1ST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1 POSITION, DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
2 PROJECTILE
3 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
4 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
5 CENTRE OF GRAVITY [G] AND STABILITY
6 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION AND CONSERVATION OF
LINEAR MOMENTUM
7 MID-TERM TEST AND BREAK
8 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [SHM]
9 ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

10 MACHINES
11 PRACTICAL AND REVISION
12 EXAMINATION

1.0 POSITION, DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Position is the point at which object can be located relative to the origin.
The point (2,-3) has x=2 and y=-3 respectively on x-y plane. And this can be shown graphically as
illustrated below
y

3-

I x
2
I
I
I
I
- 3- - - - - - - (2,-3)

Distance is the gap between any two points in space. It is denoted by s and measure in meter
(m). It is a scalar quantity.

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Mathematically: Distance = Average speed x time
Displacement‘s’ is the distance travelled in a specified direction. It is also refer to as change in
position of an object. It is a vector quantity measured in metre.
Mathematically: Displacement = average velocity x time. i.e s = (v+u)t, where u and v are initial
and final velocity respectively. 2

Example 1: During a race on level ground, Sandra runs with an average velocity of 6.02ms-1 to
the east. What is Sandra’s displacement after 137s?
Given: v = 6.02ms-1, t = 137s and s =?
Displacement‘s’ = Average velocity ‘v’ x time‘t’
s = 6.02 x 137 = 824.74m

EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

From the definition of displacement:
Average velocity = s = (u + v)
t 2

Therefore; s = (u + v) t ………………………………………………………………….. (i)

2

And Acceleration a = change in velocity

Time

i.e a=v-u i.e. v – u = at

t

v = u + at …………………………………………………………………… (ii)
From Eq (i) Substitute u+at for v;
i.e s = ( u + u + at) t = (2u + at)t
2

2s = 2ut + at2
S = 2ut + at2 = ut + at2
2 2 2
S = ut + 1at2……………………………………………. (iii)
2
From Equation (ii) v = u + at; t= v-u
a
Substitute above for t in equation (i)
i.e; s = (v+u). (v-u)
2 a
2as = v2 – uv + uv + u2
Therefore; v2 = u2 + 2as ………………………………………………………………………………… (iv)

WORKED EXAMPLES

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Example 1: An object starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration of 0.5ms-2.
Calculate the distance covered in 10s.
Given: a = 0.5ms-2, t = 10s and s =?
Using; s = ut + ½at2
s = (0x10) + ½(0.5x100), s= 50/2 = 25m
Example 2: A car travelling at 50ms-1 accelerating uniformly at the rate of3ms-2. Calculate its
velocity after 60sec.
Given: u=50ms-1, a = 3ms-2, t = 60s and v =?
Using; v = u + at
v = 50 + (3x60) = 230ms-1
Example 3: A car travelling with speed of 30ms-1 begins to decelerate uniformly, and comes to
rest 5s later. Find the distance that the car travels during braking.
Given: u = 30ms-1, v = 0ms-1 t = 5s, s =?
Using: s = (u + v) t; s = (30 + 0) x5 = 75m
2 2

EQUATIONS OF MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

In the absence of air resistance and friction all objects fall freely toward the centre of the earth
with the same constant acceleration known as acceleration due to gravity ‘g’, independent of
their masses. Therefore we can apply equation of uniformly accelerated motion to any falling
object by changing s and a to h and g respectively in the equations derived above.

Equations of motion under gravity are then given by;

v = u +gt
h = ut+ ½ gt2
v2 = u2+ 2gh
Note
 For an object falling from a particular height initial velocity u = 0 (at height h the body is
at rest) and acceleration a = g as the body accelerates uniformly towards the ground.
 For an object projected vertically upward, the velocity v = 0 at maximum height and
acceleration a = -g as the body decelerates uniformly until it attains maximum height.
Example 1: A ball is released from a height 10m above the ground. Find its velocity after 2
seconds and on hitting the ground. [g=10ms-2].

