Lesson 3: Communication Through Verbal and Non-verbal

Messages

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. Distinguish verbal from non-verbal communication.

2. Discuss the varieties and registers of spoken and written English; and
3. Employ the appropriate registers, and expressions in spoken and written
discourse.

o VERBAL COMMUNICATION uses spoken or written words to communicate a

message. Alongside speaking, listening is an equally important skill for this type of
communication to be successful.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION: LANGUAGE VARIETY & REGISTER

Language is a set of arbitrary symbols that create a possible combination of

utterances primarily used for communication. Language is the element of society, allowing
people together to live, work and play together, to tell the truth, but also to tell a lie, or lies.
Language allows people to say things to each other and express their communication
needs." Language is a complex system of symbols shared and used for communication by
members of the same community, the same geographical area, or the same cultural
tradition.

FEATURES OF LANGUAGE:

1. LANGUAGE IS A SYSTEM.

It is a vehicle by which the individual is able to send and receive messages from the inside
and the outside.

2. LANGUAGE IS SYMBOLIC.

Language is a collection of symbols that possess certain properties (Adler and Rodman).

3. LANGUAGE IS CONVENTIONAL.

Language is a means accepted by a large number of people. It is the important means by

which a culture identifies itself.

4. LANGUAGE IS LEARNED.

Each culture creates its own language to modify the general language to meet its own
needs.
5. LANGUAGE CHANGES.

Language is one of the ways by which groups identify themselves.

e.g. (Conyo, Gay Lingo, Millenial Slang, JEJEmons, GameLords Slangs)

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
1. LANGUAGE HAS SYMBOLS.

Each language contains elements that can create meaning when put together in certain
ways.

2. LANGUAGE IS RULE-GOVERNED.

A. PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Govern the information of sounds into words.

(eg. consonant clusters: str- in stream, wth- in growth)

(eg. in Filipino ng- can occur in initial, medial and final like ngipin, pangako, kung but
only medially in English - think and thinking.

B. SYNTACTIC RULES
Govern the arrangement of words into sentences.

CORRECT: "Anecdotes are brief, often, amusing stories."

INCORRECT: "Are brief, often amusing stories anecdotes."

C. SEMANTIC RULES
Governs how the speakers of a language interpret or attach meaning to a particular
symbol.

D. REGULATIVE RULES
Govern the appropriate interpretation of the message in a given context.

e.g., Let’s get together this afternoon.

Are you free tonight?

I want to see you.

Where are you?

3. LANGUAGE IS A CREATIVE ACT.

We are not born with language, we must learn it.

e.g., happening (1551) - something accidental

happening (1965, 1966) - incident

happening (l970s) - something that is particularly interesting or important.

 happening (2000s)- a fun-filled night (" walwal")

4. MEANING ARE IN PEOPLE, NOT IN WORDS.

When words are transmitted between communicators, only sound and light waves reach
them, not the exact meaning intended.

e.g., "Filipino way of life"

e.g., beauty, honor, love, democratic

5. LANGUAGE ARE CULTURE-BOUND.

Words do not have meanings but are capable of conveying meanings of the same culture
- who can perceive, identify and interpret them.

A.
6. LANGUAGE DEVELOPS ATTITUDE.

The words we use actualize the way we look at things around us, hence they affect the way
we behave (Marcus).

Personal Names:

Cardo Dalisay, Rhian Bonifacio, Tecla, Vice Ganda, Liza Soberano, Kulasa, Inggeng, Quely,
Darling, Gandara, Negi.

7. LANGUAGE MIRRORS ATTITUDES.

The way we use words shows our feelings of control, attraction, responsibility and the like.

e.g., these employees vs. those employees.

e.g., that's good vs. that's not bad

e.g., Mary and Anne vs. Anne and Mary

e.g., I didn't finish it vs. It's not finished.

