Journal of Power Sources, 18 (1986) 317 - 335 317

DEVELOPMENT OF LOW COST ALKALINE FUEL CELLS

K. TOMANTSCHGER*, F. McCLUSKY, L. OPORTO and A. REID

Institute for Hydrogen Systems, 2480 Dunwin Drive, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1J9
(Canada)
K. KORDESCH
Technical University Graz, A·8010 Graz (Austria)
(Received February 4,1986; in revised form April 29, 1986)

Summary
Fuel cells as direct energy converters will find wide application in a
future hydrogen economy. At the Institute for Hydrogen Systems (IHS)
emphasis was placed on designing a mass producible, low, cost, alkaline,
bipolar fuel cell. Carbon-filled plastics are used in the construction of the
fuel cell stack. Teflon bonded, multilayer carbon electrodes have been
developed. The pretreatment of carbon materials proved necessary to
prolong the life of the electrodes. Electrocatalysis work resulted in the
replacement of the noble metal electrocatalyst of the cathode and a signif-
icant reduction in the loading of the anode. The material cost of the alkaline,
bipolar hydrogen-air fuel cell currently stands at Can $250 (US $175)
perkW.

Introduction
The use of hydrogen as a universal fuel in regions with access to plenti-
ful reserves of renewable energy seems very attractive [1]. In a hydrogen-
based economy, the chemical energy stored in hydrogen fuel can be directly
converted into electricity via a fuel cell. The electrochemical reaction of
hydrogen and air to form water in a fuel cell is not limited byCamot's
law and the efficiency of conversion of chemical energy of the hydrogen
fuel into electricity is therefore very high: under practical conditions 50 -
65% is achieved in fuel cells, compared with 15 - 25% in an internal com-
bustion engine.
Fuel cells are generally classified by the electrolyte used and/or the
operating temperature. Electricity can be produced from hydrocarbon fuels
in phosphoric acid fuel cells at 200°C (medium operating temperature)
after passing through a reformer [2,3]. Units up to several megawatt power
output have been successfully operated [4, 5]. Low temperature (50 - 100
°C) solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) fuel cells operating on hydrogen supplied
from a methanol cracking unit have been developed by General Electric
[6,7]. Low temperature alkaline fuel cell systems achieved fame in the
*Present address: Astris Science Inc., 2480 Dunwin Drive, Mississauga, Ontario L5L
1J9, Canada.

0378-7753/86/$3.50 © Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands

318

1960s during the NASA Apollo program which placed man on the moon.
Today, the alkaline fuel cell is still the workhorse of the space shuttle [8].
Alkaline fuel cells for terrestrial applications have been developed in Europe
[9, 10]. Recent research and development efforts include molten carbonate
fuel cells with the potential for clean and efficient generation of electricity
from hydrocarbon and coal at 650°C (high operating temperature) [11],
and the solid oxide system, a natural gas or volatile-liquid-fueled power
generator, operating with high efficiency at 1000 °c [12].
Early alkaline cells were constructed with electrodes having metallic
support structures. Edge collection could be used to current densities up
to 100 rnA cm- 2 • Acidic cells which could not use metals employed all-
carbon construction in the bipolar design. For low cost production, the
bipolar concept has been applied to alkaline fuel cells. The present design
makes use of low cost thermoplastic and conductive plastic materials. A
mass producible, high performance, low cost multicell has been developed.
Different power sizes are achieved through a modular arrangement. Figure
1 shows the applications defined by a user group [13].

Power Requirements
5,000 kW (5 MW I
I. , Ships

I
Railway Locomotiv.s ; S b I
u marn.s

500 kW 10.5 MW I - f o r "T

Integret.d Energy Systems _,
communltliZ.