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Using;(i) v = u + gt
v = 0 + (10x2) = 20ms-1
(ii) v2 = u2 + 2gh
v2 = 0 + (2x10x10) = 200ms-1

Example 2: Calculate the maximum height reached and the total time spent in air by a ball
thrown vertically upwards from the ground with an initial velocity of 20ms-1.
Using; (i) v2 = u2 - 2gh, 0 = 202 – (2x10xh)
20h = 400, h = 400 = 20m
20

(ii) v = u – gt, 0 = 20 – (10xt)

10t = 20, t = 20 = 2s
10

T = 2t, T = 2 x 2 = 4s

Example 3: Calculate the time taken for the stone dropped from the top of a building 90m high
to reach the ground.
Using; h = gt2, 90 = 10 x t2
2 2
2 2
180 = 10t , t = 180
10
t = 3√2 sec

2.0 PROJECTILE
PROJECTILE is an object launched into the air and allows moving freely under the influence of
gravity.
Projectile is a two-dimensional motion under gravity where both vertical acceleration ‘g’ and
constant horizontal velocity is taken into consideration.
The only acceleration acting on projectile is the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ and it acts only in
vertical direction.
TRAJECTORY is the curve path that a projectile will follow under the action of gravity.

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Examples/Applications of projectile

 A Cannonball fired by the castle from the top of the tower.

 A stone shot from the catapult.
 A missile dropped from a bomber aircraft.
 A thrown grenade.
 A High jumper.
 Thrown javelin, discuss or shot put.
 A tennis ball hit with a racket. etc
TERMS USED IN PROJECTILE
i) Time of flight is the total time spent by a projectile in the air.
T = 2usinө/g OR t = √𝟐𝒉/𝒈

ii) Maximum height of a projectile is the highest vertical distance covered from the projection
plane. It is given by;
h = u2sin2θ/2g OR h= gt2/2 OR h = gR2/2ux2
iii) Range is the horizontal distance covered by a projectile before it hits the ground from the
point of projection. Projectile attains maximum range when the angle of projection is equal
to 450.
R =u2sin2θ/g OR Rmax = u2/g
A body can be projected in two ways:
i) It can be projected horizontally from a certain height to the ground.

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 ii) It can be projected from the ground in a direction inclined to the horizontal as shown
in the figure below. Here, angle of projection, θ, is taken into consideration.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1) A stone is projected horizontally from the top of a tower with a speed of 4m/s lands on the
level ground at a horizontal distance 25m from the foot of the tower. Calculate the height of
the tower. [g = 10m/s2]
Given: ux = 4m/s, R = 25m and h =?
Using; h = gR2/2ux2
h = (10 x 252)/2 x 42
h = 195.3m
2) A particle is projected horizontally at 15m/s from a height of 20m. Calculate the horizontal
distance covered by the particle just before hitting the ground. [g = 10m/s2]
Given; h = 20m, ux = 15m/s, g = 10m/s2 and R =?
Recall that h = ½ gt2, therefore; t = √(2h/g)
R = uxt, R = ux√(2h/g)
R = 15 x √(2 x 20/10) = 30m
3) A tennis ball is hit with a velocity of 3ms-1 at an angle of 600 to the horizontal. Calculate the;
a) time of flight b) maximum height c) the range. (g = 10ms-2)
Given; u = 3m/s, θ = 600 and g = 10m/s2
a) T = 2usinθ/g = (2 x 3 x sin600)/10 = 0.52s
b) h = u2sin2θ/2g = [32 x (sin600)2]/(2 x 10)

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 h = 0.34m
c) R = u2sin2θ/g = [32 x sin(2x60)]/10 = 0.78m

3.0 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Scalar is a physical quantity that has magnitude but no direction. E.g. distance, mass, density,
volume, time, speed, temperature, energy etc.

Vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. E.g. displacement,
velocity, acceleration, weight, force, momentum, force field etc.

Vector is represented with a straight line with arrow head pointing towards the direction of the
vector and its length varying directly with the magnitude of the vector.
Resultant vector is a single vector which produces the same effect on an object as two or
more vectors that is applied to the object.

Addition of two or more vectors acting parallel, perpendicular or at an angle to one another is
done using;
 Simple addition and subtraction method.
 Pythagoras theorem.
 Parallelogram law and triangle law.
 Graphical method or by the use of scale drawing.

