1.

The nuclide symbol for a

nucleus with 38 protons and 50
neutrons is \(^{38}_{18}\
text{Ar}\).

2. A cathode-ray tube works by

emitting electrons from a
cathode, which are then
accelerated towards an anode
through a vacuum. The
deflection of cathode rays by
electrically charged plates within
the tube illustrates their negative
charge. When the plates are
positively charged, the cathode
rays are attracted towards them,
while they are repelled when the
plates are negatively charged.
3. Millikan's oil-drop experiment
involved suspending charged oil
droplets in an electric field and
measuring their rate of fall. By
equating gravitational force with
electric force, he determined the
charge of
a single electron.

4. The nuclear model of the atom

proposes that most of the atom's
mass is concentrated in its
nucleus, which contains protons
and neutrons, while electrons
orbit the nucleus. Alpha-particle
scattering experiments showed
that the nucleus is small and
dense, with most alpha particles
passing through undeflected, but
some being deflected, indicating
a small, positively charged
nucleus.

5. Using the given mass-to-

charge ratio and charge on the
electron, the mass of the electron
can be calculated as \(9.05 \
times 10^{-31}\) kg.

6. Atom C is the isotope of Atom

A since they have the same
number of protons but
a different number of neutrons.
Atom D has the same mass
number as Atom A since the
mass number is the sum of
protons and neutrons, and both
Atom A and D have a mass
number of \(18 + 19 = 37\).

7. The atomic mass of the

element can be calculated using
the formula:
\[\text{Atomic mass} = \sum (\
text{mass} \times \
text{abundance})\]

For this element, the atomic

mass would be \(49.9472 \times
2.5 \times 10^{-3} + 50.9440 \
times 0.9975\). The identity of
the element can be determined
from its atomic number and
position in the periodic table.
8. The wavelength of the yellow
sodium emission can be
calculated using the formula:

\[\text{Wavelength} = \frac{c{\
text{frequency}}\]

Substituting the given values,

you can find the wavelength.

9. The energy of one photon of

red light emitted by lithium can
be calculated using the formula:
\[E = \frac{hc}{\lambda}\]
where \(h\) is Planck's constant, \
(c\) is the speed of light, and \(\
lambda\) is the wavelength.

10. You can use the Rydberg

formula to calculate the
wavelength of light emitted when
an electron in a hydrogen atom
transitions from energy level \(n
= 4\) to level \(n = 2\).

11.
a. The set of quantum numbers \
(n = 1\), \(l = 1\), \(m_l = 0\), \
(m_s = +1/2\) is not permissible
because the value of \(l\) cannot
be greater than or equal to \(n\).
b. The set \(n= 3\), \(l =1\), \(m_l
= 2\), \(m_s = 1/2\) is not
permissible because the value of
\(m_l\) cannot exceed \(l\).

Answer from 12-

12. The wavelength of the
emitted photon in the Lyman
series transition from \(n = 2\) to \
(n = 1\) in hydrogen can be
calculated using the Rydberg
formula. The region of the
electromagnetic spectrum where
this emission lies is in the
ultraviolet region.
13.
a. Increasing size: F⁻, Na⁺,
O²⁻, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺
b. Increasing size: Ne, F⁻, C⁴⁻,
N³⁻, Na⁺
c. Increasing size: Li, Be, B, C,
F
d. Increasing size: Cl⁻, S²⁻,
As³⁻, K⁺, Ca

Chemical Bonding and Structure:

1. Increasing ionic radius: F⁻,

O²⁻, Mg²⁺

2. Electronic configuration of N³⁻:

\(1s^22s^22p^6\), Lewis
symbol: \(\cdot\cdot\cdot N :\)

3. The electron-dot formula

(Lewis structure) of COCl₂ is: \(\
cdot\cdot\cdot C : O : Cl : Cl\)

4. The electron structure of the

carbonate
ion, CO₃²⁻, involves one carbon
atom surrounded by three
oxygen atoms, each sharing two
electrons with carbon, with one
oxygen atom also carrying a
formal negative charge.

5. N₂ has the shortest nitrogen-

nitrogen bond, and N₂F₂ has the
longest.

