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Psychological-Theories-of-Values-Development

Values Studies (Colegio de Dagupan)

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

Competencies:
1. Applies psychological principles of values development in personal and social experiences
2. Localize psychological principles in the Filipino setting.
3. Practice reflective/ introspective skills for self-development
4. Demonstrate personal integrity and virtues in convictions actions
5. Discuss the interplay of reason and emotions in oneself and with others
6. Apply skills in selecting effective strategies for developing healthy intra and interpersonal relationships
7. Discuss the convergence of psychological and spiritual growth
8. Apply psycho-spiritual strategies for personal growth and development

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

I. Psychological Principles of Values Development

Becoming more aware of one’s own values and one’s actions is important. Values are the goals towards
which one aspires. They largely define the core of one’s identity. More importantly, they are the source of motivation
to improve oneself.

1. Psychodynamic Theories – Sigmund Freud

a. Freud developed a general theory of psychological development from infancy to adulthood. He believed that
the mind of an infant consists only of primitive drives and instincts, such as the need for food and physical
comfort, which he called the "id."

b. During the first few years of life, the self, or "ego" develops. The function of the ego is to find safe and
appropriate ways for the id to be expressed. Through the ego, a child finds ways to get what he or she needs
within the boundaries of what is acceptable to the parents. After the initial struggle between the id and ego,
the child learns to delay gratification in response to external demands, particularly those of parents.

c. In the late preschool years, the child develops a conscience, which Freud called the "superego." The child
has now internalized the parents' values. He or she feels guilty for misbehaving and will try to behave even
when adults are not around.

d. Freud believed that a single motive governs human behavior — the desire to satisfy biological needs and
thereby discharge tension. He defined stages of development in terms of the organs he thought were used to
discharge tension at that age. From birth to adulthood, a child develops through these stages in sequence:
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Failure to experience gratification for basic drives during a given stage
could cause an individual to become "fixated" in that stage, stuck forever in that particular psychological
mode.

e. Freud believed that adolescence is fraught with internal struggle. He viewed the pre-adolescent "latency"
period as a time when the child develops a balance between the ego and id. Upon entering the "genital"
phase of adolescence, the child is bombarded with instinctual impulses that disrupt this balance. The ego is
torn between the strong impulses of the id and the restrictions of the superego. This conflict makes
adolescence a time of tremendous stress and turmoil.

Erik H. Erikson
Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory places importance on the social and cultural components of an individual's
developmental experiences.

Erikson proposes a series of developmental tasks that all people face and resolve in some way. Previous
developmental outcomes set the stage for upcoming issues, but an individual does not become "stuck" in a phase.
Instead, the old issue is reworked in the context of current tasks.
Age Challenge Virtue
Infancy trust/mistrust hope
early childhood (2-6) autonomy/shame will
early childhood (2-6) initiative/guilt purpose
childhood (7-12) industry/inferiority competence
adolescence (13-21) identity/role confusion fidelity
young adult (22-35) intimacy/isolation love
adult (35-60) generativity/stagnation care
maturity (60+) integrity/despair wisdom

Alfred Adler

Individual Psychology. Adler believed that the main motivations for human behavior are not sexual or aggressive
urges but strivings for superiority. He pointed out that children naturally feel weak and inadequate in comparison to
adults. This normal feeling of inferiority drives them to adapt, develop skills, and master challenges. Adler used the
term compensation to refer to the attempt to shed normal feelings of inferiority.

However, some people suffer from an exaggerated sense of inferiority, or an inferiority complex, which can be due
either to being spoiled or neglected by parents. Such people overcompensate, which means that rather than try to

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

master challenges, they try to cover up their sense of inferiority by focusing on outward signs of superiority such as
status, wealth, and power.

2. Behaviorial Theories

B. F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner is well known for describing the principles of operant conditioning. Skinner believed that the
environment determines behavior. According to his view, people have consistent behavior patterns because they
have particular kinds of response tendencies. This means that over time, people learn to behave in particular
ways. Behaviors that have positive consequences tend to increase, while behaviors that have negative
consequences tend to decrease. Personality develops over the whole life span. People’s responses change as
they encounter new situations.

Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Learning Theory

Albert Bandura pointed out that people learn to respond in particular ways by observing other people, who are
called models. Although Bandura agrees that personality arises through learning, he believes that conditioning is
not an automatic, mechanical process. Cognitive processes like thinking and reasoning are important in learning.

People tend to imitate models they like or admire and models they consider attractive and powerful. People are
also more likely to imitate models who seem similar to themselves. Furthermore, if people see models being
rewarded for their behavior, they will be more likely to imitate those models.