8. EFFECTIVE ORAL LANGUAGE IS CLEAR AND APPROPRIATE.

Our language is clear when it is grammatically correct and when it uses exact, simple and
easy-to-understand words.
STRATEGIES FOR USING APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE

1. Use language that is appropriately formal for the situation.

2. Avoid technical jargon or slang with those who may not understand it.

3. Exclude from your language profane or vulgar expression.

4. Avoid sexist, racist, or biased expressions that can belittle others.

5. Use ethical language. (avoid using nigger, fag, old fogeys, whore.)
“IT AIN’T RIGHT, INNIT?” ABOUT LANGUAGE REGISTER IN ENGLISH BY SHIAR
YOUSEFF
Language Register

Refers to the level and style of spoken and written discourse depending on the
context you are in. It determines the vocabulary, tone and structure of your language. There
are three types of language registers: formal, informal and neutral. These types can be
applied to both spoken and written language.

1. FORMAL – this type of register is used in a professional context. It is highly

structured, impersonal, and more serious tone, vocabulary and grammar. It is
common in the workplace, academe, business, trade and other industries. Formal
language is usually employed when interacting with a boss, facilitating a meeting,
or attending formal gatherings such as conferences, seminars and the like.

2. INFORMAL – Informal language is casual, personal, and more intimate in its tone,
sentence structure, and choice of words. The informal register is used during
informal gatherings such as family dinners, parties and other informal encounters.

3. NEUTRAL – This is a more factual and non-emotional type of language register. This
is most highly used in business-oriented and technical contexts.

Language Genres & Contexts Language Features

Register
FORMAL • Business Letters • Adheres to rules of
• Letters of Complaint grammar and mechanics
• Academic Essays (punctuation,
• Reports abbreviation, spelling,
• Official Speeches etc.).
• Announcements • Uses third-person point-
• Professional emails of-view (he, she, they, etc.)
• Job Interviews • Uses sentences in active
• Business meetings voice.
• Conferences • No slang (ain’t, gonna,
• Public Forums coulda), idioms (bring
home the bacon),
hyperbole (move heaven
and earth), and clichés
(moment of truth), or
slang abbreviations (LOL –
laugh out loud).
 Language Genres & Contexts Language Features
Register
INFORMAL • Personal emails • Does not necessarily
• Text Messages adhere to rules of
• Short Notes’ grammar and mechanics
• Friendly letters (punctuation,
• Most blogs abbreviation, spelling,
• Diaries and journals etc.)
• Dating • Uses first and second
• Chatting or hanging out person point-of-view (I,
with friends me, you)
• Acquaintance parties • Uses sentences in passive
• Coffee table sessions voice.
• Slang may be allowed
• Presence of emoticons
and “emojis.”

Language Genres & Contexts Language Features

Register
NEUTRAL • Reviews • Almost similar to formal
• Articles register though it uses
• Some letters more jargon (terms
• Some essays unique to a specific field
• Technical writing or profession)
• Business presentations For example,
• International conferences doctors have
medical jargon
that only they can
readily understand
(idiopathic, GA,
D/C)

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: consists of all the elements of communication other

than words. These elements include body language, appearance, the sound of the voice
and the communication environment.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Nonverbal communication gives hints of how people feel.

2. Nonverbal communication makes it impossible for people not to communicate.

3. Nonverbal communication primarily involves attitudes, not ideas.

4. Nonverbal communication behavior provides clues, not facts.

5. Nonverbal communication provides much more information than verbal communication.

 FUNCTIONS:

1. Complementing.

2. Contradicting.

3. Accenting.

4. Substituting.

5. Regulating

6. Repeating

TYPES OF NONVERBAL SYMBOLS

1. KINESICS
It is the study of body movements which includes a large repertoire of physical
actions such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures and posture.
Researchers contend that human beings are capable of making approximately
20,000 facial expressions, 700, 000 physical signs, 1,000 postures and 7, 777
gestures in the classroom and 5, 000 hand gestures in clinical situations.

OCULESICS (eye contact)

- is the way we meet someone else's glance during the communication process.

-the presence of eye contact is proof that we are paying attention and the way we look at the
person reveals our feelings such as affection, anger, or fear (Pearson, West and Turner)

Maintaining Eye Contact

*Research shows that while talking, the speaker holds eye contact shorter than the listener-
about 40% and 70% respectively.

*They are discussing topics that they are comfortable.

*they are genuinely interested in a person's comments or reactions.

*they are trying to influence the person.

Avoiding Eye Contact

*they are discussing topics that make them uncomfortable.

*they are not interested in the topic or the person.