Intercity BusT (50 pass.),.! H.avy TrUCkj

•• MIningVehlcl.s
,. Industrial Co-g.n.r.lion
50 kW (50,000 W I I .-Clly r.na IB P....)
• EI.ctric Vehlcl.s
Tractors; Fork Lift Trucks
• I
U ht H : Three Men Subm.rslbl.a
9 oua.. I
5 kW 15,000 W I
.
• Portabl. G.n.rators
• Wh••1Chairs
I
Goll Carts I.co-g.n.rallon (d.monstr.tlon)

·
• R.pl.c. NI/Cd Balt.rl••
lin SUb.m.rslbl.s
! N.vlgatlonal Aida
0.5 kW (500 WI

• Transmllt.J
I
• W.ather StatIons
1986 1990 1995 2000
Years
Fig. 1. Applications for alkaline bipolar fuel cells.

Construction of the multicell stack

The construction and principal operation of the alkaline hydrogen-air

fuel cell is shown in Fig. 2 [14,15]. Hydrogen and air are fed to porous
 319

,/
Porous
Reaction in pores plates Reliction in pores
H l-2H'+2e Y.~+H.f>+2e-20H·

" " - 2H" + 20H -- 2H 20 /

Final product
Fig. 2. Operation principle of H 2-02 fuel cell.

gas diffusion electrodes where oxygen reduction and hydrogen oxidation

occur producing electrical power. The IHS uses the circulating electrolyte
concept. Although electrolyte circulation increases design complexity, it
removes reaction products, assists in thermal management, and ensures an
homogeneous electrolyte. Figure 3 shows a block diagram of a conceptual
design for a hydrogen-air fuel cell power plant. In the hydrogen loop,
hydrogen gas enters the battery block where it is uniformly distributed to
the cells. Hydrogen leaving the fuel cell stack contains water which is
removed in a condenser. Hydrogen circulation is achieved by means of a
jet pump. A blower motor forces air into a CO 2 scrubber, from where the
air is directed into the air-intake manifolds of the fuel cell stack. Moisture-

