Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in Britain

Component-I (A) - Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Masood Ahsan Department of Geography,

Siddiqui Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi
Paper Coordinator, if Dr. Taruna Bansal Department of Geography,
any Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi

Content Dr. Janki Jiwan Department of Geography,

Writer/Author (CW) Shaheed Bhagat Singh College, University
of Delhi, New Delhi

Content Reviewer Dr. Chandreyi Assistant Professor

Banerjee Department of Geography
(CR) BSR Govt Arts College, Alwar, Rajasthan
Language Editor (LE)

Component-I (B) - Description of Module

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Geography
Paper Name Geographical Thought
Module Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in
Name/Title Britain
Module Id GEOG/08
Pre-requisites Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in
Britain

Objectives To Study Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary

Trends in Britain
Keywords Geographical Thinking, Disciplinary Trends, Heartland, World
Island, Landuse and Quantitative Techniques
Component II - e-Text

Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in Britain

Dr. Janki Jiwan,

I. Introduction
The modern geographical thought in Britain had been evolving since the establishment Royal
Geographical Society in 1830.Before this period, geography was taught only at the school
level in Britain. Some early geographers like Mary Somerville’s Physical Geography (1848)
and Francis Galton’s Weather Map (1861) had initial impacts on geographical studies but it
was Royal Geographical Society which led the beginning of geography as a distinct subject
by making its efforts in academic activities like collection of books, journals, maps. The
society worked on various geographical research methods and prepared research guidelines
for young academicians and researchers. Further, this society also used to organize seminars
which were usually attended by geographers from different countries like Germany and
France. These geographers attending seminars and symposiums shared their views,
assessments, and geographical knowledge with emerging British scholars. In this
background, some young and enthusiastic British scholars developed their interest in
geography and helped in introducing geography at the university level in the country. In
Addition, with the help of Royal Geographical Society, many professor and reader posts
created at several universities and a separate department of geography was established at
Oxford University, where Halford John Mackinder was appointed as a reader later he became
a professor at this place. Therefore, it was Mackinder who formally started British
geographical thought at School of Geography in Oxford University in 1887. A number of
geographers Halford JohnHerbertson, L.W.Lyde, C. B. Fawcett, George Goudie Chisholm,
Percy M.Roxby, Sidney William Wooldridge, Herbert JohnFleure and L. Dudley Stamp were
predominant who join this geographical movement led by Mackinder. These geographers
worked on various facets of geography and enriched it as a distinctive and scientific branch
of knowledge in Britain.

II. British Geographers and their Significant Contributions

A. Halford John Mackinder(1861 – 1947)
He is known as the founder of the British School of Geography at Oxford University. He
viewed that geography as a subject aimed at bridging the natural sciences and humanities and
taking a variety of interaction between man and society in their environment as a core of
study. He accepted the Ratzel’s view and pointed out anthropogeographers are real
geographers and real geographer are adventurers. Therefore, Training is imperative for
becoming a geography. Following his view, he adventured Eastern Africa and climbed
Mount. Kanya. His writings on geopolitics got an international reputation because of his
thinking was governed by visualization of the world map and its regional complexes, which
have been formed by numerous changing combinations of varied physical and human
elements on the Earth surface.In1902, he developed his interest in historical geography and
wrote a book entitled British and the British Seas’ containing his geographical views and
theories, analysis of the British history and regional interpretation of Britain and its seas.
Later he became very popular by his research article entitled ‘Geographical Pivot of History’.
In 1904, he formulated the concept of the Geographical Pivot of History which is also known
as the ‘Heartland Theory of Mackinder’. This theory has certain propositions on balancing
the powers.

