Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON SUBSURFACE INJECTION
OF OILFIELD BRINES
Proceedings
Sponsored By
UNDERGROUND INJECTION
PRACTICES COUNCIL, INC.
GQJWJQ;J
RESEARCH FOUNDATION
on
sponsored by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
and the
Published by the
Underground Injection Practices Council
525 Central Park Drive, Suite 304
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
(405) 525-6146
PAGE I
OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE
WELL TECHNOLOGY
17. Well Integrity Maintenance Using Pumpable Sealants 438
BY
T. LAWRENCE HINELINE
ABSTRACT
Beaumont, Texas is one of the oldest producing fields in the country, having been
about one million barrels of oil a year with approximately seven million gallons of
water being produced which must be disposed of. Throughout the recent operating
history of the field, the produced brines have been returned to the subsurface
through the use of injection wells. The injection of produced brine was either
purely disposal or in some cases, into producing zones, for the purpose of
secondary recovery.
In 1980, the Texas Railroad Commission, which has regulatory authority over
oil and gas operations in the state, held a hearing to review all of the existing
disposal permits for possible cancellation which would have the ultimate effect of
in the sink hole from 2000 ppm to over 25,000 ppm. These events and their
INTRODUCTION
Beaumont, Texas is one of the oldest producing oil fields in the country. The
field has produced over 90 million barrels of oil and continues to produce in the
vicinity of a million barrels of oil per year. In the early days of production
produced brines were discharged to the surface and were carried off in drainage
ditches. Later in the history of the field, produced brines were disposed of down
wells. For the most part, brine disposal in an old salt dome field is fairly
routine procedure. In the early 1980s however, there was a series of events that
SITE GEOHYDROLOGY
As mentioned above, Sour Lake Oil Field is located on the north side of the
town of Sour Lake about 20 miles west of Beaumont. This places the field in the
Gulf Coast Salt Dome Basin Province. Other than around salt domes, oil and gas
production is from Frio and Yegua sands along this trend. The Sour Lake Salt Dome
is a pi ercement feature, cutting through the Yegua, Jackson and Frio sections.
Miocene sands thin considerably over the dome, having a thickness of over 4500
feet less than two miles off of the flanks of the dome and less than 1000 feet at
the crest. A schematic cross section of the west flank of the feature is
illustrated in Figure 1. Oil and gas production in the immediate vicinity of the
dome is from a series of Miocene sands. On the flanks of the dome, the deeper
-2-
Yegua sands are productive. Oddly, despite ideal structural and stratigraphic
trapping, there is virtually no Frio production from the flanks of the dome.
Salt dome areas are prolific oil and gas producers because of the
Aquifers in the Sour Lake Area include the Miocene Oakville Sand, the Pliocene
Willis Sand and Goliad Sand, the Pleistocene Lissie Sand and recent alluvium.
difficult to distinguish them in the subsurface with drillers logs or electric logs
and because it is assumed they all are hydrologically connected, these formations
On the flanks of the dome, the depth to the base of fresh water reaches 2000
feet. At the crest of the dome fresh water is found to an approximate depth of 100
salt water is easily detected by resistivity logs as shown in that same figure.
There are numerous water we 11 s in the Sour Lake area (Figure 3) from which
water quality information can be obtained. The nearest shallow well to the crest
of the dome that there is water quality information for is about 7000 feet to the
solids (TDS) concentration of 1,025 ppm. The City of Sour Lake operated two
municipal supply wells about one mile south of the crest of the dome which drew
water from 177 feet. In the years from 1941 to 1949 the TDS concentration in these
we 11 s rose from 520 ppm to over 1500 ppm. These we 11 s were replaced by two new
wells another two miles to the south. These wells were drilled to a depth of 812
feet and 224 feet. The deeper well initially had a TDS concentration of 548 ppm
-3-
and a chlorides concentration of 188 ppm. After ten years of operation the TDS
concentration rose to 1460 ppm and chlorides to 645 ppm. The quality of water in
the shallower well remained fairly constant over the same period of time with 500
to 600 ppm TDS and approximately 200 ppm chlorides. This change in water quality
is typical around a salt dome, especially in wells on the down gradient side of the
dome. As the wells are pumped over time, salt water encroachment is to be
expected.
HISTORICAL REVIEW
Production History
The poor quality of water in the Sour Lake area can not be attributed to oil
and gas operations. This can be assumed from the name given to the town of Sour
Lake which was founded in 1835. In fact, there is a legend that the original Sour
Lake, now gone, caught fire, inciting the rather superstitious Indians in the area
never to return. Seeps of oi 1 and sulfur to the surf ace first brought those
seeking medicinal treatment to the area and as early as 1893 brought oil
prospectors into the area. In the 1ater years of the 1890s there was minimal oil
activity. On January 6, 1903 the first significant well was drilled by the Texas
Co., coming in as a 15,000 barrel a day gusher. Well over a thousand wells have
since been drilled at Sour Lake. Texaco, alone has drilled in excess of 800 wells
on the major 815 acre lease of the field as well as on some smaller surrounding
leases, and to date over ninety million barrels of oil have been produced.
in the ground in 1929. The twelve acre by 40 to 50 foot deep feature did not
evolve over time, but in two brief incidents on October 9 and 12 of that year.
-4-
Several oil wells up to 2000 and 3000 feet from the sink went entirely to water.
All of the affected wells were apparently producing from the caprock of the dome
The formation of the sink is attributed to the dissolution of the salt and cap
rock, the production of over 73 million barrels of oil and the production of an
apparent at Sour Lake when the Texas Railroad Commission took action to investigate
brine disposal at that field. The investigation was triggered by one incident, and
in the several months that followed new circumstances either developed or were
uncovered.
In January 1980, Texaco reported to the Texas Railroad Commission that an oily
accumulation was collecting on the surface of the sink hole. The material which
was collecting at an estimated rate of ten to fifteen gallons per day was described
as a "fibrous, oily, muddy looking material." At the time of the report, the
material covered about two acres of the twelve acre lake. Texaco offered to
make every effort to contain the material but felt that they were not responsible
and would seek assistance from other operators in the field. The Railroad
Commission made periodic inspections of the sink hole and surrounding area in the
following months. One such inspection followed a report of contaminated water in
Clemmons Gully into which the sink occasionally drains. The inspection revealed no
-5-
problems, although later testimony alleged that some cattle died as a result of
drinking this water. In May, Texaco received permission to skim 3000 barrels of
fluid off of the sinkhole for transport through a pipeline.
In May and June a new commercial brine disposal well was permitted, drilled,
and completed 1,500 feet north of the sink hole. The well was drilled to 1912 feet
and reached total depth in the caprock. The well was completed with 10 3/4-inch
surface pipe to 113 feet, 7-inch casing to 1740 feet, a 4 1/2-inch liner from 1700
feet to 1904 feet and 3 1/2-inch tubing set on a packer at 1638 feet.
Texaco maintains storage caverns that were dissolved in the salt dome for the
storage of hydrocarbon products. To control the movement of product in or out of
the caverns, Texaco had two lined pits at the surface to hold brine which was
pumped into or out of the caverns. Around the time that Luther Hendon completed
his disposal well, one of the Texaco pits developed a leak and needed to be drained
of the several hundred thousand barrels of brine it contained so that repairs could
be made. Luther Hendon was given permission to dispose of this brine by the
Railroad Commission and had disposed of approximately 250,000 barrels of the brine
before he suspended injection in late June.
In the middle of June, an operator in the field reported a rise in the fluid
level in the sink hole and at the end of June a program was begun to monitor the
water level in sink hole. Precipitation and evaporation were taken into account.
The area of the water surface was surveyed to be 12.24 acres and the calculation
made that a one inch rise represented 7,854 barrels.
In consideration of these occurrences, the Railroad Commission District 3
office requested that a hearing be held in Austin to show cause why
1. All disposal wells into charged zones should not have permits cancelled
and be plugged in accordance with Railroad Commission Regulations.
-6-
2. All disposal wells should not require tubing to be set on a packer with
annual pressure tests.
3. Any present or future disposal wells should not have permits cancelled if
testing reveals that the injection zone is charged or under pressure.
In July there was an official call for this hearing which was to be held on
September 25, 1980. In the mean time, the Railroad Commission requested that Dome
Holding Company and Luther Hendon shut in their disposal wells. These two
operators were singled out because they were injecting water not produced at Sour
Lake.
At the same time all of this was transpiring, the Luther Hendon application
was pending, despite there having been emergency authority to dispose of the Texaco
brine. Apparently other small operators in the field felt that the occurrences at
the sink hole which jeopardized their operations could be attributed to the Hendon
operation. They therefore joined together and called for a hearing to protest the
Hendon permit. This hearing was called by the Railroad Commission and held on
August 21, 1980.
In the course of the two hearings a great deal of information as well as some
speculation was brought forth on the events surrounding brine disposal in the
field.
The opposition to the Hendon application provided testimony which they believe
connected the rise in the sink hole water level to the Hendon operation. Although
at the time records had not been kept, photographs indicated a two foot rise in the
water level between June 18 and June 28 during which time Hendon had injected
approximately 250,000 barrels of brine. The two foot increase represents about
190,00U barrels of additional water in the sink hole. The opposition alleged that
injection of the heavy brine from the Texaco pits (10.5 pound per gallon) at 825
-7-
psi would fracture the receiving formations. Records of level began being kept
after this incident but also after the time Hendon shut in his well and were kept
from July 10 to August 18. In this period, minus the effects of rain, the level
there was a net loss in the level. A note was made that during that period, Texaco
disposal wells were shut in for testing or repairs. A great deal of speculation
arose as to how injected brine could end up it the sink hole. The complexity of
the geology on the crest of the dome makes any specific analysis virtually
impossible despite the dense well control. Whether or not the sands at
approximately 1700 feet at the Hendon well actually contact the sink hole or
The point was also made that any effects on the sink hole were most likely the
that the well was properly completed and that the operation was given approval by
the Texas Water Commission and based apparently on the fact that the opponents had
not proven connection between th at aper at ion and detriment to the fie 1d, the
1675 feet to 1730 feet, injection pressure be limited to 400 psi, injection be
through tubing and packer, only brines produced in Sour Lake Field be injected and
In view of the fact that the September 25, 1980 hearing required all operators
information was produced. Photographs were presented which pictured flow to the
surface of the sink as indicated by an area of disturbed water and some bubbling.
In April and into May, operators made an effort to stop the flow into the sink
-8-
hole. Reportedly, divers were able to locate a submerged wellhead. A pipe was run
into this wellbore to a depth of 310 feet and 1,377 sacks of cement were pumped
The most significant rise in water level however, was reported to have
occurred in June. This would indicate that if brine disposal was responsible for
the level rise, there were other avenues than the abandoned wellbore. Dome Holding
and the Hendon well were shut in upon Railroad Commission request yet the water
level continued to rise. Between the time of the call for the hearing and the
hearing, ten of the twenty or so disposal wells at the field were tested and found
Texaco, the major operator in the field, operated two disposal wells into the
caprock near the crest of the dome. Texaco produced approximately 61 percent of
the field's million barrel a year production and disposed of approximately 11,000
barrels a day of salt water of the field's 21,000 barrels disposed of daily.
Approximately seven million barrels of water are injected annually. Neither of the
Texaco wells met the standards set forth for the hearing, so prior to the hearing
Texaco repaired both of the wells. The number one well was fitted with tubing and
packer in servicing that also found a leak in the casing. Because of a restriction
in the casing of the number two well, a packer could not be set, so tubing was
cemented into the entire length of the casing. Both wells passed subsequent
radioactive tracer tests. Sun Oil Company is another major company that operates
in the field, though of considerably less consequence than Texaco. Sun only
injected about 200 barrels per day into two wells, both of which were about two
miles from the sink hole. Al so, both Sun wells met the mechanical standards
required.
-9-
Considerable testimony was provided by a group of small operators called the
Sour Lake Operators Group. The group's testimony had two fundamental themes. The
first was that any difficulties with the sink hole could be attributed to one or
two disposal operations that were injecting brine not associated with oil
production in Sour Lake Field. The second was a verification that all of the wells
ut i 1 i zed by the group were completed with tubing and packer and therefore met the
standards set forth by the Railroad Commission or else they were shut-in.
There were other conditions or incidents that led to the conclusion that there
was brine migration at the field. There was a report, although not documented,
that there had been a drilling rig active in the vicinity of the sink hole run by
an unknown operator. Following this operation, an abandoned pipe was found to be
flowing salt water to the surface at that location. A second similar incident
which is documented, occurred after the 1980 hearings. This incident involved a
well drilled to 902 feet that reached total depth in the caprock. When an attempt
was made to log the well, it began flowing salt water in an eight inch stream that
rose four feet into the air and continued to do so for 24 hours.
Another factor indicating flow into the sink hole was the quality of the
water. Testimony was given that the sink hole water had always been relatively
fresh, derived primarily from runoff. Reportedly, as late as January 1980, the
chlorides content of the water was around 2000 ppm. The water from the sink or
from Clemmons Gully into which it drains had been reportedly used for irrigation,
cattle watering and mixing drilling mud. In September of 1980, water quality was
7 28 '700
10 28,910
19 28,595
-10-
Depth (ft.) Chlorides (ppm)
20 28,830
30 28,520
40 25,995
-11-
In April 1981, the Railroad Commission investigated operators' compliance with
the order. There were 38 injection or disposal wells in existence at the time of
the order. Nineteen disposal wells and two injection wells were found to be in
compliance and were reissued permits. Thirteen disposal or injection wells were
not in compliance and issued letters cancelling permits. Three of those wells were
rejected because they had been recompleted into zones too shallow by Water
Commission standards. Other reasons for rejection included no tubing, holes in
tubing, a wellhead leak or other incidents of mechanical integrity test failure.
Other rejections were due to the fact that operators failed to perform tests or
submit the results of the tests.
-12-
old abandoned wellbores, none of this could really be verified due to the
complexity of the area.
Luther Hendon never operated his well again despite being issued a permit to
do so. Texaco converted three wells on the west flank of the dome to disposal
wells. Disposal would be into non-productive Frio sands which pinch out at a safe
distance from the sink hole and caprock so that there should never be any
complications. All other smaller operators in the field either shut in their wells
or verified that they met the standards of the order.
-13-
REFERENCES
Baker, E. T., (1964), Geology and Groundwater Resources of Hardin County, Texas,
Texas Water Commission Bulletin 6406.
Sellards, E. H., (1930), Subsidence in Gulf Coastal Plains Salt Domes, University
of Texas Bulletin, 3001, pp. 9-36.
-14-
FIGURES
-15-
FIGURE 1
-16-
SINK HOLE
UNDIFFERENTIATED MIOCENE
AND YOUNGER SANDS
1000
2000
SALT MASS
I
.......
-.....!
I
4000
1000'
5000
-18-
200 200
100
Approximat a lond surface
=r-~~~~~~~~~~~~~---+--~~~~~~~~~~~-.,--..;...,_~~~~~~~-:::-~~~~~
IOO
i: ~ ;/)Cb~ l( ~ IOO
f ( o, \
~1 )~ \ , I
I I~ \,
TOO
:, \( i ~
"'""'·, ~ :?-·
000
I
t
!r- d(
I-'
l'r-"::: ""- \ "';;'
'°I
1100 ( 1~··-
\
17
\ \. 1
\. l """
t· -~ --.--
- !ZOQ
l:lOo
"OO MOO
'"""
1100 ~ """
zooo 2000
2t00 ?100
FIGURE 2 CROSS-SECTION SHOWING DEPTH OF FRESH WATER OVER SOUR LAKE DOME
IFROM BAKER, 1964)
FIGURE 3
-20-
\
\
J
).
} .. '
I MILE
)
l /
..,....._ ·""
.L._ .. /
-21-
APPLICATION OF THE TEMPERATURE SURVEY IN DEMONSTRATING THE MECHANICAL
INTEGRITY OF INJECTION WELLS
ABSTRACT
The temperature log has an important role in demonstrating the absence of
fluid migration behind casing in injection wells. At the present time, many
specific cases. The first method involves an injecting temperature log and a
series of shut-in logs run immediately after normal injection is ceased. The
injection and a subsequent suite of post injection temperature logs. As these logs
base log, the volume of water injected, and the temperature differential between
the injected water and the formation water in the zone of interest. Recommended
procedures for running and presenting temperature logs have been developed based on
case histories of both Class I and Class II injection wells in the Midwest and
Nevada. These cases include logs conducted in wells with and without tubing, and
utilize both traditional differential temperature tools and the newer radial
-22-
INTRODUCTION
Ascertaining the mechanical integrity of injection wells is a major objective
of the Underground Injection Control (UIC) program. Under the program, various
state agencies and the United States Environmental Protection Agency require
injection well operators to demonstrate that the fluids they inject are staying
within the permitted disposal intervals and not contaminating underground sources
of drinking water. Also, the UIC program is concerned about any other flow between
zones penetrated by a well through channels behind the casing. The high
sensitivity of temperature logging tools to minute thermal disturbances has made it
a valuable tool in evaluating flow anomalies in injection wells. Properly run, the
temperature log can detect where injected fluids are being stored; whether injected
fluids are remaining in the receiving zone or channeling; and whether or not there
is other interzonal flow which may affect the quality of potentially useable
water.
-23-
inside or near the wellbore. On most injection wells, the temperature log can
show:
1) where fluids are being stored within a disposal zone,
2) the point of entry or exit at the wellbore,
3) the source and path of flow behind casing, and
4) locations of interzonal flow not necessarily related to injection
activity.
-24-
coefficient of the individual formations. These lithological differences must be
log should be evaluated during both the planning and interpretation stages of a
temperature survey.
The effect that injected fluids have on the natural temperature gradient of a
LOGGING SYSTEMS
wells include the conventional temperature system and the new radial differential
temperature system.
temperature gradient data. Although it does not furnish any new information not
included on the gradient curve, it presents the data in terms of relatively small
temperature changes which may not appear significant on the gradient curve. The
sensitivity of the differential curve can be varied by the logging engineer over a
-25-
wide range. Figure 4 is an idealized presentation illustrating the differential
The second type of logging system used to evaluate injection wells is the
radial differential temperature (RDT) logging system. The RDT is a specialty tool
logging system. The use of the RDT tool as the primary source of demonstrating
A typical RDT tool is shown in Figure 5. The tool has two arms equipped with
temperature sensors positioned 180° apart that extend to contact the casing walls.
The contact diameter of the arms are adjusted to exert optimal pressure to maintain
contact between the temperature sensors and the interior of the casing. A motor
rotates the tool at a speed which is recorded on the left hand margin of the log.
The ROT tool is typically run into the injection well after the well is
shut-in. The tool is positioned adjacent to a point where channeling outside the
casing is suspected. The logging operator then extends the mechanical arms against
the casing and activates tool rotation. Where there is no flowing channel the
casing.
definition of the type of flow condition that may be encountered. This will enable
-26-
the prediction of the expected temperature responses. The expected well conditions
will influence the log scale, injection procedures, intervals over which the
temperature logs wi 11 be run and whether or not the tubing and packer should be
removed.
whether the bore is acting as a heat sink or source. This will depend on whether
the fluids injected into the well are greater or less than the normal gradient.
accepting fluids and whether any migration out of that zone is taking place.
Shut-in temperature logs are the most effective means to detect whether an injected
The path and storage of injection fluids are associated with the heat sink
effect of the earth. Generally, injected fluids are close to the surface
temperature which is usually less than the natural bottom hole temperature. The
Nevada to demonstrate mechanical integrity. The first two case hi stories show
migration behind casing. The third example shows suspected channeling above the
fluid entry point into the formation. The channeling could be confirmed by
Case History - 1
The first example is a temperature log performed to show the absence of fluid
channeling behind the long string casing of a Class I industrial disposal well in
Illinois. Non-hazardous wastewater had been injected into this well for the past
-27-
17 years. The wastewater is injected at ambient temperatures. Since this logging
was conducted during the winter, the cold fluids injected had a cooling effect on
the well. The total depth of this well is 5524 feet with a disposal interval
The well was undisturbed for a period of 48 hours prior to running the base
temperature log. The base log showed the static geothermal gradient to be 0.6
°F/lOO feet. The fluid level in this well was discernable from the base log and
noted on the base 1og. The most significant occurs at a depth of 4060 feet as
shown in Figure 8. At 4060 feet there is a trans it ion from the St. Peter, a
formation.
The heat transfer between the Eminence-Potosi injection zone and the Prairie
du Chien upper confining zone is evident by the cooling effect noted on the base
log below 4850 feet. This response above the disposal zone is resulting from the
vertical conductive cooling due to the injection of cool fluids below 4968 feet.
After the base log was completed approximately 163,800 gallons of cool (46°F)
fresh water was injected into the we 11 down the 7" diameter casing. Three post
The post injection logs show that the majority of the injected fluid entered
the zone from 4970 feet to 5110 feet where the largest coo 1i ng effect is seen.
Each sequential post injection log pass shows the heat flow recovery to gradient
taking place. The recovery in various sections of the wellbore will be directly
Case History - 2
The next example is a case where produced brine was injected into a disposal
well for two years prior to conducting a temperature log. This well was a Class II
injection well located in Nevada. A section of the composite log showing the base
temperature log and three post injection runs is presented in Figure 9. This log
demonstrates that a good temperature log can be recorded with the tubing and packer
installed if the temperature differences between the injected fluids and the
formation are sufficient.
The base temperature log was run 92 hours after the well was shut-in. The
~nount of shut-in time was due to an obstruction in the injection tubing which had
to be removed to allow the logging tool to go below the packer.
The cooling effect apparent on the base log between 8105 feet and 8155 feet is
the result of a temperature sink between the extremely cool formation below 8155
feet and the normal gradient at about 8105 feet. From 8155 feet to 8325 feet the
extreme cooling on the base log is due to the large volume of cooler water which
had been injected into the formation for approximately two years. Although the
geothermal injection water at the surface is 210 °F, the cooling effect of the
-29-
formation temperature, (being less than 210 °F to a depth of 6100 feet), cools the
water to less than 190 °F from the surf ace to the injection point because the water
traveled 6100 feet being affected by cooler formations. Between 6100 feet and 8114
feet the temperature of the formation tries to raise the temperature of the
injected fluid, but due to the rate of pumping and the fluid traveling only 2014
feet at this increased temperature, the heating effect does not bring the water
back to any temperature above 190 °F before going into the disposal zone. The
cooling of the formation. The base log shows that the largest quantity of
injection fluid is going into the formation between 8155 feet to 8300 feet.
The post injection temperature logs were run after pumping 375 barrels (15,750
gallons) of 52 °F surface water at a rate of three barrels per minute (126 gallons
per minute). The passes were made at approximately 30 minute intervals from 7100
In post injection pass number one the fluid in the tubing just above the
packer is about 55 °F cooler than the base log. From 8137 feet to 8277 feet the
formation is being cooled by the 52 °F surface water being injected into the
formation. From 8277 feet to 8400 feet there is a heating back to a bottom hole
temperature of 235 °F. Injection occurred between 8137 feet and 8277 feet with
very little water being injected between 8277 feet and 8382 feet. No injection
occurred below 8382 feet.
Post injection log pass number two shows the fluid in the tubing just above
the packer to be about 45 °F cooler than the base log. This increase in
temperature means that the wellbore fluid is trying to reheat to normal gradient.
Between 8137 feet and 8277 feet the formation cooling is still evident due to the
375 barrels of cooler fluid injected into the formation. The heating effect still
evident from 8277 feet to 8400 feet further confirms that the largest quantity of
-30-
fluid was injected between 8137 feet and 8277 feet, with very little water being
injected below that point and none below 8382 feet.
Post injection pass number three demonstrates the same effects as the two
previous runs except for the gradient heating another five degrees above the
packer. All three of the post injection logs come back to the same temperature
below the perforated intervals indicating good log quality control.
There is no channeling evident in this well.
Case History - 3
The previous examples showed temperature logging techniques applied using the
suggested procedures included in this paper. The results are exactly as expected.
In the next example, shown in Figure 10, a channel is suspected using conventional
gradient temperature and differential temperature logging techniques.' Since the
injection well had previously been shut-in, a base temperature log was run before
injecting the cold test fluid. Two post injection logs were run to verify the
fluid entry point and demonstrate external mechanical integrity.
The majority of the injected fluid appears to be entering the upper perforated
interval from 5040 feet to 5060 feet as indicated by the cooling effect. There
also appears to be some injection into the upper ten feet of the lower perforated
interval from 5140 feet to 5160 feet. A rapid return to normal gradient indicates
that there is little or no injection below 5150 feet.
The gradient log shows possible inadequate cementing of the long string casing
above the perforation and possible channeling. The static base pass and the post
injection passes have opposing gradients between 4670 feet and 4990 feet indicating
a cooling effect from fluid moving outside the casing. The cooling effect extends
upwards to approximately 4750 feet before returning to normal gradient. This depth
correlates to a lithological change in the open hole logs and represents the top of
-31-
the injection formation. There is no evidence of migration of fluid above the top
of the disposal zone.
Another log was run, using the ROT tool and a flowing channel was again
detected as previously depicted in Figure 7. The sinusoidal presentation confirmed
the presence of the channel at 4800 feet along with its orientation and vertical
extent. The tool was run above and below the suspected channeling interval. The
wave presentation above and below the zone of interest indicated no channeling as
previously illustrated in Figure 6. This example highlights the use of the ROT
tool as a secondary source of flowing channel identification.
Case I
For wells in which the injected fluid temperatures are at least 35 °F greater
than or less than the temperature of the receiving zone the general approach is to
-32-
run a log with the well in its stabilized normal condition prior to shut-in. Then
run a series of logs after the well is shut-in. This would mean a stabilized
injecting log and a series of post injection shut-in logs.
Case I I
If the temperature of the injected fluids are similar to that of the disposal
zone or if the well has already been shut-in for a period of time the procedure is
more complex. In this case an artificially high or low temperature fluid may have
to be injected to impart a thermal change as was done in the Case Histories
presented. The well is generally shut-in for a time and allowed to stabilize
before the heated or cooled fluid is injected. Three critical survey parameters
must be determined. These are:
1) The time period that the well is shut-in prior to running a base log,
2) The temperature of the test fluid, and
3) The volume of the test fluid.
The logic diagram presented in Figure 12 may help determine whether Case I or
Case II above may be employed.
Shut-In Time
It is not necessary for the well to be shut-in until the temperature reaches
static conditions. This could take days or weeks in some cases. The pertinent
information is how the temperature is changing with time at all depths in the well
after the well 1 s condition has changed. The tools available today are capable of
detecting small temperature changes accurately without having to wait a long time.
Also the longer the well is shut-in the longer it is unavailable for normal
-33-
injection activities. A shut-in period of 24 hours is generally satisfactory for
mechanical integrity demonstration.
-34-
should be the greater of either three well volumes or one barrel of fluid per each
foot of disposal interval. For example if a 7" well is considered with 1500 feet
of disposal zone and a total depth of 4500 feet, a volume of at least 1500 barrels
100 feet of disposal zone and a total depth of 4500 feet is considered, then a
volume of 4500 x 2 x 3 = 27,000 gallons would be desired. The higher the injection
interest. In general, the rate should be near that of the maximum permitted
Most temperature logs are designed to give the best results when run at a
logging speed of 25-35 feet per minute. Running at a faster speed will tend to
Stopping the tool during a log run should be avoided. The logging speed should be
Ideally, temperature surveys should be run only through undisturbed fluid. Since
the logging tool and electric line will disturb the fluid in the wellbore, the
temperature log should always be run while going into the hole.
Interval of Investigation
The temperature log should be started at least 300 feet above the area of
-35-
the permitted disposal interval. Therefore in these cases the temperature log
should be started a minimum of 300 feet above the top of the receiving zone.
Calibration Scales
The calibration scale selected will depend on the differential between the
post injection logs and the base or injecting log. Frequent shifts in the log will
be required if the scales selected are too small. This makes the log difficult to
The actual scale determination may have to be made at the time that the log is
conducted.
construction or conditions under which it was run. Data that should be included
1) Well pressure,
4) Scales,
7) Logging Speed.
To correlate the log back to other well logs, it is desirable to run the
temperature log in tandem with a casing collar locator and/or a gamma-ray log.
This is especially important if the log is being conducted with the tubing and
-36-
REFERENCES
Cooke, Claude E., 1973, Radial differential temperature (ROT) logging - a new tool
for detecting and treating flow behind casing; Paper SPE 7558 presented at the
53rd Annual Fall Technical Conference of SPE-AIME, October 1978, 8 pp.
Dresser Atlas, Dresser Ind. Inc., Home Office, 1982, Interpretive methods for
production well logs.
N. L. Ind. Inc., N. L. McCullough, 1984, Systems approach to production logging, a
training manual for logging engineers.
Wellex, no date, Temperature log interpretation, Document No. CL-2002, a training
document for logging personnel, Wellex, a Halliburton Company.
-37-
FIGURES
-38-
FIGURE 1
-39-
((';86 ~ 'l:!3SS31:f0 WOl:f:I 031:1100W)
S3.LV.LS 03.LINn 3Hl NI 3:JN'1'1l::l\f /\ .LN310\fi:I~ 3l:JOJ.Vi::l3dW3J.
~ 3l::t0£>1:§
~
·~
~
0
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~':I~ "' - ~
~
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<:> 0
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~
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a:
::::> 0
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- we.ST TEXAS f-A\OWESi
"1"
.,...
- ·--- I I
I I I
~NEW MEX\CO
' . 0
C1>
<D 0
.,...
DEPTHS IN THOUSANDS
FIGURE 2
-41-
...
TEMPERATURE INCREASES
.
I>
. ____
i
LIME
.
'•
,•
'. ....._..
I
..
.•..
;;
.' SHALE
.·.' ..1----------
.,
...' .'
·,
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· '· DOLOMITE
..
..
..
•
GYPSUM
..-
•""t---------------~
.
..·•.. : .:·.
.
...
-~·
·:
ANHYDRITE
.....-
..
•
..·..
.
·.•
. •.
.. SAND
.•)-----------------------
.
FIGURE 2
-42-
FIGURE 3
-43-
WIRELINE
GRADIENT
TEMPERATURE 1 - - - - - - - .
PANEL
TEMPERATURE
TOOL
DIFFERENTIAL
TEMPERATURE ..___ _
PANEL
TEMPERATURE
PROBE
FIGURE 3
(FROM N-L-McCULLOUGH)
-44-
FIGURE 4
-45-
TEMPERATURE
:x:
I-
Q.
w
c
DIFFERENTIAL
NATURAL GRADIENT
""---- --\
\
FIGURE 4
DIFFERENTIAL(FROM
TEMPERATURE
N-L-McCULLOUGH)
RESPONSE
-46-
FIGURE 5
-47-
,__--ANCHOR SPRING
t - - - - - ROTATION MOTOR
a - - - - - ELECTRONICS
I •----CONVENTIONAL
TEMP.SENSOR
- - - - CENTRALIZER
FIGURE 5
-48-
FIGURE 6
-49-
4800
DEPTH
'
'
\
~
)
J
f
1: ....
y
CCL A 4800 RAD. DIF'F'ERENTIAL
-20 11V 20 DEPTH DEG F
" 6
FIGURE 6
-50-
FIGURE 7
-51-
Til'IE DATE ROT SERIAL # PROGRAM MODE JOl!I # FILE
STAT
CCL A 4800 I RAO. DIFFERENTIAL
-20 11V 20 DEPTHl4 DEG F s
.....
.. )
.J
y
lo .-
"--
,.._
.
'
,,I
• C'"
-c
i°'..
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....
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ll
I
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r
) ......
....
• /
>
• """ '
. -.,.- /
·~
CCL A I 4800 I RAD. DIFFERENTIAL I
-20 11V 2DIDEPTHl4 DEG F 61
FIGURE 1
-52-
FIGURE 8
-53-
CASING=::: t::::
COLLAR=:::;::
~RUN 1t-+---1--4---l
/
,• f I
., " f::;:~·RU~ 3
CASING:;~~ en
SHOE =-- CJ
0
POST INJECTION ,... ..J
LOGS . t-1-
0cn z
zow
>-a.. i5
BASE LOG a:c<e
5000 Oza:
-~~- ,. t;c:cCJ
-wz
:Cena
w<C1--
cnm
<C 0
0 ~
z
100°
-54-
FIGURE 9
-55-
~-·- .... •I
~-.·::~: ·+'::_:_;
--<-· -- . '~t: '' ·--·
. ·~·-
:::::::::+=" :~--1--:--1-r::
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··,--~·· ·-~. --
~- -r---- _ ______,,
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. . '. '
1----~--1
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-~..
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..If .... I
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~,_
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-56-
FIGURE 10
-57-
1.... ,.,,,,,-,
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......•.
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.... --·--·""'"'°"-+-'";=''U"-=.c,=·~'"""T!tJ,J I ', ,_ _ _ :._ ___ _i __; __ _; __ .
-:-: ' - l?tIJ./ . J ' : ' '
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FIGURE 10
CASE HISTORY NO. 3
BASE AND POST INJECTION
GRADIENT AND DIFFERENTIAL
LOGS SHOWING SUSPECTED
CHANNELING
-58-
FIGURE 11
-59-
CASE - 1
,r-- NORMAL INJECTION ,--SHUT WELL IN ~RETURN TO NORMAL OPERATION
CASE - 2
I
O"I (NORMAL INJECTION /BASE TEMP. LOG (POST INJECTION LOGS
0
I
I I I I . •
(SHUT-IN PERIOD \INJECT TEST FLUID (RETURN TO NORMAL
OPERATION
TIME - - - -
FIGURE 11
-61-
IYALUATa ilJllTll*CI LOG• & GATA
FIGURE 12
-62-
INJECTION MONITORING AND CONTROL
T. S. Collier
Unocal
Midland, Texas
ABSTRACT
-63-
additional oil recovery is shown to be directly related lo
Background Information
County, Texas near the Texas-New Mexico border (Fig. 1). Oil
The Clearfork "AB" Unit has three productive zones. They are
the Upper "A", the "A", and the "B" zone. The Clearf ork
is predominantly limestone.
-64-
injection control. This problem was corrected and the
Ultimate Recovery.
-65-
water is confined to the target interval.
Leak detection.
water does not enter the ground water aquifer. This aspect
-66-
of injection control is especially important in the
and water wells are the sole source of water for livestock.
-67-
production casing opposite the aquifer. Surface pressure of
Monitoring Methods
Well Performance.
-68-
as it was in the Dollarhide Clearfork "AB'' Unit.
One very useful tool for tracking and quantifying water exit
Temperature Surveys.
-69-
Mechanisms of Out-of-Zone Injection.
Mechanical Integrity.
annulus.
-70-
monitored in the offsetting producing wells.
discontinued.
injected into the wells was not reaching the target interval,
but instead was virtually all exiting from the top 150 feet
of open hole.
day. This indicated that some oil response had been achieved
-71-
in a significant increase in oil production.
The Solution.
the pipe the fewer the problems during future injection and
-72-
installed and cemented, after which time water injection was
resumed.
Results.
the pilot water flood have been extended throughout the field
primary depletion.
Conclusion
-73-
FIGURE
INDEX MAP
NEW
MEXICO SHOWING
DOLLARHIDE Fl ELD
ANDREWS COUNTY, TEXAS
-74-
FIGURE 2
15 13
• / •
•
18
BLK. A-52
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I
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26
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4
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gl
'
• • "'
';It')
-> II
ID ·u· UNIT
DOLLARHIDE CLEAR FORK A8 UNIT
STRUCTURE - TOP OF B ZONE
11 11
-75-
FIGURE 3
AQUIFER
SURFACE CASING
1---H-----INJECTION TUBING
-76-
FIGURE 4
3
0
0
x - - - - ~ --·=-ra -- -- . . .:..:;;i,-----,,ii,rr-
w
::El I,:• 9 • ss
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I I AREA MAP
AftU D, PARTIC,,ATIOH fOR
-LEGEND -
DUAL CONP'LfTIO,.I D(SIQHaf[D l't' CclARfOftK ·u· RUE ftYOIR
-77-
Fl GURE 5
PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE
Running Liners PILOT FLOOD AREA
400
-0 "O
Q) Q)
a. E
a. :::>
~
Ul
Q)
VJ a:
---, ---,
c c
300
Q
u. \
CJ
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200 ,,- .J \ I
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g \
Q
0
I I
a:
a... .J
100 I
r --OIL "
I ---wATER
J
I
I
1% I ':!63
-78-
NIPER Paper No. EPR/OP-87/10
To be presented at the
UNDERGROUND INJECTION PRACTICES COUNCIL
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON SUBSURFACE
INJECTION OF OILFIELD BRINES
New Orleans, Louisiana, May 4-7, 1987
COPYRIGHT WAIVER
By acceptance of this article for publication, the publisher recognizes the
Government's (license) rights in any copyright and the government and its authorized
representatives have unrestricted rights to reproduce in whole or in part said
article under any copyright secured by the publisher.
DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United
States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof. nor
any of their employees. makes any warranty, express or i11plied, or assumes any legal
1i ability or res pons i bil i ty for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use
would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific
commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation,
or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and
opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of
the United States Government or any agency thereof.
-79-
TABLE Of CONTENTS
Page
Water Sources.................................................. 8
o••••••·············•••o•••·············· 9
Formation Water ......•
Fresh Water.................................................... 10
Bacteria •••••••••••••••••••••••• o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
-80-
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued}
TABLES
1. Geochemical Water Analyses ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 31
-81-
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Oil Production ...................................................... 35
2. Crude Oil and Water Produced {Including Alaska) •••••••••••••••••.•• 36
3. Crude Oil and Water Produced (Excluding Alaska) •••.••.•••••.••••.•• 37
4. Chemical Flooding (Micellar-Polymer) •••.••.••••.••.•...•.•••••••••• 38
5. Chemical Flooding (Polymer)........................................ 39
6. Chemical Flooding (Alkaline) ••.••.••••••••••••••••.•.••••••.••••••• 40
7. Carbon Dioxide Flooding ••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••...••••••••.••• 41
8. Steam Flooding..................................................... 42
9. In-Situ Combustion •.•••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•• 43
10. Nitrogen -- co 2 Flooding •• ~ ......••••..••.•........•.•••..•........ 44
11. Microbial Flooding •••••••..•••••••.•••.••••••••.••••••••••••••••••. 45
12. Cyc l i c Microbial Flooding. • . • . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • . • • 46
-82-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors appreciate the support of this work by the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency {EPA) through Contract/IAG DW89931947-0l-O and the U. S.
Department of Energy (DOE) through an interagency agreement with the EPA. The
authors also thank Bill Linville for his encouragement and for editing the
manuscript and Joe R. Lindley who prepared the drawings of enhanced oil
recovery processes.
-83-
SUBSURFACE INJECTION OF FLUIDS FOR THE RECOVERY OF PETROLEUM
By A. Gene Collins and Herbert B. Carroll, Jr.
National Institute for Petroleum and Energy Research
Bartlesville, OK 74005
ABSTRACT
This report addresses the major methods used to recover petroleum which
are classified as (1) primary, (2) secondary, and (3) tertiary or enhanced oil
recovery (EOR). Further, EOR methods which include miscible, thermal, and
chemical are described. Subsurface injection of fluids is used in secondary
and tertiary petroleum recovery operations.
The report notes that one of the most important criteria relevant to an
injection operation is adequate geologic and engineering characterization of
the subsurface reservoir. Reservoir screenings and detailed characterizations
of reservoirs are made by use of appropriate computer models.
Laboratory studies are conducted using core samples taken from the target
injection zone in conjunction with appropriate dynamic flowthrough core
apparatus, whereby porosity, permeability, ion exchange, clay sensitivities,
rock wettability, miscibility, etc. are determined. The laboratory data and
the characterization data are used in an appropriate computer model to predict
the probable hydrologic transport and flow of the injected fluids and the
targeted petroleum. If these studies indicate a high probability of success
for economic petroleum recovery, the next step is a pilot field test. If the
pilot test indicates that an economic amount of petroleum can be recovered,
then a full-scale field operation is designed and properly sited, wells are
drilled, injection and production equipment is installed, and the petroleum
recovery operation begins.
Important operations may include reservoir preflush for the removal of the
connate brine; injection fluid treatment to mitigate clay sensitivities or to
-84-
prevent corrosion and incompatible reactions. The waters used in injection
operations consist of formation water, fresh water, or seawater, and
consideration must be given to fluid-fluid interactions and fluid-rock
interactions.
Micellar-polymer, polymer, alkaline, carbon dioxide, steam, in situ
combustion, miscible hydrocarbon, inert gas, and microbial EOR processes are
briefly described. The types and amounts of some of the injected chemicals
also are addressed.
-85-
INTRODUCTION
Subsurface petroleum reservoirs possess natural pressure, and when a
producing well is drilled into the reservoir, the pressure is reduced,
creating a pressure differential which moves the oil and gas from the
reservoir into the well and to the surface. This pressure is caused by water
pressing upward from beneath the petroleum (water drive); a gas pressing
downward (gas cap drive); by gas in solution (solution gas drive); or by all
of these working together. In most reservoirs, initial pressure is strong
enough to lift the oil to the surface of producing wells; however, as
reservoir pressure declines with cumulative oil withdrawals, "artificial lift"
is required to raise petroleum to the surface. This is accomplished with
downhole pumps lifting the oil to the surface or by injecting gas deep into
the fluid column to lighten the weight of the fluid (gas lift).
Even when reservoir pressure is depleted and no longer lifts oil to the
surface, the reservoir pressure may be adequate to move petroleum through the
formation into the well bore. Primary recovery, or production relying
entirely on natural forces, often recovers a substantial portion of a field's
total petroleum reserve.
Natural forces are wastefully dissipated when inefficient production
procedures are used. In the oil booms of yesterday, when "boomers" rushed to
drill as many wells as possible and produce oil as fast as they could, total
recovery was far less than that of today's methods. Oil reservoirs must be
carefully managed to conserve pressure and optimize recovery.
Today, the number, location, and producing rates of oil wells are planned
to maximize recovery and to maintain production as long as possible. Natural
forces are augmented by injecting replacement fluids like water and/or gas,
and these efforts are known as secondary recovery operations.
-86-
The methods described as 11 primary 11 or "secondary'' operations move only
part of the oil, often leaving as much as 40 to 80 percent unrecovered. Even
a well-engineered waterflood leaves more than one-third of the original oil as
unrecovered residual oil. The national average for oil recovery by both
primary and secondary methods is only about 34 percent.
Enhanced or 11 tertiary 11 methods recover residual oil by increasing the
volume of the reservoir contacted and by reducing interfacial tension. These
enhanced methods are classified as follows:
• Thermal recovery. Heated oil flows more easily through the reservoir
rock. It may be heated by injecting high-pressure steam into the
reservoir or by actually burning some of the crude oil in the
reservoir rock (fireflooding).
• Miscible recovery. Miscibility is the ability of fluids to mix with
each other to form a single phase. Normally, oil and water separate
into layers and are not miscible. Some fluids that mix with oil are
effective in displacing oil from reservoirs; for example, light
liquid hydrocarbons, such as propane and ethane, which are extracted
from natural gas. Carbon dioxide is also miscible with oil.
• Chemical recovery. Chemicals with large molecules, such as polymers
which 11 thicken 11 water when added in low concentrations to water, are
used to enhance recovery by improving the ability of water to "wash"
or "sweep" oil from the rock pores. Surfactant flooding calls for a
combination of surfactants (special detergents) and polymers used to
recover residual oil that remains trapped after secondary recovery.
A "bank" or "slug" of fluid (mostly water) containing surfactant is
injected to reduce the interfacial forces trapping the residual oil
allowing it to flow to the producing wells. The surfactant bank is
-87-
followed by water usually thickened with polymer to maximize the
volume of reservoir contacted.
OIL RECOVERY MECHANISMS
There are three major types (or mechanisms) of recovery of oil from
subsurface reservoirs: primary, secondary, and enhanced. Each type of
recovery is associated with the original-oil-in-place, the remaining oil-in-
place (subsequent to recovery or production operations), and the pressures
within the reservoir. For example, when a well is drilled into a subsurface
reservoir containing oil, tests are conducted to determine the amounts of oil,
water, and gas that are present. This information plus knowledge of the
depth, reservoir thickness, reservoir pressure, reservoir lithology, and
results from specific production tests permits accurate calculations of the
amount of oil in the reservoir. Further, calculations can indicate how much
oil should be produced by primary recovery when primary recovery is defined as
oil produced from a well as a result of oil flowing and finally pumping the
reservoir until it is depleted or no longer economical to operate. Secondary
recovery usually involves repressuring by gas injection or water injection,
i.e., simple waterflooding. The third or tertiary phase employs more
sophisticated technology such as altering one or more properties of the crude
oil to reduce surface tension. This technology is known as enhanced oil
recovery. Tertiary recovery often is accomplished by injecting water mixed
with specific chemicals that "free" the oil adhering to the porous rock so
that it is taken into the solution and pumped out of the well.
Figure 1 illustrates the three major oil recovery operations where, during
primary recovery, 12 to 15 percent of the original oil-in-place is produced.
Secondary recovery can produce an additional 15 to 20 percent of the oil
reserve, and enhanced oil recovery (EOR), another 20 percent.
-88-
Primary Recovery
As noted in figure 1, primary recovery refers to oil that can be recovered
from the subsurface reservoir through the natural energy of the reservoir.
Artificial lift such as pumping may be used, but injection of water is not
used in primary recovery.
Secondary Recovery
The widespread application of waterflooding (Craig, 1971) to boost
production after initial decline in primary production led to this process
being called secondary recovery. For regulatory and pricing purposes
waterflooding has been set apart from other forms of EOR. In a typical
waterflood, the "watercut" in the produced fluid continually increases, and
the expenses of pumping, separation, and disposal of the floodwater eventually
exceed the income from the oil recovered. Then secondary recovery efforts are
halted even though oil may remain in the reservoir.
The effectiveness of secondary recovery is dependent on the volume of the
reservoir contacted by the injected fluid, which is dependent on the
horizontal and vertical sweep efficiency of the process. Factors which
control the sweep efficiency are (1) pattern of injector wells, (2) off-
pattern wells, (3) unconfined patterns, (4) fractures, (5) reservoir
heterogeneity, (6) continued injection after breakthrough, (7) mobility ratio,
and (8) position of gas-oil and oil-water contacts. (Langnes et al., 1985)
Selection of an injection pattern is one of the first steps in the design
of a secondary recovery project. In making the choice, it is necessary to
consider all available information about the reservoir. The adverse effects
of the factors listed above can be offset if they are considered during the
pattern selection. Other factors to consider in pattern selection are
(1) flood life, (2) well spacing, (3) injectivity, (4) response time, and
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(5) productivity.
Waterflood life depends on the availability of injection water, the rate
at which it can be injected, well spacing, and proration policies. The
performance and economics for various well spacings and pattern sizes should
be analyzed in order to pick the economically optimum choice. These analyses,
however, cannot be made without considering injectivity, which is best
determined using pilot operations, and a well designed and applied pilot
operation is essential to understanding all the pattern selection factors.
An ordinary waterflood, operated at practical rates with ordinary water or
brine, is physically incapable of displacing all of the oil from reservoir
rock. Capillary forces acting during the waterflood may cause part of the oil
to be retained in water-wet rock as disconnected structures which do not flow
under the pressure gradient from the flow of water. The detail of these
structures is directly related to the microscopic mechanism of oil
entrapment. Thus, even in those regions of the reservoir which are relatively
well-swept, i.e., regions through which relatively large quantities of water
flowed, a residual oil saturation can range from 15 to 40% of pore space. The
residual oil saturation in well-swept regions of proven accessibility with
respect to injected fluids is an important target, though a difficult one, for
EOR.
Ordinary waterflooding is a less expensive process than most EOR
operations. However, the economics of waterflooding becomes uneconomical when
the revenue produced by the amount of oil recovered is less than the cost of
waterflood injection, which may occur when the residual oil saturation is as
high as 40% of pore space to as low as 15% of pore space.
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Tertiary Recovery
The target oil for recovery is the residual oil in the reservoir that is
left after primary and secondary recovery operations. Tertiary recovery by
EOR methods usually is a more expensive operation and is not usually applied
unless the price of oil is sufficient to pay the costs of producing the oil
from the subsurface reservoir. In this report, we shall refer to tertiary
recovery as enhanced oil recovery or EOR.
Petroleum production from reservoirs under primary. secondary, or EOR
processes involves the simultaneous flow of two or more fluids. Multiphase
flow, particularly three-phase flow, is not well understood or adequately .
described analytically, even for pipeline flow. With natural porous media
with complex geometry, a microscopic description of the multiphase fluid flow
process is not possible. Empirical macroscopic descriptions based on Darcy's
work, relating fluid velocity to pressure gradient and viscosity through a
constant called permeability, permits the needed fluid-flow calculations.
Multiphase flow of fluids through porous media is related to a relative
permeability of each phase, fluid viscosities, pressure drop, capillary
pressure, and permeability; however, the relative permeabilities are the least
understood and the most difficult quantities to measure.
The effectiveness of EOR is dependent upon the same variables as secondary
recovery with regard to sweep efficiency, injection patterns, etc. Since EOR
usually is more expensive to implement per barrel of oil recovered, the
preliminary work before implementation often is more detailed and exacting
than for primary and secondary recovery operations. The studies often involve
geological reservoir characterization, laboratory studies, computer simulation
studies, and field pilot studies.
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EOR SELECTION METHODOLOGY
Since the oil targeted for EOR is difficult and expensive to obtain, the
oil producer wishes to apply only the most cost-effective technology to
extract the oil. Selection of the most cost-effective technology requires
several studies, as noted by Goodlett, et al. {1986). Detailed information
concerning geological, chemical, physical, and engineering characteristics of
the target reservoir rocks and fluids (oil/gas/water) is used along with
screening parameters to make a preliminary EOR selection. Subsequent to
selection of a candidate method, basic laboratory tests are performed
including dynamic fluid flowthrough core experiments using simulated
subsurface pressures and temperatures.
Information gathered from these tests, plus other relevant knowledge, is
used as input variables for numeric computer models which helps decide the
viability of the selected EOR process. Other relevant knowledge includes
reservoir characterization in as much detail as possible. The presence of
certain minerals and/or reservoir heterogeneities adversely affect EOR.
Knowledge of micro-scale reservoir heterogeneities such as dead-end pores,
pore throat size, and tortuosity also is important.