Parallelogram Law of vector states that if two vectors acting on a body are represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, their
resultant vector is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of
the parallelogram drawn from the same point.
Triangle law of vector states that, if two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude
and direction by the two adjacent sides of a triangle taken in order, the resultant vector is
represented in magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle taken in the reversed
order.
PARALLEL VECTORS

In the same direction

Figure 1a In opposite direction
Figure 1b

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 INCLINED VECTORS

R2 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
Perpendicular Vectors
Figure 1c Figure 1d Figure 1e
WORKED EXAMPLES [Leave a page for practice question]

RESOLUTION OF VECTORS COMPONENTS

The process of finding the components of vectors in a given direction is known as resolution of
vector into its components. If a vector V is inclined at an angle Θ to a horizontal direction as shown
below:

Example 1: Resolve a force of 100N inclined at 500 to the horizontal into horizontal and vertical
components.
Solution:

THE RESULTANT OF MORE THAN TWO VECTORS

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To find the resultant of more than two vectors, we resolve each vector into two perpendicular
directions; add all the horizontal components, X and all the vertical components Y.

R = √(𝐹𝑥)2 + (𝐹𝑦)2

Example 2: Calculate the resultant of three coplanar forces 3 N at 0°, 4 N at 90°, and 5 N at 30°
acting at a point as shown below.

900

300

Force Horizontal FX(N) FY (N)

(N) inclination (0)
3.0 0 3cos0 = 3 3sin0 = 0
4.0 90 4cos90 = 0 4sin90 = 4
5.0 30 -5cos30 = - -5sin30 = -2.5
4.33
𝝐FX = -1.33 𝝐Fy = 1.5
R= √(Ɛ𝐹𝑥)2 + (Ɛ𝐹𝑦)2
R = √(−1.33)2 + (1.5)2

R = 2.0 N

The direction ‘α’ of the resultant force is given by;

sinα = 𝝐Fy
R

sinα = 1.5 = 0.75

2
α = sin-1(0.75) = 48.50

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4.0 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
A body is in equilibrium when it is not accelerating, i.e. the resultant force acting on it in any
direction is zero.

The body may either be at rest [static equilibrium] or may be moving with a constant velocity in a
straight line, or when it is rotating with a constant angular velocity about a fixed axis through its
center of mass [kinetic or dynamic equilibrium].

EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE COPLANAR FORCES

Equilibrant force is a single force needed to balance the effect of two or more forces taken
together. It is equal in magnitude but act in opposite direction to the resultant force.

R E

In the figure above, equilibrant and resultant of F1 and F2 are E and R respectively.
Though for the case of three forces F1, F2 and F3 acting at a point and in the state of equilibrium,
any of the three forces can be the equilibrant of the other two. i.e. F3 is the equilibrant of F1 and
F2, F1 is the equilibrant of F2 and F3and F2 is the equilibrant of F1 and F3.
Example 1: A body of mass 10kg is kept in equilibrium by two ropes as shown in the fig below. If
one rope pulls the body in a horizontal direction and the other in a direction of 400 with the vertical,
calculate the tension in each rope.

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Solution: mass of 10kg = 100N force. [W = mg]
According to Fig (b) T1 = 100tan400= 83.91N
T=√1002 + 83.912 = 130.54N

Further Examples [Leave a page for practice question]

MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A POINT [TORQUE]

Moment of a force about a point [Torque] is the product of force and the perpendicular distance
‘d’ of its line of action from that point. i.e τ = F×d. It is a vector quantity measured in Newton-
metre [Nm].

Turning effect of a spanner on the bolt

Example 1: Calculate the moment of a force about a point of a force of 20 N applied 15cm to
the pivot of a door handle.

Given; F = 20 N, d = 15 cm = 0.15 m and τ =?

τ = F x d, τ = 20 x 0.15 = 3 Nm

Principle of Moments states that if a body is in equilibrium, then the sum of the clockwise
moments about any point on the body is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about
the same point.

Example 2: A uniform rod of length 8 m and mass 60 kg is suspended by two strings as shown in
the diagram below. Find the tension in each rope. [g = 10ms-2]

600 N

Solution: Using the principle of moment i.e.

