Uiversity of Baghdad-College of Education

Ibn-Rushd for Humanities

English Depatment

Discourse Power and the Self: Foucauldian Analysis of Selected

Oppressed of Self- and Slave-Narratives.

Discourse Analysis
Submitted by: Mustafa Taha Odeh
Supervised by: Asst. Prof. Bushra Ni’ma Rashid (PhD)

2024 Mar 5
 1

Abstract
This research paper examines discourse power of Foucauldian discourse
analysis of power and knowledge in selected texts of oppressed narratives of
the self. Foucault suggests that power is used by people in authority,
governments, and the controlling group as a tool to control the mined of people.
The origin of this approach has been found in philosophy. Furthermore, this
paper aims to use Foucauldian discourse analysis approach to shed light on how
much each of the four types of discourse power is used in the analysis of the
data. Additionally, this study uses qualitative and qualitative research methods
to carefully tackle the issue of power and discourse in two well known
oppressed novels of discourse-narrative: Namely, Harriet Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s
Cabin in 1858 to represent the American civil war at that time, and George
Orwell’s 1984 which describes the communist party and how the tyranny of
Joseph Stalin affects the way people are controlled by the power of discourse
(spoken and written discourse). The research concludes that discourse is the
utilization of verbal or written communication to establish truths and
knowledge. Foucault argued that production discourse functions as a
framework for social control and promotes the interests of the most influential
members of society.
Keywords: Foucauldian discourse analysis, discourse power, qualitative,
quantitative, spoken and written discourse
1. Introduction
Foucault identified two power 'technologies': 'discipline' ('examination' as its
basic technique, Foucault, 1979) and 'confession' (Foucault 1981).
Genealogical analysis focuses on how techniques affect 'bodies', i.e., how they
affect the normalized forms of control over bodily dispositions, habits, and
 2

movements in modern societies, such as military training and similar processes

in industry, education, and medicine. Modern discipline technology creates
'docile bodies' that meet the demands of modern capitalist production, as
Foucault describes. Discipline is evident in jail, school, and factory
architecture, which assigns each inmate a place (cell, desk, bench, etc.).
This research focuses on analyzing the discourse power in selected oppressed-
narratives. Uncle Tom's Cabin is a novel that opposes slavery. The novel was
first published in installments in the abolitionist newspaper The National Era
in 1852, and it was a significant piece of literature aimed at promoting the
abolitionist movement. In the near-future setting of 1984, the world is
partitioned into three superstates - Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia - engaged in
an ongoing conflict. The superpowers are evenly matched, making a clear
victory unattainable. The primary purpose of the war is to maintain functioning
economies without increasing the wealth of their citizens, who mostly live in a
condition of terror and poverty, except for a select few.
2. Literature Review

This section is intended to give a theoretical perspective on the basic definitions

of discourse and discourse analysis. Moreover, it is set out to explain and tackle
the main conceptions of the Foucauldian approach to discourse analysis, as well
as what is meant by literary-based narratives.
2.1 Discourse
Discourse is a term used in linguistics to refer to a continuous stretch of
(especially spoken) language larger than a sentence – but, within this broad
notion, several different applications may be found. At its most general, a
discourse is a behavioral unit which has a pre-theoretical status in linguistics:
it is a set of utterances which constitute any recognizable speech event (no
 3

reference being made to its linguistic structuring, if any), e.g. a conversation, a

joke, a sermon, an interview. A classification of discourse functions, with
particular reference to type of subject-matter, the situation, and the behavior of
the speaker, is often carried out in sociolinguistic studies, e.g. distinguishing
dialogues v. monologues, or (more specifically) oratory, ritual, insults,
narrative, and so on, (Crystal, 2008).
Several linguists have attempted to discover linguistic regularities in discourses
(discourse analysis or DA), using grammatical, phonological and semantic
criteria (e.g. cohesion, anaphora, inter-sentence connectivity). Special attention
has been focused on discourse markers – sequentially dependent elements
which demarcate units of speech, such as oh, well, and I mean. It is now plain
that there exist important linguistic dependencies between sentences, but it is
less clear how far these dependencies are sufficiently systematic to enable
linguistic units higher than the sentence to be established. The methodology
and theoretical orientation of discourse analysis (with its emphasis on well-
formedness and rules governing the sequence of permissible units, in both
spoken and written texts) are often contrasted with those of conversation
analysis. The term discourse grammar has also come to be used by those
seeking to develop an alternative to the generativist conception of an
autonomous formal grammar, which would incorporate principles of a
functional, communicative kind, (Shiffrin, 2001).
2.1.1 Discourse Analysis
according to Schiffrin (1994, p.3), “discourse Analysis involves the study of
both text and context.” One might conclude, then, that Text Linguistics only
studies the text, while discourse analysis is more complete because it studies
both text and context. However, there are definitions of text that are very broad
and include both elements, and that is why it would be very risky to talk about
 4