3. Moral Development

Jean Piaget
Piaget described development in terms of sequential changes in how children think. He proposed that children
grow through three periods of development, each distinguished by a different way of thinking

Piaget believed that individuals construct and reconstruct their knowledge of the world as a result of interactions
with the environment.
1. Heteronomous stage of moral reasoning, characterized by a strict adherence to rules and duties, and
obedience to authority.
This heteronomy results from two factors.
 cognitive structure - According to Piaget, the thinking of young children is characterized by egocentrism.
That is to say that young children are unable to simultaneously take into account their own view of things
with the perspective of someone else. This egocentrism leads children to project their own thoughts and
wishes onto others.

Moral realism is associated with "objective responsibility" which is valuing the letter of the law above the
purpose of the law. This is why young children are more concerned about the outcomes of actions rather than
the intentions of the person doing the act. Moral realism is also associated with the young child's belief in
"immanent justice." This is the expectation that punishments automatically follow acts of wrong-doing.
 The second major contributor to heteronomous moral thinking in young children, is their relative social
relationship with adults. In the natural authority relationship between adults and children, power is
handed down from above. The relative powerlessness of young children, coupled with childhood
egocentrism feeds into a heteronomous moral orientation.

2. Autonomous stage of moral reasoning, characterized by the ability to consider rules critically, and selectively
apply these rules based on a goal of mutual respect and cooperation. The ability to act from a sense of
reciprocity and mutual respect is associated with a shift in the child's cognitive structure from egocentrism to
perspective taking.

Autonomous view of morality as fairness is more compelling and leads to more consistent behavior than the
heteronomous orientation held by younger children. Thus, Piaget viewed moral development as the result of
interpersonal interactions through which individuals work out resolutions which all deem fair. According to
Piaget, cognitive development through adolescence involves:
 movement from concrete to abstract thinking, and
 a decrease in egocentric thought.

Prior to adolescence, the thinking of a child is concrete. The acquisition of formal reasoning skills allows older
adolescents (about age 15) to think about many possible outcomes of a situation that do not exist now. They
can construct possibilities and assess probabilities. Imagine, for instance, that you pose the hypothetical
situation of an adolescent pregnancy. An adolescent with formal reasoning skills (with appropriate guidance)
could try to think through the full implications of parenting a newborn.

The transition from concrete to completed formal operational thinking occurs in stages between the ages of
11-14. According to Piaget and other cognitive theorists, the predominance of egocentric thought during this
period leads to some particular views and behaviors, including:
 self-consciousness
 the imaginary audience: feeling as though one's actions and appearance are being constantly scrutinized
 the personal fable: viewing one's thoughts and feelings as unique experiences, and
 feelings of invulnerability, leading to risk-taking behavior.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

By sharing experiences with peers, adolescents learn that many of their thoughts and feelings are shared by
almost everyone. This realization helps them to feel less unique — or less "abnormal" — and more like
others. The egocentric thinking of early adolescence thus diminishes by about the age of 15 or 16.

Lawrence Kolhberg

People understand their society's morals and mature over time. Psychologist Lawrence Kolhberg's famous
work has provided a developmental mapping of how moral understanding tends to progress through
childhood and early adulthood.
1. Pre-conventional children are essentially selfish in orientation. They do not think about what behaviors
will serve the greater good, but rather think in terms of what will most benefit themselves. They respond
primarily to power, and think of morality as a matter of following rules so as to avoid punishment.
2. Conventional stage moral understanding. The majority of people that do make it to the conventional
moral understanding start thinking in terms of duty; a duty to do what is necessary to promote the greater
good. They orient towards behaviors that are most likely to gain other people's respect and admiration.
Part of conventional morality is the duty to behave lawfully. Some people take this duty further and
understand it as a duty to conform to what other influential people around them want.
3. Post-conventional morality. In order to get to this stage, people have to throw off their sense of duty to
what others around them want, and reinvest their moral sense in higher principles, such as (but not
limited to) "honesty", "reciprocity", and "social welfare". Such people become willing to take unpopular
stances and make unpopular decisions simply because those decisions represent the right thing to do.

4. Humanistic Theories
Humanists tend to have an optimistic perspective on human nature. They focus on the ability of human beings to
think consciously and rationally, to control their biological urges, and to achieve their full potential. In the
humanistic view, people are responsible for their lives and actions and have the freedom and will to change their
attitudes and behavior.
Humanistic Values
 a belief in the worth of persons and dedication to the development of human potential
 an understanding of life as a process, change is inevitable
 an appreciation of the spiritual and intuitive
 a commitment to ecological integrity
 a recognition of the profound problems affecting our world and a responsibility to hope and constructive
change

Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers is the person with whom the phenomenological theories of personality are most closely identified.
Rogers viewed authentic personal experience as the fundamental constituent of growth and well-being.
Combining one’s experience and self-concept can become distorted when others make the needed positive
regard dependent on conditions that require the suppression of true feelings.

