8) The Digestive

System
N. Sinem TURKMEN
• Major function: Responsible for the
breakdown and absorption of nutrients
that are necessary for growth and
maintenance.
• Food needs to be broken down so it is
small enough to enter the body tissues
and cells.
• The body needs energy from food, but it
cannot use food in its original form. The
body first must break down the food into
simpler substances.
• Food is broken down both mechanically
and chemically as it moves through the
digestive system.
• Major organs: tongue, teeth, mouth,
throat, salivary glands, esophagus,
stomach, pancreas, liver, gall bladder,
large intestine, small intestine, rectum
and anus.
• The GI tract (gastrointestinal tract)
The muscular alimentary canal
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus

• The accessory digestive organs

Supply secretions contributing to the
breakdown of food
• Teeth & tongue
• Salivary glands
• Gallbladder
• Liver
• Pancreas
The Digestive Process (6
actions)
• Ingestion
• Taking in food through the mouth
• Propulsion (movement of food, peristalsis)
• Swallowing
• Peristalsis – propulsion by alternate contraction
&relaxation
• Mechanical digestion
• Chewing
• Churning in stomach
• Mixing by segmentation
• Chemical digestion
• By secreted enzymes: see later
• Absorption
• Transport of digested end products into blood
and lymph in wall of canal
• Defecation
• Elimination of indigestible substances from body
as feces
• Chemical digestion
• Complex food molecules (carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) broken down
into chemical building blocks (simple sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids and
glycerol)
• Carried out by enzymes secreted by digestive glands into lumen of the
alimentary canal
Gastrointestinal tract wall
Histology of alimentary canal wall
Same four layers from esophagus to anal canal

1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa
4. Serosa

from lumen (inside) out

Inner layer: the mucosa*
(mucous membrane)

Three sub-layers
1. Lining epithelium
* 2. Lamina propria
3. Muscularis mucosae
More about the mucosa: Convoluted laminal surface
• Epithelium: absorbs nutrients,
secretes mucus (protects your cells
from being digested by your own
digestive enzymes)
• Continuous with ducts and
secretory cells of intrinsic digestive
glands (those within the wall)
• Extrinsic (accessory) glands: the
larger ones such as liver and
pancreas
• Lamina propria
• Loose connective tissue, blood and
lymph vessels and nerve fibers
• Contains most of mucosa-
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
• Muscularis mucosae
• Thin smooth muscle layer – small
movements of the mucosa, for
example villus mobility in the small
intestine
Second layer: the submucosa*
• Connective tissue
containing major blood
and lymphatic vessels
and nerves
• Many elastic fibers so
gut can regain shape
* after food passes
Next in, the muscularis externa*
(AKA just “muscularis”)

Two layers of smooth muscle responsible

for peristalsis and segmentation
Contractions and relaxations create mixing
and propagating movements in the GI
tract.
Muscle layers:
1. The layer consisting of thick circular
muscles on the inner side causes
narrowing in the lumen with its
* contractions;
2. Thinner longitudinal layer on the
outside; Contractions cause partial
shortening in the length of the canal.
•Neuron layer: a second network of
neurons is known as the myenteric
plexus.
Last (outer), the serosa*
(the visceral peritoneum): It consists of connective tissue leaves and
attaches the organs to the abdominal wall and physically supports
them.

• Simple squamous epithelium

(mesothelium)
• Thin layer of areolar connective
tissue underneath
• Exceptions:
• Parts not in peritoneal cavity have
adventitia, lack serosa
• Some have both, e.g. retroperitoneal
* organs
Smooth muscle

6 MAJOR LOCATIONS:

1. inside the eye

2. walls of vessels
3. respiratory tubes
4. digestive tubes
5. urinary organs
6. reproductive organs
Smooth muscle
• Muscles are spindle-shaped cells
• One central nucleus
• Grouped into sheets: often running
perpendicular to each other
• Peristalsis (see next slide)
• No striations (no sarcomeres)
• Contractions are slow, sustained and
resistant to fatigue
• Does not always require a nervous signal:
can be stimulated by stretching or
hormones
Peristalsis
Pushing food back and forth like a wave
vConsists of waves of muscular contractions
vMoves a bolus along the length of the digestive tract
• Peristaltic Motion
1. Circular muscles contract behind bolus
• While circular muscles ahead of bolus relax
2. Longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus contract
• Shortening adjacent segments
3. Wave of contraction in circular muscles
• Forces bolus forward

Note: Food comes in bolus form in the mouth.

