QUANTUM NUMBERS Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

- refers to two different spin orientations of electrons in a

Principal Quantum Number (n)
specified orbital.
- Determines the energy of an orbital and the orbital size.
- The spin orientations are called "spin-up" and "spin-
- Is related to the average distance of the electron from down".
the nucleus in a particular orbital, the larger the n value,
- The assigned number for “spin-up” is ½ and for “spin
the farther the average distance of the electron from the
nucleus. down is -½.
- Can have the values: n = 1, 2, 3, …
- Orbitals with the same n are said to be in the same shell.
Electron Configuration
Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ)
- Describes the “shape” of the orbitals
- Can have the following values: ℓ = 0, 1, 2, up to n-1.
Examples: n value ℓ value
1 0
2 0, 1
3 0, 1, 2
- Orbitals with the same n and values belong to the same
subshell.
- It is usually designated by letters s, p, d, f, … which have
a historical origin from spectral lines. The designations
are as follows:
ℓ 0 1 2 3 4 5
Name of Orbital s p d f g h
- The s, p, d, f designations of the orbitals refer to sharp,
principal, diffuse, and fundamental lines in emission
spectra.

Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ) Paramagnetic substances are those that contain net unpaired spins
- Describes the orientation of the orbital in space. and are attracted by a magnet.
- Can have the following values: Diamagnetic substances do not contain net unpaired spins and are
ℓ value mℓ value slightly repelled by a magnet.
0 0
1 -1, 0, 1
2 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
3 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
The Pauli Exclusion Principle MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
This principle states that no two electrons in an atom
can have the same set of four quantum numbers. Number of
Arrangement of Molecular
Electron Ex.
Electron Pairs Geometry
Pairs

2 BeCl2
Linear

Hund’s Rule
Hund’s rule or Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity 3 BF3
states that the most stable arrangement of electrons in
subshells is the one with the greatest number of parallel
spins. Trigonal Planar

A.

4 CH4

B.
Tetrahedral

C.
5 PCl5

Aufbau Principle
Aufbau principle is also known as the building-up Trigonal
principle or the Aufbau rule dictates that as protons are Bipyramidal
added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements,
electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals. The
order of filling up the atomic orbitals is from lowest energy to
highest energy. Figure 6 shows us the general order of 6 SF6
filling up orbitals.

Octahedral
 FUNCTRIONAL GROUPS
Functional Group Name Reactions
Addition reactions with halogens,
Carbon-carbon
hydrogen halides, and water;
double bond
hydrogenation to yield alkanes
Addition reactions with
Carbon-carbon halogens, hydrogen halides;
triple bond hydrogenation to yield alkenes
and alkanes
Exchange reactions:
Halogen
CH3CH2Br + KI  CH3CH2I + KBr
(X = F, Cl, Br, I)
Esterification (formation of an
ester) with carboxylic acids;
Hydroxyl
oxidation to aldehydes, ketones,
and carboxylic acids
Reduction to yield alcohols;
Carbonyl oxidation of aldehydes to yield
carboxylic acids
Esterification with alcohols;
reaction with phosphorus
Carboxyl
pentachloride to yield acid
chlorides

Hydrolysis to yield acids and

Ester
alcohols
(R = Hydrocarbon)

Formation of ammonium salts with

Amine
acids
(R = H or Hydrocarbon)
 General Example
FAMILY Class Formula Structural Formula Chemical Name
Acetaldehyde
Aldehydes RCHO
(ethanal)
Alkanes RH Ethane

Ethylene Acetone
Alkenes RC=CR Ketones RRC=O
(Ethelene) (2-propanone)
HYDRO- Acethylene
CARBONS Alkynes RC≡CR
(Ethyne)

Carboxylic Acetic Acid

Acids RCO2H
Arenes ArH Benzene (ethanoic acid)

Esters Methyl Acetate

(carboxylic
acid RCO2R (methyl
Alkyl Ethyl chloride CARBOXYLIC derivatives) ethanoate)
RX
HALOGEN- Halides (chloroethane) ACIDS
DERIVATIVES Amides
CONTAINING
(carboxylic N-methyl-
COMPOUNDS acid
RCONHR
acetamide
derivatives)
(X indicates a
Halogen) Aryl
ArX Chlorobenzene
Halides RNH2,
Amines RNHR, Ethylamine
RNRR
OXYGEN-
CONTAINING
COMPOUNDS Ethyl Alcohol
Alcohols ROH
(ethanol)
NITROGEN-
CONTAINING Nitrile RC≡N Acetonitrile
COMPOUNDS