Laboratory Tests
Goodlett, et al. (1986) described some of the numerous experiments and/or
tests that should be conducted before implementation of even a pilot EOR
operation. For example, scaling should be determined by application of linear
scaling principles to better reproduce the basic operative physical and
chemical mechanisms which will occur in the reservoir. Scaling experiments
are accomplished through the use of laboratory core floods. Cores used in
laboratory core floods range from sandpacks to native-state reservoir samples
which are obtained and retained at subsurface conditions of temperature,
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pressure, and fluid saturations. Native-state cores are the most expensive
and most useful porous-media system for EOR evaluation.
Core wettability is a critical factor in evaluation, and alteration of the
wettability can occur during the operations of obtaining a core. Other
important tests include injectivity, plugging, mobility control, relative
permeability, oil saturation, rock-fluid and fluid-fluid interaction, etc.
WATER AND ROCK IN SECONDARY AND TERTIARY RECOVERY OPERATIONS
INJECTION WATER
Items that should be considered before implementation of a fluid injection
project involving any type of injection water include the following:
(1) formation type; (2) formation quality such as clay content; (3) formation
porosity and permeability; (4) depth of formation; (5) fracture-opening
pressure of formation; (6) fracture-breakdown pressure of overlying and
underlying formations and; (7) compatibility of injection solutions with
fluids already in the formation and with the formation rock material.
Petroleum reservoir rock formations are filters and are susceptible to
plugging by any type of solid material which may be suspended in or
precipitated from an injection fluid. Even materials such as oil and grease
from the pumps, corrosion inhibitors, and bactericides can cause plugging
problems.
Table 1 lists the items typically requested in analyses of a produced
oilfield water; water used in injection for pressure maintenance for secondary
recovery for EOR; water used to generate steam for steam injection; and water
injected into a disposal well.
Water Sources
Three major types of water are used for injection: formation water,
seawater, and fresh water.
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Formation Water
Formation water is subsurface brackish or brine water usually produced
from a petroleum producing formation. Table 2 illustrates the composition of
some formation waters taken from some Tertiary Age formations. The table
gives the highest value found in milligrams per liter for a given constituent,
the average values, and the number of samples used to estimate the average
value, Collins (1975).
An estimate of the amounts of water that are in various reservoirs was
made for the State of Oklahoma. The estimate indicated that Oklahoma has
about 3.4 trillion gallons of surface water possessing a quality of 100 to
1,000 ppm dissolved solids {OS); about 5.0 trillion gallons of ground water
with a quality of 280 to 4,000 ppm OS; about 23.6 trillion gallons of
formation water down to 5,500 feet deep with a quality of 15,000 to 110,000
ppm OS; and 35.8 trillion gallons of formation water down from 5,500 to 8,500
feet deep with a quality of 15,000 to 110,000 OS. Further, it was determined
1
that the State of Oklahoma has no exact information on the quantity or quality
of water injected or produced in petroleum operations involving primary,
secondary, and EOR. Related information for other states was not determined
(Collins and Wright, 1982).
An analysis was made of the approximate amount of water produced with
crude oil in 14 states. The states and their percent of total U.S. crude oil
production are: Alabama, 0.3%; Alaska, 19.9%; California, 11.7%; Colorado,
1.0%; Florida, 1.4%; Louisiana, 13.4%; Montana, 1.0%; Mississippi, 1.2%;
Nebraska, 0.2% New Mexico, 2.3%; North Dakota, 1.4%; Texas, 31.2%; Utah, 0.8;
1
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barrel of oil. Figure 3 is a similar graph for 13 states excluding Alaska.
This figure indicates that about 5.2 barrels of water is produced per barrel
of oil. Further it can be shown that oil wells produce more water as
cumulative oil production increases. In other words, the older the well, the
higher the water-to-oil ratio.
Fresh Water
Fresh water primarily is water that can be made potable by flocculation,
~
filtration, and/or chlorination; contains less than 2,000 ppm dissolved solids
{OS); and can come from surface sources such as lakes, rivers, or underground
sources. In any EOR project, a first consideration must be given to the water
source. In some projects where a fresh water preflush is necessary, it is
obvious what the water source must be. Usually some sodium chloride is added
to the fresh water to inhibit clay swelling. Some EOR chemicals can tolerate
a more salty water. In such cases formation water, a mixture of formation
waters, a mixture of formation water and fresh water, or even seawater might
be feasible. When surfactants, polymers, and caustics are used with these
waters, precipitates caused by reactions with multivalent cations pose major
problems. The two most problematic cations are calcium and magnesium,
primarily because they are so highly concentrated in some waters.
The first step in determining the suitability of any water is to analyze
the water for physical properties and for chemical and biological
constituents. Next, the composition of the formation into which it is to be
injected should be determined. Clays such as smectites, kaolinites,
chlorites, and illites are sensitive to fresh water. Permeability reduction
may occur because of clay dispersion and clay swelling, Mangan (1965).
Increasing the salinity of the water usually minimizes the effect.
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Smectites and illites are the more common clays sensitive to fresh
water. They can absorb water on their edges and surfaces. Fresh water can
penetrate between the layers of a smectite to cause the plates to separate and
disperse. Therefore, formation damage caused by fresh water usually is most
severe in a formation that contains smectite.
Seawater
Several companies use seawater for water injection as a pressure
maintenance technique or for secondary recovery in some giant oil reservoirs,
Davis (1974); Mitchell (1978); and Carlberg (1979). It is injected into both
sandstone and carbonate reservoirs. Some of the negative aspects of seawater
injection are described by Ogletree and Overly (1978).
Eventually seawater will be used as an injection fluid in EOR technology,
Jorque (1984). The use of seawater presents the same problems associated with
any open system; that is, where air-water contact exists. Seawater presents
some additional problems; one of the most notable is the biomass; for example,
organisms such as copepods, diatoms, and dinoflagellates.
Mitchell and Finch (1978) outlined some of the necessary water quality
tests including: membrane filter test, examination of the filtered
particulates with light and scanning electron microscopy, on-site core
injectivity tests, particle size distribution in the injection water with
respect to.the pore size distribution in the reservoir, amount and type of
biomass (other than bacteria) in the raw seawater, and bacterial levels
(aerobic and anaerobic). They found that cores are superficially plugged by
lipids derived from copepods plus inorganic debris. They also emphasized the
plugging of cores by bacterial debris, which was documented by Fekete (1959).
-S6-
Water Compatibility
Waters that can be mixed without the formation of precipitates are
considered to be compatible. Henkel (1953,1955) reported testing brine and
wastewater compatibility by allowing a mixture of the two liquids to stand
from 8 to 24 hours at the approximate aquifer temperature. The mixture is
considered compatible if it remains free of precipitates. Others have
suggested that this criterion may not always be entirely satisfactory, since
reactions may require considerable time for completion and because gaseous
reaction products may also cause reduction in permeability {White and Delany,
1982).
If the planned project is EOR using chemicals such as surfactants,
polymers, or caustics, the compatibility tests become even more complex. For
example, various studies indicate that sulfonates and polymers react with the
multivalent cations in formation water, Meister, et al. (1980). The tolerance
of petroleum sulfonates to the multivalent cations depends upon the average
equivalent weight (AEW) of the sulfonate. In general, the amount of cation
tolerated increases as the AEW of the sulfonate decreases.
Ostroff (1979) presents two methods of determining water compatibilities
and information on how to predict scale formation. Collins (1975) presents
some information on brine stabilization and methods for calculating over and
under saturation of some relatively insoluble compounds. A method approved by
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Subcommittee D-19.09
appears in section 11.02 of the ASTM 1985 Annual Book of Standards.
Core Flow Tests
Core flow testing is the only good method of determining the effects of
the proposed injection fluid upon the permeability of the formation
reservoir. McCune (1977) describes some core test equipment for a flow
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test. An ASTM standard practice using core flow testing is in press and will
appear in the 1987 ASTM Annual Book of Standards on Water, Section 11, Volume
11.02.
Near-well filtration is the filtration of small particles on the face of
the formation from injected solutions which causes injection rates to lower.
Eventually, the permeability of the interior of the formation will decrease.
For example, it is not unusual for water injection rates to decline by 50% in
12 months. The only way to circumvent this is to inject water that contains
no suspended solids and is compatible with the formation water and formation
rocks, especially the clays. Workovers can improve the injection rates after
a decline but are expensive and time-consuming.
Corrosion
Ostroff (1979) lucidly defines corrosion and the forms of corrosion found
in oilfield operations. As he points out, electro-chemical corrosion of steel
is the usual type found in the oilfield. He further notes that "it is
necessary to have an (1) anode; (2) cathode; (3) electrolyte, and (4) external
connection. Remove any one of these and corrosion will cease." Obviously the
electrolyte is the water, and it is impossible to remove it in an oilfield
water system. Also it usually is impossible to remove the anode, cathode or
the external connection in most oilfield systems. Complete coating of the
steel lines and vessels or use of non-conducting lines and vessels (cathodic
protection) would solve the problem, but this is not yet feasible for all
systems.
The gases in some EOR injection waters, which are deleterious because of
potential corrosion problems, are o2, H2S, and co 2• The presence of these
gases in salt water presents severe corrosion problems because salt water is
-9~-
an electrical conductor and is corrosive, and the corrosivity increases as the
water becomes saltier and as the concentration of o2 , H2S, or co 2 increases.
These dissolved gases drastically increase the corrosiveness of salt
water. Fewer corrosion problems exist if they are removed and if the
injection water is maintained at a neutral or slightly higher pH; however,
because of the effect of high pH on clay swelling, a pH above 7 may be
undesirable.
Bacteria
Injection waters must be free of bacteria because they can cause corrosion
as well as plugging of the equipment and the face of the injection well.
Bacteria can reproduce rapidly, and they populate in extremely diverse
conditions such as low and high pH, temperature, pressure, and even in the
absence of oxygen. Patton (1975) and Collins and Wright (1982) describe tests
and problems bacteria cause in oilfield water injection operations.
FORMATION ROCK MINERALS
As noted by Collins and Kayser (1985), a small number of minerals comprise
the mass of most sandstone aquifers, and the average sandstone consists of
66.8% Si0 2 (mostly quartz), 11.5% feldspars, 11.1% carbonate minerals, 6.6
percent micas and clays, 1.8% iron oxides, and 2.2% other minerals. Limestone
and dolomite aquifers are primarily CaC0 3 and CaMg(C0 3 ) 2 , respectively, but
some contain 50% noncarbonate constituents such as Si0 2 and clay minerals.
Quartz, the main constituent of sandstones, is the least reactive of the
common minerals and generally can be considered nonreactive except in highly
alkaline solutions. Clays can react with highly basic or highly acidic
solutions; however, an injected fluid need not be highly acidic to attack
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certain clay minerals. The degree of reaction of feldspars and micas with
injected solutions is uncertain, but some reaction is likely to occur.
Sandstone aquifers often are cemented with carbonate minerals, which react
with acid solutions. Reaction of acid wastes with the carbonate cement in
sandstone causes an evolution of C0 2 that increases the pressure and reduces
the permeability. In the special case of acid aluminum nitrate wastes, it was
determined that the reaction of the waste with CaC0 3 creates a gelatinous
precipitate that plugs sandstone pores. Many sandstones are composed of
gypsum and limonite cementing material. These two minerals can dissolve,
reprecipitate, and block pores. Deep limestone, dolomite, or calcareous
sandstone aquifers usually contain brines which are in chemical equilibrium
with the aquifer, and dissolution and/or reprecipitation are not as likely to
occur.
If injected EOR fluids are at a lower pH than formation waters, solution
of the carbonate reservoir material can occur. This reaction is beneficial if
gelatinous precipitation does not occur. If alkaline injected fluids mix with
formation water and raise its pH, dissolved salts can precipitate and plug
pores.
Clay minerals are present in sedimentary rocks, and sandstones containing
less than 0.1% clay minerals probably do not exist anywhere except in small
deposits of almost pure glass sand. Clay minerals reduce the permeability of
sandstone to water versus its permeability to air, and the degree of
permeability reduction to water versus air is the water sensitivity of a
sandstone. Collins and Kayser (1985) address phenomena associated with
injection of oilfield waters into formation rocks; for example, anhydrite
versus gypsum, clay sensitivities, ion exchange, and adsorption.
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FLUID INJECTION TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Water and/or EOR fluid injection systems are divided into two categories;
(1) closed systems and (2) open systems. A closed system is designed to
exclude air or oxygen, whereas an open system makes no attempt to exclude
oxygen. Ostroff (1979) and Patton (1981) present detailed information
concerning injection water chemistry; chemicals used in scale and corrosion
prevention; chemicals used to control microorganisms; and methods used in
coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, degasification, etc. Modifications
and/or extensions of these methods are used in EOR injection fluid
pretreatment.
TYPES OF EOR OPERATIONS
MI CELLAR-POLYMER
Figure 4 shows a single 5-spot injection-production pattern for a
micellar-polymer EOR operation. In this particular operation, a reservoir
preflush was first used to condition the reservoir followed by the micellar
fluid for releasing oil, polymer solution for mobility control, a fresh water
buffer to protect the polymer, and the final drive injection water.
Surfactant-polymer floods are chemical EOR processes. Surfactants are
micellar or surface-active agents including soaps and soap-like substances.
To be useful in enhanced oil recovery, they must reduce the interfacial
tension between water and oil. They have an amphiphilic molecule that is
attracted, at one end, to water (the hydrophilic or water-loving end), and the
other end is attracted to oil (the oleophilic or oil-loving end).
Alcohol improves the quality of some micellar solutions and, when used, is
a cosurfactant. The cosurfactant also aids the micelle in solubilizing oil or
water, stabilizes the solution, and reduces adsorption.
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The water-soluble polymers used in EOR consist of chain-like molecules
with molecular weights up to or exceeding 20 million. Polymers such as
polyacrylamides and polysaccharides often are used as mobility-control buffers
for permeability reduction and/or increased viscosity. Polysaccharides
sometimes are called biopolymers. Polymers increase the viscosity of the
waterflood and prevent it from running ahead of the oil. Increased resistance
to flow, particularly in high permeability zones, improves the volumetric
reservoir sweep efficiency resulting in increased oil recovery.
Water-soluble synthetic polyacrylamides consist of high-molecular-weight,
chain-like molecules with CONH 2 , COOH, and COONa groups attached to every
other carbon atom on a carbon chain. Naturally occurring polysaccharides
consist of cyclic carbohydrate monomers alternating in the polymer
structure. These additives aid oil recovery by decreasing the floodwater's
mobility. The polyacrylamides, for example, are most susceptible to breakdown
because of mechanical shear degradation and are more likely to adsorb on clay
or silicate surfaces than the polysaccharides. However, the fact that the
polysaccharides react with low concentrations of polyvalent cations, react
with bacteria, and in general plug filters or well sand faces because of
numerous reactions gives polyacrylamides a wider acceptance in oil recovery
operations.
In many of the surfactant-polymer EOR operations, a preflush is used.
This preflush often consists of fresh water to which sodium chloride is
added. More specifically, it probably will consist of fresh water, plus
sodium chloride, plus a bactericide, plus a corrosion inhibitor. A preflush
may continue for a year or until 80% of the rock pore volume (PV) is
flushed. The purpose of the preflush is to remove the connate brine from the
area of the reservoir where the operator wants to form an oil bank. After
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completion of the preflush, the sulfonate solution is injected. The preflush
theoretically removes most of the divalent ion cations (calcium and magnesium)
that were in the connate brine. These divalent cations react with many
sulfonates causing them to precipitate or become inactive or useless in the
entrainment or entrapment of the oil phase.
Other constituents in this surfactant or micelle phase may be sodium
hydroxide, sodium chloride, polymer, crude oil, and, of course, fresh water.
The polymer is added to increase the viscosity of the solution. Sodium
hydroxide, if used, may aid in forming a multiphase microemulsion system. The
microemulsion has at least three components: oil, water, and surfactant,
Collins and Kayser (1985).
Much of the preliminary work on an EOR operation is conducted to determine
possible interactions and compatibilities of injected fluids with the
indigenous reservoir fluids and rocks. This work is performed to minimize
losses of the injected solutions because of incompatible reactions with the
reservoir fluids and rocks and to ensure maximum oil recovery per dollar value
of injected chemical.
POLYMER
Figure 5 illustrates a single 5-spot injection-production pattern for a
polymer EOR operation. As shown, a preflush was performed to condition the
reservoir. This was followed by an injection of polymer solution primarily
for improved mobility control and an improved volumetric sweeping of oil
through the reservoir. Next, a fresh water buffer was injected to protect the
polymer followed by injected drive water.
A polymer operation is similar to a surfactant-polymer operation. The
notable exception is that the surfactant phase is not injected. The polymer
phase only is used; therefore, it might be called a thickened or polymer-
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augmented waterflood. The polymer increases the mobility ratio of the flood
and tends to move more oil without allowing the flood to finger through the
oil.
A preflush usually is used. Fresh water is used in many of the preflushes
in the polymer phase and in the first drive water phase. Brine-tolerant
polymers will decrease the necessity of using fresh water. Many polymers
react with divalent cations such as calcium and magnesium.
ALKALINE
Figure 6 illustrates a single 5-spot injection-production pattern for an
alkaline EOR operation. As shown, a preflush of the reservoir is used to
condition the reservoir followed by an injection of an alkaline or
alkaline/polymer solution to form surfactants in situ to release oil from the
reservoir rock. Next, a solution of polymer is injected for mobility
control. Then injection of fresh water buffer to protect the polymer is
followed by injection of the driving fluid (water).
In general, an alkaline (caustic) flood is performed only in a sandstone
reservoir because of the abundance of calcium in a carbonate reservoir
brine. The most common chemical used in caustic flooding is sodium
hydroxide. Sodium orthosilicate and sodium carbonate are also used. Other
chemicals that have been used include ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,
sodium silicate, trisodium phosphate, and polyethylenimine. Since cost is
important, sodium hydroxide is more likely to be used than potassium
hydroxide.
Divalent cations such as calcium and magnesium in the connate water can
deplete a caustic slug by precipitation of hydroxides. Also, if anhydrite or
gypsum are in the rock, calcium will react with the slug to precipitate
calcium hydroxide. High ion-exchange-capacity clays will exchange hydrogen
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for sodium rendering the caustic slug ineffective by producing water and tying
up the sodium. Caustic usually reacts with the silica in sandstone too slowly
to cause problems. Most dolomites and limestones will not react with the
caustic to cause deleterious effects.
Krumrine, et al. (1982) reported on the effects that alkaline additives
have on dilute surfactant systems for low-tension waterflooding and how
interfacial tension, hardness removal, and surfactant retention affect oil
recovery in high-hardness core systems. They also examined the effects of
alkaline additives on dilute surfactant systems for improved oil recovery.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Figure 7 illustrates the carbon dioxide oil flooding process, a miscible
displacement process applicable to many reservoirs. A slug or a prescribed
amount of carbon dioxide is injected into the reservoir followed by an
injection of water and a subsequent injection of carbon dioxide.
Most C0 2 floods uses a water-injection phase as a preflush and as a water-
alternat i ng-gas injection (WAG). For example, the preflush may be a fresh
water to which salt is added or it may be a softened salt water. In some
areas softened seawater is used.
At least four methods of carbon dioxide and water injection have been
studied or used: (1) continuous injection of carbon dioxide for the life of
the flood, (2) injection of carbon dioxide followed by water, (3) injection of
alternate slugs of carbon dioxide and water, and (4) simultaneous injection of
carbon dioxide and water. The water in some field applications consists of
polymer-thickened water. Carbon dioxide floods are useful in both carbonate
and sandstone reservoirs.
The depth of the reservoir should be 2,500 ft or more. If it is not, the
overlying rock may be fractured. If the pressure in the reservoir containing
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an oil of 30° API gravity or greater has been depleted to less than 1,200 psi,
the pressure must be built up by injection of water before the co 2 injection
begins. Of course, co 2 could be injected to build up the pressure-- but this
would be very expensive at the current prices for co 2•
STEAM
Figure 8 illustrates a steamflooding operation. Heat from steam injected
into a heavy-oil reservoir thins the oil making it easier to push through the
formation toward production wells. Steam and hot water flooding account for
most of the oil recovered by all EOR operations. There are two steam recovery
processes: (1) steam stimulation, sometimes called cyclic steam injection,
steam soak, or huff and puff and (2) steamflooding which is a process similar
to waterflooding. Water used in a steamflood usually is a high quality water
and usually is softened before it goes into the steam generator to prevent
scale problems in the boiler. Steamflooding accounts for the most oil
recovered by any EOR technology.
IN SITU COMBUSTION
Figure 9 illustrates an in situ combustion operation where heat is used to
thin the oil and thereby permit it to flow to the production well. In this
operation, the oil in the formation is ignited, and by continued injection of
air the fireflood front advances through the reservoir.
There are two fundamental processes of in situ combustion -- forward
combustion and reverse combustion. Water is used in variations of the forward
combustion process. When water is injected with air, it forms superheated
steam near the injection well. At the combustion front, it mixes with
nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and other gases. This hot gas
mixture displaces the oil. Heat reduces the viscosity of the oil allowing the
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oil to flow toward the production well. The benefit of the wet method is that
it allows a threefold reduction in air to produce a barrel of oil.
MISCIBLE HYDROCARBON
As the name of the flood implies, the injected gas or liquid hydrocarbon
becomes miscible with the hydrocarbons in the reservoir. This miscibility
usually is accomplished at elevated temperatures and pressures; therefore,
depth of the reservoir is important because of the need to maintain a high
pressure.
Three different techniques are commonly used: (1) miscible slug process,
whereby a slug of liquid hydrocarbon about 0.05 PV is injected followed by gas
and water as the drivers; (2) enriched gas process, whereby a slug of enriched
gas is injected followed by lean gas and water as the driver; and (3) high-
pressure, lean-gas process, whereby lean gas is injected at high pressure to
cause evaporation of the crude oil and formation of a miscible phase.
INERT GAS INJECTION
Increased costs of natural gas and carbon dioxide have prompted operators
to look at other methods to maintain the pressure in petroleum reservoirs.
With natural gas, miscibility could be achieved in some reservoirs. The
miscibility state allows almost 100% displacement efficiency in the swept
zone; however, this is not always the goal. Often pressure maintenance is the
goal.
Figure 10 illustrates the use of nitrogen in a carbon dioxide flood
operation where the nitrogen is used for economic reasons. Inert gases such
as nitrogen are not miscible with many oils at low pressures. Also, the API
gravity of the oil should be 35° or higher for application of this process.
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MICROBIAL FLOODING
Microbial flooding is performed by injecting a solution of microorganisms
and a nutrient such as industrial molasses down injection wells drilled into
an oil-bearing reservoir. As the microorganisms feed on the nutrient, they
metabolically produce products ranging from acids and surfactants to certain
gases such as hydrogen and carbon dixoide. These products act upon the oil in
place in a variety of ways, making it easier to move the oil through the
reservoir to production wells.
The microbial and nutrient solution and the resulting bank of oil and
products are moved through the reservoir by means of drive water injected
behind them, as illustrated in Figure 11.
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production phase is completed a new supply of microorganisms and nutrients
must be injected if the process is to be repeated. Figure 12 illustrates the
process.
-109-
polysaccharides, the degradation products are ultimately the monomers often
used in synthesizing the polymer. Polysaccharides are hydrolyzed at the ring-
ester linkages to form simpler sugars, while polyacrylamides tend to be
hydrolyzed at the amide linkage and form a low-viscosity polymer with reduced
mobility control properties. The alkylcellulose ethers degrade to simpler
starches, sometimes hydrolyzing at available linkages under higher-pH
conditions. It is unlikely that toxic hazards should be expected from any of
these degradation products.
2. Cosurfactants
Cosurfactants are generally used in relatively small amounts. They are
composed primarily of longer chain aliphatic alcohols whose hazards have been
well documented through industrial usage and are not expected to cause
environmental problems in EOR projects.
3. Alkaline Flooding Agents, Preflush Agents, Thermal Enhancers
Some of the compounds in this group are quite caustic and require
conscientious handling (sodium hydroxide, sodium orthosilicate); others are
organics with relatively high toxicity levels or carcinogenic potential
(hydrazine, quinoline). The sodium compounds are generally considered safe in
the diluted amounts used in EOR; little is known about the safety of on-site
disposition of the organic compounds used.
4. Surfactants
Recent standards established within the United States consider up to 0.5
mg surfactant per liter of water as being safe for human purposes. Although
alkylaryl and petroleum sulfonates are minor irritants to eyes and skin,
systemic chronic effects and toxicological data are not generally known. The
high toxicity of sulfonates to aquatic life may be an indicator of toxic
potential. Incomplete degradation of alkylbenzene sulfonates does occur in
-l!O-
the environment, possibly introducing free benzene rings into the formation or
a surface disposal site.
5. Biocides, Chelating Agents, Oxygen Scavengers
The biocides are moderate to severe irritants, particularly to eyes, skin,
and upon inhalation. Certain ones, such as acrolein, glutaraldehyde,
formaldehyde, pentachlorophenol (PCP), and 2,4,5-trichlorophenol, are
extremely toxic over short exposure periods. Bioaccumulation is high, and all
five are implicated as carcinogens. Pentachlorophenol and 2,4,5-
trichlorophenol contain contaminants (dioxin, chloroquinone,
tetrachlorobenzene) which may be more toxic than the pure compound.
TRANSPORT AND FATE
Physical, chemical, and microbiological processes affect the transport and
fate of fluids injected into subsurface reservoirs. Geohydrology provides a
quantitative understanding of the flow of fluids through the subsurface, and
as a discipline it includes the mathematical, chemical, geological, and
physical sciences. Although many methods are available to aid in solving
mathematical problems associated with flow, transport, and fate of injectants
into subsurface reservoirs, many of the problems require further study, and
new methods need to be developed and tested.
CONCLUSIONS
Water is important in petroleum recovery operations. Adequate
considerations should be given to the type, quality, and quantity of water
available. Necessary tests should be made to ensure that the water used is
compatible with the recovery technology planned and the reservoir rock and
associated indigenous fluids. After the recovery operation is begun,
necessary tests should be conducted on a routine basis to ensure that the
system is maintained at optimum conditions.
-111-
Knowledge of abiotic and biodegradation transformations and mobility
pathways in soils, surface waters, and groundwaters for many chemicals used in
petroleum recovery is nonexistent. Better information concerning abiotic and
biodegradation transformations, transport, and ultimate fate of EOR chemicals
and their by-products in soils and waters should be obtained for (1) mobility
control agents, (2) cosurfactants, (3) surfactants, (4) alkaline flooding
agents, (5) preflush agents, (6) thermal enhancers, (7) biocides, {8) chelat-
ing agents, (9) oxygen scavengers, (10) solid wastes from steamfloods, and
(11) potentially dangerous chemicals used in any EOR operation.
-112-
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1985, Philadelphia, PA.
Standard Practice for Calculation of Supersaturation of Barium Sulfate,
Strontium Sulfate. Dihydrate (Gypsum) in Brackish Water, Sea Water, and
Brines, Section 11, volume 11.02, pp. 551-556.
Carlberg, B. L. 1979, How to Treat Seawater for Injection Projects.
World Oil, v. 189, No. 1, pp. 78-81.
Collins, A. G. 1975, Geochemistry of Oilfield Waters. Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Co. New York, 496 pp ••
Collins, A. G. and M. B. Kayser. 1985, Interaction, Compatibilities, and
Long-Term Environmental Fate of Deep-Well-Injected EOR Fluids and/or Waste
Fluids with Reservoir Fluids and Rocks - State-of-the-Art, Dept. of Energy
Report No. NIPER-70, NTIS Order No. DE85000146, 103 p.
Collins, A. G. and C. C. Wright. 1982, Enhanced Oil Recovery Injection
Waters. Dept. of Energy Report. No. DOE/BETC/RI-82/5, Apr., 82 pp.
Craig, F. F., Jr. 1971, The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of
Waterflooding, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Morgraphy Series 3: 134 pp.
Davis, J. 1974, Big Waterflood Begins Off Abu Dhabi. Oil and Gas
Journal, v. 73, No. 33, pp. 49-51.
Fekete, T. 1959, The Plugging Effect of Bacteria in Sandstone Systems.
M.S. Thesis, University of Alberta Canada, 1959.
Goodlett, G. O., M. M. Honarpour, H. B. Carroll, P. S. Sarathi. 1986,
Screening for EOR - 4 Parts, Oil and Gas Journal, June 23, 1986 ending July
28, 1986.
Henkel, H. o. 1953, Surface and Underground Disposal of Chemical Wastes
at Victoria, Texas. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. Chemical Engineering
Progress, v. 25, No. 9., pp. 1044-1049.
-113-
Henkel, H. O. 1955, Deep-Well Disposal of Chemical Wastes. Chemical
Engineering Progress, v. 51, No. 12, pp. 551-554.
Jorque, M. A. 1984, How to Treat Seawater for Water Injection, Petroleum
Engineer, Nov. 28-34.
Krumrine, P. H., J. Falcone, and T. Campbell. 1982, Surfactant Flooding
2: The Effect of Alkaline Additives on Permeability and Sweep Efficiency.
Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal, v. 22, No. 6, pp. 983-992.
Langnes, G. L. Robertson, J. 0. Jr., Mehdizadeh, A., Torabzadeh, J., Yen,
T. F., Donaldson, E. C., and Chilingarian, G. V. 1985, Waterflooding, Ch. 8
in Enhanced Oil Recovery, 1. Fundamentals and Analysis, Elsevier, p. 251-334.
McCune, C. C. 1977, On-Site Technology to Define Injection Water Quality
Requirements. Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 1, pp. 17-24.
Meister, M. J., C. A. Wilson, and A.G. Collins 1980, Tolerance of
Petroleum Sulfonates to the Presence of Calcium Ions, Chapter in Solution
Chemistry of Surfactants, Plenum Press, pp 927-940.
Mitchell, R. W. 1978, The Forties Field Sea-Water Injection System.
Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 30, pp. 877-884.
Mitchell, R. W. and T. M. Finch 1978, Water Quality Aspects of North Sea
Injection Water, Society of Petroleum Engineers, (UK) LTD Europe Offshore
Petroleum Conference, Proceedings, v. 1, pp. 263-276.
Mungan, N. 1965, Permeability Reduction Through Changes in pH and
Salinity. Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 12, pp. 1449.
Ogletree, J. 0. and R. J. Overly 1973, Sea-Water and Subsurface Water
Injection in West Block 73 Waterflood Operation. Journal of Petroleum
Technology, v. 25, pp. 623-628.
Ostroff, A. G. 1979, Introduction to Oilfield Water Technology, National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, 394 p.
-114-
Patton, C. C. 1975, Oilfield Water Systems. Campbell Petroleum Series,
Norman, OK, 65 p.
White, A. F. and J. M. Delany 1982, Investigation of Surface Interactions
Between Silicate Rocks, Minerals, and Groundwater. Annual Report, Earth
Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-15500, pp. 112-115.
-115-
TABLE 1. - Geochemical water analyses
Property Stearn
or Produced Injection Generation Disposal
Constituent Water Water Water Water
pH x x x x
Eh 0 x 0
Specific resistivity x
Specific gravity x x x x
Bacteria 0 x 0
Barium x x x
Bicarbonate x x x x
Boron 0
Bromide 0
Ca lei urn x x x x
Carbonate x x x x
Carbon dioxide 0 x x 0
Chloride x x x x
Hydrogen sulfide 0 x 0
Iodide 0
Iron x x x 0
Magnesium x x x x
Manganese 0 0 0 0
Oxygen 0 x 0 0
Potassium 0
Residual hydrocarbons x 0
Sodium x 0 0 0
Silica 0 x x 0
Strontium 0 x 0 0
Sulfate x x x x
Suspended solids x x
Total dissolved solids x x x x
x usually requested
o sometimes requested
-116-
TABLE 2. - Tertiary system - highest concentration of a
constituent found, average concentration, and
number of samples analyzed - Collins (1975)
-117-
TABLE 3. - Toxicological Data
-lHl-
Group V Alkaline Flooding Agents, Preflush Agents, Thermal Enhancers
Sodium nitrate
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium orthosilicate
Sodium carbonate
Sodium borate
Sodium hydrosulf ite
Sodium bisulfite
Sodium sulfate
Hydrazine
Quinoline
Toluene
Xylidine
Aniline* 2,2-dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide
Copper sulfate
Glutaraldehyde
Formaldehyde
Sodium hypochlorite
Acrolein
EDTA
1,6-hexanediamine
-119-
FIGURE 1
OIL PRODUCTION
Improved technology through research is
enhancing oil recovery.
PRIMARY RECOVERY SECONDARY RECOVERY ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR)
Produces 12-15% of the Another 15-20% of the An additional 4-11 % of the original oil-in-place* may be
original oil-in-place* original oil-in-place* may be produced using current and advanced technology
produced by waterflooding
CURRENT PROCESSES
•Thermal
• Gas Miscible
I
......
N
0
I
-
-- --~
-- - - --_---=---=-
--==-----=- ----- ------
-----==- - --
-==--=
- - -
- - - -- -
- -- -- -------- - -
-- - -
- ------ - - --- -
-- ----
-
:....._-=----=---=-
-
-
. --
-- -------
-- -
---=------==--
---
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---
--
~--=-=--=-
--------
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-- --
- --
--
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----
- -
- -- - -
------
- - -- -- - -
-
-
-- - ---
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----
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--- -
-
-
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=-==----=---
---- - - - - - - --=-----===-=-
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-----
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--------------
---- --
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--
--
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-
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- --------
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--- -- --- -- --------
------------
-
---===-
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-
---==--==---===-:::...=:- =-==------==--=--=:.__
~---:::...=-
~--==----=----=----::__-:::-:
= ~---==------=---=---
~--:......=--
-~--=-~
3 1,000---------------i
14 STATES
30,000
29,000
0 28,000
.......
_J
m
m 2 7,000
z
..
0
8,000
7,000
------- .-----
...-
_.__.,,.,-" _,,.-- CRUDE
1975 76 77 78 79 80
YEAR
-121-
3 1,000
13 STATES
29 ,000
0 28,000
'CD
.....J
CD
.. 27,000
2
0
r
g 26,000
0 ;..._--
~ 25,0001
7 ,000 ~
...__
-.......... .........
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6,000 CRUDE ""---- -...._ __
5, 0 0 0 ~ _ ___.__ __..__ __.....___ __.____,____,
1975 76 77 78 79 80
YEAR
-122-
FIGURE 4
CHEMICAL FLOODING
{Micellar-Polymer)
The method shown requires a preflush to condition the reservoir, the injection of a micellar
fluid for releasing oil, followed by a polymer solution for mobility control to minimize channeling,
and a driving fluid (water) to move the chemicals and resulting oil bank to production wells.
I
......
N
VJ
I
Micellar
Fluid for
Releasing
Oil
FIGURE 5
CHEMICAL FLOODING
(Polymer)
The method shown requires a preflush to condition the reservoir, the injection of a polymer
solution for mobility control to minimize channeling, and a driving fluid (water) to move
the polymer solution and resulting oil bank to production wells.
Mobility ratio is improved and flow through more permeable
channels is reduced, resulting in increased volumetric sweep. (Single 5-Spot Pattern Shown)
FIGURE 6
CHEMICAL FLOODING
(Alkaline)
The method shown requires a preflush to condition the reservoir and injection of an alkaline
or alkaline/polymer solution that forms surfactants in situ for releasing oil. This is followed
by a polymer solution for mobility control and a driving fluid (water) to move the chemicals
and resulting oil bank to production wells.
Mobility ratio is improved, and the flow of liquids through (Single 5-Spot Pattern Shown)
more permeable channels is reduced by the polymer
solution resulting in increased volumetric sweeo.
FIGURE 7
CARBON DIOXIDE FLOODING
This method is a miscible displacement process applicable to many reservoirs. A C02 slug followed
by alternate water and C02 injections (WAG) is usually the most feasible method.
Viscosity of oil is reduced providing more efficient miscible displacement.
Water
Injection
Pump
- -~
-=--...::::_-~
-=-:.___
-- -----
~~ =----=--::::- .:=..--=--=.
---~
•
FIGURE 8
STEAM FLOODING
Heat, from steam injected into a heavy-oil reservoir, thins the oil making it easier
for the steam to push the oil through the formation toward production wells.
Heat reduces viscosity of oil and increases its mobility.
I
......
N
'-J
I
FIGURE 9
IN-SITU COMBUSTION
Heat is used to thin the oil and permit it to flow more easily toward production wells. In a fireflood,
the formation is ignited, and by continued injection of air, a fire front is advanced through the reservoir.
Mobility of oil is increased by reduced viscosity caused by heat and solution of combustion gases.
,._.I
N
00
I
1. Injected Air and Water Zone (Burned Out) 5. Condensing or Hot Water Zone
2. Air and Vaporized Water Zone (50° - 200°F Above Initial Temperature) _,__._...-__._-.-~__,~-
3. Burning Front and Combustion Zone (600° - 1200°F) 6. Oi I Bank (Near Initial Temperature)
4. Steam or Vaporizing Zone (Approx. 400°F) 7. Cold Combustion Gases
FIGURE 10
NITROGEN - C0 2 FLOODING
In a C0 2 flood, the use of nitrogen to displace the C02 slug and its miscible oil bank
might be desirable due to the lower cost of the nitrogen.
Viscosity of oil is reduced providing more
efficient miscible displacement.
.....I
N
\0
I
'Wii'if!> :: :<;;~~~:~1!;~/~lf,~f~:~,
· .· · I• •I Gas
•
FIGURE 11
MICROBIAL FLOODING
Recovery by this method utilizes the effect of microbial solutions on a reservoir. The reservoir is usually
conditioned by a water preflush, then a solution of microorganisms and nutrients is injected. As this
solution is pushed through the reservoir by drive water, it forms gases and surfactants that help to
mobilize the oil. The resulting oil and product solution is then pumped out through production wells.
(Single 5-Spot Pattern Shown)
~
!,;.)
0
I
Microbial
Products
for
Releasing
Oil
FIGURE 12
I
w
......
J
-
----
----
----
----
----
----
----
- --------
----
----
----
----
- -- - - - - - - - ------
-----------------
- ----
-
--
-- ------
~-
--
-
-------- --
PAPER UNAVAILABLE. WILL BE PRINTED IN UIPC JOURNAL.
ABSTRACT
Author
Lee Thomas
U.S. EPA Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia
-132-
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Lee Thomas
-133-
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE DISPOSAL OF FLUIDS INTO POORLY
CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
-134-
In certain areas of the country the-construction of these injection
systems are further complicated by the type of strata underlying the
region. In these areas, the formations that are available for waste
injection consist of unconsolidated or poorly consolidated sandstone
reservoirs. Injecting fluids into these formations theoretically does
not present a problem because of the direction of flow. In practice
however the actual operation of the entire injection system creates
situations in which the unconsolidated formation sand may fall into
the wellbore area. A pressure surge caused by an emergency shut-down
system, fluctuation of injection rates and pressures, operator error
and so forth all may allow the introduction of formation sand into the
wellbore. This formation sand can lead to an increase in injection
pressures and ultimately total failure of the injection well.
4
As a method of controlling this problem a variety of different sand
control techniques have been tried. The sand control system that has
produced the best results in both injection well technology as well as
in producing wells is gravel packing. Gravel packing involves the
placement of a wire-wrapped screen or slotted liner across from the
injection interval and packing the screen-casing annulus with high
quality gravel pack sand. This technique, while developed for use in
the oil and gas industry to prevent the production of formation sand,
provides many of the same benefits for injection well applications.
The basic difference between an injection well gravel pack and a
producing well gravel pack is the final "direction" of production. The
desired results for both are the same:
-135-
The initial success and overall life of the gravel pack is greatly
effected by several factors. These factors include wellbore
maintenance, perforating, and completion design. This paper will
address the design considerations in relation to these factors.
THEORY
Gravel pack technology has evolved over the past 40-50 years and
developed into a highly specialized service. A gravel pack completion
consists of packing high quality gravel pack sand around a screen or
slotted liner. In addition to packing this screen-casing annulus,
gravel pack sand is also pumped into the perforation tunnels. The
function of the gravel pack sand is to prevent the formation sand from
flowing into the wellbore while at the same time allowing the produced
fluids into the production screen.
The gravel pack sand in the annulus requires the produced or injected
fluid to flow through this sand pack and therefore will increase the
pressure drop across the completion. For this reason high quality sand
is used in gravel packing because its permeability is significantly
higher than the formation sand's permeability. For example, smaller
gravels such as 40-60 U.S. mesh have about 69 darcies of permeability
while others sands such as 20-40 have about 170 darcies. In
comparison, a good Gulf Coast formation sand will have only 500
milli-darcies or 1/2 darcy permeability.
-136-
flowing across the gravel pack sand can be calculated using Darcy's
law for fluid flow through a porous media.
kh (Pe - Pw)
Q = 7.082
------------
(u ln(re/rw))
As can be seen in the above equation, the permeability of the porous
media has a large effect on the calculated pressure drop. In order to
keep the pressure drop at a minimum over the gravel packed section,
the permeability of the gravel pack sand must be kept at a maximum.
Any reduction of pack sand permeability will cause the pressure drop
at any specific flow rate to increase.
When these equations are applied to the gravel pack model it can
-137-
readily be seen that by far the largest pressure drop occurs in the
perforation tunnel. This indicates that the permeability of the sand
in the perforation tunnel is probably the most important aspect of the
gravel pack. This is why it is so important that gravel pack sand be
packed into both the screen-casing annulus as well as the perforation
tunnels themselves.
The importance of placing high quality gravel pack sand into the
perforations can be illustrated by calculating pressure drops due to
one darcy formation sand filling the perforations. One darcy of
permeability is about twice as much as normally occurs in Gulf Coast
formation sand. Assuming a flow rate of 1 BPD/perf, the pressure drop
across a 3/8" diameter perf would be 450 psi. Across a 1/2" diameter
perf the pressure drop would be 190 psi and across the larger 3/4"
perf the pressure drop would be 64 psi.
-138-
resulted in failure. 6 Early gravel pack design was based on the works
of Coberly, Wagner and Hill?&S and suggested using a gravel pack grain
size with a diameter equal to 10 times the formations 10% coarse point
on a cumulative sieve analysis. Formation sand is made up of several
different particle sizes and some method must be used to describe the
overall characteristics of the sample. A cumulative sieve analysis is
a standard method of describing these various particle sizes that make
up the formation sand.
Saucier's work used the median gravel pack sand size to the median
formation sand size as the design criteria. The median sand size was
defined as the 50% point on a cumulative sieve analysis plot. When
this ratio between the formation sand size and the pack sand size was
6 and the flow rate was 8.2 BPD/perforation the pressure drop was 16
psi. When the flow rate was increased to 14 BPD/perforation the
pressure drop increased to 30 psi. Since both the flow rate and the
pressure drop were increasing proportionately, the permeability
remained constant. The flow rate was then lowered back to the
original 8.2 BPD/perforation and the pressure drop came back to the
original 16 psi. This indicated that the permeability remained
constant throughout the experiment and no damage was incurred at the
higher flow rate.
When the gravel size was increased to 8.5 times the formation sand
size, a higher pressure drop of 54 psi was obtained with a lower flow
-139-
rate of 7.7 BPD/perforation. This demonstrates that the permeability
was already being damaged due to formation sand migration into the
gravel pack sand. When the flow rate was doubled to 13.0
BPD/perforation the pressure drop went up by more than double
indicating that the permeability had been further damaged. Finally
when the flow rate was lowered back to the original 7.7
BPD/perforation the pressure drop was now 94 psi indicating that the
permeability of the gravel pack had been permanently damaged.
-140-
cost of well failure and re-completions.
-141-
The following is a general procedure for changeover from drilling
10
fluids to completion fluids. This process, used by several operators
&ll, achieves a clean, closed system in an efficient, and economical
manner:
Once the changeover has been completed, the use of pipe dope should be
held to a minimum. It has been found that pipe dope is a major cause
of plugging not only in the formation but also on the gravel packing
screens. This plugging of the screens may cause poor gravel packs due
to the inability to effectively dehydrate the slurry through the
screen. In recent field tests pipe dope was applied to only the pin
end of the workstring using a 1 in. (2.54 cm) paint brush and then
only when required. It was found that as many as 5 round trips were
-i42-
made w1'thout ga 11'ing or 1 ea k s d eve 1 oping
· 10
Once the system has been closed it is imperative that all completion
fluids be filtered before being pumped into the well. There are two
methods generally used to filter completion fluids; cartridge filter
systems and Diatomeacous Earth (DE) systems.
-143-
fluid greatly reduces the efficiency of the filter system in terms of
rate and solids removal.
There are three major fluid loss systems in use today; calcium
carbonate, saturated salt systems, and HEC gel slurries. Calcium
carbonate (Caco 3 ) is often used as a well stabilizer because of it's
ease of handling and 100% solubility in hydrochloric acid. Calcium
carbonate is normally mixed in a HEC pill at a load of 50 lbs/barrel
and spotted across the perforations. If calcium carbonate is used
during the completion or workover process it is necessary that all of
the material be removed with hydrochloric acid prior the start of the
gravel packing operation. If not the calcium carbonate forms a thick
filter cake that will not allow for good injectivity into the
perforations.
-144-
Another form of wellbore stabilizer is the super-saturated salt
systems. This involves the building a viscosified salt pill to a point
that exceeds the saturation limits of the fluid. Additional granulated
salt in then added to the pill, however will not dissolve because of
the fully saturated state of the fluid. The pill is then spotted
across the formation and the salt crystals act as a plugging agent.
The salt is removed by circulating or injecting a fluid with a low
salt concentration and therefore dissolving the granulated material.
As dn the case of calcium carbonate, the salt pill must be removed
prior to the actual gravel packing operation.
PERFORATING
-145-
creates a high speed jet of metal which penetrates the casing walls.
-146-
4. Perforation Cleaning - The perforating process has inherent
damaging characteristics that cannot be completely eliminated.
In order to correct these problems an effective method of
cleaning the perforations needs to be considered.
-147-
In test performed by Penberthy 14 perforations were tested under
several different conditions and the following conclusions were made
in regards to washing:
The next major item in the design of the perforating program is the
selection of shot size, shot diameter and shot density. With the
perforating equipment available today shot diameter and shot
penetration are mutually exclusive, as shot diameter increases, shot
penetration decreases. In sand control applications this trade off is
decided in favor of shot diameter for the following reasons.
-148-
ability to absorb the force of the perforating charge. For these
reasons it is much more productive to increase shot diameter in
relation to shot penetration. A normal perforating program for a
gravel packed completion will consist of a shot diameter of the
largest size capable, usually greater than .75", and a shot density of
12-16 shots/foot.
-149-
rhe most common and readily available formation sample is the side
wall core. Side wall cores are easily obtained prior to setting casing
by the use of a core gun. The gun is run into the hole and shot at the
intervals of interest. The samples can then be individually tested and
studied. Many companies go to the additional expense of obtaining two
sets of side wall cores. One set is given to the geologist and the
other set used to design the sand control completion.
The next step in the design process is to analyze the formation sand
sample to determine the median sand grain size. The sample is sieved
on a series of sieves to obtain the weight percentage retained on each
screen. The cummulative percentage on each consecutively smaller
screen is plotted against the sand grain size. When plotted this graph
looks like an S-curve. The sand size which is the most representative
of this particular formation sample is chosen to be the 50 percentile
point on the s-curve. This design point determines the median sand
grain size of the formation. As discussed in the Theory section of
this paper the size of the gravel pack sand can now be determined.
The selection of the size and quality of the gravel pack sand is of
utmost importance. The size of the gravel pack sand will determine
whether the formation sand is restrained while the use of poor quality
gravel pack sand may cause a reduction in the permeability of the
final pack. Fines can be generated by erosion of the sand grains
during transportation or during the placement process. These problems
are almost always associated with angular type gravel. When forces are
applied to angular gravels by handling, trucking, shipping, or pumping
operations, the gravel tends to be eroded to a more spherical shape.
-150-
The particles that are broken off will plug the pores therefore
causing a reduction in permeability.
Fines can also be present in the gravel source due to improper quality
control by the gravel supplier. Poor quality control can be seen in a
gravel that has a large percentage of fines or oversize particles. A
good quality gravel pack sand should be within 96% of specifications
and should not have any grain size varying by more than 2%.
The perfect sand grain will have a sphericity and a roundness factor
higher than 0.6, with 1.0 being a perfect circle. It will also have a
very rough crater-like surface which gives the gravel enough
frictional resistance to form a stabilized pack that will not be
fluidized by the production or injection process. Glass beads have a
slick surface and a very low friction factor and if used in a gravel
pack can be very easily fluidized.
•
Attention must be given to avoid using inferior gravel pack sand. The
use of a gravel with a guaranteed low quantity of fines and oversized
grains will result in a better gravel pack. For the 20 mesh cuts (i.e.
20-40, 40-60, 50-70) there should be no more than 2% by weight of
oversized or undersized particles. For the 10 mesh cuts (i.e. 20-30,
30-40, 40-50) 1% oversized and undersized can be tolerated.
-151-
specific well depends on various parameters that must be examined
before a final design can be determined. The two most widely used
systems are the slurry pack and the water pack.
The water pack systems was the original method for the placement of
sand in which the un-viscosified workover fluid is used to carry the
gravel pack sand to bottom. Because of the poor carrying capabilities
of water, the concentration of sand must be kept low. This operation
is carried out by the placement of a sand injector in line with the
gravel pack pump. The gravel pack sand is then injected into the well
with completion fluid at a rate of approximately 50-100 lbs/barrel.
The base fluid used for the slurry is usually fresh water treated with
3% Ammonium Chloride or 2% Potassium Chloride. The completion brine
may also be used with an HEC loading at a ratio of 2.5-3.0 lbs
HEC/barrel. With this high sand/fluid ratio, much less fluid is
required to perform the gravel pack therefore reducing the required
placement time. The slurry pack method is by far the most popular
fluid method in gravel packing and is highly recommended for the
completion design.
lSla
Gravel Pack Techniques
----------------------
The next major decision concerns the method of placing the slurry
across the perforated interval. Although it will not be covered in
this paper it is recommended that a matrix acid treatment be performed
prior to gravel packing regardless of the technique used. This
procedure assures that the perforations are open and taking fluid and
therefore can be packed with the gravel pack sand. The actual method
'
of placement will depend on factors such as well deviation, length of
interval, and tool spacing. There are three techniques available for
slurry placement. These are:
1. Squeeze pack
2. Conventional circulating pack
3. Bottom-up circulating pack
-152-
the slurry squeezed into the formation. After sand-out the wash pipe
is pulled from the seal bore and circulation is re-established with
the washpipe through the production screen (upper circulation). This
circulation path allows the slurry to be de-hydrated through the
screen. This placement method is much more successful at placing sand
both in the perforations and around the screen.
