CHAPTER

um
redt
04
Carbon and Its Compounds
the existence
Cacbon is rhe third most important element after oxygen and hydrogen, for which means
Chapter Checklist
C l:fe on the earth. The name carbon is derived from the Latin
word 'Carbo' Covalent Bonding in
coal'. Carbon Compounds
hig The earth crust has only 0.02% carbon which is present in the form of minerals Allotropes ofCarbon and
(1Hke carbonates, hydrogen-carbonates, coal and petroleum) and the atmosphere has Their Properties
O020% of carbon dioxide. Fuels (like wood, kerosene, coal, LPG, CNG, petrol etc.), Versatile Nature of Carbon

clothing material (like cotton, nylon, polyester), paper, rubber, plastics, leather, drugs and Organic Compounds
are carbon based.
dyes are allmade up of carbon, also allliving structures Hydrocarbons
makes them very
In this chapter, we will study the properties of carbon compounds which Isomerism
important to us. Functional Groups
Homologous Series
Covalent Bonding in Carbon Compounds(either Nomenclature of Carbon
Compounds
The bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between the atoms Chemical Properties of
bonds.
same or different atoms) are known as covalent KL Carbon Compounds
Atomic number of carbon (C) is 6. So, its electronic configuration = Fuels and Flames
Thus, there are 4 electrons in its outermost shell and its octet can be completed by the Some Important Carbon
following two ways: Compounds
() It could gain 4 electrons and form C anion. But for a nucleus having 6 protons, Soaps and Detergents
it would be difficult to hold on 10electrons, i.e. 4 extra electrons.
(i) Ir could lose 4 electrons and form C* cation. But a large amount of energy is
required to remove 4 electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with 6 protons in its
nucleus holding on juSt two elecrons together, which is not possible.
Iheretore, in order to overcome this problem,carbon shares its valence electrons with other 2C
atoms of carbon or with atoms of other elements. These shared electrons belong to the
3C
outermost shells of both atoms and in this way, both atoms attain the nearest noble gas
contiguration. This type of bonding is called covalent bonding. But
Ihe number of electrons shared between two atoms to complete their octet (except
hydrogen which shows dupler) is known as the covalency of that atom. Thus, the 5C Peut
Tency of hydrogen is 1, oxygen is 2, nitrogen is 3 and carbon is 4. Other atoms also
exhibit similar type of bonding.
 Allinone Science Ooss
100

Molecule (o.)
Some Examples Depicting 3. Formation of Oxygen
=8
Atomic number ofO
Covalent Bonding K L
1. Electronicconfiguration = 2. 6
Formation ofHydrogen
Atomic number ofH= 1 Molecule (H,) It has 6 electrons in its outermost shell thus, require
2 electrons to complete its octet for attaining nob.
configuration. This is achieved by sharing 2
Electronic configuration =
It has lelectron in its K-shell and needs 1 more electron
to fill the K-shell
another oxygen atom.
The two electrons contributed by each Oxygen atom g
electrons
completely. electrons.
Thus, two H-atoms share their electrons to form a totwo shared pairs of
molecule of H,. This allows each H-atom to attain the Before After
nearest noble gas configuration, i.e. configuration of combination combination
helium (having two electrons in its K-shell). Valence Shared electrons
electrons are depicted by using crosses. Or O0
Before After
Oxygen atoms Oxvgen molecule
combination combination Covalent bonding in O, molecule
Shared electrons

(H)+{*H) (H QH) Here, a double bond is formed berween two oxvgen

thereby forming an oxygen molecule. The above
Hydrogen atoms Hydrogen molecule represents the sharing of 4 electrons.
The shared pair of electrons constitute a single bond
between the two H-atoms, which is represented by a single 4. Formation of Nitrogen Molecule (N,)
line between the two atoms. Atomic number of N=7.
K

(HH or H-H
Electronic configuration= 2, 5

Single bond showing H, molecule Nitrogen needs 3 more electrons to aain noble
configuration. Thus, in order to complete its octet
nitrogen atom in nitrogen molecule contributes
2. Formation of Chlorine Molecule (C,) electrons giving rise to three shared pair of electrons.
Atomic number of Cl = 17 Before After
K L M combination combination
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 7 Shared eletrons
t has 7 electrons in its outermost shell and thus require
more electron to fulfill its outermost shell. This is or N=N
chieved by sharing 1 electron with another Cl-atom,
rming a chlorine diatomic molecule (CI,). Nitrogen atoms Nitrogen molecule
Covalent bonding in N, molecule
Before After Here, a triple bond is formed berween the rwo nitrogen 2
combination combination

X X Xx xx
’ Shared electrons
5. Formation of Methane (CH,)
*CI 9+ X In the formation of a methane molecule, one carbon
CI * CCIX or CICI
X X X X
shares its 4 electrons with four hydrogen atoms(one ela
Chlorine atoms Chlorine molecule
of each hydrogen atom). It shows carbon is tetravalentba
Covalent bonding in Cl, molecule It possesses 4 valence electrons and hvdrogen is mon
because it has only l valence electron.
 AIlinone Carbon and Its Compounds 101

After
Before In case of a water molecule, two hydrogen atoms share an
combination Shared
electrons
combination -- electron pair with the oxygen atom such that hydrogen
H acquires a duplet configuration and oxygen an octet,
H
resulting in the formation of two single covalent bonds.
H" c(* H) -H
(H) H
Before After
combination combination Shared electrons
H,
Methane (CH,) molecule
H):O:H) or H 0 - H

