Chapter 9

1. Compare phonemes and morphemes using examples.

Phoneme (which refers to sound) is the smallest segment of speech that if changed,
it can change the sound and meaning of the word.
For example, the word hut has the phonemes h-u-t. Replace “t” with “g” and you
have hug, or “h” with “b” and we have but. Note that phonemes refer to sounds not
letters as letters can have different sounds.
Morphemes (which refer to meaning) are the smallest unit of language which have a
definable meaning or a grammatical function.
for example, the word “life” has several phonemes but one morpheme as none of the
components mean anything other than the word in its entirety. But the word
cellphone has two morphemes as “cell” and “phone” each have a meaning in +
+hEnglish.
2. The Hierarchical of Language
Language consists of small units that are combined to form a lager unit
3.

Biased dominance Balanced dominance

Word can have more than 2 Words can have more than 1
meanings that have different meaning that have the same
dominance dominance

4. Aphasia
Wernicke’s
 Wernicke’s aphasia involves
meaningless speech and is unable
to understand others. Basic
structure of spoken language is
present.
 Happens in the temporal lobe
Broca’s
 Broca’s aphasia involves slow,
laboured, and ungrammatical
speech. Verbal comprehension is
largely preserved.
 Happens in the frontal lobe

 EXAMPLE: It just suddenly had a

feffort and all the feffort had gone
with it. It even stepped my horn.
They took them from earth you
know. They make my favorite nine
to severed and now I’m a been
habed by the uh stam of fortment
of my annulment which is now
forever.
 EXAMPLE: Alright. . .. Uh …
stroke and un. . .. I . . . huh
tawanna guy. . ..
H . . . h . . . hot tub and. . . . And
the. . .. Two days when uh. . ..
Hos . . . uh. . .. Huh hospital and
uh . . . amet . . . am . . .
ambulance.

5. Interference
Making Inferences refers to determining what the text means by using our
knowledge to go beyond the information of the text.
 • Anaphoric inference: connecting objects/people from one sentence to
objects/people in another. Jabu is very intelligent. She is a genius.
• Instrument inference: inferences about tools or methods. Shakespeare
used a quill to write his plays.
• Causal inference: inferences that the events in one clause or sentence
were caused by events in previous sentence. Chris has a headache.
She hasn’t eaten anything all day.
6. Saphir-Wharf Hypothesis
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that speakers of different languages have different cognitive
systems. These different systems also influence the way in which people think about the world.

An example of English and Xhosa:

The main differences in the experiences and understandings of depression relates to the fact that
there are no direct translations between English and African languages. As such, the language people
use influences how they think about depression. Since depression is a Western concept, some
difficulties in experiences and understandings are evidenced in an African context:
ENGLISH XHOSA
UNDERSTANDING Depression is understood Depression is seen as a
as a mental disorder that manifestation of unease
requires psychological with the ancestors or
intervention. being bewitched. In most
cases, intervention is
sought from a spiritual
leader who intervenes to
implemental cultural
ceremonies to ensure that
individuals make peace
with their ancestors.
EXPIRENCES When an English-speaking A person with from a
person discusses how Xhosa background is more
they experience likely to experience worry,
depression, they are more stress, headaches, or low
likely to discern that they energy.
feel sad, anxious, have an
impaired concentration or
are suicidal.

CHAPTER 8
1. Flashbulb memory- refer to memory for circumstances surrounding shocking
events. These memories are influenced by being shocking or emotionally
 charged and the memories formed are not specific to the event itself. Rather,
we memorise where we were or what we were doing when we heard about a
circumstance. For example, I recall that I was responding to emails at home
when I came across reports of the social unrest in KZN on TV

2. Reminiscence bump- refers to enhanced memory for adolescence and young

adulthood and is typically found in people over 40 years old.

Self-image Period of assuming person's self- This is usually experienced at about

image. 25 years of age when you assume
an image as a mother or started your
PG studies in Psychology
Cognitive Encoding is better during periods These changes are typically
of rapid change. experienced in adolescence and
young adulthood such as when you
go to University or start a career
Cultural life Culturally shared expectations These changes occur more
script structure recall (Western vs individually for Western cultures
Eastern) when individuals fall in love at 18 or
finish university at 24. For Eastern
cultures, children’s achievements
also fall into this category.

3. Schema and scripts influence memory- memory can include information that
is actually not experienced but inferred, because it is expected and consistent
with the schema which helps in better understanding and memorising things.
4. Source of misattribution- misidentifying source of memory
Jacob & co-workers (1989) FAMOUS OVERNIGHT- Testing participants’
ability to distinguish between famous and non-famous names.
• After 24 hours, some non-famous names were misidentified as famous.

• Explanation- some non-famous names were familiar, and the participants

misattributed the source of the familiarity.

– Failed to identify the source as the list that had been read the previous day.
5. 7 sins of memory

FORGETTING Transience Decay of memory traces

over time
Absent mindedness Not paying attention
 results in weak traces or
memory
Blocking Inaccessibility of stored
memory traces
DISTORTION Misattribution Attributing re-collection
to the wrong source
Suggestibility Implanted memories due
to leading comment
while memories were
activated
Bias Respective distortions
based on current
knowledge
PERSISTANCE persistence Information we cannot
forget
CATEGORY SINS DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 6
Synaptic system
Synaptic consolidation involves changes at Systems consolidation involves
the synapses and occurs rapidly reorganization of neural connections and
takes place over a longer time span and
happens gradually
It involves gradual reorganization of circuits Involves the trimming of unnecessary
in the brain neural connections

Retrograde
 Loss of memory for events that
happened prior to the trauma
 New memories are fragile, old are
stable
graded
 Loss of memory for events recent
 It is more fragile than remote events

1. a) Semantic- memory for facts and general knowledge

b) Episodic- memory for specific experiences, tied to personal events and
remembering is reliving
 c) Autobiography- memory for specific experiences from our lives and can
include semantic and episodic

2. Factors aiding encoding

 Creating connections - through imagery such as boat-tree and self-
referencing

 Active Creation - generating info and test questions

 Organization - recall by groups, present the info in a more organized

way, and or provide meaningful framework.

3. Differences in STM and LTM for visual, auditory, and semantic coding
 Visual coding - you hold an image in the mind to produce a visual pattern that
was seen recently. In LTM you visualize a person or place from the past.
 Auditory coding - in STM, represent the sound of letters in the mind after
hearing them while in LTM it means repeatedly playing a song you recently
just heard in your mind.
 Semantic coding- In STM it’s like placing words in a task into categories
based on their meaning while LTM its like recalling the general plot of a novel
you read last week.

4. Memory and sleep consolidation

 During sleep, memory consolidation appears to be enhanced
 Presented participants which were the sleep group and awake group with
English -German vocab
 Sleep group forgot a lot of the words because sleep stop interference
from environmental stimuli
 Not only does sleep enhance memory but it is selective in strengthening
memories relevant to us.