1. The Heartland theory and its Geopolitical schemes

Mackinder pointed out that after the age of exploration, the oceanic power has weakened
because most of the coastal areas are strategically accessible and vulnerable. In fact, the
actual power lies in the pivot area (Russia). This landlocked pivot area (heartland) was
potentially powerful because of its inaccessible to oceanic powers, its strategic position,
development of transcontinental communication like railways and telecommunications etc.
The pivot area is encircled by inner crescent (marginal continental states) and outer crescent
(overseas powers like Britain, USA, and Japan). He considered Russia was the pivot area,
which geo-strategically important in the world. Moreover, if Germany makes ties with it, the
pivot areas can have developed its oceanic fleets as well. In this scenario, overseas powers
like France, Italy, India, and Korea have to be united to contain growing power of the pivot
allies. He further elaborated this Heartland theory in his next book entitled ‘Democratic Ideas
and Reality’ published in 1919. In the first world war, as Germany tried to dominate on
Russian heartland and Allies navies were stopped to enter in the Baltic and Black seas. Such
event popularized Mackinder’s Heartland theory. Mackinder further reviewed and included
the eastern Europe in the heartland and proposed the concept of the World Island (Asia and
Europe and Africa).
Figure: 1 Mackinder’s World Island

Source: H. J. Mackinder (1904) Geographical Pivot of History

He warned of the danger of the heartland falling under the control of the Soviet Union hence
Russia would have the ability to strike on peripheral lands of ‘World Island’ from its all
directions.He summarized his view of global strategy in the famous lines:
Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland;
Who rules Heartland commands the World Island;
Who rules the World Island commands the World.
He repeated the same view in 1943 (a few years before his death during the Second World
War). The theory of heartland was criticized because of the rising importance of air power,
satellite technologies, missiles, and importance of Arctic region because of it is encircled by
all superpowers like USA, Russia, Northern Europe, Northern China, Japan etc. Nevertheless,
Mackinder laid the foundation of Geo-strategic theories which inspired various geographers
across the world to study geo-strategic and political geography.
B. Huge Robert Mill (1861 –1950)
He was influenced by Darwinian environmentalism and Otto Schluter’s morphological
approach. His concept of physiography also included the geography of man. His view was
similar to the Richthofen system of spatially distributed phenomena overlaid as a pyramid,
where is base contains the physical structure and on the top, human’s socio-economic
features. Further, his interest was to study water as an element which sustains all forms of life
and provide an inexhaustible source of energy.He wrote a book ‘Realm of Nature’ aiming at
studying water published in 1891. Later he prepared rainfall maps on the basis of fifty years
of average rainfall data and also prepared land use maps for Britain.

C. Sir Patrick Geddes (1854 –1932)

He was a Scottish geographer who was inspired by Vidal de La Blache and Le Play’s
research on family lifestyles and family budgets. As per his view, family life depends upon
on family lifestyle and family budgets. He transformed Le Play’s formula place, work, family
into place, work, folk as the basic concepts in the study of cities and regions.

D. Andrew J. Herbertson (1865-1915)

After Mackinder, he became the professor at Oxford University. Geddes had immense
impacts on his study of regionalization. While working with Geddes at Oxford, he presented
a scheme for a division of the world into 15 natural regions on the basis of homogeneity in
surface features, climate, and vegetation.As per his view, there is an interaction between
inorganic and organic components in natural regions. He further pointed out that all natural
regions are, in facts, physical regions. Each region represents a unique imprint of man-
environment relationship.

E. H. J. Fleure (1877-1968)
He was a professor at Manchester. He viewed that human problems must be understood not
only through space but also time and types, which has been well explained in his book
entitled ‘Corridor of Time’.He wanted to elucidate regional personality through city
structures, its social institutions, and functions. He authored another book named ‘Human
Geography in WesternEurope’analyzing mainly the human regions. As per his view, the only
environment does not influence the region, hence human’s influences are equally important.

F. P. M.Roxby(1880-1947)
He elaborated contents and methods of regional studies. According to his view, first of all,
regional study required a demarcation of the natural regions basis of geology, drainage,
coastline, climate, vegetation with reference to man-environment relationships.He proposed a
concept of human region and pointed out that differential spatial relations account for the
difference between two human regions within a natural region. He viewed that man must
adjust with changing natural region and its environment.