Note Methane is acarbon compound which is also called Water (H,0) molecule
marsh gas. It is used as a fuel and a major component
of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and biogas. It is one 7. Formation of Carbon Dioxide (CO,)
of the simplest compounds formed by carbon.
Atomic number ofC=6
6. Formation of Ammonia (NH) and KL
Electronic configuration =2,4
Water Molecule (H,0) Atomic number of O=8
" Ammonia (NH,) KL
Atomic number of N=7 Electronic configuration = 2,6
K L To attain the stable clectronic configuration, carbon needs
Electronic configuration = 2, 5 4 electrons, while oxygen needs 2 clectrons. So, in CO,
Atomic number of H=1 molecule, cach of oxygen atom share two electrons from carbon.
Thus, oxygen and carbon both attain octet.
K
Electronic configuration = 1 Before After
To attain the electronic configuration of the combination combination Shared electrons
nearest noble gas, nitrogen needs 3 electrons and :Ö:C :ö: or O=C=0
hydrogen needs 1 electron. When a molecule of
ammonia is to be formed, one atom of nitrogen Carbon dioxide (CO,) molecule
shares its three electrons, one with each of the three
atoms of hydrogen. 8. Formation of Sulphur Molecule (Sg)
Before After Atomic number of sulphur (S) = 16
combination Shared electrons combination K L M
H
H
Electronicconfiguration =2, 8, 6
H To attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas,
H") N or N-H each sulphur needs 2 electrons.
H Before After
combination combination
Ammonia (NHJ molecule
Note Ammonia gas (NH) can be used as refrigerant.
Water (H,0)
Atomic number ofO=8
Electronic configuration = K2, 6L
Atomic number of H=1 8 covalent bonds are formed

Electronic configuration = K1 S

To attain the stable electronic

configuration of the
nearest noble gas, hydrogen needs 1 electron and
Oxygen needs 2 electrons. Crown shaped (Ss) molecule
 Alllnone Science Coss
102
So, with chlorine, carbon forms carbon tetrachi.
structureand structural formul
Properties
The
compounds
of Covalent
Compounds
Electron dot
asfollows:
CI

compounds. It hascontaining covalent bonds

the following properties :
are called covalent
CIC--CI
))Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling
Ci:
Points due to. small intermolecular forces of attraction
between the atoms. (CIS
tiný' Covalent compounds are poor conductors of
Carbon tetrachloride(CCI,)

clectricity. generally
This is because the electrons are shared K
between atoms and no charged particles are formed in configuration of Oxygen, O(8)) is 2.,
these compounds. Electronic iK
(i) ofcarbon(6)
in) Covalent compounds are-generally volatile in Electronicconfiguration
carbon forms caarbon dioxide
nature. With oxygen, configuration of the nearest noh
Example 1. Carbonagroup (14) element in the the electronic electrons and oxygen needs 2
periodic table, is known to torm compounds with many ele
carbon needs 4 each oXygen atom
elements. Write an example of a comnpound formed Wit Therefore, in CO,,electron dot structure 2ele shares
(i) chlorine (group 17 of periodic table) The and str
with carbon. follows:
(i)oxygen (group 16 of periodictable) NCERT Exemplar formula ofCO, is as
KL
Sol. () Electronic configuration of carbon, C(6) is 2, 4
KL M or O=C=O
Electronic configuration of chlorine,CI(17) is 2, 8, 7
To attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, Carbon dioxide (CO,)
carbon needs 4 electron and chlorine needs l electron.

lonic Compounds
Difference between Covalent and Covalent Compounds
lonic Compounds Reason
Reason
Property
Property Nature
1. Nature Theirconstituent particles They have weak forces
forces of attraction between their
) Their constituent particles are These have strong intermolecular are molecules.
attraction between their ions, which cannot molecules.
ions. These are gases, liquids
(i) They are hard solids be separated easily.
or soft solids (exXcept
Consisting of ions. graphite and diamond).
Boiling point and
2 Boiling point and melting melting point
point These are volatile with low They have weak forces
These are non-volatile, with There exists a strong force of attraction attraction between the
between the oppositely charged ions, s0 a
boiling and low melting
high boiling point and break molecules, thus less er
meltingpoint. large amount of energy is required to point. requiredto break the f
the strong bonding force between ions.
bonding.
Electrical conductivity
3. Electrical conductivity Due to the absence of
Intermolecular force of attraction (i.e. They are non-conductors
They do not conduct ions or charged partic
electrostatic forces) between ions in the solid| of electricity in solid,
electricity in the solid state.
state are very strong, which gets weaken in
But act as a good conducior fused
molten or aqueous state.
or molten state. Hence, ions become
in the fused or molten state.
mobile.
Solubility
4 Solubility Water is a polar solvent, it decreases the These are insoluble in As organic solvents an
These are soluble in water intermolecular forces of attraction, resulting non-polar, hence, the:
water but dissolve in
but insoluble in organic dissolve in non-polar
Solvents. in free ions in aqueous solution. Hence, theyorganic solvents.
dissolve. compounds.
 Allinone Carbon and its Compounds 103

