Your complete guide to Term 2

CLASS 10 | TERM 2
SCIENCE
B O O K L E T

@padhle.in
 I N D E X
C H A P T E R N A M E P G . N O .

Carbon & It's Compounds 1-15

Periodic Classification of 16-33

Elements

How Do Organisms 34-58

Reproduce?

Heredity & Evolution 59-72

Electricity 73-91

Magnetic Effects of Electric 92-112

Current

Our Environment 113-119

 Carbon & it's
Compounds

@padhle.in
Why should I care about carbon
Hey, have you took bath today?
You must have used soap right and maybe after
that you ate bread & butter in your breakfast
and put on your favorite clothes, after which you
arranged your notebooks.

Guess what your soap, bread, butter, clothes &

notebooks are made up of carbon. Infact, most
of the thing which we use or consume are made
up of catbon. hence, it's important to know about
carbon & it's compound.

DO YOU KNOW?
The earth crust has only 0.02% of carbon but total
known compounds of carbon are approximately
10,000,000 (ten million).

Yes, 10 million
BONDING IN CARBON
(Carbon kaise connect krta hai)
We know how the ionic bonding works, an
element either receive the electrons or donate
the electrons depending upon it's needs
(electronic configuration). So before applying this
concept let's meet carbon.

Hey, fellas

I live in
Period 14 Group 2,
Mandeleev nagar

Atomic number - 6
No. of protons - 6
No. of electrons - 6
Electronic configuration - 2,4
So to attain noble gas configuration (2 or 2,8)
carbon can donate 4 electrons or receive 4
electrons. Let's see both scenarios:

1) Bye Bye 4 electrons

+4
Carbon can loose 4 electrons and become C
cation but large amount of energy is required to
remove 4 electrons.

2) Koi 4 electrons dedo

-4
Carbon can gain 4 electrons and become C
anion but for nuclues having 6 protons, it would
be difficult to hold on 10 electrons i.e. 4 extra
electrons.

Therefore, Ionic bonding is not possible in carbon.

By now, carbon be like

CARBON COVALENT STRATEGY
Since carbon cannot donate or receive electrons,
it applies a new strategy of bonding that is sharing
valence electrons with other carbon atoms or
atoms of different elements. These shared
electrons belongs to outermost shells of both
atoms and in this way both atoms achieve noble
gas configuration. This type of bonding is called
covalent bonding. Let's see how this works.

Bro, I'll share my electrons with all

of you, can you do same for me?

C Sure, sounds like a plan !!!

H H
H H
The Plan - Methane

OR

Shared pair
of electron
More Examples Of Covalent Bonding

H 2O CO2

Hydrogen Carbon
Atomic no - 1 Atomic no - 6
configuration - 1 configuration - 2,4
Valence electron - 1 Valence electron - 4

Oxygen Oxygen
Atomic no - 8 Atomic no - 8
configuration - 2,6 configuration - 2,6
Valence electron - 6 Valence electron - 6

OR OR
 NOTE
1 electron pair shared | single bond (-)
2 electron pair shared | double bond (=)
3 electron pair shared | triple bond (=)
=

Difference between
Ionic compound & Covalent compound

- Made up of ions - Made up of molecules

- These are hard solids - These can be gas, liquid or

soft solid (except diamond)

- High boiling & melting point - Low boiling & melting point

- Soluble in water - Insoluble in water

- Conduct electricity - Do not conduct electricity

(except graphite)
QUESTIONS TIME
1) Draw the electron dot structure of Nitrogen
molecule. [CBSE 2013]

Ans:

2) State reasons to explain why covalent compounds:

a. are bad conductors of electricity?
b. have low melting and boiling points? [CBSE 2016]

Ans:
a. Covalent compounds do not form ions, hence they are
bad conductor of electricity.
b. Covalent compounds have weak intermolecular forces
of attraction, therefore, have low melting
and boiling points.

3) Carbon does not form ionic compounds, why?

[CBSE 2015]
Ans: Ionic compounds are formed by transfer of electron
but Carbon cannot lose four electrons because high
energy is needed to remove four electrons, It cannot gain
4 electrons because 6 protons cannot hold 10 electrons.
That is why carbon cannot form ionic compounds.
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Carbon occurs in different forms in nature with
widely varying physical properties. These different
forms are called allotropes ex: diamond, graphite
& buckminster fullerene.

Buckminster
Diamond Graphite
Fuller

Each carbon Each carbon 20 (six)

atom is linked atom is linked to membered rings
to other 4 other 3 carbon & 12 (five)
carbon atoms atoms forming membered rings
forming rigid hexagonal array. of carbon.
3D structure.
Scene from Annual Carbon Compound meet

Graphite

Diamond
Fullerene

WHY SO VERSATILE BUDDY

There are about 10 million known compounds of
carbon, Let's look at the properties of carbon
responsible for its versatile nature.

1) Catenation (Chain banana)

Catenation is the property of self linking of Carbon
atoms through covalent bond to form large chains.
ex: Pentane (chain of 5 C atoms)
2) Tetravlency (4 valency)
Carbon has 4 electron in its outermost shell which
are capable of bonding with 4 other C atoms or
atoms of different elements.
ex: single C atom can form both
Methane & Chloromethane

3) Multiple bonds
Carbon has strong tendency to form multiple
(double and triple bonds) by sharing more than
one electron pair.
ex: two carbon atom can form
ethane & ethene & ethyne
Oxygen : bro tere itne saare compund kyu hai
Carbon :

Catenation Tetravalency Multiple bond

NOTE
It was believed that a vital force is required to
form organic compounds (compound of carbon)
but in 1828, Friedrich Wohler prepared urea in
lab which discarded vital force theory.

HYDROCARBONS
Organic compounds containing only carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
ex: CH , C H , C H
4 2 6 2 4

Now, let's see classification of hydrocarbon

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
It is family/series of compounds having same
chemical properties and any two successive
members in particular series differ by CH2 unit.
ex : alkane, alkene & alkyne series
 ACTIVITY TIME

10 things I have used since morning are bed,

toothbrush, soap, bread, butter, paper, apple, pencil,
pen, table (most of things are made up of carbon).

Difference in formulae = CH2 unit

Difference in molecular mass = 14 units
Difference in formulae and molecular mass is same in
all three cases.
QUESTIONS TIME
1) Which element exhibits the property of catenation to
maximum extent and why? [CBSE 2016]

Ans: Carbon shows catenation to a maximum extent due

to its tendency to form strong covalent C-C bonds.

2) List four characteristics of homologous series.

[CBSE 2014]
Ans:
a. All members are derived from same general formula.
b. All members have same functional group.
c. Each successive member differ by CH2 unit.

3) Give reasons for the following: [CBSE 2011]

(i) Diamond has a high melting point.
(ii) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.

Ans:
(i) It is due to strong covalent bonds and compact
structure of diamond.
(ii) It is due to presence of free electrons in graphite
because each carbon is linked to three more carbon
atoms.
MIND MAP
 Periodic
Classification
of Elements

@padhle.in
Why We Need To Classify Elements

Imagine you are visiting a shopping mall where

items are not classified/grouped that means
Dairymilk is present along with vegetables and
5 Star is found with noodles. How will you feel,
I believe you will say "This is plain stupid".

It is more convenient for us if all chocolates are

classified in one section & vegetables in other
section. For the same reason elements are
classified into periods & groups which makes
their study a lot easier and convenient.

Do You Know?
At present, 118 elements are known to mankind.
Out of these 118, 94 are naturally occurring and
remaining 24 element are made by humans and
these are radioactive in nature.

Now we are going to look at different attempts made by

scientists to classify these elements.
Let's start this 96 years long journey in search of best
method to classify elements, WELCOME ABOARD !!!
 Dobereiner's Triads
In the year 1817, Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner
tried to arrange the elements with similar
properties into groups of three and when these
three elements are arranged in increasing order of
their atomic mass; the atomic mass of the middle
element was roughly the average of the atomic
masses of the other two elements. ex:

LIMITATION
(Kya problem ho gyi)
Dobereiner could identify only three triads from the
elements known at that time. Hence, this system of
classification into triads was not found to be useful.
Newlands’ Law of Octaves
In 1866, John Newlands, arranged the then
known elements in the order of increasing
atomic masses. He found that every eighth
element had properties similar to that of the
first. He compared this to the octaves found in
music. Therefore, he called it ‘Law of Octaves’.

