arrival of new cement
shipment and empty cement silos got filled
with new bulk and further changing the Fly ash
source due to a shortage of the material. Final
fly ash was a granulated bottom ash source.

Figure 15 shows how the insulation was done

over the raft. The methodology is given under
3.4 if this paper.
Figure 15 – Thermal insulation cover on entire
raft top surface.

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81 ENGINEER
3.4 Curing of concrete

Membrane curing, (MasterKure 181) was used

on concrete surface, and Gauge 500 polythene
03
layer was put on the membrane curing, and
two layers of 50mm thick polystyrene sheet
layers were put and finally the area was Max. Restraint
covered by polyurethane cover (Tarpaulin). The 02
cover continued until the concrete temperature
drops below 45 0C. The time taken for this
phenomenon to occur was recorded
approximately 5 weeks. Until such time
working and loading on top of the raft was not 01
done. A time extension for this worthy reason
was proposed.
Figure 17 – Minimum delay between casting
Below points were taken in to consideration adjacent layers.
during post pour operation;
Here T04A, T04B and T04C were done in order
 Temperature shall be observed until maintaining a minimum delay between
the temperature difference between adjacent layers.
surface temperature and ambient
temperature is below 20 0C The previous pour was always warm when
 Gradient temperature between core pouring the adjacent pour. Hence the
and surface shall be below 20 0C temperature difference between adjacent layers
 Concrete temperature at pouring shall kept minimized.
below 32 0C
 Observed temperature log plotted and When it comes to the T05A and T05B, those
prepared. were done after T04A, T04B and T04C while
having a time delay of minimum 24 hours.
3.5 Time between adjacent pour volumes
When the principal strain acts perpendicular to
When the principal restraint is acting along the the joint, Time between adjacent layers shall be
direction of joint, the time between adjacent maximized [2]. Figure 18 shows how it was
strips or lifts should be minimized. (See Figure practiced while concreting T05A and T05B.
16)

03

Done

02 Max. Restraint Max Restraint.

Done

01

Done
Figure 16 – Minimize the time between
casting adjacent bays [2]
Figure 18 – Pour T05A and T05B done with a
time delay of 24 hours after completion of
This was practiced at site as well; zone T04A,
T04A, T04B and T04C
zone T04B and zone T04C were done with a
minimum delay between adjacent layers. Same
was practiced during the major pour operation To avoid any excessive restrain in either
as shown in Figure 17. direction, a square shape is preferred for the
given volume of concrete. T05A and T05B

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82
pours were arranged based on this as T05A and When insulation is not done, there will be some
T05B were done one after other with a tension at surface, but with a proper insulation
minimized time delay. this surface tension can be minimized to a
certain extent. However if the insulation is
3.6 Insulation period removed early, the condition will be worse as
surface tension will be increased than it had
Table 01 – Minimum periods of insulation to with no-insulation (Due to the sudden change).
avoid excessive temperature differentials. [2]
For the subjected pour, this was monitored
Minimum period properly along with the raft temperature
Minimum pour of insulation readings and insulation was done for 5 weeks.
dimension (m) (Days) At the end subjected raft surface found free of
thermal cracks.
0.5 3
1.0 5
4.0 Human resource planning
1.5 7
2.0 9 As in the normal case managing human
2.5 11 resource for a continuous and strenuous
4.5 21 operation of this calibre was challenging.
Organizing shift works, for both labour and
For this pour, the raft height was 3.5m and staff, timely transportation, fleet of petrol
insulation period took approximately 5 weeks vehicles with observers, monitoring distance
to meet the requirements as mentioned in 3.4 of locations like remote batching plants, logistics,
this paper. QA procedures, supplies, break down services
and maintenance etc. demands immense and
The important thing in insulation was avoiding precise planning, organizing and directing with
early age removal as it might make the things monitoring of the whole operation.
worse than no-insulation. [2]
5.0 Temperature problem in
Once it’s insulated it has to be maintained concreting
properly until the effect after removal of
insulation is within acceptable limits. There are some special problems involved in
concreting in hot weather arising both from a
higher temperature of the concrete and in many
Temperature

Top:
cases, from an increased rate of evaporation
from the fresh mix. In the case of large volumes
Core:
or mass concrete works, the problems are
Bottom: associated with possible cracking in
consequence of a temperature rise and
At peak (After 3 subsequent fall due to the heat of hydration of
Days) cement and of the concomitant restrained
volume changes.