clear-cut differences between the two disciplines. De Beaugrande’s (2002)

definition of Text Linguistics (hence TL) as “the study of real language in use”
does not differ from many of the definitions of discourse analysis presented by
Schiffrin within its functional approach, some of which are the following:

“The study of discourse is the study of any aspect of language use”

(Fasold, 1990, p.65).

“The analysis of discourse is, necessarily, the analysis of language in use.

As such, it cannot be restricted to the description of linguistic forms
independent of the purposes or functions which these forms are designed
to serve in human affairs” (Brown & Yule, 1983, p.1).
Another important characteristic of discourse studies is that they are essentially
multidisciplinary, and therefore it can be said that they cross the Linguistics
border into different and varied domains, as van Dijk notes in the following
passage:
“I do discourse analysis using linguistics, poetics, semiotics, psychology,
sociology, anthropology, history, and communication research. I believe
this multidisciplinary research must be merged due of its complexity. We
need comprehensive theories that account for textual, cognitive, social,
political, and historical discourse.” (2008, p. 10)
3.2 Foucauldian Discourse Analysis
Michel Foucault (1926-1984) was a French philosopher, sociologist, and
historian who focused on how knowledge and power are shaped by
communication. Foucault suggested that discourse is constructed by
individuals in positions of authority with certain intentions and is frequently
employed as a system of societal governing. He is frequently assigned to the
 5

structuralist and post-structuralist movements.

Foucault criticized those in authority, particularly the French Bourgeoisie,
arguing that they might control discourses for their benefit while covering their
true intentions. Powerful individuals in society generate information that
becomes widely accepted as the standard, often without others realizing their
influence.

Foucault has had a huge influence upon the social sciences and humanities, and
the popularization of the concept of discourse and of discourse analysis as a
method can partly be attributed to that influence. Foucault's approach to
discourse analysis is widely referred to as a model by social scientists.
Foucault's work makes an important contribution to a social theory of discourse
in such areas as the relationship of discourse and power, the discursive
construction of social subjects and knowledge, and the functioning of discourse
in social change, (Fairclough, 1995).
3.2.1 Foucault’s Concept of Power and Knowledge
According to G. Kendall and G. Wickham (1999), “Using Foucault's
Methods,” Foucault does not believe there is not just one form of power.
Instead, he recognized four different types, they are:
1. Sovereign power
2. Disciplinary power
3. Pastoral power
4. Bio-power
 6

1. Sovereign power
This is the most recognizable kind of power. Authority is the power
possessed by individuals in positions of power, such Queen Elizabeth II, the
Prime Minister, or a headteacher.
2. Disciplinary power
Disciplinary power is connected to Foucault's concept of the gaze, which
asserts that individuals will control their actions if they perceive they are
under observation. This is the control is taken over the community to
conform to societal standards and be considered a 'respectable' individual.
It may be likened to self-discipline.
3. Pastoral power
The term comes from religion, but it is not always used in religious
contexts. When somebody act in a certain way to make sure everyone is
well-protected, you have pastoral power. As an example, it could
be said that police have pastoral power because they use their power for
the good of society as a whole.
4. Bio-power
Foucault came up with the word "bio-power" to describe how the government
handles and keeps track of bio problems like race, class, gender, and birth and
death rates. Foucault said that this kind of power changed how we see
ourselves in relation to other people.
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/key-concepts-in-
language-and-linguistics/michel-foucault-discourse-theory/
The view of the nature of power in modern societies, which Foucault develops
in his genealogical, studies places discourse and language at the heart of social
practices and processes. The character of power in modem societies is tied to
problems of managing populations. Power is implicit within everyday social
 7