LIMITATIONS
(Kya problem ho gyi)
1) This law was applicable only up to calcium, after calcium
every eighth element did not possess properties similar to that
of the first.

2) Newlands assumed that only 56 elements existed in nature

But later on new elements were discovered who did not fit into
his law.

3) In order to fit elements he place unlike elements

(like Co & Cl) in same column.
Mendeleev Periodic Table
In 1872, Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements
on the basis of their atomic mass and similarity of
chemical properties. Among chemical properties,
he concentrated on the compounds formed by
elements with oxygen and hydrogen.

After examining the periodic table he gave

Mendeleev Periodic Law which states that
‘the properties of elements are the periodic
function of their atomic masses’.

Mendeleev Periodic Table

 FEATURES
1) Mendeleev left gap in his table for the elements
not known at that time like Eka-silicon (germanium).

2) He also predicted the atomic masses and

properties of elements not known at that time like
gallium & germanium.

3) Noble gases (like He, Ne) were discovered late

but these gases were placed in a new group
without disturbing the existing order of table.

Meanwhile

Mendeleev

nds
w la
Ne

Guy w
ho cla
eleme ssified
nts in
metal Do
& non
metal be
r ei n
er
 LIMITATIONS
(Kya problem ho gyi)
1) Position of Hydrogen
Electronic configuration and some properties of
H are like alkali metals (Na, k) but it also exist in
diatomic form (H2) and form covalent bond like
halogens (F, Cl). Thus its position was not fixed
but it was kept with alkali metals.

2) Position of Isotopes
isotopes of an element have similar chemical
properties, but different atomic masses. In
Mendeleev's table not place was given to them.

3) Uncertainity in Atomic Masses

Atomic masses do not increase in a regular
manner in going from one element to the next. So
it was not possible to predict how many elements
could be discovered between two elements.

4) Placing Heavier element before Lighter one

In order to fit them, few elements having higher
atomic mass were placed before elements with
lower atomic mass like cobalt (58.9) before
nickel(85.7).
 ACTIVITY TIME

Electronic configuration and some properties of

H are like alkali metals but it exist in diatomic form and
form covalent bond like halogens hence there is no fixed
position of H
H have 1 shell and 1 valence electron hence it should
belong to Group 1 & Period 1

In Mendeleev's table elements having different atomic

mass occupy different positions hence isotopes should
occupy different position but isotopes also have same
chemical properties so they should be in same position.
This contradiction is one of the limitation of Mendeleev's
table.
 QUESTIONS TIME
1)Define Newlands law of octaves. [CBSE 2013]

Ans: Newlands Law of Octaves: When elements are arranged

in increasing order of their atomic mass, every eighth element
resembles with the first.

2) What were the criteria used by Mendeleev in creating his

periodic table? [CBSE 2013]

Ans: Increasing order of atomic mass and same formula of

oxides and hydrides.

3) State Mendeleev’s periodic law. [CBSE 2012]

Ans: Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: Properties of elements are a

periodic function of their atomic mass.

4) Why was the system of classification of elements into triads

not found suitable? [CBSE 2009]

Ans: It is because all the elements discovered at that time

could not be classified as Dobereneire’s triads.
THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic

number of an element is more fundamental
property than its atomic mass. Mendeleev's Periodic
Law was modified and Modern Periodic Law was
adopted which states: ‘Properties of elements are a
periodic function of their atomic number’.

In modern periodic table, elements are arranged in

increasing order of their atomic number. Table
contain 18 Groups (vertical columns) and
7 periods (horizontal rows).

Modern Periodic Table

 Features of Groups
1) All elements of group have same valency.
2) All elements of group have same chemical properties.

Features of Periods
1) All elements of period have same no. of shell.
2) All elements of period have different chemical properties.
3) No. of elements in different periods are 2, 8, 18, 32, 32.

Mendeleev ki Limitations ka Solution

1) Position of Hydrogen
In this table unique position (top left corner) is
given to H because of its unique characteristics.

2) Position of Isotopes
This table is based on atomic number & isotopes
have same atomic number, so they can be put at
one place.

3) Placing Heavier element before Lighter one

The position of cobalt and nickel is justified itself
because atomic number of bobalt is less than nickel.

NOTE : Maximum no. of electrons in shell = 2n2, n is no. of shell.

: A zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals. B, Si,
Ge lie on this line and these are called metalloids.
 Dobereiner Newlands

I have 1 I have 3
limitation limitations

Mendeleev Moseley

I have 4 You guys are

limitations having limitation

SHORT-TRICK
(VE = Valence Electrons)

Period no. of element = no. of shells it have

Group no. of element = no. of VE , if VE<3

= no. of VE + 10 , if VE>3

Example:
Sodium - 2,8,1 - 3 shells & 1 VE, Na lies in Period 3 Group 1
Oxygen - 2,6 - 2 shells & 6 VE, O lies in Period 2 Group 16
 ACTIVITY TIME

Modern periodic table is based on atomic number and

atomic number of cobalt(27) is less than nickel(28) hence
cobalt comes before nickel.
Isotopes have same atomic number hence they are put in
one place.
No, it is not possible as atomic number is number of
protons in an atom and it cannot be 1.5
We think that due to its unique properties H should have a
special place i.e. top left corner.

H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

(H- 1) (Li- 2,1) (Na- 2,8,1)
We observe that all elements have same no. of valence
electrons i.e one.
TRENDS IN MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

1) VALENCY
Along Group (Up to Down) = Remains Same
All elements of group have same number of valence
electrons hence all have same valency.

Along Period (Left to Right) = Increase then Decrease

Valency increases till group 14 then decreases.

2) Atomic Size
Along Group (Up to Down) = Increases
As new shells are being added as we go down the group.

Along Period (Left to Right) = Decrease

Due to increase in nuclear charge valence electrons gets
closer to nucleus.

3) Metallic Nature
Along Group (Up to Down) = Increases
As valence electrons gets far hence they are easy to loose

Along Period (Left to Right) = Decrease

As nuclear charge increases across period, the tendacy to
loose electron decreases i.e metallic nature decreases.

NOTE : Non metallic nature trend is opposite of metallic trend.

: Oxides of metals are acidic in nature.
 ACTIVITY TIME

(Li- 2,1) (Be- 2,2) (B- 2,3) (C- 2,4) (N- 2,5)
(O- 2,6) (F- 2,7)
No, they don't contain same number of valence electrons.
Yes, they all contain same number of shells.

From electronic configuration we find no. of valence

electrons. The number of valence electrons lost or gained
by an atom to achieve the nearest inert gas electron
configuration, gives us the valency of the element.
(Mg- 2,8,2) Mg will lose 2 electrons, Its valency = +2
(S- 2,8,6) S will gain 2 electrons, Its valency = -2
 Valencies of first 20 elements are-
(H 1) (He 0) (Li 1) (Be 2) (B 3) (C 4) (N 3) (O 2) (F 1) (Ne 0)
(Na 1) (Mg 2) (Al 3) (Si 4) (P 3) (S 2) (Cl 1) (Ar 0) (K 1) (Ca 2)
On going from left to right valency first increases then
decreases.
On going down the group valency remains same.

Li < Be < B < C < N < O

Yes, they are arranged in pattern of a period.
Li have largest atom and O have smallest one.
As we go from left to right atomic radius decreases.
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs
Li have smallest atom and Cs have largest one.
As we go down the group atomic size increases.

(Metals- Na, Mg, Al) (Metalloid-Si) (Non Metals- P, S, Cl, Ar)

On left side of periodic table we find metals.
On right side of periodic table we find non metals.

When going down in group, tendency to lose electron

increases as nuclear charge decreases.
When going left to right in group, tendency to lose electron
decreases as nuclear charge increases.

When going from left to right in period it increases.