Note Diamond can be prepared artificially by subjecting pure carbon

CheckPoint01) diamonds
to Very high pressure and temperature. These synthetic
bonding? aresmall but are indistinguishablc from natural diamonds.
1What do youmean by covalent
2An elenment X which
has 6 electrons in its outermost shell.
reguire 2 electrons to complete its oCtet for attaining noble gas
Graphite
configuration. X is an essential element for the survival of all General Properties
living beings. What is X? " It is a greyish black, opaque substance.
3Fillin the blanks: " It is lighter than diamond, smooth and slippery to touch.
() The main constituent of marsh gas
is
acquires a
It is a goodconductor of electricity (due to the presence of
() in case of a water molecule, hydrogen free electrons) but bad conductor of heat.
Configuration.
Structure
4Write the covalent bonding in nitrogen.
SWhy covalent compound are volatile in nature with low boiling Agraphite crystal consists of
and low melting point? layers of carbon atoms or sheets
6State True or False for the following statements: of carbon atoms. Each carbon
Covalent compounds shows large melting point and boiling atom in a graphite layer is
point? joined to three other carbon
atoms by strong covalent bonds
Allotropes of Carbon and to form flat hexagonal rings.
However, the fourth electron of The structure of graphite

Their Properties
property by virtue of which an element
each carbon atom is free which
makes it a good conductor of electricity. The various layers
Allotropy is the of carbon atoms in graphite are held together by weak van
exists in more than one form and each form has different der Waals forces so these can slide over one another and
physical properties but identicalchemical properties. These therefore, graphite is slippery to touch.
different forms are called allotropes. Carbon exists in
different allotropic forms; some of them are: Fullerenes
() Crystalline form, e-g. diamond. graphite and fullerene. These are recently discovered allouropic forms of carbon
(i) Micro-crystalline form or amorphous form, e.g. coal. which were prepared for the first time by H W Kroto, Smalley
lampblack and charcoal. and Robert Curt by the action
of laser bea1 on the vapours of
Diamond graphite. The first known
fullerene was which
General Properties contains 60 carbon atoms (C0)
Alt is a colourless transparent substance with extra arranged in the shape of a
ordinary brilliance due o its high refractive index. football with smaller proportion
It is quite heavy and extremely hard (hardest natural of(Cz) and traces of compounds
substance known). containing even upto 370 carbon
atoms. Fullerene (C) was The structure of C-60
ó.t does not conduct lectricity (because of the absence of Buckminster fullerene
named Buckminster fullerene
free electrons) butit has high thermal conducivity and
high melting point. due to their resemblance (in structure) with geodesic domes,
designed and built by the American Architect Robert
Structure Buckminster Fuller.
It is a giant molecule of
carbon atoms in which each Checkoint 02
carbon atom is bonded to four
other carbon atoms forming a 1Wite the twoexamples of crystalline form of carbon,
rigid three- dimensional 2Draw the structure of diamond.
3Fill in the blank
network structure, which is Graphite is a conductor of electricity.
The structure of diamond
responsible for its hardness. 4How do diamond can be prepared artiticially?
Moreover, alot of energy is required to break the network of 5Give two differences between ionic and covalent compounds.
Strong covalent bonds in the diamond crystal. Therefore, its 6State True or False for the following stalements:
melting point is very high. Diamond is a covalent solid, yet has a high melting point
 Allinone science
104

HydrocarbonscontainínL
Versatile Nature of Carbon
The estimated number of The organic
compounds
hydrocarbons,
only can
C.g, CH
carbon
about three million. But now the compounds
question
known today is
is, which propery hydrogen
are called the
These arc simple
or propertiesof carbon is/are responsible for the C,H, and C,H2. regarded as parent
such a large number of carboncompounds. Mainformation of compounds and arc

factors that compounds are

enables carbon to form large number of compound are: compounds. All other the replacemcnt considered
of
by
derived from them other atoms or group of one o
A'Catenation hydrogen atoms by be classificd as : ato,.
can
The property of self linking of elements mainly C-atoms The hydrocarbons
)Saturated hydrocarbons
through covalent bonds to form long, straight or branched Unsaturatedhydrocarbons
chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation. Carbon
shows maximum catenation in the periodic table due to its
Small size. This enables the nucleus to hold on to the shared Saturgted Hydrocarbons
pairs of electrons strongly and CCbond becomes strong. which allthe carbon atorms arc
The hydrocarbonsin bonds are called Sat
Note Elements other than carbon like sulphur, silicon also have by only single covalent
a tendency to show the property of self linking. ie. paraffins.
catenation but to amuch lesser extent, due to lesS hydrocarbons or alkanes or
bondenergy or strength. The bond formed by elements compounds is C
The general formula of theseatoms in onc moleru
having bigger atoms are much weaker. where, n= number of carbon
hydrocarbon.
2. Tetravalency of Carbon e.g. if there is only one carbon
atom then. its G
Carbon belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Its atomic should be C,H)l-2 = CH, (methane).
sor:
number is 6 and the electronic configuratíon is 2, 4. Thus, it Similarly, if there are two carbon atoms in thc
has four electrons in the outermost shell. Hence, its valency is hydrocarbon (alkane), its formula must be
four, i.e. it is capable of bonding or pairing with four other
carbon atoms or with the atoms of some other monovalent C,H,,2-2 =G,H, (ethane)
elements like hydrogen, halogen (chlorine, bromine) etc.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
3. Tendency to Form Multiple Bonds The hydrocarbons in which atleast one double or
Due to its small size carbon has a strong tendency to form bond (or multiple bond) ispresent alongwith singe
multiple bonds (double and triple bonds) by sharing more are called unsaturated compounds. These comp
than one electron pair with its own atoms or with the atoms of generally burn with so0ty or smoky flame due t
elements like oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur etc. As a result, it can incomplete combustion. These are more reactiv
form avariety of compounds that are exceptionally stable. sarurated hydrocarbons and generally undergo ac
reactions (which are discussed later in the chapter).
Organic Compoundscarbides its oxides of Unsaturated compounds are further divided into fol
two classes:
The compounds of carbon except for
carbon, carbonates and hydrogen carbonate salts, are known
as organic compounds. These and compounds were initially 1. Alkenes or Olefins
extracted from natural substances it was thought that these Those unsaturated hydrocarbons which have atle
carbon compounds could only be formed within a living
ouble bond alongwith single bonds are
(A double bond is formed by sharing called alke
force' was necessa rv
system. Thus, it was postulated thata 'vital of two P
for their synthesis. electrons berween the rwo carbon atoms).
accidenty
In 1828, German chemist Friedrich Wohler trying to General formula of hese compounds is C,HTr
prepared urea from ammonium cyanate when he was e.g. if an
cyanate by heating ammonium sulphate alkene have 2 carbon atom5, i.c. n = L
prepare ammonium urea discarded rhe its formula is
and potassium cyanate. Thus, synthesis of C,H,,) =C,H, (ethene).
vital force theory.
 Carbon and Its Compounds 105
Ainone
alkynes
2. Alkynes 2. Structure of Propane (CHg)
unsaturatedhydrocarbons which have one or more Same rules are followed here as in case of cthanc. Here, the
Those alongwith the single bonds are called alkynes. three carbon atoms are linked together with a single bond.
triple bonds
bond) is formed by the sharing of 3 pairs of
(A triplebetween twocarbon atoms). C-C-C (Step 1|
electrons
Generalformula of these compounds is C,H-2- To satisfy the remaining valencies of carbon atoms,
if an alkyne have
two carbon atoms, then its formula is hydrogen atoms are linked with them.
e.g (ethyne). If there are three carbon H H H
C,Hx2- 2 =C,H, alkyne then its formula must be
atoms in the
C,Hx}-2 =C;H, (propyne). H-C C-H [Step II]
The minimum number of carbon atoms present in an H H H
Note unsaturated compound is two because formation of double or
triple bonds is possible only between two carbon atoms 2 carbon atomns are bonded to 3 hydrogen atoms and
1carbon atom is bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms.
Structure of SaturatedandUnsaturated Electron dot structure of propane (CHg)
Compounds
Steps to draw the structure of carbon compound: H