6. Molecular geometry refers to

the arrangement of atoms in a
molecule and the spatial
relationship between them.

7. Molecular geometries: NH₃ -

trigonal pyramidal, PF₃ - trigonal
pyramidal, BF₃ - trigonal planar
8. Dipole moment is a measure
of the separation of positive and
negative electrical charges within
a molecule.
9.
a. SO₂: bent - consistent with a
nonzero dipole moment because
of its polar bonds.
b. PH₃: trigonal pyramidal -
consistent with a nonzero dipole
moment due to its polar bonds.

10. Valence bond theory explains

chemical bonding by overlapping
atomic orbitals to form molecular
orbitals.

11. Hybrid orbitals are formed by

combining atomic orbitals in
molecules to form new hybrid
orbitals with different shapes and
energies.
12. In H₂O, bonding occurs
through the overlap of hydrogen
1s orbitals with oxygen 2s and 2p
orbitals, resulting in sp³
hybridization. In XeF₄, bonding
involves sp³d² hybridization of
xenon's outer
orbitals.

13. In N₂F₂, nitrogen forms

sigma bonds using sp³ hybrid
orbitals, while in C₂H₂, carbon
forms sigma bonds using sp
hybrid orbitals.

14. The orbital diagram of O₂

shows a sigma bond and a pi
bond between the oxygen atoms.
O₂ is paramagnetic with an
electron configuration of \(σ_g^2
σ_u^2 σ_g^2 σ_u^2 π_u^4
π_g^4\), and a bond order of 2.

15. - Hydrogen bonding is the

strongest and occurs between
molecules containing hydrogen
directly bonded to highly
electronegative atoms (N, O, or
F).
- Dipole-dipole forces occur
between polar molecules and are
weaker than hydrogen bonding.
 - London dispersion forces are
the weakest and arise from
temporary dipoles induced by
electron movement in non-polar
molecules.

16.
a. London dispersion forces
b. Hydrogen bonding
c. London dispersion forces
d. Dipole-dipole forces

An Chapter 3
1. You can use Boyle's Law to
solve this problem. \(P_1V_1 =
P_2V_2\), where \(P_1\) and \
(V_1\) are the initial pressure and
volume, and \(P_2\) and \(V_2\)
are the final pressure and
volume, respectively. Plug in the
given values to find the new
volume.

2. Similar to question 1, you can

use
Boyle's Law to solve this
problem.

3. You can use the combined gas

law to solve this problem, which
incorporates Boyle's Law,
Charles's Law, and Gay-Lussac's
Law. \(P_1V_1/T_1 =
P_2V_2/T_2\). Plug in the given
values to find the new volume.

4. Again, you can use the

combined gas law to solve this
problem.

5. Use the ideal gas law, \(PV =

nRT\), to solve for the number of
moles of oxygen. Then, use the
molar mass of oxygen to convert
moles to grams.

6. Use the ideal gas law to solve

for the pressure of the oxygen
gas in the cylinder.

7. Calculate the density of helium

gas
using the ideal gas law, then find
the difference in mass between 1
liter of air and 1 liter of helium.

8. For part (a), use the mole

fraction of nitrogen to find the
partial pressure of nitrogen. For
part (b), calculate the mole
fraction and mole percent of
nitrogen in the mixture.

9. The five postulates of the

kinetic theory of an ideal gas are:
- Gas consists of particles
(atoms or molecules) that are in
constant, random motion.
- The volume occupied by the
gas particles is negligible
compared to the volume of the
container.
- Gas particles exert no
attractive or repulsive forces on
each other.
- The average kinetic energy of
gas
particles is directly proportional
to the temperature of the gas in
kelvin.
- Collisions between gas
particles and with the walls of the
container are perfectly elastic.

10. Molar gas volume refers to

the volume occupied by one
mole of an ideal gas at a certain
temperature and pressure. At
STP (Standard Temperature and
Pressure), the molar gas volume
for an ideal gas is 22.4 liters per
mole.

11. Gas pressure arises from the

collisions of gas particles with the
walls of the container. According
to kinetic theory, these particles
are in constant motion, and when
they collide with the walls, they
exert a force, resulting in
pressure.