 Mesentery

Ø Double layer of peritoneum

Ø Extends to digestive organs from body wall
Ø Hold organs in place
Ø Sites of fat storage
Ø Route by which circulatory vessels and nerves
reach organs
Ø Most in the back area
• Extend dorsally from gut to posterior
abdominal wall
vVentral mesentery – from stomach and liver to
anterior abdominal wall
vSome mesenteries are called “ligaments” though
not technically such
Note mesenteries: falciform ligament, lesser omentum, greater
omentum
ORAL CAVITY
• The first place food reaches for digestion is the mouth.
• The general purpose of the mouth is to convert nutrients into bolus
form.
• A bolus is a collection of more easily digestible nutrients.
• We do this in 2 basic steps.
1) Chewing (tongue and teeth) 2) Hydrolysis (enzymes)
 The Mouth

• Mouth = oral cavity

• Lining: thick stratified squamous
epithelium
• Lips- orbicularis oris muscle
• Cheeks – buccinator muscle
v 5% of the total starch is hydrolyzed in the
mouth.
v Other nutrients are digested mechanically.
v Water, Nicotine and some drugs are
absorbed in the mouth (sublingually).
Functions of the Oral Cavity
1. Sensory analysis : Of material before swallowing
2. Mechanical processing: Through actions of teeth, tongue, and palatal
surfaces
3. Lubrication: Mixing with mucus and salivary gland secretions
4. Limited digestion: Of carbohydrates and lipids

vThe oral cavity is bounded by the teeth, tongue, hard palate, and soft
palate.

vThese structures make up the mouth and play a key role in the first step of
digestion, called ingestion.
 Tongue
• Mostly muscles
• Hold and reposition food
• Forms “bolus” of food (lump)
• Help in swallowing
• Speech – help form some consonants
• Taste buds contained by circumvallate and fungiform papillae
• Lingual tonsil – back of tongue
Teeth
• Teeth live in sockets (alveoli) in the gum-covered margins of the mandible
and maxilla

• Chewing begins voluntarily and is coordinated with the reflex center

located in the brainstem.
Regulatory fields;
vReticular formation
vHypothalamus
vAmygdala
vCerebral cortex
Teeth
• Two sets
• Primary or deciduous
• “Baby” teeth
• Start at 6 months
• 20 are out by about 2 years
• Fall out between 2-6 years
• Permanent: 32 total
• All but 3rd set of molars by end of adolescence incisor
• 3rd set = “wisdom teeth”
• Variable canine
Teeth are classified according to shape and function
Incisors: chisel-shaped for chopping off pieces
Canines: cone shaped to tear and pierce premolar
Premolars (bicuspids) and
Molars - broad crowns with 4-5 rounded cusps for grinding
molar
 Tooth structure
• Two main regions
A. Crown (exposed)
B. Root (in socket) A
C. Meet at neck
• Enamel C
• 99% calcium crystals
• Hardest substance in body
• Dentin – bulk of the tooth (bone- B
like but harder than bone, with
collagen and mineral)
• Pulp cavity with vessels and
nerves
• Root canal: the part of the pulp in
the root
The teeth and tongue work with salivary glands to break down food into
small masses that can be swallowed, preparing them for the journey
through the alimentary canal.
SALIVARY SECRETION:
pH: 6-7
Secretion amount: 800-1500 ml/day
Main Glands:
v Parotid
v Sublingual
v Submandibular

Secretion rates:
v Parotid: 25%
v Submandibular: 70%
v Sublingual: 5%
SALIVARY GLANDS: Saliva Moistens Food & Begins the Process of Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
(tuboalveolar glands)

Saliva:
v mixture of water, ions, mucus,
enzymes
v keep mouth moist dissolves food
so can be tasted
v moistens food
v starts enzymatic digestion
v buffers acid
v antibacterial and antiviral

v Saliva is about 99% water and not only moistens food but cleanses the mouth, dissolves food
chemicals so they can be tasted, and contains enzymes that start the chemical breakdown of
starchy foods.
Functions of saliva
• Allows nutrients to be swallowed easily.
• Alpha amylase is produced, which starts the digestion of carbohydrates and
turns them into glucose.
• It glues foods together. (Bolus formation)
• It helps to drag away both bacteria and their metabolic support nutrients.
• Contains various factors that destroy bacteria (thiocyanate ions, proteolytic
enzymes)
• Dissolution of taste molecules in food items
• Prevents tooth decay by keeping the oral pH above 5.5
• Contains antibodies (IgA)
Why does excessive sugar consumption cause
tooth decay?