Sum of clockwise moment = sum of anticlockwise moment.

Taking the moment about T2;

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T1 x 5 = 600 x 2

T1 = 1200 = 240 N
5
Recall that; Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces

Therefore; T1 + T2 = 600 N

T2 = (600 – 240) N = 360 N

Further Examples [Leave a page for practice question]

COUPLE AND TORQUE

A couple is two parallel forces equal in magnitude and pointing in the opposite directions such that their
lines of action do not meet.

The moment of a couple is the product of one of the force and the perpendicular distance ‘d’ between
the forces. i.e.

Γ = F x d.

5.0 CENTRE OF GRAVITY [G] AND STABILITY

Centre of gravity is the point through which the weight of a rigid body appears to act.
The centre of gravity of an object is a point on an object where its resultant weight is
concentrated. It can be determined by balancing the body on a pivot (knife edge) or by
suspension with a plumb line from several points.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF REGULARLY SHAPED OBJECTS

Regular shaped objects have their centre of gravity G at their centre.

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 Centre of gravity of regular shapes

Further Example and Reading: Centre of gravity of an irregular object. E.g. Lamina

STABILITY OF OBJECTS

Stability of a body depends on the location of its centre of gravity. There are three types of
equilibrium;

Stable equilibrium: A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if

when slightly displaced from rest position, it tends to return to its
equilibrium position.

Unstable equilibrium: A body is in a state of unstable equilibrium if

when displaced slightly from its rest position; it tends to seek for a
new position where the centre of gravity is lowest.

Neutral equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if the position

of centre of gravity does not change when it is slightly displaced
from its rest position.

6.0 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION AND CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

Newton’s first law of motion [Law of inertia] states that a body at rest remains at rest, or, if in
motion, remains in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by a net external force.
The property of a body to remain at rest or uniform motion with constant velocity is called
inertia.
Newton’s second law of motion states that the time rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the applied force acting on it and takes place in the direction of the
force.
i.e. F = m(v – u) and a = v - u
t t

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 F = ma
Newton’s third law of motion states that action and reaction are equal and opposite.

Fa

-Fb
Fa= -Fb. where Fa= the action force and Fb= reaction force.

LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

The linear momentum [P] of an object of mass m moving with a velocity v is defined as the
product of its mass and velocity.
i.e. p = mv. It is a vector quantity measured in kgms-1.
Momentum of an object varies directly as the mass and velocity of the object.

Example 1: What is the momentum of a pickup truck of mass 2500 kg travelling with a velocity
of 30 ms-1 to the east?
Momentum p = mass x velocity
p = 2500 x 30 = 7.5 x 104 kgms-1

Example 2: What is the total momentum a boy of mass 20 kg riding on 6 kg bike with a velocity
of 4 ms-1 to the North?
Total mass = (20 + 6) kg = 26 kg
p = 26 x 4 = 104 kgms-1

Impulse [I] is the product of the force and the time over which the force acts on an object.
i.e. I = F x t. It is a vector quantity measured in Ns.
From Newton’s second law of motion:
F∆t = ∆mv. This relation is called impulse-momentum theorem.

Example 3: A 0.65 kg football is thrown with a velocity of 10 ms-1 and a stationary receiver
catches the ball and brings it to rest in 0.050 s. What is the force exerted on the receiver’s hand
by the ball?
Given; m = 0.65 kg, v = 10 ms-1, t = 0.05 s and F =?
Using; F = m x v
t
F = 0.65 x 10 = 130 N
0.05

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISION

Principle of conservation of linear momentum states that if no external forces act on the
system of two colliding body, the total momentum before collision is equal to total
momentum after collision.