Phenols ArOH Phenol

Nitro
compounds ArNO2 Nitrobenzene
Ethers ROR Diethyl Ether
HYDROCARBONS

Propane
3 Prop
C3H8
Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic Aromatic Butane

4 But C4H10

Alkanes Cycloalkanes Alkenes Alkynes

Cycloalkanes
Aliphatic hydrocarbons are divided into alkanes, cycloalkanes - general formula, CnH2n
alkenes, and alkynes. - he simplest cycloalkane is cyclopropane.
Alkanes
- general formula, CnH2n+2
- form single carbon-carbon bonds
- are saturated hydrocarbons
- In naming alkanes, the –ane suffix (ending) is used.
- The name of the parent compound is determined by the
number of carbon atoms in the longest chain.
- Examples are methane, ethane, propane, butane. Alkenes
Number - General formula, CnH2n
of Name (-ane)/ - contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond
Prefix Structure
Carbon Formula - In naming alkenes, the –ene suffix (ending) is used.
Atoms - are unsaturated hydrocarbons
Number
Name (-ene)/
Methane of Carbon Prefix
1 Meth Formula Structure
CH4 Atoms
Ethene
2 Eth
C2H4

Ethane
2 Eth Propene
C2H6 3 Prop
C3H6
 Functional Group Name
Butene –NH2 Amino
4 But
C4H8 –F Fluoro
–Cl Chloro
–Br Bromo
Alkynes –I Iodo
- general formula, CnH2n-2
- contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond ISOMERS
- In naming alkanes, the –yne suffix (ending) is used.
- are unsaturated hydrocarbons Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formulas, but
Number different arrangements of atoms.
Name (-
of
Prefix yne)/ Condensed Structure
Carbon
Formula
Atoms Types of Isomers

Ethyne Conformational Isomers - also known as conformers, differ from

2 Eth one another by their rotation around a single bond. Rotations
C2H2
occur freely around single carboncarbon bonds. Unlike double and
triple bonds, which are "locked" in their orientation, single bonds
Propyne have no such restrictions.
3 Prop
C3H4

Butyne
4 But
C4H6
Conformational Isomers of Pentane

Aromatic Hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons whose molecules contain Structural Isomers - also known as a constitutional isomer, is
a ring of six carbon atoms (benzyl ring) attached. Its simplest member one in which two or more organic compounds have the same
is benzene, C6H6. molecular formulas but different structures.

The two molecules have the same chemical formula but are
different molecules because they differ in the location of the
methyl group.
 CHIRAL – Objects that have non-superimposable mirror images.

In alkenes, there are multiple structural isomers based on where

in the chain the double bond occurs.

A chiral carbon has four unique groups attached to it.

Stereoisomers - have the same connectivity in their atoms but a
different arrangement in three-dimensional space. There are b. Diastereomers - are non-mirror image optical isomers.
different classifications of stereoisomers depending on how the Diastereomers have a different arrangement around one or
arrangements differ from one another. more atoms while some of the atoms have the same
arrangement.
Types of Stereoisomers
1. Geometric Isomers - are stereoisomers in which the order of
atom bonding is the same but the arrangement of atoms in space
is different.

As shown in the figure below, note that the orientation of groups

on the first and third carbons are different but the second one
remains the same, so they are not the same molecule.
Cis indicates same side. Trans indicates opposing sides. o Epimers - are a sub-group of diastereomers that differ at
2. Optical Isomers – are stereoisomers differ in the placement of only one location. All epimers are diastereomers but not all
substituted groups around one or more atoms of the molecule. diastereomers are epimers.
They were given their name because of their interactions with
plane-polarized light. Optical isomers are labeled enantiomers or
diastereomers.
a. Enantiomers - are non-superimposable mirror images. A
common example of a pair of enantiomers is your hands. Epi
Your hands are mirror images of one another but no matter mers have a different arrangement around one atom, while
how you turn, twist, or rotate your hands, they are not arrangements around the other atoms are the same.
superimposable.
 POLMERS Addition Polymerization
In addition, polymerization, the entire monomer becomes part
Polymers are exceedingly long molecules that consist of repeating
of the polymer. They involve molecules with double bonds or triple
molecular units called monomers. Monomers have relatively simple
bonds. Consider the formation of polyethylene, a stable polymer used
structures consisting of anywhere from 4 to 100 atoms per molecule.
widely as packaging wrap.
When monomers are chained together, they can form polymers
consisting of hundreds of thousands of atoms per molecule.