The normal pH of the mouth is 7. It's a pretty

neutral environment. There are many Hydroxyl
groups in the glucose (sugar) molecule. This makes
the environment acidic. As the pH value
decreases, mineral loss occurs or acid breaks down
our teeth.
Pharynx
___oropharynx • The pharynx, or throat, is
the passageway leading
___laryngopharynx
from the mouth to
the esophagus.
• There are muscles that allow
food to move in only one
direction.
• Three constrictor muscles*
* • Sequentially squeeze bolus of
food into esophagus
* • Are skeletal muscles
• Voluntary action
• Vagus nerve
*
Esophagus
It allows food to pass into the stomach.
• Continuation of pharynx in mid neck
• Muscular tube collapsed when lumen
empty Esophagus___________

• On anterior surface of vertebral column

• Behind (posterior to) trachea

*
Stomach
• After passing through the mouth and esophagus, the bolus passes into the stomach.
• J-shaped; widest part of alimentary canal
• Capacity: 1.5 L food; max capacity 4L (1 gallon)
• Starts food breakdown
• Pepsin (protein-digesting enzyme needing acid environment)
• HCl (hydrochloric acid) helps kill bacteria, potentially harmful microbes.
• Stomach tolerates high acid content but esophagus doesn’t – why it hurts so much when stomach
contents refluxes into esophagus (heartburn; GERD)
• Every day, the stomach secretes about 2 liters of gastric fluid.
v Pyloric glands are the places in the antrum where cells from which gastric secretions are secreted are
located.
• Most nutrients wait until get to small intestine to be absorbed; exceptions are:
• Water, electrolytes, some drugs like aspirin and alcohol (absorbed through stomach)
3 important functions of the stomach:
1. Food digested by the mixing movements of the stomach mixes with
gastric secretions and forms chyme. Stomach contents must be
converted into chyme before emptying into the duodenum.
2. The most important function of the stomach is to store the digested
chyme until it is emptied into the duodenum at a rate suitable for
optimal digestion and absorption (for about 4 hours).
3. The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes that
initiate protein digestion.
 Stomach Regions

• Fundus (dome shaped): The first part of the

stomach after the esophageal opening is the
fundus.
• Body: The main middle part is called the body.
• Greater curvature
• Lesser curvature
• Pyloric region: The last part of the stomach is the
pylorus and has the pyloric sphincter. dome
• Antrum
junction with
• Canal esophagus
• Sphincter: This sphincter acts as a barrier
between the stomach and duodenum. contains pyloric
sphincter
The muscles in the fundus and trunk are thin.
In the antrum, the muscles are thicker.
funnel shaped
 Histology of stomach
• Surface epithelial cells à secrete
dense, viscous alkaline mucus.
• Gastric pits opening into gastric
glands
• Mucus neck cells
• Parietal cellsà
• HCL
• Intrinsic factor (for B12 absorption)
• Chief cellsà
• Stimulated by gastrin: a stomach
hormone (Gastrin is a hormone
produced by the stomach,
which stimulates gastric motility and
the release of gastric acid.)
• Chief cells secrete Pepsinogen
(inactive form) (activated to pepsin
with HCL)
HCL (hydrochloric acid)
• It is secreted by parietal cells. HCL is not actually
directly involved in digestion, it helps digestion.
1. Converts pepsinogen into its active form, pepsin.
2. It serves to break connective tissues and muscle
fibers into small pieces.
3. It denatures proteins and prevents them from
folding, making them vulnerable to the action of
enzymes.
4. It kills most of the microorganisms in the food taken
together with the lysosome in the saliva.
Average pH across the GI tract
• Mouth-Esophagus: 6 -7 pH
• Small intestine: 7-8 pH
• Large intestine: 6-7 pH
• Stomach: 1.5 – 3.5 pH (THANKS TO HCL!!)
PEPSİNOGEN
• The main digestive content in gastric secretion is pepsinogen,
which is converted into the active enzyme form pepsin by the
action of HCL.
• The inactive form pepsinogen is synthesized by chief cells and
stored in vesicles known as zymogen granules. It is released
by exocytosis when a stimulus arrives.
• Once formed, pepsin itself acts directly on pepsinogen,
initiating an autocatalytic process.
• Pepsin starts protein digestion by breaking down peptide
bonds.
MUCUS
• The gastric mucosa is covered with mucus secreted from the surface epithelium and mucus cells.
• The stomach protects itself from its own secretions primarily with mucus fluid.
Mucus;
vMechanical damage
vTo self-digest
vActs as a protector against acid damage
INTRINSIC FACTOR
Ø Apart from HCl, intrinsic factor is secreted from parietal cells and is very important in the
absorption of vitamin B12.
Ø Vitamin B12 can only be absorbed when combined with intrinsic factor.
Ø Vitamin B12 is very important in the production of erythrocytes and its deficiency causes
pernicious anemia.
What would happen if HCL or Pepsin were
constantly present in the stomach?