Rogers believed that one of the most fundamental needs is that of positive regard- being liked, warmth, being
respected, obtaining sympathy. Parents are among the most important suppliers of positive regard. He believed
that greater degrees of unconditional positive regard leads to better adjusted children later in life.

Congruence and Incongruence.

Rogers said that people’s self-concepts often do not exactly match reality. For example, a person may consider
himself to be very honest but often lies to his boss about why he is late to work. Rogers used the term
incongruence to refer to the discrepancy between the self-concept and reality. Congruence, on the other hand,
is a fairly accurate match between the self-concept and reality.

Parents promote incongruence if they give their children conditional love. If a parent accepts a child only when the
child behaves in a particular way, the child is likely to block out experiences that are considered unacceptable. On
the other hand, if the parent shows unconditional love, the child can develop congruence. Adults whose parents
provided conditional love would continue to distort their experiences in adulthood in order to feel accepted.
Rogers thought that people experience anxiety when their self-concepts are threatened. To protect themselves
from anxiety, people distort their experiences so that they can hold on to their self-concept. People who have a
high degree of incongruence are likely to feel very anxious because reality continually threatens their self-
concepts.

Abraham Maslow
Maslow said that human beings strive for self-actualization, or realization of their full potential, once they have
satisfied their more basic needs.

Maslow described several characteristics that self-actualizing people share:

 Awareness and acceptance of themselves
 Openness and spontaneity
 The ability to enjoy work and see work as a mission to fulfill
 The ability to develop close friendships without being overly dependent on other people
 A good sense of humor
 The tendency to have peak experiences that are spiritually or emotionally satisfying

II. Self Development

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

Self refers to the cognitive representation of one's identity. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology
stems from the distinction between the self as I, the subjective knower, and the self as Me, the object that is known.

In Jungian theory, the Self is one of the archetypes. It signifies the coherent whole, unified consciousness and
unconscious of a person. The Self is realized as the product of individuation, which is the process of integrating one's
personality. In Jungian psychology, the idea is that there are two centers of the personality. The ego is the center of
consciousness, whereas the Self is the center of the total personality, which includes consciousness, the
unconscious, and the ego.
Two of the most widely used terms are self-concept and self-esteem.
1. Self-concept is the cognitive or thinking aspect of self (related to one's self-image) and generally refers to "the
totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person
holds to be true about his or her personal existence".

Franken (1994) states that "there is a great deal of research which shows that the self-concept is, perhaps, the
basis for all motivated behavior. It is the self-concept that gives rise to possible selves, and it is possible selves
that create the motivation for behavior”).

There are several different components of self-concept:

a. Physical - The physical aspect of self-concept relates to that which is concrete: what we look like, our sex,
height, weight, etc.; what kind of clothes we wear; what kind of car we drive; what kind of home we live in; and
so forth
b. Academic - Our academic self-concept relates to how well we do in school or how well we learn. There are
two levels: a general academic self-concept of how good we are overall and a set of specific content-related
self-concepts that describe how good we are in math, science, language arts, social science, etc.
c. Social - The social self-concept describes how we relate to other people
d. Transpersonal - describes how we relate to the supernatural or unknown.

2. Self-Image - A simple definition of a person's self image is their answer to this question - "What do you believe
people think about you?" Self image that is commonly used by social and cognitive psychologists is self-schema.
Like any schema, self-schemas store information and influence the way we think and remember.

3. Self-esteem is the affective or emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel about or how we value
ourselves (one's self-worth). Self-concept can also refer to the general idea we have of ourselves and self-esteem
can refer to particular measures about components of self-concept.

Ways to enhance self-esteem

a. Live your life on the basis of what is possible for you and what feels right to you instead of what you or others
think you "should" do.
b. Respect your own needs. It will increase your sense of worth and well-being.
c. Set achievable goals. Establish goals on the basis of what you can realistically achieve, and then work step-
by-step to develop your potential.
d. Talk to yourself positively. Separate your emotional reactions--your fears and bad feelings-- from the reality of
your current situation.
e. "Image" yourself succeeding. Whatever you accomplish, let yourself acknowledge and experience success
and good feelings about it.
f. Take chances. New experiences are learning experiences which can build self- confidence. Expect to make
mistakes as part of the process; don't be disappointed if you don't do it perfectly. Feel good about trying
something new, making progress and increasing your competence.
g. Solve problems. Don't avoid problems, and don't moil about them. Face them, and identify ways to solve them
or cope with them. If you run away from problems you can solve, you threaten your self-confidence.
h. Make decisions. Practice making and implementing positive decisions flexibly but firmly, and trust yourself to
deal with the consequences. When you assert yourself, you enhance your sense of self, learn more, and
increase your self-confidence.
i. Develop your skills. Know what you can and can't do. Assess the skills you need; learn and practice those.
j. Emphasize your strengths. Focus on what you can do rather than what you cannot. Accept current limitations
and live comfortably within them, even as you consider what strengths you might want or need to develop
next.
k. Rely on your own opinion of yourself. Entertain feedback from others, but don't rely on their opinions. Depend
on your own values in making decisions and deciding how you feel about yourself and what is right for you to
do.