practices which are distributed at every level in all domains of social life, and
are constantly engaged in; moreover, it 'is tolerable only on condition that it
makes a substantial part of itself. Its success is proportional to its ability to hide
its own mechanisms' (Fraser, 1981 as cited in Fairclough, 1992, p.86).
Power does not work negatively by forcefully dominating those who are subject
to it; it incorporates them, and is 'productive' in the sense that it shapes and
'retools' them to fit in with its needs.
Modern power was not imposed by particular collective agents (e.g., classes)
upon groups or individuals; it developed 'from below' in certain 'micro-
techniques' (such as 'examination' in its medical or educational senses), which
emerged in institutions such as hospitals, prisons and schools at the beginning
of the modern period. Such techniques imply a dual relation between power
and knowledge in modern society. On the one hand, the techniques of power
are developed on the basis of knowledge which is generated, for example, in
the social sciences. On the other hand, the techniques are very much concerned
with exercising power in the process of gathering knowledge. Foucault coins
the term 'bio-power' to refer to this modern form of power, which has emerged
since the seventeenth century: bio-power, “brought life and its mechanisms into
the realm of explicit calculations and made knowledge/power an agent of
transformation of human life,” (Fraser, 1981, p.143).
3.3 Methodology
This section sheds light upon the research method which is followed in this
research paper. A qualitative and quantitative methods are both adopted to have
the best understanding and accurate explanations and numerals concerning the
analysis of the data. Furthermore, adopting a mixed methodology means
overcoming the drawbacks of each method to be studied alone, (Yang & Miller,
2008). In addition, this method is selected in order to be suitable with the
 8

research questions, which are claimed in the abstract. Pertaining to the data of
this research, two novels are selected to be analyzed. On the one hand, Uncle’s
Tom Cabin that is written by Harriet Beecher in the early 1850, describing the
government and the oppressing regime against the black American. On the
other hand, George Orwell’s 1984, exploring the totalitarian regime of the
communist party taken against the individuals in the form of “The Big Brother”
who has authority upon his siblings. Some selected texts are chosen to analyze
the discourse power of the self. In essence, the analysis will be performed in
the form of tables.
3.3.1 Model of Analysis
Foucault’s (1978) approach of modern power of discourse is adopted:
Sovereign power, disciplinary power, pastoral power, and bio-power.
3.4 Analysis of the Data
Based on the research questions, data collection, and the Foucault’s model of
power in the oppressed narratives, the analysis will be in the form of tables. It
is worth stressing that Uncle’s Tom Cabin is selected from the American
narratives, whereas Orwell’s 1984 is selected from the British narratives:
3.4.1 The Analysis of Uncle’s Tom Cabin
NO. The Original Text from Uncle’s Foucault’s The Analysis
Tom Cabin Approach of
Discourse
Power
1. At a hotel in N-----, a village Sovereign An instance of
in Kentucky, a short, older Power slave-ownership
traveler named Mr. characterized as
Wilson enters. He speaks to "benevolent." The
the owner about the town’s drover is not seen
 9

news and is shown a poster harsh as he treats his

advertising a $400 reward, slaves kindly and
dead or alive, for the return of places trust in them,
an intelligent, light-skinned yet nevertheless
fugitive slave with an H maintaining
branded on his hand, known ownership of slaves.
to the reader George Harris
An army veteran comes and Disciplinary Because the fugitive
spits tobacco juice on the Power does not obey the
poster, claiming that an owner rules which conduct
who doesn’t know how to the policy of being
treat so distinguished a slave self-disciplined.
ought to lose that slave.
2. Another man walks into the Bio-Power The initial
hotel as the drover is occurrence of a
conversing with a “coarse slave successfully
man” who defends rough posing as a
treatment of slaves. The "prominent
newcomer has light skin, fine foreigner." George
clothes, and carries himself and Eliza will
like a foreigner, perhaps a employ this strategy
Spaniard. His valet is a slave once more when
named Jim and he gives his they travel from
name as Henry Butler. When Pastoral Ohio to Canada.
shown the poster of the Power (Race Similar to Eliza
escaped slave, he says he attempting to be
 10

might have seen someone like and white, George is

him earlier, but he can’t be Ethnicity) merely portraying a
sure. He requests a room at the Spaniard, indicating
hotel and management that his perceived
quickly arranges his for his racial inferiority is
luggage. not innate but rather
a consequence of
societal influences.