The
stomach
could
digest
itself….
Gastric emptying factors
• The most important gastric factor affecting gastric emptying is the
amount of chyme in the stomach.
• Stretching the stomach directly increases gastric motility by stretching
the stomach smooth muscle.
• Intrinsic plexuses, vagal stimulation, and the stomach hormone
gastrin are similarly involved.
• Additionally, the liquid ratio of chyme also affects gastric emptying.
• Factors not related to digestion, such as emotions, can also affect
gastric motility. Smells, bad memories, physical trauma can increase
motility.
Small intestine
• Longest part of alimentary canal (2.7-5 m)
• Most enzymatic digestion occurs here
• Most enzymes secreted by pancreas, not small
intestine
• Almost all absorption of nutrients
• 3-6 hour process
• Your intestines are about 22 feet long– the
surface area would cover almost 3000
square feet, the size of a tennis court!
Small intestine___________
• Small intestine has 3 subdivisions
• Duodenum (the first part, process of breaking down food)– 5% of length
• Jejunum (the part where nutrients are most absorbed) – almost 40%
• Ileum (last part, important absorption zone (vit A, D, E, K) – almost 60%
Duodenum receives
bile from liver and gallbladder via bile duct*
enzymes from pancreas via main pancreatic duct*

*
• Small intestine designed for absorption
• Huge surface area because of great length
• Structural modifications also increase absorptive area
• Circular folds (plicae circulares)
• Villi (fingerlike projections) 1 mm high. (It expands the surface area of the intestine.)
• Microvilli (A smaller version of Villi. Thus, digestion occurs easier.) Enzymes on the villi.

Absorptivie cell
with microvilli to
increase surface
area & many
mitochondria

Lacteal*: network of blood

and lymph capillaries
-Carbs and proteins into blood to liver
via hepatic portal vein
-Fat into lymph: fat-soluble toxins
systemically before going to liver for
detoxification
• Villi that line the walls of the small
intestine absorb nutrients into
capillaries of the circulatory system
and lacteals of the lymphatic system.
• Villi contain capillary beds, as well as
lymphatic vessels called lacteals.
• Fatty acids absorbed from broken-
down chyme pass into the lacteals.
• Other absorbed nutrients enter the
bloodstream through the capillary
beds and are taken directly to the
liver, via the hepatic vein, for
processing.
Digestion in Small Intestinal Secretion Enzymes
• Enterocytes in the mucosa (those
lining the villi) contain specific
digestive enzymes for various
nutrients absorbed from the
epithelium.
• These enzymes are located at the
brush border of enterocytes.
(1) various peptidases that break down
small peptides into amino acids,
(2) saccharase, maltase, isomaltase and
lactase, which break down disaccharides
into monosaccharides
(3) intestinal lipase, which breaks down
neutral fats into glycerol and fatty acids
 • Intestinal crypts * in between villi
• Cells here divide every 3-6 days to renew epithelium (most rapidly dividing cells of the body)
• Secrete watery intestinal juice which mixes with chyme