The technique described above has worked well in straight holes and
produces satisfactory results. In a deviated well however, the gravel
fails to pack uniformly and voids are developed in the packed annulus.
In recent years, several studies 15116117 have been performed to
investigate this problem.
-153-
settling rate of the gravel pack sand is what causes the "duning"
phenomena to occur. The bottom-up system reduces this settling rate
and therefore reduces or eliminates the formation of these dunes.
Another way of describing this effect is that the sand is being
constantly "bumped" up the hole by the force of the fluid and
therefore not allowed to settle out. This will keep the sand in the
fluid instead of settling out and being deposited on the low side of
the casing. The sand will then move completely to the top of the
screen in plug flow and not accumulate at the bottom of the zone.
Downhole Equipment
-154-
packers~ Permanent-retrievable packers and mechanical hook-wall
packers. The type of packer used is dependent upon depth, system
pressures, production or injection rates, access to well, and
regulatory guidelines. Hook-wall packers are run on tubing and
normally set with a combination of torque and set down weight. Upward
pull of the tubing unsets these packers at which time they can be
reset without redressing the tool.
In general the hook-wall packers are less expensive than the permanent
type packers and are used in shallow to medium depth land
applications. The major disadvantage to this type of packer is the
possibility of it becoming unset during production or injection
operations. As stated above these packers will unset with upward pull
of the tubing. This same upward pull however can be generated by
tubing shrinkage caused by normal well operations. From tubing
movement analysis it can be seen that this problems becomes more acute
when the depth of the well increases, the system pressure increases,
high volumes of fluid are being produced or injected, and bottom hole
temperature increases. For these cases a more permanent installation
is required and a permanent type packer should be used.
-155-
but has the advantage of being both extremely stable and tubing
retrievable. This type packer cannot be unset by tubing movements and
normally has working pressures which greatly exceed other production
packers. The permanent-retrievable packer was developed for offshore
use, however, because of the ability to support a variety of gravel
pack configurations it is frequently used in land operations. These
types of system also require that a seal assembly be run on the end of
the tubing in order to seal into the bore of the already set packer.
This seal assembly isolates the injection fluid from the production
tubing annulus.
The selection of the production packer is not only dependent upon well
conditions but also dependent upon the gravel packing method to be
used. In order to select the type of production packer to be used an
understanding of the different gravel pack systems is first required.
The gravel pack process itself requires a packer to be set during the
pumping operation. The packer is needed in order to be able to squeeze
the sand slurry into the perforations without applying the squeeze
pressure to the entire casing string. After completion of the pack, a
production packer must also be set on top of the production screen in
order to control the flow of fluids into the tubulars. In general the
-156-
following two systems are available to the operator to achieve these
results:
The two trip system was the original method for completing gravel
packed wells and utilizes a mechanical hook-wall packer as the gravel
pack packer. The hook-wall packer is used during the gravel packing
operation and then pulled from the well after completion. A production
packer and an overshot is then run to bottom and sealed over a hook-up
nipple that is on top of the screen and liner assembly. The production
tubing is connected directly to the packer and therefore no seal
assembly is required. Almost any type of production packer can be used
with this system although most often another hook-wall packer is
selected. As the name implies this method requires two trips of the
pipe in order to finish the gravel pack.
Due to the design of the hook-wall packer used in the two trip method,
this technique is primarily used to perform squeeze packs. Although
some modifications may be employed to allow a circulating pack, it is
not capable of providing an upper and lower circulating position. Due
to the lack of a true lower circulating position the slurry may not be
"forced" to the bottom of the interval resulting in a premature sand
out. For these reasons it is not recommended that this type of gravel
pack be used for zones greater than 20• in length.
The one trip system was developed in the mid 70's for offshore
co~pletions. This system utilizes the same packer for both the gravel
packing operation as well as the production operation. A permanent-
retrievable packer is set prior to the gravel pack and then left
behind to serve as the production packer. This concept requires one
less trip and is used exclusively in offshore completions.
The one trip system allows for the most flexibility of all of the
gravel pack systems. Both a squeeze pack and a circulating pack can be
performed with the system depending upon how the screen assembly is
configured. Many service companies offer a four position one trip
-157-
system and these should be used when possible. This is especially true
for gravel packing zones in excess of 20' or on wells deviated greater
than 45 degrees.
In general these one trip systems are run as follows: The packer,
crossover and setting tool, and screen assembly are run in the hole
and positioned across the production interval. The packer is then set
and the crossover tool released with mechanical and/or hydraulic
force. Once the packer has been set and the gravel pack has been
performed the crossover and setting tool are pulled out of the hole.
The seal assembly can then be run into the well and the remainder of
the completion process continued. Appendix A contains a sample
completion procedure using a one-trip type gravel pack system.
The actual type of gravel pack system to be used is dependent upon the
well conditions. In general the one-trip type systems produce superior
packs because of the four positions which are available during the
packing operation. In addition these systems utilize a stronger more
stable packer for the final production packer. The two trip systems
however can be used successfully on short zones, shallow depth, low
pressure and other field applications.
CONCLUSIONS
-158-
shot diameter.
REFERENCES
5. Monroe, S.A. and W.L. Penberthy, Jr.: Gravel packing high volume
water supply wells, J. Petroleum Technology (Dec 1980), p.
2097-2102
-159-
Oil Field," Drill. and Prod. Prac., AP! (1947) p. 63-79
10. Ledlow, L.B. and Sauer, c.w.: "Recent Design, Placement, and
Evaluation Techniques Lead to Improved Gravel Pack Preformance,"
SPE 14162, 1985
11. Sallee, S.S., Elson, T.D. and Lerma, M.K.: "Field Applications of
, Clean Completion Fluids," SPE 14318, 1985
12. Barron, c.w., J.A. Young, and R.E. Munson: "New Concept-High
Density Brine Filtration Utilizaing Diatomaceous a Earth
Filtration System," SPE 10648, 1982
13. Glaze, O.H. and J. B. Echols: "Filtering oil field brines is not
that simple," World Oil, (Oct. 1984), p. 85-90
15. Maly, G.P., Robinson, J.P. and Laurie, A.M.: "New Gravel Pack
Tool for Improving Pack Placement," J. Pet. Tech. (January, 1974)
19-24
-160-
20. Saucier, R.H. and Lands, J.F.: "A laboratory Study of
Perforations in Stressed Formation Rocks," JPT, February 1978.
-161-
Appendix A
Operating Procedure
* Perform any necessary squeeze work. Make a bit and scraper run
to ~50' below the desired interval to clean the casing wall of
any debris (such as mud cake or scale) which might obstruct the
running of any tools.
* RU the wireline unit and make a gauge ring and junk basket run to
assure a constant casing ID from surface to the desired plugback
and POOH.
* GIH with wireline set sump packer and set it to 10-12 feet below
the lowest perforation of the desired interval and POOH
* GIH with the centralized screen and liner assembly. Caliper and
check all tool connections, screen gauges, and record all
lengths. Lubricate all connections with available lube oil. DO
NOT USE PIPE DOPE. For a single zone circulating gravel pack the
screen and liner assembly will consist of:
-162-
centralized every 15' for casing size used
f. Blank tubing
g. Safety shear out sub
* Hang off the screen and liner assembly with clamps. Pick up the
sized washpipe and GIH. Sting into "O" ring seal sub and space
out to the rotary with the proper sized pup joints.
* Gently sting into the sump packer with collet latch and seals.
In order to verify the position of the assembly, pull 3000# over
the pipe pick up weight. Once a positive indication of the latch
in is observed, slack off to neutral weight and close the hydril.
Slowly reverse circulate to fill the tubing.
* With the gravel pack assembly properly positioned and the tubing
full, drop the ball and wait for it to gravitate to the ball
seat. Pressure up on the tubing slowly in 500 psi increments to
3000 psi. Three shears will be observed during the packer
setting procedure. The first shear (at ±1000 psi) indicates that
the packer has been set. The second (at ±2000 psi) shear
indicates that the setting sleeve on the setting tool has been
-163-
sheared which deactivated the setting tool. The final shear (at
!3000 psi) indicates that the releasing sleeve has shifted to the
lower position allowing the threaded lugs to disengage, releasing
the setting tool and crossover assembly from packer assembly and
indicates that the ball seat has been blown to below the
crossover ports.
* One the three shears have been observed place 10,000#'s on the
packer and mark the tubing to indicate the squeeze position. PU
8" and mark the pipe to indicate the lower circulating position.
Establish a circulating rate and note the pressure required to
break circulation. PU 2' while bumping against the interference
collar and mark the pipe to indicate the upper circulating
position. Slack off to the squeeze position and set 10,000#•s on
the packer. Establish an injection rate with filtered workover
fluid at less than the calculated fracture pressure.
* After the packer has been set and the tool positions established,
a mutual solvent acid job should be performed prior to the
introduction of the sand slurry to the perforation tunnels. A
mutual solvent acid job will enhance the injection profile,
alleviate damage near the wellbore and provide for rapid clean up
of the well. Position the crossover tool in the reverse
circulating position and spot the acid 2-3 barrels above the
tool. Slack off to the squeeze position and set 10,000#'s on the
packer and squeeze the acid into the formation at matrix rates.
* The use of a high density slurry allows gravel placement into the
formation and perforations tunnels with minimum fluid loss and
prevents the mixing of the pack sand and formation sand. When
two sizes of sand are mixed, the resulting permeability is less
-164-
than either.
* Bleed off the pressure and pull the collet through the
interference collar. Pick up 3-4' to get into the reversing
position. Reverse out the excess slurry plus a minimum of 2
tubing volumes. POOH with the crossover tool.
-165-
FACTORS '!HAT CAN CAUSE ABANDCJllED WELLS TO LFAK
ABSTRACT
-166-
Case histories from the Texas Railroad Connnission files on leaking
abandoned wells reportedly caused by Class II injection wells (salt
water and enhanced recovery) were studied. Important factors have
been identified from these case histories that can cause an improp-
erly plugged abandoned well to leak due to overpressuring the
injection zone. The factors include: 1) depth of the injection
zone, 2) casing left in the borehole which is open to the injection
zone, providing a direct path for upward fluid migration, 3) reser-
voir properties and flow rates, 4) drilling method, and 5) bore-
holes in "hard" rock which tend to remain open indefinitely, as
opposed to boreholes in "soft" rock where expandable clays or
sloughing shales close the borehole.
-161-
fluids into an overlying USDW from improperly plugged abandoned
wells. During modeling it is important to consider the entire well
field of surrounding injection or production wells which may affect
the injection zone. From case studies of several Class II injection
wells suspected of causing leakage through abandoned wells in Texas,
we believe that operators can achieve responsible compliance through
the use of historical records and available modeling techniques.
INI'RODUCTIOO'
Since 1859, when the first petroleum well was drilled in the United
States, approximately three million oil and gas wells have been
drilled and over two million have been abandoned (Anzzolin and
Graham, 1984). According to 40 CFR 146, a well is considered
abandoned if its use has been permanently discountinued or is in a
state of disrepair such that it cannot be used for its intended
purpose nor for observation purposes. Of particular concern to the
Class II UIC program are improperly plugged wells that penetrate the
injection zone or within 300 feet of the injection zone, because
they have the potential for conveying fluid from the injection zone
to an overlying Underground Source of Drinking water (USDW).
-168-
Railroad Conunission (TRC) was given regulatory responsibility for
proper well plugging. The TRC is also responsible for a program to
remedy improperly abandoned wells where the operator is unknown or
financially insolvent. Through thii;; program approximately 1400
wells have been plugged since 1965 with state funds (Ross and Steed,
1984).
-169-
We developed a protocol to identify and evaluate artificial
penetrations in the AOR (Figure 1). All wells identified as being
inadequately plugged nrust be modeled to verify that no upward
migration will occur. If upward migration is possible, then one of
the following steps nrust be taken before the injection well is
allowed to operate:
-170-
FAC'IURS REIATED TO LFAKAGE 'mRClliH
For the purposes of the study, two rock types were identified:
consolidated ("hard") rock and unconsolidated ("soft") rock. These
two types are geologically distinct and their characteristics
greatly influence the behavior of abandoned wells.
ROCK TYPES
-171-
Non-expanding clays or illite swell much less on being wetted than
expanding clays. Collins (1986) reported that shales penetrated by
drilling fluids experience a significant water exchange due to an
osmotic process which is dependent upon ionic activity of the mud
and the brine in the shale. This water exchange can lead to
swelling of the shale and sloughing into the borehole.
-172-
Below 14,000 feet in the Gulf Coast, there is no swelling component
remaining in the illite (Burst, 1959).
-173-
Reentering and plugging abandoned wells near Du Pont injection
facilities in the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain has confirmed that the
boreholes are closed by natural processes ( Klotzman, 1986; Meers,
1987). Old abandoned boreholes have healed across shale sections to
the extent that the reentering is like drilling a new hole. Natural
borehole closure is also verified by day-to-day experience of field
engineers who encounter difficulty in keeping boreholes open while
drilling, running casing, and logging. our experience in this area
indicates that borehole closure while running casing can result in
being stuck ("wall stuck") in the well and not able to bring circu-
lation of fluids ("break circulation") to the surface. Generally a
wiper trip is made (drill bit is run in the hole and the borehole is
conditioned with mud) to keep the borehole open for logging if it
needs to be left open for more than 24 hours.
Typically, dry holes drilled in the Gulf Coastal Plain have been
abandoned with surface casing set and plugged, but without long
string casing, thus providing ready opportunity for natural closure
below surface casing.
-174-
Knape (1986) stated that abandoned wells in this region may remain
open for many years, and reentering the boreholes for plugging may
be done by merely washing down with a drill bit. Most reports of
leaking abandoned wells or groundwater contamination have been
reported as occurring in consolidated rocks (Johnston and Greene,
1979) .
DRILLIN:; METHODS
The method used to drill a well can influence the potential for
leakage after it is abandoned. Three dominant drilling methods
examined were rotary mud, rotary air, and cable tool.
Rotary drilling with mud as the drilling fluid has been the
preferred method, especially in the Gulf Coastal Plain, since its
invention in 1901. It is almost impossible to drill shale with
-175-
other techniques in coastal plain areas and keep the borehole open
to advance the bit and casing.
In most wells drilled prior to the 1930's, rotary drilling fluid was
a mixture of water and the drill cuttings. This was called "native
mud", derived from the clay formations penetrated by the drill bit.
Water was continually added to thin native muds, and the minimum
weight for these drilling fluids was probably not less than 9
lbs/gal (Johnston and Knape, 1986).
Rotary drilled dry holes can be assumed to have been left full of
mud as a minimum condition because there is no economic reason to
recover the drilling mud prior to abandonment (Johnston and Knape,
1986). However, if the mud were recovered for another project, the
borehole would be filled with a bentonite type mud. Totally
removing the mud system from the borehole with the drill pipe on
-176-
bottom of the well is taking an unnecessary risk of getting the
drill pipe (salvagable material) stuck in the hole, because removing
the nrud can cause hole instability and caving.
Mud density, primarily used for well control while drilling, can
also be used to prevent interformational fluid flow. Permeability
of the nrud left in the borehole is less than the surrounding produc-
tive formations and the pressure maintained by the nrud column in the
hole is high enough to prevent the displacement of the plugging
material. Drilling fluid that is suitably conditioned after
drilling can satisfy these requirements (Polk and Gray, 1984).
-177-
hard to locate because the surface casing was never cemented and was
removed after drilling.
MUD WEIGIIT
-178-
levels along the outer casing were located. The water-based mud
weighted with barite to 11.0 lbs/gal was reduced to 9.1 lbs/gal in
eleven months. The weight of natural and modern muds left in the
borehole have a reported low range of 9 to 9.5 lbs/gal (Price, 1971;
Johnston and Knape, 1986; Collins, 1986; Davis, 1986; and Alford,
1987). A 9 lbs/gal mud would be a conservative value to use in
modeling calculations to predict upward migration in abandoned
wells. This value of 9 lbs/gal would be valid for rotary mud-
drilled dry holes and for cased holes with long string or production
casing only if records indicate mud/cement left in the boreholes.
Of course, i f the records indicate lost circulation zones, or if
casing is pulled from the borehole, the mud column cannot be assumed
to fill the borehole.
GEL S'l'RENi'IH
-179-
by pressure build-up (Collins, 1986; Johnston and Knape, 1986).
Collins (1986), in simple laboratory experiments (pipe with collars
or shoulders to simulate different hole sizes and filled with
bentonite mud) to test gel strength, demonstrated that mud gel and
hole irregularities interacted to yield a large contribution (five-
fold or more increase in gel strength) to sealing pressure and help
prevent upward migration.
-180-
DEPIH OF INJECTICfi ZOOE
-181-
the annular space between the casing and the open hole (Figure 2,
Well B). If cement was not circulated to the surface, the annular
space above the cemented portion would be filled with drilling mud.
If driving pressures are high enough, fluids can enter the
uncemented or mud annulus and migrate upward if not cemented above
the injection/production zone.
RF.SERVOIR PROPERTIES
-182-
MODEL!~ UPWARD MIGRATIOO
-183-
H height of mud column (feet)
2
Gs Gel strength of mud (lbs/100 ft )
-184-
4. injection or production operations utilizing the same injection
zone,
IN TEXAS
-185-
following cases: 1) significant problem leaking abandoned wells in
Texas cited by EPA (1975), (AIC, 1987a), 2) proper plugging
hearings from selected counties along the Texas Gulf Coast (uncon-
solidated rock areas) to determine pollution problems in connection
with the upward migration of fluids in improperly abandoned wells
(AIC, 1987b), and 3) proper plugging hearings for fluid migration
from improperly plugged wells in unconsolidated (TRC Districts 2, 3,
and 4) and consolidated rock areas (TRC Districts 7-B, 7-C and 9)
(AIC, 1987c).
CASE 1
The TRC gained authority and funds in 1967 to plug those wells
causing a problem or presenting a potential pollution threat. EPA
(1975) found approximately 830 wells that were plugged from 1967 to
1974 and identified approximately twenty-eight leaking, abandoned
wells that were significant problems and reportedly caused by Class
II injection wells (Figure 12, location map) . These wells were
found in a review of the TRC files on unplugged or improperly
plugged wells that have been plugged by State authority. AIC
(1987a) studied these 28 problem wells.
-186-
zone, and 2) significantly overpressured injection zones because of
the low reservoir transmissivity.
The fourth well cited in the unconsolidated rock area was drilled to
a total depth of 1395 feet, abandoned with 21 feet of surface pipe
in the borehole and filled with heavy mud. The well suspected of
causing the problem injected between 1810 to 1900 feet, or 400 feet
below the depth of the leaking well. Thus, this suspect well is not
likely to have been the cause of the leaking well. The most likely
source of salt water for the abandoned well is the fact that fresh
groundwater at this location is very shallow (less than 100 feet).
When the leaking well was entered to stop the leak, "A pa-rtial
obstruction was encountered at approximately 20 to 25 feet and it
was found that a solid obstruction of clay and shale was encountered
at approximately 50 feet. It is obvious that this obstruction will
have to be drilled out rather than washed out in order to properly
plug the well" ( Eikel, 1969). This record on the attempt at
-187-
reentering the abandoned well confirms that borehole closure can
occur in unconsolidated formations.
In the other three cases, AIC (1987a) could not find an injection
well after searching a radius of 1. 5 miles for well No. 25. In
addition, the abandoned well was not leaking salt water but was
identified as a well that was not properly plugged. A second
leaking well was drilled to a depth of 4156 feet in consolidated
formations and abandoned with 112 feet of surface casing in the hole
with 75 sacks of cement and heavy nrud. An injection well
approximately 3/4 mile away (injection zone 518 to 535 feet) was
suspected of causing the leak; however, when the injection well was
shut down for a week, there was no change in the leaking well.
-188-
Thus, the suspect well was probably not the cause of the leakage.
Additionally, the sand used for injection pinches out in the
direction of the leaking well ( Krusekopy, 1970) . Lack of sand
continuity prohibits lateral fluid migration. Thus , the suspect
well was probably not the cause of this leakage. The third leaking
well that did not fit the same zone as the suspect well was drilled
to a total depth of 4, 050 feet in consolidated formations and
abandoned with 101 feet of surface casing in the hole and filled
with mud. An injection well approximately 1700 feet away was sus-
pected of causing the problem. This injection well was disposing of
salt water through the annulus between 354 and 2302 feet. Modeling
the suspect well based on the following limited reservoir parameters
and sensitivity analysis:
-189-
pressure buildup exceeded the calculated pressure resistance for 9
and 10 lbs/gal mud systems (Figure 13).
In nearly all 28 cases cited by EPA (1975), AIC (1987a) found that
'
records pertaining to cement and/or mud plugs in the leaking wells
were inadequate, incomplete, or non-existent. Plugging with mud was
more common than plugging with cement, but in either case, details
on the mud weight ( "heavy") and cement (amount and location of
plugs) are usually not given. If this information is unavailable,
then conservative values should be used in modeling (9 lbs/gal mud
and no cement) .
CASE 2
-190-
to their attention that a well has been abandoned or is not being
operated and is causing or likely to cause pollution to freshwater
above or below the below the ground or i f gas or oil is escaping
from the well, the commission shall determine at a hearing, after
due notice, whether or not the well was properly plugged." These
hearings are called under Statewide Rule 14 ( b) ( 2) of the "Texas
Statewide Rules For Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Operations."
-191-
Patricio County. Incident No. 2 involved an improperly abandoned
production well leaking oil to the surface. This well had been
drilled to 2590 feet. The well was abandoned with 885 feet of 8-5/8
inch surface casing, 2444 feet of 5-1/2 inch casing, and 2316 feet
of 2-inch production tubing in the hole. The 5-1/2 inch casing was
plugged back to 2345 feet and perforations were noted from 2446 to
2590 feet. The 2-inch tubing was cemented to the surface and
mud-laden fluid was pumped into the well along with a 25 sack-cement
plug (set at an unknown depth).
-192-
away and the injection interval was from 1110 to 1155 feet. The
suspect well was permitted to operate at an average of 300 bbl/day
with maximum surface pressure of 30 psi.
CASE 3
-193-
According to Anzzolin and Graham (1984, citing A. D. Little), 95% of
all production wells and 78% of all abandoned wells (Anzzolin and
Graham, 1984) fall within the AOR of Class II injection operations.
Accordingly, because each district contains a substantial number o~
oil and gas fields, we can assume that a significant number of Class
II wells exist in each region studied. The study concluded that
pollution incidents resulting from Class II injection operations in
"hard rock" areas outnumber those cited in "soft rock'' areas by a
factor of 10. our conclusions are explained in the following
paragraphs.
Proper plug hearing files for 12, 461 oil and gas fields in the
"consolidated rock" area were studied for pollution incidents (AIC,
1987c). Seven hundred and ninety (790) hearing files were located,
and further examination of these files found that 112 hearings were
called as the result of fluid migration from improperly abandoned
wells (Figure 19).
On the other hand, hearing files for 34,512 oil and gas fields in
the unconsolidated area were studied for leakage incidents. Six
hundred, seventy-four (674) hearings were found and only 16
indicated fluid migration. Nearly three times as many fields were
examined in unconsolidated rock areas as compared to consolidated
rock areas, but only 13% (16) of the 128 proper plug hearings from
both areas resulted from upward fluid migration in unconsolidated
rock.
-194-
The 16 unconsolidated rock pollution incidents were studied to
determine the factors which caused the abandoned wells to leak.
Fourteen of the pollution incidents involved wells abandoned with
production casing left in the hole; two pollution incidents had
incomplete or nonexistent records.
-195-
Case studies of Class II injection wells from the Texas Railroad
Commission files showed that only a small number of pollution
problems from leaking abandoned wells are associated with the
Texas Gulf Coastal Plain. These studies also documented natural
borehole closure as an important mechanism in preventing upward
fluid migration in the unconsolidated rock of the Texas Gulf Coastal
Plain.
-196-
This study of case histories has shown that all of the leaking
abandoned wells could have been identified as potential problem
wells. Preventive measures could have been taken prior to injection
operation. We believe operators can achieve responsible compliance
through the use of historical records and reservoir modeling to
conduct injection operations in a manner that protects the
envi ronrnent.
-197-
TABLE l
-198-
PROTOCOL F'OR IIENTIF'Yil'Ki
ABfND'£D hEl..L5 IN ~ ~ a=" REVIEW
FORMATION TYPE OK
UNCONSOLIIRrEIJ/IND...RATED
DRILLING l'ETHOD
ROTFRY/CAB...£
PLUGGING RECORDS
AVAILAa...E
SEFfl0-1 CEt£NT.
INJECTION FtID/OR
PRODJCTION RECORDS
OPERATORS
CONS.
GEOLOGIST
OK
N
PLUG RECORDS FOL.ND
SEFfl0-1 W£NT,
INJECTION Ftlil/OR
PRODJCTION RECORDS
MOOCL
OK
WELL LOG
COORDINATES
WELL LOCATED
N
LOWER INJECTION 1-----ll-'
ZONE
OTHER
LOWER INJECTION
RATE
Figure 1
-199-
POTENTIAL PATHS OF FLUID MIGRATION
FROM CLASS II INJECTION WELLS
A B c D
EXPLANATION
A - CLASS II INJECTION WELL
B - PROil.JCTION WELL - C~ETED IN
DEEPER ZONE, FtN.LUS PFIRTIFLLY
LfllCDENTED TO 51..RFACE, FORl"FITION
PRESSlRE >> STATIC ANNLL~ MUD
AQ.Jlf"ER COLL.ffi
C - Il''f>ROPERL Y PLUGGED FND ABftfilONED
51..ff"ACE CASING
CEl'ENT
PROilJCTION
STRING
DIRECTION ~
FLUID MOVE1'£NT
Figure 2
Stepwise Dehydration of Clay
in Gulf Coast Well, Chambers County, Texas
% Dehyrated lattices In Mixed layer Components
(Modified From Burst, 1969)
1000
0 0 20 40 60 80 100
TO Depth
•
• •• t Hydration
Borehole
••• •
Stablllty
N
I
5000 Zone Closure
.. ,._.
0
I-'
••••
I
Top Anahuac
•• •
•• • •••
•Max. Top Frio
11
10,000
10,000 I Dehydration • Top
•Zone• • Geopresaure Plaatlc
•
Borehole
Restricted Closure
Dehydration
15,000 Zone i15,000
Figure 3
CONSOLIDATED AND UNCONSOLIDATED
ROCK TYPES IN TEXAS
LEGEND
Railroad Commission
1 District Numbers
Consolldated Sediments
("Hard Rock")
Unconsolldated Sediments
("Soft Rock")
Figure 4
-202-
MUD COLUMN PRESSURE VS. DEPTH
5000
4500
4000
3500
p
r
e 3000
s
s
u 2500 ··' ··' .,,. ""
..
r
··'
,··'
.,, .,, ...
e .,,. ....
p 2000
s .. ,.•
i
1500
1000
500
0-l=--4-------1,----1----1-----+---+------1,~---+---+----<
o 5 oo 1 ooo 1 5·o o 2 ooo 2 5 oo 3 ooo 3 5 oo 4 ooo 4 s'o o 5 ooo
Depth, feet
9 lbs/gal mud
10 lbs/gal mud
11 lbs/gal mud
Figure 5
-203-
FORMATION PRESSURE VS. DEPTH
5000
4500
4000
3500
p
r
e 3000
s
s
u
2500
r
e
p 2000
s
i
1500
1000
500
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Depth, feet
0.45 psi/ft
············· O. 4 7 psi/ft
Figure 6
-204-
PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL BASED ON MUD WEIGHT
AND FORMATION GRADIENT
400
D
i
f
f 300
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
1
200
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
100
p .... ....
s ..... ····· ········· ·········
i ·········
.... .... ····· ······
.... ····· ·····
.... ····· .... ·····
---- - - - -- -
- - - ---- ----
_.
.... .. ···
····· ·········
.... ... ··
-- --- - _,
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Depth, feet
Figure 7
-205-
GEL STRENGTH VS. PRESSURE RESISTANCE
35
30
25
20
Pressure
resistance (psi)
per 500 ft depth
15
10
20 40 60 80 100 120
Figure 8
-206-
700 ....
p
·················...
s 600 ······ ... ... ...
I ... ·· ....
...
D 500 ··· ...
I ....
F 400 ···· ..
... ...
F
E ...
R 300 ········· ... ...
E ...
N 200
T
I
A 100
L
~lo_o _____________________l_0+0-0--------------------~l-;;,OOOO
250 .. ,,
p ·····
s ··········.,,
·····
I 200 ··········...
····· ·······.. ,..
D
.....
_
··········.....
I
F 150 ···········
····.....
F ·····
E ········· ·····
R 100 ······
E
N
T
I 50
A
L
0
100 1000 10000
Figure 9
-207-
AREA OF REVIEW CALCULATION
p
R 400
E
s
s 350 • ·- •• - •• - •. - •• -··-·· -··-·· -·. -··-·· - •• -·· - • ·-··-··-··-··-· ·-··-·· -··-··-·· -··-·· -··-··-··-·· -··- ··-··-··-··-·. -· ·-··-··-·--·· -·. -·· -·· -· ·-· ·-··-··
u
R 300
E
D 250
I
F
~Pressure
F
E
R
E
:::+. -. --------- Buildup From Injection
I
N
IV T ------
0
o:> I 100 --·--- ·-----
I
A ------ ------ ------ -- . -.. _
L --·-- - ------
50 ------ -----
p
s 0
I 100 1000 10 00
I
N
0
"°I
PARAMETERS
EXPl..FNffION a - 600 gpm
I .. 3700 gpd/ft
@ CALCU...ATED ffiEA OF REVIEW (30 yr. 1nject1on)
Figure 11 9 lbs/gal MUD @ 5000 FT
Case 1
•
r·-·-·-·-·;
I
•
WICHITA
II
KNOX STEPHENS
VAN ZANDT
WOOD
MITCH ILL I
CflANE I
'\ I
'\
t:·-·-·-·-·-·~ '\
\
'
.
17
"IOFT ROCK.
•
I
'
' ·, " "HARD ROCK.
\
'
'' '
--.. ... ,,I I
COLEMAN
DUVAL
>.--{]
'
1
.
LEGEND \
'
1 • C••• Hl•torl•• R•••uched \ ,,
·....... ,
Figure 12
-210-
CASE 1
RESERVOIR PRESSURE BUILDUP VS. MUD PRESSURE RESISTANCE
p
R 800 800
E
s
s 700
u
R 600 600
E
p
s 0
1 3. 7 8 15 16 17 20 21
I
Case Number
Figure 13
CASE 1
TOTAL DEPTH OF LEAKING WELLS VS. NUMBER OF OCCURRENCES
<500 )(
"' )(
JO
~~
)',.,? ~v
501-1000
)(
J< )' )',"
x " )',
)o )(,_
D
"
x
"
-.x..
e ~~VVVYYYYYYVVXXXXXXXX~
p 1001-1500 to
'lj )(
"'
)(.
x
.
x
- )o ...
x
)( )j
wvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvxxx~l
yyyyyy'Yxxxx~YXXXXXX~Y~
~~vxY~v~~vvv~v~xxv~vv~·i
~vvvvvv~vvvvvvvvvvvvv~
YY~YYYYYYYYYYYY~X~YY~X
I t
N
...... h 1501-2000 to
)(
N
I
.....
f 2001-2500 '•t:~>
( )< ~
"Ji )
e ;-:. )
e 2501-3000 '-''-"
..,. )j )( )( )( )(
, )j
>:
t .: xxxxxxx~v""'.tv
3001-3500
'":.1
~)( "' )( )( )( .
x
) )C .xxxx.xxxxYVY')d
"
3501-4000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Occurrences
Figure 14
CASE 1
DISTANCE FROM LEAKING WELLS TO SUSPECT CLASS II WELLS
<500
501-1000
D
i 1001-1500
s
I t 1501-2000
N
,_... a
w
I n 2001-2500
c
e 2501-3000 ~~
.. ~-
f
e
e
t
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Occurrences
Figure 15
Case 2
r·-·-·-·-·~
• •
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
~-,
--- .......,, / -..,. ........ , ... ..._
' •
\
I
..---·- ·-·-·-·-
'\
I
'.
\ "\
•
' "IOFT ROCK·
I
"HARD ROCK·
' '
\, /'·-,
..
'- ',I
' ..
' ,
.
..
VICTORIA
'' ' I
SAN PATRICIO
\ ..
\
Figure 16
-214-
CASE 2
NUMBER OF FIELDS EXAMINED, PROPER PLUG HEARINGS, AND
POLLUTION INCIDENTS REPORTEDLY CAUSED BY CLASS II INJECTION
1000
887
800
V:/V/l fields
examined
(2,531)
Proper Plug
600 Hearings
I ( 1 71 )
N
,_.
V1
I
I IOQ&Sa leakage
incidents
I (2 )
""t I
222
200
0 3 0
Harris Jefferson Nueces San Patricio Victoria Wharton
County
Figure 17
CaH 3
I
I
I
I
II It
I
I
II
I
•
I
I
•
' ... ....... ,
•
I
•
I
I
''l
•
I
,--·-·-·-·-·-'
'\ "
'
Rallroad Commlaalon
9 Dlatrlct Number•
Conaolldated Sediment•
<"Hard Rock")
Unconsolldated Sediment•
<"Soft Rock")
Figure 18
-216-
CASE 3
CONSOLIDATED VS. UNCONSOLIDATED FORMATIONS
300007
25000-:-
0
c ~ Oil & gas fields
c
u 20000- Proper Plug Hearings
I r (PPH)
N
~
r
-.J
I e Wffi PPH's with
n 15000- well bore leaks
c '
e
s
Consolidated Unconsolidated
formations
Figure 19
REFERENCES
AIC (Agency Information Consultants, Inc.), 1987a, Survey of Cited
EPA Problem Leaking Wells in Texas: Prepared for E. I.
Du Pont.
-218-
clays and Clay Minerals: 6th National Clays and Clay Mineral
Conference Proceedings, Pergamon Press, 411 p.
Burst, J. F., 1969, Diagenesis of Gulf Coast Clayey Sediments and
Its Possible Relation to Petroleum Migration: American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 53, p. 73-93.
Cheatham, Jr., J. B., 1984, Wellbore Stability: Journal of Petroleum
Technology, v. 36, p. 889-896.
Collins, R. E., 1986, Technical Basis for Area of Review: Prepared
for Chemical Manufacturers Association, 112 p.
Cooke, Jr., C. E., Kluck, M. P., and Medrano, R., 1983, Field
Measurement of Annular Pressure and Temperature During Primary
Cementing: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 35, p. 1429-
1438.
Cooke, Jr., c. E., Kluck, M. P., and Medrano, R., 1984, Annular
Pressure and Temperature Measurements Diagnose Cementing
Operations: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 36, p.
2181-2186.
Darley, H. c. H., 1969, A Laboratory Investigation of Borehole
Stability: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 21, p.
883-892.
Davis, K. E., 1986, Factors Effecting the Area of Review for
Hazardous Waste Disposal Wells: Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Subsurface Injection of Liquid
Wastes, National Water Well Association, Dublin, OH, p. 148-
194.
-219-
of Field Operations, Railroad Cormnission of Texas: Railroad
Conunission of Texas file 00000101834.
Engineering Enterprises, Inc., 1985, Guidance Document for the Area
of Review Requirement: Norman, OK, prepared for EPA.
EPA, 1975, Proposed Injection Well Regulations for Brine Produced
with Oil or Gas: us EPA Document from J. T. Thornhill to E.
Hockman, 24 p.
Fryberger, J. s., and Tinlin, R. M., 1984, Pollution Potential from
Injection Wells via Abandoned Wells, in D. M. Fairchild, ed.,
Proceedings of the First National Conference on Abandoned
Wells: Problems and Solutions: Environmental and Ground
water Institute, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, p.
84-117.
Garrison, A. D., 1939, Surface Chemistry of Clays and Shales:
Petroleum Transactions of AIME, v. 132, p. 191-203.
Gray, G.D., Darley, H. C., and Rogers, W. F., 1980, Composition and
Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids: Houston, Gulf
Publishing.
Grim, R. E., 1968, Clay Mineralogy (2nd ed.): New York, McGraw-Hill,
596 p.
Gurke, R., 1987, Halliburton Service Training Course, Duncan, OK,
personal communication.
Hiller, K. H., 1963, Rheological Measurements on Clay Suspensions
and Drilling Fluids at High Temperatures and Pressures:
Journal of Petroleum Technology, v. 15, p. 779-789.
Johnston, O., and Green, C. J., 1979, Investigation of Artificial
Penetrations in the Vicinity of Subsurface Disposal Wells:
Texas Department of Water Resources.
-220-
Johnston, o. c., and Knape, B. K., 1986, Pressure Effects of the
static Mud Column in Abandoned Wells: Texas Water Commission
LP86-06, 99 p.
Klotzman, 1986, Consulting Geologist; Concerning Plugging Abandoned
Wells Near Victoria, TX; personal communication.
Krusekopy, Jr., H. H., 1970, Geologist, Railroad Commission of Texas
letter of January 22, 1970 to R. D. Payne, Director of Field
Operations, Railroad Commission of Texas: Texas Railroad
Commission file 00000300113.
Meers, R. J., 1987, Petroleum Consultant; Concerning Plugging
Abandoned Wells Near Orange, TX; personal communication.
Polk, G., and Gray, G. R., 1984, Plugging Mineral Exploration Holes
with a Drilling Fluid Conditioner, in D. M. Fairchild, ed.,
Proceedings of the First National Conference on Abandoned
Wells: Problems and Solutions: Environmental and Ground Water
Institute, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, p. 295-302.
Powers, M. C., 1967, Fluid-release Mechanisms in Compacting Marine
Mudrocks and Their Importance in Oil Exploration: American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 51, p.
1240-1254.
Price, W. H., 1971, The Determination of Maxinrum Injection Pressure
for Effluent Disposal Wells, Houston, Texas area: Master's
Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 84 p.
Ross, C. C., and Steed, W. C., 1984, Well Plugging in Texas, in
D. M. Fairchild, ed., Proceedings of the First National
Conference on Abandoned Wells: Problems and Solutions:
-221-
Environmental and Ground Water Institute, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, OK, p. 251-270.
Roth, T., 1987, Head of UIC Program (Class I) for State of Texas;
concerning Number of Class II Injection Wells; personal
comnrunication.
-222-
Biographical Sketches
James E. Clark holds a B.S. in geology (1972) from Auburn University and
an M.S. in geophysical sciences (1977) from Georgia Institute of Technology.
As a geohydrologist with Law Engineering Testing Co., he worked on suitability
studies of salt domes as repositories for nuclear waste. He is a consultant
with Du Font's (E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Engineering Department,
P. o. Box 3269, Beaumont, TX 77704) solid waste and geological engineering
group and is active in permitting and evaluation of disposal wells.
Milton R. Howard received his B.S. degree in geology from Texas A&M
University (1985). He served as a petroleum geologist for SOHIO and Albaine,
active in on-shore database evaluation and oil and gas exploration. In 1985
he joined the waste and geological engineering group of Du Pont as a contract
consulting environmental geologist responsible for permitting and evaluation
of the Federal UIC Class I disposal wells.
Diane K. Sparks received her B.S. degree (1977) in geology and her M.S.
degree ( 1978) in geology from Bowling Green State University. She was a
petroleum geologist with Amoco Production Company and Helmerich and Payne,
Inc. Sparks is now a consulting geologist and currently works as a contract
geologist for the Engineering Service Division of Du Pont, in evaluation of
Class I disposal wells and fluid migration studies.
-223-
Sources of Ground-Water Salfnfzatfon in Parts of West Texas, U.S.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this project was provided by the Railroad Commission of Texas under
contract no. IAC(84-85)-2122. Appreciation is expressed to Railroad Conmission of
Texas personnel at District 7-C in San Angelo, Texas, and to many individuals in
Tom Green, Runnels, and Concho Counties for assistance during data collection.
Tonia J. Clement assisted in data preparation. The manuscript was reviewed by
Jules R. DuBar and Alan R. Dutton, Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of
Texas at Austin. Figures were drafted under the supervision of Richard L. Dillon,
Bureau of Economic Geology.
Abstract
Determination of chemical constituent ratios allows distinction between two
salinization mechanisms responsible for shallow saline ground water and vegetative-
kill areas in parts of West Texas. Mixing of deep-basin salt water and shallow
fresh ground water results in saline waters with relatively low Ca/Cl,
-224-
Mg/Cl, S04/Cl, Br/Cl, and N03/Cl ratios. In scattergrams of major chemical
constituents versus chloride, plots of these waters indicate trends having brine
values as high-Cl end members. Evaporation of ground water from a shallow water
table, in contrast, results in saline water that has relatively high Ca/Cl, Mg/Cl,
so 4/Cl, and Br/Cl ratios. Trends indicated by plots of this water type do not
coincide with trends indicated by plots of sampled brines. Leaching of cultivation
nitrate in areas with a shallow water table accounts for high N03 concentrations in
shallow ground water.
Introduction
Salinization of soil and shallow ground water and the appearance of vegetative-
kill areas are major concerns of farmers in parts of Texas and in other
agriculturally important areas in the United States. In many parts of the country
natural and agricultural factors are responsible for salinization. In Texas,
pollution hazards associated with the exploration and production of oil are
additional possible sources of salt water. These hazards complicate the problem of
determining the sources of soil and ground-water contamination.
Residents of Tom Green, Runnels, and Concho Counties in West Texas (Figure 1)
blame oil-field-related activities for widespread contamination. They point out
that (1) water was of better quality before drilling for oil began and (2) locally,
formerly productive land has become so salty that plant growth is limited or has
ceased. Many cases of oil-field-related water and soil pollution, caused by brine
flow from abandoned holes and leaky injection wells, are known in the area.
Unknown, however, is the areal extent of contamination that has occurred or is
occurring from thousands of oil wells, core holes, shot holes, and injection wells
and from the use of open pits for brine disposal, a practice which was abandoned in
the late 1960's. The area is underlain by an artesian brine aquifer (Coleman
-225-
Junction aquifer, Table 1) that flows to land surface where pathways are provided
and that stratigraphically overlies most of the major oil-producing horizons in the
area. Therefore, most holes drilled for oil penetrate this aquifer and thus create
a potential, artificial pathway for brine movement into shallow fresh ground water
or to land surface.
Researchers (for example, Reed [1962] and Marshall [1976]) claim that a
combination of natural conditions and inappropriate agricultural and water-well
drilling techniques is responsible for salinization of soils and ground water in
the area. During severe droughts in the 1950's many water wells that had run dry
were deepened until saline water was encountered (Marshall, 1976). Many of these
wells have not been plugged (Marshall, 1976) and therefore constitute a possible
source of ground-water pollution. At about the same time, extensive closed-contour
terracing of land and destruction of former drainage networks began in the area in
an attempt to reduce surface runoff. Unusual heavy rainfalls in the early 1960's
following the droughts of the 1950's and the practice of land terracing have had
the combined effect of gradually raising the water table closer to land surface
during the last 30 years. Today, ground water stands at or within a few feet of
land surface in many topographically low localities in the eastern part of the
area, causing waterlogging and subsequent salinization of vadose and ground waters
owing to evaporation. Salts that precipitate in the soil during this process
inhibit growth of non-salt-resistant plants and are dissolved and flushed into
ground water after rainfall, thus spreading the pollution hazards to other areas.
These processes occur in the absence of any oil field activity or artesian brine
aquifers, as evidenced by hundreds of thousands of acres affected throughout the
Great Plains from Texas to Montana (Miller et al., 1981).
-226-
Purpose
This study was designed to discover whether certain hydrochemical methods, such
as determination of Na/Cl, Br/Cl, and I/Cl ratios, could differentiate surface
salinization caused by evaporation from a shallow water table from surface
salinization caused by discharge (natural or man-made) of deep-subsurface brine
aquifers. The study was conducted from January 1 through April 30, 1985. Water
samples were collected from water-supply, oil, and injection wells for chemical and
isotopic analyses designed to establish the chemical characteristics of ground
water in the area.
Geologic Setting
The study area is underlain by Permian to Quaternary sediments (Figure 1).
Cretaceous rocks, which consist of argillaceous limestone, form topographic highs
that border the study area in southern, western, and northern Tom Green County.
southern Concho County. and northeastern Runnels County. Pl ei sto'cene and Recent
alluvial deposits of variable thickness directly overlie Permian strata in central
and eastern Tom Green County and parts of Runnels and Concho Counties. Permian
strata crop out in north-south-trending belts in central Tom Green and northern
Concho Counties and are scattered throughout Runnels County. Permian strata dip to
the west and northwest at approximately 50 ft/mi (10 m/km) and include sandstone,
limestone, shale, gypsum, and dolomite beds (Willis, 1954).
Thousands of oil wells have been drilled in the area since oil exploration
started at the end of the last century. Most oil production is from Pennsylvanian
strata at depths greater than 3,000 ft (915 m) in the western part of the area and
greater than 2,000 ft (610 m) in the eastern part of the area. Some production is
from shallow depths from the San Angelo Formation (Table 1). approximately 1,000 ft
(305 m) below land surface, in southwestern Tom Green County. Oil has been
-227-
encountered in wells within 50 to 300 ft (15 to 90 m) of land surface in the San
Angelo area in western Tom Green County (Udden and Phillips, 1911).
Hydrogeologic Setting
Cretaceous limestones and Quaternary alluvial deposits form principal aquifer
units bordering the area (Table 1). In the remainder of the three counties, no
extensive, major fresh-water aquifers are present at shallow depths. Local supplies
of potable water are found in outcrops of Permian limestone and gypsum. However,
the quality and quantity of ground water is very erratic in these units. Many dry
holes have been drilled in the immediate vicinity of high-capacity wells. At one
location in northern Concho County a 100-ft (30-m) deep dry hole was drilled just
20 inches (50 cm) from a flowing well of the same depth, which indicates that
ground water flows through solution channels or fractures in that area.
Saline water is encountered downdip of potable water supplies in outcrops of
Permian strata. Highly mineralized water occurs under artesian pressure and at
shallow depths in the Permian San Angelo and Blaine Formations (Table 1) of west-
central Tom Green County (Udden and Phillips, 1911; Willis, 1954). The brine
aquifer in the Permian Coleman Junction underlies the area at depths between
3,000 ft (915 m) in the southwest and 800 ft (245 m) in the east. Brine has the
potential to flow to land surface from this aquifer via natural and artificial
pathways, with surface-casing pressures exceeding 100 psi in individual wells in
Runnels County (Raschke and Seaman, 1976).
Water levels in eastern Tom Green County have generally increased during the
last 30 years but remain 50 ft (15 m) or more below land surface. In contrast, in
southern Runnels County water levels approach land surface in many wells, causing
seepage of ground water at topographically low areas.
-228-
Marshall (1976) reported that probably hundreds of water wells were drilled
down to depths of 500 ft (150 m) west of the city of San Angelo during the drought
in the 1950's, and, although these wells encountered highly mineralized water, many
of them were not plugged. These water wells create a pollution hazard by allowing
saline water to mix with potable water resources (Marshall, 1976).
Geochemical Approach
In a study of salt-water sources in north-central Texas, Richter and Kreitler
(1986) showed that differences in ratios of Na/Cl, Br/Cl, I/Cl, Mg/Cl, K/Cl. and
(Ca+Mg)/S04 indicate two salt-water types. (1) Salt water derived from dissolution
of halite by fresh water relatively close to land surface is characterized by Na/Cl
and (Ca+Mg)/S04 molar ratios of approximately 1, and by low Mg/Cl, K/Cl, Br/Cl, and
I/Cl ratios. (2) Salt-water derived from deep-basin brines is characterized by
Na/Cl ratios of less than 1, (Ca+Mg)/S04 molar ratios of greater than 1, and high
Mg/Cl, K/Cl, Br/Cl, and I/Cl ratios. This differentiation worked especially well at
concentrations of greater than 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids. In addition,
stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen characterized halite-dissolution brine as
local, meteoric ground water. Deep-basin brine proved to be of nonlocal origin.
Two principal sources of saline water exist in Tom Green, Runnels, and Concho
Counties: deep-basin brines and agricultural salinization. Goals of the present
study were to obtain clear definitions of deep-basin brine characteristics and of
seep-water characteristics using the parameters previously mentioned. However, in
contrast to the study by Richter and Kreitler (1986). most of the polluted ground
waters in the area are of relatively low salinity (less than 5,000 mg/L) and
halite-dissolution brine is not present. Therefore, it was unknown how well these
ratios could be applied in this case.
-229-
In the present study. nitrate was chosen as an additional possible tracer of
pollution sources. Shallow ground water in the Runnels County area typically
exhibits high concentrations of nitrate owing to dissolution of cultivation nitrate
by water recharging through the vadose zone {Kreitler, 1975). High nitrate
concentrations in shallow ground water are caused by changes in agricultural
practices in the area. Dryland farming prior to the 1950's had caused oxidation of
organic nitrogen to nitrate in the soil zone. Nitrate was leached below the root
zone by percolating ground water but was out of contact with the water table until
the late 1950's and early 1960's, when extensive terracing raised the water table
to within a few feet to land surface. The latter caused leaching of nitrate into
shallow ground water {Kreitler, 1975). Ground water at or slightly below land
surface in seep areas, therefore, could contain elevated nitrate concentrations.
Deep-basin brines, in contrast, normally do not contain appreciable amounts of
nitrate.
Brines in the area were expected to be isotopically enriched in oxygen and
deuterium with respect to fresh ground water. Evaporation of ground water from a
shallow water table also may result in an isotopic shift toward higher values.
Therefore, seep waters too were expected to be isotopically heavier than local
precipitation. The magnitude of the shift and the difference between brines and
seep water, however, were not known.
In addition to water sample data obtained from published and unpublished
sources, 46 samples were collected during this study: 39 from shallow water wells
and 7 from oil field wells and holes {Figure 1, Table 2). Five of the 39 samples
were obtained from shallow wells drilled in seep areas. Three of these were from
water wells and two from shallow holes drilled for this investigation.
