Highlighted statement

1. Newly established parasite host relationships are likely to be more destructive than those
that have a long evolutionary history
2. Historians have identified a number of basic characteristic of civilizations,most of which
are evident in the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations.
3. In reality scientific discoveries rarely are made by a process as mechanical as the idealized
scientific method described here.

Reading problems
1. Research shows that it is easier to understand what you are reading, if you begin with a
general idea of what the passage is about. Previewing helps you form a general idea of the
topic in your mind. to preview, read the first sentence of each paragraph and the last
sentence of the passage. You should do this as quickly as possible. Remember, you are not
reading for specific information, but for an impression of the topic.
2. Reading for Main Ideas
By previewing, you can form a general idea of what a reading passage is about; that is,
you identify the topic. By reading for main ideas, you identify the point of view of the
author-that is, what the writer's thesis is. Specifically, what does the author propose to
write about the topic? If you could reduce the reading to one sentence, what would it be?
3. Using Contexts for Vocabulary
Before you can use a context, you must understand what a context is. In English, a context
is the combination of vocabulary and grammar that surrounds a word.
Context can be a sentence or a paragraph or a passage. Context helps you make a general
prediction about meaning. If you know the general meaning of a sentence, you also know
the general meaning of the words in the sentence.
Making predictions from contexts is very important when you are reading a foreign
language. In this way, you can read and understand the meaning of a passage without
stopping to look up every new word in a dictionary. On an examination like the TOEFL,
dictionaries are not permitted in the room.
4. Scanning for Details
After reading a passage on the TOEFL, you will be expected to answer six to ten
questions. Most of them are multiple-choice. First, read a question and find the important
content words. Content words are usually nouns, verbs, or adjectives. They are called
content words because they contain the content or meaning of a sentence.
Next, let your eyes travel quickly over the passage for the same content words or
synonyms of the words. This is called scanning. By scanning, you can find a place in the
reading passage where the answer to a question is found. Finally, read those specific
sentences carefully and choose the answer that corresponds to the meaning of the
sentences you have read.
5. Making Inferences
Sometimes, in a reading passage, you will find a direct statement of fact. That is called
evidence.
But other times, you will not find a direct statement. Then you will need to use the
evidence you have to make an inference. An inference is a logical conclusion based on
evidence. It can be about the passage itself or about the author's viewpoint.
6. Identifying Exceptions
After reading a passage on the TOEFL, you will be asked to select from four possible
answers the one that is NOT mentioned in the reading.
Use your scanning skills to locate related words and phrases in the passage and the
answer choices.
7. Locating References
After reading a passage on the TOEFL, you will be asked to find the antecedent of a
pronoun. An antecedent is a word or phrase to which a pronoun refers. Usually, you will
be given a pronoun such as "it," "its," "them," or-"their," and you will be asked to locate
the reference word or phrase in the passage.
 First, find the pronoun in the passage. Then read the sentence using the four answer
choices in place of the pronoun. The meaning of the sentence in the context of the passage
will not change when you substitute the correct antecedent.
8. Referring to the Passage
After reading the passage on the TOEFL, you will be asked to find certain information in
the passage, and identify it by line number or paragraph.
First, read the question. Then refer to the line numbers and paragraph numbers in the
answer choices to scan for the information in the question.

Listening problems
 Short Conversations
1. Details
Details are specific facts stated in a conversation.
In some short conversations, you will hear all of the information that you need to
answer the problem correctly. You will not need to draw conclusions.
When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must remember the
details that were stated.
Example:
Man : Front desk. How may I help you?
Woman : I'd like to arrange a wake-up call for tomorrow morning at seven
o'clock, please.
Narrator : When does the woman want to get up tomorrow?
Answer : Seven o'clock in the morning.
2. Idiomatic Expressions
Idiomatic expressions are words and phrases that are characteristic of a particular
language with meanings that are usually different from the meanings of each of
the words used alone. In some short conversations, you will hear idiomatic
expressions, such as "to kill time," which means to wait.
When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must listen for the
idiomatic expressions.
You will be expected to recognize them and restate the idiom or identify the
feelings or attitudes of the speaker.
It will help you if you study a list of common idioms as part of your TOEFL
preparation.
Example:
Man : I'm single. In fact, I've never been married.
Woman : No kidding!
Narrator : What does the woman mean?
Answer : She is surprised by the man's statement.
3. Suggestions
A suggestion is a recommendation.
In some short conversations, you will hear words and phrases that make a
suggestion, such as "you should," "why don't you," or "why not."
When you hear the words and phrases that introduce a suggestion, you must be
able to recognize and remember what the speaker suggested, and who made the
suggestion.
Example:
Woman : Oh, no. Dr. Thompson's class is closed.
Man : Already?
Woman : I know. This is only the first day of registration.
Man : Well, it's offered every term. Why don't you just take it next semester?
Narrator : What does the man suggest that the woman do?
Answer : Wait until next semester to take Dr. Thompson's class.
4. Assumptions
An assumption is a statement accepted as true without proof or demonstration.
In some short conversations, an assumption is proven false, and the speaker or
speakers who had made the assumption express surprise.
 When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must be able to
recognize remarks that register surprise, and draw conclusions about the
assumptions that the speaker may have made.
Example:
Woman : Let's just e-mail our response to Larry instead of calling.
Man : Larry has an e-mail address?
Narrator : What had the man assumed about Larry?
Answer : He would not have an e-mail address.
5. Predictions
A prediction is a guess about the future based on evidence from the present.
In some short conversations, you will be asked to make predictions about the
future activities of the speakers involved.When you hear a conversation between
two speakers, you must listen for evidence from which you may draw a logical
conclusion about their future activities.
Example:
Man : Could you please book me on the next flight out to Los Angeles?
Woman : I'm sorry, sir. Continental doesn't fly into Los Angeles. Why don't you
try Northern or Worldwide?
Narrator : What will the man probably do?
Answer : He will probably get a ticket for a flight on Northern or Worldwide
Airlines.
6. Implications
Implied means suggested, but not stated. In many ways, implied conversations are
like prediction conversations.
In some short conversations, you will hear words and phrases or intonations that
will suggest how the speakers felt, what kind of work or activity they were
involved in, or where the conversation may have taken place.
When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must listen for
information that will help you draw a conclusion about the situation.
Woman : Where's Anita? We were supposed to go to the library to study.
Man : Well, here is her coat, and her books are over there on the chair.
Narrator : What does the man imply about Anita?
Answer : Anita has not left for the library yet.
7. Problems
A problem is a situation that requires discussion or solution.
In some short conversations, you will hear the speakers discuss a problem.
When you hear a discussion between two speakers, you must be able to identify
what the problem is. This may be more difficult because different aspects of the
problem will also be included in the conversation.
Woman : It only takes two hours to get to New York, but you'll have a six-hour
layover between flights.
Man : Maybe you could try routing me through Philadelphia or Boston instead.
Narrator : What is the man's problem?
Answer : His flight connections are not very convenient.
8. Topics
A topic is a main theme in a conversation or in a piece of writing.
In some short conversations, the speakers will discuss a particular topic.
When you hear a conversation, you must be able to identify the main topic from
among several secondary themes that support the topic.
Man : Tell me about your trip to New York.
Woman : It was great! We saw the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State
Building and all of the tourist attractions the first day, then we saw the museums
the second day and spent the rest of the time shopping and seeing shows.
Narrator : What are the man and woman talking about?
Answer: The woman's trip.
 Longer Conversations
1. Academic Conversations
 Talks and Lectures
1. Class Discussions
2. Academic Talks
3. Lectures