When going down in group it decreases.
 QUESTIONS TIME
1) An element has atomic number 17. To which group and
period does it belong to? [CBSE 2016]

Ans: Electronic configuration : 2,8,7

No. of shells = 3, hence Period No. = 3
No. of valence electrons = , hence Group No. = 7 +10 = 17
Therefore, this element belongs to Period 3 Group 17.

2) Out of Li and K, which will have stronger metallic character

and why? [CBSE 2016]

Ans: K will have more metallic character because it can lose

electrons easily due to its bigger atomic size and less effective
nuclear charge.

Why do all elements of the

a. same group have similar properties?
b. same period have different properties? [CBSE 2012]

Ans:
a. It is due to same number of valence electrons which will
decide the chemical properties.
b. They differ in number of valence electrons, therefore they
differ in chemical properties. They have the same number of
shells.
M M
I
A
N
D P
 How do
Organisms
Reproduce?

@padhle.in
WHY DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Right now your heart is pumping blood to your

whole body, your kidneys are filtering this blood
& this blood contain nutrients which were
extracted from food by your small intestine.
Nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion
are life processes which are necessary for
survival of body but unlike these, reproduction
is not necessary for survival of an individual
so why should organism waste their energy in
this process.
The answer is need for continuation of life.
Reproduction may not be necessary for survival
of an individual but it is important for the survival
of species.

Do You Know?
Scientists have estimated that there are around
87,00,000 i.e. 87 lakh species of plants and
animals in existence on our planet.
 IMORTANCE OF DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid - iss janam me yad ho jayega)

Reproduction is process through which a living

organisms produce new individuals similar to them
and this is done through most basic event in
reproduction creation of DNA copy and
additional cellular apparatus.

Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain

information for inheritance of features from
parents to the next generation in the form of
DNA molecules.

The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information

source for making proteins. If the information is
changed , different proteins will be made & this
will lead to altered body designs.
प रवतन

IMORTANCE OF VARIATION
Copy of DNA is made through bio chemical process
which is not 100% reliable hence some variation in
DNA occurs during this process and these variations
give rise to new traits. This inbuilt tendency for
variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution.
Let's understand this phenomenon through example:
 If there were a population of bacteria living in cold
waters, and if the water temperature were to be
increased by global warming, most of these bacteria
would die, but the few variants resistant to heat would
survive and grow further. Variation is thus useful for the
survival of species over time.

No Variation Variation

- They will die

- All will die
- Heat resistant
variants will survive

MODES OF REPRODUCTION
There are 2 modes of reproduction

- Asexual reproduction (one parent is involved)

- Sexual reproduction (two parents are involved)

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In this mode Single parent is involved.
Young ones produces are identical to each other & parent.
It is Rapid mode of reproduction.
It does not involve fusion of gametes.
Organisms which reproduce asexually: amoeba, hydra e.t.c

1) FISSION (Splitting)

In this mode a unicellular organism split into two or more

than two separate daughter cells.

There are two types of fission:

Binary fission - two daughter cells are formed

- ex Amoeba, Leishmania

Multiple fission - more than 2 daughter cells are formed

- ex Plasmodium (malarial parasite)
 Amoeba Leishmania

Plasmodium

2) FRAGENTATION(टू टना) (Breaking in pieces)

Organisms simply break into smaller pieces upon

maturation & these pieces or fragments grow into new
individuals.

This growth is possible due to special cells cells which are

capable of growing, proliferating & making other cell types.

Ex: Spirogyra (green algae)

 21 min me bacteria double

3) REGENERATION(टू टना) (Punarjanam of pieces)

Organisms give rise to new individual organisms from their
body parts. If the individual is somehow cut or broken up
into many pieces, many of these pieces grow into separate
individuals.

Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells

proliferate and make large numbers of cells.

Ex: Planaria & Hydra

 4) BUDDING (Bud organism)

Some organisms develops a bud as an outgrowth due to

repeated cell division at one specific site. These buds
develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach
from the parent body and become new independent
individuals.

Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells

proliferate and make large numbers of cells.

Ex: Hydra

5) VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
(Plant part new plant)
In this mode plant parts like the root, stem and leaves
develop into new plants under appropriate conditions.

This property is used in methods such as layering or

grafting to grow plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes.

Advantages of vegetative propagation :

- Plants produced are genetically similar to parents.
- Plants bear flower and fruits earlier than those produces by seeds.
- Plants having low seed producing capacity (banana, rose) can be produced.
 Potato with bud Leaf of Bryophyllum plant with buds

6) SPORE FORMATION
Formation of new individual by germination of spores.

Spores are unicellular bodies in parent that can grow into

new individual.

Spores are covered by thick wall for protection unless they

get moist surface to germinate(grow).

The thread-like structures that developed on the bread in

above are the hyphae of the bread mould (Rhizopus) & tiny
blob-on-a-stick structures are sporangia which contain
spores (these are involved in reproduction).

sporangia spores

hyphae

Rhizopus
 ACTIVITY TIME

We see yeast reproducing by forming buds.

A layer of white mass is seen on the slice. It is rhizopus.

Area of white mass is increased on subsequent days. The
thread-like structures that developed on the bread are the
hyphae of the bread mould (rhizopus).
The first slide, an Amoeba cell contains normal cytoplasm
and nucleus.
In second slide showing binary fission, dividing nucleus and
the constriction in cytoplasm are observed. It indicates that
the Amoeba is undergoing binary fission forming two
daughter nuclei.

Yes, Spirogyra filament consists of many cells attached to

form a filament. Spirogyra simply breaks up into smaller
pieces upon maturation. These pieces or fragments grow
into new individuals.
The potato pieces having buds gradually grows and
develops. But there is no growth and development in potato
pieces without buds.

Portion of Money plant with at least one leaf grows and

gives rise to fresh leaves. But money plant without leaf dies.
As money plant with green leaves can synthesize food
through photosynthesis and able to grow into a plant,
through vegetative propagation.
 QUESTION TIME
Q) Give an advantage of vegetative propagation. [CBSE 2015]

Ans) Vegetative propagation can be practiced for growing

such plants which usually do not produce seeds or produce
non-viable seeds.

Q) Explain how do organisms create an exact copy of

themselves. [CBSE 2016]

Ans) To build the copies of DNA or the genetic material, the

cells use biochemical reactions. Additional cellular apparatus
along with the DNA copies are separated so cell divides to
give rise to two almost identical cells.

Q) Define the following processes of asexual reproduction:

a. Spore formation b. Regeneration c. Multiple fission
[CBSE 2015]
Ans)
a- Reproduction seen in organisms by formation of spores.
b- Organisms are cut into any number of pieces and each
piece grows into a complete organism.
c- Unicellular organisms divide into many daughter cells
simultaneously.
Note: In Tissue Culture new plants are grown by removing
tissue growing plant which are then placed in an artificial medium
containing hormones for growth. The plantlets are then placed in
the soil so that they can grow into mature plants. This technique
is commonly used for growing ornamental plants in disease-free
conditions.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In this mode two parents are involved.

Sex cells of both parent fuse to form new cell called zygote.

More variations are produced as two parents are involved,

hence better chance of survival of specie.

Generally, male germ cells (sex cells) are motile & female
germ cells are large as they have food stored in them.

Male Female
germ cell germ cell

Note: Meiosis is process through which amount of DNA &

number of chromosomes in germ cells are halved.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN FLOWERING PLANTS
The reproductive parts of angiosperm plants are located in
the flower.

There are 2 types of flowers :

unisexual (have either male or female reproductive part)
bisexual (have both male or female reproductive part)

PARTS OF FLOWER

attract insects
female for pollination
reproductive
part

male
reproductive
part

provide protection
support flower
to bud
 Flower sunke beautiful smja kya
Reproductive part hai main

STAMEN: male reproductive part contains

Anther – bilobed structure containing yellow pollen grains
(male germ cells)
Filament – stalk that bears anther

PISTIL : female reproductive part contains

Stigma – sticky receptive surface for pollen grains
Style – tube that connect stigma and ovary
Ovary – swollen bottom part that contain ovule (female
germ cell)

SHORT-TRICK
Saree Aadmi Fabulous → Stamen- Anther Filament

Poori Streeyon ka Style Op → Pistil- Stigma Style Ovary

POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma through air,
water & insects.