To establish the characteristics of water types, sampling included (1) oil
wells, (2) a Coleman Junction well (3) allegedly polluted wells, (4) stock wells,
-230-
(5) house wells, and (6) seep wells. Samples for chemical analyses were stored in
500 ml polyethylene bottles, and samples for isotope analyses were stored in 250 ml
glass bottles. During collection, samples were filtered using 0.45-micron membrane
filters and nitrogen gas to remove particulate matter. The filter bottle was
cleaned thoroughly between samples and checked for residual ion content, using
distilled water and silver nitrate, to prevent cross-contamination of water
samples.
Results
Data from previous investigations, when plotted on Piper diagrams, show that
ground water in Tom Green County is characterized by four chemical facies. At
chloride concentrations of less than 250 mg/L, Ca-Mg-HC03 water is the major facies
type (Figure 2). This type occurs predominantly in Cretaceous (limestone)
formations. Another facies type is Ca-Mg-S04 water, the result of dissolution of
gypsum or anhydrite in Permian strata. At chloride concentrations of greater than
250 mg/L, an increase in sodium and especially chloride percentages results in Ca-
Mg-Cl and Na-Cl waters (Figure 2). In Runnels County. cation percentages in ground
water are evenly distributed without a shift toward sodium dominance at chloride
concentrations of greater than 250 mg/L (Figure 2). Anions too are distributed
relatively evenly at chloride concentrations of less than 250 mg/L, but show a
shift toward the chloride apex at chloride concentrations of greater than 250 mg/L.
Therefore, at chloride concentrations of greater than 250 mg/L, Piper diagrams of
ground water in Tom Green and Runnels Counties indicate that different mechanisms
control the distribution of cations in ground water in the two counties.
Only 6 of 39 water samples collected during this study contain chloride
concentrations of less than 250 mg/L because emphasis was put on collection of
allegedly contaminated ground water. The configuration of data points from these
-231-
samples within a Piper plot (Figure 3) is similar to the distribution of data
points in the plot of ground water in Tom Green County for chloride concentrations
of greater than 250 mg/L (Figure 2). Most of the samples collected during this
study are of the Ca-Mg-Cl or Na-Cl types. Within the cation triangle, a linear
trend between Ca-Mg-dominated ground water and Na-dominated brine is indicated.
On bivariate plots of Ca, Mg, S04, and Br/Cl versus Cl, evolution or mixing
trends are indicated that contain fresh water and brine as end members (Figure 4).
At high chloride concentrations, the plots of Mg and S04 versus Cl suggest that
possibly two trends exist, where one trend points toward brine values and is
relatively low in Mg and S04 and the other points away from brine values and is
relatively high in Mg and S04. Bromine and nitrate were the only minor chemical
constituents that were above detection limits both in the brine and in the ground-
water samples and that showed some differences between water samples. Ratios of
Br/Cl in brines underlying the area are lower than ratios in, for example, shallow
subsurface brines in the southern Rolling Plains of North-Central Texas and in oil
field brines of Kansas (Figure 4). In contrast, Br/Cl ratios in fresh water are
typical of this water type. With increasing chlorinity, Br/Cl ratios in ground
water in the area decrease to values similar to Br/Cl ratios in brines underlying
the area, possibly indicating a mixing trend between fresh ground water having high
Br/Cl ratios and brines having low Br/Cl ratios.
Nitrate concentrations range from less than 1 mg/L to more than 200 mg/L
(Table 2). Lowest concentrations were measured in ground water in western Tom Green
County and in central Runnels County, as well as in brines underlying the area.
Concentrations in excess of 100 mg/L prevail in northeastern Tom Green County,
southern Runnels County, and northern Concho County (Figure 5). Four of five seep
samples have nitrate concentrations of between 121 mg/L and 158 mg/L.
-232-
A differentiation of salinization sources by use of stable isotopes of oxygen
and hydrogen was not possible from analyses obtained during this study. All
samples, regardless of chlorinity and geographic or stratigraphic origin, plot
within one cluster and indicate no apparent trends (Richter and Kreitler, 1985).
Mixing and dilution of waters from different sources may account for this
relationship between water types and isotopic composition.
Discussion
Water-table elevation is close to land surface in many topographically low
areas in Runnels, Concho, and eastern Tom Green Counties, whereas it is well below
land surface throughout western Tom Green County. Associated with a high water
table, saline seeps and vegetative-kill areas are widespread phenomena in the
eastern part of the area but are less frequent in the western part. Therefore,
salinization by evaporation should be more prevalent in the eastern part of the
area than in western Tom Green County.
Mixing between brine and fresh water seems to be indicated in 16 of the 39
water samples, as suggested by ratios of major chemical constituents in ground-
water samples when compared with ratios typical of sampled brines in the area
(Table 2). Of these 16 samples only 4 were obtained from Runnels County, Concho
County, and eastern Tom Green County. whereas 12 were obtained from western Tom
Green County. The remaining 23 water samples, which include only 3 from western Tom
Green County, do not indicate any similarity with brines underlying the area.
Grouping of the data according to sample location (east versus west) breaks up
the cluster and the tentatively suggested trends of Figure 4 into two, fairly well-
defined trends (Figure 6). Trend 1, characterized by high Ca, Mg, and S04
concentrations, is made up mainly of samples from Runnels, Concho, and eastern Tom
Green Counties. This trend does not include values typical of brines in the area,
-233-
which indicates that a salinization mechanism other than mixing of fresh ground
water and deep-basin brine is responsible for increases in salinity in ground water
of the area. Possible mechanisms are (1) evolution of ground water through mineral
dissolution, (2) mixing of different ground-water types, and (3) evaporation from a
shallow water table. Trend 1 approaches a slope of one in the bivariate plots of
molar concentrations, which eliminates the possibility of mineral dissolution as
the most dominant salinization mechanism. During evaporation, the molar ratios of
chemical constituents stay constant in absence of precipitation or dissolution
reactions. Also, the relative position of cation percentages in a Piper diagram
does not change during evaporation, which is suggested for water samples from the
east (Figure 7). In contrast, two water types would be expected to plot within two
discrete clusters in a Piper plot, where mixing would be indicated by a trend that
connects the two clusters. Although the possibility cannot be dismissed that two
nonrelated waters fall within the sam~ cluster, it seems most likely that
evaporation is the mechanism that accounts for the trends observed in the Piper
plot and in the bivariate plots for waters from the eastern part of the area.
Trend 2 is made up of samples low in Ca, Mg, and S04 and is represented by samples
obtained mainly from the western part of Tom Green County. This trend includes
values of Coleman Junction and oil field brines as high-chloride end members,
suggesting mixing of fresh ground water and brine rather than evolution of fresh
ground water to a brine through water-mineral reactions. At low concentrations of
dissolved chemical constituents, the two trends overlap and do not allow
differentiation of salinity sources. As chloride increases, the trends increasingly
deviate from each other, making it possible to determine salt-water sources.
Seep samples, although not indicating mixing of fresh ground water and brine in
any of their chemical constituents (Table 2), do not plot clearly within Trend 1
but within the zone of overlap between Trend 1 and Trend 2. Because sample
-234-
collection was during early February, when the effects of evaporation are at their
lowest, seep samples are similar to other samples from the area. It can be expected
that seep samples collected during summer months will plot as high-chloride end
members of Trend 1. Four of the five seep samples (6, 7, 8, and 10) were obtained
from wells in topographically low areas where the water table was within a few feet
of land surface, indicating stagnant water. These samples have nitrate
concentrations in excess of 100 mg/L owing to dissolution of nitrate in the shallow
soil zone. Seep sample 11 was obtained from a flowing well that is used to drain
the seep area in an attempt by the owner to reclaim waterlogged land. According to
the owner, this well stops flowing whenever irrigation from nearby wells is
activated. Therefore, the sample from this well is part of an active ground-water
flow system (activated by the well), in contrast to a sluggish or stagnant ground-
water system at the other seeps. Continuous flushing of this particular flow path
may explain the low nitrate concentration of sample 11 when compared with other
seep samples.
Samples 2 and 4 are high-chloride waters that were obtained from wells in
central Runnels County. These samples consistently fall within Trend 2, which is
the trend of samples from western Tom Green County. This suggests that two sources
of salinity exist in the eastern part of the area. Most samples follow Trend 1, and
therefore evaporation seems to be the most dominant salinization mechanism. The
distribution of cations from samples in the east form one big cluster in a Piper
plot (Figure 7), similar to the cluster typical of Runnels County at chloride
concentrations of greater than 250 mg/L (Figure 3). This indicates that the samples
obtained during this study are representative of the area and that salinization
through evaporation is of widespread nature. In contrast, few samples from the east
follow Trend 2, suggesting that mixing between fresh ground water and brine is a
local phenomenon in the area. Samples 2 and 4 were obtained from abandoned water
-235-
wells close to producing oil wells. Ratios of Br/Cl and concentrations of N03 in
both samples are very low and similar to brine values, which is atypical of ground
water in the Runnels County area. Therefore, the location and the atypical chemical
composition of the two samples indicate that mixing of fresh water and brine
accounts for the salinity of the samples. In western Tom Green County, mixing of
fresh ground water and brine seems to be an areal phenomenon. All but three samples
indicate mixing in at least one of the major chemical constituents, Ca, Mg, and S04
(Table 2), and more than half of the samples indicate mixing in two or all of these
constituents. Mixing is also indicated by the cation percentages of ground water in
western Tom Green County, as shown by a linear trend from Ca-Mg-dominated water to
Na-dominated water (Figure 7). This trend could also be interpreted as an evolution
trend. However, considering the position of brine and ground-water values of
Trend 2 in the bivariate plots (Figure 4), mixing rather than evolution through
mineral reactions appears to be the most likely explanation for this cation trend.
Some Br/Cl ratios seem to be additional tracers of salinization sources, with
ratios of less than 30 X 10-4 being indicative of possible mixing of brine and
fresh ground water. However, absolute bromide concentrations, the range of bromide
concentrations, and the range of Br/Cl ratios in all samples are relatively small
in this study, which makes Br a less favorable tracer. Ratios in seep samples fall
within the range of ratios in fresh ground water and are only twice as much as
ratios of Br/Cl ratios in brines underlying the area. In comparison, differences in
Br/Cl ratios of approximately 1:10 were used by Whittemore and Pollock (1979) and
by Richter and Kreitler (1986) to distinguish brine sources. Even more important,
at concentrations of approximately a few mg/L of Br, analytical errors will greatly
affect Br/Cl ratios. For example, a bromide concentration of 1.5 mg/L places
sample 24 within the field of possible mixing of brine and fresh water (Figure 6,
Table 2). In contrast, a concentration of 2 mg/L would place this sample within the
-236-
range of fresh water and seep water in the area. Similarly. nitrate concentrations
may or may not serve as additional tracers of salinization sources. In Runnels
County, where extremely high nitrate concentrations in shallow ground water have
been measured for the past 15 years, low nitrate concentrations in combination with
high chloride concentrations may indicate mixing of fresh ground water and brine,
the latter being high in Cl and low in N03. In contrast, high chloride
concentrations combined with high nitrate concentrations may suggest a common
source of Cl and N03, such as animal waste. However, mixing of Cl-rich brine and
N03-rich ground water would result in a similar relationship between chloride and
nitrate. In western Tom Green Counties, where nitrate concentrations in shallow
ground water are much lower than in Runnels and eastern Tom Green Counties, nitrate
is a less favorable tracer of salinization sources. In general, N03/Cl and
especially Br/Cl ratios are not good tracers of salinization sources in this study
because of their relatively narrow ranges and overlapping trends. At best, these
ratios can be used as supportive arguments for salinization sources, but within a
suite of diagnostic ratios and plots rather than by themselves.
There are four possible mechanisms for the mixing of fresh water and deep-basin
brine in the area. (1) Western Tom Green County includes an outcrop of the Permian
San Angelo and Blaine Formations. These formations contain salt water under
artesian conditions downdip, which indicates the potential for natural discharge of
saline water at formation outcrops and by movement across confining layers. (2)
Discharge of salt water from the San Angelo and Blaine Formations is possible
through unplugged, exploratory water wells that were drilled into saline parts of
these aquifers. The locations of these numerous wells are poorly known. (3) Tom
Green County and Runnels County have been sites of extensive exploration for and
production of oil. Most oil reservoirs in the area underlie artesian brine
aquifers, such as in the Coleman Junction, and thus pathways for upward flow of
-237-
brine from the artesian aquifer or from oil reservoirs along poorly cemented wells
may have been created by exploration and production of oil. Also, shallow seismic
holes may connect saline parts of the San Angelo and Blaine Formations with
overlying fresh ground water. {4) Open-surface pits for brine disposal were used in
the area until the late 1960's. This practice of brine disposal was abandoned in
Texas after numerous cases of ground-water contamination by brine had been
documented. However, brine may still be migrating from below these former disposal
areas into shallow ground water. The amount of salt still present in the subsurface
at those sites and the rate of migration are unknown. There are indications that
all of these potential mechanisms of brine pollution were or are active in the
area. At this time we do not have enough data to chemically characterize these
contamination sources and to explain particular mechanisms for mixing between deep-
basin brine and fresh ground water in this part of West Texas.
Conclusion
In this study, detennination of Ca/Cl, Mg/Cl, and S04/Cl ratios, and to a
smaller degree Br/Cl and N03/Cl ratios, allowed differentiation between salt-water
pollution derived from evaporation of shallow ground water and pollution derived
from mixing with Na-Cl brine. All these ratios should be considered, rather than
only chloride concentrations or the sole ratio of one constituent over chloride,
because chemical characteristics of these two sources of contamination overlap.
Overlaps are most pronounced at low ionic concentrations because dilution by fresh
water masks chemical characteristics of salt-water sources. Therefore,
differentiation of contamination sources is most successful where concentrations of
dissolved solids are high.
In western Tom Green County, the chemical composition of ground water appears
to result from mixing of fresh ground water and Na-Cl deep-basin brine. This is
-238-
indicated {1) in Piper plots by a mixing trend between Ca-Mg-dominated ground water
and Na-dominated ground water and {2} in bivariate plots by low Ca/Cl, Mg/Cl, and
S04/Cl ratios that indicate trends with deep-basin brine values as high-chloride
end members. Mixing of fresh ground water and deep-basin brine appears to be an
areal phenomenon, but the mechanism of mixing and the source of salt water are
unknown.
In Runnels, Concho, and eastern Tom Green Counties, there appear to be two
causes of deterioration of water quality. Most poor-quality waters result from the
evaporation of shallow ground water. These waters typically have Ca/Cl, Mg/Cl,
S04/Cl, and Br/Cl ratios that are higher than those observed in sampled deep-basin
brines. On bivariate plots, these waters suggest trends indicative of evaporation,
that is, ratios are constant with increases in salinity. The potential for ground-
water evaporation and subsequent salinization increases as the water table becomes
shallower. Therefore, salinization by evaporation should be more prevalent in
Runnels County and eastern Tom Green County, where the water table is generally
shallower than in western Tom Green County. In combination with a shallow water
table, nitrate concentrations in most samples from the east are very high owing to
leaching of nitrate in the shallow subsurface. Other poor-quality waters collected
in the area during this study result from mixing between Na-Cl brine and fresh
ground water, which occurs on a local basis. These waters, which were obtained from
shallow water wells close to producing oil wells, have low Ca/Cl, Mg/Cl, S04/Cl,
N03/Cl, and Br/Cl ratios. The latter water type is similar to brines underlying the
area and to ground water in western Tom Green County, suggesting mixing of fresh
water and brine.
-239-
References
Barnes, V. E., 1975, San Angelo Sheet: The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of
Economic Geology, Geologic Atlas of Texas, Scale 1:250,000.
Barnes, V. E., 1976, Brownwood Sheet: The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of
Economic Geology, Geologic Atlas of Texas, Scale 1:250,000.
Kreitler, C. W., 1975, Determining the Source of Nitrate in Ground Water by
Nitrogen Isotope Studies: The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic
Geology Report of Investigations No. 83, 57 pp.
Marshall, M. W., 1976, City of San Angelo Pollution Abatement Program, Water
Department: Memorandum to T. L. Koederitz, P. E., Water Pollution Control and
Abatement Program Director.
Miller, M. R., Donovan, J. J •• Bergatino, R. N., Sonderegger, J. L., Schmidt,
F. A., and Brown, P. L., 1981, Saline Seep Development and Control in the North
American Great Plains--Hydrogeological Aspects, in Holmes, J. W., and Talsma,
T., (eds.), Land and Stream Salinity: Elsevier Development in Agricultural
Engineering, v. 2, 391 pp.
Raschke, A. J., and Seaman, W. H., 1976, Leaking Core Hole Problem Review, Hatchel
Area, Runnels County, Texas: Railroad Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division
District 7-C, San Angelo, Texas, 14 pp.
Reed, E. L., 1962, Letter to Mr. James K. Anderson: Midland, Texas, April 2.
Richter, B. C., and Kreitler, C. W., 1985, Sources of Shallow Saline Ground Water
in Concho, Runnels, and Tom Green Counties: The University of Texas at Austin,
Bureau of Economic Geology, Report prepared for Railroad Commission of Texas
under Contract No. IAC(84-85)-2122, 31 pp.
Richter, B. C., and Kreitler, C. W., 1986, Geochemistry of Salt Water Beneath the
Rolling Plains, North-Central Texas: Ground Water, v. 24, no. 6, pp. 735-742.
-240-
Udden, J. A., and Phillips, W. B., 1911, Report on Oil, Gas, Coal and Water
Prospects near San Angelo, Tom Green County. Texas: Report to the Chamber of
Commerce, San Angelo, Texas, 36 pp.
Whittemore, D. 0., and Pollock, L. M., 1979, Determination of Salinity Sources in
Water Resources of Kansas by Minor Alkali Metal and Halide Chemistry:
Manhattan, Kansas, Kansas Water Resources Research Institute Contribution
No. 208, 28 pp.
Willis, G. W., 1954, Ground-water Resources of Tom Green County. Texas: Texas Board
of Water Engineers Bulletin 5411, 60 pp.
Work Projects Administration, 1941. Tom Green County--Records of Wells and Springs,
Drillers' Logs, Water Analyses, and Map Showing Locations of Wells and Springs:
Texas Board of Water Engineers Work Projects Administration, Project 17279,
80 pp.
-241-
List of Figures
Figure 1 Area location map showing outcrop areas of major geologic units
(from Barnes, 1975, 1976) and location of sample sites.
Figure 2 Piper diagrams of ground-water chemistry in Tom Green and Runnels
Counties (data from Work Projects Administration [1941], Willis
[1954], and Texas Natural Resources Information System).
Figure 3 Piper diagram of ground-water chemistry in Tom Green, Runnels, and
Concho Counties (data from this study).
Figure 4 Bivariate plots of ground water and deep-basin brine chemistry in
Tom Green, Runnels, and Concho Counties (data from this study).
Figure 5 Nitrate concentrations in ground water from Tom Green, Runnels, and
Concho Counties (data from this study).
Figure 6 Bivariate plots of ground water and deep-basin brine chemistry in
Tom Green, Runnels, and Concho Counties, with data sorted according
to sample location (data from this study).
Figure 7 Cation diagrams of ground-water chemistry in {a) Runnels, Concho,
and eastern Tom Green Counties and {b) western Tom Green County
(data from this study).
-242-
List of Tables
-243-
STRATIGRAPHIC UNIT
HYDROGEOLOGIC UNIT
System Formation
-245-
Table 2 (continued}
-246-
100°
N
EXPLANATION
~
o Water well • Brine well
RUNNELS I
I
N
-I"-
-..)
I
TEXAS
I~ ~~~................................................................
L
7
~ lllltU ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ H~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ ~ ~ ~ j j j ~~ ~ j j ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~?~~~ j j j j ~ j j j j
0 40km . : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ~: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
. :_; ;__;_::::::: :_;_::::::::: :_;_r£'.1 G'iEEN1:_;_:_;__;__;_::::: :__;_:::: :;._;__;___::_;::CONCHO!
QA5898
~%
+
Cl<250 mg/L Cl> 250 mg/L .f +
0 + +~* 0
Mg o + + o S04
0 ~
0 0 0 0
N
I ~ %
~
CXl
I
I ~
\ I
Q'>- ~ Q'>-
,.
,"~:I
<{:, RUNNELS COUNTY Vj <!?
G % G "
~ ... Cl< 250 mg/L Cl> 250 mg/L
0 +++ 0 0 0
0 ~ + 0 0 ()
+ Mg
¥.
+t
++ <{:, +
<!? ++ <!?
-
+ <!?
0 ++ 0 0 +• + ++ 0
EXPLANATION
o Ground water sample tJ. Brine sample
QA 5900
Log CJ (mmol/L) Log CJ (mmol/L)
2 3 2 3
60
I ----
{ Southern
\
Rolling
\ Plains of
I
~
2400
Brines
2-
_J
-.....
<t
North-
\Central
I
-.....
O>
6 66 0 -
I
0
40
Texas j
E
~
E 6 6
.§.
O>
O> u
:I;
1:1; ~
240 CD
O>
0 20
_J
Brines~
0
350 3500 35,000 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Cl (mg/L) Cl (mg/L) QA 5901
100°
L--- - ----
~,,.
EXPLANATION N
~
20 Nitrate concentration as N0 3 (mg/L) X0.5
• Good -quality ground water (Cl< 250 mg/L)
05
X Mixing between fresh water and deep-basin brine xi ~Ballinger
I
032 !
,-----J x
13
13
0 l _ _ _12_a~
149
0 g~a+"12~1_ _
57°P o.50
I
RUNNELS I
~)
~
6 169
L___ -
165
~'
97 0
115
~
I ~30
N San A:gelo
\.J1
~ 87 125
I TEXAS 173 oO 20
0
29° X43 •
63°
08
~ F.:den
L__·"_
I
0 25rnl
0 4Qkm
- - - - _ T O M GREEN I CONCHO
QA 5902
I
Log Cl (mmol /L) Log Cl (mmol/L)
2 3 2 3
__)
4000 2-::; 9600 2 ......
...... 0
__)
0
__)
...... Brines
...... E
E t:;t:; E
"'E E "'E
t:; t:;
0 0 v
u 0¢ 0
u <J)
<J)
400 I 960
"'
0
__) "'
0
__)
Log Cl (mmol/L)
N
I
\J1
N
I
2 3
60-
-
I --
/ Southern
Rolling
\
I
Plains of
-=::;
2400
Brines
2-::;
...... v
0 0
\ North-
\ Central
I
0
...... t:; C:.t:; E
I
Q 40- oo ~o• Texas )
"'E .o• 0 ~
~
t:; 6 E
"'
"'
:::;:
240 I "'
0
:::;: u
......
cD
•
24°
•• •
__) 20- 20 •
Brines~
-
0
40 •
0
I I I
350 3500 35,000 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Cl (mg/L) Cl (mg/L)
. EXPLANATION
4 Sample numbers (see table 2)
o Water sample from Runnels, Concho, and eastern Tom Green Counties
o Water sample from seep area
• Water sample from western Tom Green County QA 5903
Mg
Na
(b) Mg
~
•
·'-:-. 4t
Ca Na
50
QA 5904
- 253-
ABSTRACT
COFRC-GREG PIETRUSZKA
CHEVRON U.S.A. - T. R. BEVINS
environment.
: • f111' ] a(i IJ ll .
-254-
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
-255-
Identification and Closure
of Shallow Brine Disposal Wells in
Pennsylvania
-256-
Identification and Closure of Shallow
Brine Disposal Wells (Blow Boxes) in
Pennsylvania
By Jon M. Capacasa
US EPA Region III, Philadelphia, PA
At gas well sites employing blow boxes, the brine is typically directed
from the well head, sometimes via a brine storage tank, to the hlox box, from
which it percolates into the subsurface potentially contaminating under-
ground sources of drinking water. After a period of time, the blow boxes
tend to fill with silt, resulting in reduced fluid capacity. As a result
of this reduced fluid capacity and seasonally high water tables, surface
releases of brine may occur, causing extensive vegetation damage and
discharges of contaminants into local streams. Sand or gravel is often
placed in a portion of the box to promote percolation.
-257-
The environmental risk associated with the blow box practice
was generally assessed based upon interviews of state field inspectors,
by EPA review of drinking water quality data in the area, analytical
results of brine samples and ancedotal information from news reports of
individual water well contaminantion. Although contributing on average
small volumes of brine to the ground water (ranging from .25 to 1
barrel per day), the widespread use of the practice in a 13 county area
of Southwestern PA brought EPA's original estimate of 3000 or more gas
well sites using boxes. Data on total volumes of brine are as yet, incomplete,
however one large company provides an illulstrative example in documenting
that their yearly brine production of 98,000 barrels is now directed to
a treatment plant. An early drinking water survey of sodium levels of
public supplies in the State of PA left the overall observation that the
highest levels of sodium could be found in the SW PA Region. In fact
the levels ranged as high as 250 ppm in Indiana County. Coupled with
this observation were several documented barium MCL violations in the
area under the SDWA. On-site visits to blow box locations also provided
frequent ancedotal accounts about individual water wells or agricultural
use wells fouled by high sodium or barium levels.
The Blow Box Compliance Strategy was developed with a full appreciation
of the 40 or more year history of blow box use with little previous
interference by regulators, the marginal economics of the gas industry
ln this area characterized by many independent owners and operators and a
depressed gas price, and the large number (3000) of small sites which
were involved. The decision was made to set up a strategy which sought
the cooperation of the industry through early and frequent notification
of the problem and requirements, provided sufficient lead time for
conscientious operators to close the wells without undue economic burden, and
establish a series of progressively more severe enforcement actions for those
owners who denied operations or resisted closure efforts. A reasonable
goal of a 2 year closure project was developed. The strategy was divided
into 3 phases some of which proceeded on concurrent paths:
-258-
The first phase of the project was critical to its success. The
public outreach and notification sought to advise all potentially
impacted owners of the problem, seek their feedback and cooperation
in the strategy, and provide them an opportunity to comply with UIC
inventory deadline of June 25, 1985. Initial briefings/meetings were
held with PA Natural Gas Association (PNGA) and PA Oil and Gas Associa-
tion (POGAM) before the strategy was finalized or other outreach occurred.
The Associations responded in a positive way to the upfront communication
of EPA's goals and the reasonable compliance deadlines. An aggressive
series of press releases, paid news ads, trade journal articles, and
direct mail notices followed to all gas well owners of state record to
promote inventory identification by the June 25, 1985 deadline. As a
result of these efforts, over 1200 well sites were inventoried in a 2-3
month period. For these individuals and companies EPA negotiated up to
18-month closure schedules based on the number of boxes owned. Five
bilateral compliance agreements were executed to confirm the closure
schedules and methods for closure. There were no penalty assessments
for operation during this period.
-259-
It is not prudent for EPA to provide the specific features
associated with the presence of blow boxes here. Suffice it to say
that no one feature provided conclusive identifications, only through a
combination of well construction and surrounding environmental features
could they be identified as "possible," "probable" or "definite" blow
boxes from the imagery.
From this work, over 1526 sites were identified for followup of
which only 118 or 7.7% were determined to be invalid identifications
through field inspections.
- inventory forms for all blow boxes operated; specific site location
on maps; total numbers of facilities owned.
-260-
Summary and Results
The key to the success of this project was the early public outreach
and notifications by EPA to the gas industry to seek their voluntary efforts
to comply in lieu of enforced efforts by EPA. This single factor resulted
in 2154 closures of illegal wells in less than two years.
Acknowledgements
-261-
MATHEMATICAL EVALUATION OF OPERATING PARMETERS
IDENTIFIED IN A CLASS II BRINE DISPOSAL WELL PERMIT APPLICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sprenger, Gustav Stolz, Jr., Eric Kogl in, Joseph J. D'Lugosz, and Debra G.
Ehlert, for their invaluable comments and thorough reviews of the manuscript.
As chairman of the internal EPA review committee, Mr. Sprenger ensured that
between the author, Mr. Stolz, Ms. Ehlert, and Ms. Parker Christensen serve to
al so extended to Ms. Kay Stortz for her careful proofreading of the paper.
ABSTRACT
Class II brine disposal wells that must be regulated under the UIC program,
offices.
Any person who proposes to operate a new Class II brine disposal well is
years of the program promulgation date (June 25, 1988 for Montana).
-262-
The following operating data are reviewed in the course of evaluating a
fluid; (b) injection zone rock type, thickness, porosity, depth, and
either the injection or confining zones; (2) the amount of injection zone
pore space available for fill-up; (3) the extent of the fluid plume; (4) the
length of time the well should operate, based on volume fill-up calculations;
and (5) the feasibility of disposing of proposed fluid volumes at proposed
injection pressures.
Nl.ITlerical approximations are obtained through the use of analytical
equations that take into account injection pressure, volume, and rate.
Estimation of fonnation fracture pressure values may be accomplished by
evaluating the results of a step-rate test.
INTRODUCTION
operation of injection facilities. The UIC program for the State of Montana
-263-
is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region 8
offices, and became effective on June 25, 1984, under the authority of Part C
injection wells. These are wells in which brine and salt water, brought to
the surface in association with oil production, are injected into the
subsurface. The Class II well category can be further divided by defining the
Two basic reasons for salt water disposal are: (a) injection into
water-bearing fonnations to dispose of the salt water; and (b) injection into
are tenned "salt water disposal" wells, and are the subject of this report.
According to the UIC regulations for EPA administered programs (40 CFR
Subpart D Section 144.3l(c)(l)), Class II brine disposal wells operating prior
to a program promulgation date are authorized by rule until 5 years after the
date of promulgation. However, a pennit application for each and every
existing brine disposal well must be submitted no later than 4 years from the
promulgation date of the UIC program. At the end of the 5-year period, all
existin~ brine disposal wells shall have been issued pennits or pennit
Except for rule-authorized wells, all other brine disposal wells are
prohibited unless authorized by pennit. Generally speaking then, any canpariy
that proposes or perfonns a Class II brine disposal operation is, or will be,
required to submit a pennit application to the EPA. All applicants for UIC
pennits must provide the EPA with a completed application fonn (40 CFR Subpart
-264-
D Section 144.3l(e)) and supplemental infonnation unique to the specific
facility.
OBJECTIVE
Proper implementation of the pennit review process is based on the
p~rameters.
DATA REQUIREMENTS
(b) a map locating the disposal well and other wells within the
applicable area of review;
Applicants for both existing and new brine disposal wells may be required to
(1) proposed maximum injection rate and cumulative injected volume; and
approximate the relation ships between injection pressure, injection rate, and
( l) the potential extent of the fluid plume; (2) the potential for fracturing
either the injection or confining zones; and (3) the feasibility of disposing
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
Analytical ground-water models have proven to be useful tools for
the EPA permit writer can conduct a comprehensive review of any brine disposal
well permit application.
operating parameters on the injection formation, and the reasonabil ity of the
brine disposal operations:
Pd = l 2Sh ( 1)
-267-
inJection/fracture pressure equivalent at specific depth:
p. = p
1 w+ pd ( 2)
T = V/365q (4)
( 5)
The following asstJTiptions are made so that the above analytical equations
may be used with some degree of confidence (Bear, 1979):
(a) ground-water flow obeys Darcy's law;
"2b" from the well, the effects of partial penetration become negligible and
ground-water flow is essentially horizontal (Bear, 1979).
PROBLEM FORMULATION
The hypothetical excmple discussed in this paper is based on an actual
pennit application, and al though the numerical values for the parameters are
not identical to the original problem, they represent realistic estimates for
In the event that certain hYdrogeologic data are not avail able, the
pennit writer has several options. First, textbooks by Davis and DeWiest
(1966), Freeze and Cherry (1979), and Mott (1979) can be used to provide
-269-
Perhaps of more value is the practical experience the pennit writer
characte ri sti cs that are unique to the individual oil -producino areas of
Montana. By cross-referencing the data, the pennit writer can assess the
Essen ti ally, each penni t must establish a maxi mt.an injection pressure to
ensure that fractures are not initiated in a confining zone and that injected
fluids do not mi grate into USDW' s. Realistically, fracture pressure data for
a confining zone is rarely avail able. On the other hand, the injection zone
is almost always tested.
them. Therefore, it has been concluded that fracture data obtained for the
injection fonnati on will represent conservative estimates that can be
confidently applied to the requirements set by the regulations.
For existing or converted disposal wells, the applicant usually submits
the results of a fracture treatment that was conducted shortly after the well
was constructed. Experience indicates that the average value for fracture
-270-
pressure can be expected to increase during the operational life of a well.
This implies that an old fracture test will most likely be an underestimate of
( 6)
pressure, the permit writer can compare proposed operating pressures with
for fracture and proposed maximum injection pressures at speci fie depths
First, the pressure due to hyd rosta tic head is detennined with equation 1.
Pd = l 2Sh ( 1}
NOTE: the fluid used in the step-rate test is the same as the injection
11
Substituting 0.040 pci for S 11 and 1400 feet for 11
h 11 ,
-272-
Equation 2,
P. = p + pd ( 2)
l w
combines fracture pressure measured at the surface (Pwfrac = 875 psig) with
the pressure due to the t'\Ydrostatic column within the tubing (Pd = 672 psig).
manner.
at the same depth as the calculated fracture pressure. Comparing the proposed
1547 psig), it can be seen that the company will be operating below the
The proposed maximum injection rate is 2000 BWPD, and the well has been
(c) whether the proposed injection rate is consistent with the proposed
injection pressure.
with a radius of 1/4 mile and height equal to the injection zone thickness.
cylinder (volume = 7Tr 2h, where h = height of cylinder). The porosity tenn
Before equation 3
2 ( 3)
V = (1Tr bn)/5.6
can be used, however, several inte nnediate cal cul ati ons must be perfonned, in
order to take into account the fact that the wel 1 has been operating for 5
years. If the disposal well was a newly constructed or converted well, these
Equation 4,
T = V/365q ( 4)
-274-
which describes the length of time it will take to fill the pore volume, can
be rearranged to solve for pore volume filled during a known time period.
qa =average injection rate during specified time period= 1300 BWPD
Va = subsurface volume filled during time period (barrels)
Ta= specified time period= 5 years
6
Va= 365qaTa = (365)(1300)(5) = 2.3725xl0 barrels.
The proposed maximum injection rate (qb) is 2000 BWPD. Using the
calculated value for Vb. the length of time remaining for injection
operations (Tb) is calculated through the use of equation 4,
-276-
This equation can be used to estimate the theoretical, maximum allowable
helpful. EPA UIC staff discussions further serve to guarantee that there will
P. = 1 54 7 psi g, and Pf
l
= Pd = 672 psig.
11
Substituting 0.05 darcys for k11 , 50 feet for 11
b11 , 0.4 cp for 11
m11 , 1254
feet for the adjusted "r "r II
e ' and 0.333 feet for w •
II
SUrvtvlARY
This paper presents a mathematical approach for evaluating Class II brine
disposal permit applications. Certain ptiYsical processes associated with well
hydraulics and ground-water flow can be approximated through the use of
analytical models. Once numerical estimates are assigned to specific
variables, operating conditions can be evaluated in tenns of compliance with
the UIC program. It should be remembered that mathematical equations are
tools to be used in conjunction with a qualitative review of all available
t\)'drogeologic information pertinent to the injection operation.
FUTURE WORK
Technical reviews of permit applications would be greatly enhanced
through the use of appropriate ground-water computer models. However, access
to documentabl e t"IYd rogeol ogi c data is often 1 imited. In many cases, numerical
values for specific parameters must be approximated. Under these
circumstances, it is not appropriate to make use of data-intensive models,
particularly when the data base itself is based on generalized assumptions.
Time constraints and computer hardware capabilities 1imi t programming choices,
further complicating the matter.
Fortunately, valid computer codes have been developed for almost any
hardware setup. It is hoped that in the forseeable future, a FORTRAN program
written by Hsieh (1986) will be incorporated into the permit application
-278-
review procedures. Hsi eh 1 s program evaluates the analytical solution of the
radial dispersion problem by analyzing dispersive transport in radial fl ow
from a recharge/injection well. Most of the input items required for the
model are data that are regularly reviewed during an application evaluation.
In addition, the analytical solution is predicted to be computationally more
efficient than previous solutions.
-279-
SCIENTIFIC TERMS
psig = pounds per square inch gauge (lb/in 2 )
pci = pounds per cubic inch (lb/in 3 )
BWPD = barrels of water per day
Pd = t\Ydrostatic pressure at a specific depth (psig)
S = specific weight of injection or fracturing fluid (pci)
= (specific gravity of fluid)(specific weight of fresh water)
h = height of fluid column (feet)
12 =conversion factor for feet to inches (1 foot= 12 inches)
Pw = fracture or injection pressure at the surface, or wellhead (psig)
Pi = pressure, due to injection/fracturing, at a specific depth (psig)
V = subsurface injection zone pore volume (barrels)
r = radial distance of injection plume limitation (feet)
b =thickness of injection zone (feet)
n = porosity of injection fonnation (dimensionless)
5.6 =conversion factor for ft 3 to barrels (5.6 ft 3 = 1 barrel)
q = injection rate (BWPD)
T = time period to fill the injection zone pore volume (years)
365 = conversion factor for days to years (365 days = l year)
Q = theoretical injection rate (BWPD)
k = injection zone penneability (darcys)
Pf = injection zone pore pressure (psig)
m = viscosity of water (centipoise)
re = distance of theoretical plume limitation (feet)
rw = wellbore radius (feet)
7.07 = conversion factor
-280-
M::TRIC CONVERSIONS
(lb/in 3 )*(2.767990xl04 ) = kg/m 3
(psi)*(6.894757xl03 ) = Pa
(centipoise)*(l.OOOOOOxl0- 3 ) =Pa-second
(barrel)*( 1. 589873xl 0-1 ) = m3
(ft 3 )*(2.831685xl0-2 ) = m3
(feet)*(0.3048) =meter
(darcy)*(9. 870xl 0-13 ) = m2
(jiffy)*(3.3602x1 o-12 ) = sec/m
REFEREOCES
Bear, Jacob. 1979. Hydraulics of Groundwater. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York,
569 pp.
Davis, Stanley N. and Roger J.M. DeWiest. 1966. Hydrogeology. John Wiley
&Sons, Inc., New York, 463 pp.
Freeze, R. Allan and John A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, 604 pp.
Hsieh, Paul A. 1986. A New Fonnula for the Analytical Solution of the Radial
Dispersion Problem. Water Resources Research, volume 22, number 11,
October, pp. 1597-1605.
Mott, Robert L. 1979. Applied Fluid Mechanics. Charles E. Merrill Publishing
Co., Columbus, 2nd Edition, 405 pp.
Nielsen, David M. and Linda Aller. 1984. Methods for Detennining the
Mechanical Integrity of Cl ass II Injection Wells. National Water Well
Association, Worthington, OH, July, Report No. EPA-600/2-84-121, 263 pp.
-281-
Table 1. Hydrogeologic &Operational Parameters
parameter numerical value
injection zone penneability 0. 05 darcys
viscosity of fluid 0.4 centipoise
maximum proposed surf ace injection pressure 700 psig
fracture pressure measured at the surface 875 psi g
maximum proposed injection rate 2000 BWPD
arbitrary radial plume limitation (1/4 mile) 1320 feet
specific gravity of fluid 1. l 07
previous average injection rate 1300 BWPD
injection zone thickness 50 feet
porosity of injection zone 0.30
depth of perforations 1400 feet
wellbore radius 0.333 feet
proposed operating life of the well 20 years
-282-
UIC PROGRAM
l~ECTION RATE~
INJECTION PRESSURE
I
HISTORICAL
OPERATING DATA
OPE RA TI NG TIME .___ __,__ ___
-283-
'•
'•
..'
••
·~
.-·' ..
•'I
,,
I
-·...-·
h
CONFINING
BED ,.
''
..,,•
b INJECTION ZONE
}zzzzz;;i~zzzzzll
Figure 2. Injection well schematic (after Nielsen and Aller, 1984, p. 18).
-284-
1200
~
\:)
~ ~ 1000
~ ~ 8 75 PS/G
""
'q: ~ ~
~
"· 02 1015
'q:
~ ~
N
I
~ ~ ~ 1/.16 1160
~ ~
5.10 1187
~ ~
~
~ ~ 1/00
~
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
""=: ~
200
INJECTION HATE, IN
8.4!(1(£1.S PEI( MINUTE /BPMJ
0
Figure 3.
0
Step-rate test results.
1 2 3 s 6
THE USE OF CONTROLLED SOURCE AUDIO
MAGNETOTELLURICS (CSAMT) TO DELINEATE ZONES
OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION - A CASE HISTORY
avice President
Geraghty & Miller, Inc.
3322 E. Fort Lowell Roadg Tucson, Arizona 85716
cGeophysicist
Zonge Engineering and Research Organization
3322 E. Fort Lowell Road, Tucson, ARizona 85716
dProject Officer
Off ice of Drinking Water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D~C-
ABSTRACT
-286-
fresh water aquifers, through improperly abandoned or plugged
wells.
resistivity and the phase angle between the electric and magnetic
the Vamoosa aquifer underlying the study area has a high chloride
their extent.
Introduction
-287-
CIMARRON TEXAS BEAVER GRANT KAY
GARFIELD
MAJOR
DEWEY
ROGER
Wit.LS CUSTER
I
N
ex>
o:i
I
T
14 . _ - - - - f- -~VIM,,,,.,,.,,. - - t ---+
N
and around the study area. A large number of well logs and
the Vamoosa aquifer underlying the study area. Test holes were
-289-
improperly plugged wells into the overlying Vamoosa fresh water
aquifer.
Background Studies
Hydrogeology
of the fresh water beneath the area could range from 50 meters to
map (Figure 3) was drawn utilizing data from resistivity logs and
-290-
SAC & FOX GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION STUDY
500
:~· •:: "..':i···i:,.::. ·/.:::,l;1.':;·,\,.'• ' '•_,, '·1 i'. ,;:;•,:•( ,, '•:•n:": ,•<•', •.:•,•::•',•]o~;!, ;.', •• ::; ·'l::f.lt,'"• ;:,";.;{.~•:•j"/:;, :'l;\::.:.:':•_'•:;'';;T:._,, '.':°•j::.:,.,:.,..· - < ;"; .-.:
r••ndaton•
, •...,.,, :- '/'..!,•".I. ;L,r.-_~;:. ·~::~·.·,· ,. "'··
500
1000 1000
Q)
0
.!! NOTE: Blcnlil are•• Indicate altemadng lay•,.
:; of aandetone, ahale, and llmeaton•
I 1500 en 1500
N "Q
l.O c
...... :I
0
I
2000
"
0
3:
Gi
fShaJe
2000
III
Qi
Q)
~
2500 2500
3000 3000
l Prue Sandatone
Horizontal Scale: 1· • 500'
Vertical Scale l" • 500'
3500 NOTE: Geologic: Formatlona are Pennaylvanlan In Age. 3500
GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION
Lincoln County, Oklahoma T14N - R6E
Figure 2
SAC & FOX GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION STUDY
•
•
·············-
• •
,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ 16 - - - - . :.............................~--------1.
•
LEGEND
••
•••
••
1 aaaa• Boundary ol AIM •••
••
a Tell W.M Orlllecl In 1983
:
• T
® EEi Tell W.U Orllle<l In 1970
•
0 SK & Fox Teet W.... -~-j•r..._,.......~--~~~-·..."""...IWWl. . .""'1. . .~==::::..."""":-__:~------~~~~~
I Orllled In 1979 I
N
l.D
I
N
0 EEi T- W.I 1983
I
a 0th., WeM Control
Figure 3
from test wells drilled earlier in the study area (Tinlin et al,
aquifer was also ruled out as the recharge rate of the Vamoosa is
much higher than the pumping rates of the existing supply wells.
-293-
Determination of Salt Water Contamination Source in the Vamoosa
by Water Sampling
salt} solution brines and thus can determine which may be the
for a halite-solution source and fall within the values for most
case where the injected fluid is the same or very similar to the
brine.
-294-
TABLE 1: CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATIONS AND RATIOS
1 42 200 o. 78 0.0039
2 61 7,520 33 0.0044
3 79 10,800 50 0.0050
-295-
In December of 1983, two samples of Prue formation brine
plug.
-296-
TABLE 2: CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATIONS AND RATIOS
-297-
SCALe: r - 200~
~---- 9 -----1-------10
~. 9/1e
~ ~ 014
. 0 0 0
..,..."""'"'~-;-.,....,....,.. 38 51
q ~ 24 25 21
salt water through the borehole. The cement plugs in most of the
had only the top surface cement plug and no additional downhole
surface casing was set too shallow. Surface casing should be set
below the base of fresh water and cemented all the way to the
-299-
exploration, and mapping of EOR fronts {steam front). In this
use CSAMT.
the lowest frequency being used. Skin depth {a) is related to the
-300-
C.Ontrolled source AMT
AMT Coll
I
w
.._.
0
-
I
Currenl Electrodes
Potential Electrodes ; __ ---
,.
LAYOUT FOR
CONTROu.ED SOURCE AMT SURVEY
Figure 5
Skin depth ( o) = 503 J: meters
f = frequency in Hz.
processor which measures both the electric (E) and magnetic (H)
of survey lines were run in two areas, one set (lines 1 through
Section 16, and the second set (lines 7 through 9) near an area
The survey results from line 3 (in the area with a high
7 i s an e 1 e c t r i c al p s e u do - s e c t i on sh ow i n g the a pp a rent
-302-
/, '7777777777777//777777777/7/7771
EXPLANATION ~
p Worer ln1ecr1on Well
• 011 Well
-T-T- Powerl•ne
- - - Fence
1 Line 4
I
T
Line 8
I
(,.)
I
T Line 9
0
(,.)
I I
Line 20
-I
/
/ ~//// ///
N
ru11w1 O Line 783
~
500 0 500 1000
-s::----= --: ====-s
F E E T
.4'51
1•.e 1e.e
11. "- ! I
3
\+'.....)
r\
. ,, 21 "·'1 v
6.4?-
·· f .
-r
12.'l U.7 11,g
512 Hz
! /!' . . . . .. ~ . . .
512 Hz
/:
250 Hz .
11.7
~
: .. :·1
8.11
.
.
... ..
:;·
. ·• . .
. .
.
s.•
:
... .:
11.7.
r\
... .
l~
0
I
\.;.)
.i:-
Hz
·~ \ 9.6 . 11.7
•
" •;• ). ...6.3v.
.. '\
.....
::!'!
1.sels.•10
2...
2.51
6.31
7.llll
<O 3.16 .....
c..... 3.118 . 12.6
CD
Zange f 3117
" Plot bu Cf'l.OT '3f
Plot led lf'R 16 I~
resistivity of the ground underlying line 3 (in ohm meters)
The same data is also shown in Figure 8 except that the apparent
f = frequency in Hz
approximately 63 meters.
-305-
11.e 17 •• 16.e IS.I ,.... 1a.e IZ.I 11.1 11.1 9.e a.e 7 •I i.I CAiHIAll> llESlSTlVlTY
s 6e ..
voli.Q in ar..-r..1.,
-306-
at 64 Hz for 1 ines l to 5
~
:':·:·
... ____
-----...
.. ·.··.
:_ ·
(\J
Jf'' I
:t
OHM-METERS
r---. 7.9
4.0
1.6
. '"'1
-·1,-0--H N
. Cl
10, and a depth of 114 meters below station -4.0, Figure 11. It
surface and the apparent resistivity has the lowest value near
-308-
1.0 e.e -1.0 -2.e -a.e -&f.e -s.e a:amRD RESISTIVITY
S 68 M N 60 E
values in otwroeters
LCJCl:lllTlfllC CUfT~
:2.H
I lnt.-.al1 .... )
~.SI
3.16
3.Q8
512 tu 6.tl
5J2 ltz 6 31
7 ."'4
7~1 Q. I
~·
•
.. ·1·
...
I
w
•• Q
0
\.0
I
."
..
6.~ .
::!!
<O
c.., 8
Cll l ClnQe f 3'17
__. Plot b<J CPI.OT 3F
Plotted ~ 16 Jga<i
0
Ji Well S3
.
7.3 ::)+r.-
. ......... :=·::·;:·::·::-
"-'~
12.6
7.1
•
2.N
2.51
2.51
f:;:::;:::::::]
3.16
3.16
c::J 3.Q8
'·:.·:.·:.·:.·:...:.·:.·:.·:.
. ·: ·.. ·.. ·:. ·:...... ·.. ·:.··.
. :·.·::·.~.-::·.\·::·.:.·:=·:·.·:: .
. .·:.·:.·:.·:.·:...:.·:.·:.·:.· .
.· .· .··.. ·.. ·:=·:.·:.·: ·:
'.· .. ·.. ·.. ·.. · ..... •:.·:.·:·.
.
Q.S
i!Ol'IO* ' NT
Plot blJ CPI.OT 3H
Plott'!':! DEC 31 lW.
-310-
Figure 11
lONGE ENGINEERING & RESEARCH ORGANIZATION SAC 8I FOX PROJECT
C~GNI~RD RESISTIVITY at 6~ Hz for linas 7.8.and 9
OHM- METERS
~7.9
. . 4.0
1.6 I
.......
.......
,~j?-~Jiti~~4i
Q :oo zoo ("')
I
F E. E T
.;,
~~
.a:~~--·---··>- ..... ,
<=== incrQasin9 station numb~rs
Table 3 Stratigrapnc Sequence of Rock Penetrated in July, 1984 Test Wells
-312-
137 feet in test wel 1 #2. Water samples were collected from a
shall ow, intermediate, and deep zone in each wel 1 and the
water.
Conclusions
and two deep plumes were detected and traced. Several of these
plumes ran out of the edge of the survey grids and their extent
is not known.
-313-
Table 4 Constituent Concentrations and Ratios for Vamoos Water Samples
(July. 1984 Test Wells)
-314-
include sufficient test drilling and logging to gather data to
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
-315-
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
University.
primacy states.
-316-
Environmental Engineering from Florida Institute of Technology,
Melbourne, Florida (1979). He worked with the U.S. Army for four
-317-
CONVECTIVE CIRCUIATION DURING SUBSURFACE INJECTION OF LIQUID WASTE
John J. Hickey
ABSTRACT
concentration of the injectant during two tests of 91 and 366 days duration
was 180 and 170 milligrams per liter, respectively; whereas chloride concen-
tration of native saltwater ranged from 19,000 to 20,000 milligrams per liter.