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 ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISION
Elastic collision is one in which both the momentum and kinetic energy of the colliding bodies
are conserved. In this collision, the colliding bodies separate from each other after collision.
i.e. For colliding bodies A and B:
mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
and
½ mAu2A + ½ mBu2B = ½ mAv2A + ½ mBv2B
Inelastic collision is a collision in which the total momentum before and after collision is
conserved, but the total kinetic energy is not conserved. In this type of collision two objects
stick together after collision.
For colliding bodies A and B:
mAuA + mBuB = (mA + mB)vAB
In the case of collision of two objects moving toward each other (i.e. in opposite direction),
equation above takes the form;
mAuA - mBuB = (mA + mB)vAB
Kinetic Energy before collision;
2
k.eb = 1mAuA2 + 1mBuB
2 2
Kinetic Energy after collision

2
k.ea = 1(mA + mB)vAB
2

Example 4: A 2.0 kg rubber ball sliding to the right at 8.0 ms-1 has an elastic head-on collision
with identical ball initially at rest. The first ball stops after the collision. a) Find the velocity of

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the second ball after the collision. b) Verify your answer by calculating the total kinetic energy
before and after the collision.
Given; mA = 2.0 kg, uA = 8.0 ms-1, mB = 2.0 kg, uB = 0 ms-1, vA = 0 ms-1, vB =?
Using; mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
(2 x 8.0) + 0 = 0 + (2 x vB)
16.0 = 2vB, vB = 16 = 8.0 ms-1
2
K.Eb = ½ mAu2A + ½ mBu2B
K.Eb = [½ x 2 x 82] + [½ x 2 x 02] = 64J
K.Ea = ½ mAv2A + ½ mBv2B
K.Ea = [½ x 2 x 0] + [½ x 2 x 82] = 64J

Example 5: Two clay balls collide head-on in a perfectly inelastic collision. The first ball has a
mass of 0.50 kg and an initial velocity of 4.0 ms-1 to the right. The second ball has a mass of 0.25
kg and an initial velocity of 3.0 ms-1 to the left. Calculate their common velocity and loss in
kinetic energy after the collision.
Given; mA = 0.50 kg, mB = 0.25 kg, uA = 4 ms-1to the right, uB = 3 ms-1 to the left, vAB =? and ∆k.e
=?
i) mAuA – mBuB = (mA + mB)vAB
(0.50 x 4) – (0.25 x 3) = (0.50 + 0.25)vAB
1.25 = 0.75vAB, vAB = 1.25 = 1.67 ms-1
0.75
ii) Kinetic energy before collision;
2
k.eb = 1mAu2A + 1mBuB
2 2
k.eb = (0.50 x 4 x 4) + (0.25 x 3 x 3)
2 2
k.eb = 4 + 1.125 = 5.125 J
Kinetic energy after collision;
k.ea = 1(mA + mB)v2AB
2
k.ea = (0.5 + 0.25) x 1.672 = 1.045 J
2
∆k.e = k.eb – k.ea
∆k.e = 5.125 – 1.045 = 4.08 J

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAWS AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

 Recoil of a gun.
 Rocket propulsion and airplane.
 Why walking is possible.
 Weight of a man in a lift

PRACTICE EXERCISE

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1. A ball of mass 0.5kg moving at 10m/s collides with another ball of equal mass at rest. If
the two balls move off together after impact, calculate their common velocity.
2. A ball of mass 100g moving with a velocity of 10m/s collides with a wall. If after the
collision it moves with a velocity of 2m/s in the opposite direction, calculate the change in
momentum.
3. A ball of mass 0.2kg released from a height of 2m hits horizontal floor and rebounds to a
height of 1.8m. Calculate the impulse received by the floor.
4. A 3kg rifle lays on a smooth table when it suddenly discharges, firing a bullet of 0.02kg
with a speed of 500m/s. Calculate the recoil velocity of the gun.
5. A man whose mass is 80kg stands on a spring weighing machine inside an elevator. What
is the reading of the weighing machine when
(i) The elevator starts to ascend with an acceleration of 2m/s2
(ii) The elevator is moving with a uniform velocity?
(iii) The elevator is coming to rest with an acceleration of 4m/s2