G. S. W. Woolridge (1900-1963)
He was a professor at Kings College. He in association with Morgan wrote a book on
geomorphology. According to him, physical geography is the platform for human life and
human activities. In order to express his views on geographical contents and methods, he
authored a book entitled ‘Geographers as scientists’ in 1956. His book named ‘Spirit and
Purpose of Geography’ became popular amongst students and academicians.

H. L. D. Stamps (1898-1967)
He worked as an academician and professor at universities like Rangoon, London, and was
awarded honorary doctorates from various universities viz., Clark, Edinburg, Stockholm, and
Warsaw etc. he authored thirty books namely the ‘Geography of life and Death’, ‘Handbook
of Commercial Geography’, ‘The land of Britain: Use and misuse,’‘Our Developing world,
Asia: A Regional and Economic Geography’, ‘Land for Tomorrow: The Underdeveloped
World’ etc. Stamps’ most significant work was county level survey on land use in Britain.
His emphasis was on the use of geographical knowledge for human development and their
prosperity. Being a president of International Geographical Union (IGU), he had always been
active in enriching contents and scientific methods in geographical studies.

I. Richard J. Chorley(1927 –2002)

He and his companion Peter Haggett worked on the application of statistical techniques and
mathematical methods in geographical analysis. Besides Chorley contributed to physical
geography, especially Geomorphology and climatology. Chorley along with Peter Haggett
had written a number of books like ‘Frontiers in Geographical Teaching’(1975), ‘Models in
Geography’ (1967), ‘Socio-economic Models in Geography’ (1968), ‘Physical and
Information Models in Geography’, (1969), ‘Integrated Models in Geography’ (1969). These
books highlighted various new methods and techniques used in the geographical analysis,
which inspired many young geographers to do more research on these applications.

J. Peter Haggett (1933)

He along with Richard J. Chorley wrote several books on the application of statistical and
mathematical techniques in geography. Besides individually authored books namely
‘LocationalAnalysis in Human Geography’ (1965), ‘Geography: A Modern Synthesis’ (1975)
which mainly encompassed the scope of geography and its analytical methods and techniques
along with numerous maps, diagrams, photographs.

III. Disciplinary Trends (Branches)

Above-cited geographers have contributed to the evolution of various disciplines (Branches)
like Economic Geography, Agricultural Geography, Human, and Settlement Geography in
Britain, which are being detailed as follows:

A. Economic Geography
Economic geography as a discipline has been very popular in Britain during the inter-war
period. British geographers emphasized the studies of economic activities and factors
(especially natural factors) determining their location. Oneofpredominantgeographers was
Buchanan who examined the physical factors affecting the location of industries and areal
pattern of crops. Besides, William Smith was another geographer who authored a book
entitled the‘Economic Geography of Britain’ aiming at a systematic study of the regional
variants in economic productivity in the country. This book in its entirety focused economic
data analysis with the ecological approach. In addition, George Goudie Chisholm authored a
book namely ‘Handbook of Commercial Geography in 1889’. After Chisholm, Robert Mill
wrote ‘General Geography’ containing detail accounts of polar explorers. Later he proposed a
plan for land use in Britain, which inspired L. D. Stamp to prepare a well accepted the land
use map of Britain. In addition, Herbertson’s framework dividing the world into15 natural
regions was of great importance for the study of world regional and economic geography.

B. Regional Studies
Evolution of regional studies and trends in Britain was significantly influenced by the
concept of ‘landscape’ from Germany and ‘Pays’ from France. For example, British scholar
Patrick Geddes focussed on field study and regional survey for demarcating regions and
regional planning. Another British geography was Andrew J. Herbertson (1865-1915) who
combined Geddesian tradition of regionalization and Darwinian heritage of deterministic
approach in his study of natural regions. As discussed earlier he pointed out that natural
regions in the world must be demarcated on the basis of an association of surface features,
climate, and vegetation. Besides, Marian I. Newbigin wrote a book on regional studies. She
was also influenced by French traditions, which is reflected in his book entitled ‘Man and her
Conquest of Nature’. In addition, H. Fleure offered a regional classification of the world
based on problems and difficulties faced by man in achieving its basic needs on the earth
surface like nutrition, reproductions, well-being. On this basis, he divided the world into
seven regions. One more regional geographer was John F. Unstead who gave the equal
weight of human and environment in dividing the world into various regions.

