Developmental Psychology Importance is placed on upholding the law and respecting authority figures.
ce is placed on upholding the law and respecting authority figures.  Children become aware of the differences between sexes and experience the
Lifespan Perspective
 developed by German psychologist Paul Baltes
Moral Development Theory
 proposed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
1. Preconventional Level (Ages 4-10)
At this level, children's moral reasoning is focused on external rewards and punishments.
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Morality is based on avoiding punishment.
Children see rules as absolute and focus on the consequences of actions, not the intent.
Example: A child might refrain from stealing a cookie because they fear getting into
trouble.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
Actions are right if they benefit the child or satisfy their needs.
Fairness and reciprocity are important concepts.
Example: A child might share a toy if they expect something in return later.
2. Conventional Level (Ages 10-20)
At this level, individuals begin to internalize societal norms and expectations.
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation
Morality is about pleasing others and gaining social approval.
Children conform to what they believe is expected of "good" people.
Example: A teenager might volunteer at a charity to be seen as helpful and kind.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
Following rules and maintaining social order are paramount.
Example: A young adult might believe that breaking the speed limit is wrong, even if
there's no danger, because it's the law.
3. Postconventional Level (Adolescence to Adulthood)
At this level, moral reasoning transcends social expectations and focuses on universal
principles.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
Morality is based on upholding the greater good and respecting individual rights.
Laws are seen as flexible and changeable based on their fairness and purpose.
Example: An adult might support a protest against a law they believe is unjust, even if it
means breaking the law.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Morality is based on universal ethical principles of justice, fairness, and equality.
These principles are considered above laws and societal rules.
Example: A person might risk their safety to stand up for what they believe is right, even if
it is unpopular.
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development
1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 Years Old)
 This stage is crucial for the development of object permanence, the understanding that
objects exist even when unseen or unheard.
 Infants learn through their senses and motor actions, focusing on understanding the
world through reflexes and experimentation.
 Around 8 months, object permanence starts to develop. Initially, if you hide a toy, the
infant might act as if it has ceased to exist. However, as they develop object
permanence, they will search for the hidden toy.
 Infants begin to differentiate themselves from the environment.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 Years Old)
 Children develop symbolic thinking and language skills.
 They can engage in pretend play and imagine scenarios.
 However, they struggle with logical reasoning and tasks requiring mental manipulation
(e.g., conservation of mass).
 Egocentrism (difficulty seeing things from another's perspective) is prevalent.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 Years Old)
 Children develop the ability to perform logical operations on concrete objects and
situations.
 They can classify objects, understand seriation (ordering objects), and grasp
conservation of mass.
 Egocentrism diminishes, but they still struggle with abstract concepts.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 Years and Up)
 Adolescents and adults develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.
 They can reason about possibilities and solve problems systematically.
 They can think critically about themselves and the world around them.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development
1. Oral Stage (Birth - 1 Year)
 The erogenous zone is the mouth.
 Infants derive pleasure from sucking, breastfeeding, and exploring objects with their
mouths.
 Fixation:
Overindulged: Dependent, attention-seeking (smokers?)
Deprived: Stingy, distrustful
2. Anal Stage (1 - 3 Years)
 The erogenous zone is the anus.
 Toilet training becomes a significant experience as children gain control over their
bodily functions.
 Fixation:
Expulsive: Rebellious, messy
Retentive: Orderly, stubborn
3. Phallic Stage (3 - 5 Years)
 The erogenous zone is the genitals.
Oedipus/Electra complex (desire for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy towards the
same-sex parent).
 Fixation
Men (Oedipus Complex): Issues with masculinity, intimacy
Women (Electra Complex): Trouble with relationships, femininity
General: Problems with sexuality, emotions, or needing admiration
4. Latency Stage (5 - 12 Years)
 A quieter period where sexual urges are repressed.
 Focus on social development, friendships, and acquiring skills.
5. Genital Stage (Adolescence - Onwards)
 Sexual urges re-emerge with a focus on mature sexual relationships.
 Individuals strive for intimacy and balance between their id (basic instincts), ego
(reality and self-control), and superego (morality).
Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year): Babies rely on caregivers for everything. Consistent
care builds trust, while neglect leads to fear. Imagine a baby who cries for food and is
promptly soothed develops trust, whereas one left crying frequently may develop mistrust.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years): Toddlers are learning independence.