*they are embarrassed, ashamed, or trying to hide something (Verderber)

Facial Expression or Display

*refers to the way our facial muscles are set to indicate emotions or feelings of happiness,
sadness, fear, anger, surprise, excitement, indifference, and disgust.
Gesture

*is a purposive movement of our fingers, hands, arms, head, or shoulders to describe or
suggest or to emphasize something.

Posture

*means our manner of bearing the body, while we are in standing or sitting position. Posture
indicates self-confidence, status, friendliness and mood.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

EYE CONTACT

• In the United States, and other Western cultures, people expect those with whom
they are communicating "to look them in the eye", but women tend to hold eye
contact more than men (Wood) and they tend to have frequent eye contact during
conversation than men. (Cegala and Sillars).

• In the Philippines, people are also expected to direct their gaze into other's eyes,
otherwise, they are thought to be dishonest and trustworthy.

• In Arab countries, they look others in the eye too to manifest keen interest.

• In Japan, people look in the area around the Adam's apple, not into the other's eye.

• In Indonesia, China and rural areas of Mexico, too much eye contact means bad
manners so people there lower their eyes to show deference.

FACIAL EXPRESSION/DISPLAY

In the US, there are unwritten rules for facial display at certain functions.

e.g.

"The runner-up in a beauty contest must smile to show that she is a gracious loser, but the
winner has to cry and act surprised to show that she didn't expect to win and she is humble."

GESTURE

In the Philippines, affection between and among friends of the same sex is shown through
gestures.
e.g. men usually rest their arms around the shoulders of their buddies and playfully draw
them closer while walking; women wrap their arms around the waist of their friends or hold
hands with them.

In Europe, members of the same sex who hold hands are mistaken as lovers.

THE OKAY GESTURE

AMERICANS -okay, everything is fine

JAPAN & PHILIPPINES - money

GREECE AND TURKEY - insult

GERMANY, BRAZIL & AUSTRIA - vulgar sexual invitation

FRANCE & BELGIUM - zero or worthless

ARAB countries - curse

2. PARALANGUAGE

refers to the nonverbal sound accompanying our oral language such as the tone of voice,
speed of speech, pitch and volume.

MARY is beautiful.

Mary IS beautiful.

Mary is BEAUtiful.

TONE

is the distinct sound of the voice. No two people have the same sound or quality of voice.

Five Common Voice Qualities

1. NORMAL VOICE - speaking naturally with little or no emotions.

2. BREATHY OR WHISPERY VOICE - used to create an atmosphere of mystery.

3. FULL VOICE - used in public speaking; also used to create solemnity and reverence.

4. CHESTY VOICE- described as a hollow or deep voice as if coming from a deep and empty
cave.

5. THIN VOICE - has a high pitch.

SPEED

is the rate of how we speak. We speak faster when we are happy, excited, afraid, or nervous
and slower when we are emphasizing something or when we are trying to solve a problem.
Increased tempo or speed can also emphasize energy and intelligence.

PITCH

- is the highness or lowness of the voice.

VOLUME

- it is the loudness or softness of the voice.

HAPTICS

the study of how touch is used to convey meaning through the hands, arms and other body
parts. Touch is culture-bound and age-bound.

FIVE (5) DISTINCT CATEGORIES OF TOUCH

1. FUNCTIONAL/PROFESSIONAL TOUCHES

- are used at work, or in the exercise of a profession

2. SOCIAL/POLITE TOUCHES

- are governed by social norms.

3. FRIENDSHIP/WARMTH TOUCHES

- are harmless to show affection and affiliation.

4. LOVE/INTIMATE TOUCHES

- permitted and enjoyed among people who are intimate with one another.

5. SEXUAL TOUCHES

- are about and are prompted by sexual love or desire.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Some culture regards a lot of touching as normal behavior because they believe that being
close is positive and good while far away is negative and bad while others discourage
frequent touching to respect individual space.

e.g., high-contact, medium-contact, and low-contact cultures.

3. PROXEMICS

refers to the way people use space to convey meanings such as permanent structures,
movable objects within space, and informal space. (Verderber)
PERMANENT STRUCTURES

are those which we live or work that cannot be moved - an apartment, condominium,
duplex, or individual home.