The high temperature in fresh concrete is also

Temperature

Top: detrimental when placing large concrete

volumes because greater temperature
Core: differentials can develop between parts of the
mass due to more rapid evolution of heat of
Bottom: hydration of cement and subsequent cooling
When removing insulation induces tensile stresses which may cause
coverings (After 24 Days) thermal cracking too.

Figure 19 – Summary of observed average Formation of anhydriteettringite due to

temperature variation in vertical direction of restrained hydration since less water may also
the raft. (Reference: Figure 13 and Figure 14) create unwarranted expansion inside the core
leading to internal cracking. The following

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precautions were taken to mitigate these
detrimental effects.
1. One source cement
2. Compartmental concrete operation
ensuring unwanted mixing of different
suppliers
3. Using chilled water and ice to cool down
initial temperature keeping ice as a heat
reservoir mobilizing massive latent heat of
fusion.
4. Covering aggregates and cooling with ice
water
5. Maximum fly-ash usage (40%) and
laboratory and plant trials to ascertain rise
of temperature and strength.
6. Cement was kept in silos for 3 days and
avoid just in time supply that due to
friction cement temperature rises.
7. White painted silos, truck mixture and
drums wrapped with wet gunnies.
8. Late form work removal.
9. Low heat Portland cement
10. Usage of set – retarders thus avoiding
uncontrollable heat gain and formation of
cold joints
11. Dry wrap with insulation after membrane
curing of 100mm thick maintained water
pooling.
12. Clean aggregates without contaminants
specially like soleplates, chlorides etc. and
gradation is as specified avoiding
unnecessary and undesirable high
absorption of water to aggregates.
6.0 Conclusion
The Sri Lanka’s largest concrete pour was
completed successfully at ITC tower, One,
Galleface, Colombo one using local resources
and expertise. Professional approach to conduct
such a huge operation brought us successful
final note. From the remote supply sources,
series of trial mixes and lab and plant trials
helped to study the main component
“Concrete” to greater depth. Better technical
planning brought the success to the whole
operation and to the team. Better planning
associated with good team work let to perform
better organized operations. All technical
findings were discussed in deep in their
relevant chapters. The lesson learned during
the operation was immense and due better
ENGINEER
managing the event on professional platform
had caused defect free and successful
completion of the largest concrete pour in Sri
Lanka, even without past experience which will
be in par with the large volume.
Acknowledgement
We would also like to show our gratitude to the
International Construction Consortium
(ICC)Pvt. Ltd. Management, SPM, Eng. D.R.H.
Liyanage, Planning Eng. N.N. Gobidan and
project team for sharing their experience and
knowledge with us during the course of this
research.
References
1. ACI Committee 207. Guide to mass
concrete, ACI 207.1R-05. Farmington Hills,
MI: American Concrete Institute, 2005
2. Bamforth, P.B. and Price, W.F,Concreting
deep lifts and large volumepours,CIRIA,
London, 1995
3. Bobko, P. C., Edwards, J. A., Seracino, R., &
Zia, P. (Thermal cracking of mass concrete
bridge footings in coastal environments. Journal
of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 29,
0401–4171, 2015
4. Cervera, M., Faria, R., Oliver, J., & Prato, T.
Numerical modelling of concrete curing,
regarding hydration and temperature
phenomena. Computers & Structures, 2002,
1511– 1521.
5. Do, A. T., Lawrence, M. A., Tia, M., &
Bergin, M. J.Effects of thermal conductivity of
soil on temperature development and cracking in
mass concrete footings. Journal of Testing and
Evaluation, 2015, 43, 1078–1090.
6. Edwards, A. J.Early age thermal cracking of
mass concrete footings on bridges in coastal
environments (Unpublished MSc Graduate
Thesis). North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, 2013
7. Gajda, J.Mass concrete for buildings and
bridges. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement
Association, 2007 and Gajda, J., &Vangeem,
M.Controlling temperatures in mass concrete.
Concrete International, 2002, 24, 59–62.
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