7.0 CIRCULAR AND SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION [SHM]

1) CONCEPT OF CIRCULAR MOTION

Circular motion is the motion of an object in a circular path with uniform speed while its
direction continuously changes. It is also known as curve-linear motion.
E.g (a) Stone whirled in horizontal direction.
(b) Planets revolving round the sun.
(c) A racing car moving round a circular track etc.
TERMS RELATED TO CIRCULAR MOTION
PERIOD, T - Is the time required to make one complete oscillation (cycle) about a point of
reference. It is measured in seconds (s).
T = time (t) T =1
n f
Where n = number of oscillation and f = frequency
FREQUENCY, f – Is the number of complete revolution per unit time. It is measured in hertz
(Hz) or per second s-1.
AMPLITUDE, A– Is the maximum displacement of the body from the equilibrium position. It is
measured in metre (m).
ANGULAR VELOCITY (FREQUENCY), ω - This is defined as the angular distance travelled
divided by time. i.e. ω = Ɵ/t.
Tangential (Linear) velocity, v, is related to angular velocity by; v = ωr.
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION, a: Is the acceleration of a body travelling along a circular
path.
It is always directed toward the center of a circle and it is given by;

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 a=v2
r
Centripetal Force, Fc is the force that is required to keep an object moving in a circular path in
motion.
Mathematically Fc = mv2/r. It is called:
 Frictional force when it keeps a car moving round the circular path on track.
 Tension when the body performing circular motion is attached to a string.
 Gravitational force in the case of planet orbiting the sun.
 Intermolecular force in the case of electron orbiting the nucleus.

Centrifugal Force: This is the opposite of centripetal force. It is the force that tends or cause a
body maintaining a uniform circular motion to recede (move away) from the centre.
Worked Examples
1. A particle of mass 0.005kg moves round in a circle of radius 1.2m completing three
revolutions in 2 seconds. Find the: (i) angular velocity (ii) linear velocity (iii) the centripetal
force pulling it towards the centre of the circle.

Given: m = 0.005kg, r = 1.2 m, Time for 3 complete revolution = 2s, ω =?, v =? And Fc =?
Angle Ɵ turned through during 3 revolution = 3 x 3600 = 3 x 2π = 6π
(i) ω = Ɵ/t = 6π/2 = 3π = 9.43 radian per seconds (rads-1)
(ii) v = ωr = 9.43 x 1.2 = 11.31ms-1
(iii) Fc = mv2/r = (0.005 x 11.31 x 11.31)/1.2 = 0.53N

2. A mass of 10kg is moving in a circular path of radius 2m with a uniform speed of 50m/s.
Find the centripetal acceleration and the corresponding centripetal force.
Given: r = 2m, m = 10kg and v = 50m/s
(i) ac = v2/r = (50x50)/ 2 = 1250ms-2
(ii) Fc = mv2/r = 10 x 1250 = 12500N.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION is the periodic motion of a particle whose acceleration is directed
towards the equilibrium or fixed point and is directly proportional to the displacement from
that point.
Examples of S.H.M are;
 The motion of a string in a musical instrument e.g. guitar.
 The motion of balance wheel of a watch.
 The beating of the heart.
 Oscillating mass on a spiral spring.
 Oscillating simple pendulum bob.
 Oscillating compound pendulum.
 Oscillating test tube in a liquid.

TERMS USED IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

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AMPLITUDE [A]: The maximum displacement of a body performing simple harmonic motion
from its equilibrium position. It is measure in metre [m].
Angular velocity[ω] is defined as the angle turned through by body per time taken. i.e ω = Θ/t.
It also equals to; 2πf, 2π/T, √𝑘/𝑚, √𝑔/𝑙.
Angular acceleration of a body is the time rate of change of its angular velocity (ω). It is
expressed in rads-2.

PERIOD [T] is the total time taken by a vibrating body to complete one oscillation [cycle] about
a reference point. It is measured in seconds[s]. T = 1/F, T = time/ number of oscillation.

PERIOD of S.H.M is also given by; T = 2π/ω

Where k = force constant, m = mass, 𝑙 = length of the string, g = gravitational acceleration.

FREQUENCY [f] is the number of complete revolutions per seconds made by vibrating body. It is
measured in hertz [Hz]. f = 1/T, f = no of oscillation/time, f = ω/2π

SPEED AND ACCELERATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Linear velocity [Speed] (v) is related to the angular velocity (ω) with the relation; v = ωr = ωA.
Instantaneous velocity at distance, x, from fixed point is given by;
v = ω√𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 OR v = ω√𝒓𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
Where r = radius, A = amplitude and x = mid-point.
Linear acceleration is given by: a = -ω2x, a = -ω2A, a = v2/A and a = ωv.

WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 1: A simple pendulum with length 100 cm is used to determine acceleration due to
gravity in a laboratory. It is observed that the pendulum completes 100 oscillations in 200
seconds. What is the value of g on that location? [π = 3.142]
Given; 𝒍= 100 cm = 1 m, n = 100, t = 200 and
g =?
T= t = 200 = 2.0 s
𝒏 100

g = 4π2𝒍 = 4 x (3.142)2 x 1 = 9.87 ms-2

T2 2.02

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Example 2: A mass 60g hung on the free end of a spring extends it by 12 cm. Calculate the
stiffness of the spring and the period of small amplitude of oscillation of the mass. [g = 10ms -2
and π = 3.142]
Given; m = 60 g = 0.06 kg, x = 12 cm = 0.12 m, k =? and T =?
(i) F = mg = kx, k = mg
x
K = 0.06 x 10 = 5 Nm-1
0.12
(ii)

T= (2 x 3.142) x √𝟎. 𝟎𝟔/𝟓 = 0.69 s

Example 3: A particle is oscillating in simple harmonic motion with frequency 60 Hz and

amplitude 0.15 cm. Calculate its speed and acceleration if it is displaced by 0.09 cm from the
equilibrium position. [π= 3.142]
Given; f = 60 Hz, A = 0.15 cm, x = 0.09 cm, v =?
and a =?
(i) ω = 2πf = 2 x 3.142 x 60 = 377.04 rads-1
v = ω√𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
v = 377.04 x (√𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟐 )
v = 45.2 cms-1 = 0.452ms-1
(ii) a = -ω2x
a = (-377.04)2 x 0.09 = 12794.32 cms-2
a = 127.9ms-2

8.0 ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

For mass, m, suspended on a spring and set into oscillation, the restoring force acting towards
the fixed point is given by;

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 From ω=√𝒌/𝒎, k = mω2.
Elastic potential energy = ½Kx2 = ½mω2x2

kinetic energy K.E = ½mv2

Recall that; v = ω√𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
Then; v2 = ω2(A2 – x2)
Therefore; K.E = ½mω2(A2 – x2) and k = mω2
K.E = ½K(A2 – x2)
Total Energy (T.E) = K.E + P.E;
ET = ½K(A2 – x2) + ½Kx2
Therefore, ET = ½KA2 = ½ mω2A2

Total energy is constant, therefore it is independent of displacement, x.

Example 4: A 100 g body oscillates in simple harmonic motion with angular frequency of 6 rads -
1 and amplitude of 0.012 m. Calculate; (i) the kinetic and potential energies when the body is

displaced 0.006 m from the equilibrium position. (ii) the total energy of the system.
Given; m = 100g = 0.1kg, ω = 6rads-1, A = 0.012m, and x = 0.006m

(i) K.E at x = 0.006m

K.E = ½mω2 (A2– x2)

K.E = ½ x 0.1 x 62 x (0.0122 – 0.0062)

K.E = 1.94 x 10-4J
P.E at x = 0.006m
P.E = ½mω2x2
P.E = ½ x 0.1 x 62 x 0.0062 = 6.48 x 10-5J
(ii) ET = ½mω2A2
ET = ½ x 0.1 x 62 x 0.0122 = 2.59 x 10-4J
FORCE VIBRATION AND RESONANCE
Force vibration is a vibration in which energy is constantly supplied to a vibrating body by an
external periodic force.

RESONANCE is a phenomenon which occurs whenever a body is set into an oscillation at its
own natural frequency as a result of impulse received from another body vibrating with the
same frequency.
At resonance, maximum energy is transferred from the periodic external force to the natural
vibrations of a system.

EXAMPLES OF BODY RESONATING ARE;

• Repeated jumping of a diver at the free end of a diving board to resonate.