Encouragement during potty training fosters willpower, while harsh criticism can lead to
shame and doubt. A toddler who gets praised for trying to put on shoes feels confident,
while one scolded for spills might feel ashamed.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years): Preschoolers are exploring and taking initiative.
Through play, they develop a sense of purpose. Conversely, too much restriction can
lead to guilt. Imagine a child who gets to pretend being a doctor and feels proud
(purpose), versus one constantly told "no" and feels guilty for exploring.
Industry vs. Inferiority (5 to 12 years): School-aged children develop competence
through learning and social interaction. Success in schoolwork and friendships builds a
sense of competence, while failure can cause inferiority. A child who gets good grades
and enjoys playing with friends feels competent, while one struggling in class and
excluded might feel inferior.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years): Teenagers are figuring out who they are.
Positive experiences with friends and trying new things help them develop a strong sense
of identity. On the other hand, negative experiences can lead to confusion about oneself.
Imagine a teenager involved in activities they enjoy and feel comfortable with their friend
group (identity), versus one pressured to fit in and unsure of their interests (role
confusion).
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Young adults are forming close
relationships. Healthy romantic partnerships and strong friendships lead to love and a
sense of belonging. Conversely, isolation from others can result in loneliness. Imagine a
young adult who builds supportive relationships and feels connected (love), versus one
struggling to connect with others and feeling isolated.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood): Adults contribute to the world through work,
family, and community involvement. Raising a family, mentoring others, or pursuing a
fulfilling career fosters a sense of care and accomplishment. However, a lack of purpose
or feeling like one's contributions don't matter can lead to stagnation. Imagine an adult
who volunteers for a cause they care about and feels fulfilled (generativity), versus one
stuck in a dead-end job and feels their life lacks meaning (stagnation).
Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): As we reflect on our lives, we can feel a sense
of integrity and acceptance or despair. Looking back with a sense of accomplishment and
peace leads to wisdom. Conversely, dwelling on regrets or feeling like life wasn't what
you hoped for can lead to despair. Imagine an older adult who feels proud of their life's
journey and accomplishments (integrity), versus one filled with regrets and feels their life
wasn't meaningful (despair).
B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement: The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a
preceding behavior will be repeated.
 Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
 Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.
Punishment: The process by which a stimulus decreases the probability that a preceding
behavior will be repeated.
 Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.
 Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.
examples:
Positive Reinforcement:
Giving a child a sticker every time they complete their homework.
Explanation: The desirable stimulus (the sticker) is added to increase the behavior of
completing homework.
Negative Reinforcement:
Turning off a loud alarm clock by waking up promptly.
Explanation: The aversive stimulus (the loud alarm) is removed to increase the behavior
of waking up promptly.
Positive Punishment:
A coach making a player run laps for showing up late to practice.
Explanation: An aversive stimulus (running laps) is added to decrease the behavior of
being late.
Negative Punishment:
Taking away a teenager's phone for failing to complete chores.
Explanation: A desirable stimulus (the phone) is removed to decrease the behavior of not Course of Prenatal Development
doing chores.  First Trimester: Weeks 1-12 after conception.
 Second Trimester: Weeks 13-26 after conception.
Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning  Third Trimester: Weeks 27 until birth (around 38-40 weeks).
 Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without 1. Germinal Stage:
prior learning. Duration: Weeks 1-2 after conception.
 Unconditioned Response (UR): The automatic response to the unconditioned Key Events:
stimulus. Week 1:
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with Fertilization: Union of the sperm and egg to form a zygote.
the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response. Zygote Formation: The zygote undergoes rapid cell division, forming a blastocyst.
 Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus, Week 2:
similar to the unconditioned response. Implantation: The blastocyst attaches to the uterine lining.
examples: Significance: Establishes the foundation for prenatal development.
 Pavlov's Dogs: Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell (CS) after it was 2. Embryonic Stage:
repeatedly paired with the presentation of food (US). Duration: Weeks 3-8 after conception.
 (US): The food presented to the dogs. Key Events:
 (UR): The dogs' salivation triggered by the food. Weeks 3-4:
 Advertising: Associating a product (CS) with positive emotions or experiences Differentiation: Cells begin to specialize into different types of tissues and organs.