MOVABLE OBJECTS

Their arrangements in a room in our homes or places of work depend on the effect
we want to achieve. In most parts of Europe, the presence of an assortment of shoes
as you enter the door means that you leave your shoes there.

INFORMAL SPACE

is the space around us at any given time.

we tolerate intrusions into our intimate space only in certain situations, we expect
everyone to follow the unwritten rules.
we also tend to regard a certain space as our territory, whether or not we are currently
occupying it.
The way we use space extends to power and status relationships. We give people
with higher status more personal territory and greater privacy (Mehrabian).

DISTANCE OR SPACE-TYPES

According to Edward Hall in his book "The Hidden Dimension," there are four space types
namely:

a. INTIMATE SPACE (0-18 inches)

- appropriate for private conversations or with close friends.

b. PERSONAL SPACE (18 inches-4 feet)

- appropriate for keeping someone "at arm’s length" like in casual conversations.

c. SOCIAL SPACE (4-12 feet)

- appropriate for an impersonal business like a job interview.

d. PUBLIC SPACE (12-15 feet and farther)

- appropriate for public communication like lectures and speeches.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Americans consider their personal space as their "comfort zone" and they expect others to
respect it.
In contrast, Filipinos and Arabs are used to sitting and standing close to one another while
conversing.

People in US, Canada and Australia feel comfortable living in individual homes or big
apartments.

On the other hand, those from Hongkong, Singapore, Tahiti, and Haiti will become lonely
and isolated in larger spaces.

CHRONEMICS

is the study of how people use and structure time (Adler & Rodman)

The use of time for communication purposes is associated with duration, activity and
punctuality.

DURATION

is the length of time that is considered appropriate for an activity or event.

When the duration of the activity or event differs significantly from our expectations, we
attach certain meanings to the difference.

ACTIVITY

*refers to the specific action that people generally regard as appropriate to be taking place
at a given time. Most people sleep at night, work during the day or rest from work during a
break.

PUNCTUALITY

is being exact on the time agreed on.

it is the time dimension that most closely affects our self-presentation

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

*In the United States, the majority considers time as a commodity that must be saved, spent
and budgeted and hence be measured carefully.

*They divide their days into 24 hours, hours into 60 seconds and minutes and minutes into
60 seconds. They even break their seconds into tenths of seconds during competitions and
use the nanoseconds in scientific experiments (Walhstrom)

*Americans and Europeans are aware of the clear unwritten rules that regulate time in social
activities.
*Being 10 to 15 minutes late requires them to make an apology and being 30 minutes late
can be interpreted by the hosts as an insult requiring them to give a great deal of explanation
(Verderber)

*In American countries, a person must do only one thing at a time and when he/she gives
you that time, you are expected to follow the rule. (Walhstrom)

*Americans believe that "until a certain age, one's time is not one's own.

*In contrast, people from Latin America, the Middle East and some parts of Asia as well as
the Jews, Hawaiians, East Indians and African Americans do several things at the same time
and follow a more flexible schedule so that they expect social occasions to start late.

To avoid misunderstandings, Jews, Hawaiians, East Indians and African Americans in the US
use 2 sets of time - their time and the regular time of the dominant culture.

PERSONAL APPEARANCE

The way we dress, adorn and fix ourselves communicates a message about us - our social
and cultural roles and our personal qualities.

Clothing Conveys at least 10 types of messages:

1. economic level

2. educational level

3. trustworthiness

4. social position

5. level of sophistication

6. economic background

7. social background

8. educational background

9. level of success

10. moral character

*We choose our clothing style and grooming to make ourselves different from some groups
and to be associated with others,

*However, we view ourselves and our right to express our individuality using how we look,
we have to bear in mind that society observes standards and conventions.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

The business suit is used by the corporate world and sports clothes are donned by sports
enthusiasts.

Funeral clothes had also changed for Filipinos.

Tattoos that are used to stigmatize criminals

THE CONCEPT OF BEAUTY

▪ In the United States, we see our national standard of

beauty everywhere, in magazines, on television, and at
stores. And just as we have a unique cultural
perception of beauty, so do other cultures and other
peoples. Here are 15 things unique other cultures
perceive as attractive.

