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 FIGURE 1 Our cosmic address. These diagrams
show key levels of structure in our universe.

Universe
approx. size: 1021 km ≈ 100 million ly

Local Supercluster
approx. size: 3 x 1019 km ≈ 3 million ly

Local Group

approx. size: 1018 km ≈ 100,000 ly

Milky Way Galaxy

Solar System
(not to scale)

Earth

approx. size: 1010 km ≈ 60 AU

approx. size: 104 km

CHAPTER 4 MAKING SENSE OF THE UNIVERSE 3

3
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
Be sure to note that a light-year is a unit of distance, not of time.
Light travels at the speed of light, which is 300,000 kilometers
per second. We therefore say that one light-second is about
300,000 kilometers, because that is the distance light travels
in one second. Similarly, one light-minute is the distance that
light travels in one minute, one light-hour is the distance that
light travels in one hour, and so on. Mathematical Insight 1
shows that light travels about 10 trillion kilometers in one year,
so that distance represents a light-year.
Looking Back in Time The speed of light is extremely fast
by earthly standards. It is so fast that if you could make light
go in circles, it could circle Earth nearly eight times in a single
second. Nevertheless, even light takes time to travel the vast dis-
tances in space. Light takes a little more than 1 second to reach
Earth from the Moon, and about 8 minutes to reach Earth from
the Sun. Stars are so far away that their light takes years to reach
us, which is why we measure their distances in light-years.
Consider Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, which
is located about 8 light-years away. Because it takes light
8 years to travel this distance, we see Sirius not as it is today,
but rather as it was 8 years ago. The effect is more dramatic
at greater distances. The Orion Nebula (FIGURE 2) is a giant
cloud in which stars and planets are forming. It is located
Basic Astronomical Definitions
AST R O N O M I C A L O B J E CTS
star A large, glowing ball of gas that generates heat and light through
nuclear fusion in its core. Our Sun is a star.
planet A moderately large object that orbits a star and shines
primarily by reflecting light from its star. According to a definition
adopted in 2006, an object can be considered a planet only if it
(1) orbits a star, (2) is large enough for its own gravity to make it
round, and (3) has cleared most other objects from its orbital path.
An object that meets the first two criteria but has not cleared its
orbital path, like Pluto, is designated a dwarf planet.
moon (or satellite) An object that orbits a planet. The term satellite
is also used more generally to refer to any object orbiting another
object.
asteroid A relatively small and rocky object that orbits a star.
comet A relatively small and ice-rich object that orbits a star.
small solar system body An asteroid, comet, or other object that
orbits a star but is too small to qualify as a planet or dwarf planet.
COL L E C T I O N S O F A S T R ONO M IC A L O B JEC TS
solar system The Sun and all the material that orbits it, including
planets, dwarf planets, and small solar system bodies. Although the
term solar system technically refers only to our own star system (solar
means “of the Sun”), it is often applied to other star systems as well.
star system A star (sometimes more than one star) and any planets
and other materials that orbit it.
galaxy A great island of stars in space, containing from a few
hundred million to a trillion or more stars, all held together by
gravity and orbiting a common center.
4
about 1500 light-years from Earth, which means we see it as
it looked about 1500 years ago—about the time of the fall of
the Roman Empire. If any major events have occurred in the
Orion Nebula since that time, we cannot yet know about them
because the light from these events has not yet reached us.
The general idea that light takes time to travel through
space leads to a remarkable fact:
The farther away we look in distance, the further back
we look in time.
The Andromeda Galaxy (FIGURE 3) is about 2.5 million light-
years away, which means we see it as it looked about 2.5 million
years ago. We see more distant galaxies as they were even further
in the past. Some of the galaxies in the Hubble Space Telescope
photo that opens the chapter are billions of light-years away,
meaning we see them as they were billions of years ago.
S E E I T F OR YO U R S E L F
The glow from the central region of the Andromeda Galaxy is
faintly visible to the naked eye and easy to see with binoculars.
Use a star chart to find it in the night sky. Contemplate the fact that
you are seeing light that spent 2.5 million years in space before
reaching your eyes. If students on a planet in the Andromeda
Galaxy were looking at the Milky Way, what would they see?
Could they know that we exist here on Earth?
cluster (or group) of galaxies A collection of galaxies bound
together by gravity. Small collections (up to a few dozen galaxies)
are generally called groups, while larger collections are called
clusters.
supercluster A gigantic region of space in which many groups
and clusters of galaxies are packed more closely together than else-
where in the universe.
universe (or cosmos) The sum total of all matter and energy—that
is, all galaxies and everything between them.
observable universe The portion of the entire universe that can
be seen from Earth, at least in principle. The observable universe is
probably only a tiny portion of the entire universe.
ASTRONOMICAL DISTANCE UNITS
astronomical unit (AU) The average distance between Earth and
the Sun, which is about 150 million kilometers. More technically,
1 AU is the length of the semimajor axis of Earth’s orbit.
light-year The distance that light can travel in 1 year, which is
about 9.46 trillion kilometers.
TERMS RELATING TO MOTION
rotation The spinning of an object around its axis. For example,
Earth rotates once each day around its axis, which is an imaginary
line connecting the North and South Poles.
orbit (revolution) The orbital motion of one object around another
due to gravity. For example, Earth orbits the Sun once each year.
expansion (of the universe) The increase in the average distance
between galaxies as time progresses.
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