3. Mr. Wilson and George argue Sovereign This is an important

further over the morality of Power point. George
George’s mission. George makes clear the
shows two pistols and a knife hypocrisy that black
to Wilson, saying he will do people, who are not
what is necessary to protect considered fully
himself. Wilson states that human in American
George is breaking the laws of law, must
his country. George replies Pastoral nevertheless abide
that Wilson has a country, but Power by the laws that
he, George, does not white men create.
He argues instead
that he can't be a
part of a country
that makes it legal to
enslave him.
 11

4. At breakfast, Marie declares Disciplinary Marie proceeds

to her husband, Eva, and Miss power with her depiction
Ophelia that the slaves are of slaves' conduct.
really the masters of their Mammy, who cares
owners, that no one for Eva before Miss
understands her physical Ophelia arrives, is
maladies, and that slaves seen by Marie as a
like Mammy complain too complainer and
much and do too little. hypochondriac,
When St. traits that Marie
Clare and Eva leave, Marie actually possesses.
says that Eva is strange, St. Clare holds a
always playing with the Pastoral progressive
slaves, which does not teach power perspective
them their place in the suggesting that
household. St. Clare, she slaves'
continues, believes slaves shortcomings may
should be treated kindly and stem from their
that any faults in slaves are the enslavement, while
responsibility of their masters. Marie believes
Marie asserts to Ophelia that slaves are
this is nonsense. Slaves, she inherently inferior
says, are a “degraded race.” and considered
"mistreated" by
God.
 12

5. The house’s opulence is Sovereign Marie elaborates on

described, and Beecher Stowe Power the behavior of
argues that black people are slaves. Mammy,
inclined to enjoy this kind of who cares for Eva
majesty. Eva before Miss Ophelia
offers Mammy her golden arrives, is seen by
brooch as a present, since Marie as a
Mammy has a complainer and
headache. Marie says this is a hypochondriac,
terrible thing to do, though St. traits that Marie
Clare defends it. Marie and actually possesses.
Eva leave for church, and St. Clare has a
St. Clare and Ophelia stay perspective that
behind. Pastoral suggests slaves'
Power shortcomings may
stem from their
enslavement,
whereas Marie
believes slaves are
considered inferior
and "degraded" in
the eyes of God.
 13

3.4.2 The Analysis of Orwell’s 1984

NO. The Original Text of George Foucault’s The Analysis

Orwell’s 1984 Approach of
Discourse Power
1 Winston follows an old Sovereign The old prole's
man into another pub, Power inability to fulfill
intending to ask him about life Winston's
before the Revolution. He buys curiosity about
the man beer and asks him the past indicates
about the past, but the old man the Party's
is incoherent. Winston realizes success in its
that there is no one alive who program of mind
can tell him whether life was control.
better or worse in the past— Winston's
that history has been expectation of a
obliterated rebellion among
the proles
appears to be
becoming more
and more
hopeless.

2 In the canteen at Pastoral Syme is an

lunch, Winston talks (Religious example of an
with Syme, a linguist who is Control and ideologically
working on the Eleventh Race) orthodox
 14

Edition of the Newspeak individual who is

dictionary. Winston suspects nonetheless
that Syme, despite his political considered a
orthodoxy, will one day be threat to the
arrested by the Thought Police totalitarian
because he's simply too regime because
intelligent. Drinking Victory his intelligence
Gin, they talk about the suggests that he
Eleventh Edition, which will may possibly
be definitive, and much shorter become
than previous dictionaries. dangerous.
Syme believes the "destruction Orwell viewed
of words" is a beautiful thing, the
saying enthusiastically that impoverishment
thoughtcrime will eventually of vocabulary as
be impossible because there a primary tool of
will be no words with which to totalitarian
express disloyal thoughts. The regimes. Syme's
Revolution, he says, will then delight in the
be complete. "destruction of
words" is
intended to be
appalling.
3 Because the electricity that Sovereign Orwell employs
powers the elevator has been Power the term "Party"
turned off in preparation for to imply that the
 15

Hate Week, Winston, who is real government

39 years old, frail, fair-haired in 1984 took its
and wearing a blue Party name after the
uniform, slowly climbs seven real Communist
dingy flights of stairs to his state existing in
flat. He limps because of a the Soviet Union
varicose ulcer on his right during Joseph
ankle. On each landing of the Stalin's tyranny.
stairs hangs a poster depicting The specifics
the enormous face of a man highlight the
with a black mustache, with a despair and lack
caption that reads, BIG typical of
BROTHER IS WATCHING existence in a
YOU. totalitarian
regime.