CO Absorber
2
Air Intake I
f Electrolyte
~~~~~ Heater
Jet-
Pump

H Intake
2

Circulation
Pump

-
--
Air

Outlet
Fig. 3. Schematic of an alkaline fuel cell system.
320

laden air is exhausted to atmosphere. The electrolyte circulation loop

consists of a reservoir, an electrolyte pump, and a heat exchanger for initial
heating and cooling purposes. Figure 4 shows a multicell stack design.
The IHS design makes use of the bipolar plate construction in order
to reduce internal resistance, avoid expensive metal current collectors, and
allow mass production. Figure 5 shows the electrode arrangement in the
alkaline bipolar cell. The bipolar plates make use of polypropylene com-
posite materials with conductivity in the range 0.1 -1.0 ohm em. Recessed
bipolar plates eliminate the necessity for electrolyte frames, reducing the
multicell components to bipolar plates, electrodes, and endplates.

Bipolar Plate

Electrolyte
Endp1ate Assembly
Frame

-+
Ol> - + Bipolar Cell 5
+ Separator Package
- +
Bipolar cell
Endco11ector

Fig. 4. Five cell alkaline fuel cell stack.

KOH KOH

~
~
.
~
>-
15
~ a:

~ g
~ e

CATHODE

Fig. 5. Electrode arrangement of a bipolar fuel cell.

 321

Four components contribute to the IR losses in each unit cell. The

contribution from the bipolar plate is minimized by using highly conductive
composite materials, careful design of plate thickness and geometry, and,
if necessary, metal plating [16].
The contact resistance between the electrode and, the bipolar plate
requires special attention. The methods evaluated so far include pressure
contacts and gluing techniques. Chromic acid etching and/or sandblasting
techniques are used to remove the non-conductive surface film on the bi-
polar plate. In the case of a pressure contact, spacers are placed in the
electrolyte compartment to maintain the contact pressure. Bonding the
electrodes to the bipolar plate with epoxy (either conducting or non-
conducting) also gives a durable contact. The IR losses, in a contact made
with a silver-filled epoxy, are shown for a cathode endplate (Fig. 6) and an
anode endplate (Fig. 7). The 5 mV contact loss at current densities of 100
rnA cm- 2 can also be achieved using non-conductive epoxy. Figure 8 shows
the IR losses of a cathode endplate as a function of the operating current
density. Presently, carbon cloth is used as electrode backing. The bipolar
plate is silver plated on the air side and nickel plated on the hydrogen side.
Further development is aiming to eliminate metal coatings on the bipolar
plate.
The IR loss in the electrodes was found to be below 5 mV at a current
density of 100 rnA em"? after the electrodes are properly wetted.
The thickness of the electrolyte compartment and the conductivity
of the KOH determine the IR loss in the electrolyte. The maximum con-
ductivity of the KOH/water mixture lies at 7 N. The IHS fuel cell begins
100

90
r-o
>
..!. 80
Q..
0 70
a::
Cl
1l.J 60
u
z
a: 50
I-
en
H
en 40
ILl
a::
-l 30
cr
z
a::
1l.J
I-
z
H
20

10
0
00 ..... ..... ..... ..... ....
0
0 ••••• • •••• ••••• o 00
• •• • • 00 •

0 250 500 750 1000

TIME OF OPERATION [hr •• ]
Fig. 6. Internal resistance evaluation of a cathode endplate at a current density of 100
rnA cm- 2 (12 N KOH, 65°C). A batch 702 electrode, operating on air, is attached to a
10 em? Ag-plated SX.1 conductive plastic endplate using RBC Ag-epoxy. The IR losses
in the endplate (*) and in the contact (e) are shown as a function of the operating time.
322

100

90
~

>
~
e 80
Q...
0 70
a:
Cl
w 60
u
z
cr SO
t-
VI
H
tf'l 40

..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ....

w
a:
...J 30
cr
z
a: 20
w
t-
Z
H 10
••••• ••••• •• •• • •• • •• •• • •• ••••
0
0 250 500 750 1000
TIME OF OPERATION [hr e , ]
Fig. 7. Internal resistance evaluation of an anode endplate at a current density of 100