▪ In Egyptian culture, women with slim figures,

high waist, prominent cheekbones and long black
hair are considered beautiful.
▪ During the Renaissance Period, women with full
figures are beautiful

▪ In the Medieval Age, chubby and plump women are

beautiful in South Africa

▪ In Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, women with flat noses are considered
attractive.
 15 DEFINITIONS OF BEAUTY ACROSS THE WORLD

1. Face Tattoos:
Tattooing the chin and lips of Māori
women of New Zealand is considered
beautiful. This tradition has been around
for centuries and consists of patterns
called Ta-Mako in black or dark blue ink on
the woman’s face. Ta-Mako tattoos
are also a public declaration of
one’s membership in the Māori tribe.

2. Henna:
While Henna has become popular in the United States, it
originated in India and is a form of temporary body art. Indian
women wear Henna on their wedding day and during certain
religious festivals as a form of decoration and beauty. Henna also
indicates a higher social standing for Indian women.

3. Foot Binding:
Despite being banned in the 1940’s, foot
binding was a huge part of Chinese culture. The
process of foot binding included breaking all of
the toes and bending them backward against
the sole, and then binding them in place with a
tight fabric wrapping. The result was petite feet
which is considered highly attractive in China.
4. Lip Plates:
Lip plates are common accessories for women of the
Mursi tribe in Ethiopia. Usually, the woman’s top or
bottom two front teeth are removed to accommodate
the lip plate, which is out in during the teenage years
and gradually gets larger. The larger the lip plate, the
more attractive the woman is considered.

5. Heart-Shaped Faces:
In South Korea, the current rage is
undergoing plastic surgery to make one’s
face appear more heart-shaped. This
procedure involves breaking the jawbone
into three parts, removing the middle part,
and fusing the other two to create a pointed
chin. This face shape is seen as the most
beautiful facial structure of South Korean
women.

6. Yaeba:
In recent years, Japanese women have been hit
with a craze for crooked teeth, called Yaeba,
which translates to “Double Tooth.” Women will
go to orthodontists to have extensive work
done to make one’s teeth look more crooked
and uneven. This is supposed to make women
appear more approachable, and thus more
attractive.
7. Scarification:
Scarification is popular in parts of Africa,
predominantly Ethiopia and South Sudan, and can
also be found in Papua New Guinea. In these
cultures, scarification is done with a knife to leave
permanent designs on the skin and is done to both
boys and girls as a rite of passage into adulthood.

8. Skull Binding:
Skull binding was popular
in ancient culture all over
the world, from the Middle
East to South America, and
began as early as 7,000
BC. Skull binding was a
method of shaping one’s
skull to grow longer rather
than wider, and included
wrapping an infant’s head in tight fabric, or using a wooden brace to help shape the
infant’s head. Shaped skulls were a symbol of beauty and social standing.
 9. Skin Whitening:
Since Western women tend to
have lighter skin, women of other
cultures have recently picked up
the look. In an effort to have
extremely pale skin, women of
Thailand, Japan, and China have
taken to avoiding the sun at all
costs, and even using skin white in
products to achieve the pale skin
tones that some Western women
possess.

10. Ear Stretching:

Ear Stretching is popular for both males and
females in South America and Africa. People first
piece their ears, and use weights to eventually
stretch out their earlobes until they are almost
shoulder length. This is done as a sign of beauty
and tribal affiliation. I suppose the United States
adopted this in a less extreme way in the form of
gages.

11.
Neck Stretching:
Women of the Kayan tribe in Burma, and
women in Thailand have participated in neck
stretching for centuries. As young as five years
old, brass rings are out around the girl's neck,
and every year, more are added. These rings
can weigh up to 22 pounds, and the more
rings a woman has, the more elegant and
beautiful she is considered.
12. Monobrows:
While the United States appears to be
obsessed with waxing and shaping
eyebrows, the women of Tajikistan
embrace their natural eyebrows, and
will even draw on them to make it
appear that they have a monobrow. I
guess monobrows are in style in
Tajikistan.