Polymers are generally classified as synthetic or natural. Naturally

occurring polymers include proteins, nucleic acids, cellulose, and
rubber. Most synthetic polymers are organic compounds. Familiar
examples are nylon, Dacron, and Lucite or Plexiglas.

Natural Polymers
Proteis
Proteins play a key role in nearly all biological processes and
are polymers of amino acids. An amino acid is a compound that
contains at least one amino group and at least one carboxyl group.
Twenty different amino acids are the building blocks of all the proteins Condensation Polymerization
in the human body. A condensation polymer is formed when the joining of
monomer units is accompanied by the loss of a small molecule, such
Nucleic acids as water or hydrochloric acid. Any monomer capable of becoming part
Nucleic acids are high molar mass polymers that play an of a condensation polymer must have a functional group on each end.
essential role in protein synthesis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two types of nucleic acid. Compared
with proteins, which are made of up to 20 different amino acids,
nucleic acids are simple in composition. A DNA or RNA molecule
contains only four types of building blocks: purines, pyrimidines,
furanose sugars, and phosphate groups.

Synthetic Organic Polymers

The chemical reaction by which the monomers are linked
together to form polymers is called polymerization. There are several
types of polymerization reactions. The basic types are the addition
polymerization and the condensation polymerization reactions.
Common Synthetic Organic Polymers POLYMERS ARRANGEMENT AND STRUCTURES
Polymers can be arranged in many ways. The arrangement of
Addition Polymers the polymer chains affects their properties such as whether they are
Repeating Recycling stiff or rigid, crystalline, or amorphous.
Polymers Common Uses
Unit Code

Polyethylene Plastic bags,

Linear Polymer
(PE) bottles
A linear polymer is simply a chain in which all the carbon-
carbon bonds exist in a single straight line. This long chain is often
referred to as the backbone. Atoms or small groups of atoms attached
Polypropylene Indoor–outdoor to the long chain are called pendant atoms.
(PP) carpets

Polystyrene Plastic utensils,

(PS) insulation

Polyvinyl Shower
chloride (PVC) curtains, tubing The arrangement of the pendant atoms or pendant groups
attached to the backbone gives different properties to the polymer.
Three distinct arrangements are observed: isotactic, syndiotactic,
and atactic.
Condensation Polymers
Common Recycling Isotactic Arangement
Polymers Repeating Unit
Uses Code
- The isotactic arrangement is where all the pendant groups or
Clothing,
Polyethylene substituents (represented by R) are on the same side of the
plastic
terephthalate polymer chain. They pack efficiently resulting in polymers with
bottles
high melting point, high crystallinity, and superior mechanical
strength.

Melamine–
formaldehyd
e resin
Dishes, Not
(Melmac, countertops Recycled
Formica)
 Linear Polymers vs Branched Polymers
Syndiotactic Arrangement Linear Polymers Branched Polymers
- A syndiotactic polymer chain is one where the substituent group
alternates from left to right of the asymmetric carbons. They pack Simple structure Complex structure
less efficiently than isotactic chains. Melting and boiling point is Melting and boiling point is
higher lower
High density Low density
Tightly packed Loosely packed
Have pendant groups and Have polymer chains as side
side groups groups

Atactic Arrangement
- In atactic polymers, the substituents occur randomly. Therefore,
they do not pack well. These polymers are rubbery, not crystalline,
and relatively weak.
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules or biological molecules are molecules present in
organisms that are essential to one or more biological processes.
Biomolecules include large molecules necessary for life that are built
from smaller organic molecules which are called biological
macromolecules. There are four major classes of biological
macromolecules and each is an important component of the cell and
performs a wide array of functions. These molecules when combined
make up most of a cell’s mass.

Biological Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. They are also known as saccharides. They have the
Branched Polymers general formula of Cx(H2O)y. Carbohydrates function as the
Branched polymers are defined as having secondary polymer energy source of the body. A simple general classification of
chains linked to a primary backbone resulting in a variety of polymer carbohydrates is according to the number of sugar units
architectures such as star, Hshaped, pom-pom, and comb-shaped (saccharides) present in the molecule: monosaccharides,
polymers. disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides Polysaccharides
Monosaccharide Formula Structure Sources Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. Examples
of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, and cellulose which are all
polymers of glucose.