Sren I First connect all the carbon atoms together with a

single bond. H

Sreo II After that use the hydrogen atoms to satisfy the

remaining valencies of carbon (as carbon forms 4 H H
bonds due to its 4 valency).
Step III Ifnumber ofavailable H-atoms are less than what is 3. Structure of Ethene (C,Ha)
required, satisfy the remaining valency by using Link the rwo carbon atoms by single bond.
double or triple bond. C-C (Step I|
Structure of Ethane (C,H) Link the four hydrogen atoms with carbon atom to satisfy
nethane, rwo carbon atoms are present. To find the the unsatisfied valencies of carbon.
ructure of simple carbon compounds, the first step is to
nk the two C-atoms together with a single bond, H H
CC |Step 1] (Step 11]
lere, only lvalency of carbon is satisfied and the 3 valencies H H
fcach carbon atom remain unsatisfied.
ach of these unsatisfied valencies is satisfied by using But in this case, even after linking the available hydrogen
-atoms, atoms with carbon atoms, still one valency of each carbon
H H remains unsatisfy. To satisfy it, a double bond is used
berween the two carbon acoms.
H-CC-H [Step lI| H

H H
C=C( (Step lll)
ow, the tetravalency of carbon in H H
ethane is satisfied.
ectron dot structure of ethane (C Now, all the four valencies of carbon are satisfed.
,H) Electron dot structure of ethene
H

HC H
H H
H)
 Allnone Science Cos:
106

(CsH,)
Structure ofBenzene
Linking of carbon atoms by single bond.
4. Structure of Ethyne li)
(C,H,)
Link the two carbon atoms by single bond. Step I
C-C (Step I]
Link the two hydrogen atoms with unsatisfied valencies of
carbon. atomS With
of hydrogen uns:
But in this H-C--C-H
case even after linking the available
[Step II] Step II Linking
valencies ofcarbon.
hydrogen H
atoms with carbon atoms, still two valencies of each carbon
is unsatisfy. To satisfy it, a triple bond is used berween the
two carbon atoms. CC-H
H-C=C-H [Step I] H
In ethyne, the two carbon atoms share three pairs of H
electrons among themselves to form a carbon-carbon triple H
even after linking the
bond. Each carbon atom shares one electron with each But in this
case,
hydrogen atom to form cwo carbon-hydrogen single bonds. C-atoms, still one valency
H-atoms with unsatisfied. To
Electron dot structure of ethyne(C,H,) carbon remains satisfy it, ado
two C-atoms
the
bond is used between
H) H

H-Ç CCH
Structure of Cyclic Compounds H-
Some carbon compounds also exist in cyclic or ring structure.
Todraw the structure of cyclicor ring compounds:
single each Cratom
Step I First connect the available carbon atoms by a Now, all the four valencies of
bond in the cyclic form. satisfied,
of each carbon with
Step II Try to satisfy the tetravalency
the available hydrogen atomS.

of each carbon. If it is
Check Point 03
Step III Now, check the valency
unsatisfied, use double or triple bond to
found 1 State True or False for the
following statements:

satisfy it. Catenation is the combiniingcapacity of an element.

number of compOunds?
2 Why does carbon forms a large
e.g. unsaturated hydroca
()Structure of Cyclohexane (C,Hgl 3 Differentiate between saturated and
carbon
Linking of atoms by single bond. 4 Write the electron dot structure of CHa
Step I
5 Fill in the blank:
Synthesis of urea the vital force theory.