13. Straight Hair:

While straight hair is the most common natural
hair texture in Japan, those born with different
hair textures will stop at nothing to achieve the
stick straight hair that Japanese women idolize.
Japanese women will even resort to chemical
products that break down the fibers of the hair,
and then using a flat iron to achieve the straight
hair look.
14. Full Figures:
In Mauritania, females with full figures are
considered incredibly beautiful, and think
women are considered physically undesirable.
Mauritanian parents will even send their girls
to “Fat camps,” where the girls would eat up to
16,000 calories a day to prepare for marriage.
On top of that, stretch marks are considered a
bonus, and even more beautiful.
15. Teeth Cutting:
Teeth cutting is practiced by certain
Indonesian tribes to indicate higher social
standing and attractiveness. Teeth cutting
consists of chiseling one’s teeth into sharp
points, and is practiced by both male and
female. Teeth cutting also serves the
purpose of making one look more
fearsome during warfare.
MODE OF DRESSING
Catholic nuns wear veils and habits.
Priests use cassocks in performing religious rites.
Monks shaved their heads and dressed in orange-red garbs.
Orthodox Jewish men wear beards, earlocks, phylacteries, black clothes and black
hats.
Amish prefer clothes in dark colors and simple styles.
Arab men and women wear tobes but Arab women use abbas on top of the tobes
and veil in tarhas, whereas men have sandaled feet and head scarfs.
Vivid and striking hair dyes are also common to all ages among most cultural groups.
Tattoos are used to stigmatize criminals and prisoners.
 MAIN TASK
I. IDENTIFICATION. Identify which country has the following international protocol. Choose
from the countries below.

JAPAN HONDURAS LEBANON BRAZIL

GREECE IRAQ LUXEMBOURG THAILAND
VENEZUELA INDIA BULGARIA INDONESIA
SOUTH KOREA FRANCE ICELAND CHINA
RUSSIA PHILIPPINES SPAIN SINGAPORE

________________1. The usual form of greeting is a long and long bow, not a handshake.
________________2. A country where people are extremely hospitable.
________________3. Never touch a person’s head as the head is considered sacred and
highest part of the body.
________________4. A county which regards machismo (men are superior than women) as a
form of social behavior.
________________5. A country which implements harsh punishment in terms of littering and
chewing of gum.
________________6. Women of this country cover their mouths when laughing.
________________7. People of this country do not eat beef, for cow is considered sacred for
them.
________________8. Punctuality is not especially important in this country.
________________9. A country where family’s togetherness is manifested through siesta (a
break in the middle of the day)
________________10. People in this country have a different age-counting system than in
international one.
________________11. The elderly is respected, served first, and have much authority.
________________12. A nod means “no” and a shake of the head from side to side means
“yes”.
________________13. A country where the “okay” sign is a symbol of vulgar sexual
invitation.
________________14. Business people tend to be rather formal and conservative.
________________15. It is a serious crime for visitors to export art objects or to change
money with private citizens.
II. TRUE OR FALSE. Write ALLRIGHT! if the statement is true and HELL NO! If it is otherwise.

________________16. Chinese and Japanese people considered the number four an

unlucky number.
________________17. Russians often give yellow flowers to their loved ones as a sign of
unconditional love.
________________18. Vietnamese considered crossed fingers as a sacred means of respect.
________________19. People in Malaysia point with their thumb, for using the index finger
is offensive.
________________20. Japanese people never sleep facing south.
________________21. Tibetans showed their tongue to greet others.
________________22. In Australia, sitting in front of a taxi is considered polite.
________________23. Icelanders believe that knitting inside their homes prolongs winter.
________________24. Koreans pride much on giving gifts like clocks and pairs of shoes to
their partners.
________________25. The fear of number four is called Tetraphobia.
________________26. Swedish people never whistle toward the sun.
________________27. Italians try not to spill olive oil for it is cheap in their country.
________________28. Filipinos never wear red during thunderstorms.
________________29. French people considered stepping on dog poop as lucky.
________________30. Maasai tribes spit at each other to show respect.

***Nothing Follows***

REFERENCES:

▪ Barrot, Jessie S., PhD., Sipacio, Philippe John. PhD., Purposive Communication in the
21st Century (2018), C & E Publishing.
▪ Ambida, Roger S., Galicha, Josephine P., Oandasan Richard L., Purposive
Communication (2019), C & E Publishing.
▪ Madrunio, Marilou R., Martin, Isabel P., Purposive Communication Using English in
Multilingual Contexts (2018), C & E Publishing.
▪ Suarez, Cecilia A., et.al., Purposive Communication in English (2018) Ateneo De
Manila University Press.