rnA cm- 2 (12 N KOR, 65 ·C). A batch 23R2 electrode is attached to a 10 cm 2 Ag·
plated SX.l conductive plastic endplate using RBC Ag-epoxy. The IR losses in the end-
plate (*) and in the contact (e) are shown as a function of the operating time.

50

40
~

>
e
n,
0
30
a:
Cl
w
<.:>
a: 20
t-
...J
0
>
a:
H
10

___ • e
. - - - • _ _a - - •
--.~ . ____ - - a

25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

CURREN T DENSITY [mA/cm2]
Fig. 8. Voltage drop in a bipolar plate assembly as a function of the current density using
conductive epoxy contacts [16] . A batch 902 electrode, operating on air, is attached to
a 10 cm 2 Ag-plated SX.1 conductive plastic endplate using RBC Ag-epoxy. The IR
losses in the endplate (*) and in the contact (e) are shown as a function of the current
density.

its operation with 12 N KOH electrolyte, but dilution occurs during opera-
tion, Depending on various operating parameters, the electrolyte concentra-
tion equilibrates in the range 7 - 9 moles of KOH per litre.
 323

To date, the total IR loss in the IRS alkaline bipolar fuel cell, during
operation at 100 rnA cm- 2, lies in the range 100 -150 mY. At 100 rnA
cm- 2 ten cell multicell stacks have been successfully operated at 7 V and an
IR loss of approx. 200 mV per cell. Present work indicates that the IR
drop can be halved in the near future [16].
Using mass production techniques at high volume component produc-
tion, the material cost for the IRS alkaline bipolar fuel cells are projected
to be Can $250 per kW.

Electrode design

Teflon bonded, multilayer carbon electrodes have been developed

[17 - 19]. Material selection and pretreatment is given prime importance
[20 - 22]. Carbon materials used are acetylene blacks (Shawinigan SR100)
and furnace blacks (Vulcan XC72R). All carbon materials are subjected to
thermal treatment in steam or CO 2 atmospheres. These treatments (especial-
ly in the presence of spinels or noble metal catalysts) double the BET
surface area, oxidizing "unstable carbon", and depositing new pyrolytic
carbon [23].
Teflon is used to achieve hydrophobicity, and as a binder material,
although polyethylenesjpolypropylenes are being investigated. A cross
section of the Teflon bonded multilayer carbon electrodes is shown in Fig. 9.
The electrode backing should have high permeability to gases, structural
strength, corrosion resistance, and high conductivity. The bipolar construc-
tion allows the use of carbon cloth or porous carbon paper, as well as metal
screens. The diffusion layer consists of carbon and 30 - 50% Teflon. In
order to provide the necessary pores for gas diffusion, filler materials (am-

3 2
Fig. 9. Cross section of a Teflon bonded multilayer carbon electrode: 1, backing; 2, gas
diffusion layer; 3, catalyst layer.
 324

monium bicarbonate) are used in the air cathode. The electrocatalyst layer
is less wetproofed than the diffusion layer (10 - 20% Teflon) to ensure
partial wetting of the carbon and the electrocatalyst particles [19]. In the
catalyst layer, a three phase reaction zone (where gaseous fuel, electrolyte
and carbon supported electrocatalyst meet) is created.
The first generation electrodes met the set 2000 h lifetime goal at a
nominal current density of 100 rnA cm- 2 in 12 N KOH at 65 °C utilizing
noble metal electrocatalysts. On the air cathode 0.5 mg of Pt per em?
were applied and 1 mg PdjRh per em? on the anode. Electrocatalysis work
carried out has shown that especially activated carbon catalyzes the first
step of the oxygen reduction to the peroxide. The reduction of the peroxide
to form OH' can be achieved by peroxide decomposers (e.g., metal oxides).
The second generation IHS air cathodes contain no noble metals [24].
Figures 10 and 11 compare the performance of the electrodes at 50, 75,