valencies of Isomerism
Linking of H-atoms with unsatisfied
Step II
carbon.
HH HH Organic compounds with same molecular formua
different chemical and physical properties are
H isomers. This phenomenon is called isomerism. da
H
H
H The these compounds is
difference in properties of
the difference in their compounds
ÁH H H structures. These structures. H
identical molecular formula bur different
each C-atom are satisfied. they are called structural isomers and phenomenonis
As allthe 4 valencies of draw double or triple
Therefore,there is no nced to structural isomerism.
bond.
 Allinone Carbon and Its Compounds 107

C. Two structural ossible lor buule

(C,H. Functional Groups
Carbon can also forms bonds with other clements such as
H
H HH H H
Ihalogens, oxygen, nitrogcn, sulphur ctc. These are called
heteroatoms, Heteroatoms are also present in form of group
-C-C-C-(-H H
of atoms. These atoms or the group of atoms, replace ote or
H
HH H H H
more hydrogen atoms of the hydrocarbon and are responsible
H
Straight chain structure Branched chain structure for the chemical reactivity of the compound.
Hence, these are called functional groups.
compounds, crbon atoms re arranged in the Thus, functional groups may be defined as an 'atom' or a
In some
form of ring. For example, cyclohesanc (CH) and 'group of atoms' which makes acartbon compound (or organic
benzene (C,H). Compound) reactive and decide its properties (or functions)
regardless of the length and nature of carbon chain.
HH Some important functional groups are tabulated below.
H Some FunctionalGroups in Carbon Compounds
H
HC C-H Hetero Functlonal Group Formula of Functional
H
atom Group
CI, B1. Halo (chloro/brOmO CI, -Br,
H H F,I fluoro/lodo) [substitutes for H- atom)
CGH: Oxygen 1Alcohol OH
(Cvclohexane) (Benzene)
2. Aldehyde CHO
(al
Example 2. Write the structural formulae of all the
3 Ketone
isomers of an alkane with six C-atoms (CH,, ).
Sol. Hexane has the following five isomers: 4.Carboxyl1c acid
() CH,- CH, CH,- CH, CH,- CH, OH
3

(i) CH, ÇH -CH, -CH,CH, Note Free valency or valencies of the carbon atoms ol lunctional
group are shown by the single lne
CH,
[Here, 5carbon atoms are arranged in straight line,
3
one is branch at 2 C-atom) Homologous
A series of similarly
Series
i) CH, -CH, ÇH CH,-CH, constituted compounds in which the
members present have thesame funcional group and similar
CH, chemical properties and any two successive members in a
[Here, branch is at 3C-atom)
particular series differ in their molecular formula bya
1 2 3 4 -CH,-unit, is called a homologous series.
(ie) CH, - ÇH ÇH CH,
e.g. CH,,C,H.C,H,,C,HÍ are the members of alkan
CH, CH, family.
[Here, branches are at C- 2 andC-3 atoms] Characteristics of a Homologous Series
CH, o All the members of a homologous series can be representee
2 3 4
by the same general formula.
to) CH,-Ç-CH,CH, Any two adjacent homologues differ by Icarbon atom an
CH, 2 hydrogen atoms in their molecular formula.
[Here, branches are at C-2 carbon atom only] " All the compounds of a homologous series show simila
chemical properties.
 Alinone Science Coss
Alln
108
Srep III Iffunctional groupis present che compound
indicatedinthe name of the compound wih Exam
With increase in the molecular mass, a gradual change in suffix (which are given in the nexttV

Functional tab
or a
the physical properties is seen, e.g. the melting and a prefix Different (i) C

IUPACGroNanug,
boiling points increase with increasing molecular mass. Suffix of
Prefixand Example Sol. ()
The difference in the molecular masses of any wo Functional Prefix/Suffix
adjacent homologues or members is 14 u.

Nomenclature of
Group CH,Cl or
H
H-¢-CI
Chlorometh
Carbon Compounds Prefix-chloro,
CH,CH,Br or
(

Generally, organic compounds have two names, i.e. IUPAC

and common names. The IUPACnames have been adopted
Halogen bromo etc.

H- -C
H
Br
Bromoethat.
by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
and are based on certain rules. The Common nameS H

(also known as trivial names) have no proper system tor H H H

naming.
H CH Propane
In general, IUPAC name of organic compounds are based Suffix-ol HH H
Alcohol
on the name of parent carbon chain modified by a prefix CH,CH,CH,OH
(phrase before) or suffix (phrase after) indicating the name H H
(or nature) of the functional group. Ex
H CC -0
Ethaneta, pre
WritingIUPACName Aldehyde Suffix-al H
-e IU.
or CH,CHO
of a Compound HO H
Following steps are used to write the name of an organic
compound: Propane to
Suffix-one
carbon atoms in the given Ketone
Step I Count the number of the root word for it. Root Propat
compound and write
tabulated below. CH,C0CHs
words upto 10carbon atoms are
H O
Root Words for Carbon Atoms
Carboxylic Suffix-o1c Hc-OH Ethane
Root Word Number of Root
Number of acid acid
C-atom(s) Word
C-atomn(s) Ethancic:

1(C.) Metn 6C.) Hex or CH,C0OH

Heot H
2 (C,) Etn 7{C,)
Oct Double
3 (C) Prop 8C) bond
H-Ç C: Propene
Non
Suffix-ene H
But
4 (C) (alkenes) H
5 (C;) Pent 10C.,) Dec
orCH,CH = CH,
the
Step II If thecompound is saturated. add suffix 'ane' to'ene'
root word, but if it is unsaturated, add suffix Triple bond H-Ç-C=C-H Propyne
and 'yne' for double and triple bonds respectively. (alkynes) Suffix -yne
c.g. CH,CH,CH, contains three C-atoms, so rhe H
root word is prop and it contains only single or CH,C=CH
bonds, thus, suffix used is 'ane. Hence, the name of
Note " If the functional group is named as a suffix, andthesu
this compound is propane. the functional group begins with a vowel a, e, i, o, U.
Similarly, the compound CH, CH=CH, is the final 'e' of alkane (or alkene or alkyne) is substitutt
named as propene as here suffix 'ene' is used for appropriate suffix.
" If thefunctional group and substituents are not pres
double bond.
first carbon,then their rlocation is indicated by digits2.1
 Allinone Carbon and Its Compounds 109

formula and IUPAC names of

Example 3. Give thehomologous series given below. Check Point 04
members oof
nexttwo (ii) CH, OH (ii) HCOOH
() C,Hs
Erhane 1 Write the structural formulae of all the isomers of an alkane with
IUPAC name - seven C-atoms (C,H6)
Sol. ) C,H; is C.H,..
The general formula of alkane C,H, 2 What is meant by hornologous series?
On adding CH, and (CH,), to
which are: 3 Fill in the blanks:
we get the next two members
IUPAC name - Propane ) The gradual change in the physical properties occurs with
C,H_i IUPAC name Butane increase in the
C,Hoi () IUPAC stands for
IUPAC name - Methanol
() CH,OH;
general formula of an alcohol can be written as 4 What are primary and secondary suffixes as applied to IUPAC
The nomenclature?
R-ÖH (where, Ris an alkyl group).
Here. also CH, and (CH,), are added to CH,OH the next 5 State True or False for the folowingstaternents:
two members are:
C=Orepresents carboxylic group.
C,H, OH; IUPAC name - Ethanol H
C.H,-OH; 1UPAC name- Propanol
(it) HCOOH; IUPACname - Methanoic acid
Next two members are (1n the same manner as before) Chemical Properties of
CH,COOH; IUPAC name - Ethanoic acid
C,H,-COOH; IUPAC name Propanoic acid Carbon Compounds
Some of the important chemical properties of carbon
Example 4. ldentify and name the functional groups compounds are as follows:
present in the following compounds. Also, write the
JUPAC name of each compound. Combustion
H H H
All the carbon compounds (including its allotropic forms
() H-Ç -OH also) burn in oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water
vapours. Heat and light are also released during this process.
HH H This reaction is called as combustion.
H H O e.gl C+O,’ CO,+ Heat +Light
(ii) H-Ç-Ç-C-OH CH, +20, CO,+ 2H,0+ Heat +Light
H H
2CH,CH,OH+ 60,4C0, + 6H,0
+ Heat + Light
H H O H H Further, once carbon and its compounds ignite, they keep
-H on burning without the requirement of additional energy.
That's why, these compounds are used as fuels.
H H H H
Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean blue lame due to their
H H H H
complete combustion whereas, unsaturated hydrocarbons
give ayellow flame with lots of black smoke as they do not
(iv) H--C=C-H undergo complete combustion.
1S.
HH Even saturated hydrocarbons undergoes incomplete
Functional group IUPACname combustion in the limited supply of air and gives a sooty
() -OH (alcohol) flame. Thegas stoves used at home has inlers for air so that a
Propanol
G-OH (carboxylic acid) Propanoic acid sufficiently oxygen-rich mixture is burnt to give aclean blue
flame. But sometimes the bottoms of cooking vessels get
(in) blackened because the air holes present at the bottom of the
(ketone) Pent-3-one
vessels gets blocked and fuel (or LPG] do not get enough
oxygen. Therefore, it docs not burn properly and undergoes
(iv) C=C- (alkene) incomplete combustion producing sooty flames which
But-1-ene or butene
blackened the bottom of the vessels.
 Allinonescience
AL
hydrocarbons
saturated most
are fairly
the of
Oxidation these
of
Most reactionsthe
unreactive
presence
reagents.
in take place readily in he prest
H

(It is the reaction involving the addition of oxygen and sunlight. e.g. sunlight, chlorine The
removal of hydrogen. Alcohols can be oxidised to carboxylic presence of rate. In this red
acid by heating them either in presence of oxidising agents
Iike alkaline KMnO, (potassium permanganate) or acidified
In the
hydrocarbons at a
rapid number
A
reaction,
of products fla
by one. homologues of alkanes
gas
K,Cr,0, (potassium dichromate). H-atomn one higher
formed wich the Sunlight
ig
bu