 Franken (1994) suggests that self-concept is related to self-esteem in that "people who have good self-esteem
have a clearly differentiated self-concept.... When people know themselves they can maximize outcomes because
they know what they can and cannot do".
a. We develop and maintain our self-concept through the process of taking action and then reflecting on what
we have done and what others tell us about what we have done.
b. That is, self-concept is not innate, but is developed or constructed by the individual through interaction with
the environment and reflecting on that interaction. This dynamic aspect of self-concept (and, by corollary, self-
esteem) is important because it indicates that it can be modified or changed.
c. Franken (1994) states "there is a growing body of research which indicates that it is possible to change the
self-concept. Self-change is not something that people can will but rather it depends on the process of self-
reflection. Through self-reflection, people often come to view themselves in a new, more powerful way, and it
is through this new, more powerful way of viewing the self that people can develop possible selves.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

4. Self-efficacy is the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain goals. It is a belief
that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to manage prospective situations. It is one
of the best predictions of successful achievement. He also states that one's mastery of experiences related to
success is the major influence on one's self-efficacy. Self-efficacy and self-esteem are both constructed by one's
conscious reflections.

5. Self-direction - the extent to which one's aspirations, dreams, and goals are self-selected

6. Self-regulation - one's guidance of one's goal-directed thinking, attitudes, and behavior, and

7. Self-transcendence -going beyond or above the limitations of one's ego; meaningful connections to others,
nature, universe, Creator.

III. Personhood is the sum total of the goals, values, rules you live by, your personality, your character, your knowledge,
and your skills. Understanding, intrinsic motivation, skills, and wisdom will help one make good decisions while they
are creating themselves. It all builds personhood.

The main goal of education should be to raise children to be very high quality people and who have developed their
knowledge and skills, to become the BEST person that they can be.

Your personhood is who you are.

a. We are responsible for who we become. We can make choices leading us to be a high quality person, or we can
make choices leading towards failure. We can decide on our own Life-Goals and our own Life-Rules to help us
reach those goals. We can make conscious decisions about how we want to be.
b. You can select what you let into your head. You can block out the bad, and embrace the good. You can think
through ideas. You can control whom you become. You can make yourself. Take the time, and make the effort, to
do a good job!
c. People's ability to become motivated and committed to self-development is linked to:
 how optimistic or pessimistic they are (e.g., how easy or difficult it is for them to believe that good things will
happen to them), and
 by their degree of self-efficacy, which describes how willing they are to believe that they can accomplish
things they want to accomplish

Optimism vs. pessimism and self-efficacy are related ideas; people who are optimistic tend to also believe that
their efforts to better themselves will have some positive effect on their lives. In contrast, pessimistic people tend
to see themselves as less effective.

Self-esteem, which describes how good a person feels about themselves, is a related idea. Optimistic people who
believe that they can change their lives tend to feel pretty good about themselves and their chances of success,
while pessimistic people who feel more helpless to influence events tend to feel less positively inclined.

When motivation and commitment are adequate, people find the strength to continue toward self-development or
change.

There is no real magic to making a self-help project successful. What is necessary is that you believe that change
is possible, that you create a good plan for change and then that you execute that plan, doing what is necessary
to bring it to completion. Together, motivation and commitment are the fuel that makes this process possible.
Without motivation, you might not get started on a self development at all. Without commitment (which is nothing
more than sustained motivation) you might abandon your self-help project in mid-stream.

The development of a self seems to us to be one of the important aims of schooling. Therefore one of the
assumptions central to our development of this thinking framework is that it is desirable to develop a thinking
person only if it leads to a person who can think for him or herself, not haphazardly, but consistently, with integrity,
with character.

The steps are:

1. Analyze what are the goals to be reached
2. Determine what goal or goals are not being met.
3. Analyze why those goals are not being reached.
4. Formulate plans.
5. Implement plans.
6. Monitor results.
7. Modify or fix as needed.

IV. Strategies for self-development

Among the most commonly used strategies for self-development are role modeling, affirmations, self-assessment,
self-reflection, and visualization. Their meaning and value are summarized below.

1. Role Modeling
It helps to know or learn about people who have personal characteristics, life experiences, or interests similar to
our own and who have reached goals of interest to us. Most of them are significant people who serve as role
models. We learn vicariously through their experiences and can better visualize ourselves as successful. We can
also learn specific strategies for reaching our goals. People can learn from these stories and choose to
incorporate attitudes and strategies into their own plans for the future.