Glucose C6H12O6 Fruits Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Fruits - One sugar unit per - Two sugar units per - Many sugar units
Fructose C6H12O6 molecule. molecule. per molecule.
Honey - Ex: glucose, - Ex: sucrose, - Ex: cellulose,
fructose, galactose maltose, lactose starch, glycogen

Not Proteins
Galactose C6H12O6 naturally Proteins are very large molecules that are critical for the functions
occurring of the human body. They are made from the linkage of monomers
called amino acids.

When two monosaccharides join through a condensation reaction, a

disaccharide is produced along with a molecule of water. The linkage
is called a glycosidic bond. Structure of Amino Acids

Disaccharides There are 20 kinds of amino acids depending on the —R group. An

Disaccharide Formula Stucture Sources amino acid is a compound that contains at least one amino group
Sugar and at least one carboxyl group. Twenty different amino acids are
Cane, the building blocks of all the proteins in the human body. The simplest
Sucrose C12H22O11
Sugar amino acid is glycine where R is a hydrogen atom. The body cannot
Beet make all the amino acids required by the body and is dependent on
protein taken through food.

Lactose C12H22O11 Milk

Structure of Glycine
Germinating
Maltose C12H22O11 Grain
 Two amino acids can link together through a condensation
reaction with the removal of a water molecule. The linkage is called a
peptide bond.
Protein Functions
Proteins are important molecules in cell. Each protein in the body has
a specific function. Some of the types of proteins and their functions
are:
a. Antibodies - proteins involved in defending the body
against antigens. They are the molecules of the immune
system.
b. Contractile proteins – responsible for body movement
such as muscle contraction
c. Enzymes – proteins that catalyze (speed up) or facilitate
biochemical reactions.
d. Hormonal proteins – serve as messenger proteins to help
coordinate some body functions. An example is insulin
(which controls blood sugar concentration).
e. Structural proteins – are fibrous and provide support. An
example is collagen which provides support to connective
tissues.
f. Storage proteins – store amino acids like casein in milk.
g. Transport proteins – are carrier proteins which move
molecules from one place to another in the body. An
example is hemoglobin which transports oxygen.
Protein Denaturation
Denaturation is a process in which a protein loses its secondary,
tertiary, or quaternary structures. This may be caused by physical or
chemical agents like strong acid, base, inorganic salt, heat, or solvent
which disrupt the bonds that hold the protein structures together.
Denaturation does not cause the cleavage of the peptide bond (the
primary structure). Note that a protein will lose its biological activity if it
loses its 3-dimensional shape.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids play an essential role in protein synthesis. The two
main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA and RNA are polymers made up of
monomers in the form of nucleotides. When these nucleotides
combine, they form polynucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up
of three parts: a nitrogen base; a five-carbon sugar; and a
phosphate.
Lipids
Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the
building blocks of the structure and function of living cells.
Examples of lipids include triglycerides (fats), oils, axes, certain
vitamins (such as A, D, E, and K), hormones, and most of the cell
membrane that is not made up of protein.
Fatty Acids – are the simplest form of lipids and are the building
blocks of the fat in our body and in the food we eat. During digestion,
the body breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can then be
absorbed into the blood. Fatty acids consist of a long hydrocarbon Triglycerides can be broken down by treatment with aqueous
chain (typically about 12 – 18 carbons) attached to a carboxyl group. sodium hydroxide. The products are glycerol and the fatty acid salts;
the latter are known as soaps. This process is called saponification.
Saturated fatty acid – contains only single C-C bonds because the
carbon atoms are saturated or filled up with hydrogens. Because their
structure is straight, they can pack well and are solid at room
temperature (e.g. fat in butter).

Unsaturated fatty acids – contain carbon-carbon double bonds.

When there is only one C-C double bond, it is called
monounsaturated; if there are several C-C double bonds, they are
called polyunsaturated. Remember that when there are double bonds,
there will be geometric isomers (cis and trans). Because of the double
bonds, they do not pack as tightly as saturated fatty acids. They are
usually liquids at room temperature. An example of an unsaturated
fatty acid is olive oil.

Fatty acid molecules are usually joined in groups of three,

forming a molecule called a triglyceride.

Glycerol Fatty Acids Triglyceride

Water