-have many
mitochondria:
Duodenal glands * *
nutrient uptake
is energy-
•Mucus to remove acidity from stomach demanding
•Hormones:
Cholecystokinin (stimulates GB to release stored bile, *
also pancreas) -produce
mucus
Secretin (stimulates pancreatic ducts to release acid
neutralizer)
Basic Mechanisms of Absorption
• Absorption from the gastrointestinal mucosa mostly occurs by active
transport, diffusion.
ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
• A few hundred grams of carbohydrates per day from the small
intestine,
• 100 gr fat,
• 50-100 gr. amino acid,
• 50-100 gr. ion and
• 7-8 liters of water is absorbed.
Absorption of Carbs
• All carbohydrates are absorbed as
monosaccharides.
• Although very small amounts of
disaccharides are absorbed,
polysaccharides are not absorbed at all.
• Most of the absorbed monosaccharides
are glucose.
• Glucose usually accounts for more than 80
percent of absorbed carbohydrate
calories.
• The other 20 percent of the absorbed
monosaccharides consist almost entirely
of galactose and fructose.
• Almost all monosaccharides are absorbed
by active transport.
Absorption of
Proteins
• Most proteins are absorbed through the
luminal membranes of intestinal epithelial
cells in the form of dipeptides, tripeptides
and a few free amino acids.
• The energy required for most of this
transport is provided by a mechanism.
This is called active transport of amino
acids or peptides.
Absorption of Lipids
• Monoglycerides and fatty acids pass into the microvilli of the brush border
inside the micelles.
• Monoglycerides and fatty acids that come into contact with these surfaces
can immediately pass through the epithelial membrane; because these
lipids dissolve in the cell membrane as well as in micelles.
• The remaining bile acid micelles return to chyme, absorb monoglycerides
and fatty acids and carry them to the epithelial cells.
• When abundant bile acid micelles are present, approximately 97 percent of
fats are absorbed.
• When bile acids are not present, normally only 40-50 percent of fats are
absorbed.
• After fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the epithelial cells, they are
retained by the endoplasmic reticulum to reform triglycerides and are
mainly carried within the lymph chylomicrons and poured into the
circulation via the thoracic lymph duct.
• Chylomicrons are large triglyceride-rich lipoproteins produced in
enterocytes from dietary lipids.
 The Liver
• Largest gland in the body. There are many liver cells within the liver lobules.
• Liver lobules (about one million of them)
• Hexagonal solid made of sheets of hepatocytes (liver cells) around a central
vein.
• Corners of lobules have “portal triads”. Nutrients and oxygen come from the
portal vein.
• Portal triad
• Portal arteriole
• Portal venule
• Branch of hepatic portal vein
• Delivers substances from intestines
for processing by hepatocytes
• Bile duct
• Carries bile away
• Liver sinusoids
• Large capillaries between plates of
hepatocytes
• Contribute to central vein and
ultimately to hepatic veins
• Kupffer cells
• Liver macrophages
• Old blood cells and microorganisms
removed
Hepatocytes (liver cells)
• Many organelles
• Rough ER – manufactures blood proteins
• Smooth ER – help produce bile salts and detoxifies blood-borne
poisons
• Peroxisomes (A peroxisome is a membrane-bound organelle, a
type of microbody) – detoxify other poisons, including alcohol
• Golgi apparatus – packages
• Mitochondria – a lot of energy needed for all this
• Glycosomes (Glycosomes are membrane-bound microbody like
intracellular organelles) - role in storing sugar and regulation of
blood glucose (sugar) levels
• Produce 500-1000 ml bile each day
• Secrete into bile canaliculi (little channels) then ducts
• Regeneration capacity through liver stem cells
Just some of the liver’s functions
• Produces bile for digestion of fats
• Picks up glucose from blood
• Stores glucose as glycogen (= 1
glucose + 3 H2o)
• Processes fats and amino acids
• Stores some vitamins
• Detoxifies poisons and drugs
(mostly by the enzyme called
cytochrome p450)
• Makes the blood proteins
 The Liver Secretes Bile to
Emulsify Fats in the Small
Intestine

• The liver is continuously producing bile.