2. Affirmations

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

Everyone draws conclusions about their circumstances, abilities, and performance. Affirmations are positive
statements. Repeated to ourselves regularly, they can change negative beliefs about ourselves and, ultimately,
create a more positive self-image. As we begin to repeat affirmations, we do not need to feel that the statements
are completely true for us at the time. Rather, they can be considered as goals. Examples include the following:
 I am not easily discouraged.
 I can deal with criticism in a positive way.
 Although I have this disability, I know I can make it.

Affirmations can be repeated every day, maybe several times a day. We could write them on cards to carry as
reminders. By repeating them to ourselves, we can slowly replace negative beliefs and thoughts with positive
ones.

3. Self-Assessment
Sometimes it is useful for us to assess our current strengths and challenges regarding learning styles,
communication, conflict resolution, and other skills in order to gain insight into the best strategies for reaching our
goals.

4. Self-Reflection
Sometimes we may experience asking ourselves why we do things, why things happen to us, and why people
treat us in a certain way. However, often these questions are negative and unproductive. Examples include the
following:
 Why did I say that?
 Why am I always late?
 Why does the teacher always call on me when I don't know the answer?
 Why can't my parents be more supportive?

With practice, self-reflective questions can be more productive and lead to greater success in the future. Here are
some examples:
 What can I learn from getting that poor grade that will help me get a better grade next time?
 How can I respond to a negative comment next time?
 What did I accomplish at school this week?
 What are my major strengths?

5. Introspection
Introspection is the self-observation and reporting of conscious inner thoughts, desires and sensations. It is a
conscious mental and usually purposive process relying on thinking, reasoning, and examining one's own
thoughts, feelings, and, in more spiritual cases, one's soul. It can also be called contemplation of one's self

6. Visualization
Through visualization you can imagine your best self or an ideal situation. You can visualize yourself doing well
when taking a test, talking to a teacher, making friends, handling a difficult situation, performing in a job interview.
Visualizing a specific situation and practicing various responses can help you feel comfortable in that
circumstance and increase the chances for a positive experience.

V. Effective strategies for developing healthy interpersonal relationships

Johari Window
Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, is one of the most useful
models describing the process of human interaction. A four paned "window," divides personal awareness into four
different types: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four panes are like window shades, which
can move as an interaction progresses.
1. The "open" quadrant represents things that both I know about myself, and that others know about me. The
knowledge that the window represents, can include not only factual information, but my feelings, motives,
behaviors, wants, needs and desires... indeed, any information describing who I am.
2. The "blind" quadrant represents things that you know about me, but that I am unaware of.
3. The "hidden" quadrant represents things that I know about myself, that you do not know.
4. The "unknown" quadrant represents things that neither I know about myself, nor you know about me.

Johari Window

Not Known to
Known to Self
Self

Known to Others

Not Known to Others

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Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

Self-disclosure, is the process between you and the people you interact with. Typically, as you share something
about yourself (moving information from my hidden quadrant into the open) and if the other party is interested in
getting to know you, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information in their hidden quadrant. Thus, an
interaction between two parties can be modeled dynamically as active. As one’s level of confidence and self esteem
develops, one may actively invite others to comment on one's blind spots. Active listening skills are helpful in this
endeavor.

The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can also reveal difficulties in this area. On the
simplest level, difficulties may arise due to a lack of clarity in the interaction, such as poor grammar or choice of
words, unorganized thoughts, faulty logic etc. This induces the receiver to criticize you, the sender, by revealing
something that was in your blind quadrant. Then, if the feedback works, you correct it immediately.

Effective feedback is absolutely essential. Feedback taps basic human needs-to improve, to compete, and to be
accurate. Feedback can be reinforcing; if given properly. Feedback is almost always appreciated and motivates
people to improve. Feedback can overcome our difficulties; it is very important and can be very rewarding but it
requires skill, understanding, courage, and respect for yourself and others.

Some are hesitant to give feedback for reasons that include fear of causing embarrassment, discomfort, fear of an
emotional reaction, and inability to handle the reaction.

VI. Psychological and Spiritual Growth

In these stressful times, many people search for serenity and inner peace. To be able to go inside and find that
comfort within, one has to understand the psychological blocks that keep one from recognizing his/her True Nature
and having one’s own personal spiritual practice.

1. Characteristic of spiritual/ religious maturity

non-judgmental content perceptive
humble balanced honest
compassionate generous open to not knowing
forgiveness respectful of differences hospitality
patience simplicity humor

Key factors that seem to be related to spiritual and psychological maturity

 relatedness to wider world
 care and concern for others
 increasing complexity leading to simplicity
 autonomy and individuation
 responsibility
 social relationship
 ethical living
 transcendence

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

1. Ms. Dy, a teacher for more than twenty years, was feeling a little depressed and frustrated for the past few days. She
decided to take time out to evaluate some of her beliefs and values which may be the source of what she is currently
feeling. She would like to know what she needs to do or at least embrace some healthier and more functional beliefs
and values. This can be done through
A. affirmation C. introspection
B. feedback D. self-disclosure

The correct answer is C.