There are 2 types of pollination : self & cross pollination.

Self - transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower.

Cross - transfer of pollen from one flower to another.

your pollen your pollen

your flower your flower

your pollen
other flower your pollen
other flower

SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION

FERTILISATION
After the pollen lands on stigma, a tube grows out of the
pollen grain which travels through the style to reach the
ovule & fertilization take place.

After fertilisation, the zygote become an embryo within the

ovule, ovule develops a tough coat & become seed, ovary
grows rapidly & become fruit.

Seed contains future plant which develops into a seedling

under appropriate conditions. it is known as germination.
 Germination of seed

Germination of pollen on stigma

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN HUMAN BEINGS
Human being can reproduce after attaining puberty.

Puberty: Period during adolescence when reproductive

organ start developing and become functional.

Changes in boys during puberty:

- Thick facial hair growth.
- Voice began to crack.
- Penis sometime become enlarged and erect.

Changes in girls during puberty:

- Menstruation begins.
- breast size increases.
- Nipples skin become dark.

During puberty male starts produces sperm (male germ cell)

and female begin to release egg/ovum (female germ cell).
 Male Female
germ cell germ cell
(sperm) (egg)

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSYTEM

release fluid, provide

nutrition to sperms

release fluid,
provide nutrition
to sperms

deliver sperms
to vagina
deliver sperms
to urethra
common passage for
sperms and urine

sacs that
produce sperms &
contains testis
release testosterone
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSYTEM
deliver egg to uterus

produce eggs &

some hormones
nourish baby

entrance for sperm

to enter the uterus

receive sperms

FERTILIZATION
Sperm enters vagina during mating & reaches
fallopian tube.

Sperm fertilise the egg present in fallopian tube

& Zygote (fertilised egg) is formed.

Zygote starts dividing and form a ball of cells

or embryo.

The embryo is implanted in uterus where it

continue to grow and become foetus.
 Uterus prepares itself every month to receive
embryo. The lining thickens and is richly supplied
with blood to nourish the growing embryo.

Embryo gets nutrition through special tissue

(Placenta), it also helps in removing waste from
embryo's body.

Development of child takes approximately 9

months. The child is born as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles in the uterus.

WHAT IF EGG IS NOT FERTILISED?

Uterus prepares itself every month to receive
fertilised egg. Thus its lining becomes thick and
spongy.

Since egg is not fertilised there is no use of this

lining therefore it comes out through vagina as
blood & mucous.

This cycle takes place roughly every month and

is known as menstruation.

Note - Menstrual pads are worn by women to

absorb menstrual discharge thereby protect clothing.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
It is a state of physical, mental and social fitness to lead
healthy reproductive life.

Sexual act always have potential to result in pregnancy,

the prevention of pregnancy is called contraception.

Types of contraception method- barrier, chemical & surgical

Barrier Method
1) Condom
Rubber sheath worn over the penis to stop
sperm from entering the vagina.
Prevents transmission of Sexually Transmitted
Diseases (STDs) and has no side effect .

2) Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD)

Copper T placed in uterus.
Can cause side effects.

Chemical Method (Oral contraceptive pill)

Contain hormones, which prevent release of ovum,
so that fertilization cannot occur.
These disturb hormonal balance of the body
hence they can cause side effects.
 Surgical Method
1) Vasectomy
Small portion of the sperm duct is cut or tied properly.
Prevents sperms from coming out.

2) Tubectomy
Small portion of oviduct is cut or tied properly.
Prevents the egg from meeting the sperms.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)

Sexual intercourse is very intimate activity, hence many

communicable diseases can be spread by sexual contact.

This include bacterial diseases (syphilis, gonorrhea) &

viral diseases (HIV AIDS, genital warts).

Red ribbon is a symbol for

solidarity with HIV-positive people.

Note - AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome) caused

by the HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) destroys the
immune system of the body. There is no cure for AIDS till date.
 ACTIVITY TIME

Two cotyledons of the seed can be observed showing

radicle and plumule.

Fig. 8.9
 QUESTION TIME
Q) What is main difference between sperms and eggs of
human? Write the importance of this difference? [CBSE 2014]

Ans) Sperms are motile and are produced in large numbers

by a male. Egg are non-motile and only one is produced at a
time by the female. Sperms are motile as they have to travel
up to egg for fertilization & foetus remains protected inside
female’s body.

Q) Why do we need to adopt contraceptive measures?

[CBSE 2013]
Ans)
a- Contraceptive measures are needed to be adopted to
prevent unwanted pregnancies.
b- To prevent sexually transmitted diseases.
c- Spacing between children.
d- For sound health of a mother.

Q) Mention the functions of (a) placenta (b) fallopian tube in

the female reproductive system. [CBSE 2012]

Ans) Placenta - Helps in transporting glucose and oxygen

from the mother to the embryo.
Fallopian tube- Helps in carrying the egg from the ovary to the
uterus, Fertilization occurs here.
MIND MAP
l
 Heredity
& Evolution

@padhle.in
 WHAT IS HEREDITY?
"Bittu ki shakal toh apne papa pe gayi hai"
You must have heard these kind of lines many
times in your house, have you ever wondered
why do we look like our parents? The answer
is HEREDITY.

Heredity is the means by which the offspring

acquire characteristics from the parent.

These characters are transferred through

genes present in the DNA molecules (present
in chromosome) in the nucleus of the cell.

Gene(segment of DNA)
{

Do You Know?
If all your DNA were put end-to-end, it would stretch
over 177027840000 km i.e. 177 billion km .
That’s hundreds of round trips to the sun!
 प रवतन

IMORTANCE OF VARIATION
Copy of DNA is made through bio chemical process
which is not 100% reliable hence some variation in
DNA occurs during this process and these variations
give rise to new traits. This inbuilt tendency for
variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution
(process of development of new type of living
organism from an old one).
Let's understand this phenomenon through example:

If there were a population of bacteria living in cold waters,

and if the water temperature were to be increased by global
warming, most of these bacteria would die, but the few
variants resistant to heat would survive and grow further.
Variation is thus useful for the survival of species over time.

No Variation Variation

- They will die

- All will die
- Heat resistant
variants will survive
 TYPES OF TRAITS
Acquired Traits
These traits are developed during lifetime
of person.

These traits are not passed from

generation to generation.

Example: dancing & reading.

Inherited Traits
These traits are inherited from previous
generation.

These traits are passed from generation to

generation.

Example: curly hairs & brown eyes.

my kids blaming me bcoz me who know being good

they aren't good at sports at sports is acquired trait
 MENDEL'S EXPERIMENT
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with garden pea
plants (from 1856 to 1863) & determined the rules for the
inheritance of traits.

But Why Pea Plant?

They grow fast.
They are easy to grow.
They can produce many offspring.
Both self and cross pollination is possible.
Many easily identifiable and contrasting
characters are present (like height, flower,
seed color & shape).

Experiment 1 (Mono-hybrid cross)

Mendel cross-pollinated tall pea plants with dwarf pea
plants.

F1

Mendel found that the 1st filial generation

(F1 generation) consisted of all Tall plants.
 In the second half of the experiment, he self-pollinated
the Tall plants (F1 generation ones).

He found that in F2 generation, 75% plants were tall and

25% were short.

Conclusion
The F1 plants are all tall but their progeny (F2) are not
all tall. Instead, one quarter of them are short.

This indicates that both the tallness and shortness traits

were inherited in the F1 plants, but only the tallness trait
was expressed & shortness trait was hidden.

This led Mendel to propose that two copies of factor

(now called genes) controlling traits are present in
sexually reproducing organism.

NOTE : Genes are segment of DNA, they carry information

which determines traits (like height).
Mendel to F1 Generation

Tum sab me dwarf ka gene hai, tumhe pta nhi hai, lekin tum me hai

Experiment 2 (Di-hybrid cross)

Mendel cross-pollinated pea plants
having round & yellow seeds with
wrinkled & green seeds.