4 Controlling his facial Disciplinary More

expression, Winston faces the Power information that
telescreen. By leaving work shows that living
early he has missed his conditions under
opportunity to eat in the Party rule are
canteen, and though he is characterized by
hungry he must save the only a lower level of
food in the house, a piece of production and a
dark-colored bread, for lack of resources.
breakfast the next day. He Oceania's people
 16

drinks a teacup of oily- cannot ask for

smelling Victory Gin and takes better quality, so
out a Victory cigarette. they have to be
happy with the
general goods
that the
government
gives them.

5 Julia and Winston travel back Bio-Powe It is difficult to

to London separately, by have a private
different routes. But before existence at any
they leave, they arrange to setting where the
meet at a crowded market four Party can spy on
days later. individuals.

5. Assessment of the Analysis

The results of the present research paper will be enacted to note Foucault’s
concept of modern (Genealogy according to him), and how it is used in the
analysis of discourse power in the selected texts which have been examined
above.
NO. Discourse Power of Frequency Percentage
Foucault (Harriet Stowe
Uncle’s Tom Cabin)
1 Sovereign Power 3 %30
2 Disciplinary Power 2 %20
 17

3 Pastoral Power 4 %40

4 Bio-Power 1 %10
Discourse Power of Frequency Percentage
Foucault (George
Orwell’s 1984)
1 Sovereign Power 2 %30
2 Disciplinary Power 1 %10
3 Pastoral Power 1 %10
4 Bio-Power 1 %10

6. Conclusion
Discourse is an application of communication, whether written or spoken, to
form knowledge and truths. Foucault argued that manufactured discourse
serves the interests of the most powerful in society and functions as a tool for
social regulation. Foucault's discourse theory criticized the powerful for using
discourses to benefit themselves while hiding their true motives.
Foucault identified various forms of power: Sovereign power, Disciplinary
power, Pastoral power, and Bio-power. Foucauldian discourse analysis is a type
of discourse analysis that specifically examines the connection between power
and language. The primary goals of this discourse theory are to reveal and
diminish the prevailing hegemonic discourses that alienate, suppress, and
marginalize individuals in society.
This research has examined selected texts from two well-known slave-
narratives. The first one has tackled the American culture in the time of
American civil war in 1858 in order to give freedom and quality to the Black
African-American people. The second discourse-narrative has analyzed the
issue of the political system in Russia before 1984 which is highly concentrated
 18

in Orwell’s 1984. The study has concluded that power and knowledge are the
main factors which the government, controlling groups, such as politicians,
doctors, and presidents can practice on the common people to keep them under
control as well as trying to make of them as dependent as possible.
 19

References

Beecher Stowe, H. (1852). Uncle Tom’s Cabin. John P. Jewett and Company.
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge University
Press.
Crystal, D. (2011). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. John Wiley &
Sons.
Dijk, T. A. van. (2008). Discourse and power. Palgrave Macmillan.
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Polity Press.
Foucault, M. (2008). The Birth of Biopolitics Lectures at the College De
France, 1978-1979. Palgrave Macmillan.
Guendouzi, J. A., & Muller, N. (2006). Approaches to Discourse in
Dementia. Tannen, D., Hamilton, H. E., & Schiffrin, D. (2018). The
handbook of discourse analysis. Wiley Blackwell.
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/key-concepts-in-
language-and-linguistics/michel-foucault-discourse-theory/
Laura Alba Juez. (2005). Discourse analysis for university students.
Universidad Nacional De Educación A Distancia.
Miller, G. J., & Yang, K. (2007). Handbook of Research Methods in Public
Administration. CRC Press.
Orwell, G. (2021). 1984. Arcturus Publishing.
Robert De Beaugrande, & Dressler, W. U. (1981). Introduction to Text
Linguistics. Longman Publishing Group.