Introspection would be the most appropriate strategy/skills for self-development than self-disclosure and the
other options. Introspection is a view of the inside or interior; a look inward; specifically the act or process of
examination or inspection of one’s own thoughts and feelings. It is a process of spiritual maturity that can liberate one
to live with more spiritual, ethnical and psychological power, joy and aliveness.

2. Marie wants to find out how she can evaluate her performance in order to improve personally and professionally.
Which of the following should she first undertake?
A. periodically review and update her plans and continue to learn everyday
B. identify gaps in her knowledge or skills and/or identify attitudes which can be explored
C. make a coherent plan to address any problem that may arise in her work
D. identify what she has learned from seminars and implement plan

The correct answer is B.

Personal and/or professional development requires one to exercise several reflective and analytical skills.
Reflective skills can help one exercise self-monitoring. The whole process of reflective skills requires analysis,
reflection, synthesis, planning and implementation.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

3. Some Filipinos may choose to write their opinions in the newspaper or lobby in the Congress to express their
sentiment against the Reproductive Health Bill. This shows their stand or belief of a higher principle like respect for
the dignity of human beings. This is a characteristics of a person in the
A. pre-conventional stage C. post-conventional stage
B. conventional stage D. formal-operational stage

Answer is C
Post conventional stage is characterized by individuals who act out of universal principles based upon the
equality and worth of all human beings. They work toward a conception of the good society. They suggest that we
need to (a) protect certain individual rights and (b) settle disputes through democratic processes

4. Mang Bert is an active member of the Sangguniang Barangay. He fights corruption in the government system. He
helps without hesitation and does not expect anything in return from people he helps. Mang Manny is an example of
one who:
A. lives up to all the others’ ideals. C. walks his talk
B. lives up the basic values. D. Is honest with oneself.

The correct answer is C.

Mang Bert walks his talk. He acts with consistency and practice what he says. He recognizes the difference
between pretended (verbalized) values and operational (acted on) values. No one lives up to all ideals, some values
are verbalized only to make one look or feel good and sometimes verbalized and not acted out values does not help
one to be more moral but sometimes are just self-serving hypocrisy.
5. There is a wholesome cycle involved in self-disclosure. Which of the following best describes the pattern?
A. self-disclosure – friendship and self-acceptance
B. friendship – self-disclosure and self-acceptance
C. self-acceptance – friendship and self-disclosure
D. self-disclosure – self-acceptance and friendship

6. Some people are hesitant to go through self-reflection or introspection. A psychological reason for this could be that:
A. They simply do not have time for this
B. They are afraid to face their “gray areas”
C. They content that this is not necessary since they know themselves very well
D. They think they are too old for change

7. According to Freud, children have already acquired moral principles and values which are contained in the structure of
personality called
A. Ego C. self
B. Id D. superego

8. During 13 – 18 years of age, the adolescent experiences pressure and confusion. Teachers can facilitate every
student’s capacity to resolve the pressure and confusion by
A. giving special attention to him/her
B. helping him/her develop effective strategies to handle present problems
C. talking to the student about his/her life stories and problem
D. telling the parents about the problems of their child

9. The following are strategies for enhancing or building one’s self-esteem except one.
A. develop and learn new skills C. take chances and try new experiences
B. give and accept compliments D. talk to yourself positively

10. Adults, parents and teachers are role models for a child. This means that one should try his best to:
A. set a consistently good example C. tell the child to obey rules
B. say something nice to the child D. reinforce the child’s expression

11. You believe in the role of teachers in building the self-esteem of your students. Which of the following should you NOT
do?
A. be friendly with your students C. be consistently critical of your pupils
B. be patient and attentive to pupils D. be empathetic and encouraging

12. What could best help school age children develop their sense of competence and industry?
A. more opportunities for work so they accomplish more
B. reinforcement from their parents for every accomplishment
C. personal satisfaction for and pride in their accomplishment
D. strict rules to follow for better accomplishments

13. According to the Humanistic Theory, the basic motivation of life is striving for actualization. It implies that
A. one works hard to improve his/her personality.
B. one works hard to develop potentials to the optimum.
C. one works hard to satisfy his/her needs and wants.
D. one works hard to maintain his/her way of life.