During the 366-day test, chloride concentration in water from a well open to
the upper part of the injection zone 223 meters from the injection well
hypothesis that convective circulation with saltwater flow added chloride ions
hypothesis, information was required about the velocity field during injec-
-318-
after determining that the fractured injection zone could be treated as an
equivalent porous medium with a single porosity. The mass-transport model was
calibrated using the 91-day test data from the observation well 223 meters
from the injection well. The model was then run without parameter changes to
simulate the 366-day test. Mass fractions of injectant computed for observa-
tion wells during the 366-day test compared favorably with observed mass
saltwater flowing toward the injection well in the lower part of the injection
zone, then mixing with the injectant, and the mixture flowing away from the
injection well in the upper part of the injection zone. Based upon the model
INTRODUCTION
St. Petersburg, Florida (Figure 1). The first test was run for 91 days and
-319-
86° 84° 82° 80°
I I I I
F
GULF l
0
R
I
D
A -28°
-26°
TEST SITE
0 10 20 MILES
I I 1
1
0 32 KILOMETERS
-320-
the second test for 366 days. During the second injection test, chloride
injection zone at 223 m from the injection well changed slowly after passage
of the injectant front and, toward the end of the test, became approximately
the liquid-waste injectant (170 mg/L). The liquid waste was treated municipal
the injection zone was similar in composition and density to seawater. The
added chloride ions to the injection-zone flow sampled at the observation well
opposite to the flow of overlying and less dense fresher water in an isotherm-
and Cooper et al. (1964). Cooper theorized that saltwater would flow landward
(1957) and de Josselin de Jong (1969) concluded that circulation would occur
-321-
Even though the mechanisms and resulting flow patterns postulated by some
of the above mentioned authors differ, they all are in agreement that some
achieve this purpose, the 91-day and 366-day injection tests are described.
Then, the hydrogeologic characteristics of the test site are described with an
numerical, mass-transport model is calibrated with data from the 91-day test
and run without parameter changes to simulate the 366-day test. Finally,
model-computed mass fraction and velocity fields are compared and interpreted
INJECTION TESTS
for 91 days in 1977 and for 366 days in 1979 and 1980 at a test site in the
city of St. Petersburg, Florida (Hickey, 1982; 1984b; Hickey and Ehrlich,
1984). During the 91-day test, the injection well became partially plugged by
algae in the liquid waste (Hickey, 1982). Mean injection rate for the 91-day
4 3 3 3
test was l.54xl0 m /d with a standard deviation of l.28xl0 m /d, and the
4 3
mean injection rate during the 366-day test was l.33xl0 m /d with a standard
3 3
deviation of 2.3lxl0 rn /d. The mean injection rate for the 366-day test was
-322-
. m--~
I
---473
0 0 86 0.
Cl 82, 83 11 m..j j.-
0 100 METERS
0
C3
-323-
Chemical composition of injected sewage was similar during both tests.
The mean concentration of dissolved solids during the 91-day test was 508 mg/L
and during the 366-day test was 466 mg/L. The mean density of the treated
3
sewage injectant was 999 kg/m for both tests, and mean chloride concentra-
tions were 180 mg/Land 170 mg/L during the 91-day and 366-day tests, respec-
tively. Chloride concentration of native water from the injection zone before
injection occurred was similar to seawater and ranged from 19,000 mg/L in the
upper part of the zone to 20,000 mg/L in the lower part. Density of the
3 3
native saltwater ranged from 1,025 kg/m to 1,026 kg/m .
Areal configuration of wells open to the injection zone at the test site
val open to each observation well are shown in Figure 3. Wells B3, B6, Cl,
and C3 are open to the upper part of the injection zone, and the injection
well and well B2 are open to the lower part of the zone. Wells Cl and C3 were
constructed after the 91-day test to monitor the 366-day test for evidence of
One month before the start of the 366-day test, chloride concentration in
water from well B3 was 14,000 mg/L; from wells B6, Cl, and C3. it was
18,000 mg/L; and from well B2, it was 20,000 mg/L. These data suggest that
Chloride concentrations in water from well B3 during the 91-day and 366-
day injection tests are shown in Figure 4. For the period common to both
from plugging of the injection well. Similar concentrations during both tests
each test was very similar and the mean injection rate for each test differed
-324-
c.n
a:::
w
E-<
w
:I:
z
.........
.... 98
w
z 83
1 INJECTION-ZONE I
I
INTERVAL THAT I
0 ,--........__ PRODUCES WATER I
N 84 B6
C~C3
: ......__SAMPLES
z I
0
u
w
.........
E-<
70
v
I
(,;.) J 56
N
V1
z
.........
I
u.... 12 INJECTION ZONE
0 INTERVAL OPEN TO
INJECTION
w WELL OBSERVATION WELL
B2
c.n 28
er:
CD
w 14
>
0
CD
er: 0
w 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
::l DISTANCE FROM INJECTION WELL,IN METERS
E-<
.........
E-<
_J
cr:
Fig. 3. Injection zone intervals and water-producing intervals open to wells. (Well Cl
and CJ are located along different azimuths at same radial distance from injection well.)
a:::
w
E-t
,_...,
_J
a:::
w
CL
en
~ 20000
- - -. -. . -. - - -- - .
--
a:::
(.9
,_..., 82
_J 16000
_J 'iJ 'iJ 'iJ 'iJ
,_,
I: • + <i' 'V+ • ~366-DAY
.
z 12000 ~
,_,
... 91-DAY -v
'V
z 8000 0
0
,_...,
f.-1 ~"''V~
'V
cc 83
a:::
E-t
'iOOO
4> •
~ ... ....
~
z
w
(_)
z o
0 0. 1 1 10 100 1000
u
w
TIME SINCE INJECTION BEGAN,IN DAYS
0
,_,
a:::
0
_J
:r:
u
-326-
by only 14%. During the 366-day test, chloride concentration slowly
decreased after passage of the injectant front and became approximately stable
at about 3,900 mg/L after 190 days from the start of the test. Because this
mg/L), it appeared that chloride ions were somehow being added to the
Chloride concentrations in water from well B2 during the 91-day and 366-
day injection tests are also shown in Figure 4. During both tests, chloride
concentrations did not change and remained at the native chloride concentra-
the middle Eocene series. The injection zone is in the Upper Floridan aquifer
and is overlain and underlain by semiconfining beds (Figure 5). The top of
the injection zone is at 234 m below sea level. Thickness of the zone is
from the injection well (Hickey, 1984a). Transmissivity of the zone at the
2
test site is about 75,000 m /d, whereas transmissivity of the zone beyond
-327-
HYDROGEOLOGI
UNIT
0
Cl)
a:
w 100
I-
w
~
z
w
()
<( 200 semiconfining
LL
a: Upper bed
:::::>
Cl) Floridan
0 INJECTION
z aquifer
<( 300 ZONE
....I
~ semiconfining
0
....I
w bed
co
:r: 400
I-
Q.
w
0 Middle
confining unit
500
of the
Floridan
aquifer system
600
-328-
24 km and east of the site may be less (Hickey, 1981). The vertical component
is estimated to lie between about 0.03 m/d and 0.3 m/d (Hickey. 1982).
Regional saltwater flow toward the southeast likely occurs in the injec-
concentrations prior to the 366-day test suggests that flow of native salt-
water in the neighborhood of the site was of little importance before and
during injection.
A total porosity of 14% for the rocks comprising the injection zone was
estimated in one borehole at the test site from geophysical logs (Hickey,
at well B3, 223 m from the injection well, discussed later, required an effec-
that the borehole geophysics estimate is based upon measurement of rock prop-
erties in the immediate vicinity of the borehole. Even though this comparison
some of the fractures. The fracture pattern in the dolomite is very complex
hole drilled into the injection zone showed the wall of the hole to be very
blocky with fractures between the blocks generally occurring about every 0.3
to 1.0 m. Cores taken from holes within 24 km of the site showed oblique
fractures oriented between 30 to 60 degrees from the axis of the cores. Some
of the cores also showed horizontal fractures. Added to this fracture pattern
-329-
are shattered intervals that collapsed during drilling. A shattered interval
was cored at another site in the area (Hickey, 1977) and showed fracture
-3
spacing on the order of 5xl0 m and less. Shattered intervals appeared at
different depths in holes drilled into the injection zone, not only at this
noted by Long et al. (1982), when fracture density is increased, when fracture
fractures), and when larger sample sizes of fractures are tested (as would be
the case with 6-m to 33-m thick water-producing intervals), fractured systems
yet the injection well became plugged during the first injection test at the
with relatively small aperture rather than a few fractures with relatively
large aperture. Other injection wells within 24 km of this site also became
-330-
porosity and thus should have very small, if measurable, hydraulic conductiv-
dolomite blocks taken from test holes within 24 km of the site have laboratory
-5
measurements of hydraulic conductivity that did not exceed 2.0xlO m/d with
four of the five cores at or below the detection limit of the permeameter
of the crystalline dolomite blocks, also taken from holes within 24 km of the
value of 0.9% (Hickey. 1977; Hickey, 1979; Hickey and Barr, 1979). The
blocks strongly suggest that the injection zone can be treated as an equiva-
1979) was calibrated using data from the 91-day injection test. The model, as
used in this article, solves for two dependent variables--pressure and mass
equations were used in the numerical model. The reduced band-width direct-
-331-
hydrostatic conditions prevail in the injection zone at the start of
close enough to the actual characteristics of the injection zone such that the
simulated.
which was to be varied. During the trial and error calibration process, a
ity, porosity was changed, as mentioned above, from 0.14 to 0.1 to improve
comparisons between the observed and computed arrival time of the injectant
front at well B3. During the 91-day injection test, the front arrived at well
B3 sometime between 9 and 15 days from start of injection. Model runs using a
days. After changing porosity to 0.10, the arrival time computed by the model
-332-
E--<
z 1.0
a:
E--<
u
w
J 0.8
z 83
~
.......
u... 0.6
0
( o--.--.
v
z OBSERVED
0
....... 0.4
E--<
u
a:
a:::: 0.2
-
~
- - -
00
/---COMPUTED
u...
/COMPUTED CL RVE IS COINCIDENT WITH TIME AXIS)
en .- - .._,- ........- ....., i . .·.... ,..., 82
if)
a:
L:
0.0 0
.1
-
1
....,;
10
~ ............. •,.J ,,
-- 100
,
1000
TIME SINCE INJECTION BEGAN,IN DAYS
-333-
Mass fractions of injectant computed by the calibrated model and observed
model calibration, in addition to what has already been mentioned, mainly en-
error fashion until what was considered an acceptable fit between computed and
from observed mass fractions by no more than 0.06 and were generally much less
than this, as can be seen in Figure 6. Also, mass fractions computed at well
B2 showed no changes and, as such, agreed with the observed data. Longitudi
nal and transverse dispersivities of the calibrated model were 2.85 m and 0.85
After calibration, the model was run without changing any of the param-
eters for the purpose of simulating the 366-day injection test. Figure 7
fractions of injectant at the end of the 366-day test. The leading edge of
the injectant front in the upper part of the injection zone is approximately
at the position of the 0.30 mass-fraction contour as it was for the 91-day
compare very favorably with the computed mass fractions. This is true even in
the immediate vicinity of the injection well where observed and computed mass
-334-
())
a::::
l:.J
~ <
W m
L ~
z -j
z
,_, ~~
~ ga...-.----------.------------.-----------.-----------.~o,
0---1 ~~ ~
l:.J
z.
0
N 8'! Q
~ o1
0 0.198 >
. -j
-j
~
z (/)
-j
OJ
c
0 0.099 >
,_, 70 -j
~ 0
E--< 1 - - - - ! -j z
u -~~-~~------j 0 0
w
I
w
w
)
z
,_,
56 ~05 "Tl
z
"Tl
~
Vl c... >
I m (/)
L LINE OF EQUAL MASS 0 (/)
0 -j "Tl
FRACTION OF INJECTANT 0 ~
w 0.000 z >
()) 28 -j 0
c:: m -l
m (/) 0
-j z
w
>
0
l'!l ~ 0
"Tl
c z
(/)
m • c...
a:: 0-r·'i-'---.---.----.---.----.---...---r---r---,.--..,------r---.----.---.---.----.----'> m
-j 0
w 0 100 200 300 100 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1100 1500 1600 0 -j
0
::J DISTANCE FROM INJECTION WELL, IN METERS z -~j
f-:
INJECTION WELL
E--<
_J
c::
Fig. 7. Observed and computed mass fractions of injectant in a radial section of the injection
zone at the end of the 366-day test.
fractions for well B6 were, respectively, 0.91 and 0.98. Also shown in Figure
7 is the initial mass-fraction distribution that was used in the model at the
favorably with each other during the 366-day test, particularly at wells Cl
and C3, this not only strongly supports treatment of the injection zone as an
equivalent porous medium with a single porosity, but also, that the model is
likely simulating the major flow processes that occur during subsurface injec-
tion. Thus, it appears that model computed velocity fields may be interpreted
Figure 8 shows the model-computed velocity field at the end of the 366-
injection well in the upper part of the zone, whereas flow is generally toward
the injection well in the lower part of the zone. Separating these outward
and inward flows is a shear zone wherein velocity vectors are about oppositely
directed.
of less than 100 m from the injection well. This is consistent with the
Figure 8 shows flow directed away from the injection well throughout the
injection zone.
-336-
EXPLANATION
(})
Cl::'. PORE VELOCITY VECTOR. MAGNITUDE OF VECTOR IS PROPORTIONAL TO SHAFT
w LENGTH. FOR LOW VELOCITIES, VECTORS HAVE NO MEASUREABLE SHAFT. IN
E--<
w THESE CASES, TIP OF ARROWHEAD IS LOCATED AT THE NODE POINT. THE FIRST
:r:: COLUMN OF VECTORS IS SHOWN AT 6 METERS FROM THE INJECTION WELL.
THEREAFTER, EVERY FIFTH COLUMN OF COMPUTED VECTORS IS SHOWN
z
z
0
E--<
u
w
)
I
(;.)
(;.)
z
I-<
-...r
I
~
0 v
w
(}) v
a:
G'.) v
w -< -< v
>
0
QJ -< -< -< -< v
cc
w 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1100 1500 1600
Cl
::.i DISTANCE FROM INJECTION WELL,IN METERS
E--<
>-< INJECTION WELL
E--<
_J
cc
Fig. 8. Computed pore-velocity vector field in a radial section o"f the injection zone
at the end of the 366-day test.
Comparison of Figure 7 with Figure 8 shows that downward flow in the
leading edge of the injectant front. For the test, the leading edge of the
with the top of the injection zone. Comparison of these figures, in addition,
shows that counter flow directed toward the injection well in the lower part
Between 100 and 800 m from the injection well, model results for the 366-
day test also show that some of the counter flow of saltwater mixed with flow
3
away from the well at a rate of about 4,100 m /d. Also, saltwater with a rate
3
of about 5,600 m /d flowed past 100 m to subsequently mix with flow in the
flow occurring away from the injection well in the upper part of the zone, the
mass fraction of injectant at points within the upper part of the injection
CONCLUSIONS
porous medium with a single porosity. Observed mass fractions from two
-338-
observation wells during a 91-day injection test were used to calibrate the
mass-transport model. After calibration, the model was run to simulate a 366-
day injection test. Comparisons between observed and computed mass fractions
for the 366-day test at five observation wells suggest that the model is not
only conceptually appropriate, but also does likely simulate the major flow
flow of saltwater in the injection zone was portrayed by the model as a major
these model results and the assumed reasonableness of treating the injection
REFERENCES
Carrier, G. F., The mixing of ground water and sea water in permeable
1959.
1964.
-339-
de Josselin de Jong, G., Generating functions in the theory of flow through
Hickey, J. J., Hydrogeologic data for the McKay Creek subsurface waste-
injection test site, Pinellas County, Florida, U.S. Geol. Surv. Open-File
Hickey, J. J., Hydrogeologic data for the South Cross Bayou subsurface waste-
injection test site, Pinellas County, Florida, U.S. Geol. Surv. Open-File
Hickey, J. J., Field testing the hypothesis of Darcian flow through a carbon-
Hickey, J. J., and G. L. Barr, Hydrogeologic data for the Bear Creek subsur-
face waste-injection test site, St. Petersburg, Florida, U.S. Geol. Surv.
and potential for recovery of injected sewage, Ground Water, 22(4), 397-
405, 1984.
-340-
Hickey, J. J., and R. M. Spechler, Hydrologic data for the Southwest subsur-
face injection test site, St. Petersburg, Florida, U.S. Geol. Surv. Open-
Hubbert, M. K., Darcy's law and the field equations of the flow of underground
parts I and II, Rep. USGS/WRI-76-61, PB 256 903, 236 pp., Reston, Va.,
1976.
aquifers, U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Resour. Inv. 79-96, 72 pp., Reston, Va.,
1979.
-341-
Monitoring, Troubleshooting and Repairing Wellbore
Communication of Waterflood Injection Wells in the
Ville Platte Field - A Case History
SUMMARY
develop on each of the three injection wells that serve these waterflood
projects. This paper outlines the history of these injection wells, the
casing pressure, and the workover procedures which led to the successful
INTRODUCTION
The three waterflood projects that are presently in operation in the Ville
Platte Field include the Cook Mountain "B" Sand (VP CM B RA SU WF), the
Basal Cockfield Sand (VP BSL CF RD SU WF) and the Middle Cockfield Sand (VP
The Cook Mountain "B" Sand is a channel sand of Middle Eocene age located
at a subsea depth of 8,050'. Initially, the Cook Mountain "B" Sand was a
ppg). Average reservoir porosity and sidewall core permeability are 30%
and 900 md., respectively. The approximate reservoir area is 180 acres
SKWl/011
At the outset of the waterflood project, there were three producing wells
which had a combined production rate of 120 BOPD. Waterflood response has
been quite favorable in the Cook Mountain "B" Sand with the peak production
Cockfield Sand was 3,720 psig (9.0 ppg). Upon initiation of the waterflood
psig (7.1 ppg). The average reservoir porosity of the Basal Cockfield Sand
drainage area of the reservoir is 210 acres with an average net effective
pay of five feet. There are currently three producing wells in this
date, waterflood response has not yet been detected in the Basal Cockfield
Sand.
approximately 260 acres with an average net effective pay of six feet. The
pressure was approximately 3,620 psig (9.0 ppg). At the beginning of the
2,520 psig (6.3 ppg). with a combined production rate from the two
-343-
SKWl/011
evidenced by a significant increase in the producing fluid level as well as
There are presently three injection wells that serve the aforementioned
injection well in the Cook Mountain "B" Sand waterflood from perforations
at 8,147'-82' (see Figure 1). This is the sole injection well for the Cook
cumulative injection into the Cook Mountain "B" Sand has been approximately
The August Attales No. 3 and the Opelousas St. Landry Securities Co. No. 11
Wells are dually completed injection wells serving both the Basal and the
Middle Cockfield Sand Waterfloods (see Figures 2 and 3). Since initiating
these floods in April 1986, cumulative injection into the Basal and Middle
Cockfield Sands has been approximately 65,000 and 102,000 barrels of water,
respectively.
injection wells. This paper outlines the history of the injection wells,
the casing pressure, and details the quality control measures utilized
casing pressure.
-344-
SKWl /011
LUDEAU-HAAS NO. 14 WELL
The Ludeau-Haas No. 14 Well was completed as a single injection well in the
Cook Mountain "B" Sand in March 1985 (see Figure 1). During the first 15
psig (see Figure 4). However, in June 1986, injection pressures began to
During this time, injection reached a peak rate of 2050 BWPD with injection
built-up rather slowly, approximately 50-100 psig per day. However, within
a matter of weeks, the casing pressure began to build up by more than 1,000
psig per day. During this time, the casing pressure was being very closely
monitored and bled off daily. Conoco immediately informed the Underground
After review by the State to ensure that there was no risk of contamination
perni.ission was granted provided that the subject well was closely monitored
and efforts were made to identify and repair the wellbore communication.
-345-
SKWl/011
The initial investigation into a possible cause of the casing pressure
pressures. The bypass valve is located on the top of the packer and is
having to release the packer. The packer is set by rotating and slacking
off weight on the tubing string. Set down weight of approximately 8,000 to
10 ,000 lbs. is required to close the bypass valve and set the packer.
conditions the tensile forces acting on the tubing string were great enough
to cause the bypass valve on the retrievable packer to open, thus providing
offset the tensile forces acting on the tubing string, an additional 6,000
lbs. of set down weight was applied to the packer. Also, in conjunction
with this work the tubing hanger was pressure tested to 2, 250 psig to
ensure that no leaks were present in the hanger. Two days after restoring
injection into the Ludeau-Haas No. 14 Well, casing pressure had built back
up to 1,025 psig.
At this point, it was still suspected that casing pressure was associated
with the bypass valve on the retrievable packer. On September 24, 1986,
workover operations were begun to pull tubing and replace the existing
packer with a retrievable packer more suitably designed for the injection
conditions. Unlike its predecessor, the new packer did not have to be set
in compression and was not equipped with a bypass valve. Upon retrieving
the packer, a close inspection of the bypass valve did not show any signs
of wear or erosional effects to support our theory that the bypass valve
-346-
SKWl/011
had been prematurely opening downhole. While rerunning the tubing and the
new packer, each joint of tubing was internally hydrotested to 3,000 psig
testing. After setting the packer, the casing annulus was pressure tested
to 1,000 psig for 10 minutes with no bleed off. Injection was then
restored at 1,700 BWPD and 1,600 psig injection pressure. Within two days,
During the first week of October 1986, the Ludeau-Haas No. 14 Well was
source of the casing pressure. This work involved setting a plug in the
There were two primary reasons for conducting this testing. First, in
order to comply with applicable State regulations, every effort was being
substantiate the source of the casing pressure. Thus, another workover was
-347-
SKWl/011
Workover
On October 27, 1986 the second workover operation was begun on the
Ludeau-Haas No. 14 Well. During this workover, the following work was
performed:
1. The tubing and retrievable packer were pulled from the well.
2. While the tubing was on the pipe racks, the threads on the pin
and box ends were cleaned and visually inspected for signs of
corrosion or defects.
-348-
SKWl/011
c. Each joint of tubing was internally hydrotes ted to 5, 000
5. The wellhead and christmas tree were gas tested with helium and
was identified and repaired. The following quality control measures were
Tubing Make-Up
hydraulic power tongs to ensure that the tubing was made-up to the API
recommended optimum make-up torque for 2-3/8", 4. 711 /ft., J-55 tubing of
1,290 ft.-lbs. Special attention was given to orienting the load cell at
right angles to the lever arm on the power tongs and horizontal to the rig
floor. Otherwise, significant error in the torque gauge reading can result
from improper orientation of the load cell. Each connection was made-up
with the power tongs operated in low gear. Experience has indicated that
achieve the optimum make-up torque of the tubing while operating in high
gear. While the tubing was being made-up, the pin and coupling were
visually inspected to make sure that the last round of threads on the pin
-349-
SKWl/011
shouldered up to the coupling. If several rounds of threads remain exposed
by the time that the threads are completely buried, this is an indication
Gas Testing
test tool across from the coupling area of the tubing connection. After
packing off above and below the coupling with the test tool, the coupling
pressure. Once the test pressure has stabilized, a gas containment sleeve
is placed around the exterior of the coupling where helium will accumulate
conductive properties of the atmosphere with those of the sleeve gas (see
Figure 5).
Several quality control measures were taken to ensure accurate gas test
results. Before testing began, the helium concentration of the test gas
detected by the thermal conductivity meter. During testing, the meter was
recalibrated regularly in order to make sure that the meter was reading
bottle with the meter probe to check the response of the meter. After each
-350-
SKWl/011
joint of tubing was made up, excess pipe dope would accumulate around the
coupling. Since this pipe dope could mask a small leak, each coupling was
wiped clean with a rag before placing the containment sleeve around the
coupling.
Hydrotesting
connection, which had previously been tested with gas, and the tubing body.
This testing was performed above the rotary table so that a visual
inspection of the joint of tubing could be made during testing to check for
steps were taken to ensure accurate test results. Company personnel were
located on the rig floor and the pump truck to make sure that strict
pressure testing was conducted with the tubing string hung in tension
above the rotary table, in order to simulate the downhole tensile loading
conditions that would exist on the tubing. Finally, the gas coupling test
water can enter into a potential helical leak path in the tubing threads,
-351-
SKWl /011
Workover Results
When the tubing was pulled from the Ludeau-Haas No. 14 Well, it was obvious
that some of the tubing had not previously been made-up adequately, as
evidenced by the fact that several rounds of threads were exposed on the
pin ends. While cleaning and inspecting the tubing on the pipe racks, a
While rerunning the tubing into the subject well, seven couplings and one
landing nipple failed either the gas test or the hydrotest and had to be
After running the tubing into the well and setting the retrievable packer,
the casing annulus was pressure tested to 1,000 psig for one hour with no
and water pressure test. The average running time was approximately 10 to
-352-
SKWl /011
11 joints per hour; which includes the downtime associated with tool
failures and mechanical problems. Generally speaking, this author does not
advocate gas testing for this type of application, considering that the
this well and the previous workover attempt which proved unsuccessful in
control measures had been implemented during the initial workover on the
Ludeau-Haas No 14 Well, a second costly workover would most likely not have
been required.
The August Attales No. 3 Well was completed as a dual waterflood injection
well in the Basal and Middle Cockfield Sands in April 1986 (see Figure 2).
Due to the low permeability and the high reservoir pressure of these sands,
the initial injection rates were relatively low (100 to 200 BWPD) with
suggested that any leak(s) were small. However, within two months the
-353-
SKWl/011
Troubleshooting
The first method utilized in an attempt to identify the cause of the casing
while maintaining injection into the other. Prior to doing so, the casing
annulus pressure was bled off to 0 psig. During injection into only one
string of tubing, the casing pressure was closely monitored for any
the casing pressure were apparent when changes in the injection rates would
occur. By injecting the cool saltwater down the tubing, the temperature of
the well was shut-in, the wellbore would begin to warm up, causing pressure
wellbore communication.
A second factor which contributed to the inconclusive test results was the
slow bleed-off of the tubing pressure after one of the completions was
length of time for the pressure to dissipate in the reservoir and the
-354-
SKWl /011
tubing pressure to bleed to zero. Therefore, until the tubing pressure had
accounted for the increase in casing pressure. Since the duration of the
tests were relatively short, the well bore never had time to stabilize in
The second method employed to identify the cause of the casing pressure
involved setting plugs in the landing nipples in the shortstring and the
were set, the entire wellbore was bled off to zero. Then, each string of
tl,lbing and the casing was individually pressure tested while the remainder
of the well bore was closely monitored for any pressure build-up. The
was the ability to isolate the wellbore from the reservoir pressure. This
clearly established that the longstring was the source of casing pressure
was leaking. If the hanger was the cause of the casing pressure, the
A tubing bridge plug was set on a collar stop one joint below the surface.
Once the plug was set, red dye was poured into the longstring before
pressure testing began. Only subtle changes in the casing pressure were
-355-
SKWl/011
apparent during the previous testing, indicating that a relatively small
leak existed. Therefore, it was decided that the only way to conclusively
establish if the tubing hanger was leaking was to actually detect colored
minutes, the longstring had bled down to approximately 1,000 psig while the
the bridge plug was not holding. Testing then began on the shortstring.
of the tubing. After the wellbore remained stable for several minutes the
casing and tubing pressure was bled off. While bleeding off the casing,
red dye was recovered from the annulus, indicating that a leak in the
hanger did exist. Further testing confirmed that a leak was present in the
tubing hanger. The most likely explanation for not detecting the leak
initially with the pressure gauges is that the casing annulus was not
tubing hanger. After nippling down the christmas tree and picking up the
longstring tubing and the dual split hanger, the tubing threads that screw
into the bottom of the tubing hanger were hydrotested again in order to
visually witness the leakage (see Figure 7). It was obvious that the leak
in the hanger was caused by inadequate make-up of the tubing into the
bottom of the hanger, thus creating a helical leak path in the threads.
-356-
SKWl/011
The leak was then repaired by taping the tubing threads with teflon and
testing confirmed that the tubing hanger leak had been eliminated.
Three days after restoring injection into both completions, casing pressure
again developed. At this point, the longstring was shut-in and the casing
pressure ceased. For nearly three months, injection was maintained in the
Working over the subject well had intentionally been delayed until wellbore
Workover
workover procedure that was carried out on the longstring was identical to
cleaning and visually inspecting the threads as well as gas testing was
excluded for the shortstring since it was not the cause of the casing
pressure.
-357-
SKWl/011
After cleaning and visually inspecting the longstring on the pipe racks,
two joints of tubing were discarded; one due to a slight scar on the
threads and the other because the tubing body was partially crimped.
Although these joints were thrown out as a precautionary measure, they were
It was obvious when the longstring was pulled out of the well, that the
entire tubing string had been inadequately made-up during the initial
While rerunning the long string, effective quality control measures were
taken to ensure that the optimum make-up torque was applied to each
performing this workover, the August Attales No. 3 Well has been on
-358-
SKWl/011
OPELOUSAS ST. LANDRY SECURITIES CO. NO. 11 WELL
The Opelousas St. Landry Securities Co. No. 11 Well, like the August
Basal and Middle Cockfield Sands (see Figure 3). Shortly after completing
the subject well in April 1986, pressure began to develop on the casing.
Of the three injection wells discussed within this paper, the development
excess of 2,000 psig into both completions, the casing pressure never built
up by more than 200 psig per day, indicating that only a very minute
While preparing to pressure test the tubing head, water was discovered in
the test port indicating that a leak existed in the wellhead or the tubing
hanger (see Figure 7). To seal off the leak, plastic packing was injected
into the tubing head test port. Afterward, the tubing head was pressure
tested to 5,000 psig for one hour with no bleed off. Since performing this
pressures into both completions are greater than 2, 200 psig, with the
-359-
SKWl/011
CONCLUSIONS
during remedial work can ensure that tubing leaks are successfully
and an assurance that fresh water sands were not being endangered during
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
this paper. Thanks are also due Mark McClelland and Chuck Spisak for their
critical review of the manuscript and Ty Maxey for his field assistance in
-360-
SKWl/011
Figure 1: Ludeau Haas No. 14 Wellbore Schematic
~/'. ...
/
//
PBTD AT 8203'
F.C. AT 8216'
,
8.8 PPG IN ANNULUS - - 4/,'
#.1
f
2-3/8", 4.7+/FT., N-80,
EUE, SRO. TUBING
W/BEVELED COLLARS.
- - - - · - LANDING NIPPLE AT 7, 712'
7-518" PERMANENT
PACKER SET AT 7,977'
BASAL COCKFIELD SAND
=1==t---
P ER F S. AT 8,036'-64'
1-51&· PERMANENT
PACKER AT 7960'
BASAL COCKFIELD SO.
PERFS. AT 8,018'-50'
LUDEAU HAAS
Ludeau-Haas No. 14 Water Injection History
~ 14 WELL ----1
INJECTION RATE VS. TIME
1o' I
-
-
- 1-~ATEJiJ NJ._
-
-.r-·L..-r-i....__. 1·
JIL 11
. r-·-
L, f_j l.J _J
-
·~.___r·
"L.1 r-·
r.J
·-·
CJ
L..J
I-<
[j
-, 10 2
z
~
0
o._
w
J f MA MJ J A S 0 N 0 J f MA MJ J A S 0 N 0 J f MA MJ
1985 1986 1987
3000
2500
~
(.9
~
en
0... 2000 r·1., . r·-
1 I r-1 r·
L..J
O::'.
::J
I L.I LI
en 1500
en
w
O::'.
rj
0...
I
!ODO
I
1_j IL r·J
500
I
.
·1__ _J __,·-·1 I
.-
I
I. I
'---·
J f MA MJ J A S 0 N D J f MA MJ J A S 0 N D J f MA MJ
1985 1986 1987
--------------------------------···--·---
-364-
Figure 5:
WIRELINE~
PRESSURE SUPPLY LINE
ANNULAR
PRESSURE
TEST PROBE
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
COUPLING METER
TEST AREAS
GAS
GONT AINMENT
SLEEVE
w 0
--INTERNAL
TEST TOOL
-365-
FIGURE 6:
2500 2500
L.S.
2000 2000 950
w
a:
::::>
CD
CD
w
a: CSG.
100 D. 100 300
L.S.
I
w
200
S.S.
°'
°'I CSG.
100
S.S. L.S.
0 0 0
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100 120
TIME, MINUTES TIME, MINUTES TIME, MINUTES
a) b) c)
~ TUBING HANGER
THREADS
-367-
SOME ASPECTS OF MONITORING A WA TERFLOOD
VENTURA AVENUE FIELD WA TERFLOODS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the management of Texaco USA for permission to publish this
p::ip<~r. Special thanks are also extended to Ms. M. O. Sorensen and the local drafting personnel
for ti1eir assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. The authors are 'indebted to those
rnany engineers who have spent countless hours analyzing the information and formulating the
recommendation which have led to the current operating strategy for Texaco's Ventura Avenue
Field Wa terfloods.
-368-
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
I. INTRODUCTION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • l
VI. SUMMARY....................................................... 16
VII. APPENDIX • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 18
VIII. REFERENCES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 19
-369-
LIST OF TABLES
-370-
LIST OF FIGURES
Areal Conformance
16 Typical Temperature Survey Response, C-Block Unit Wa terflood, Well Lloyd //246
-371-
SOME ASPECTS OF MONITORING A WA TERFLOOD
ABSTRACT
Effective waterflooding relies, in part, on the efficient use of the injected water to
displace movable oil toward a producing well. Because of this requirement, steps must be
taken to direct water to the zones containing the oil reserves and data must be obtained to
reflect the true path of the water. Every barrel of water that does not go where it is intended
reduces the recovery and, consequently, negatively impacts the economics of the operation
Texaco operates two waterflood units in the Ventura Avenue Field. This field is massive
and, to waterflood it properly, careful attention to the quality and placement of the injected
water is required. Many techniques are used to help direct the water to the desired location.
They include mechanical means (external casing packers, cement, mechanical flow regulation,
selective perforations) and chemical means (acid treatments and crosslinked polymer). In
addition, downhole data are collected (from temperature, injection profile surveys and
Through these efforts, the integrity of the waterflood is maintained, the condition of the
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I. INTRODUCTION
As administered by the Division of Oil and Gas, the State of California laws governing the
Texaco USA and the Division of Oil and Gas have a mutual interest in accomplishing these
goals. Texaco (and its predecessor companies), by implementing specific engineering concepts,
has increased waterflood reserves in the Ventura Avenue Field and has simultaneously reduced
operating costs without impugning the integrity of the environment. This presentation will
discuss Texaco's experience in monitoring Ventura Avenue Field waterfl,ood projects utilizing
operations designed specifically to not only comply with state regulati,ons, but to do so
Waterflooding operations have been "without question responsible for the current high
level of producing rate and reserves with the U.S. (sic) and Canada. 11 1 Using the concepts
forwarded by individuals like F. F. Craig, Jr.l, proper engineering of any waterflood requires an
ever increasing understanding of the nature of the reservoir involved and how it reacts to the
injection of water. Improper placement of the water, known or unknown, results in, at best, an
Unbalanced areal coverage will not provide the displacement of available oil toward a
producing well. As depicted in Figure 1 the circles on the right and their size represent an
idealized, proportional volume of injected water. To the left, the oil between the ineffective
injection wells and the producers will eventually be moved away by the disproportionate
injection. The injection of uniform volumes in each well would prohibit such adverse
consequences. An equally important but less frequently considered view of inequitable water
injection is depicted in Figure 2. The oil that, in fact, should be produced can actually be
moved away resulting in a corresponding loss of reserves, if equal injection into each zone is not
-373-
present.
Efforts in the C-Block and D-Block Unit Waterfloods of the Ventura Avenue Field have
been designed to address these important issues through thoughtful study and careful operation.
A. Reservoir Description
The Ventura Avenue Field is on the Ventura Anticline in the northwestern onshore area of
the Ventura Basin, about two miles north of the city of San Buenaventura ("Ventura")
California (Figure 3). In this field, the Pliocene Age Sands of the Pico Formation are composed
of the Upper Pico and Lower Repetto members and consist of a sequence of sands, silts and
shales more than 10,000 feet thick. The Ventura Anticline, a major structural feature of the
Ventura Basin, is tightly folded and oriented in a generally east-west direction. It is broken into
major areas by two large longitudinal thrust faults known as the "Taylor" and the "Barnard".
These faults divide the Ventura Avenue Field into two major oil producing sections, the "C-
Block" and the "D-Block". The C-Block section is that portion of the field which lies between
these two faults and the D-Block section is located below the Barnard Fault (Figure 4).
Typically, these major producing blocks have been divided into many sand sequences which
are interrupted by shale laminations. The C-Block, for example, consists of twelve major sand
bodies, some of which are two hundred feet thick (Figure 5). The producing Blocks, then, are a
very complex series of reservoirs to which general waterflood principles must be judiciously
applied. Monitoring procedures which are useful for less complex operations are not always
applicable for the Ventura Avenue Field because of its large gross sand interval, the large
number of sands and the permeability variations. Table l is compendium of fluid and rock
properties for the Ventura Avenue Field, representative of the C-Block. The general
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B. Historical Background
The first commercial oil production in the Ventura Avenue Field was established in 1916
by the State Consolidated Oil Company with the completion of their well, Lloyd 112, which
produced 100 barrels per day of 500 gravity oil from a light oil zone at a depth of approximately
2,500 feet. By 1921, Associated Oil Company had acquired State Consolidated and in January
(1921) completed the first C-Block producer (129 barrels of oil per day, 3,778 feet total depth).
The following year, Lloyd 115 was completed at 1900 barrels of oil per day from a depth of 4,051
feet. C-Block total production peaked in 1929 at 30,000 barrels of oil per day.
By 1956, the C-Block producing rate had declined to 4,900 barrels of oil per day and a
waterflood feasibility study was begun. Completed in l ~58, this study pe~ined a waterflood
devE;!lopment plan and recommended a waterflood pilot to test injectivity and waterflood
respo11se of the C-Block sands. The first water injectivity test was initiated in August 1961
with the "Lloyd Lease (C-Block) Pilot Waterflood", consisting of one producer-conversion to salt
water injection, one producer-redrill completed as an injection well and five observation wells.
Two )'ears later, neither injection well had attained planned injection rates (965 and 770 barrels
of water per day) nor had waterflood response been noted in any observation well. A second
pilot waterflood (East VL&W) was commenced in 1964 and the Lloyd \Vaterflood Pilot was
Although performance of the second pilot was poor, the final waterflood development plan
was designed in 1967 and unitization agreements were signed in 1968 (final unitization July 1,
1970). The C-Block Unit Waterflood was divided from east to west into ten "Phases" denoting
individual sections of a staggered line-drive flood pattern (Figure 7) which included the C-2, 3
and 4 Sands from the "S" Sand marker to the "AT" Sand marker (shown earlier on Figure 5). By
January 1972, Phases 1 through 8 had been developed. Development of Phases 9 and 10 was
hampered by the lack of an operator's agreement with Shell Oil Company, the offset operator
to the west of the C-Block Unit. Although negotiations were vigorously pursued, final
-375-
agreements were not signed until August 1979 which finally enabled Phases 9 and l 0 to be
expanded to full-scale injection and the C-Block Unit to become fully developed.
Figure 8 is a composite graph of waterflood production histories for all ten C-Block Unit
Waterflood Phases. To date, Phase 8 has provided the highest waterflood response while
reflecting a relatively shallow decline. Phases 9 and 10 have been slow to respond because of
injection delays in that particular area, but are currently responding well. Phases 1, 2 and 3
responded only slightly to the C-Block Unit Waterflood because of water influx and reservoir
heterogeneity prevalent in those areas. These phases also recorded particularly severe declines
following peak response. Phase 5 responded well initially, but production declined rapidly as a
result of early water breakthrough. Ultimate waterflood recoveries, when adjusted to an acre-
foot basis, also indicate superior Phase 8 performance. Phases t+, 5, 6, and 7 ultimate
waterflood recoveries are substantially less and recoveries from Phases 1, 2 and 3 are very
poor.
Tidewater Oil Company began development of the Ventura Avenue Field "D-Block" Zones
in April 1931 with the completion of Lloyd 1157. At that time, this well's total depth of 8,823
feet made it the world's deepest producing oil well. There were many technological limitations
associated with drilling at these depths and development of the D-Block was, by necessity,
rather slow. However, by 1938, technology had advanced sufficiently to support additional
drilling and, while oil production peaked in 1949 at 23,600 barrels/day, active development of
A D-Block wa terflood plan was designed in 1970 and unitization was finalized in October
1978. Following a successful water injectivity test in 1979, the first D-Block Unit Waterflood
was initiated in January 1980 ("VL&W East D-6,7 Upper"). Figure 9 indicates the original
pattern and location of this waterflood relative to the D-Block Unit. Fourteen months later,
this waterflood was expanded. (Initially, an inferred fault was expected to form the west
boundary. By February 1981, it was apparent that the inferred fault either did not exhibit
-376-
enough displacement to seal against injection or that the injection water traveled around the
fault.) Because of the numerous fault blocks and the massive zone thickness associated with the
D-Block, many floods will be required to properly develop this unit's waterflood potential. A
total of fourteen wa te rfloods have been d · signed for initiation by the year 2008 (Figure 10).
Oil production in the waterflood area was averaging approximately 300 barrels/day when
full-scale water injection was initiated and, as shown on Figure 11, performance of this
Waterflooding porous media requires excellent water quality to aid in effective secondary
recovery. In the C-Block Unit Waterflood alone, poor water quality could account for
reductions in the proved reserves approaching 9.6 million barrels of oil. Because the sands in
the D-Block waterfloods generally have lower permeability, the impact on them could be
equally drama tic. Potential losses of reserves of this magnitude provide the basis for the
extensive water treating efforts in both waterfiooding projects and economically substantiate
the capital expenditures and assigned manpower required to maintain and improve the water
quality.
"Excellent" water quality is often a relative term which may constitute a wide range of
water standards. Frequently, a level of five to fifteen ppm total suspended solids is considered
as "excellent" quality. However, experts in oilfield water systems have established certain
criteria as listed in Table 2 which quantify more restrictive standards for high quality injection
water. Mechanical and chemical means, the effects of each on the other cannot be separated,
A. Mechanical Treatment
Because the surface locations of the C-Block and the D-Block Unit Waterfloods physically
overlap, processing the water for injection is performed as one major "facility" and then
-377-
shown in figure 12. Approximately 95,000 barrels of water are processed in the facilities for
injection each day. Water produced with and then separated from the oil amounts to about
70,000 barrels, 10,000 barrels come from saltwater source wells, and the remaining 15,000
The water produced along with the oil is first separated and then transferred to four
vessels ("WEMCOS") for removal of solids and oil remaining in the water after the initial
separation. Unfortunately, the efficiency of the "WEMCOS" does not meet our rigid standards
and further processing is necessary. Water from several source wells is added to the freshly
treated water stream and then it is all routed to two storage tanks. This water is then blended
with fresh water and transferred to tanks that supply water to five downflow multimedia "sand"
filters.
After being filtered, the water is held in more tankage that supplies both diatomaceous
earth (DE) filters and centrifugal pumps. This second filtration is to "polish" the water for
injection into the D-Block. About 30,000 barrels of water are injected into the D-Block daily.
The remaining 65,000 barrels processed on a daily basis are distributed to the C-Block injection
wells. Because of the remote location of many of the injection wells in the waterfloods, several
other "plant sites" are located throughout the field. Primarily, however, these are basically
stations containing limited tankage and pumps to boost the injection pressure.
Mechanically, with the help of some of the changes in the water imposed by chemical
treatment, the total suspended solids (TSS) levels of the water consistently and continuously are
reduced as a given body of water moves through the facilities. (Tankage is not sufficient to
hold the entire daily volume required by the flooding operations.) Figure 12 also indicates the
TSS levels at various points in the system. Overall, the facilities lower the TSS from an
average inlet level of 90 ppm to an average outlet level of less than l ppm.
The testing that provides this information uses filters which will collect particles larger
than 0.45 microns. Thus, not only is the TSS level down, the size of the material is quite small.
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These data verify that the technology being used in the water treatment facilities is capable of
B. Chemical Treatment
Major problems affecting Ventura Avenue Field water quality attacked by chemicals are
primarily related to scale and bacteria. Although a corrosion inhibitor program is in place,
corrosion problems in the field are not considered significant; however, corrosion does affect
Calcium carbonate, barium sulfate, calcium sulfate and iron sulfide precipitation is frequently
observed. Because all of the water in the C-Block and D-Block have high bicarbonate and
sulfate levels, chemically treating the water is necessary. Although many of the injection wells
are treated with acid periodically, appropriate treatment for scale has decreased the frequency
polyelectrolytes. Both types of chemicals aid in the removal of the precipitate rather than
allow deposition or continued crystal growth. Because of the complex nature of oilfield brines,
the myriad of chemical equilibria and the chemical kinetics, the precipitation mechanisms are
not well understood; scale inhibition is still closer to an art than a science.
Control of iron sulfide precipitation and the subsequent fouling of equipment is attempted
by reducing or removing the reagents used to form iron sulfide. Restricting the corrosion rate
reduces the soluble iron. Eliminating the presence of hydrogen sulfide removes a significant
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.•. cathodic protection.
2. Bacteria: Bacteria have associated with them the attendant problems affecting
corrosion and scale. The three strains commonly attacked in oil field operations are sulfate
reducing bacteria, iron bacteria and slime forming bacteria. In each case, detrimental effects
on the faciliites and, in turn, the solids content of the water, can be very deleterious.
The first rule for the successful application of any bactericide is to generate and then
maintain a "sterile" system. This means that all surface facilities should be purged of
biomasses in the tanks, along the walls of the pipes and in the filters. Because bacteria usually
prefer to grow in the nonturbulent zones of water systems and even under scale or debris, the
effectiveness of a biological control scheme will depend on the manner in which the scheme
overcomes the obstacles. Bacteria will remain very difficult to kill when they are shielded by
scale, debris or even their own secretions (biopolymers and iron hydroxide, for example).
In the Ventura Avenue Field, these obstacles are tackled by "pigging" the injection lines.
This means physically removing scale, debris and even biomass from the tubular goods by
forcing a scraping device, a "pig", through the lines. Additionally, the filters and the tanks are
A new biocide program using chlorine dioxide has been implemented in the Ventura
Avenue Field. Many months of optimization (which included the monitoring of biocide levels,
introduction of hydrogen sulfide scavenging and ferrous iron oxidation chemicals, changes in the
frequency, duration and location of the chemical addition and cleaning of the surface lines,
tanks and filter vessels) have yielded the values indicated on Figure 12.
When compared to the requirements for excellent water quality listed in Table 2, the
water treatment efforts for the C-Block and D-Block injection fluid approach ideal. In general,
suspended solids are -nm or less, oxygen levels are less than 10 ppb, hydrogen sulfide levels
are less than 0.1 ppm, corrosion rates exceed the guidelines and the soluble iron is essentially
zero.
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IV. MONITORING TECHNIQUES
Injection profile surveys are the primary means by which the entry of the injected water
is monitored. The method commonly used is fluid velocity profiling which involves timing the
movement of an injected slug of radioactive material in the flowing stream. This procedure is
effective for determining the zones receiving fluid injection. In addition, it is diagnostic for
fluid movement behind casing, leaking packers and evaluation of well stimulation procedures
Shown in Figure 13 is the typical configuration of a radioactive tracer tool. The casing
collar locator (CCL) is a sensor that responds to the increased metal density at the casing
coupling. This information is used to Correlate the tracer survey data with the correct depth.
The ejector port is the point from which the radioactive chemical {usually either lodine-131 or
lridium-192) is injected. Finally, two gamma ray detectors with known spacing lie below the
ejector.
An example of injection profile survey results can be seen in Figure 14. These data
reflect the sensitivity of profile on the rate within the C-Block but also show the resolution of
the information available. To explain further, at an injection pressure of 1100 psi, five
identifiable zones are receiving water injection and, with the exception of the uppermost
interval, the distribution is more or less equitable for each interval. With an injection pressure
of 1800 psi, additional zones are taking water, although the water is more confined. Finally, at
higher pressures, still a different distribution is observed. These types of data provide the
reservoir engineer and operations personnel with the basis upon which to make informed
B. Spinner Surveys
Another type of device used to follow the water as it leaves the wellbore is the "spinner"
tool. This tool, conceptually shown in Figure 15 is nothing more than a flow meter located on
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the bottom of a cable. The "spinner" is simply a propeller that spins in response to the water
flowing past. The rate of spinning is detected by a receiving coil which surrounds a magnet
The simplicity of the tool makes its operation easy to understand, but, it is also limited by
flow rate and orientation in the hole. However, these limitations are well known and can be
overcome for many situations. The spinner surveys are often conducted along with the
C. Temperature Surveys
Reservoir temperatures in the C-Block and D-Block are higher than the temperature of
the injection water and this difference in temperature allows identification of the zones that
have received significant amounts of injection water. As the cooler water is injected, the rock
and fluid temperatures are lowered. By recording the downhole temperature with respect to
depth, any cooling observed can be distinctly attributed to the action of the injection water.
Figure 16 shows the results of a temperature survey that was conducted in a C-Block well
(Lloyd /1246). Several areas of cooling can be observed. Substantial cooling has occurred in the
"AC", the "AE" and the "AK" Sands with some cooling also seen in the "AA" Sand. Had no
influence by the injected water occurred, the temperature survey would have shown the normal,
Various chemicals have been used to follow the movement of the injected water through
the reservoir. Although the information from injection profile surveys and spinner surveys is
extremely useful, these data only indicate the depths at which the water is exiting the wellbore.
They do not provide insight on the movement beyond the wellbore. By adding a "tag" to the
water that can be analyzed in the subsequently produced fluid, communication between
injection wells and producing wells can be defined. To accomplish this task, however, the
chemical "tags" must (1) not react in the formation chemically, (2) must move with the injected
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fluids and not suffer adsorption, and (3) must be detectable in the produced fluids. To date,
fluorescent dyes, ions and radioisotopes have been used in the C-Block Unit Wa terflood with
good success.