• This yellowish-brown fluid aids chemical
digestion by emulsifying fats in the
duodenum.
• Thanks to bile, we convert fats into
micelles.
• Bile flows out of the liver into the right
and left hepatic ducts, into the common
hepatic ducts, and toward the small
Bile = Bile pigments + Bile Salts
intestine to help with digestion and the
absorption of fats.
Gallbladder*: Bile is stored in the gallbladder
• Bile is excreted into the duodenum when
needed (fatty meal)
• The hormone that removes bile from the
gallbladder when the time comes is called
Cholecystokinin secreted in the duodenum.
• Bile helps dissolve fat and cholesterol.
• In the ileum, bile salts are reabsorbed and
gone to the liver.
• If bile salts crystallize, gall stones are formed.
• Intermittent pain: ball valve effect causing
intermittent obstruction
• Or infection and a lot of pain, fever, vomiting,
etc.
*
 Lies behind stomach
Pancreas Has a head, body and tail
Head is in C-shaped curve of duodenum
(exocrine and Tail extends left to touch spleen
endocrine) Main pancreatic duct runs the length of the pancreas, joins bile duct
The pancreas does not have a self-protecting capsule like other organs.
one acinus

* Pancreatic exocrine function

• Compound acinar (sac-like) glands
opening into large ducts (therefore
exocrine)
• Acinar cells make 22 kinds of enzymes
• Stored in zymogen granules
• Grape-like arrangement
• Enzymes to duodenum, where
activated
 Functions of the Exocrine Pancreas
• It secretes bicarbonate to neutralize the
acidity in the chyme coming from the
stomach.
• The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice,
a mix of digestive enzymes, water,
buffers (bicarbonates), and electrolytes
produced by acinar and epithelial cells.
Ø To digest carbohydrates; Pancreatic
Amylase,
Ø To digest lipids; lipase
Ø To digest proteins; It secretes
trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen
(They are activated by entropeptidase Why are
in the duodenum and converted into these
trypsin and chymotrypsin). enzymes
inactive?
Pancreatic endocrine function
(hormones released into blood)
• Islets of Langerhans (AKA “islet cells”)
are the hormone secreting cells
• Insulin (from beta cells)
• Lowers blood glucose (sugar)
• Glucagon (from from alpha cells)
• Raises blood glucose (sugar)
Endocrine cells:
(more later)
Large intestine
Digested residue reaches it
Main function:The main functions of the large intestine are the absorption of water and
electrolytes from the colon and storing feces before defecation.

Subdivisions
vCecum
vAppendix
vColon
vRectum
vAnal canal
 Colon has segments: ascending, transverse and descending colon; then sigmoid colon

* The colon is not

coiled like the
* small intestine,
it has 3
straighter
sections
compared to
the small
intestine –
ascending
Between ileum
and cecum colon,
transverse
1st part S-shaped
colon and
Blind tube descending
colon.