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• Rattling of car engine at high speed causing vibration of the body of the car.
• Loud sound from vibrating prongs of a tunning fork when pressed on a table-top.
• Bridge vibrating under uniform matching of soldiers.
• Glass windows vibrating as a result of high-pitched note emitted from near-by sound source.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. An object of mass 0.5kg vibrates with a period of 1.5 seconds. If the amplitude is 0.25m,
calculate its maximum velocity and kinetic energy. [π = 3.142]

9.0 MACHINES
A machine is a device which allows a force (or effort) applied at one point to overcome a resisting
force (or load) at another point.

Simple machines are devices that can be used to multiply or augment a force that we apply – often
at the expense of a distance through which we apply the force. Examples of simple machine are;

The lever, pulleys, inclined plane, the wedge, wheel and axle and screw jack.

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING MACHINES

• Effort: This is the force applied to a machine.
• Load: This is the force of resistance overcome by the machine.
• Mechanical advantage [Force ratio]: This is the ratio of load to the effort. OR output force/input
force.

Velocity ratio (V.R): This is the ratio of distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the
load. It is independent of friction.
• Efficiency (Ɛ): This is the ratio of useful work-done by machine to the work put into the machine.

Usually, this is expressed as a percentage:

Ɛ= useful work-done by machine/work put into the machine X 100%
Ɛ= Load(l) X distance moved by the load/Effort(E) X distance moved by the effort X 100%

Ɛ = M.A/V.R X 100%

The perfect or ideal machine has 100% efficiency i.e. work-done by machine = work done on
machine. Then mechanical advantage (M.A) = velocity ratio (V.R).
But in practical machine the efficiency is usually less than 100% because of the friction in the
moving part of the machine.
Example 1: A machine whose efficiency is 80% is used to raise a load of 750N. Calculate the effort
put into the machine if it has a velocity ratio of 4.
Solution: L = 750N, Ɛ= 80 percent, V.R = 4, M.A =? E =?
Ɛ = M.A/V.R X 100‰
Therefore: 80/100 =M.A/4, M.A = (80X4)/100 = 3.2.
And M.A = L/E, E = L/M.A = 750/3.2 = 234.4N.

CALCULATIONS ON SIMPLE MACHINES

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• LEVER: This is one of the simplest machines which can overcome a large resistance by the
application of a small force (effort).

CLASSES OF LEVER
First order: In which the fulcrum is in between the load and the effort. E.g. scissors, crowbar, claw
hammer, pliers etc.

Second order: The load (L) is between the effort (E) and the fulcrum. E.g. wheelbarrow and nut
crackers. M.A and V.R of this lever are always greater than 1.

Third order of lever: Effort (E) is between load (L) and fulcrum (F). E.g. forceps, tongs forearm. M.A
and V.R are less than 1.

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PULLEY SYSTEM: These are often used in construction sites to raise or lower heavy loads. For pulley
system V.R is equal to number of pulley in the system.

THE INCLINED PLANE: This type of machine is used to raise heavy loads such as drums of oil, up a
sloppy plank to the high floor of Lorries. V.R = 1/sinΘ.

THE WEDGE: This is a combination of two inclined planes. It is used to separate bodies which are
held together by large forces. E.g. splitting timber. Example of wedge machines are: axes, chisels,
knives and other cutting tools.

SCREW JACK: This can be considered as an inclined plane wrapped round a cylinder, the
hypotenuse of the inclined plane forming a spiral that constitutes the screw thread. Its velocity ratio
V.R is given as; V.R = 2πr/p. Where p = pitch (distance between successive screw threads) r = length
of the Tommy bar. If the frictional forces are negligible, then V.R = M.A.

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THE WHEEL AND AXLE: This machine is used to lift water from deep wells or raise heavy loads such
as anchor of ship. Its velocity ratio is given as; V.R = R/r, where R= radius of the wheel and r = radius
of the axle.

GEAR WHEELS: These are commonly used in cars, bicycles and cranes. In this machine, the principle
of the wheel and axle is applied to two wheels of different radii connected by a belt, chain or
interlocked and rotating on separate shafts.

V.R = number of teeth on driven wheel (A)/number of teeth on driving wheel (B).

Worked Examples [Leave a page for practice question]

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