All plants of F1 are tall and have round

seeds, hence tallness and round
seeds are dominant traits.

When F1 generation was self

pollinated to give F2 generation, all
kind of combinations were formed,
hence the trait of roundness & color of
seed are independent of each other.

NOTE : An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene.

ex: allele 1 (tallness T) & allele 2 (dwarfness t)
 ACTIVITY TIME

Most of the students have free ear lobe (dominant trait) and
some have attached ear lobe (recessive trait).

We can do mono-hybrid cross. We cross a pure tall plant

with a pure dwarf plant. The F1 progeny shows all tall
plants(Tt). But in the F2 generation, both tall & short plants
are found in the ratio 3:1 (the phenotype). The genotype will
be 1:2:1.
 QUESTIONS TIME
Q) How did Mendel's explain that it is possible that a trait is
inherited but not expressed in an organism? [CBSE 2017]

Ans) Mendel explained that it is possible that a trait is

inherited but not expressed in an organism with the help of a
monohybrid cross.

1. He crossed pure-bred tall plants (TT) with pure-bred dwarf

plants (tt).

2. The progeny he received in F1 generation was tall. The

dwarfness did not show up in the F1 generation.

3. He then crossed the tall pea plants of the F1 generation and

found that the dwarf plants were obtained in the second
generation. He obtained three tall plants and one dwarf plant.

Q) Why are traits acquired during lifetime of an individual not

inherited? [CBSE 2016]

Ans) Traits inherited during a lifetime cannot be inherited in

the successive generation as the changes do not reflect in the
DNA of the germ cells. For example, a cricket player cannot
pass on his skills on to his next generation as the traits
acquired during his lifetime are limited only to non-
reproductive cells.
DOMINANT & RECESSIVE TRAITS

Dominant Trait (Power wala)

A dominant trait will always be expressed in the offspring if
the dominant allele is present, even if there is only one copy
of it.

It is denoted by capital letter.

Ex: in humans, black hair (B) is dominant over blonde hair (b).

Genetic code (Genotype) = BB OR Bb

Recessive Trait (Kamjor wala)

A recessive trait will only be expressed if the offspring has
two copies of the recessive allele.

It is denoted by small letter.

Ex: in humans, blonde hair(b) is recessive over black hair(B).

Genetic code (Genotype) = bb

HOW DO THESE TRAITS GET EXPRESSED?

DNA is the information source for making

proteins in the cell. A section of DNA that
provides information for one protein is called
the gene for that protein.

Let's take example of tallness in plant:

Tallness depends upon hormone
Hormone depends upon enzyme (i.e. protein)
Protein depends upon gene
Thus, genes control traits (tallness).

Hormone

Protein

Tallness in plants
Genes
 SEX DETERMINATION
In some animals sex is not genetically determined ex: in
few reptiles, temperature at which fertilized eggs are kept
determines the sex & some animals like snails can change
sex but in humans, sex is genetically determined.

We all have 22 similar pairs of

chromosome but 1 pair, called the
sex chromosomes is odd.

Women have a perfect pair of sex

chromosomes, both called X but men
have a mismatched pair in which one
is a normal-sized X while the other is
a short one called Y. So women are
XX, while men are XY.

A child who inherits an

X chromosome from her father will
be a girl, and one who inherits a Y chromosome from
him will be a boy.

Thus, sex of the children will be determined by what

they inherit from father.
 SOME TERMINOLOGY
Progeny - offspring or children

Genotype - genetic code

Phenotype - observable traits

Homozygous - identical allele (BB or bb)

Heterozygous - different allele (Bb)

Monohybrid cross - difference of 1 trait is studied

Dihybrid cross - difference of 2 traits are studied

 QUESTIONS TIME
Q) How sex is determined in human beings? [CBSE 2014]

Ans) Sex of child in humans is determined by the type of male

gamete that fuses with the female egg. The chromosome in
the 23rd pair of a male gamete can be either X or Y. The
female egg always has an X chromosome. So if the male
gamete with the X chromosome fuses with the female egg, the
child will be female. Similarly if the male gamete with the Y
chromosome fuses with the female egg, the child will be male.

Q) How do genes control traits? [CBSE 2017]

Ans) The genes control the characteristic by making a specific

protein. Genes are the segment of DNA that contains
information to form RNA which ultimately forms protein. Each
gene contains two alleles and this instructs the cell to make
protein for expression of traits.

Q) How many pairs of chromosomes are present in human

beings? [CBSE 2015]

Ans) 23 pairs of chromosomes are present in human beings

out of which 22 pairs are similar & 1 pair is odd which is known
as sex chromosomes.
MIND MAP
WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?
Can you imagine your life without electricity?
Our mobile phone, laptop, fan, bulb, TV &
most of our surrounding gadgets depends
on electricity hence we depend on electricity.

But what is electricity? It's form of energy

just like heat energy, sound energy or kinetic
energy but the property which makes
electricity special is "it is controllable and
convenient" so to sum it up:

Electricity is a controllable and convenient

form of energy for a variety of uses in
homes, schools, hospitals, and so on.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
Defined as excess or deficiency of electrons

There are 2 types of charges = + & -

Like charges repel each other & unlike

charges attract each other

SI unit of charge - C (coulomb)

-19
Charge on 1 electron (e) = 1.6 x 10 C
 flow

ELECTRIC CURRENT
We know that flowing water constitute water
current in rivers. Similarly, if the electric direction of current
charge flows through a conductor (wire),
we say that there is an electric current in the
conductor.

Electric current is expressed by the amount

of charge flowing through a particular area in
unit time. In other words, it is the rate of flow
of electric charges i.e.
Current(I) = Charge(Q) / Time(T)

Direction of electric current - direction of

positive charge or opposite direction of
negative charge i.e. electrons.

SI unit of current - Ampere (A)

-3
Milliampere, 1mA = 10 A direction of electron
-6
Microampere, 1uA = 10 A

DO YOU KNOW?
1 A of current flows through my
phone charger that means around
600000000000000000 electrons flows
through unit area of wire in one sec.
 road

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
It is path through which current flows.

A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called

an electric circuit.

It consist of bulb, battery, switch, etc.

map

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
It is symbolic representation
of electric circuit.

It is often convenient to
draw a schematic diagram,
in which different
components of the circuit
are represented by the
symbols.

I
()

I
I

Electric Circuit Circuit Diagram

 push

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

For flow of charges in a wire, the electrons
move only if there is a difference of electric

e-
pressure called the potential difference.

This difference of potential is produced by

a battery. When it is connected to a
conductor (wire), the potential difference
sets the charges in motion in the
conductor & produces an electric current.

We define Electric potential difference

between 2 points as work done to move a
e-
unit charge from one point to the other in
an electric circuit. SI unit - Volt (V)
Potential difference (V) = Work done (W) / Charge (Q)

Every time I connect battery to circuit

Electrons:
 ampere meter

AMMETER
Device which measures current.

It is very low resistance device.

Ammeter is always connected in series.

voltage meter

VOLTMETER
Device which measures potential difference.

It is very high resistance device.

Voltmeter is always connected in parallel.

more push, fast flow

OHM'S LAW
Current is flow of electrons, Potential difference pushes the
electrons hence more push (V) will lead to fast flow of
electrons (I) i.e. V I, this is ohm's law.

More V More I
Current(I)
Less V Less I

Potential difference(V)
The potential difference, V, across the ends of a given
metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to
the current flowing through it, provided its temperature
remains the same. This is called Ohm’s law,
i.e. V I, hence V = IR where R is resistance

Current's enemy

RESISTANCE
It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges
through it.

Its SI unit is ohm (Ω).

Resistor - device that has electrical resistance.

Conductor - object having low resistance ex: copper wire.

Insulator - object having high resistance ex: rubber gloves.

Factors Affecting Resistance (R)
Resistance depends upon Length (L).

Resistance depends upon Cross- Section

Area (A). A
Resistance depends upon Nature of
material (ρ).
ρ L
Hence, R = (ρL) / A where ρ (rho) is
resistivity of the material of the conductor,
SI unit of ρ is Ω m.