C. Agricultural Geography
The British geographers had given a special focus on Agricultural Geography, especially land
use survey and its planning and during early decades of the 20th century.The first world war
necessitated land use planning and crop expansion in Britain. In this background, L. D. Stamp
prepared very valuable maps of land use for the country which later became the basis for the
reconstruction of Britain after second world war.

D. Historical Geography
In Britain, Mackinder laid the foundation of Historical Geography. He viewed that Historical
Geography as a significant discipline which rebuilds past geographies and shows how an
orderly change in the past has led the process of development of present geographical
features. He opposed geography to be merely a description of contemporary features. In his
view, historical geography help scholars to study changing man and environment relationship
and learn from these changes in the past and predict the future and plan accordingly. Besides,
geographers, H.C. Darby used positivist approach in Historical Geography while W. Kirk and
Brookfield’s Historical Geography had humanist orientation. According to their view
perceived world is more important than real world (as recorded in the documents). Therefore,
real history is a history of changing the perception of people about geographical phenomena
over the period of time. Besides, E.G.R. Taylor and E.W. Gilbert contributed significantly in
Historical Geography in Britain.

E. Settlement Geography
Few British scholars studied and authored books on this branch of geography, especially
during the inter-war period. However, scholars Fleure and his followers authored his studies
on the rural settlement but the spatial structure of city received little attention.

IV. Current Trends in British Geography

In the last forty years, the British scholars have contributed immensely in changing
philosophy, approaches, and scope of geographical studies. The key change is noticed in
quantitative revolution and their geographical applications.In fact, during this period,
geography was recognized as a spatial science. Scholars like Peter Haggett and Richard
Chorley’s contributions were significant. Both applied various statistical and mathematical
techniques, and articulated models and theories in this subject, especially inhuman and social
geography. Therefore, geographers in Britain emphasized on quantification of the subject
matters by using multivariate analysis and various statistical tools to describe patterns and
formulate geographical hypotheses and testing them. Scholars, especially Haggett and
Chorley’s books elucidate geographical models and its use in spatial and locational analysis.
Some of the important works of these authors are ‘Human Geography’, ‘Locational Analysis
in Human Geography’ and ‘Frontiers in Geographical Teaching’.

With these quantitative approaches, British Geographer has been making enormous efforts to
solve current social and economic problems in Britain and the world. As of now, countries
across the world including Britain face a number of problems like inter-regional and intra-
regional inequalities, environmental degradation, ecological crisis and inefficient public
welfare system dealing with social amenities and medical facilities. British geographers
analyze problems in detail and finding solutions for them. Moreover, the British Geographers
also use new concepts positivism, pragmatism, existentialism, idealism, realism,
environmental causation, radicalism and dialectical materialism in analyzing geographical
phenomena on the earth surface. Geographers also used various thoughts to analyze and solve
these above-cited problems.Some believed on positivism. As per positivism, as natural
sciences discovered the laws of nature, hence scientific inquiries of communities would
discover the laws of society. Positivism avoids normative questions and believes. Some
geographers focused on pragmatism to solve social problems. Although the concept was
borrowed from the United States, British geographers accepted this concept to understand
and solve practical problems. One more concept was realism that found a wide space in the
British geographical literature. Now realism is explained in opposition to idealism. British
geographers have, recently, concentrated on behaviourism and humanism as philosophical
themes for studying human geography. These philosophies and thoughts helped the British
geographers to enrich the contents and methods of various disciplines (branches of this
subject) like physical, regional, historical, economic, transport, agricultural and political
geography.