14. Which strategy can bring awareness of what we think, feel, do and also gives an opportunity to get in touch with
oneself.
A. affirmation C. introspection
B. centering D. disclosure

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

15. Nilda is one of your friends. She requested you to give her some feedback so she can become a better person. The
best you can do is to give her
A. information on how to start her plan to change.
B. Information to help her become aware of herself.
C. Information on how difficult it is to change.
D. Information on how you struggle

16. Edna is a very shy person. However, she realized that it is important to disclose oneself to others. Which of the
following would be the result if Edna decides to self-disclose?
A. She will be better understood by others C. She will be more careful
B. She will gain more friends D. She will gain self-confidence

17. The key to personal growth and success is to

A. begin with assessing oneself C. enhance one’s intelligence
B. begin with an end in mind D. assert one’s feeling and opinion

18. People may differ in their hierarchy of values. Which statement below best explains this statement?
A. It is natural for a person to prioritize his/her needs
B. There are different ways in which people develop themselves because of differences in motivation
C. There are variations in the way people perceive things and events
D. People vary in the way they give importance to things/events depending on their philosophy of life

19. The Johari Window is an effective tool for introspection because it allows the person to:
A. examine him/herself with respect to others’ expectations in order for him/her to satisfy what others like him/her
to become
B. validate his knowledge about him/herself against others’ perceptions and recognize his/her other potentials for
development
C. project through a window what he thinks others should think about him/her
D. discover what is in the store for him/her in the fourth window called dark area

20. Developing a reflective attitude means being:

A. Critical about what is bad about something
B. Focused on both external and internal forces
C. Essence-oriented rather than form-oriented
D. Peaceful and gentle in thinking and speaking

21. A spiritual person is able to relate to his/her Creator, fellowmen and the community. Which of the following expresses
a similar concept?
A. One who is spiritual is one who knows how to pray for him/herself and others.
B. Moral orientation leads to spiritual orientation.
C. A spiritual person not only has religious, moral and political conversion.
D. It is more difficult to become a spiritual person.

22. Which situation below demonstrates a good strategy for self-development?

A. Mina highlights her talents in Math and resents her teacher’s feedback about her Reading comprehension.
B. At the end of each day, Susan examines the good points and the bad points about her interaction with her
teachers and friends
C. Conrad believes that he knows himself better than his friends do, so he does not really mind whatever they say
about him.
D. Rodel compares himself with others and resolves to imitate their ways of doing things.

23. Feedback could be an effective tool for self development if done properly. Which of the following strategy is NOT
effective for self development?
A. Feedback for self-improvement is preferably given when solicited.
B. It is important to prepare the receiver psychologically before a negative feedback is given.
C. Positive and negative feedback should be studied very carefully by the receiver and determine points for self-
enhancement and improvement.
D. It is better to ignore the feedback when the sender is not a friend or an acquaintance.

24. Getting in touch with oneself is an essential step in self-development because one is able to:
A. prove whether other’s observations about oneself is true or not.
B. relate more effectively with one’s thoughts, feelings, desires and goals
C. imagine various facets of one’s decisions
D. control oneself with respect to resisting temptation

25. The following are strategies for enhancing or building one’s self-esteem except one.
A. develop and learn new skills C. take chances and try new experiences
B. give and accept compliments D. talk to yourself positively

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. An individual is capable of distinguishing between right and wrong. He/she has an obligation to do good and avoid
evil and be accountable for his actions. He/she is capable of these because an individual is a
A. rational being C. moral person
B. gifted person D. amoral person

2. Psychoanalytic Theory, Social Learning and Humanistic Theory agree

A. that social relationships influence values development
B. on the basic nature of man and values development
C. on the idea that environment and individual influence one another
D. that early childhood experiences influence values development

3. Judy is two years old. She can say po and opo when answering her lolo and lola. This is a manifestation that she has
A. a natural tendency to be respectful C. internalized moral standards of her parents
B. a natural sense of responsibility D. adopted her own standards and guidelines

4. The child may learn to do things done by another person. This behavior is acquired through
A. association C. observation
B. conditioning D. reinforcement

5. Karen is punctual in coming to school everyday. She studies her lessons to get good grades. She does not want to
be reprimanded as much as possible. Karen belongs to what level of morality according to Kohlberg?
A. pre-conventional C. post conventional
B. conventional D. formal conventional

6. Psychoanalytic Theory emphasizes early childhood experiences while Social Learning Theory stresses
environmental conditions where individuals learn and acquire values. This statement is
A. false C. true
B. neither true or false D. totally false

7. Interacting with other people is an important source of personal change and growth. Which of the following do we
want least from these interactions?
A. learning from their experiences
B. being inspired through their encouragement
C. being influenced without a choice
D. being helped by their guidance and instruction

8. Your students asked you why it is important to learn. The best answer is: It is important to
A. get high scores in IQ test C. be able to cope with everyday problems
B. be able to share with others D. land a job easily