Both resistance (R) and resistivity (ρ) of a

material vary with temperature.

Combination of Resistors
There are 2 methods to join resistors :

Series Combination & Parallel Combination

NOTE: Alloys have high ρ & do not oxidise (burn) easily hence
they are used in electric iron, toasters whereas copper and
aluminium are generally used for electrical transmission lines.
Series Combination
All resistors are connected end-to-end,
forming a single path for current flow.

Current is same in all resistors. R1

Potential difference may vary in different
resistors.

R(equivalent) = R1 + R2

Disadvantage: If one component fails

other components will not work & different R2
component need different current which is
not possible in series combination.

Parallel Combination
All resistors are connected across each
other.

Potential difference is same in all resistors.

Current may vary in different resistors.

R1 R2
1/R(equivalent) = 1/R1 + 1/ R2

Advantage: Failing of one component will

not affect other component & different
component can operate at different current
in parallel combination.
Resistors : hum sabko alag alag current chahiye
Series Parallel
Combination Combination

Heat from current

JOULE'S LAW OF HEATING

When current flows through a resistor, heat energy is
generated in it, this effect is utilized in devices such as
electric heater, electric iron etc.

The heat (H) produced in resistor is directly proportional to

2
- Square of current for a given resistance ( I )
- Resistance for a given current (R)
- Time for which the current flows through the resistor (T)
2
That means H = I RT, This is Joule’s law of heating.

Heat

I I
Electric Bulb
Heating effect of electric current is used to produce light
in electric bulb.

When current flows through a filament of bulb, heat along

with light is released from filament.

Bulb is filled with inactive Filament - made of Tungsten

Argon & Nitrogen gas to - high resistance
prolong life of filament - high melting point

Electric Fuse
It protects appliances by stopping the flow of any sudden
high electric current (it is placed in series with appliance).

If a current larger than the specified value flows through

the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases.
This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit.

Fusewire - made of alloy

- high resistance
- low melting point
 Energy ka rate

POWER
Power is rate of consumption of energy.

Power(P) is given by, P = VI

Its SI unit is Watt (W)

The commercial unit of electric energy is

kilowatt hour (kW h) or ‘unit’
1 unit = 1 kW h = 3.6 x 106 Joule

SHORT-TRICK
No. of units consumed by device = Watt x time / 1000

Cost of running a device = rate of unit (in ₹) x no. of units

consumed

Note: using ohm's law

2 2
Heat (H) = VIT = I RT = V T/R
2 2
Power(P) = VI = I R = V /R
 ACTIVITY TIME

Answer:

In each case V/I value is approximately same.

V-I graph is straight line. Thus, V/I is constant ratio

The current is different for different components. In certain
components, there is easy flow of electric current while the
others resist the flow.

Within a conductor, electrons are not completely free to

move due to the attraction by atoms. So, resistance is
increased and motion of electrons is retarded.
When wire of length 2L is connected, current is halved.

When wire of larger cross section area is connected,

current is increased.

When copper wire is connected instead of nichrome,

reading of ammeter i.e current is changed.

The value of current in

ammeter is same i.e. in
series combination of
resistors, current is same in
every part of circuit.
The total potential difference Vacross a combination of
resistors in series is equal to the sum of potential
differences across the individual resistors.
i.e, V = V1 + V2 + V3
It is observed that the total current I, is equal to the sum of
the separate currents through each branch.
i.e. I = I1 +I2 +I3 (i)

Let Rp the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination

of resistors hence, I = V/Rp

On applying Ohm's law to each resistor, we have

I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2, I3 = V/R3

Using (i), V/Rp = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3

i.e. 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3, Thus, the reciprocal of the
equivalent resistance (in parallel) is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
 QUESTIONS TIME
Q) How are voltmeter and ammeter connected in a circuit?
[CBSE 2017]
Ans) Component connected in parallel have same potential
difference hence, voltmeter is connected in parallel with circuit
Component connected in series have same current hence,
ammeter is connected in series with circuit.

Q) On what factors does the resistance of a conductor

depend? [CBSE 2017]

Ans) The resistance of a conductor depends on the following

factors:
(i) The temperature of the conductor
(ii) The cross-sectional area of the conductor
(ii) The length of the conductor
(iv) Nature of the material of the conductor

Q) Define the SI unit of potential difference [CBSE 2017]

Ans) The SI "Unit of potential difference" is Volt. It is "the

difference of potential" that would carry "one ampere of
current" against one ohm resistance i.e. V = IR.
Q) Which is the better way to connect lights and other
appliances in domestic wiring and why? [CBSE 2017]

Ans) Parallel connection is a better way to connect lights and

other appliances in domestic circuits. It is because

(a) Each device gets the same potential as provided by the

battery and it keeps on working even if other devices stop
working.

(b) It is helpful when each device has different resistances

and requires different current for its operation.

Q) (a) Write Joule's law of heating. (b) Two lamps, one rated
100 W; 220 V, and the other 60 W; 220 V, are connected in
parallel to electric mains supply. Find the current drawn by
two bulbs from the line, if the supply voltage is 220 V.
[CBSE 2018]

2
Ans) (a) Joule's law of heating H = I Rt When electric current
flows through resistance element, the flowing charges suffer
resistance, the work done to overcome resistance is
converted to heat energy.
(b) P1 = 100 W, V1 = 220 V, P2 = 60 W, V2 = 220 V
We know P = VI therefore,
I1 = P1/V1 = 0.45A
I2 = P2/V2 = 0.27A
MIND MAP
Magnetic Effects
of Electric
Current

@padhle.in
 IS ELECTRICITY AND
MAGNETISM RELATED
When a compass is placed near current carrying wire it
gets deflected , It means that the electric current through
the wire has produced a magnetic effect. Thus, electricity
and magnetism are related to each other.
Magnetic field
produced by Current

current

MAGNETS
Magnets have 2 poles known as North & South pole.

Like poles repel each other & unlike poles attract

each other.

A compass needle is, in fact, a small bar magnet.

 MAGNETIC FIELD
It is region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the
magnet can be detected.

Magnetic field is a quantity that has both direction and

magnitude.

The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in

which a north pole of the compass needle indicates.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

These are imaginary lines representing magnetic field.

They originate from north pole & end at south pole

(outside the magnet).

These lines are closed & continuous curves.

These lines never cross each other.

Strength of magnetic field is shown by the closeness of field

lines i.e. Crowded field lines = Strong magnetic field.

Magnetic
Magnetic Field lines
Field

Crowded lines = Scattered lines =

string magnetic field weak magnetic field
MAGNETIC FIELD & STRAIGHT WIRE

Current carrying straight conductor produce concentric

magnetic field.

The strength of magnetic field is directly proportional to

amount of current in wire (I).

The strength of magnetic field is inversely proportional to

distance (r) from wire.

Ma
g
fiel netic
d(
B)

Maxwell's Right Hand Thumb Rule

This rule helps in finding direction of magnetic
field produced by straight wire (conductor).
It states "Imagine that you are holding
a current-carrying straight conductor
in your right hand such that the thumb
points towards the direction of current.
Then your fingers will wrap around the
conductor in the direction of the field
lines of the magnetic field".
Teacher: What is maxwell's law
Me & my bois:

MAGNETIC FIELD & CIRCULAR LOOP

At every point of current carrying

loop, magnetic field is in form of
concentric circle around it.

As we move away from wire

circle would become larger.

At center of loop, field appears

to be a straight line.

The strength of magnetic field is

directly proportional to current Magnetic
(I) & no. of turns (n) in wire. Field lines
MAGNETIC FIELD & SOLENOID

A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped

closely in the shape of a cylinder is called a solenoid.

Magnetic field lines produced by solenoid is similar to field lines

produced by a bar magnet.

Thus, one end of the solenoid behaves as a north pole, while

the other behaves as south pole.

The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel
straight lines i.e. the field is uniform inside the solenoid.