For tests in which very rapid communication between injection wells and producing wells
is suspected, flourescent dyes are recommended. Their large losses through adsorption and
reactivity with reservoir constituents prevent a prolonged life. Analytically, the presence of
longer duration. Although nitrate and sulfate may be used as tracers, thiocyanate has been
proved more successful. Thiocyanate can be detected colorimetrically after complexation with
ferric iron; however, ion chromatographic techniques provide more reliable information with
Other ionic chemical tracers should not be used in the C-Block Reservoir. Chloride,
bromide, iodide and phosphate are all present with inconsistent levels in the produced water.
Lithium is expected to exhibit a significant exchange problem with the cations weakly bonded in
the reservoir clay material and has a relatively high cost. Finally, fluoride has a very limited
Radioisotopes are the best tracers for the long term, complex, flow-studies. Although the
major disadvantages are the costs and inconvenience of the analytical services, they have
better characteristics than either of the other types of tracers for the following reasons:
... Naturally occurring background levels of the radioisotopes are usually zero •
Recent chemical tracer work has produced very good results. In an extensive test to
define the nature of the interaction of a C-Block injection well, Hartman 1158, and a producing
well, Hartman 119, a combination of fluorescent dye, tritiated water and thiocyanate was used.
-383-
Because either the "AK" Sand or the "AH" Sand was suspected of contributing excessive water
to Hartman 119, several tracers were needed for primary and confirming information. The final
analysis identified the "AK" Sand as the offending zone when the injection pressure was above
1000 psi. Subsequent reduction in the injection pressure at the "AK" Sand has resulted in lower
water production with no loss of oil production; a more effective use of the water.
should have been detected, it was not. This observation has fostered speculation that the
sulfate moiety may have been consumed by the activity of the resident bacteria.
Because the Ventura Avenue Field waterfloods are in structurally thick reservoirs with
multiple layers of sandstone and shale, the equitable vertical distribution of the injected water
across the waterflood interval has been a severe, vexing, continual problem for our engineers.
Since waterflood inception, many procedures have been tried, and, unfortunately, many have
failed to materially improve injectivity profiles. The C-Block injection interval includes as
much as 1,000 feet of net oil sand and several hundred noncommunicating individual sand layers.
The designed injection rate is 5 BW /day/foot of sand; however, some sands will take no water
while some "thief" zones take over 100 BW/day /foot of sand. The majority of the injection
wells have 7-inch cemented casing, perforated at intervals with two 1/2-inch holes per foot.
Many older producing wells have been converted to injection wells and their slotted-liner
completions make injection profile improvement very difficult. Left uncontrolled, water will
preferentially enter the zone which yields the least amount of resistance. For these reasons,
care is exercised to specifically direct the injected water, again, by both mechanical and
chemical means.
A. Mechanical Methods
1. External Casing Packers: The primary cementing of the casing within the wellbore
is very important to the integrity of the waterflood. External casing packers have been added
-384-
to the methods of segregating vertical sections of a given wellbore in an effort to improve the
which an inflation valve system is mounted. This design, illustrated in Figure 17, allows the
sleeve to expand upward from the bottom as it is being filled with cement only after the
primary cementing operation has been completed. Placement of this type of packer in the new
wells being drilled (or redrilled because of failure) eliminates fluid migration behind the casing
into more than one of the sands in the C-Block and, as has been mentioned, the variety of rock
characteristics will not allow the desired distribution of injection water over a large interval.
Therefore, regulation of the flow between sand bodies having diverse qualities is required to
Figure 18 illustrates the type of flow regulation currently being used in the C-Block and,
to a much more limited extent, in the 0-Block. The assemblies consist of packers to isolate
zones intended for injection and a side-pocket mandrel containing a flow regulating orifice to
limit the flow rate by generating a backpressure. Usually, no more than five packers with four
mandrels have been successful because of the difficulties with their operation. Once installed,
the flow rates can be adjusted by changing the size of the orifice within each mandrel. This
operation can be performed remotely (by "wireline'' recovery) so that the entire assembly does
This method of controlling the injected water has proved to be the most effective
technique when several zones of significantly different permeabilities are open to injection in a
may be needed in existing wells. External casing packers have not been used on many wells and
-385-
were not used on any wells prior to 1985. Routine procedures for these situations require the
Usually, the casing is perforated with six holes, sixty degrees apart along a 1.5 foot casing
section. This orientation and low-angle phasing of the perforating holes provide a very good
chance of intersecting existing channels in the primary cement sheath. Following a "spearhead"
of hydroflouric acid to dissolve the drilling mud filter cake, large volumes of cement slurries
are generally beneficial to permit casing wellbore annulus fill up with cement.
After an attempt is believed successful, the casing is reperforated above and below the
segregation to pressure test the zones, ensuring the integrity of the procedure.
Reservoir and Operations Engineers and Development Geologists, the maintanence and plans for
the waterflood are carefully thought through. Each new project (involving new wellbores and
the maintenance to replace failed wells) is designed to selectively perforate specific major
For example, flooding selective sands is a viable option (assuming the recoverable
reserves assigned to the project can make the project economic). This technique certainly will
mechanically restrict the water only to those zones thought to contain moveable oil and
improve the effectiveness of the injected water. However, not many areas are available in the
The nature of the deep waterflooding operations in the D-Block are essentially selective
sand floods. The difference in reservoir pressures requires special measures and the difficulty
of achieving good mechanical isolation at depths greater than 10,000 feet make the flooding of
multiple sands less attractive. The history of the C-Block waterflood suggests that initial
selective flooding of the C-Block may have resulted in a much more manageable project today.
B. Chemical Methods
fluids, injectivity unfortunately decreases in the water injection wells. This loss of injectivity
-386-
is usually caused by damage from scale deposition and particulate matter. The loss is
monitored by a gradual but continual increase in the injection pressure and, eventually, when
the maximum available pressure is reached, a decrease in the injection rate occurs. To rectify
this damage, wells are usually treated with acid in an attempt to restore the well closer to its
former condition. Unfortunately, the original conditions can never be attained again.
Although the details of the entire procedure are quite involved, the usual procedure for an
acid treatment consists of three "stages" of injection using 20 gallons of an acid mixture per
foot of open interval. The entire perforated interval is 0 washed" in two-foot increments using
one stage at a time. The composition of typical acid stages in a program is given in Table 3.
The acid provides significant improvements to the injectivity. As the quality of the
injected water continues to improve, less frequent acidization programs will be required.
Because of the reduced frequency of acidization, water will be entering the zones preferred by
the engineering staff for a much longer time and the adverse consequences of reduced
mechanical methods in the redistribution of injected water was implemented in the C-Block
Unit Waterflood. This project was certified as a qualified tertiary recovery method under the
Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1980 and consisted of a series of injection well treatments designed
to curtail the ability of certain zones to accept the injected water while not impairing the
injectivity of other sands. The goal of each treatment was to provide a means to more evenly
distribute the injection water when no other method would be available. Again, the result of
the treatments would be a more effective placement of the injecte{f water and would yield a
more efficient recovery of incremental oil. The results of a well treatment are shown in the
conceptualized drawing of Figure 19. As shown, the polymer enters a zone previously open to
water injection and effectively restricts further flow. The water is then forced into areas less
-387-
Each well selected as a treatment candidate was extensively reviewed to determine how
better to redistribute the injected water. Usually, a sequential injection of a polymer and
crosslinking agent followed by injection of polymer fluid containing a crosslinking agent formed
the basis for the treatment. Each treatment was specifically tailored to the conditions of the
individual well. As the complex nature of the process became better understood by the project
engineers, the ability of the process to intentionally reduce the water injection in selected
zones improved and, as a consequence, the redistribution of the injected water occurred as
planned.
Data from the injection profile surveys taken following the treatments conducted in 1985
reduction in daily water injection into the sands receiving the polymer treatment was about 36
percent (from 876 to 562 barrels of water per day). For the individual treatments, the best
reduction of injectivity was 76 percent while the lowest was actually an increase of about 12
percent.
However, each well treatment resulted in an increase in injection into the sands targeted
for an increase, as depicted in Figure 21. On the average, the eight treatments resulted in a 38
percent increase of injection. As a result of these treatments, in total, about 2,371 barrels of
Although the project was planned to continue for several years, the dramatic drop in the
price of oil made these expensive, individual well treatments uneconomic. Consequently, the
VI. SUMMARY
Historically, water entry surveys performed in the C-Block Unit wells indicated that,
generally, the highest water production occurred in those zones of greatest water injection,
confirming zone isolation with no apparent crossflow (Figures 22 and 23, Tables 4 and 5). Static
temperature surveys, conducted at very regular intervals, substantiate that none of the injected
-388-
water is moving out of the targeted waterflood zones. Figure 24 clearly reflects that the "AH"
and "AK" Sands have been successfully flooded while the "AM" through the "AQ" intervals
remain basically unflooded. Utilizing procedures discussed in this paper, the art of "selective
waterflooding" is now being applied to these less permeable sands with promising results.
Much has been said here about "technology" and the "proper application" of that
technology. However, we must also address the assimilation and the interpretation of these
data. As with any new project, hindsight has fostered the creation of invaluable information
systems for the C-Block Waterflood which can (if properly used) immediately denote specific
problem areas. Conversely, these same data banks can often affirm the successful pursuit of
increased reserves recovery by waterflooding. (These monitoring systems are already in place
review fluid levels, production and injection rates, as well as injectivity profiles. Complex
waterflood projects are best reviewed on an individual well basis; composite data per flood have
Having arrested the waterflood base decline rate (as shown on Figure 25) the C-Block Unit
Waterflood is considered extremely successful. However, this pinnacle will not be sustained
wellbores), improved injection well profiles and the continuing stimulation of producing wells
will be favorably reflected in reserves recovery. Our waterflood achievement in the Ventura
Avenue Field is also a direct and positive manifestation of the skillful application of proper
oilfield technology blended with the vital synergism of the reservoir engineer and operating or
field personnel. Through this fundamental collaboration, we have learned to emphasize correct
operating strategy, rather than merely relying on proper procedures. As a result, Texaco's
success is twofold: ••• increased reserves recovery with its associated economic rewards and
... the secure knowledge that the integrity of the surface and subsurface ecological systems has
been preserved.
-389-
VIL APPENDIX
cp x 1 x lo-3* = P2 • s
ft x 3.048 x l0-1* = m
Of (OF - 32)/1.8 = oc
gal x 3.78411 = l.
in x 2.54* = cm
-390-
vm. REFERENCES
"ork, 1971, p. 9.
Much of the information in this paper has been summarized from the following internal
3. "Ventura District 1987 Capital Budget", Texaco USA, June 24-, 1986.
4-. "Water Injection Well Monitoring Ventura Avenue Field", Goble, P.D., Reis, T.A., and
5. "Here's How Getty Controls Jnjectivlty Profiles in Ventura", Froning, S. P., Birdwell, R,f.:
-391-
TABLE 1
Reservoir OF 160
ROCK
SATURATION
OIL
-392-
TABLE 1 (concluded)
Na (ppm) l O,lt67
Ca (ppm) lt61
Mg (ppm) 205
Cl (ppm) 17 ,097
HC03 (ppm) 750
S01t (ppm) 7.5
B (ppm) 56
ph 7.7
GAS
-32.3-
TABLE 2
Our experience indicates the following general requirements are necessary for excellent water
quality:
HzS Zero
-394-
TABLE 3
STAGE DESCRIPTION
1000 gallons of iron chelating agent, 1.0 percent acetic acid for buffer,
solvent.
1.0 percent acetic acid for buffer, 5 poun~s per 1000 gallons of a
reducing agent.
1000 gallons of iron chelating agent, 1.0 percent acetic acid for buffer, 5
solvent.
-395-
TABLE 4
Floodable
Sand Vol. Gross PV lnj. To 3/1/84 96
Za
(AC.FT.)
24,940
•
.20
(MBbls.)
38,697
(MBbls.)
26,505
PV
68
-396-
TABLE 5
BWPD
Lloyd #56 Lloyd 199 Lloyd 1/104 Lloyd 1142 Lloyd #226 VUrW 12 VL&W #160 McGonigle 143 Marker
Markers S/7/7S 10/21/74 12/30/S2 4/2S/7S 12/16/77 9/5/78 12/26/79 5/20/76 Totals
AREAL CONFORMANCE
w
I
'°I
o:i
•
8 •
8
0 •
•
8 •
•
8
0 8
POOR INJECTION BALANCE AND COVERAGE
8 8
GOOD INJECTION BALANCE AND COVERAGE
Figure 2
VERTICAL PERFORMANCE
SATURATION FRONTS
t
- -- - OIL -
--
O IL
t
- - -
-
- OIL
- -
-399-
Figure 3
\
T T
5
N
VENTURA
\ 5
N
SESPE
I TE MESCAL
T T
4 4
N N
I
~
0
0
I
T
2
N
T
I
N
T
I
SCALE IN MILES
s
0
li i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i~i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ili i i i i i i i i i i i li i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ili i i i i i i i i i ~
6 12 18
Figure 4
,,---- 1
I
/
I
I
I
C·BLOCK
UNIT
D·BlOCK UNIT
-401-
Figure 5
LLOYD 244
Za
N3
AC
0
(..)
a:
0
t-
t-
UJ
Cl.
UJ
a:
AR
AS
AT
-402-
Figure 6
_,.------~
"HARTMAN"
-------.....------------------,
....
"McGONIGLE'
TRACT 5A _J'"---1
"LLOYD CORP."
"V.L.&W."
I
~ "LLOYD"
0
w
I
LEGEND
- - - - C-BLOCK UNIT
- - - D-BLOCK UNIT
Figure 7
UNIT BOUNDARY
I
~
0
~
I
10000
9000
1000
6000 PHASE 2-
..,..I UNITIZATSON
0
Q
~
Vl
I
0.: 5000
Q EAST PHASE 1
m
Vl&W PLOT
4000
"
0
1961 1966 1971 1976 1981
Figure 9
VENTURA AVENUE FIELD
V.L.&W. EAST D-6, 7U WATERFLOOD
D-BLOCK UNIT
Waterflood
( Area
V.L.&W.
WATERFLOOD AREA
LEGEND
,f WATER ~CTOR
o PRODUCER
-406-
Figure 10
0-6 ZONE
I
.i::-
0
'-J
I
0-7U ZONE
------.-... __ -
1994
.....
1996
/
D-7L ZONE
,,,r--------
1994
-
WATERFLOOD
AREA
L loyd CJ
\
/
------- Hutman IIlllillJ
V.L.&W. ~
Weat ~
V.L.&W.
Central
V.L.&W.
£eat
Figure 11
100M
WATER INJECTION
10M
--- --- 1M
PRIMARY OIL --------
--
-408-
Figure. 12
BIOCIDE
INJECTION TO ~ _.._____ _ _ _ ___
D-BLOCK 0.4 ppm TSS - - - . 1.0 ppm TSS
(30 MBBLS/DAY) 100 COLONIES/Ml SRB 100 COLONIES/ML SRB ..,.. INJECTION TO
C-BLOCK
___
OXIDIZER/BIOCIDE
.,..
PRODUCED WATER
___, ___ WE MC OS
D.E. Fil TERS
( 65 MBBLS/DA Y)
POST-FILTER TANKS
I (70 M8BLS/DAY)
~
0
\0
I
MULTIMEDIA
SAND Fil TERS
10 ppm TSS
SOURCE WELLS 106 COLONIES/ML SRB
(10 MBBLS/DAY)--
PRE-FILTER TANKS
SOURCE TANKS
LAKE CASITAS
WATER
(15 MBBLS/DAY)
Figure 13
TOP OF
..,___ GAMMA DECTGR
TOP OF
.,___ _ GAMMA DECTOR
-410-
Figure 14
LLOYD 234
INJECTION PROFILE SURVEYS
7100
8EG. a•
7150
A 8 c
8/29/83 1/30/83 7/1183
450 BWPD 750 BWPD 850 BWPD
1100 pal 1800 psi 2200 psi
7200
17
87
42
7250 ::
..
88
78
7300
I
9
11
21
aa
7350
11
78
7400
7450
0 10 10 ao 40 10 0 10 20 10 0 10 20 30
INJECTION RA TE
B/D/FT
7500
-411-
Figure 15
-412-
Figure 16
TEMPERATURE °F
4000'
120•
Za
AA
6000'
AH
AO
STATIC
AP
TEMPERATURE
OF
8000' AQ 1
120• 121• 138° 1.oM• 162°
TEMPERATURE °F
-413-
Figure 17
MUD DISPLACED
FROM ANNULUS
-414-
Figure 18
.::., ::
:"'·.''.......
·
.·:: ·. -: ~ . '· :
... ..··.
::
.:
·'
. .': ·'.'·
.....:· '•
•'.
:,
'"'';!~~
:..:.::·s\::;:· ..
-~:.:_~:·:·:.·.. :
Figure 19
,, •••
.. ·· • ••. Q.
·."'
• ·.'" • I ' • I : • • ' I .
. .. , ..........
a:
w
z
..I
Q
w
....
<
a:
...0a:
w
n.
FLUID FLOW
• ... LEGEND
f&\\\\\\i WATER
(':.·'.·:.. ·.:··~
i·.~:·:-::;.·: ·; :1 OIL
~~
WATER,
1. FLUID ENTERS STREAM TUBE - A SOME OIL
t.·.:... :.
I. FLUID DIVERTED TO ITREAM TUBE - B
.··~
• I •
. 0.
~· •
.
•
.. FORMATION
-416-
Figure 20
C-BLOCK UNIT
POL VMER TREATMENT RESULTS
TREATED SANDS
-
1500 0
....
I
.J::-
......
-..J
I
0
-
0
0
1000 0
IO
co
500
o....,_......_
AVG. L-49 L-270 L-216 V-14 L-67 H-12a L-62
Figure 21
C-BLOCK UNIT
POLYMER TREATMENT RESULTS
UNTREATED SANDS
-
0
CD
1500'
I
~
......
00
I
1000'
600'
o .....- -
AVG. L-49 H-64 L-270 L-216 V-14 L-67 H-12a L-62
Figure 22
GROSS PORE VOLUME INJECTION
C-BLOCK UNIT WA TERFLOOD, PHASES 1 - 10
.80
z
0
~
I 0
~
.....
\0
..,w
I
~
w .60
:t
:::>
-I
0
>
w
tt:
0 .40
~
Za AA AC AE AGa AH AK AM AO AP AQ1 AS
SANDS
Figure 23
600
I
.i:-- Q
.
N
0 a: 500
~
I
.
m
400
300
Za AA AC AE AGa AH AK AM AN AO AP AQ1 AR AS
MARKER
Figure 24
INJECTION PROFILE STATUS
C-BLOCK UNIT WA TERFLOOD
.....
~
•
- 30 ..J
0
>
••-~
!::
z
:::>
=~1 ..J
<
.,; •-~•§ - 20 .....
0
I
.f:"-
N
......
: I ~=~1
: I ~-~~
~- ~i
~-~ -
...
iiiii
iiiii
.....
I.I.
0
I
~
~ ~ m~I
~
=~I ~=~§
-~1 ~:i!i
11 z
w
I-
~-
~a ~ 111~§
~ ·~
~Ii !Jlj ~-~~ . ~II§!§ ~·!iii ~
Ill;;; -~ i ~-~§ !I -- 0
10 a:
w
!~
~
~ 1\1!'.'!~ ~it~~ ~Ill§~ ~ -
1111
a
1111
~l!ll i ~=~I
-~- ~=ii
;;;
~~=~i
·~~
~-~§
~II
~fl
I
~fjj § ~=~~ ~=i~ ~=~~ ~II~
~ 111-!i ~fl•~ ~·~
~=~1 ~~Iii~§=~§ ~-
~II
~11~1I !l!
~ ~
~Ille
~1111 ~ ~ ~
~
~ ~~ ~1
~1
a.
~=~§ ~
_.. ·-
im ~ ~
~=~1 ~ ~-~I
il\llliii
~ ·~1 ~·~§
Oi
~
~·!!!,
1111;;;;
~llll ~ ~
1:;,, Iii;;;;; ~!~I ~ •;1 ~~~~ ~ Ill iii -· .,. Ill !!! lfi!I - ~ ~ ... ~~ ~-"'
~
~-= - ~ "'I. - !!
•N · -
Za AA AC AE AGa AH AK AM AO AP AQ1 AS
SANDS
LEGEND
8000
7500
-
c
Q. 7000
5~ DECLINE RATE
I
""'
-
0
m
w
....
N < 8500
N
I a:
z
0
....
0
:::>
c 6000
0
a:
Q.
5500
5000 ---1~9~7-9_____
19_e_o____1_9_e_1--...--1-9_5_2_____1_9_5_3______1~9~a-4----1-9_a_s________.._
YEAR
STATUS OF MECHANICAL INTEGRITY TESTING
IN MISSISSIPPI
by
Lynnette A. Gandl and Desiree A. Landry
I. ABSTRACT
integrity has been witnessed for the last two years by Ken E. Davis
Georgia. Initially, only those wells used for secondary recovery were
tested. The testing conducted from September 1985 through March 1987
well failures has been observed at some sites, and some unusual well
-423-
II. INTRODUCTION-DEFINITIONS
injection tubing and the protection casing. A file review of all well
includes surface or production casing set below the base of the USDW,
Other functions carried out by KEDA for the EPA have included
plans approved by EPA are followed. Wells scheduled for plugging and
improperly plugged abandoned oil and gas exploration wells within the
-424-
Unannounced inspections have also been performed on wells which
inspector.
minimum of 300 psig and that this pressure must hold for a minimum of
tests have been run at a minimum of 500 psig in order to meet the
percentage.
1. Pressure Decreases
-425-
---The casing can leak through a corroded spot or a parted joint
of casing,
---The injection tubing can leak from the annulus into the
drops due to contact with the cold injection tubing, and the
2. Pressure Increases
Pressure increases due to lack of internal mechanical
is placed into the annulus on the day of the test, and the
-426-
pressured up. When cold fluid is placed in a deep borehole, the
could mask a small leak and therefore such a test can not be
considered valid.
Large Operators
the failed wells which have been retested almost all passed
-427-
Saall Operators
majors with few wells in the state and/or few wells which
Well Locations
Counties had 28 each tested, and Pike county had 19. The
USDW contamination.
-428-
annular space is present above the top of the cement a pressure
described below.
upper and lower packers, and one below the lower packer
-429-
each packer. In one case a third set of plugged
are not aware of any wells currently being used in this manner.
Casing and cementing records for each well tested are also
section.
-430-
aquifer consists of the lower portion of the Lower Wilcox Group and
in some adjacent counties have been injecting into the Lower Wilcox
applications for these Lower Wilcox wells in Wayne County have been
denied when application is made, and the wells have been ordered shut
injection into the zone, and the water quality degradation which has
already occurred.
some of the areas near and within Wayne County. Therefore, EPA is now
order to verify whether or not wells which have not been permitted
-431-
1. Unannounced Inspections
Since August 1986, wells which have been denied permits and
been requested by EPA but have not been received have also been
but are not operating when inspected. In some cases they are
other cases the well has apparently be.en plugged and abandoned
connected injection lines, and new gauges and valves, but were
not operating.
-432-
2. Witness Plugging and Abandonaent Procedures
wells and dry holes are both required to be plugged if they are
limit, and
The casing has been pulled when possible, and has generally been
USDW are essentially the same, and one continuous plug has been
set from 100 feet below the USDW to 100 feet above the base of
-433-
perforated zones or badly deteriorated casing have been plugged
through the unplugged well bores of abandoned oil and gas wells
-434-
V. SUMMARY
Through March 1987, a total of 23 ~ of the Class II injection
VI. REFERENCES
-435-
~:....-809......;t~E~N~N;.;..:,E~S~S~E~E;...____...
.,.........______~"""'""~_..88"
--
I--__ rONIOIOC i
.HUMPHIEYS : i
NOIMtS NOIUltl
,.. !"· i .J
/ATTAL• W IH~fON
/ ,-----~----··- -
....... '-.....:::..-.-i . ..
ALABAMA
LAU0tt0Al(
GEOIGl
1
ST 0 H
0 to 20 MllfS
l I
JA(llSOH I I
-HAlllSON 0 IO 20 JO llLOMUfOS
...
-436-
A. TYPICAL CLASS ll WELL; ONE TUBING, B. TWO TUBINGS; SIDE BY SIDE,
ONE .PACKER, TWO PACKERS,
-437-
WELL INTEGRITY MAINTENANCE USING PUMPABLE SEALANTS
Halliburton Services
ABSTRACT
In this paper many of the diverse causes for failure of Class II disposal
wells to pass state and federal integrity tests are discussed, as well as
methods for identifying these causes. Experience with many well histories has
shown that, because of their diverse nature, not all of these problems can be
pressures, and the nature of the fluids against which a seal is required. Port-
true solution type sealants capable of entering the formation matrix, micro-
INTRODUCTION
In the oil and gas production industry, wells used to reinject brine, to
aid in enhanced oil recovery, and for storage of hydrocarbons are referred to as
certain standards to prevent leakage into ground water aquifer zones and/or to
-438-
mechanical integrity tests (MIT) are performed to establish the condition of the
wells.
continuous and competent cement sheath around the casing helps prevent the
exposure, however if the sheath was not proper when installed or has failed
from subsequent damage, casing may corrode. Early completion practices did
not provide cement all the way to the surface, so casing was exposed to
2. Tubing leaks inside the casing can cause corrosion from inside out. Where
3. Fractured confining zones may allow fluid migration even when the well
cementing, a technique that is also used to stop fluid migration through frac-
tured confining zones behind sound pipe strings. Externally catalyzed silicates
or injection wells. Also, an epoxy based system has been successfully used to
make a high strength bond between pipe and cement, thus plugging microannuli and
collar leaks.
This paper discusses the above methods briefly and provides an extensive
-439-
diagnostic methods apply to all sealing methods discussed.
DIAGNOSTIC METHODS
a damaged disposal well. The original cement bond log might establish the
condition of the cement sheath and locate top of cement (TOC). If squeeze
cementing has been done, logs conducted after the squeeze are needed.
Temperature logs may help locate TOC. These logs are recordings of incre-
mental temperature changes occurring while the logging tool is lowered into the
well. From these records a temperature curve can be made; the curve may
injecting short half-life radioactive isotopes into fluids being pumped into the
well and monitoring their route with a gamma ray logging tool. The route and
rate of fluid travel relative to the physical geometry of the system may
indicate casing leaks, channels, packer and bridge plug leaks, etc. 3
Fluid movement turns a propeller in the tool which directly measures the fluid
By isolating the hole with packers, the magnitude of the casing leak may be
as short as 3 in.5
Although the foregoing tests may be expensive and time consuming, the
-440-
PORTLAND CEMENTS
The method most commonly used to repair casing leaks has been, and is now,
to squeeze portland cement slurries into the spaces and voids around the casing,
When performed successfully, a squeeze cement job can plug leaks by forming a
control, thickening time, and cement density are designed for each squeeze job
Best results are usually achieved by preceding the squeeze with a thin
fluid such as water to open and clean the zone of interest. The squeeze slurry
itself should have a sufficient thickening time and proper low fluid loss
these properties are not correctly selected, (1) the cement may dehydrate too
soon and leave the pipe plugged, or (2) a squeeze may enter in the wrong loca-
tion which would prevent slurry from penetrating the intended zone. 6
the squeeze as excess pressure can break down a weak formation. Foam cements
have provided significantly higher success ratios in controlling water zones and
applied to the most severe channels behind pipe where brine flow is severe
enough to dilute conventional squeeze cement slurries. This system has been
used extensively in flood operations to improve oil/water ratio, and for repair
of casing leaks.8 9
ECSS may consist of two or three fluids, applied in either two or three
-441-
stages. The process is designed so that chemicals in the second stage react
this plug is sufficient to complete the job, then the process is two fluid, two
stage. In the three stage process, portland cement is pumped behind the plug.
cause a gelling reaction in the second stage. Although the material used in
Stage 2 will react with most formation brines, use of the pref lush (Stage 2)
helps achieve the rapid formation of a plugging gel when chemicals of the two
stages meet.
with the brine after being displaced from the tubing to form a gel which inhi-
bits flow through previously open channels. This chemical has a viscosity of
200 cp, and can carry up to 10 lb ( 4. 5 kg) of inert filler per gallon. To
obtain bridging in severe cases, silica sand and other special materials may be
added.
cement slurry. Since the first two stages drastically reduce flow within
channels, the leading edge of the Stage 3 slurry is able to combine with the
Stages 1 and 2 should be pumped at pressure lower than the fracture gra-
dient. By the time Stage 3 enters the flow channel, a pressure buildup should
occur but the fracture gradient should not be exceeded. If pressure does not
build up, sequential injection of Stage 2 and 3 components are repeated until a
-442-
EPOXY-BASED SEALANT
high-strength, true solution sealants bond tenaciously to both pipe and cement,
and success ratios in treating small leaks are high. If the leak to be repaired
is more than 5 bbl (0.79 m3 )/day, inert fillers such as silica should be added
accelerator speeds the reaction by (1) reacting along with the hardener compound
to accelerate its reaction with resin and (2) reacting independently with the
epoxy resin, which further hardens the resin. 1 0 Although this system is
General
squeezing off casing leaks and re-establishing zone isolation. ICSS sealants
offer flexibility of job design, competent sealing, casing protection, and ease
of removal.
as SS-I (low level of silicate content), and SS-II (high level of silicate).
SS-I is used to provide a moderate seal that can be removed later. SS-II is
formulated t:o enter the matrix and form a permanent seal against moderate to
high pressures.
-443-
SS-I Sealants
Properties
SS-I sealants are composed of water and inorganic silicates routinely used
tions. The co-reactant gel initiators, dissolved in fresh water, react with
silicates, become part of the gel network, and do not leach out with time.
physically. 12
which the corrosion rate of J-55 grade tubing surrounded by SS-I gel was com-
Inert fillers
such as diatomaceous earth, which is the optimum filler for SS-I, yielding
slurry density of 9.2 lb/gal (1.1 kg/L). The nature of this inert filler is
such that it allows some slow fluid loss through the structure of the diatoms
formation loss of some fluid into the formation is desirable, since that fluid
also has some gelling qualities. Conversely, fluid loss must be limited so the
slurry will not dehydrate. Qualities of diatomaceous earth inert filler provide
Another filler in the composite slurry helps keep the other fillers in
suspension so that pipe removal is easier. Settled and compacted fillers can
-444-
A third filler in the composite slurry is a bridging agent that helps
behind the pipe and a 9. 2 lb /gal (1. 1 kg/L) slurry inside the pipe, too much
fluid loss could cause a continuing "U-tube effect", using a high volume of
All the inert fillers in the composite slurry provide added strength to the
gelled product.
The texture of SS-I gel is best described as friable (easily crumbled) yet
rigid. When gelled in a container, the gel retains the shape of the container
when removed, thus the term "rigid gel" is used. The unsupported gel can be
broken up by very light physical disturbances, after which it does not congeal.
Broken pieces of the gel can act as check valves across pin holes and split pipe
openings.
to penetration by a sharply pointed cone wei&hing 200 gm (Fig. 3). Neat SS-I
1. Two 10 in. (254. 0 mm) x 2 in. (50. 8 mm) stainless steel reservoirs were
plumbed together to allow series flow in the vertical direction (Fig. 4).
The bottom portion of the lower reservoir contained approximately 200 grams
of No. 70-170 U.S. sieve sand to provide a porous matrix media having a
-445-
Once the SS-I had gelled, a pressure test was performed on the system by
applying pressure on the fluorescein dye water in 50 psi (344.7 kPa) incre-
ments up to 300 psi (2068.4 kPa), with flow rates measured at each incre-
ment. The pressure test data are shown in Table 1. Fluid flow was checked
every 1/2 hour. No dye flow was detected and no damage to the gel was
2. A section of 2 3/8 in. (60.325 mm) tubing was placed inside a 4~ in. (114.3
mm) casing to simulate placement of SS-I sealant in the annulus (Fig. 5).
Twelve 3/4 in. (19. 05 mm) holes were drilled on a 3 in. (76. 2 mm) spacing
in a 12 in.
(304.8 mm) section of the casing to simulate casing damage. Three sets of
four holes were oriented 90° apart around the casing. The holes were packed
medium to simulate the leakage of fluid from the hole into the formation
sand was about 40 darcies. Enough SS-I solution was placed in the annular
space to cover the entire 12 in. (304.8 mm) section. The annulus space was
then filled with dyed water. After the SS-I was squeezed with 100 psi
(689.5 kPa) for an hour, the test was shut-in to allow the SS-I gel to
form. After 48 hours of shut-in, the pressure test was performed by slowly
increasing the pressure from 0 to 500 psi (0-3447.4 kPa) with nitrogen on
top of water. The leakoff rate was measured at each pressure increment.
Results are shown in Data Table 2. This test presented an extreme condi-
tion, wherein only enough SS-II was used to just cover the target leaks.
-446~
in. long (304. 8 mm) section of pipe that they can be sealed off to a
sufficient degree to pass an MIT. Only 1.0 psi (6.9 kPa) was lost in 30
minutes at 500 psi (344 7. 4 kPa) test pressure. Usually, several hundred
feet of SS-I is run above the shallowest known point of leakage to be sure
annular space with sealant, leaving it there, and subsequent retrieval of the
cement after a squeeze pressure was attained, or allow the cement to attain a
soft set and drill out what remains in the casing. Drilling out cement can
From laboratory tests, it was soon recognized that SS-I type gels might
have the properties to allow a permanent annulus application that would permit
easy inexpensive removal. It has been determined that tubing, with or without a
packer, can be pulled through SS-I gel. Eight full-scale tests were conducted
using a test rig (Fig. 6) to determine the pull required to lift 180 ft (54.9 m)
of tubing string through a casing filled with SS-I gels, both neat and slurry.
In four of the eight tests an unseated retrievable type packer of the size
corresponding to the casing size used was attached to the bottom of the tubing
string. The various pipe specifications used are given in Table 3 along with
then pumping the liquid sealant into the annulus between the pipes being used in
each test. The SS-I was allowed to gel and age overnight. Samples of the SS-I
material were saved to verify that a gel had formed in each case, and that its
-447-
strength was norm.al. Then, the tubing was pulled without rotation, reciproca-
SS-I Jobs are designed to place sealant over the entire corroded casing
zone (Fig 7). Although placing sealant just to cover the leak has been shown to
seal sufficiently to withstand 500 psi (344 7. 4 kPa), it is advisable for two
reasons to place at least 300 to 500 ft (91.4 m - 152.4 m) of SS-I above the
exists, some small section may be overlooked. Some sections of the leak
2. If the leaks are fairly large, or the temporarily plugged sections of the
leak become open, more SS-I is lost to the voids outside the casing than
anticipated. This could result in some of the upper holes being left
untreated.
If the precise location of the leaks is not known, it is best to run SS-I
Two typical placement procedures are used. One is to preflush with fresh
water or light sodium or potassium chloride brines, then pump the sealant into
the annulus with the production packer seated. In effect this can be considered
a "bullhead squeeze" technique. Although many good results have been achieved
with this procedure, it can allow sealant contamination. With this procedure,
pump rates are restricted by the leak size, not the annulus size. Therefore,
with very low placement rates SS-I could fall through the brine in the annulus
-448-
and become contaminated, resulting in no gel and no seal.
A better approach is to unseat the packer, pump a preflush and then spot
(pump rapidly with circulation to get the SS-I in the proper position) the SS-I
down to the packer. The packer is then set. The required pressure is then
well is shut-in for a minimum of 24 hours after which the treated wellbore is
well. The annulus between 7 5/8 in. (193. 7 mm) casing and 5~ in. (139. 7 mm)
casing would take fluid at 3 bbl/min (0.48 bbl/min) at 150 psi (1034.2 kPa). A
retrievable packer was set inside the 5~ in. (139. 7 mm) casing and pressure
applied to the 2 7 /8 in. (73. 0 mm) - 5~ in. (139. 7 mm) annulus. It held pres-
sure with no leakage. At the same time fluid was flowing to surface from the 7
5/8 in. (193. 7 mm) - 5~ in. (139. 7 mm) annulus. This indicated a leak inside
the 7 5/8 in. (193. 7 mm) casing. A 3000 gallon batch of SS-I was prepared to
0065 Began to pump the 71.5 bbl (11.4 m3 ) of composite SS-I down
-449-
0085 Pump rate slowed to 1 bbl/min (0.16 m3 /min) [52 bbl (8.3 m3 )
pumped]
0097 Resumed pumping SS-I at less than 1 bbl/min (0.16 m3 /min) [61
build
0125 All 71.5 bbl (11.4 m3 ) of SS-I in place in the annulus; Pressure
Results: at 68 hours after the well was shut in, it held 1200 psi (8273.7 kPa)
for 10 minutes. In the final pressure test the annulus held 800 psi (5515. 8
kPa) for 30 minutes, and passed the OCC test. Estimated savings in terms of
manpower, rig time, down time on the well, and the cost difference between the
SS-I job and other means of repairing the leak was about $25,000.
formation had developed a casing leak. Initially, when 300 psi (2068. 4 kPa)
pressure was applied to the annulus, bleedoff to 75 psi (517.1 kPa) occurred in
10 minutes.
-450-
annulus and displaced to packer
Results: the well was pressure tested in three steps. In the final pressure
buildup the annulus held 285 psi (1965.0 kPa) for 30 minutes. The state
accepted the test and, one year later, the well is being used for disposal.
that have received SS-I treatments to repair casing leaks. All of these wells
were given approval by the OCC and were put into service as injector or brine
SS-II Sealants
Properties
catalyst allows a controllable pump time before the system sets to a stiff gel.
The material does not have significant strength in its neat form (15 psi (103.4
kPa)]. Its virtue lies in the matrix sealing quality of the system.a 13
types of unconsolidated sand packs. In 40-60 U.S. Mesh sand (40 to 50 Darcys),
gelled SS-II withstood 1500 psi (10342.1 kPa) before the seal failed. In 70-170
U.S. Mesh sand (9 Darcys) 2000 psi (13789.6 kPa) broke the seal. Sand packs
-451-
were inside 1 in. (25.4 mm) ID by 3 in. (76.2 mm) long pipes, at room tempera-
ture.11
tion for neat SS-II gels, showing a tougher structure than SS-I gels.
Applications
SS-II gel sealant provides higher strength and longer pump times (up to 600
pinhole leaks and the long placement times help achieve entry of SS-II into
formation pore throats and microannuli. The key to casing repair appears to be
in the ability of the operator to place sealant outside the casing, regardless
squeeze. Primary use of SS-II material has been to help prevent bottom water
coning and help to seal selected zones. Qualities of SS-II allow radial injec-
tion deep into the formation. A cement tail-in provides the following synergis-
1. Cement provides high compressive strength near the wellbore where differen-
3. SS-II reacts with cement to flash set near the wellbore and the cement
After setting, SS-II forms a firm, permanent gel inert to most chemicals.
It may be used to help form a barrier to lower brine zones or to help prevent
acid from subsequent treatments from contacting water zones below the treatment.
Application steps for SS-II may be the same as for SS-I, or the optional
-452-
Step No. Procedure
1 Locate.damaged area
cement (optional)
11 Test seal
SEALANT SELECTION
commonly found conditions and a recommended sealing method for that condition.
These recommendations can not be considered "ironclad" since there may be other
-453-
CEMENT BOND LOG INDICATIONS
Competent cement Some cement present Very poor or no
with good bond to but poor bond to cement present
Magnitude of Leak pipe and formation pipe and formation behind pipe
Flow rate 5 bbl/ Evidence of frac- Try ECSS squeeze Apply combination
min at low pres- tured formation be- first. Perforate if of ECSS and ce-
sure. Most likely hind cement. Per- necessary to inter- ment. May require
well will not forate to intersect sect channel. Re- repeated applica-
stand full channel. Use ECSS peat Stages 2 and 3 tions of both.
above packer. with low water loss until well holds Consider adding
cement slurry as pressure. bridging agents
tail-in. Repeat to ECSS and cement
Stages 2 and 3 un- slurry.
til well holds
pressure.
Method 3
If well has high
pressure, or if
well is Class I,
consider using
epoxy based sealant.
-454-
Pinhole leak, Method 1 Consider perfor- Method 1
well stands Use neat SS-I or ation to open ac- Perforate to inter-
full but will neat SS-II. cess to fractures sect void area. Run
not hold and voids. Apply cement squeeze.
pressure. Method 2 neat SS-I or SS-II
If injection rates followed by slurry Method 2
permit, use epoxy of one of these. To avoid drillout,
base sealant with run SS-I slurry
long set time. leaving 300 ft
Correction depends above top perfor-
on placing adequate ation.
volume of sealant
in leak. Method 3
Apply neat SS-II,
reversing out ex-
cess.
CONCLUSIONS
silicates, and epoxy base sealant in detail. Each has applications for
3. The ICSS and ECSS systems may be used alone for some applications, but both
may be used in conjunction with portland cements to repair some leaks and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
-455-
and Gas Conservation Division," 1986 Edition.
1985.
Edition, 1979.
7. Bour, D.B., Creel, P.G., "Foam Cement for Low-Pressure Squeeze Applica-
8. Cole, R. Clay, Mody, Bharat, Pace, James, OE81 SPE10396.l "Water Control
9. Smith, C.W.; Pugh, T.D.; Mody. B.: "A Special Sealant Process for
10. Cole, Robert C., SPE 71874, "Epoxy Sealant for Com.batting Well Corrosion"
12. Cole, R. Clay. Dalrymple, D., McDuff, C.H., Jones, Mark, "Chemical Process
-456-
Course, Lubbock, Tx, April, 1987.
13. Koch, R.R., McLaughlin, H.C., "Field Performance of New Technique for
March 1970.
Table 1
-457-
Table 2
SS-I Sealing Test
Holes per foot = 12
Pack sand Consolidated Ottawa 40-60 mesh sand
SS-I Volume 3 liters (13 in. - 14 in. from bottom)
Temperature 75°F
Before Treatment
Leak Off
Flow Pressure Flow Rate Rate
(Esi) (cc/min) (cc/min/psi)
2.5 4500 1800
2.5 4420 1768
4.5 5240 1164
4.5 5220 1160
Avg. = 1473
-458-
Table 2 (Con't)
SS-I Sealing Test
After Treatment
Leak Off
Test Flow Leak Off Pressure
Pressure Rate Rate Per 30 Min
(psi) (cc/min) (cc/min/psi) (Esi)
100 0.56 0.0056
200 1.10 0.0055
300 2.10 0.0070
400 2.9 o. 0073
500 1. 42 0.0028 1 psi
Table 3
Pull test data obtained from full scale testing using 180 feet of tubing inside
casing.
-459-
Table 4
-460-
Fig. 1
CORROSION OF J ..55 CASING SAMPLES
1.
LIQUIDS IN WHICH THE J.55 CASING WAS TESTED
• TAP WATER e SS-I SLURRY
I
:::;::..
en
en 0.01
0
...I
0.001
-461-
FIGURE 2
lOOOX Photomicrograph showing the SS-I filler structure through which some very
limited fluid loss into adjacent formations is achieved.
-46?. -
FIGURE 3
- 46 3-
Fig. 4
Sealing test 1 apparatus used to evaluate SS-I gels
• Water Reservoir
<'
-464-
Fig. 5
Chemical Process To Seal Leak
In Injection Well
N2 Inlet
Water
Tank _...,_Reservoir
.....,.r---4112" Casing
• , ·~
/
3 /4'
Pipe Nipples
Packed with Consolidated
... - ' 40-60 Mesh Sand
.,1.,./
-465-
Fig. 6
SS-I Service
Pull Test Well Configuration
casing
- 1iubing
sS-1in180' of annulus
-
~
- Float Collar on end of tubing
...._ or Retrievable Type Packer
~"'"'"'"'"'"' -- -
l..o
.....
Cap on end of casing
.... -
.... - Cemented Wellbore in Test Well
-466-
Fig. 7
SS-I Job Placement Schematic
Tubing ---------n
Casing -----41-m
2%KCI---~-
1 ::::::500 1
Packer--.-....m
-467-
MEASURING BEHIND CASING WATER FLOW
by
T. M. Williams
Texaco, Inc., E & P Technology Division
Box 425, 5901 s. Rice Avenue, Bellaire, Texas 77401
ABSTRACT
A common problem encountered in water injection operations is
locating and stopping undesired water channeling. The Texaco
E & P Technology Division has developed a Behind Casing Water Flow
(BCWF) measurement system to measure vertical water flow in or
behind multiple casings. This nuclear logging system can measure:
• the direction of flow
• the linear flow velocity
• the volume flow rate
• the radial distance of the flow from the sonde.
The system uses a neutron generator tube to provide a source
of high energy neutrons to activate oxygen in the flowing water.
The resulting high energy gamma rays are detected with two crystal
detectors. By using the counts in different energy ranges in the
two detectors, the system computer can calculate the water flow
velocity, volume flow rate, and radial distance from the flow to
the sonde. Velocities of between 0.75 and 10 in/sec (19 and 254
mm/sec) can be measured. This 3-5/8 inch (92 mm) diameter logging
sonde is reversible so either upward or downward flowing water can
be detected. This logging system has been used in several Texaco
fields and has proved its value in detecting undesired water flow.
-468-
INTRODUCTION
A common problem encountered in production and water injection
operations is locating and stopping undesired water channeling.
The Texaco E & p Technology Division has developed a Behind Casing
water Flow (BCWF) measurement system to measure vertical water flow
in or behind multiple casings. This nuclear logging technique can
measure:
• the direction of flow
• the linear flow velocity
• the volume flow rate
• the radial distance of the flow from the sonde.
PRINCIPLE OF BCWF LOG
The BCWF log is based on a nuclear activation technique in
which flowing water is irradiated with high energy (14 MeV)
neutrons emitted by a neutron generator within the logging sonde.
These neutrons interact with the oxygen nuclei in the water to
produce the radioactive isotope nitrogen-16 through the
0 16 (n,p}N 16 reaction. Nitrogen-16 decays exponentially in time
with a halflife of 7.13 seconds, emitting 6.13 and 7.12 MeV gamma
radiation. An oxygen activation gamma ray spectrum is shown in
Figure 1.
The characteristic activation gamma rays are identified in
this plot of gamma ray intensity per energy versus gamma ray
energy. The 2.615 MeV thorium peak, which is used for energy
calibration, is also marked. The water flow parameters of interest
are computed from the energy and intensity response of two gamma
ray detectors mounted within the logging sonde.
-469-
Figure 2 shows schematically a two-detector BCWF sonde in a
well bore where water channeling occurs within the cement annulus
behind the well casing. The channeling water is activated as it
flows past the neutron source. The gamma rays from the activated
flowing water are first measured when the water passes the first
detector and then again when it passes the second detector. During
its travel from detector 1 to detector 2, the gamma intensity
decays by an amount determined solely by the travel time; that is,
by the distance between detectors and the linear velocity of the
water. Consequently, the ratio of the detector 1 to detector 2
count rates is an exponential function of the water velocity only.
The linear water velocity is determined from this function
regardless of the radial position of the water channel from the
BCWF sonde. The direction of the water flow to be measured is
determined by the relative position of the neutron generator and
detectors. That is, so that flow can be measured in both
directions, the sonde has been made reversible.
Figure 3 graphically shows the laboratory apparatus used to
calibrate a BCWF sonde. Water of various metered rates can be
pumped through different PVC pipes simulating flow channels. The
PVC pipes are positioned at various radial distances from the sonde
and one or several casings can be inserted between the pipes and
sonde.
Figure 4 shows the linear velocity calibration results for a
BCWF sonde containing two 2-inch (5lmm) diameter x 6-inch (152mm)
long NaI(Tl) detectors spaced 18 inches (457mm) apart. As
predicted, the logarithm of the ratio of the detector count rates
-470-
is a linear function of l/velocity, and velocity is given by:
(1)
where
MeV, to (2} the counts in the energy window (Cr) from 3.25 to 4.0
MeV, is related to the total number of electrons per unit area
between the water channel and detector 1. The relation for a
detector spaced about 40 inches (1 m) from the source is given by
H
C1/C1
L = ao + 2
a1Pem + a2Pem (2)
where a 0 , a 1 , and a 2 are calibration constants and Pem is the
total number of electrons per unit area between the sonde and flow
channel.
The electron density for different materials is known. Thus
with the borehole fluid, casing, and cement information, the radius
from the sonde to the water flow can be calculated from Pem·
Theory suggests and experiments have shown that the gamma
ray activity divided by the volume flow rate is a function of:
-471-
(1) water velocity, (2) the radial distance of flow channel to the
sonde, (3) the type and amount of material between the flow and
sonde, and (4) the output of the neutron tube.
Data analysis reveals that the logarithm of gamma count rate
per unit volume flow rate can be expressed by a second order
polynomial in ln(v) as given in equation 3.
ln[Cn1/qw] = b 0 (R,pem> + b 1 ln(v) + b 2 [ln(v)] 2 (3)
where
c~ = the net detector 1 count rate from 3.25 to 7.2 MeV,
qw = the water volume flow rate,
v = the linear water velocity,
b 0 = c 0 + c 1R + c 2R2 + c 3Pem' and
b 1 , b 2 , c 0 , c 1 , c 2 , and c 3 are calibration constants.
This relationship is demonstrated graphically in Figure 5,
where the detector 1 net count rate/water volume flow rate is
plotted versus linear velocity for various radii of the flow
channel to the sonde and for various casing sizes and combinations.
The volume flow rate can be determined from this plot
regardless of the flow channel cross-sectional area, which is not
accessible to measurement. Velocity and gamma ray count rate are
measured by the BCWF sonde; then, knowing radial distance and type
of intervening material, the volume rate can be obtained as shown
in Figure 5.
In short, the water velocity and volume flow rates can be
determined from the gamma ray spectra measured by the BCWF sonde
without knowledge of the location and cross-sectional area of the
flow channel and the intervening material.
-472-
Additional information on the theory of operation of this
logging system may be found on page 121 of the January 1979 issue
of the Journal of Petroleum Technology.
FIELD TESTS
Field tests with the BCWF system have been successfully
performed in several wells, including the four in Texas chosen as
examples for this presentation.
Two (No. 123 and 124) were logged in June 1985 to determine
the source of the salt water channeling behind casing to the
surface. These wells had been recently drilled to about 2000 ft
(610 m). 5-1/2 inch, 17 lb. (140 mm, 25.3 kg/m) production casings
were set to TD and 13-3/8 inch, 72 lb. (340 mm, 107 kg/m) surface
casings were set to 40 ft (12 m). Both surface and production
casings were cemented with cement circulated to the surface.