(US) to evoke a desirable response from consumers (CR). Neural Tube Formation: The neural tube, which later develops into the brain and spinal
cord, begins to form.
Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory Weeks 5-6:
Ecological Systems: Bronfenbrenner proposed that human development occurs within a Organogenesis: Major organs and bodily structures start to develop, including the heart,
complex system of interconnected environments, each influencing individuals' growth and brain, limbs, and facial features.
development. Heartbeat: The heart begins to beat and pump blood.
Microsystem: The microsystem refers to the immediate environments in which Weeks 7-8:
individuals interact directly, such as family, school, peer group, and neighborhood. Limb Bud Formation: Limbs start to form, and fingers and toes become visible.
These settings play a crucial role in shaping individuals' experiences, relationships, and Facial Features: Eyes, ears, nose, and mouth become more defined.
development. Significance: Critical period for the development of essential bodily structures.
Mesosystem: The mesosystem involves the interconnections and interactions between 3. Fetal Stage:
different microsystems. Duration: Weeks 9 until birth (around 38-40 weeks).
For example, the relationship between a child's school experiences and their family Key Events:
dynamics or the influence of peer relationships on academic performance. Weeks 9-12:
Exosystem: The exosystem comprises settings that indirectly affect individuals' Growth Spurt: The fetus experiences rapid growth, and internal organs continue to
development, even though they may not directly participate in those settings. develop and mature.
Examples include parents' workplaces, community organizations, and local government Movement: Limb movements become more coordinated, although they may not be felt by
policies. the mother yet.
Macrosystem: The macrosystem encompasses broader cultural values, customs, laws, Weeks 13-16:
and societal ideologies that influence individuals' development. Muscle Development: Muscles strengthen, and the fetus can make more purposeful
It includes cultural norms, socioeconomic status, political systems, and historical events. movements, such as sucking and swallowing.
Chronosystem: The chronosystem emphasizes the dimension of time and how it Sex Differentiation: External genitalia begin to differentiate into male or female.
influences development across the lifespan. Weeks 17-20:
It encompasses life transitions, historical events, and changes in individuals' Vernix and Lanugo: The fetus is covered in a white, cheese-like substance called vernix
environments over time. and fine hair called lanugo.
Quickening: The mother may start to feel fetal movements, known as quickening.
Weeks 21-24: Newborn Reflexes 1. Neurons:
Lung Development: Alveoli in the lungs begin to form, preparing for breathing after birth. Rooting Reflex: Structure: Neurons are specialized cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals in
Brain Growth: Brain development accelerates, and the cerebral cortex becomes more  Stimulus: Touching or stroking the baby's cheek or mouth. the nervous system.
complex.  Response: Baby turns their head towards the stimulus and opens their mouth, seeking Components:
Weeks 25-28: out the source of touch for feeding. Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and other organelles essential for cellular
Eyelids Open: The fetus's eyelids open, and it starts to exhibit rapid eye movements Sucking Reflex: functions.
(REM sleep).  Stimulus: Placing a finger or nipple in the baby's mouth. Dendrites: Branch-like extensions that receive signals from other neurons or sensory
Viability: The fetus reaches the age of viability, where it may survive outside the womb  Response: Baby instinctively sucks on the object, aiding in feeding and providing receptors.
with intensive medical care. comfort. Axon: Long, slender projection that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body
Weeks 29-32: Moro Reflex (Startle Reflex): toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Fetal Movement Patterns: The fetus develops distinct patterns of movement, including  Stimulus: Loud noise, sudden movement, or sensation of falling. Function: Neurons transmit information through electrical impulses (action potentials)
periods of rest and activity.  Response: Baby extends their arms and legs outward, arches their back, and then along their axons and communicate with other neurons via chemical signals
Rapid Weight Gain: The fetus gains significant weight as fat deposits increase. brings their arms back towards their body in a hugging motion. Often accompanied by (neurotransmitters) at synapses.
Weeks 33-36: crying. 2. Synapse:
Fetal Positioning: The fetus typically moves into a head-down position in preparation for Grasping Reflex: Definition: A synapse is a specialized junction between neurons or between a neuron and
birth.  Stimulus: Pressure on the baby's palm or fingers. a target cell, where neurotransmitters are released and received.