100 and 150 rnA em"? with air as a function of the operating temperature.
It is obvious that both types of electrodes show comparable performance,
even at room temperature. Electron microscopy and mercury intrusion
porosimetry were used to optimize structural parameters of the electrodes.
Figure 12 shows a scanning electron microscope graph of a microtome cut
of an air cathode. Figure 13 shows the pore size distribution curve for
the cathode diffusion layer. The peak at about 0.1 pm corresponds to the
internal pore structure of the Shawinigan SH 100 carbon. The pore system
created by the filler (100 pm) lies beyond the resolution of the instrument
used. Figure 14 shows the pore size distribution for the cathode catalyst
layer. The peak at 0.03 pm was found to be characteristic of the internal

1500 t.o
TY{Jf: ..1
~

c 1450
N

~ ___ e_e_e

>
>
1400 .-....... -.---.
~
e
",. .,.
...... -
o."".,.·11"8".... . . .
~
::=:-e-
.... - . - e _ II -

.. _.- .. - ~
1l
..
1D

...J "
~. ~,II
.....-:;.J".~- ~
.-
a:
1350
./ ","7 »c:>
. ",Y.
H
....
z
LU
1300 ';1'.
. !
....
e 1250
a..

1200 0.7
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T E M PER A T U R E [C)
Fig. 10. Operating voltage for the 1st generation air cathode as a function of temperature
for air operation at different current densities. 0,50 rnA cm- 2 ; *, 75 rnA cm- 2 ; D, 100
rnA cm- 2;4, 150 rnA cm- 2 •
 325

1400 .9

l/I
:>
.8 ...:l
.-(
H
E-<
Z
ril
E-<
o
a.

.7
80

Fig. 11. Operating voltage for the 2nd generation air cathode as a function of temperature
for air operation at different current densities. 0, 50 rnA cm- 2 ; t, 75 rnA cm- 2 ; 0, 100
rnA cm- 2 ; 4,150 rnA cm- 2 •

Fig. 12. SEM graph of an air-cathode cross-section, 1, Backing; 2, gas diffusion layer;
3, catalyst layer.

pore system of Vulcan XC 72R. Figure 15 shows the mercury intrusion

curve for the air cathode (including the carbon cloth backing). Apart from
the characteristic carbon peaks (microstructure) the pore structure created
by the Teflon bonded carbon particles (macrostructure) becomes obvious.
 326

MERCURY INTRUSION PRESSURE [PSI)

17526 1753 175.3 17.53 1. 753

Z 1.5

rz:
1.2
az
.....
f-<
::>
c<l .9
.....
<>:

\
f-<
Ul
.....
~
.6
1..../'---"

A)
f1I
N
.....
Ul
.3
f::l
a
Po
0
.01 .1 10 100
PORE DIAMETER [microns)

Fig. 13. Pore size distribution of an air cathode diffusion layer.

MERCURY INTRUSION PRESSURE [PsI}

17526 1753 175.3 17.53 1.133
I I

Z 2.5

rz:
2.0 -
~
.....
f-<
::>
c<l 1.5
.....
<>:
f-<
Ul
.....
~
1.0
f1I
N
..... fJ \
l.... )\a~"
Ul
0.5
f::l -e,

..A }
a
Po

0 I

.01 .1 10 100
PORE DIAMETER [microns)
Fig. 14. Pore size distribution of an air cathode catalyst layer.
 327

MERCURY INTRUSION PRESSURE [PSI)

17526 1753 175.3 17.53 1.753

:z: 1.0

~
.8
:z:
....0
!-'

r~v\
::>
«l
....
0>::
.6
!-'
....en
c:l .4

~~
l>J
....Nen
.2
g;J
0
"" 0

.01 .1 10 100

PORE DIAMETER [microns)

Fig. 15. Pore size distribution of an air cathode.

Hydrogen electrodes are post-catalyzed with a mixture of palladium

and rhodium. As the activity of the noble metal catalyst depends on its
surface area rather than its weight, care is taken that the noble metal salt
reduction leads to small catalyst particles (below 10 nm). The first genera-
tion anodes contained 1.0 mg Pd/Rh per em", In the second generation the
catalyst loading has been reduced to 0.5 mg Pd/Rh per em 2 while maintain-
ing the electrode performance. Presently, it is not clear whether the anode
electrocatalyst loading can be reduced by the use of precatalyzed carbon-
supported Pd/Rh rather than by applying the post-catalyzation method.
Figure 16 shows a scanning electron microscope graph of a microtome cut
of an anode. As Black Pearls 2000 is used for both the diffusion and the
catalyst layer of the anode, mercury intrusion curves for the individual layers