C.g. CH,CH,OH: Alkaline KMnO, +Heat

or acidified K,Cr;O7
CH,C-OH
CH, +CI,
Sunlight
CH,l+Ho a
are

Ethanol + Heat

Substances that are capable of adding oxygen to other

Acetic acid
(Ethanoic acid)
CH,Cl+Cl,
SunlightCH,d,+H
’ CHA, +Ho
B
CH,CI, + Cl,
substances are called oxidising agents. Sunlight
’ P
In general, Alcohol Aldehyde Carboxylic acid CHCI, +Cl, CCl, +HO
Alcohols are converted into carboxylic acid only under
complete oxidation. In partial oxidation, alcohols are
converted into aldehydes.
Fuels and Flames
Addition Reactions Fuels
Those carbon compounds which hve energy sON
The reaction in which a reagent completely add to a reactant them and burn with heat and light are called fuele
without the removal of small molecules are called addition released energy (heat or light) is utilised for
reactions.
e.g. addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation) in the presence purposes like for cooking ood, running machi
factories etc.
of catalysts like palladium or nickel, to unsaturated In fuels, the carbon can be in free state as present in
hydrocarbons yield saturated hydrocarbons. Catalysts are the
substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceed at a coke and charcoal or in combined state as present in pa
different rate without the reaction itself being affected. LPG (Liquefied petroleum gas whose main consting
H H butane), CNG (Compressed natural gas, main const
R of which is methane), kerosene, petroleum, natural g
Nickel catalyst
H,,200C
Those fuels which were formed by the decompositn
R the remains of the pre-historicplants and animals (fu
R R buried under the earth long ago are called fossil h
The above reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation e.g. coal, petroleum and natural gas.
of vegetable oils [that are unsaturated compounds] using a Coal
nickel catalyst.
Note Saturated fatty acids which are generally present in animal It is acomplex mixtureof compounds of
fats are harmful for health. and oxygen and some free carbon along carbon, hydr
with ta
Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should.be chosen for
cooking.
nitrogen and sulphur. It is formed by the decomposit
plants, ferns and trees which got buried
millions years ago.
of under the
Substitution Reactions
The reactions in which a reagent replaces an
atom or a
group_of atoms trom the- reactant (substrate) are called
Petroleum
It is a dark
substitution reactions.) These are viscous foul smelling oil and is also kno
rock oil or black
generally shown by
saturated compounds. the remains of gold. It is formed by the decomposi
extremelofy small plants and animas
under the sea millions
years ago.
 and Its Compounds 111
Alnone Carbon

Flame Physical Properties

charcoal in an angithi sometimes just glows It is a liquid at room temperature. Its melting point is 156 K
The coal or and boiling point is 351 K. It is soluble in water in all
out heat without aflanne. This is because a
redand gives produced when combustion (or burning) of proportions.
only
flame issubstances
gascousS takes place. When wood or charcoal is
ignited, the volatile substances present vapourise and Chemical Properties
burn witlh a
flame in the begining. Depending upon the
available and burning of fuels, flames () Reaction with Sodium Ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium
amount of oxygen metal leading to the evolution of hydrogen gas alongwith
types :
are of the following two the formation of sodium ethoxide.
Flame 2Na +2CH,CH,OH
Blue or Non-luminousis Sodiun Lchanol
2CH,CH,O Na+ H,‘
supply sufficient, the fucls burn
When the oxygen
completely producing a blue Alame and no light is Sodium cthoxide Hydrogen gas
LPG gas stove.
produced. c.g. burning of Note Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound.

Yellow or Luminous Flame (i) Dehydration Removal of water molecules from a

compound is known as dehydration reaction.
In the insufficient supply of air, the fuels burn When ethanol is heated at 443 K with excess
incompletely and produce yellow flame because of the
Dresence of unburntcarbon particles, e.g. burning of wax conc. H,SO,, the water molecules get removed from it
vapours.
and ethene is obtained.
Hot conc.
CH,CH,OH CH,=CH, + HO
CheckPoint 05 Ethanol H,SO4.
170°C
Ethene Water

, Which type of hydrocarbon gives sooty flame after burning ?

Thus, in the above reaction, conc. H,SO, act as a
2 Fillinthe blanks: dehydrating agent.
() Alcohols are converted into carboxylic acid only under Uses
Uses of ethanol are:
(i) In partial oxidation; alcohols are converted into
" It is used as an active ingredient in all alcoholic drinks.
State True or False for the following statements:
3
In the presence of sunlight methane form alcohol.
" It is useful in medicines like tincture of iodine, cough syrups
and many other tonics.
4 Why compounds like petrol, coal, etc. generate heat or light Alcohol as a fuel Alcohol is used as an additive in petrol,
or both on combustion?
since it is a cleaner fuel and give rise to only CO, and H,0
when burnt in sufficient air.
Some Important Carbon Effect of Ethanol on Living Beings
Compounds When large quantities of alcohollethanol are consumed, it tends
to slow metabolic processes and depress the central
Ethanol nerVous
system which in turn results in lack of coordination, drowsiness,
mental confusion, lowering of the normal inhibitors and finally
Its common name is ethyl alcohol and formula is Stupor.
C,H,OH or CH,CH,OH. The individual may be relaxed but does not realise that his sense
H H of judgerment and muscular coordination have been seriously
impaired.Therefore, in order to stop the misuse of ethanol, it is
made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substances like
H-C-C-0-H methanol, copper sulphate, pyridine etc. and coloured substance
like dyes. Such alcohol is called denatured alcohol.
H H Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very small quantities can

Preparation
Alcohol (ethanol) is
cause death. In liver, methanol is oxidised to metharnal which
reacts readily with the components of cells and causes
obtained by the fermentation
molasses which are obtained of coagulation of protoplasm. It also affects optic nerves, causing
blindness.
from sugarcane juice.
 Allinone Science
112