Maturation of Organs: Organs such as the lungs and digestive system continue to mature  Response: Baby instinctively closes their fingers around the object, demonstrating a Components:
and become fully functional. strong grip. Presynaptic Terminal: The axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron that releases
Weeks 37-40: Stepping Reflex: neurotransmitters.
Full-Term Pregnancy: The fetus is considered full-term, and labor may begin at any time.  Stimulus: Holding the baby upright with their feet touching a solid surface. Synaptic Cleft: The narrow gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
Continued Growth: The fetus continues to grow and gain weight until birth.  Response: Baby makes stepping or walking movements with their legs, as if Postsynaptic Membrane: The membrane of the target cell (neuron or muscle) that
Significance: Final stage of development, focusing on maturation and preparation for attempting to walk. receives neurotransmitters.
birth. Babinski Reflex: Function: Synapses allow neurons to communicate with each other, facilitating the
Teratogens: are substances or environmental factors that can interfere with prenatal  Stimulus: Stroke the sole of the baby's foot from heel to toe. transmission of signals and the integration of information in the nervous system.
development and cause birth defects or developmental abnormalities.  Response: Baby's toes fan out and their big toe moves upward in response to the
Examples include alcohol, tobacco, certain medications, infections, and environmental stimulus. Neurotransmitters:
pollutants. Tonic Neck Reflex (Fencing Reflex): Acetylcholine (ACh):
 Stimulus: Turning the baby's head to one side while they are lying on their back. Effects:
Three Stages of Birth  Response: Baby extends the arm and leg on the side to which the head is turned, Plays a role in muscle contraction, including voluntary movement and motor control.
Stage 1: Opening the Door while flexing the opposite arm and leg, resembling a fencing position. Involved in cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and attention. Regulates
Duration: Can be long, typically the longest stage. Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex: autonomic functions such as heart rate, digestion, and bladder control.
Key Events:  Stimulus: Turning the baby's head to one side while they are lying on their back. Dopamine:
Early Labor: Gentle contractions start, cervix begins to open.  Response: Baby extends the arm and leg on the side to which the head is turned, Effects:
Active Labor: Contractions get stronger, cervix opens wider. while flexing the opposite arm and leg. Regulates mood, motivation, and reward pathways. Plays a role in motor control and
Transition: Contractions peak, cervix fully dilates. coordination. Implicated in addiction, pleasure, and reinforcement of behaviors.
Significance: Gets the body ready for birth by opening the cervix and moving the baby Serotonin:
down. Effects:
Stage 2: Hello Baby! Regulates mood, emotion, and sleep-wake cycles. Plays a role in appetite, digestion, and
Duration: Usually shorter than Stage 1. gastrointestinal functions. Implicated in anxiety, depression, and mood disorders.
Key Events: Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline):
Pushing: Mom pushes while contractions help move the baby out. Effects:
Birth of Baby: Baby's head and body come out. Functions as a stress hormone, activating the fight-or-flight response. Regulates arousal,
Cutting the Cord: Umbilical cord is cut, baby is separated from the placenta. attention, and vigilance. Plays a role in mood regulation and emotional responses.
Significance: Baby is born, marking the end of labor. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA):
Stage 3: Out with the Afterbirth Effects:
Duration: Usually brief, right after the baby's birth. Acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Reduces
Key Events: neuronal excitability and calms the nervous system. Implicated in anxiety disorders,
Placental Separation: Mild contractions help detach the placenta. epilepsy, and sleep disorders.
Delivery of Placenta: Placenta is delivered through the birth canal. Glutamate:
Postpartum Care: Mom and baby are checked for any issues. Effects:
Significance: Completes the birthing process and begins the postpartum period. Acts as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Facilitates
synaptic transmission and enhances neuronal activity. Plays a role in learning, memory,
and synaptic plasticity.
Endorphins:
Effects:
Serve as natural painkillers and mood regulators. Modulate pain perception and response
to stress. Produce feelings of euphoria and well-being.
Histamine:
Effects:
Functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain, regulating arousal and wakefulness. Plays a
role in allergic responses, inflammation, and immune function. Implicated in conditions
such as allergies, asthma, and sleep disorders.