do not vary significantly from the one obtained for the finished electrode
(Fig. 17). The pore size distribution curve of the anode catalyst layer ob-
tained with 12 N KOH as intrusion fluid shows that all but very small pores
have been filled with electrolyte in the process of filling the sample test
cell with the intrusion liquid (5 psi) (Fig. 18). Electron microscopic investi-
gations of the penetration depth of the electrolyte into the electrode con-
firmed that KOH penetrates the anode through the entire catalyst layer and
stops at the diffusion layer.
Figures 19 and 20 show the cost analysis for the first two generation
electrodes. Second generation electrodes represent a great reduction in
 328

Fig. 16. SEM graph of a hydrogen anode cross-section. 1, Backing; 2, diffusion layer;
3, catalyst layer.

MERCURY INTRUSION PRESSURE [PSI]

17526 1753 175.3 17.53 1. 753
I I

1.0

.8 -

.6 •

•4 _
"-l
....N
'" .2

a
.01 .1 10 100
PORE DIAMETER [microns]
Fig. 17. Pore size distribution of an anode catalyst layer using mercury intrusion.

material cost. Both, first generation electrodes ("cost 1") using 0.5 mg of
Pt per em 2 on the cathode and 1 mg per em 2 of Pd/Rh on the anode, and
second generation ("cost 2") electrodes using no noble metal electrocatalyst
 329

KOH ELECTROLYTE INTRUSION PRESSURE [PSI)

856 85.6 8.56 .856 .0856
I

:z;
5
~

:z;
0 4
H
!-'
;:J
lQ
H
II: 3
!-'
til
H
t:l

Izl
2 -

-.
N
H
til

~
gj
0

'"
0

.01 .1 1 10 100
PORE DIAMETER [microns]
Fig. 18. Pore size distribution of an anode catalyst layer using 12 N KOH as intrusion
liquid.

ELECTRODECOST WITHOUT ELECTROCATALYST

IHS Alkal i1"lE' Fuel Cell EIl!Ctrodl?s

L
•
Q.

.- 100
..
1=
(,)

50

o
Cathode Total Co~t 2

Fig. 19. Cost analysis based on power for the IHS gas diffusion electrodes.

on the cathode and 0.5 mg of Pd/Rh per em? on the anode, satisfied the
set 2000 h lifetime goal. The cost figures are based on the purchase of
10 kg or less of the raw material (250 g for 10% Pt on carbon).
330

ELECTRODE COST ANALYSIS

IHS Alkaline Fuel Cell Electrodes
bOO
N Filler

I
~ Tef'lon
500 x· Carbon
L Cerba"l Cloth
•
0- 400 Pd/Rh
Pl/Carbon
•1= 300
III
(,) 200
In
ID 100

...
0'\

0
Total Cost 2

Fig. 20. Cost analysis base~ on electrode area for the IHS gas diffusion electrodes.

Electrode fabrication and evaluation

The electrode manufacturing process currently used is shown in Fig. 2l.

First, the electrode backing is chosen. In the case of carbon cloth or carbon
paper, the material is wetproofed with Teflon suspension to a loading of
50% Teflon by weight. The diffusion layer is prepared by mixing the appro-
priate amounts of carbon, Teflon, and a suspension agent (e.g., light fraction
of petrol). A filler (sugar or ammonium bicarbonate) is added to adjust
porosity. This mixture is homogenized and, after filtering off the suspen-
sion agent, a workable dough is obtained. The procedure is repeated with a
modified composition for the catalyst layer. Thin foils are prepared using
a cross-rolling technique. The thickness of the foils is adjusted using spacers.
Individual layers are cut to size, then the three layers are assembled and
cross-rolled together. After pressing, the filler is removed by washing (sugar)
or drying at 100°C (bicarbonate). The electrode is sintered under slight
pressure at 320°C for 20 min [25].
Performance testing analyzes the polarization behavior of anodes and
cathodes, as well as lifetimes. A new measuring circuit for the determination
of resistance-free voltages under load was used [26,27]. Figure 22 shows the
IR-free, single-cell performance for the hydrogen-oxygen and the hydrogen-
air cell at 65°C (12 N KOH). Tests indicate that at a current density of 100
rnA cm- 2, the IR-free cell voltages are 0.9 V with oxygen and 0.85 V with
air as cathode reactant. At the nominal current density (100 rnA cm-2) , the