Solenoid Bar Magnet

Electromagnet
A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be
used to magnetise a piece of magnetic material, like soft
iron, when placed inside the coil.
The magnet so formed is called
an electromagnet.
Electromagnet
 Abhi tak ki Short Summary

Magnet: I can produce magnetic field

Current carrying conductors:

FORCE ON CURRENT CARRYING

CONDUCTOR IN MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current carrying conductor is

placed in magnetic field, it experience a
force due to interaction between external
magnetic field & magnetic field
produced by current.

The direction of force depends on

direction of current & magnetic field.

This force is maximum when direction

of current is perpendicular to direction of Current carrying iron rod
is experiencing force
magnetic field & the force is zero when
(going towards left)
current & magnetic field are parallel.
 FBI, Hands up!!!
Fleming's Left Hand Rule (force)

This rule helps in finding direction of

force on current carrying conductor in g. field)
(ma
magnetic field.
stretch the thumb, index finger and (c
urr
en
t)
middle finger of your left hand such
that they are mutually perpendicular. If the index finger
points in direction of magnetic field and the middle finger
points in direction of current, then the thumb will point the
direction of the force acting on the conductor.

ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy.

Principle: when a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field

and a current is passed through it, a force acts on the coil
which rotates it continuously.

Electric motor is used as an important component in electric

fans, refrigerators, mixers, washing machines, computers, MP3
players etc.

Note: very weak magnetic fields are produced by small currents

that travel along the nerve cells in our body, this magnetic fields
forms the basis of obtaining the images of different body parts.
using a technique called Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
Working of Electric Motor
Parts:
Strong Magnet
A rectangular coil ABCD.
Split rings- used to rotate
the rectangular coil.
brushes- used as contact
between the split rings.

When the electric current is passed through the rectangular coil

ABCD. We notice that the current between BC and AD arm are
parallel to the magnetic field, whereas the current between AB
and CD is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore the
magnetic field will only act upon the AB and CD arms.

From Fleming’s left-hand rule, in the AB arm, the direction of

force is downwards & in CD arm, the direction of force is upward.

Therefore, the forces in the AB and CD arm are in opposite

directions, this will result in the rotation of the rectangular coil
ABCD.

After half rotation, the ring Q will come in contact with the brush
X and ring P in contact with the Y, this will lead to a change in
direction of the current.

Since the direction of the current is changed, the direction of

forces in the arm AB and CD will also change, hence the coil
continues to rotate in the same direction.
Commercial Motor Uses
An electromagnet in place of permanent magnet.

Large number of turns of the conducting wire in the

current carrying coil.

A soft iron core on which the coil is wound.

Current produced by Magnetic field

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

An electric current produced in closed circuit by a changing

magnetic field is called an induced current & this phenomenon
is called electromagnetic induction (EMI).

Galvanometer
It is instrument that can detect the presence of a
current in a circuit.

Pointer deflect either to the left or to the right of the

zero mark depending on the direction of current.
 FBI, Hands up!!!
Fleming's Right Hand Rule F (MOTION)

This rule helps in finding direction

of induced current in wire. B
(ma
g. fi
It states " if you stretch the thumb, eld)

index finger and middle finger of

ed
your right hand such that they are I duc )
t
(in ren
r
mutually perpendicular, If the index cu

finger points in direction of magnetic field and thumb

points in direction of motion of wire (force), then the
middle finger will point in direction of induced current.

Ways To Induce Current

1) By moving coil in magnetic field

Induced current is maximum when direction of motion of

coil is perpendicular to magnetic field.

Induced current is reversed by reversing direction of field

 2) By changing magnetic field around nearby coil

Induced Consider two coils, coil 1 (primary) & coil 2

(secondary), coil 1 is connected to battery.

Changing current of primary coil cause change in

magnetic field around coil 2 due to which current is
induced in coil 2.

Poore chapter ki Short Summary

Current Magnetic
Produce
field
Magnetic
field produce
Current
 QUESTIONS TIME
Q) Why do two magnetic field lines not intersect? [CBSE 2017]

Ans) The two magnetic field lines do not intersect each other
because if they do it means at the point of intersection of field
lines, the compass needle will show two different directions
which is not possible.

Q) State the rule which you use to find the direction of induced
current or state Fleming’s right hand rule. [CBSE 2015]

Ans) Fleming’s right hand rule gives the direction of induced

current. According to Fleming’s right hand rule, if we stretch
right hand thumb, forefinger and middle finger perpendicular to
each other in such a way that thumb points the direction of
force on a conductor and forefinger points the direction of
magnetic field then middle finger will point the direction of
current induced in the conductor.

Q) State two ways by which the strength of an electromagnet

can be increased. [CBSE 2016]

Ans) By increasing the strength of current and number of

turns of the solenoid we can increase the strength of an
electromagnet.
Q) What are magnetic field lines? How is the direction of
magnetic field at a point determined? Mention few important
properties of magnetic field lines ? [CBSE 2016]

Ans) Magnetic field lines are visual representation of magnetic

fields. Direction of magnetic field at a point is determined by
north pole of compass. Some properties of field lines are:
- These lines are closed & continuous curve.
- These lines are crowded near poles.
- These lines do not intersect each other.

Q) (a) State Fleming’s left hand rule.

(b) Write the principle of working of an electric motor.
[CBSE 2017]
Ans)
(a) Fleming’s left hand rule: If we stretch thumb, forefinger and
middle finger of left hand perpendicular to each other in such a
way that forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field,
middle finger points in the direction of current then the thumb
will point in the direction of motion/force on the current
carrying conductor.

(b) Principle of working of electric motor: A current carrying

coil placed in a magnetic field experience a force. If the coil is
free to move it will rotate in the magnetic field.
 ACTIVITY TIME

On passing the current, the compass needle is deflected. It

means that the electric current through the copper wire
produces a magnetic effect.

On Iron filings near the magnet align along the field lines.
This is because the magnet exerts its influence in the
surrounding region. So, the iron filings experience a force.
It makes iron filings to arrange in a pattern.
The needle of compass will align itself in direction of
magnetic field
If the current flows from north to south, the north pole of the
compass needle moves towards the east. If the current
flows from south to north, the needle moves in opposite
direction (towards west). It means that the direction of
magnetic field produced by the electric current is also
reversed.
Yes, the direction of magnetic field lines gets reversed if the
direction of current through straight copper wire is reversed

Concentric circle patterns of the iron filings emerge on the

cardboard. At the center, it appears as a straight line.
 The displacement of the rod (AB) suggests that:

1. A force is exerted on the current-carrying aluminium rod

when it is placed in a magnetic field.
2. The direction of force is also reversed when the direction of
current through the conductor is reversed.
If the south pole of the magnet is moved towards the end B,
the deflections in the galvanometer would just be opposite
to the previous case. When the coil & magnet are
stationary, there is no deflection in the galvanometer

This activity shows that the motion of a magnet with respect

to the coil produces an induced potential difference, which
sets up an induced electric current in the circuit.
As soon as the current in coil-1 reaches either a steady
value or zero, the galvanometer in coil-2 shows no
deflection.
We conclude that a potential difference is induced in coil-2
whenever the electric current through the coil-1 is changing
(starting or stopping). Coil-1 is called the primary coil and
coil-2 is called the secondary coil. As the current in the first
coil changes, the magnetic field associated with it also
changes. Thus the magnetic field lines around the
secondary coil also change. Hence the change in magnetic
field lines associated with the secondary coil is the cause of
induced electric current in it. This process, by which a
changing magnetic field in a conductor induces a current in
another conductor, is called electromagnetic induction.
MIND MAP
 Our
Environment

@padhle.in
 WHAT IS ECOSYSTEM?
All the interacting organisms in an area
together with the non-living constituents
of the environment form an ecosystem.

An ecosystem consists of biotic

components comprising living organisms
and abiotic components comprising
physical factors like rainfall, wind & soil.