Movement sluggish and weak except for a few “mass peristaltic movements” per day to force feces toward rectum powerfully
• The ileocecal valve is located where the small intestine
meets the large intestine.
• The point where the large intestine begins: The cecum
• A small finger-like protrusion under the cecum is the
appendix, a lymphoid tissue containing lymphocytes.
• From the pattern, the end of the colon takes an S shape
and this is called the sigmoid colon, then it straightens
and continues to form the rectum.
• In general, the upper part of the colon is responsible for
absorption and the lower part is responsible for storage.
Histology – large intestine
• No villi
• Fewer nutrients absorbed (water, ions,
microorganisms)
• “Columnar cells” in pic = absorptive cells
• Take in water and electrolytes
• A lot of goblet cells for mucus
• Lubricates stool
• More lymphoid tissue
• A lot of bacteria in stool
Defecation:
• The colon normally receives approximately 500 ml of
chyme from the small intestine every day, and since
most of the digestion is completed in the small
intestine, undigested residues, unabsorbed bile
contents and remaining liquid come here.
• Here, the state of these remains ready to be thrown
away is called feces.
• Cellulose and indigestible substances create bulk,
which helps push colon contents through regular
movements.
• Any remaining nutrients and some water are
absorbed as peristaltic waves move the chyme into
the ascending and transverse colons.
• This dehydration, combined with peristaltic waves,
helps compact the chyme.
• It continues to move through the descending and
sigmoid colons.
• The large intestine temporarily stores the feces prior
to elimination.
• The body expels waste products
from digestion through the rectum
and anus.
• This process, called defecation,
involves contraction of rectal
muscles, relaxation of the internal
anal sphincter, and an initial
contraction of the skeletal muscle
of the external anal sphincter.
• The defecation reflex is mostly
involuntary, under the command
of the autonomic nervous system.
• But the somatic nervous system
also plays a role to control the
timing of elimination.
Mass Movements
• (Definition): slow, but powerful contractions of the large intestine that move
undigested waste to the rectum for defecation via the anus.
• Mass movements play a major role in advancing fecal content from the beginning
of the colon to the sigmoid.
• These movements occur only 1-3 times a day (depending on the person), most
frequently in the first hour following breakfast.
• Mass movements are a transformed type of peristalsis.
• First, a constricting ring forms at the stretched point in the transverse colon.
• The increasingly stronger contraction lasts for about 30 seconds, and after that, a
mass movement occurs again in a distant part of the colon within 2-3 minutes.
• Series can last up to 10-30 minutes.
• The need to defecate is felt when mass movements push the stool into the
rectum.
• Massive movements of the colon push the feces into the rectum and
cause the receptors in the rectal wall to stretch, initiating the
defecation reflex.
• This reflex causes the internal sphincter to relax and the rectum and
sigmoid colon to contract strongly.
• If the external sphincter (voluntary control) is relaxed, defecation
occurs.
• If defecation is delayed too long, constipation may occur.
• If the colon contents are retained for a long time, more water is
absorbed and the feces become extremely dry.
• We cannot digest some nutrients
because we do not have the
necessary enzymes. The bacteria in
our intestines digest some foods
(mostly polysaccharides) that we
cannot digest. As a result, methane
and hydrogen sulfate may occur.
• Approximately 500 to 1000 different
types of bacteria live in the colon.
• Bacteria in the GI tract, also called
gut flora or microbiome, help with
digestion.
• They play a role in vitamin K
synthesis and absorption of calcium,
magnesium and zinc.
• They strengthen intestinal defense
against other pathogenic microbes.
• They take part in colon motility.
• They ensure the preservation of the
integrity of the colon mucosa.
Summary;
• Digestion begins in the mouth. The teeth then break the food down into smaller pieces (mechanical).
• Enzymes in the saliva break starches down into sugar (chemical).
• The food then travels to the stomach by moving through the esophagus.
• Circular muscles in the esophagus contract and move the food forward in a process called peristalsis.
• Once the food reaches the stomach gastric juices (enzymes) continue to break down the food.
• Food then moves into the small intestine where most digestion takes place.
• More enzymes are secreted into the small intestine where they digest the food more. These enzymes are produced by the
pancreas and the liver.
• The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which digest starch, fat and protein.
• The liver produces bile, which breaks down fat. Digested food enters the bloodstream through the walls of the small
intestine.
• Undigested food goes into the large intestine. Eventually the undigested food is carried out of the body through the anus.
• As food passes through the GI tract, it mixes with digestive juices, causing large molecules of food to break down into
smaller molecules.
• The body then absorbs these smaller molecules through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream, which
delivers them to the rest of the body.
• Waste products of digestion pass through the large intestine and out of the body as a solid matter called stool/feces.
• The digestive system converts about 8-9
L of liquid in 1 day:
• 500-800 g solid food intake + 1200 ml
daily water intake
• 7000 ml total secretions/per day
• 99% of the mixture is absorbed and
excreted with 100-150 ml liquid + 50 g
solid feces/day
• Even the digestive enzymes themselves
are digested and reabsorbed.
Some Diseasesof the Digestive System:
• Colitis – inflammation of the colon Colorrectal cancer – cancer that starts in the colon or the
rectum Heartburn – irritation of the esophagus that is caused by stomach acid
• Ulcers – sores that form in the lining of the stomach
• Gallstones – hard, pebble-like deposits that form inside of the gallbladder. The gallbladder stores
bile secreted from the liver.
Summary; The digestive process
Absorption