difference between oxygen and air operation is around 50 m V. The resis-
tance free voltage difference between oxygen and air performance is used as
a measure of the deterioration during aging. So far close to 4000 h of con-
tinuous operation have been achieved with air cathodes (Fig. 23) and
 331

CATALYST
TEFLON
AMMON IUMBICARBONATE
VULCAN. XC 72R

I
MIXING
I
FILTERING

[$ ROLLING

$
CUTTING
~
ELECTRODE DIFFUSION CATALYST
~ l- f-
BACKING LAYER LAYER

•
CUTTING FINISHED

$ ELECTRODE

~I
FILTERING

MIXING
~
ACETYLENE BLACK
AMMONIUMBICARBONATE
TEFLON

Fig. 21. Flow sheet for the production of illS Teflon bonded multilayer electrodes.

hydrogen anodes (Fig. 24). Electrode lifetimes under intermittent operation

have not been investigated yet as, after use, the fuel cell will be purged with
nitrogen and/or the electrolyte drained, thus avoiding carbon corrosion in
the air cathode at oxygen rest potential. In the next stage of the program,
 332

1750

1500 l.0

...
> 1250
~ -- OXYGm

PUR
-
ril
:r::
Il:
.!.
w til
u >
...
a:
-1 1000 0.5 >-1
c 0<1;
> I-l
E-<
Z
ril
E-<
750 0
n,

500
o
._- 50
• "
---
I
100
CURRENT DENSITY r.A!c.2]
150
•
_.
200
• o
250

Fig. 22. IR free single cell performance of the hydrogen-oxygen and the hydrogen-
air alkaline fuel cell (12 N KOH, 65°C).

1600
1500 l.0
c 1400

..... ..... ....... .. ~ • -~ •

N

.; 1300 ':,. • •............. ril

:r::
':. ".. ':,. 0.75 Il:

.• .
>
•
>
..=.
1200
1100
" ... ... .•.,I'r ..... til
W • >
L:> 1000 >-1
a:
..... 0.5 0<1;
~
I-l
a 900 E-<
> Z
w 800 ril
Cl E-<
a 0
a:: 700 c,
.....
u
w 600
~
w
SOD
400
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
L I F E T I ME [hr e , ]

Fig. 23. Lifetime of a batch 502 IRS cathode with air as reactant (65°C, 12 N KOH,
100 mA cm- 2 ) .

however, electrode performance under "operating conditions" will be de-

termined using a simulated load pattern including open circuit standby and
short periods of overload.
 333

1600
1500 1.0
~

c 1400
r>J
1300
~ [J:]
> :r:
p:;
1200
>
s. 1100
.
til
w >
1000
'"
a:
..... >oJ
.-(
-J
0
900 ......
> Eo<
w 800 Z
,
Cl
[J:]
0 00 Eo<
cc
.....
700 0.2 0
o fA c,
w
w
-J
w
600
500
,~--~~~ ,-
-' • of## _" ~
~
,.,.
~
~ 0.1
0
400
0 500 iOOO 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
L I F E T I ME [hr-s .J

Fig. 24. Lifetime of a batch 17H2 IRS anode (65 °C, 12 N KOH, 100 rnA cm- 2 ) .

Conclusion

The IHS alkaline bipolar hydrogen-air fuel cells have reached a high
status of development. Carbon material selection and pretreatment for
Teflon bonded multilayer electrodes was found to be of prime importance.
Electrode fabrication methods have been developed on the laboratory scale.
Electrode life of over 3500 h at 100 rnA cm- 2 have been achieved with air
cathodes and hydrogen anodes. Conductive plastics have been introduced
as low cost construction materials which can be formed by mass production
methods (extrusion and/or injection moulding).

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the Ontario Ministry of Energy (OMENG).

The authors thank Dr S. Srinivasan of the L9S Alamos National Laboratory,
Los Alamos, New Mexico, for his interest and encouragement of this work.
They also thank Astris Science Inc. for granting permission to publish this
paper.

References

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Wallace, Study of fuel cells analysis options for their development in Canada - Phase
II, prepared for the Defense Research Establishment, Ottawa, and Transport Canada,
Ottawa, July, 1980.
334

2 H. Maru, L. Christner, S. Ahens and B. Baker, Phosphoric acid fuel cell technology,
National Fuel Cell Seminar, 1979.
3 A. J. Appleby, Acid fuel cell technology - an overview, National Fuel Cell Seminar,
1983, Abstracts, pp. 1 - 6.
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