9. Enhancing a positive self-concept is one big step for self-development. Which of the following is a healthy self-
concept?
A. picturing oneself a bit above one’s peers
B. being humble enough to put oneself below some of one’s friends
C. seeing oneself as having very good potentials for growth
D. regarding oneself as the best person

10. Mina is a teacher. Lately, she got bored with her usual work. What will you suggest to her?
A. enhance herself by assessing the situation C. focus on future plan or goal
B. look for another job D. reflect and analyze the situation

11. A person who understands her feelings, thoughts and reactions and can identify its causes and possible reactions is
someone who is
A. self-aware C. morally upright
B. intelligent D. self-requested

12. One of your students find it difficult to accept her personal characteristics. She is too shy to acknowledge her
potentials. She lacks
A. self-awareness C. self-disclosure
B. self-affirmation D. self-discipline

13. Some people are hesitant to go through self-reflection or introspection. A psychological reason for this could be:
A. They simply do not have time for this
B. They are afraid to face their “gray areas”
C. They contend that this is not necessary since they know themselves very well
D. They think they are too old for change

14. What is the next best thing to do after self-analysis or introspection?

A. set workable plans for self-improvement based on the weak points identified
B. work on the most serious personality problem discovered in oneself
C. list as many strategies to improve oneself
D. ask another person to affirm one’s strengths

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Psychological Theories of Values Development
By: Dr. Aurora B. Fulgencio

15. The power of silence is a potent element for self-development. Which one is NOT necessary in attaining this power
for the self?
A. Listening to soft and meditative music.
B. Pausing for some seconds and focusing attention to one’s center.
C. Replacing a verbal prayer with a “mantra” prayer
D. Listening to the small voice within.

16. Disclosure skills help one to enhance intrapersonal as well as interpersonal relationships. Which pair of conditions
most enhances these skills?
A. confidentiality and privacy C. precise and clear communication
B. openness and trust D. receptivity and preparedness of the listener

17. Self disclosure facilitates self-awareness best when it:

A. helps others to know oneself better
B. provides opportunity for analyzing one’s action, feelings and thoughts
C. leads others to judge one’s action
D. provides other people some insights about you

18. The instrumental relationship as one of the stages in the moral development approach is best illustrated by
A. nice boy and nice girl behavior
B. you scratch my back and I will scratch yours
C. I will do what I think is right no matter what
D. Good work is rewarded and bad work is punished

19. Introspection as a tool for self-development leads to:

A. knowledge of one’s strengths and limitations
B. discovering one’s inadequacies
C. comparing one’s strengths with others’ strengths
D. improving external conditions for personal growth

20. Which of the following should be the least indicator of self-improvement?

A. accumulated information C. solicitous concern
B. emotional control D. willingness to collaborate

21. The following are benefits from a well-constructed self-image except one:
A. It provides a fairly reliable guide as to our possible success.
B. It predicts possible response to an upcoming situation.
C. It allows us to have self-esteem.
D. It allows us to love ourselves.

22. Ycko depends on her own values, how she feels, and what she thinks is the right thing to do. It shows that she
A. relies on her own opinion . C. takes chances on her own.
B. emphasizes her strength. D. sets achievable goals.

23. Gabe at three, is able to learn and master tasks such as feeding and dressing himself. As he grows he is able to know
his abilities and capacity. As a result, he may develop feelings of
A. shame C. industry
B. autonomy D. identity

24. All of these are thought to be keys to a genuine spiritual life except when
A. one is selfless and able to surrender his fate
B. one understands life's enduring mysteries
C. personal life is subordinated to relationship with a higher Creator
D. when the spiritual dimension is brought into everyday life.

25. Self-concept is developed or constructed by the individual through interaction with the environment and reflecting on
that interaction. The following are similar to the above statement except one.
A. We develop and maintain our self-concept through the process of taking action and then reflecting on what we
have done and what others tell us about what we have done.
B. Self-concept is dynamic. It can be modified or changed through reflection and interaction.
C. Self-concept is not something that people can will but rather it depends on the process of self-reflection and
interaction.
D. People often come to view themselves in a new, more powerful way, and it is through this new, more powerful
way of viewing the self that people can develop self-concept.

PART IV – REFERENCES
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Harvard University Press: Cambridge.
Kohlberg, L. & Turiel, E. (1971). Moral development and moral education. In G. Lesser, ed. Psychology and educational practice. Scott Foresman.
Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. The Free Press: New York. Power, F. C.,
Higgins, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1989). "Lawrence Kohlberg's Approach to Moral Education." New York: Columbia University Press.
Smetana, J. G. (1996, in press). "Parenting and the development of social knowledge reconceptualized: A social domain analysis." To appear in J.E.
Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Handbook of parenting and the transmission of values. New York: Wiley.
Turiel, E. (1983). "The Development of Social Knowledge: Morality & Convention." New York: Cambridge University Press.

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