Examples of ecosystem:
Natural - forests, pond & lakes
Artificial - gardens & crop fields

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Producers
Make their own food by photosynthesis.
Ex: green plants & certain bacteria

Consumers
directly or indirectly depend on producers for food.
Types of consumers - herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores and parasites.
Ex: cow, lion, bear, leech
Decomposers
Feed on dead decaying matter.
These organisms break-down the complex organic
substances into simple inorganic substances that
go into the soil and is used by plants.
Ex: bacteria and fungi

FOOD CHAIN
It describes relationship of organisms
about 'who eats whom'

Terrestrial food chain:

plant →tree → tiger

Aquatic food chain:

zooplankton →fish→ shark
 TROPHIC LEVEL
Each step or level of the food chain forms a trophic level.

The producers are at first trophic

level.The herbivores or the primary
consumers come at the second,
small carnivores or the secondary
consumers at the third and larger
carnivores or the tertiary consumers
form the fourth trophic level.

Food we eat acts as a fuel to provide

us energy so we can also say that
energy flows from one trophic level to
other through food chain.

ENERGY FLOW
Green plants capture about 1% of the energy of sunlight
that falls on their leaves and convert it into food energy.

Lot of energy is released in form of heat & remaining is

spent on digestion, growth etc. so an average of 10% of the
food eaten is turned into plant's body and made available
for the next level of consumers.
 Therefore, 10% can be taken as the average value for the
amount of organic matter that is present at each step and
reaches the next level of consumers.
Since so little energy is available
for the next level of consumers,
food chains generally consist of
only three or four steps. The loss
of energy at each step is so great
that very little usable energy
remains after four trophic levels.

The flow of energy is

unidirectional that means the
energy which passes to the
herbivores can not come back
to autotrophs.

The energy available at each

trophic level gets diminished
progressively due to loss of
energy at each level.

Note: Higher trophic levels = less organisms

Lower trophic levels = more organisms
LION: I am the king, the tertiary consumer,
I will get the highest energy

lion primary & secondary consumers

Producers

FOOD WEB
Each organism is generally
eaten by two or more other
kinds of organisms which in
turn are eaten by several
other organisms.

So instead of a straight line

food chain, the relationship
can be shown as a series of
interconnection of food
chains called a food web.
BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION
Pesticide & other chemical use to protect crops are
absorbed by plants hence enter the food chain.

As these chemicals are not degradable, these get

accumulated progressively at each trophic level.
This is known as biomagnification.

As human beings occupy the top level in any food chain,

the maximum concentration of these chemicals get
accumulated in our bodies.

Concentration of chemicals increases

Humans
using
Biological
insecticide
Magnification
to kill
insects
 HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES
AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT

Ozone Depletion
Ozone (O3) is a deadly poison but at the higher levels of
the atmosphere, ozone shields the surface of the earth
from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun which is highly
damaging to organisms (cause skin cancer).

Ozone production:
from sun

The amount of ozone began to drop sharply in 1980s. This

decrease was due to chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) which are used as refrigerants & in fire
extinguishers.

In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP) made an agreement to freeze CFC production at
1986 levels. It is now mandatory for all the manufacturing
companies to make CFC-free refrigerators throughout the
world.
 Amount of O3
Less amount of O3
recovered

Managing Waste
We produce 2 types of waste bio-degradable & non bio-
degradable.

Biodegradable - waste that are broken down by biological

processes (action of bacteria) ex: banana peel & paper.

Nonbiodegradable - waste that are not broken down by

biological processes . These substances may be inert and
persist in environment for a long time or may harm the
various members of the eco-system ex: plastic & metals.
Ways to manage waste
- Recycling : converting waste material into new product.
- Composting : using biodegradable waste to make compost for soil.
- Incineration : burning substances at high temperature to form ash.
 QUESTIONS TIME
Q) You being an environmentalist are interested in contributing
towards the conservation of nature resources. List four
activities that you can do on your own. [CBSE 2017]

Ans) Four activities which can be done as an environmentalist

to conserve natural resources are:

(i) Using public transport instead of using a personal vehicle.

(ii) Avoid using clothes & accessories made of animal skin.

(iii) Using energy-efficient electrical devices to save electricity.

(iv) Ensuring no leakage of water taps at home.

Q) What are consumers? Name the four categories into which

the consumers are further grouped. [CBSE 2017]

Ans) Organisms that feed directly or indirectly on producers

and cannot synthesize their own food from inorganic sources
are called consumers. Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores and
Parasites are various categories of consumers.

Q) State two advantages of conserving

(i) forests
(ii) wildlife. [CBSE 2017]
Ans) Advantages of conserving forest:-

It prevents soil erosion and floods.

It helps to maintain the water cycle.

It produces huge amounts of raw materials for the

industries.

Advantages of conserving wildlife:-

It protects the endangered species.

It preserves different kinds of species and thus, maintains

the species diversity.

It helps in maintaining the ecological balance that is

required for supporting life.

Q) Define an ecosystem. Draw a block diagram to show the

flow of energy in an ecosystem. [CBSE 2019]

Ans) All the interacting organisms in an area together with the

non-living constituents of the environment form an ecosystem.
Ecosystem consists of biotic and abiotic components.
Block diagrm-
 ACTIVITY TIME

We cannot leave the aquarium as such after we set it up.

Decomposed food particles, dead plant parts, excreta of the
fishes etc. accumulate in the water. Thus concentration of
nitrogenous waste and microorganisms increase. So,
aquarium needs to be cleaned regularly.

A pond or lakes need not to be cleaned in this manner

because they are large sized ecosystems. They contain
much water. Also they get new water by the phenomenon
such as rain.
If we add predator fishes or animals to the aquarium, they
will eat the other small fishes. Eventually, there will be only
predator fishes. So, we should not mix predatory fishes with
prey fishes.

Small fishes eat aquatic plants, Small fishes are eaten by

predatory fishes, Large fishes eat small fishes. Thus a
balance is maintained in the aquatic ecosystem.

Aquatic plants → Small fishes → large fishes

In an aquatic ecosystem, all trophic levels are important for

successive level. But producers are most important
because they provide food to other trophic levels.

Some harmful chemicals may enter the bodies through the

food chain. E.g. Pesticides and other chemicals are washed
down into the soil or water. From the soil, plants absorb
them. From the water bodies, aquatic plants & animals take
up them. Thus they enter the food chain.
The non-degradable chemicals get accumulated at each
trophic level. This is called biological magnification. Thus
cereals, vegetables, fruits & meat contain pesticide
residues. Their concentration is maximum in human body
because humans occupy the top level in any food chain.

Methods to reduce intake of pesticides:

- Minimize the use of chemical pesticides.
- Wash fruits & vegetables thoroughly before use.
- Use organic fruits and vegetables.

In 1980s, the amount of ozone began to drop sharply. It was

due to chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are
used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.

In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP) made an agreement to freeze CFC production at
1986 level. It is now mandatory to make CFC-free
refrigerators.

The size of the ozone hole has reduced in recent years.

Milk packets, plastic covers, strips, medicine bottles
remained unchanged as these are non-biodegradable.

Vegetable peels, meat, leaves are changed over time as

these are biodegradable substances.

Vegetable peels undergo fastest changes.

Biodegradable waste are broken down by biological

processes ex: banana peel & paper. whereas
Nonbiodegradable waste are not broken down by biological
processes ex: plastic & metals.

Aluminum cans last for 80-100 years & glass bottles last for
1 million years.
 Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be decomposed
by the action of living organisms ex: Polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs), Polylactic acid (PLA).

At home and class room, there are various biodegradable

and non-biodegradable wastes produced. They have to be
collected separately and treated properly.

The local body (panchayat, municipal corporation, resident

welfare association) have mechanisms to treat
biodegradable & nonbiodegradable wastes separately. They
collect wastes and segregate them as biodegradable and
non-biodegradable. They are stored in separate waste
baskets.

Ways of dealing with this waste

- Recycling: The solid wastes like paper, plastics are recycled.
- Composting: Biodegradable domestic wastes can be
converted into compost.
This activity should be done by students.

When electronic waste is exposed to the heat, toxic

chemicals are released into the air damaging the
atmosphere. Those toxic materials can then seep into the
groundwater, affecting both land and sea animals.

Recycling of plastics: Once sorted and cleaned, plastic can

either be shredded into flakes or melt processed to form
pellets before finally being moulded into new products.
MIND MAP