Prior to the BCWF water flow measurements, a long spaced
neutron-gamma ray log or a natural gamma log was run in each well
to select the depths for the BCWF measurements and to correlate
BCWF depths with those of available commercial logs.
Well No. 123
A cement-bond/gamma ray/CCL log and a temperature log were
available on Well No. 123. The temperature log indicated a
potential source of the salt water channeling at about 750 feet
(229 m). The BCWF log was run to confirm the temperature log
results and to locate any additional sources of salt water
channeling. Stationary flow measurements, each of 15 minute
duration, were made opposite shales at 12 locations. These 12 were
between 13 and 900 feet (4 and 275 m) and were above formations
-473-
which could contribute and/or be the source of the salt water
breaking out at the surface. The results are given in Table I.
Based on a preliminary wellsite interpretation, the casing was
perforated below 470 feet (143 m) and the well was squeezed with
100 sacks of cement, which stopped the breakout of salt water at
the surface.
The BCWF log also revealed what appeared to be flow from a
zone near 700 feet (213 m) to a zone near 600 feet (183 m). This
was reported to the field for corrective action.
Well No. 124
Well No. 124 was logged with the BCWF log about 24 hours after
casing was set. The well was about 600 feet (183 m) east of No.
123 and it was suspected that the source of the channeling salt
water was at about the same depth interval as in well 123.
Consequently, stationary flow measurements of 15 minute duration
each were made at 12 locations opposite shales and above formations
which could contribute to the salt water breaking out at the
surface. The results of the log is given in Table II.
Based on a wellsite interpretation, the casing was perforated
and a cement squeeze made. These measures stopped the water
breakout at the surface.
Well Nos. 3521 and 5334
Tests were also performed in two other Texas wells in
September 1985. This field had a history of casing problems
between 3200 and 4200 feet (973 and 1281 m). These two wells were
logged primarily to determine if behind casing water flow was a
cause of casing erosion/corrosion in this field. A second reason
-474-
for running the BCWF log in these wells was to determine if
cementing of the casing in the problem zone had stopped the
suspected water flow.
Well No. 5334 produced 20 BOPD and 22 BWPD before the pump and
tubing were pulled for logging operations. This well had 7-5/8
inch (194 mm) casing set to 3166 feet (965 m) and cemented to the
surface. The 5-1/2 inch, 15-1/2 lb. (140 mm, 23 kg/m} production
casing was set to 7949 feet (2423 m) and cemented. A temperature
survey indicated the top of the cement was at 5390 feet (1643 m}.
stationary measurements were made at nine locations between 4485
and 3250 feet (1367 and 990 m). The measurements at 4485 and 4040
feet (1367 and 1231 m) indicated no water flow. Each station
between 3726 and 3250 feet (1136 and 990 m) indicated an upward
water flow behind the casing of approximately 4 BWPD.
Well No. 3521 was shut in because it produced only water. The
well had 8-5/8 inch (219 mm) intermediate casing set to 3287 feet
(1002 m) and cement circulated to the surface. The 5-1/2 inch,
15-1/2 lb. (140 mm, 23 kg/m) production casing was set to 7300 feet
(2225 m) and cemented. A temperature log indicated the top of the
cement was at 2650 feet (808 m). Logging runs to measure both up
and down flow were made at ten locations between 3020 and 4675 feet
(920 and 1425 m). No water movement was detected. This indicates
that cementing the problem interval did stop the water flow behind
the casing.
PLANNED DEVELOPMENT
-475-
the electronics to double the data acquisition rate. This will
reduce the time needed at each station to measure the water flow.
We are currently studying the feasibility of constructing a
1-11/16 inch (43 mm) diameter model of the BCWF sonde. This small
diameter would increase the number of wells in which the BCWF
logging system could be effectively used. To use the standard
3-5/8 inch (92 mm) diameter sonde, the tubing must be pulled in
most wells. In many wells, water flows behind the casing only when
the well is being produced or during water injection. Thus, with
the tubing pulled, no flow is observed with the BCWF logging system
unless the casing can be pressurized to induce flow.
SUMMARY
-476-
FIGURE CAPTIONS
Fig. l A typical BCWF gamma ray spectrum when water is flowing.
Fig. 5 This plot shows the volume flow rate can be determined
without knowing the flow channel cross-sectional area.
-477-
BEHIND CASING WATER FLOW
TEST PIT DAT A
1200
1000
400
200
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7
ENERGY <MeV>
Figure 1
DUAL DETECTOR BCWF SONOE
w
A
T
E
R
14 MeV
SOURCE
-479-
Figure 2
CALIBRATION FACIL!TY
I
I
I NEU.
I I GEN.
I I
I I
I
• 3::
0
_j
LL
Ls r I
I I a::
w
I I t-
[] WATER
<(
Ls2 I :=::
PIT
I
:n
~ I
I
I
I
I PVC
I PIPE
I
I
___ LI
CASING
Figure 3
-480-
cN /CN
I 2
vs 11v
L - Ls = 18 INCHES
S2 I
0.7 L---..L.---'-----'----L----'----'--'---...l---'-----'
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 4
-481-
DETECTOR I TO SOURCE = 39.4 INCHES
30
1----
20
10
5
,.,I
V'l w 2
I- ::;! R CASING
z ::J
:J _J
0
u
0 2.60 NONE
>
3.00 NONE
NONE
} 4.30 7•
7"+4 Y2 1
.I
NONE
9 o/e I
.07 } 5.65 9 o/e •+ 7 I
9 o/e •+ 7"+4Y2'
.04
2 5 10 15 20
VELOCITY (In/sec)
Figure 5
-482-
TABLE I
1 822.7 250.8 0
2 801.7 244.4 0
3 771.4 235.1 0
4 751.4 229.0 2.8
5 721.4 219.9 2.8
6 690.7 210.5 50
7 613.7 187.1 38
8 562.8 171.5 9
9 233.2 71.1 286
10 79.8 24.3 86
11 29.2 8.9
12 13.3 4.1
-483-
TABLE II
1 782.6 238.5 0
2 766.4 233.6 0
3 740.6 225.7 79
5 635.7 193.8 83
6 594.7 181. 3 13
7 511.7 156.0 15
11 35.1 10.7
12 24.1 7.3
-484-
A PILOT SURVEY OF STATE MECHANICAL
INTEGRITY TESTING (MIT) PROGRAMS IN NEW MEXICO
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
ABSTRACT:
-485-
1.) Pressure conditions in the tubing and casing strings
prior to and at the beginning and ending of testing.
2.) Well construction data - including initial completion
dates, casing and packer set depths, and injection
intervals.
3.) Failure type indicated - primarily casing, packer and
tubing failures were indicated by the survey.
4.) Well repair data - the survey included information on
the type of repair, estimated cost of the repair, and
details such as the casing hole interval (where
identified) .
The spreadsheet feature of the database allows the
calculation of frequency distributions of such features as
casing hole interval, age of well, and repair types. Reviewing
the information in the database allows an evaluation of the
various factors which may lead to pressure test failures.
The study indicates that the annulus pressure test will
detect holes in casing. 64% of the test failures were
associated with casing holes. Most holes were in uncemented
sections adjacent to saline zones below underground sources of
drinking water.
The age distribution of the injection wells which failed
the annulus pressure test was a function of general historical
drilling activity if they were completed prior to the early
1970 1 s. Wells completed later were not significantly
represented in the database.
The average cost of repairs necessitated by conditions
leading to an annulus pressure test failure was estimated to be
$11,000.
The New Mexico MIT program was reviewed and evaluated with
the test data. The New Mexico program is more stringent than
the EPA program in that annulus monitoring is conducted
annually on all wells. Annulus monitoring in positive pressure
-486-
injection wells identifies leaks of injection fluid through
tubing or packer and casing leaks opposite pressurized zones.
The first level of USDW protection in the New Mexico program is
centered around monitoring of the tubing and casing annulus.
The pressure test looks at the second level of protection - the
production casing string. There is a third level of protection
surface casing. Usually, this third level would have to be
breached before a USDW would be endangered by a failure of the
second level.
The annulus pressure tests did not identify any evidence
of injection wells which caused groundwater contamination.
-487-
INTRODUCTION:
-488-
use by EPA in direct implementation programs, and EPA expected
states to use these tests in the State UIC programs implemented
under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act.
on December 5, 1980, the Safe Drinking Water Act was
amended and, among other changes, the amendments added a new
Section 1425 to the Act. Section 1425 established an
alternative method for a state to obtain primary enforcement
responsibility for those portions of its UIC program related to
the recovery and production of oil and gas (i.e., Class II
Injection Wells). The Amendments specified that if a state
program meets the requirements of Sub-paragraphs a-d of Section
142l(b) (1) of the Safe Drinking Water Act, and represents an
effective program to prevent underground injection which
endangers drinking water sources, EPA shall approve the
program. On May 19, 1981, EPA published guidance on the
implementation of the alternative demonstration provided for in
the new Section 1425. The guidance included the criteria EPA
would use in approving or disapproving applications under
Section 1425. The guidance established the following tests as
adequate to demonstrate the absence of significant leaks: l} a
pressure test of the annulus with liquid or gas; 2) the
monitoring of annulus pressure in those wells injecting at a
positive pressure, following an initial pressure test; or 3)
all other tests or combinations of tests considered effective
by the State Director.
-489-
The MIT requirements for Class II wells are found in Rule
704, pursuant to the Oil and Gas Act, as follows:
-490-
6. Rule 704 was amended in 1986 to require casing
pressure tests whenever the tubing is pulled or the
packer is unseated.
-491-
In addition to the testing, monitoring, and reporting
requirements specified in the OCD rules, when easily corrected
problems such as small surface leaks or excessive injection
pressures are noted by Field Inspectors, the problems are
brought to the attention of the operator for immediate
corrective action, under the general authority of Rule 1303,
"Duties and Authority of Field Personnel".
-492-
NMOCD observations of annulus pressure have been carried
out in District l since 1974, District 2 since 1979 and
District 3 since 1981 (NMOCD, 1981). The testing program
includes producing wells in addition to injection wells.
In some injection wells, the weight of the fluid column
in the well is sufficient to push water into the injection zone
without applying pressure at the surface. If a well takes
water at a particular rate faster than it can be filled to the
surface, the surface injection pressure will be less than zero
and the well is said to operate under vacuum conditions. For
these wells, bradenhead tests may not indicate if tubing or
packer leaks are occurring. Therefore, the State requires
periodic annulus pressure tests, under Rule 704, for wells
injecting under a vacuum.
Aside from the annulus monitoring
program and the
periodic pressure tests, bond logs, radioactive tracer surveys,
temperature logs and other special tests are carried out in
areas where problems are suspected (NMOCD, 1986).
Most of the New Mexico pressure test and well records are
located in three District offices in Hobbs (District 1),
Artesia (District 2) and Aztec (District 3) which serve the
eight oil and gas producing counties in New Mexico. There are
presently approximately 4400 active Class II injection wells
which are distributed roughly as follows:
-493-
Year MI Ts # Failures % Failing
1983 3502 75 2.1%
1984 3713 148 4.0%
1985 3199 430 13.4%
1986 (Jan-Sept.) 2519 98 3.9%
TOTAL 12,933 751 5.8%
11
1. The bradenhead test is adequate to find tubing and
packer leaks or casing leaks with pressure on the
zone where the leak is located.
2. The problems found during this study represent no
significant threat to fresh water since most of the
casing leaks were found below the surface casing in
the salt sections where pump-in pressure is known to
be betweern 400 psi and 1000 psi. Such pressures
resulting from tubing or packer leaks would be
detected by the regular bradenhead testing.
-494-
3. The data collected supports the conclusion that
without a significant tubing or packer leak the
majority of casing leaks cannot be found with the
bradenhead test. However, it should be pointed out
that where the bradenhead test did not show casing
leaks, the tubing and packer were mechanically sound
so no movement of fluid was occurring in the casing
annulus.
4. The bradenhead test is not adequate for finding
tubing or packer leaks on vacuum injection wells."
-495-
2. As resources permit, supplement annulus monitoring
with positive pressure tests.
3. Require casing pressure tests during workovers.
4. Require reports of tubing repairs and changes in
packer set depths, and require that the packer be
set not more than 100 feet above the perforations.
STUDY AREAS:
DISTRICT 1 GEOLOGY:
-496-
saturated thickness of the Ogallala formation is approximately
200 feet in the eastern part of District 1 and the formation is
removed by erosion to the south and west (USGS, 1984). Minor
local sources of fresh groundwater are also present in
sandstone layers in the Triassic "Red Beds" and the Permian
Rustler formation (Nicholson and Clebsch, 1981). All known
USDWs lie above the Permian salt section (NMOCD, 1981).
Subsurface structure in District 1 is controlled by the
Permian and Delaware basins and the associated shelf-reefs
which formed during the Paleozoic era. The hydrocarbon
reservoir rocks are entirely Paleozoic and the production is
from the fields on the Central Basin Platform and the Northwest
shelf. Ninety percent of the state's oil production has come
from southeast New Mexico, with commercial production since
1924 (NMBMER, 1981). The reservoir rocks are predominantly
limestone, largely Permian in age. Over half the oil
production is from the Grayburg and San Andres formations.
Other important hydrocarbon reservoirs include the Yates, Seven
Rivers, Queen and Abo Reef formations. Most of the oil and gas
produced in southeast New Mexico is structurally trapped in
anticlines (Landes, 1970).
Standard casing practice in District 1 is to set casing
to the top of the Permian salt section (Salado formation) and
cement to the surface. The salt section itself acts as a
confining layer to prevent out-of-zone water from hydrocarbon
reservoirs from entering shallower USDWs (NMOCD, 1981) .
DISTRICT 3 GEOLOGY:
-497-
The subsurface geology of northwest New Mexico is
structurally dominated by the San Juan Basin. The major fresh
groundwater sources in the San Juan Basin are Cretaceous
sandstones, most importantly the Ojo Alamo sandstone (which
immediately overlies the Kirtland shale (Brimhall, 1973).
Freshwater also occurs in the Menefee member of the Mesa Verde
Formation and locally in the Morrison formation. Fresh water
may be found at depths to 3000 feet in District 3. Since these
aquifers are often artesian, cemented production casing is used
to isolate these aquifers. Artesian conditions also contribute
to the effectiveness of annulus monitoring in indicating casing
leaks (pers. comm., E. Busch, OCD).
In northwest New Mexico, most of the hydrocarbon
production has been from Cretaceous rocks, mostly sandbar-type
stratigraphic traps, and also from fractures in the Mancos
shale (NMBMER, 1981) . Gas has been commercially produced in
District 3 since 1921 and oil since 1922.
DATA ELEMENTS:
-498-
approximately 300 psi. In many cases, it was not
possible to reach the initial pressure of 300 psi,
or even to fill the annulus with packer fluid.
-499-
13) Type of Packer - (if known).
DATA ANALYSIS:
Summary Statistics.
-soo~
conducted in 1984 and 1985 for the (NMOCD, 1986) study
previously discussedo A test failure in the study was
generally defined as the decrease of more than 10% in annulus
pressure over 15 minutes. The annulus pressure test failure
records identified in this study are from a total of 1301
mechanical integrity tests, of which 263 failed. The procedure
for testing was that pressure tests followed bradenhead tests.
Not all wells which failed bradenhead tests were subjected to
annulus pressure tests. District 3 did not conduct any annulus
pressure tests for wells which failed the bradenhead test
(pers. comm., E. Busch, OCD).
The average depth of the top of the injection zone in the
database is 3,866 feet.
The age distribution of the wells in the database is
shown in Figure 1. In general, the age distribution shows good
correlation with historical drilling, activity until the early
1970 1 s. Figure 2 shows a comparison of the distribution of
ages (initial well completions) of wells in District 1, which
failed the annulus pressure test with the total well
completions for each year in eastern New Mexico as reported by
the International Oil Scouts Association (I.O.S.A.,
1930-1983). The figure suggests that improvements in casing
materials and cementing technologies in the 1970's will be
evaluated by future pressure tests. In the 1990's, wells
completed during the boom'g years of the late 1970 's will reach
11
-501-
2. Problems reported by operators, or
3. Flow of fluid or pressure increase in the pipe
string outside the string being tested.
-502-
set. The packer was reset on 15 wells (9%). In some cases, it
was not necessary to pull the tubing to accomplish this. On
nine wells (5%), it was necessary to repair or replace the
packer. Twelve wells (7%) were tested again and passed the
annulus pressure test the second time.
GROUNDWATER IMPACTS:
-503-
vacuum conditions), positive pressure conditions will exist at
some point down-hole. It can be intuitively reasoned that if
this point is below a USDW, no contamination of the USDW from
injection fluid can occur. Even though the annulus monitoring
is less definitive for vacuum wells, these wells are less
likely to contaminate groundwater.
SUMMARY:
CONCLUSIONS:
-504-
0 The analysis of pressure test failures did not
identify evidence of USDW contamination.
-505-
REFERENCES:
-506-
AGE DISTRIBUTION OF ALL RECORDS
18 --~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---
17 -
... IJ
16 -
II IJ
15 - I II
14 - II II
§
CL
13 -
12 -
I 'I
I II
I; '
:I
0 11 - . 11
I; II
'I
I;
0
10 - I; I; I;
I
U1
0
~
a
~
9-
8-
•
.
II I;
II I;
I;
I;
•
I I&. II i; If ~ I;
0 7- II I
15m 6 --;
'-' I
, I
~ 'I ... I I I ; ... .1
111,-
II II
:,;1
-
;
:I
~
5 -i; :; llll[:i
....
z 4 _1; II i.f II II II II LI I; II II
1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
17
16
t;; 15
~ 14
~ 13
I:~
I ~ 10
\J1
0 :J 9
~
00
I
~... :e
~: 3
2
1
O-"wL--..........~~~r'-r"!~h-"lr"'r"l.uyr.,~UAJLY'rLY-Y.l.rU-.JYYt.JVL.Jl..lV\..Jll...A.JIV-----..-,.J...Jl,.J.-...L..JJ,.l.,...U.,.-..I
1930 1935 194-0 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
Tubing (6.5")
(Old)
Casing Perf. (7~
I
V1
0
~
I
Packer ( 15.9")
Casing (83.8")
Type of Repair
I
~
? Other (1.1%)
Rep. Casing (1.7%)
Re-test OK (6.9%)
Plug and Abandon { 16.0")
22
20
18
16
a
~
14
I la.
V1
......
0 12
...... 0:
I
l&J
m 10
:I
:l
z 8
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000
TOP OF HOLE INTERVAL (DEPTH IN FEET)
V /I No. OF WELLS
PLANNING SUCCESSFUL TEMPERATURE SURVEYS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
--------------
by Conoco Inc.
ABSTRACT
the results.
-512-
InJeCtion should be maintained at its normal state unless it
for interpretation.
-513-
A problem in an inJection well could be discovered by a
WELLBORE DIAGRAMS
-514-
tions, open or squeezed, below the packer or above, should
be included.
-515-
INJECTION WELL DIAGNOSIS
-516-
In order to think of all the possibilities for the particu-
tree for the wellhead test. The decision tree would force
profile is for the area. The well files, log files, and
-517-
profiles are available, make sure they were run under static
string and/or liner are set. More than one log run is
ceding tool run. The temperature from the last tool run in
-518-
The accuracy of the plotted log points can be improved by
sure buildup.
well.
occur very far out into the formation from the wellbore.
effects.
-519-
Actual continuous temperature surveys run during normal
properly.
-521-
now show a temperature anomaly. The amount of temperature
Very shallow wells with low inJection rates will have little
The areas with the shallowest cooling (all areas where water
did not enter the rock) will return to the earth's normal
-522-
A lot of papers have been written on mathematical interpre-
equipment on location.
-523-
3. Fagley, John, Folger, H. Scott, Davenport, c. Brent,
1970.
-524-
WELLBORE DIAGRAM
6350'
TENSION PACKER @ 6357 - 59'
BOTTOM OF TUBING
OPEN ENDED @ 6369'
TOP/MILO SAND
PERFS
6423'
6429'
PBTD--- 6433'
7'' CASING SHOE--~____:::]
T;O.
FIGURE NO. 1
ZERO 15' ALF WELL BORE DIAGRAM
GRD. ELEV. 936'
6300' INJECTION
TOP/CATOOSA SAND--
MILO 430 BWPD
BASE/CATOOSA SAND-- 1250 PSI
SLIDING SLEEVE JONES 300
DUAL HYDRAULIC PACKER 1200 PSI
TOP/JONES--- CATOOSA TWIN WELL INJECTION
I
Vl 200 BWPD
N
6350' 1400 PSI
"'I BASE/JONES---
.----..~
PERFS SQUEEZED
PERMANENT PACKER
NORRIS FORMATION
TOP/MILO SAND--- 5310- 31 IS BEING
FLOODED IN THIS
PERFS -:z__-+-,i~ PART OF THE FIELD.
BASE/MILO SAND--- 6400' CASING 7" J-55 23#/FT.
TOP OF CEMENT 3600'
ANNULAR FLUID - 80,000 PPM NaCl
PBTD _ __
7" CASING SHOE _ __ MINIMUM ID
TOTAL DEPTH--- MILO TUBING 1.94 IN.
JONES TUBING 1.875 IN.
FIGURE NO. 2
PRESSURE BALANCE
INJECTION-----
Pi = INJECTION PRESSURE
Pa = ANNULUS PRESSURE
FLUID LEVEL PTc = TUBING CASING
BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
Pw = BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
Pf = FRICTION PRESSURE
PH = HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
I
l.Jl
N
PR = RESERVOIR PRESSURE
"I Pp = PRESSURE LOSS
ACROSS PERFORATIONS
FIGURE NO. 3
DECISION TREE CLOSE ANNU.
TAKE WTR.
SAMPLES
? END TEST
NO CHANGE IN
CK. INJ. RATE INJ. RATE & PRESS.
RECORD TIME p CLOSE-IN ANNU.
& PRESS. / END TEST
CONT. RATE !NCR. AND/OR ANNU.
RECORD FLOW PRESS. DECR. FLOW DIES
~
PRESS.
FLOW
I PRESS. ANNU.
Vl
N EXISTS ANNU. FLOW
())
MONITOR CONT.
I
ANNU. PRESS.
NO
NO
FLOW END
b CLOSE ANNU.
RESUME INJ.
PRESS. P TEST END TEST
b RECORD & NO PRESS.
END TEST BUILD-UP
SHUT-IN PEND TEST
ANNU.
PRESS. TUBING PRESS. DROP &
RETUR~SHUT-IN;NNU. PRESS. DROP
~
TBG. PRESS DROP
& ANNU. PRESS. DROP
bEND TEST
FIGURE NO. 4
ESTIMATION OF FORMATION TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
FROM BHT DATA
I
U1
N
\0
I
240 240
16,000 ~---t---+----+---+----+---r------t---t--...Jll~-~~-1-----1
18,000 ._____._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.__-.i.....ii....._~_..i..a,_____.
FIGURE NO. 5
TEMPERATURE BUILDUP
I i I
I I !~ Ii IIi
'r-~
.'
II !' II
i I -+-1: ! I i i !i I
I I
I' I
-W+ it'
I
! I t ,
I i I
' I
I
I I
II l
I
I H-+
I l ' !l !
I
I ! I
I
I i I
Uii
_, ,_,.- 'i !
I I
220 I !I II ! I :
'
·---
+ '
I
I I l
' l
11,,.
I
I
I ~~ !I I !
l..lll-,,. I I . i.
I _.. I i i1 I
!' ' ! I. I' I-
I
! i i I ! I
210 !
I
i
I ,,,.-
, I
' I
\
I !! I !
!! I
t 1ttr
I
I
I I"
,lj-
I
.,
I t I
I ! I
I
1tt I I
u. I
0 I- l
I
~,,.
I l I
0, I- 200 _,,. lidl 11 i
I
I
I
w J: I _1
? co
,..
,,,. [
: !
!
I
i
,,. -
I I 11 I
190
.,.. i
I
I ~I ! !
!. I
![I
!
..tlllil I I
I
i I !
I
I
I
~ I ! I id !
:n-1
- I. '' i
~d+
I \ I
I
I
I I I I I I '
I II ! ! I I' !I
180 I
FIGURE NO. 6
BHT DATA FROM RESISTIVITY LOGS
CUSTER CO., OKLAHOMA
6
/SNIDER NO. 1-A
8 U, TONKAWA= COUNTY LINE LS.
- L . TONKAWA
..0 10
COTTAGE GROVE -
CHECKER BOARD LS.= HOGSHOOTER
w
I
\Jl
......
I
-
0
0
J:
~
I 12
-DEESE
U. R·ED FORK -
- L. RED FORK
a.
w
c 14
100° 120° 140° 160° 180° 200° 220° 240° 260° 280° 300° 320°
TEMPERATURE °F
FIGURE NO. 7
0
I\'!
I
INJECTION PROFILES
1 '
ARE RATE AND VOLUME
DEPENDENT 2
"' '\o,>.
'II \
~
Q
-\
~ <-
~
~~
3 II 0
- I\~ ~ 1:-
I- I\~ ~ Q
LL
0 4 I\_% ~ ~
I
V1
w
0
0
.- II~~~
I \ '1>- ~ ~
N I~ 'V ~
~Ci f\-'(i ~ ..>o
I
~
a..
5
r:c I ~ --;;
'"--\-~- ~ ~
w
c
6
~
'~
-m-.:iJ-L ,o
~ -<\~
\~
'
~'C.
0
\ \
,c- \~ \ \
7
\ <. \
\~ ·~ \
IC \
.I~ I
I
\ 00 \_
8
-- -·
"- ..-- ~-=:== -- -· ~
\
9
50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160
TEMPERATURE
FIGURE NO. 8
CONTINUOUS AND DIFFERENTIAL
TEMPERATURE CURVES
TUBING LEAK
GRADIENT ONE DEG.
PER INCH DIFFERENTIAL
10,000 - - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - -.....
COLLAR LOG TUBING PRESSURE
TUBING ---- 7200 PSI
I
\J1
(.,)
(.,)
I
10,200 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
T.D. @ 21, 700'
FIGURE NO. 9
90° 91° 92° 93° 94° 95° 96° 97° 98° 99°
1 4200 I
I
\ .
J I
I
TEMPERATURE DECAY LOG
'
DETERMINES FLUID MOVEMENT
8 I . 8
/ . . .../I
i
IN THE FORMATION
<J
\
B
l:· ?~J/tl,,
• :t
~
~ ·' :h
I
Vl '-'--'-"\--'---'-~}-+--1-~4300-+----t----+--,-'-~
~ t
w
/ f8
.i::-
1
\ I• ; jl 1
R-1 2:00 P.M. -INJ. RATE-400 BPD --- _> ... ./ .. . ,:,;§-1
_R-~_ 4:00_P...:..M ..-30 MINUTE SHUT IN
.. R~~... J~;QQ..~·.M:.
I
' "
J...-l...-----1---a:-,-+--4.-.• • • •
..... o·····:_.
ii'
-·
•••••• - • .-
- • 1--1----1:=--"~--+--+---l
-~
~:::.~
_I
I / .. ···t4'-~-
-~-4 .1?:09_?..M.._
\. INDEX
.. .;;.:·(/,
."
..~:~ •.••.?.=.Q.Q. -'='~M·.
· ' ~J
_13-~_,~,:0Q..j\ ·~;.
R-7 Ji:OO A.M:.
I
j
:
....
"II"
I' =--
·. i-·~ '-44QQ--+-----1---+----+---..__..
~ ": \~~4
~~~ x:~~'--
-- ...... ........._
-----........ ~
FIGURE 10
Mobil's Experience in Applying for a Waiver from the Surface Cementing
Requirements for Rule Authorized Class II Enhanced Recovery Wells in the
Springfield North Unit.
N. H. Ginest, Sr. Regulatory Engineer
Mobil Oil Corporation
J. V. Ierubino, Operations Engineer
Mobil Oil Corporation
ABSTRACT
On July 20, 1986 the Region V office of the EPA issued a casing and cementing
policy for all Class II injection wells to provide guidance to its UIC permit
writers. Mobil's rule authorized Cla~s II enhanced recovery wells in the
Springfield North Unit (SNU) do not meet the surface cementing requirements
set out in the subsequently promulgated 40 CFR § 146.22 (b) and§ 147.754 (b)
and, under the aforementioned Region V casing and cementing policy, Mobil would
be required to squeeze cement to isolate USDW 1 s. The high costs and risks
associated with squeeze cementing the 35 to 40 year old injection wells in the
SNU would force Mobil to abandon this waterflood project. In order to
demonstrate that USDW 1 s are being adequately protected under existing operating
conditions, evidence was collected which included cement bond logs, radioactive
tracer surveys, cyclic activation logs and pressure tests. This evidence was
submitted in a waiver request to satisfy the burden of proof for protection of
USDW's which is placed on the operator. It should be noted that the costs of
gathering evidence to illustrate protection of USDW's can easily reach an
amount which could make a mature waterflood uneconomic. Should the economics
of compliance dictate that Mobil abandon its SNU, approximately 32,000 barrels
-535-
of recoverable oil will be left in place. Not only will foregone production
in cases such as this be detrimental, but rising compliance costs will make
many secondary recovery projects much less economically attractive and fewer
-536-
INTRODUCTION
1. the area through and above the injection zone; there may not be
sufficient cement to fill the casing/wellbore annulus to a point 250
feet above the injection zone, and
2. the area from the surface to the base of the USDW 1 s; surface casing
and cementation may not be sufficient to isolate all USDW 1 s.
-537-
FIELD HISTORY
The Spring fie 1d North Un it ( SNU) is 1oca ted in Posey County, Indiana, and the
field was discovered with the drilling of the Highman Heirs No. 1 (renamed as
the SNU No. 30) on June 4, 1946. The unit contains approximately 970 acres
upon which there are currently 47 wellbores capable of production or
injection. The producing reservoir is the Palestine Sandstone.
SNU waterflooding operations began in February of 1963 and there are currently
13 wells permitted by rule for injection. A field map is shown in Figure
No. 2.
-538-
service the definition of a USDW was quite different from that contained in
the SOWA.
-539-
EVIDENCE GATHERED TO ILLUSTRATE THAT USDW'S ARE BEING ADEQUATELY PROTECTED
FROM INJECTED FLUIDS
Cement bond logs were run on SNU Wells No. 2 and 14 and confirmed the
calculated values for cement tops.
-540-
Noise and temperature logs can also be run separately or in
combination to detect tubing and/or casing leaks and also fluid
channeling in the cement sheath behind the casing. Neither of these
logs were run in the SNU injection wells because they were ali
cemented adequately above the injection interval.
-541-
E. Overlying formations prevent upward migration of injected water.
The Palestine Sandstone is overlain by several limestone and shale
beds which consist of several impermeable layers and serve to prevent
upward migration of the water injected into the Palestine zone.
These beds are illustrated in the stratigraphic section on Figure
No. 3.
There are two likely situations which could exist in the long string
casing/hole annulus which are as follows:
-542-
1. Since the casing was run in the open hole while it was filled
with drilling mud, the casing/hole annul us wi 11 be fil 1ed with
the fresh water, solid-based drilling fluid. The drilling fluid
is more dense than fresh water and wi 11 exert a hydros ta tic
pressure due to the column of drilling fluid that will tend to
keep formation fluids out of the casing/hole annulus and
discourage intermingling of formation fluids.
1
Arnold, D. M. and Paap, H. J., Quantitative Monitoring of Water Flow
Behind and in Wellbore Casing, JPT, January 1979.
-543-
oxygen nuclei in the water to produce the radioactive isotope
nitrogen-16. 16 N decays with a half-life of 7.13 seconds and
emits gamma radiation during decay. If water flow is occurring
outside the casing, its velocity can then be computed from the
energy and intensity response of the two gamma ray detectors
mounted in the logging sonde. Basically, the difference in
gamma ray count rates (above the normal background gamma
emission) of the two detectors is used to calculate a linear
fluid ve 1ocity.
The CA log was run on SNU Well Nos. 14 and 17. The CA log
analysis obtained from these two logging runs indicated that no
fluid flow was occurring outside the casing.
There are several different cases or scenarios which could be used to attain
compliance for the injection wells in the SNU. For the following cases, costs
and the resulting unit economics are listed which illustrate the associated
-544-
economic repercussions. The economic indicator referred to in each of the
following cases is payout. Payout is defined as the time required to recoup
all investment costs. Economic assumptions include an initial unit production
rate of 35 BOPD and an annual decline rate of 11%.
CASE I
CASE II
Case II assumes that the EPA would not accept logs run in sample wells for an
area-wide waiver and would require Mobil to run CA logs in all existing
injection wells to obtain a waiver for the entire unit. Running CA logs on
all thirteen (13) injection wells would require a total investment of $45,500.
Economic runs indicate a payout on this investment never occurs. Mobil could
not afford to run CA logs on all SNU injection wells and still maintain a
profitable operation.
-545-
CASE II I
Case III is the scenario most likely to occur should Mobil be required to
squeeze cement to i so 1ate the USDW' s. In order to realistically estimate
costs involved in squeeze cementing the mature injection wells in the SNU,
costs were gathered to perform the following work:
1) Four (4) of the thirteen (13) squeeze jobs would proceed with no
problems and cement returns to the surface would be obtained after
the first squeeze attempt,
2) Five (5) of the injection wells would require a cement bond log after
the initial cement squeeze and have to be reperforated and resqueezed
two (2) more times before isolation of USDW's could be obtained and
3) Four (4) of the injectors would require not only the work and expense
incurred in 1) and 2) above, but also would require new production
casing strings (liners) due to casing failures during workover/
squeezing operations. The new liners would have to be run and
cemented if the original long string casing collapsed. The risk of
casing collapse is very high when exerting the high pump pressures
required to break circulation to the surface.
-546-
The investment required to complete the work described in the Case III scenario
is $286,000. Economic runs indicate that a payout of this investment never
occurs.
The three economic cases are summarized in Table 1. Table 1 illustrates that
the only case under which Mobil can economically justify the costs associated
with compliance is Case I. A waiver, based on a showing of adequate
protection of USDW's under current operating conditions, would have to
include running CA logs on a representative sampling basis to illustrate
unit-wide compliance. It should also be noted that Mobil or any other
company, for that matter, will not operate a project at a loss with income to
be made up in another producing area. Each project must stand on its own and
be economical or it will be abandoned.
-547-
SUMMARY
-548-
CONCLUSIONS
1. It is important that the EPA and state regulatory agencies approve the
use of available technology to gather data which can show injection
operations are not contaminating USDW's. This available technology
includes logging techniques.
3. As is the case in the SNU, squeeze cementing to isolate USDW's will not
be economically viable in many of the existing mature waterfloods in the
United States.
-549-
TABLE 1
COMPLIANCE
RELATED INVESTMENT PAYOUT
WORK REQUIRED (YRS.)
-550-
Noel Ginest is a Senior Regulatory Engineer with Mobil Oil Corporation in
Denver, Colorado. He received a BS degree (1981) in Petroleum Engineering
from the Colorado School of Mines. Mr. Ginest was employed by Mobil in Lake
Charles, Louisiana, in 1981 as an Operations Engineer and worked in Mobil's
Gulf Coast Operations until being transferred into the Environmental and
Regulatory Affairs Department in 1985. He is a member of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
James Ierubino is an Operations Engineer with Mobil Oil Corporation in
Crossville, Illinois. He received a BS degree (1982) in Geology from Rider
College, where he was published by the GSA and various other journals
following his research on sedimentation patterns on the continental shelf.
Mr. Ierubino also holds an MS degree (1985) in Petroleum Engineering from the
Colorado School of Mines. He is a member of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers.
-551-
INJECTION
PRESSURE GAUGE••--
ANNULUS ......_•• INJECTED
PRESSURE GAUGE\ --- LIQUID
10:0
POTA8LE 1 ~:~.:..~-• SURFACE CASING
~
WATER
~--CEMENT
NON· POTABLE
WATER
~ t"::~i-+--• INJECTION TUBING
UNDIFFERENTIATED
ROCKS ~ ~ ~1---•ANNULAR FLUID
___ CEMENT
~---• PACKER
CONFINING IED
Rl4W 13
Rl3W
18-
-- - I
-' I ~,--\
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18 19 20 22 23 I
24 25 26 I I
- 19-
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~ 35
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29
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-- %
36
-
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-·I
-<{-
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•39 0
40
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5 42 41 46 47
51
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49 48
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43
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{
.......!...- 44
--
LEGEND:
e PRODUCING OIL WELL <!J INJECTION WELL
M@bil Oil Corporation
DENVER AFFILIATE
/f' ABANDONED OIL WELL ~ ABANDONED INJECTION WELL
DATA MAP
-<{- ORY HOLE SPRINGFIELD NORTH UNIT
POSEY CO., INDIANA
DRAWN C.ARCHERI iDWG NO.
FIQURll 2. 5PllHINGFllLD NORTH UNIT Flll..D MAP IN-PRG-DM-
CHECKED CHECKED I SCALE NONE I
IDATE 03/02/87 I 5315,79.2
-553-
IURFACI !O
APPROX. I •
THICIUllll : 0 0. Ill' Of' IU•FACI
lff
l.UIO, lllAUI a
..THHDDD
bo CAii. . (Cl•HT
c..cuun• TO
IURFACI W IUffAC&
IAllD a 111111.H CAI... PRllUTI
CAllYVILl.I
'"' IMDI a llW.11
'
IUllCAID FOllllAnOll
100' ( Ll•llTOllll a lllALlll
PALllTIH l.UID
-554-
TABLE 1
COMPLIANCE
RELATED INVESTMENT PAYOUT
WORK REQUIRED (YRS.)
-555-
A METHOD TO CONVERT MULTIPLE-SHOT SECTION OPENHOLE
COMPLETIONS INTO CASED-HOLE COMPLETIONS WITH ZONAL ISOLATION
Authors
Presented
at
-556-
Introduction
wellbores for fluid injection. This process was applied to Conoco's MCA
Production within the unit is from the Grayburg Sixth sandstone and
the San Andres Upper Seventh, Upper Ninth and Lower Ninth Massive dolomite
formations. Formation depths range from 3650 to 4050 feet (see sample log
Figure 2). Most of the 366 active wells are over 30 years old and were
open hole completed over a 300 foot interval. Most wells have at least
two and often three shot sections which generally exceed 20" in diameter
(Figure 1). These factors have combined to make remedial attempts very
difficult.
environmental, and economic concern was whether old well problems could be
injection. Wells drilled four decades ago without any thought of use for
provide zonal isolation. These conditions are not tolerable during C02
A liner with a simple cement job would not satisfy this requirement since
-557-
Page No. 2
to convert the shot hole wells to cased hole completions with zonal
isolation. Otherwise replacement wells for all the existing open hole
injection wells would have to be drilled and the old wells plugged and
Discussion
wells (40 years old or greater) has been recognized for many years.
Injection fluid control has been attempted by running and cementing liners
across the shot open hole section. These attempts failed because
perforating the liner and acidizing in the shot open hole section. This
is due to the fact that the cement, after completely filling the shot hole
could not be totally penetrated. Other attempts at casing the shot open
holes failed because zonal isolation was not achieved. The "Puddle-Pack"
"Puddle-Pack" Completion
-558-
Page No. 2
to convert the shot hole wells to cased hole completions with zonal
isolation. Otherwise replacement wells for all the existing open hole
injection wells would have to be drilled and the old wells plugged and
Discussion
wells (40 years old or greater) has been recognized for many years.
Injection fluid control has been attempted by running and cementing liners
across the shot open hole section. These attempts failed because
perforating the liner and acidizing in the shot open hole section. This
is due to the fact that the cement, after completely filling the shot hole
could not be totally penetrated. Other attempts at casing the shot open
holes failed because zonal isolation was not achieved. The "Puddle-Pack"
"Puddle-Pack" Completion
-559-
Page No. 3
waterflows.
inertness to formation fluid and injected fluid, and (4) feasible cost.
(2) fluid loss during cementing does not result in excessive cement
dehydration. Vugs and mud channels in the fill material are unacceptable,
-560-
Page No. 4
approximately 9700 psi, fill material need only be strong enough to hold
workover fluids is also desirable. Fluids used on the MCA Unit project
flushes.
unusual steps in either preparation or cleanout. Rapid cure time and easy
material for the project. The first system has been widely used in resin
conventional cement3. The second system has been widely used for
consolidated pack sand control jobs on the Gulf Coast and West Coast.
Both systems proved to have good chemical resistance, but the Gulf
-561-
Page No. 5
fine sand with the pack sand to achieve the desired porosity and
is mixed with 10-20 rounded pack sand and 20-40 mesh angular sand.
Eventually, the method selected was to mix small matrix sand (70-170
mesh) and graded silica flour. This mixture yielded the desired
sedimentation.
with a wide range in particle size would have the tendency to settle out.
but did not eliminate it. Experimentation with laboratory samples showed
that the addition of the selected resin greatly reduced the tendency to
silica flour clustered about on the larger grains of resin coated sand.
2. Then add the resin, which coats the large sand grains and leaves
3. Then add the silica flour. The silica flour particles are not
-562-
Page No. 6
Contrary to the initial assumption that the fine silica flour would
area of the flour over the 10-20 mesh sand used in control experiments,
the increase was only on the order of 20%. Final strength and
cluster on the sand grains and since resin is the single most expensive
ingredient of the fill, keeping the minimum level is even more desirable.
Gelling agent level was the final variable in the fill formula. The
Functions of the gelling agent are (1) to suspend the sand and silica
flour in bulk equipment before pumping, and (2) suspend the slurry
-563-
Page No. 7
6. The sample was withdrawn and breaker was added to the sample.
MCA Unit No. 61 was identified as a problem well for injection fluid
loss control in the MCA Unit. Past injection profile logs indicated
the MCA Unit, MCA Unit No. 61 was identified as a worst case condition due
to the three large shot holes, hole sloughing, and the large volume of
resin coated gravel required (see Figure 1). Thus, it was felt that if
The following steps were taken to convert MCA Unit No. 61 to a cased
-564-
Page No. 8
1) To prepare the wellbore for squeeze cementing the production casing
shoe, all injection equipment was pulled from the well and the shot
open hole was plugged back to within 20' (3570') of the production
casing shoe with crushed oyster shells. The volume of crushed oyster
shells required to fill the open hole was recorded to verify the
when the shells were drilled out, the oyster shells remaining in the
open hole section could be removed with acid. A 100 lb quick setting
cement plug was then placed on top of the crushed oyster shells @
3570'.
2) The production casing shoe at 3550' was cement squeezed with 20 sacks
of Class "C" cement with 2% CaCl2 and 30 sacks Class "H" thixotropic
cement.
3) After WOC time, the cement and oyster shells were drilled out to a TD
of 4024'. The shot open hole sections were then jet washed. Jet
washing uses a sub above the bit that has an orifice which directs
hydraulic impact force towards the open hole walls. The hydraulic
impact force removes scale and loose formation rock from the shot open
hole sections.
4) The wellbore was then prepared for the resin coated gravel placement
by:
section for 13 hrs. Every two hours after the chemical solution
was in place, the downhole assembly was worked up and down 60'.
-565-
Page No. 9
This would agitate the chemical solution in the open hole section.
b) The chemical solution was reversed out and 37 bbls of 15% HCl
treated with scale inhibitor was then spotted in the open hole
section. The workstring and bottom hole assembly was stroked 60'
the open hole. The acid was then allowed to soak an additional 30
minutes. After the 1 hour soak period, the acid was reversed out
of the hole with 233 bbls of 8.4 lb/gal KCl water filtered to two
microns.
prematurely harden, and if the pH was too high, the resin would
not harden.
this gelled brine was actually used for mixing the slurry; 3)
23,875 lbs of sand, 209 gallons of resin, and 1375 lbs of silica
c) After circulating the 8.4 lb/gal KCl water, total depth was tagged
-566-
Page No. 10
5) The resin coated gravel mix was placed in the open hole by:
slurry with 18 bbls of 8.4 lb/gal KCl water. The calculated open
hole volume was 37 bbls. 30% additional volume was calculated for
slurry shrinkage and 11% was calculated for excess open hole
volume. Laboratory work had indicated that when the gel broke in
the resin slurry, a 30% volume reduction occurred. The 11% excess
volume was used due to jet washing the open hole after drilling
out the oyster shells. This jet washing increased the shot open
was pulled 900', 150 psi was applied at the surface, and the well
was shut-in.
6) After waiting on resin for 30 hours, the resin coated gravel was
drilled out to a total depth of 4024' with 6-1/4" milled tooth bit.
The weight on bit was 4000 lbs and the penetration rate was 150'/hour.
At this point, the shot open holes were filled with the permeable
-567-
Page No. 11
to remove the permeable resin fill sheath from above and between the
shot sections.
7) A 4-1/2", 10.5 lb/ft, K-55, ST&C liner was run and cemented in place
with 120 sxs of a 50/50 Pozmix Class "C" cement mixture treated with
fluid loss additive. The density of the slurry was 15.5 lb/gal.
movement was used. The minimum displacement rate was 6 BPM and the
8) After WOC time, the cement and cement plugs were drilled out and the
9) The well was then logged with a CBL, CCL-GR and perforated from
4005 1 -3890 1 and 3636'-3595' with a 3-1/2" hollow steel carrier gun
loaded with 1 JSPF (see Figure 4). A total of 158 shots was fired.
Testing
The perforations where the shot open holes existed were straddled
individually with bridge plugs and packers. Injection rates and pressures
were recorded and the intervals were tested for communication. The
bbls/psi/NEP.
temperature log were run. These logs revealed that 15%-28% of the
injected fluid was entering the Grayburg 6th, 10% was entering the
-568-
Page No. 12
San Andres Upper 9th and 72% to 75% was entering the San Andres Lower 9th
the profile run before the "Puddle-Pack" (see Figures 5 and 6). The
profile of MCA Unit No. 61 run after the "Puddle-Pack" closely resembled
the injection profile of MCA Unit No. 257, a cased hole injector 3
locations to the east (see Figures 6 and 7). An injection profile survey
run 7 months after the "Puddle-Pack", revealed that the injection profile
profile log run 7 days after the "Puddle-Pack" (see Figure 8).
since that time, Table 4 lists the injectivity for MCA Unit No. 61.
sloughing.
-569-
Page No. 13
Conclusions
3. The "Puddle-Pack" method has control led injection fluid loss to non-
process.
-570-
Page No. 14
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Conoco Inc. and Halliburton Services for
allowing the publication of this paper. They would also like to thank the
Division office, for without their support and assistance the work would
ft x 3.048 E-01 =m
gal x 3.785 412 E-03 = m3
lbm x 4.535 924 E-01 kg
3. Cole, R. C.: "Epoxy Sealant for Combatting Well Corrosion", SPE 7874
-571-
Page No. 15
Table 1
Compressive
Test Strength, psi
FirstDay 1675
8 days 1675
16 days 1835
34 days 1910
Table 2
Permeability in Darci es
10-20 Mesh 20-40 Mesh
Rounded Sand Angular Sand
0% Fine Sand Added 310 121
10% Fine Sand Added 90 70
20% Fine ~and Added 60 25
'
*From Ref (a) VanPoollen, Tinsley and Saunders
Table 3
Compressive Permeability
Strength, psi Darcies
Laboratory, 5% Silica Flour; 4475
80 lb/1000 gal gel carrier
-572-
Page No. 16
Table 4
Injectivity
Date bbl/psi/NEP Couunents
7/84 0.0031
8/84 0.0029
9/84 0.00366
10/84 0.00403
11/84 0.00401
12/84 0.00398
1/85 0.00403
4/85 0.00857 MCA Unit No • 61
"Puddle-Packed"
5/85 0.0052
6/85 0.0083
7/85 0.0051
8/85 0.0052
9/85 0.0052
10/85 0.0051
-573-
Table l
Table 2
Permeability in Darcies
10/20 Mesh 20/40 Mesh
Rounded Sand Angular Sand *
0% Fine Sand Added 310 121
10% Fine Sand Adde1 90 70
20% Fine Sand Adde 60 25
Table 3
Compressive Permeability
Strength, esi Darcies
Laboratory, Test 4475 6
Table 4
Injectivity
Date bbl/esi/NEP Comments
7/84 0.0031
8/84 0.0029
9/84 0.00366
10/84 0.00403
11/84 0.00401
12/84 0.00398
1/85 0.00403
4/85 0.00857 MCA Unit No. 61
"Puddle-Packed"
5/85 0.0052
b/85 0.0083
7/85 0.0051
8/85 0.0052
9/85 0.0052
10/85 0.0051
-574-
T.D. 4024' P.B.T.D. 4020'
GAMMA RAY NEUTRON
~ 10 3/4" AT 72'
8th ZONE
9th ZONE
7" AT 3558'
Fig. 1-MCA Unit 61, a typlcal ln)actlon well. Fig. 2-Typlcal log aactlon.
1'''''/.
~ ~
I ~ SCALE
~ I 1 MILE
i''''''''''''''v ''''''''')
~ ~
I
~ MCA UNIT A co 2 ''''''''''''''''i/.
~ y PILOT AREA ~
~ ~
~------- - --- -- --- -- ----, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,~
I ~
~ PROPOSED 1st STAGE EXPANSION I ~
~ I ~
/. I ~
~ !'-''''''''''''''
1,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,~ 1''''''''''..t
I
~
1,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
I
-575-
T.D. 4024. P.B.T.D. 40'20'
~
"110 3/4" AT 72'
TRACE~ VELOCITY
~15%
7" AT 3558'
GAMMA
RAY
:>
> I
9 47%
21%
?VELOCITY
DOWN
I PROFILE
lsuRVEY Fig. &-Injection profile survey after puddle pack.
I
p
I
38%
TEMPERATURE
> SURVEY
Fig. 5-lnjectlon profile aurvey before puddle pack.
-576-
% OF LOSS % OF LOSS
TRACER VELOCITY
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40
1--f--j
11%
10%
7%
_,,- ---,INJECTING
TEMPERATURE
1 HOUR SHUT IN
TRACER VELOCITY
11%
9%
TRACER
TEMPERATURE 1
VELOCITY :
?
2%
22%
Fig. 7-lnJectlon profile cued hole MCA unit. Fig. 8-lnjectlon profile •urvey 7 month9 alter puddle
pack.