N.aOM

Ethanoic Acid
CH,COOCH,CH,
Ethylacette
,CHCIOH
ialuyl
alkohol
I iscommonly known as acetic acid. lts formu s 4 CHCO0:
CHCOOH. 5-8% solution of ethanoic acid in watT
known as vinegar. (iv) Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carby
acid with
Sodum ate,
Physical Properties the reaction of acetic
carbon carbona
Physical properties of cthanoic acid are: In
hydrogen
carbonates, dioxidc
gas is o
exampleofacid.-basc
reaction,
" Its melting point is 290 K. It is an
During winters it often freezes in cold climates and forms CH,COOH+ NaHCO, ’ CH,COO;
ice like flakes, so it is also called glacial acetic acid. Glacial
acetic acid is a trivial name for water free (anhydrous) Sodium acea
acetic acid.
" It is a weaker acid than HCI but stronger than alcohol. 2CH,COOH+ Na,CO,
+H,0+CO;
’ 2CH,COON.
Chemical Reactions
Sodium acetale
()Acidity Weak acidity of acetic acid as compared to
+H,0+CO;
Acid
HCI is because of its Jow ionisation but is more acidic Uses of Acetic
than alcohol is because of the more stability of ion acid are as given below:
Use ofethanoic or acetic
formed afrer the removal of a proton (H'). It evolves vincgar.
hydrogen gas when reacts with sodium metal. tis used for making
nl It is widely used as a
preservative in pickles.
’ 2CH,COO Na compounds|ik
2CH,COOH
Acetic acid
+2Na
Sodium metal Sodium acetate
H Ic is used for the synthesis of other
+ H,T
(ii) Reaction with a base It reacts with a base such as Soaps andpotassium
Detergents
saltsof long chain carb
sodium hydroxide to give a salt (sodium ethanoate or Soaps are sodium or
RCOONa.
sodium acetate) and water. acids and have general formula
CH,COOH + NaOH CH,COÔNã +H,0 where, R= Cy_Hj Ci,Hs etc.
Acetic acid Sodium
hydroxide
Sodium acetate
Detergents are usually ammonium or sulphonate salts of
chain carboxylic acids. They are also called as soapless
(iii) Esterification When ethanol (an alcohol) reacts with
acetic acid (a carboxylic acid) in the presence of an Manufacture of Sogps and
acid as catalyst, a fruity (sweet) smelling liquid calld
called esterification.
ester is obtaincd.This reaction is
Conc.H2SO,
Detergents
CH,COOH +CH,CH,0H -H,0
Soaps are made from animal fats or vegetable oils by he
Ethanoic
acid
Éthanol it with sodium hydroxide. This process of preparai
soap is called saponification.
(g CH,-O-CH,CH,
Fat or Oil + Alkali
(Ester)
Heat Soap + Glyct
(An alco
Ester (Sodium (Sodium salt
hydroxide) of fatty acid)
water
Note Here. H,SO, act as dehydrating agent, i.e. it removes acid.
formed will get couverted into
forrned, otherwise ester
sudium
The ester gets converted back into alcohol and sodiun
Structure of aSoap Molecule
with alkali like Asoap molecule is made up of two parts-a long hydo
salt of acid when treated part (or non-ionic part) and a short ionic part cont
hydroxide. This reaction is called saponification, as it
is used for the preparation of soap. -COONat group.
Cl,c,oH
 Alinone Carbon and Itss Compounds Macoe 113

The long hydrocarbon part is hydrophobic and therefore This formation of cluster. of molecules is called miclle.
soluble in oil.
insoluble in water but To wash away the loosened dirt particles in theform of
of thesoap molecule is hydrophilic so, soluble
Theionic portion
insoluble in oil.
micelles from the surface of the cloth, it is either
in water and scrubbed mechanically or beaten or agitated in washing
Tail.
Nat machine.
In the form ofa micelle, soap is able to clean, since the oily
Head dirt is being collected in the centre of micelle.
Long hydrocarbon chain lonic part
(Hydrophobic) (Hydrophilic) Micelles stay as colloids in the solution and
does not
Structure of a soap molecule come together to precipitate due to ion-ion repulsion.
Hence, the dirtsuspended in the micelles is also easily
Cleansing Action of Soaps rinsed away.
(Soap solution appears cloudy because the ion
Micelle Formation) Na
Note
aggregate to form spherical clustures which forms
different micelles that are large enough to scatter light.)
Soap molecules have Its
properties at their two ends.
one end is hydrophilic
(soluble
Na
Detergents
in water) and other is Sometime while bathing that foam is formed with
hydrophobic (soluble in fats or droplet difficulty and an insoluble substance (scum) remains
after washing with water. This is caused by the reaction
oils).
At the surface of water, the Na
of soap with the calcium and magnesium salts, which
Formation of micelles cause the hardness of water.
hydrophobic end or tail of soap will Hence, a large amount of soap get wasted. This
be insoluble in water and the soap
wil align along the surface of water with the ionic end in water and problem is overcome by using another class of
the hydrocarbon tail' protruding out of wate. compounds called detergents as cleansing agents.
Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids
Inside water, these molecules show a unique orientation that or ammonium salts wtih chlorides or bromides ions etc.
keeps the hydrocarbon portion out of the water. This is done by Both have long hydrocarbon chain,
forming clusters of molecules in which the hydrophobic tails are The charged ends of these compounds do not form
in the interior of the cluster and ionic ends are present on the
surface of cluster. insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium
ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in hard
Hydrophilic end water. Detergents are usually used to make shampooos
D, Hydrophobic end and products for cleaning clothes .

Grease or dirt
CheckPoint 06
1 State True or False for the following statements:
Saponification is the reverse of esterification reaction.
2 What happens, when ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium
metal ?
2 Give any twO examples of chemicals that are added to
denature the alcohol.
Mention two uses of ethanoic acid.
s Fillin the blank:
Soap help in forming ..... of oil and water by acting as a
bridge between the two.
Cleansing action of soap
(Micelle formation)
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