-577-
HOW TO LOCATE ABANDONED WELLS
by
J. Jeffrey van Ee and Eric N. Koglin
ABSTRACT
Record searches are typically used to locate abandoned oil and gas wells
within the area of review for injection wells; however, the accuracy and success
in locating all of the abandoned wells often is questionable. In some cases,
the records may be incomplete, or inaccurate; in other cases, a thorough search
of the records may be quite time consuming, particularly when large areas and
multiple record bases must be searched. Other methods for locating abandoned
wells are frequently sought when the risk in missing an abandoned well from a
record search appears to be significant.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has conducted several
studies to determine if other means exist to locate abandoned wells. The R. s.
Kerr Laboratory conducted a literature search of alternate methods for locating
abandoned wells. Field, geophysical, and aircraft-based remote sensing surveys
were some of the methods that were highlighted in the final report. The
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas evaluated two of the
most promising methods in a survey of central Oklahoma for abandoned oil and
gas wells. The evaluation of geophysical methods began with the development of
a mathematical model for the magnetic anomaly produced by steel casing. The
United States Geological Survey determined from the mathematical modeling that
airborne magnetometry offered the greatest potential of success in surveying
large areas for abandoned wells. The EPA's Environmental Photographic Inter-
pretation Center evaluated historical aerial photographs as the second means
for locating abandoned wells. Photographs dating back to the 1930's were
examined. The data from the aerial magnetometer survey were compared against
the historical photographs, and the results from these two methods were then
compared against a search of the records. The record search was conducted by
the University of Oklahoma's Environmental and Ground Water Institute.
All three methods were successful in locating abandoned wells. Each has
its own advantages and disadvantages. Used alone, each method was useful in
-578-
locating abandoned wells. Used together, the methods were able to locate a
higher percentage of wells than any one of the methods used alone.
INTRODUCTION
It has been estimated that over two million abandoned wells exist in the
United States (Aller, 1984). Numerous problems are created by these wells, and
documented cases of pollution from abandoned wells are widespread. Improperly
plugged and abandoned wells may allow fluids to migrate between aquifers
especially when those wells are located within the zone of influence of under-
ground injection wells. When the piezometric surface is greater than the land
surface, brine may contaminate the land and surface waters. Abandoned oil and
gas wells may also allow gases to migrate toward the surface and into structures
where explosive levels may lead to fire and explosion. Abandoned agricultural
wells in Silicon Valley are a problem in conveying contaminated water from
shallow aquifers to deeper, drinking water aquifers. Knowing the location of
abandoned wells is an important first step in characterizing the potential for
pollution of underground sources of drinking water. Once the well has been
located, an assessment is usually made of the condition of the well to determine
whether it was properly plugged and abandoned.
Federal regulations developed in response to the Safe Drinking Water Act
and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act require a search for abandoned
wells within an "area of review" of underground injection wells (see 40 CFR
Part 146}. Typically, these searches are of records. Other data bases and
methods may be used when the risk in not locating all the wells within the area
of review is high, and when the location of a well in the field is complicated
by either a lack of surface features, or poor, incomplete, or nonexistent
records. In those instances where large areas must be surveyed (such as
counties where reservoirs or injection wells may be located) a search of the
records by itself may not be sufficient. Other methods must be examined.
The Environmental Protection Agency's R. S. Kerr Laboratory reviewed the
literature to determine what methods have been, or may be used to search for
abandoned wells (Aller, 1984). A variety of methods were identified with some
being routine and straight forward, such as a search of records or consulting
long-time property owners, and others, such as thermal mapping, being less
feasible. The EPA's Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas
(EMSL-LV} chose to evaluate three of the most promising techniques: record
searches, historical aerial photographic analysis. and magnetometry. Much of
the research centered on four test areas outside of Oklahoma City where the
three methods were compared. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the
results of the research and to outline a strategy for locating abandoned wells.
A bibliography of EPA-funded research publications is provided for further
references.
RECORD SEARCHES
Written records for oil and gas. mineral exploration, water, and injection
wells reside in numerous locations throughout the country. Searches of those
records are a starting point in the search for abandoned wells. Where records
are easily accessible, such as computer data bases or maps, little effort is
-579-
required. Where records are scattered or incomplete, more effort is required
and the pay back is reduced. When records do not exist, such as for wells that
were drilled many years ago, a search of the records will not locate all of the
wells within the search area. In many cases, particularly with the older
wells, descriptions are poor of where the wells are located, and how they were
drilled and plugged. A well may have been described as being two hundred feet
from the big oak tree; however, the tree may no longer be present. Even with
more modern day records, the accuracy in which the location of a well may be
pinpointed can be poor. A well may simply be located in 1/64 of a section, and
the area where the well may be located can be on the order of hundreds of feet.
When no surface features are left to identify the location of the well bore,
locating an abandoned well can be quite difficult from a search of the records.
One reason why it is important to first search the records is that infor-
mation presumably exists on how the well was drilled and whether the well was
properly plugged and abandoned by modern day standards. A search of historical
photographs and the use of magnetometers cannot provide this information
(Fairchild and others, 1983).
HISTORICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
EMSL-LV began a research program in 1982 to devise a method of locating
abandoned wells cost effectively and quickly. This research program, conducted
by the Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center {EPIC) of EMSL-LV
located at Vint Hill Farms Station, Warrenton, Virgina, tested a method of
locating abandoned wells using historical aerial photography to locate old
wells during or close to their period of production, when well site features
are most recognizable. Photographic analyses are particularly useful in areas
where commercial or residential development in agricultural or oil-producing
areas have virtually obliterated the old wells.
Abandoned wells are located from aerial photographs through the development
of "signatures." A signature is a combination of characteristics or features
by which an object or activity can be identified on an aerial photograph.
Depending upon the land use and history of the area being analyzed (agricul-
tural, oil or gas production), these signatures may include pump houses, storage
tanks, derricks, impoundments, or depressions in the earth left by storage
tanks (Figure 1). Sites in which these signatures are very clear in successive
years of imagery are classified as ''active/abandoned" wells. Signatures whose
origin is less certain are classified as "probable abandoned" or "possible
abandoned" wells, depending upon the degree of certainty.
As an example, the first application of this method was at sites located
around the Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, area (U.S. EPA, 1983). Signatures for the
well sites were developed through researching early petroleum publications,
personal communications with individuals familiar with old drilling techniques,
and preliminary field work. Signatures for producing wells were found to
include various combinations of the following features: maintained roads,
brine pits, derricks, power houses, ground stains, ground scars, walking beams
and scars from pipelines. The actual well locations were determined by knowing
the general spatial relationship between the wells and these recognizable
features. In addition, associated oil extraction activities such as storage
-580-
I
\JI
00
.....
I
Figure 1. Active oil wells in 1951 located in the Arcadia, Oklahoma, study area.
tanks, water/oil separation ponds and well spacing patterns aided in well site
identification. The analysts found that signatures varied from one Oklahoma
area to another, depending on the time the oil field was developed and the
technology used (Stout and Sitton, 1984).
Signatures for agricultural and water supply wells have features different
from those for oil and gas wells. The principal features include pump houses,
power poles, water tanks, shade trees, access roads and irrigation water flow
patterns. Usually, the features associated with agricultural or water supply
wells are not as prominent on aerial photographs because of their size and the
minimum ground resolving capability of the historical photography (U.S. EPA,
1987}.
-582-
SOURCES FOR HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS
Historical aerial photography is available through a number of different
sources, some of which are listed in Table 1.
MAGNETOMETER SURVEYS
Abandoned wells with few visually evident surface features can be located
with magnetometers. Ferrous metal scrap and trash located on the surface near
the well bore and steel casing in the hole can be used to locate the well in
areas where cultural features, such as metal tanks, fences, and houses are few
and far between. The earth's magnetic field averages approximately 53,000
gammas in the U.S. and a proton precession magnetometer is able to measure
changes in the field intensity of a few gammas. By mapping the magnetic field
in an area, it is possible to locate the well bore of a steel-cased well to
within a few feet.
-583-
The United States Geologic Survey (USGS) performed several studies for the
EMSL-LV to determine whether airborne magnetometry could be used to locate
abandoned wells. It was first necessary to develop a mathematical model of the
magnetic anomaly to determine the optimal altitude and spacing of the aircraft
flight paths. Ground-based magnetometer measurements were made in the vicinity
of steel-cased oil wells to verify the model. Good agreement was obtained
between the calculated and observed magnetic anomaly on the ground (Figures 2a
and 2b). This provided some assurance that the extrapolation of the model to
the airborne case would be valid (Frischknecht and Raab, 1984).
The model indicated that abandoned wells with a minimum of several hundred
feet of casing could be located from an aircraft at 200-foot altitudes (Figure
3). The spacing between the flight paths would have to be approximately 300-400
feet to adequately map the magnetic anomaly with a proton precession magnetom-
eter.
The USGS possessed a small private plane that was instrumented and used
for magnetometer surveys. The magnetic field has been extensively mapped by
the USGS across most of the U.S. Small features such as wells were not observed
because they were not of interest, and they would contribute "noise" to the
magnetic field of the underlying geologic material of interest. Ferrous metal
materials in the plane had been removed, and the much of the remaining magnetic
field had been compensated by the use of coils and an electrical current to
produce an opposing magnetic field. A radar altimeter was used to record the
altitude above the ground and to ensure that the plane kept a constant above
the ground. A ground-based radio navigation system was deployed on the perime-
ter of each test area in Oklahoma to allow the pilot to maintain precise flight
paths and to allow the magnetic data to be referenced to an accurate location.
The orientation of the aircraft was also recorded to permit compensation of the
magnetic data after the flight. Figure 4 graphically depicts this airborne
profile data from one of the Oklahoma study areas. While the use of airborne
magnetometry by the USGS would seem to be an involved, complicated process, the
general process and most of the equipment could be readily acquired and used by
commercial airborne magnetometer firms.
Measurements of the magnetic field with a ground-based magnetometer can be
complicated by nearby, small pieces of metal. Figures 2a and 2b illustrate the
magnetic profile generated by a ground-based magnetometer. The response drops
off rapidly within a short distance from the well location, therefore, metal
debris in the subsurface can mask a location or confuse an interpretation. An
airborne magnetometer is not as sensitive to ground clutter in the mapping of
the magnetic anomaly from larger objects. The magnetic anomaly from a well
will be reduced in intensity with altitude (Figure 5); however, the anomaly
will broaden in size and fewer survey lines will be required to detect the well
casing. Ground-based magnetometers are able to pinpoint the location of a
buried well casing to within a few feet.
The airborne magnetic surveys in Oklahoma found a significant number of
abandoned wells (Figure 6). Some of the anomalies could easily be associated
with a visible feature such as the well head or concrete pad; other anomalies
could not. Ground-based magnetometer measurements were made where an abandoned
well could not be observed from the surface. In many instances, the anomaly
-584-
N-S MAGNETIC TRAVERSE S
!54800~;..._~,..........,,..........,,..........,___,__,__,__,__,_,._,._,.-r-r-r.....,.....,..-r-,
54720. oo Observed
- Calculated
1541560.
:
i.,., 154400 •
54240.
c
i&1
... l54080.
u.
(.)
... 53920.
1-
w
~ 53760.
~
~ !53600.
l-
o
..... 153440.
!!3280.
0200.~.__................~~~~~---------------------
g.... ... ... ...
I
;ii
I
~
I
0 0
N
DISTANCE <FHtl
54240.
c
...iu.&1 !!4080 •
...
(.)
I-
!53920 •
~
u 53760.
~
;i IS!COO.
I-
0
..... !53440.
l53280.
lll200.
... ... ... ...
i
I
0
....
I
:itI ~
I
8
i
8 i ...0
0 8
.... I
DISTANCE ( fHt)
-585-
-400
1
-300 ~
N
-200
I
-- -100
-
Q)
Q)
0
Q)
0
c:
-"'
cu
0
100
200
~-~
300 2
400 '---...L..---.Jl-.--...L.._..::::::i=:::::....J-----'-----'---....J
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400
Distance (feet)
-586-
4620 4480 4440
MANEUV. NOISE
COR. -GAMMAS
0.75
-0.75 -
~---------' ______' _ _ __
=
DIFFERENTIAL
ROLL-DEG. G------------::= _:
DIFFERENTIAL
PITCH-DEG. _:f -
DIFFERENTIAL
HEAD IN G - DEG. [
BARO. AL TMTR
METERS ::: b------------"----~---------
RADAR AL TMTR
METERS
25
:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~120~
t ~- - .
COR.MAG
FIELD-GAMMAS
33
0 1
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 MILE.
Figure 4. Airborne profile data from Arcadia area (the numbers at the top
and bottom are identification numbers associated with each reading, and the
numbered anomalies correspond with those on Figure 6).
-587-
s N
Height of Plane
200
250 feet
-"'
<O
E
E
al
--
C>
"O 100
Cl> 150 feet
LL
-as
-
0
I-
0 100 feet
-588-
o 1000 2000 feet
-589-
measured on the ground could be associated with an abandoned well. Sometimes,
the well may have been a water well. In other instances, the anomaly which
appeared to be from a well was from a pipeline that traversed a hill. The bend
in the pipeline produced the magnetic anomaly that appeared to be from an
abandoned well (Frischknecht and others, 1984).
Ground-based magnetic surveys for abandoned agricultural wells have been
conducted by the USGS in Silicon Valley. A mathematical model was developed
and verified with field data to determine the minimum size of casing that could
be observed in an urban area. The mathematical model indicated that most
agricultural wells could be located in theory, but the difficulties in making
measurements in an urban area remained to be investigated.
Where historical photographs were able to locate a probable abandoned well
in a vacant lot or in a backyard, ground-based magnetometer measurements were
usually successful in locating abandoned agricultural wells in the urbanized
areas of Silicon Valley. When a well was thought to exist in a parking lot,
ground-based magnetometer measurements were complicated by the presence of
buried utilities, reinforcing steel, and nearby automobiles and buildings.
When abandoned wells were thought to exist under buildings, no magnetometer
measurements were made, nor is it believed that they could have been made with
the interfering utilities and nearby metal objects. Without the use of his-
torical photographs to identify search areas for magnetometer measurements,
magnetometer measurements for abandoned wells in urbanized areas are likely to
be less effective and more costly than searches for abandoned wells in less
developed areas (Jachens and others, 1986). Further details may be obtained
from the USGS and the publications listed in the bibliography.
COST COMPARISON
Costs for locating abandoned wells vary with the area and the elapsed time
since the well was drilled. It has been estimated that a search of records to
"locate" an abandoned well costs approximately $50 (Arthur D. Little, Inc.,
1979 in van Ee, 1984). To actually locate the well may require the use of other
methods and data sources. The cost of using historical photographs has been
estimated at approximately $600 per square mile (Stout and Sitton, 1984). As
noted previously, "probable" or "possible" abandoned wells will require field
verification. The cost for conducting magnetometer surveys is more difficult
to estimate. The size of the search area is an important factor because the
deployment costs for an airborne magnetometer survey can be significant no
matter what size an area is to be surveyed; thus, the cost on a "square mile''
basis will be lowered as the number and size of areas increases. A cost-figure
obtained for airborne magnetometer surveys from the Oklahoma studies was between
$1,000 to $2,000 per square mile. For ground-based magnetometer surveys,
estimates of the cost are relatively fixed. On a lineal basis, the costs range
from $50 to $121 per line-mile, or approximately $3,100 to $12,100 per square
mile. While the equipment required to perform an airborne survey is more
sophisticated and expensive than required for ground-based measurements, the
increased time required to perform a ground-based survey of a large area leads
to higher costs (Frischknecht and Raab, 1984).
-590-
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY
Airborne magnetometer studies proved to be cost effective in areas where
low-level flights could be made and where little development of the land occur-
red. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations limit the type of
aircraft and flight patterns that can be flown at low altitudes. Tall, man-made
objects such as radio towers, electrical transmission towers, water towers,
buildings, and silos need to be located before an assessment can be made on the
practicality of airborne measurements. Low-level overflights of farms and
dwellings are permissible with certain restrictions; however, as the number of
proposed flights over these features increase, the difficulties in complying
with the FAA regulations and the likelihood of complaints also increase.
Aircraft magnetometer measurements can only be considered after other factors
have also been considered.
Typically, the first approach is to consult the records. The next approach
would be to use historical photographs, and the third approach would be to
consider magnetometry with airborne measurements being a consideration for
surveying large areas. Ground-based magnetometer measurements should always be
considered in locating those wells that have little, if any, visible surface
features.
Study Areas - Lessons Learned
Table 2 lists all the abandoned wells projects which have been conducted
by EMSL-LV. These eight projects provided great insight into the application
and limitations of the above-mentioned methods. The following sections discuss
some to the lessons learned from selected projects.
OKLAHOMA AND CLEVELAND COUNTIES, OKLAHOMA
The objective for the studies conducted in Oklahoma and Cleveland Counties,
Oklahoma, was to test, evaluate, and compare the three previously discussed
methods for locating abandoned wells. Four areas were selected within these
counties because of the presence of underground injection wells in each area.
These study areas represented ideal locales in which each method worked
very well. The Oklahoma Corporation Commission records were adequate; the
aerial photographic method was very successful because signatures were well
defined and not obscured by urban growth or revegetation; and, the ground and
airborne magnetic surveys did not suffer from interference effects due to
cultural features {U.S. EPA, 1983).
As an example, in the Arcadia, Oklahoma, study area 36 wells were identi-
fied from photos, 41 were wells identified from the record search and 37 were
wells identified with magnetic methods. Frischknecht and Raab {1984} concluded
that 95 to 98 percent of the magnetic anomalies identified in the four study
areas were associated with abandoned wells. Stout and Sitton {1984) concluded
that 91 percent of the abandoned wells in the four study areas were identified
with the aerial photographic method, using the results of the record search as
a measuring stick. They believe that some additional wells may not have been
-591-
TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF EMSL-LV ABANDONED WELLS PROJECTS
===============================================================================
State EPA Region Year Completed
Oklahoma 6
Cleveland and
Oklahoma Counties 1983
Kay County 1985
Washington County
Pennsylvania 3
identified, but these represent a very small minority and would not signifi-
cantly change the accuracy rate of the photo analysis.
PENNSYLVANIA STUDY AREAS
Only the photographic analysis method was applied in the study areas in
Pennsylvania (Elk, McKean, and Warren Counties and the Allegheny Reservoir).
Because of the rapid revegetation, and much of the oil exploration predated the
earliest aerial imagery, the photo analysis method was not as successful com-
pared to the Oklahoma experience. The signature developed for these areas had
some similarities to the Oklahoma areas; however, unique oil field attributes
were identified in Pennsylvania (U.S. EPA, 1985 and U.S. EPA, in progress).
-592-
SANTA CLARA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA
In this study area, aerial photographic analysis and hand-held magnetometer
surveys were used to locate abandoned agricultural and domestic water supply
wells. The signature developed for this study area included site features
which are different from those used in oil and gas production areas. Using
these signatures, 805 wells were identified in the 26-square mile study area.
This number may not account for all abandoned wells since some may not have
exhibited any surface features visible on historical photography, or the wells
may have been obscured by vegetation.
Field work failed to reveal the degree of accuracy of the historical photo
analysis method because of the small sample of wells visited and the difficul-
ties encountered in verifying their locations in an urban environment. Many of
the photo-identified wells are now located under buildings, parking lots, and
highways. Geophysical methods proved less successful in Santa Clara County
because of the abundance of metal objects and structures present in the study
area. It is also conceivable that some well casings may have been removed
during the construction of highways and buildings (U.S. EPA, 1987).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Three methods were used to locate abandoned oil, gas, agricultural, and
water supply wells in various areas around the U.S. As each method was applied
in the Oklahoma study areas, the level of confidence that all abandoned wells
had been located increased, but each method also raised the total cost of the
investigation. The records search provided information on well construction
which the other techniques cannot supply; therefore, it is likely that records
search will always be required to assess the pollution potential from abandoned
wells. Unfortunately, the information contained in the records on both well
location and construction may not be complete or accurate. Additional location
techniques are desirable to supplement the data.
Historical aerial photographs are particularly valuable for those periods
when records are not complete or accurate. This particularly true for the
period from the 1930's through 1950's during which improved, wide-spread photo-
graphic coverage became available and accurate records were not often required.
In areas where rapid land use changes have occurred, it can be difficult to
locate abandoned wells when the length of drilling time at a site was short in
relation to the period of time between photos. Even wells drilled in the
recent past, when frequent photographs are likely to exist, can escape detection
because the length of time that modern-day rigs spend on a site can be less
than in the past when the drilling derrick had to be constructed at the site.
Fortunately, the increased emphasis on developing good records has made the
problem of locating recently abandoned wells much easier.
The aeromagnetic method, like the photographic method, can be readily u~ed
to locate abandoned wells for many areas where there has been no surface evi-
dence of the well. Large areas can be surveyed rapidly from the air without
need for access to the property. While the method allows a well casing to be
located to within 3 to 6 feet with the aid of a ground-magnetometer, the method
is costly. An aeromagnetic survey requires more sophisticated equipment and
-593-
technical expertise than the other two methods. However, more wells were
detected by the aeromagnetic surveys than by the initial photointerpretation.
For any survey method, or methods, selected will depend on the available
resources and the potential threat posed by unknown locations of abandoned
wells in an area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to recognize all the individuals who have con-
tributed to the EMSL-LV abandoned wells studies. Chief among them are Kristen
Stout of the Bionetics Corporation and Frank Frischknecht of the United States
Geological Survey. Their efforts and resulting publications have provided
important contributions to the 4-year abandoned wells research program.
NOTICE
Although the research described in this article has been funded wholly or
in part by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, it does not
necessarily reflect the views of the Agency and no official endorsement should
be inferred.
ERRATUM NOTICE
The authors found a few omissions and oversights in the reference and
bibliography sections after the final copy was submitted to the UIPC.
Citations highlighted with asterisks (*) are the replacements for the pre-
ceeding citation. The body of the paper does not cite the replacements.
The citation highlighted with the pound symbol (#)was inadvertantly
omitted from the bibliography.
REFERENCES
Aller, L. 1984. Methods for Determining the Location of Abandoned Wells.
EPA-600/2-83-123. Available through NTIS, Publication No. PB84-141530 and
through NWWA.
Fairchild, o. M., c. M. Hull, and L. w. Canter. 1983. Selection of Flight
Paths for Magnetometer Survey of Wells. Environmental and Ground Water
Institute. The University of Oklahoma, Nonnan, Oklahoma. EPA Unpublished
Report.
Frischknecht, F. C. and P. V. Raab. 1984. Location of Abandoned Wells with
Geophysical Methods. EPA-600/4-84-085. Available through NTIS, Publica-
tion No. PB85-122638. Frischknecht, F. C., L. Muth, R. Grette, T. Buckley,
and B. Kornegay. 1984. Geophysical Methods for Locating Abandoned Wells.
EPA-600/4-84-065. Available through NTIS, Publication No. PB84-212711.
-594-
Frischknecht, F- C., P. V. Raab, R. Grette, and J. Meredith. 1984. Aeromag-
netic Surveys for Locating Abandoned Wells. USGS unpublished report.
Jachens, R. c.• M. w. Webring, and F. C. Frischknecht. 1986. Abandoned-Well
Study in the Santa Clara Valley, California. USGS Open-file Report 86-350.
Stout, K. K. and M. D. Sitton. 1984. Locating Abandoned Oil and Gas Wells
with Historical Aerial Photos. Proceedings of the First National Confer-
ence on Abandoned Wells: Problems and Solutions, held May 30 to 31, 1984.
Environmental and Ground Water Institute, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma.
U.S. EPA. 1983. Abandoned Wells Study: Oklahoma and Cleveland Counties,
Oklahoma. TS-PIC-83051.
*Stout, K. K. and M. D. Sitton. 1983. Abandoned Wells Study: Oklahoma and
Cleveland Counties, Oklahoma. The Bionetics Corporation for the U.S. EPA.
Report Number TS-PIC-83051.
U.S. EPA. 1985. Abandoned Wells Study: Elk, McKean, and Warren Counties,
Pennsylvania. Technical Support to Region III. Two Volumes. TS-PIC-
85008.
*Sitton, M. D. 1985. Abandoned Wells Study: Elk, McKean, and Warren Counties,
Pennsylvania. The Bionetics Corporation for the U.S. EPA. Technical
Support to Region III. Two Volumes. Report Number TS-PIC-85008.
U.S. EPA. In progress. Abandoned Wells Study: Allegheny Reservoir,
Pennsylvania. Technical Support to Region III. Two Volumes.
*Stout, K. K. and L. M. Fauss. In progress. Abandoned Wells Study: Allegheny
Reservoir, Pennsylvania. The Bionetics Corporation for the U.S. EPA.
Technical Support to Region III. Two Volumes.
U.S. EPA. 1987. Abandoned Agricultural Wells: Santa Clara County. California.
Technical Support to Region IX. Two Volumes TS-PIC-86046.
*Stout, K. K. and L. M. Fauss. 1987. Abandoned Agricultural Wells: Santa
Clara County, California. The Bionetics Corporation for the U.S. EPA.
Technical Support to Region IX. Two Volumes. Report Number TS-PIC-86046.
van Ee, J. J., L. Aller, K. K. Stout, F. Frischknecht, and D. Fairchild. 1984.
Summary and Comparisons of Three Technologies for Locating Abandoned Wells
in Central Oklahoma. Proceedings from the Seventh National Ground Water
Symposium, September 26 to 28, 1984, Las Vegas, Nevada. Available through
the NWWA.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aller, L. 1984. Abandoned Wells: How to Find Them. Proceedings from the
Seventh National Ground Water Symposium, September 26 to 28, 1984,
Las Vegas, Nevada. Available through the NWWA.
-595-
Environmental and Ground Water Institute. 1984. Proceedings of the First
National Conference on Abandoned Wells: Problems and Solutions, held May
30 to 31, 1984. Environmental and Ground Water Institute, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
Frischknecht, F. C. et al. 1983. Geophysical Methods for Locating Abandoned
Wells. USGS Open-File Report 83-702.
#Frischknecht, F. C., L. Muth, R. Grette, T. Buckley, and B. Kornegay. 1984.
Geophysical Methods for Locating Abandoned Wells. EPA-600/4-84-065.
Available through NTIS, Publication No. PB84-212711.
Frischknecht, F. C., D. P- O'Brien, R. Grette, and P. v. Raab. 1985a. Location
of Abandoned Wells by Magnetic Surveys: Acquisition and Interpretation of
Aeromagnetic Data for Five Test Areas. USGS Open-File Report 85-614A.
Frischknecht, F. C., D. P. O'Brien, R. Grette, and P. V. Raab. 1985b. Location
of Abandoned Wells by Magnetic Surveys: Location Maps and Aeromagnetic
Contour Maps. USGS Open-File Report 85-614B.
U.S. EPA. 1985a. Abandoned Wells Study: Kay County. Oklahoma. Technical
Support to Region VI. Two Volumes. TS-PIC-850080.
*Stout, K. K. and L. M. Fauss. 1985a. Abandoned Wells Study: Kay County,
Oklahoma. The Bionetics Corporation for the U.S. EPA. Technical Support
to Region VI. Two Volumes. Report Number TS-PIC-850080.
U.S. EPA. 1985b. Abandoned Wells Study: Washington County, Oklahoma. Tech-
hnical Support to Region VI. Two Volumes. TS-PIC-85008F-
*Stout, K. K. and L. M. Fauss. 1985b. Abandoned Wells Study: Washington
County, Oklahoma. The Bionetics Corporation for the U.S. EPA. Technical
Support to Region VI. Two Volumes. Report Number TS-PIC-85008F.
U.S. EPA. 1985c. Abandoned Wells Study: Chautauqua County, Levant, New York.
Technical Support to Region II. Two Volumes. TS-PIC-850080.
*Stout, K. K., L. M. Fauss, and M. D. Sitton. 1985c. Abandoned Wells Study:
Chautauqua County, Levant, New York. The Bionetics Corporation for the
U.S. EPA. Technical Support to Region II. Two Volumes. Report Number
TS-PIC-850080.
U.S. EPA. 1985d. Abandoned Wells Study: Fanners Market Area-Los Angles,
California. Letter Report to Region IX.
*Stout, K. K. 1985d. Abandoned Wells Study: Fanners Market Area-Los Angles,
California. The Bionetics Corporation for the U.S. EPA. Letter Report to
Region IX.
-596-
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
J. Jeffrey van Ee is an electronics engineer with the Aquatic and Subsur-
face Monitoring Branch at the EPA Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory
in Las Vegas, Nevada. Mr. van Ee is an EPA Project Officer who has been
involved in several major EPA Programs during his 15 years with the Agency. He
was involved with the measurement of air pollution in the 1970's, and he became
involved in the development of quality assurance procedures for the calibration
of air pollution instruments. His work with the National Eutrophication Survey
involved the assessment of the water quality of lakes and reservoirs. His
recent duties include the assessment of monitoring systems for the detection of
leaks from underground storage tanks, the development of monitoring strategies
for hazardous waste site assessments, and the development of quality assurance
guidelines for ground-water studies.
Eric N. Koglin is a hydrogeologist with the Aquatic and Subsurface Monitor-
ing Branch at the EPA Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas,
Nevada. He holds a B.S. in geology from Indiana State University and an M.S.
in hydrology from the University of Arizona. Prior to joining EMSL-LV,
Mr. Koglin was an environmental scientist working for U.S. EPA Region 9 in the
Superfund Programs Branch. From 1979 to 1982 he worked for the South Dakota
Geological Survey as a mud rotary drill rig operator and geologist. Since
joining EMSL-LV, he has been involved with a variety of research projects
including the placement of ground-water monitoring wells, ground-water flow and
contaminant transport in fractured rocks, and the application of geographic
information systems to ground-water resource management and contamination
issues.
-597-
"ADA" PRESSURE TEST
Richard C. Peckham
Environmental Protection Agency - Region VI
Dallas, Texas
and
Everett M. Wilson
Environmental Protection Agency - Region VI
Pawhuska, Oklahoma
ABSTRACT
-599-
INTRODUCTION
In EPA's Region VI, primacy for the UIC program has been
delegated to all five of the states in the Region (Arkansas, Louisiana,
New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas).
The Osage Nation consists of the entire county of Osage in Oklahoma
(Figure 1) and as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (PL93-523),
Region VI has direct implementation of the UIC Program on Indian Lands.
Accordingly, the Osage UIC regulations (40 CFR Part 147, Subpart GGG)
were established and became effective December 30, 1984. These regulations
require that all injection wells demonstrate mechanical integrity by
December 30, 1989 and at least once every five years thereafter.
Osage County Oklahoma has approximately 3500 injection wells ranging in
depth from 500 to 3000 feet. In order for these wells to have mechanical
integrity it must be demonstrated that:
(1) There is no significant fluid movement into an underground source
of drinking water (USDW) through vertical channels adjacent to the
wellbore, and
(2) there is no significant leak in the casing, tubing or packer.
-600-
This demonstration is usually accomplished through a file review of
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) records. The BIA has regulated the oil
and gas production in Osage County almost since the first discovery of
oil in the County and maintain a comprehensive file on all well compl-
etions dating back to the early 1900 1 s.
-601-
However, early into the mechanical integrity test (MIT) program, it
was discovered there were some wells which had open perforations above
the packer. The operators and the BIA were reluctant to squeeze off
these perforations, both because of the economics of the remedial work
and the possibility that these zones might once again become commercially
productive or could be used for an injection well in an enhanced recovery
project. Thus, the problem of being able to demonstrate the mechanical
integrity of such wells.
Region VI was not the only region or State to face this problem.
Kansas has similar types of completions in S.E. Kansas, which is adjacent
to Osage County. Their program, having been in operation several
years ahead of the Osage UIC program, had already discovered they had no
practical means of testing these wells. A memorandum, written in February
1984 by Harold Owens of EPA Region VII, suggested the possibility of
pressuring the annulus with air (or gas) and forcing the fluid level
down to the perforations.
In search of a practical and reliable method of testing these wells,
Owens' suggestion was evaluated and it was determined that the principal and
procedure was very similar to the air line method used to measure fluid levels
in some municipal wells with deep water levels. The following method is quoted
from the Missouri Water Well Handbook (Reference 1) and Figure 2 illustrates
the application of this method.
-602-
Air Line: One of the best methods is the air line which
can be installed easily and permanently. The air line is
usually 1/8 or 1/4-inch copper tubing or galvanized pipe,
long enough to extend below the lowest water level to be
measured. The air line may be fastened to the pump bowls
or cylinder and installed with the pump. The pipe must
be airtight and care should be taken in making up all
joints. The vertical length of the air line (A) from the
pressure gauge to the bottom of the line should be measured
carefully at the time of installation.
A pressure gauge is attached to the air line at the surface
with an ordinary tire valve to permit attaching a tire pump
or air compressor hose.
To measure the depth to water at any time, pump air into the
air line until the maximum reading on the gauge is obtained.
This reading is equal to the pressure exerted by the column
of water (B) standing outside of the air line. It is custo-
mary to use an altitude pressure gauge reading directly in
feet of water. If the gauge reads in pounds per square inch,
multiply by 2.31 to convert to feet (or use the conversion
table in Chapter I).
The gauge reading in feet (which equals the height B) is then
subtracted from the total vertical length of air line (A) to
obtain the depth to water (C) in feet below the center of the
gauge.
The procedure was presented to a number of engineers, geologists, and
hydrologists for their opinions. The opinions were equally divided as to
whether it would or would not work in the situation for which it was being
proposed.
Early in 1985, EPA's RSKERL in Ada, Oklahoma had constructed a "leak
test" well for the purpose of providing a facility to develop methods for
testing the integrity of the tubing, casing and packer of injection wells, as
required in EPA's UIC regulations.
-603-
The "leak test" well was designed to represent and to operate like a
typical injection well, with a few exceptions that were added to permit
the simulation of numerous different test conditions. In addition to the
standard surface casing, longstring casing, tubing and packer, the well
is equipped with a second packer and a sliding sleeve on the injection
tubing and a 2 3/8" tubing attached to the outside of the long string
(Figure 3). This rather unorthodoxed configuration permits the control
and monitoring of the desired conditions from the surface.
A more detailed description of this well may be found in a paper by
Thornhill and Benefield (Reference 2) presented at the International
Symposium on Subsurface Injection of Liquid Wastes in New Orleans, March
1986.
The test was performed on the tubing in two parts: the first (test
A} with the sliding sleeve open, to represent a leak in the tubing at a
depth of 1070 feet; and the second (test B} with the sliding sleeve
closed, to represent a no leak situation. The fluid level was measured at
360 feet below the land surface with an acoustic fluid level instrument.
This gave us 710 feet of hyrostatic head above the open hole at 1070
feet and 760 feet of head above the top of the perforations at 1120
-604-
feet. Using 2.31 feet* of water per psi, it was calculated that it
would require 307 psi to depress the water level to a depth of 1070 feet
and 329 psi {the formation pressure of the perforated zone) to depress
it to a depth of 1120 feet:
710 760
Dl = 307 psi D1 = 329 psi
*Note: 1 psi = 2.31 feet of fresh water was used because the casing had been
filled with fresh water before perforating and the same water was still in the
well.
The following table represents what is theoretically taking place in
the well during the tests as air is added to the tubing.
{l) (2) ( 3) ( 4) (5) ( 6)
Tubing Depth to Hydrostatic psi psi psi
Gauge Fluid Head Above @ @ @
Reading Level the Perforati ans Fluid hole perf.
{es i } {feet} {feet} Level {1070'} {11 20 I}
0 360 760 0 307 329
l 00 591 529 100 307 329
200 822 298 200 307 329
300 1053 67 300 307 329
307 1 070 {Hole) 50 307 307 329
329 1120{Perforations)O 329 329 329
With a static fluid level of 360 feet (column 2) below the land surface, the
hydrostatic head above the perforations would be 760 feet (column 3). The
tubing gauge pressure (column 1) and the psi at the fluid level (column 4)
would both be zero. This hydrostatic head would exert 307 psi (column 5) at
the hole {1070 feet of depth) and 329 psi (column 6) at the perforations {1120
feet of depth). As air is added from cylinders of compressed air, the gauge
pressure (column 1) increases and depresses the fluid level (column 2)
-605-
2.31 feet for every psi added, thus reducing the hydrostatic head (col. 3) by a
corresponding amount. The amount of pressure at the gauge (column 1) and
pressure at the fluid level (column 4) remain equal to each other throughout
the procedure. The pressure at the 1070-foot hole (during test A), 307 psi
(column 5), and at the 1120-foot perforations, 329 psi (column 6), remain
constant throughout even though air pressure is being added. The added air
pressure simply replaces the lost hydrostatic pressure caused by depressing
the fluid level.
In test (A), with the sliding sleeve open, when 307 psig of air
has been reached, the fluid level should be at a depth of 1070 feet and you
would not be able to add any more pressure because any addition of air will be
lost through the hole. If the source of air (cylinders) is shut off, and
there are no leaks in the system above the 1070-foot hole, the pressure should
remain 307 psi.
In test (B), with the sliding sleeve closed, you should be able to reach
329 psig before you could not increase pressure by adding more air. At this
point the fluid level should be at the top of the perforations and any additional
air added would be lost into the formation. Again with the air source closed,
the pressure gauge will continue to read 329 psig as long as there are no
leaks in the system.
During test (A), using cylinders of compressed air, air was added to the
tubing until the pressure would no longer increase. This occurred at 300 psig,
a little less than calculated, but considering the accuracy of the acoustic
fluid level instrument we were close to getting the results we were looking for
and once the air source valve was closed, the pressure gauge remained at 300 psig.
Test (B) was a different story. After closing the sliding sleeve, compressed
air was again added to the tubing. An excessive pressure (380 psig) was achieved
-606-
without reaching a maximum. The cylinder valve was closed and the pressure
dropped to a point less than 329 psig. The procedure was repeated several
times and each time the excessive pressure was added, the ensuing pressure
drop became less, but it never did stablize at 329 psig before we ran out of air
cylinders and aborted the test. This indicated that the penneability of the
injection zone was probably extremely low and that even though the added pressure
was more than enough to depress the fluid level to the 1120-foot level, the
formation would not accept the water fast enough and the fluid level was not
as deep as the pressure indicated it should be. Since the well had been filled
with fresh water at the time the well was perforated, creating a pressure
inside the well higher than that of the formation, it was hoped that debri
clogging the perforations rather than a formation with extremely low permeability.
was responsible for the situation.
Even though the tests did not go perfectly as planned, the results showed
that the principle was sound and that a practical, economical, and reliable
test could be developed.
Several months later, the well was acidized and injectivity tests showed a
permeability of 125 md. Test (B) was then successfully run without the problems
encountered on the original test. Nitrogen was substituted for the compressed
air because when used on a formation which contains hydrocarbons, the compressed
air will cause a combustible mixture. Also, it took less cylinders of nitrogen
to achieve the desired pressure and the cost was comparable to that of compressed
air.
Development of Procedures
Based on the results of the tests conducted on the RSKERL "leak test" well
and the operational considerations learned through trial and error while performing
these tests, we developed procedures for an annulus pressure test on wells
with open perforations above the packer (the "Adah Pressure Test). Those
procedures are as follows:
-607-
Test Requirements
1. Must have at least 100 feet of cement inmediately above the uppermost
perforations.
2. Must have at least 200 feet of water above the uppermost perforations in
the annulus (must have an accurate static fluid level measurement and know the
depth to uppermost perforations).
3. Must know the specific gravity or total dissolved solids (TDS) of the water
in the annulus.
4. There can be pressure on the tubing, but injection must be shut-in and the
pressure stabilized. The well should be shut-in long enough before the
test for temperatures to stabilize.
5. Must have at least a 500-foot interval between base of USDW and the uppermost
perforations, or a total of at least 100 feet of good shale (not silty or
sandy shale), as detennined from an electric log.
6. Annulus water level may not be above the base of USDW unless the casing is
cemented from the land surface through the base of the USDW.
7. With the tubing and packer set at their normal injection depth, (a) tracer
survey must be run through tubing, while injecting, to demonstrate no leaks
in the tubing or packer below the uppermost perforations, or (b) this same
type pressure test can be run in the tubing if: distance between injection
perforations and bottom of tubing is at least 50 feet; water level in tubing
is at least 200 feet above perforations; fluid level is measured; and the
specific gravity or TDS of fluid and depth to perforations are known.
Test Procedures
1. Calculate the pressure required to depress the fluid level to top of per-
forations: Sp. Gr. X .433 =Gradient (psi/ft of head) X water column = psig
2. Pressure the annulus (the tubing, if testing the tubing and packer) using
compressed nitrogen cylinders. Be sure the hoses and gauges are rated to
handle the high pressures of the cylinder. The number of cylinders required
-609-
will depend on the volume of the space above the perforations.
3. When pressure at the wellhead will not increase any more {be sure there is
still gas flowing from the cylinder into the well), shut off the valve to the
... cylinder.
4. Record the time and pressure. Monitor the pressure for 30 minutes. Record
pressures after 5, 10, 20 and 30 minutes.
Test Interpretation
-610-
In addition to testing wells with perforations above the packer, the
"Ada" pressure test can be used:
1. To test the casing in wells without packers.
2. To test the tubing in wells in which the tubing has been cemented in
the casing.
3. To test the tubing and packer as described under "Test Requirements"
7.(b) above.
It has been suggested by some that we should take into account the weight
of the gas and temperature changes in the gas. To do so, would require a lot
of assumptions and calculations which would complicate the interpretation and
thus reduce its usability in the field. It may be you cannot use the test on
deep wells, but for the shallow wells of Osage County and S.E. Kansas, it
works, it's simple, it's easy to interpret, it's relatively inexpensive, and
it is reliable. If there are errors in this simplicity, we feel that it is on
the conservative side. That is, if the well passes this test, we feel that it
has demonstrated that the casing has no holes above the uppermost perforations
and no leaks in the tubing or packer.
Case Histories or Field Application
Using the above procedures, we began using the "Ada" Pressure Test in the
Osage UIC program in January 1986. During 1986, we tested 13 wells using
this method; 8 failed and 5 passed. The following 3 case histories are examples
of the Ada Test as applied in the field.
-611-
Case history #1 (illustrated in Figure 4) represents a well that has
been re-entered, has no pressure on the tubing and has minimum casing around
the tubing through which the salt water is injected. Since there is 1560 feet
of open hole surrounding the injection string, it would be impossible to apply
pressure on the annulus between the 2 3/8" tubing and 8" casing and be sure
that the entire length of tubing was being adequately tested for integrity.
The Ada Pressure test allows the tubing to the tested internally throughout
it's length and the depth of a leak (if any) to be determined by simple math-
ematical calculations.
The pressure required to push the fluid level from 180 feet to 1836 feet
was calculated to be:
(1836' - 180') x 1.13 s.G. x .433 psi/ft= 810 psig.
The operator reached pressure of 432 psig before running out of Nitrogen.
This amount proved to the sufficient as the pressure began dropping immediately
upon the well being shut-in. Figure 5 illustrates the corresponding relationship
between the pressure, shut-in time and fluid depth in the tubing during the test.
Eighty minutes into the test the pressure reached 370 psig and held steady for
the next 30 minutes indicating through calculations that the fluid level and
corresponding leak was at:
370 psig ~ 1.13 S.G. f .433 psi/ft+ 180' = 936 feet
It is significant that the operator found the leak at 938 feet
during preparation for remedial work to bring the well into compliance, there-
fore demonstrating the reliability of the test in determining the depth of the
leak. It should further be noted that this test can only determine the existence
and location of the uppermost leak should there be more than one present in the
well.
-612-
Case history #2 (represented in Figure 6) is a well with pressure on the
tubing and known perforations in the casing. The mechanical integrity of the
casing was previously demonstrated by setting the packer above the uppermost
perforations and performing the standard pressure test. The following calcula-
tions were made to determine the pressure requirements to force the fluid
level from surface to the injection zone and demonstrate mechanical integrity
of the tubing and packer:
1024.0 feet x 1.10 S.G. x .433 + 100 psig (tubing pressure) = 588 psig
The tubing was pressured to a maximum of 625 psig with Nitrogen. Upon
shut-in, the tubing pressure decreased immediately to 600 psig and held for
30 minutes. At this point, a fluid level was acquired by an acoustic fluid
level instrument which confirmed that the liquid had been depressed to the top
of the injection interval at 1024 feet. After the test was run it was determined
that the actual specific gravity of the injection fluid was 1.13 instead of the
1.10 value used in the initial calculations. Using a specific gravity of 1.13;
the calculated pressure for the test to push the fluid level down to 1024 feet
is 601 psig. This is a difference of 1 psig as opposed to 12 psig under the
original calculations.
It is desirable that it be standard procedure to shoot a fluid level when
applying this test in the field since there are inherent variables both in the
well construction and fluid properities in the wellbore that can affect the
relationship between the calculated pressure and the actual final test pressure.
However, when specific gravity of 1.10 is used for salt water in the initial
calculation, it can be assumed that any pressure that exceeds the calculated
value and holds steady for 30 minutes is sufficient to demonstrate mechanical
integrity.
-613-
Case history #3 represents one of the first wells to have this test
applied to it and is an excellent example as to the reliability and simplicity
of the test.
Figure 7 details the construction of the well and defines the conditions
in the well at the time the Ada Pressure test was run. Figure 8 illustrates
the pressure-time-fluid level relationship as it evolved during the course of
the test. From this data the following test analysis can be made:
Tubing Test
1. The pressure required to push the fluid level from 150 feet
to 1614 feet was calculated to be:
670 psig ~ 1.13 S.G.; .433 psi/ft + 150 feet = 1519 feet
-614-
2. The maximum pressure achieved for the test was 180 psig. Five minutes
after shut-in the pressure had dropped to 120 psig and continued to
decrease for the next 30 minutes to 104 psig, at which time the test
was terminated. This indicated a leak in the casing at or above:
(104 psig - 35 psig) ; 1.08 S.G. ; .433 psi/ft + 562 feet = 710 feet
CONCLUSIONS
It is a viable test for demonstrating whether a well has mechanical
integrity. This relatively simple test will not only assure the protection of
the underground sources of drinking water, but will provide the oil industry
with a relatively inexpensive means of demonstrating integrity of their wells.
-615-
A demonstration which, because of their construction (i.e. perforations above the
packer), could not be made through the conventional standard pressure test.
In many respects the "Ada" Pressure Test gives you more than the standard
annulus pressure test. If the well fails the test, it not only tells you that
you have a leak, but it will tell you at what depth the leak is occurring and
whether it is relatively small or large.
The test will not tell you if you have casing leaks below the upper
perforations, but if the well later (after testing) develops a leak in the
tubing or packer, the leaking fluids will go out those casing leaks or the
upper perforations. By requiring the wellbore to be cemented above the upper
perforations, this fluid is prevented from moving up the wellbore.
The test may not include everything or be as sensitive as some regulators
would like, but:
1. It does meet the requirements of the regulations;
2. It is simple to run and interpret;
3. It is reliable;
4. It is relatively inexpensive; and
5. It does provide a practical test for demonstrating mechanical integrity
for a well which could not otherwise be tested.
REFERENCES
1. Missouri water Well Drilling Association, "Water Well Handbook", 1959, 199
pages (Edited by Anderson, Keith E.).
2. Thornhill, Jerry T. and Benefield, Bobby G., "Mechanical Integrity Research"
Proceedings of the International Symposium Subsurface Injection of Liquid
wastes, pp. 241-278, March 3-5, 1986.
-616-
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figures:
1• Map of Region VI Showing Location of Osage County
2. Air Line Method of Measuring Water Levels
3. Sketch of the RSKERL "Leak Test" Well
4. Case History #1: Wel 1bore Schematic
5. Case Hi story #1: Pressure - Time - Fluid Depth Plot
6. Case Hi story #2: Well bore Schematic
7. Case Hi story #3: Well bore Schematic
8. Case Hi story #3: Pressure - Ti me - Fluid Level Relationships
-617-
........ ......... .
. -....
- -]- ....
__ _
-·-·- -- 1 E'"-
~
L
......
FIGURE 1
SCHEMATIC OF AIRLINE METHOD FOR MEASURING FLUID LEVELS
Compressor _s-+
B
Electric Line
Air
Tubing ~Casing
000
Electric Pump
~ Perforations
FIGURE 2
-619-
RSKERL •Leak Test• Well
1057' Deptn Of
upper packer
:f.--cement
--1070'
...'·
14ktr ftOdtl -i,• Sliding SlttVt
Jeker ftodel -a· Profile Mi.Piil•
1084' Depth or s. Weer ftodtl ·Ad·l· Tensilll'I Pldcer
lower packer •• 2 ,,.. Wl1"9
1. laker ftod&l -.· Prorue ldppl•
•• SWeer ftodtl .,. Profile Kipple
112• Lont SU1'19
'·
FIGURE 3
-620-
.
CASE HISTORY tl
Wellbore Schematic
140' TD of a• casing
2 3/8• Tubing
Top of Cement
1800' Packer
'----"""~ 1872' TD
FIGURE 4
-621-
434
432 CASE HISTORY 11
0 1063
430 0 1059
428 0 0
Pressure-Time-Fluid Depth Plot
426
424
422
420 0 1038
418
416
414
412
410 0 1018
408
406
0
404
402
400 0 998
.µ
398 QI
QI
Cl
•..t
396 IM
UI 0
0. 394 :c
...... E--4
392 a.
Cil ~
0:: Q
::::> 390 0 977
(/] Q
(/]
Cil
388 1-1
:::>
0:: ~
p.. 386
384
0 ""
382 0
380 0 957
0
378
376
0
374
372 0
370 0 0 0 0 0 0 936
368
366
364
362
360 916
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
TIME (minutes)
Figure "
-6U..-
~ASE HISTORY 12
Wellbore Schematic 100 psig on Tubing
Top of Perforations
Packer
Top of Perforations
FIGURE 6
-623-
~ASE HISTORY 13
Wellbore Schematic
2 3/8• Tubing
Casing
Sliding Sleeve
1562' Packer
1580' Bottom of Tubing
FIGURE 7
-624-
Case History 13
PRESSURE-TIME-FLUID LEVEL RELATIONSHIP
Tubing Test
Calculated Calculated
Time Test Pressure Fluid Level Fluid Level
(minutes) (PSIG) Above Perforations Below Land Surf ace
(Feet) (Feet)
0 705 23 1591
5 695 44 1570
10 686 62 1552
20 674 86 1528
25 670 95 1519
30 670 95 1519
Casing Test
Calculated Calculated
Time Test Pressure Fluid Level Fluid Level
(minutes) (PSIG) Above Perforations Below Land Surface
(Feet) (Feet)
Figure 8
-625-