Cassiopeia
Betelgeuse
M31
Bellatrix

Orion’s
belt

VIS Andromeda
Orion
Nebula Pegasus VIS
Orion’s
sword

Rigel
Saiph

FIGURE 3 The Andromeda Galaxy (M31). When we look at this

FIGURE 2 The Orion Nebula, located about 1500 light-years away. galaxy, we see light that has been traveling through space for
The inset shows its location in the constellation Orion. 2.5 million years.

It’s also amazing to realize that any “snapshot” of a distant
galaxy is a picture of both space and time. For example,
because the Andromeda Galaxy is about 100,000 light-years
in diameter, the light we currently see from the far side of the
galaxy must have left on its journey to us some 100,000 years
before the light we see from the near side. Figure 3 therefore
shows different parts of the galaxy spread over a time period
of 100,000 years. When we study the universe, it is impossible
to separate space and time.
The Observable Universe As we’ll discuss in Section 2,
astronomers estimate that the universe is about 14 billion
years old. This fact, combined with the fact that looking deep
into space means looking far back in time, places a limit on
the portion of the universe that we can see, even in principle.
FIGURE 4 shows the idea. If we look at a galaxy that is 7
billion light-years away, we see it as it looked 7 billion years
ago*—which means we see it as it was when the universe was
half its current age. If we look at a galaxy that is 12 billion
light-years away (like the most distant ones in the Hubble
Space Telescope photo), we see it as it was 12 billion years
ago, when the universe was only 2 billion years old. And if we
tried to look beyond 14 billion light-years, we’d be looking
to a time more than 14 billion years ago—which is before the
universe existed and therefore means that there is nothing
to see. This distance of 14 billion light-years therefore marks
the boundary (or horizon) of our observable universe—the
portion of the entire universe that we can potentially observe.
Note that this fact does not put any limit on the size of the
*Distances to faraway galaxies must be defined carefully in an expanding
universe; distances like those given here are based on the time it has taken a
galaxy’s light to reach us (called the lookback time).

Far: We see a galaxy 7 billion light-years away Farther: We see a galaxy 12 billion light-years The limit of our observable universe:
as it was 7 billion years ago–when the universe away as it was 12 billion years ago–when the Light from nearly 14 billion light-years away
was about half its current age of 14 billion years. universe was only about 2 billion years old. shows the universe as it looked shortly
after the Big Bang, before galaxies existed.

Beyond the observable universe:

rs We cannot see anything farther
-yea rs
light light-yea than 14 billion light-years away,
7 bil
lion 12 billion
because its light has not had
14 billion light-years enough time to reach us.

FIGURE 4 The farther away we look in space, the further back we look in time. The
age of the universe therefore puts a limit on the size of the observable universe—the portion of the
entire universe that we can observe, at least in principle.

5
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
C OMM O N M IS C O NC E P T I O N S
The Meaning of a Light-Year
Y ou’ve probably heard people say things like “It will take me
light-years to finish this homework!” But a statement like
this one doesn’t make sense, because light-years are a unit of
distance, not time. If you are unsure whether the term light-year
is being used correctly, try testing the statement by using the
fact that 1 light-year is about 10 trillion kilometers, or 6 trillion
miles. The statement then reads “It will take me 6 trillion miles
to finish this homework,” which clearly does not make sense.
entire universe, which may be far larger than our observa-
ble universe. We simply have no hope of seeing or studying
anything beyond the bounds of our observable universe.
Scale of the Universe Tutorial, Lessons 1–3
How big is the universe?
Figure 1 put numbers on the sizes of different structures in
the universe, but these numbers have little meaning for most
people—after all, they are literally astronomical. Therefore,
to help you develop a greater appreciation of our modern
view of the universe, we’ll discuss a few ways of putting these
numbers into perspective.
MAT H E M AT ICA L I N S I G H T 1
How Far Is a Light-Year?
An Introduction to Astronomical Problem Solving
We can develop greater insight into astronomical ideas by applying
mathematics. The key to using mathematics is to approach problems
in a clear and organized way. One simple approach uses the follow-
ing three steps:
Step 1 Understand the problem: Ask yourself what the solution
will look like (for example, what units will it have? will it be big or
small?) and what information you need to solve the problem. Draw a
diagram or think of a simpler analogous problem to help you decide
how to solve it.
Step 2 Solve the problem: Carry out the necessary calculations.
Step 3 Explain your result: Be sure that your answer makes sense,
and consider what you’ve learned by solving the problem.
You can remember this process as “Understand, Solve, and Explain,”
or USE for short. You may not always need to write out the three
steps explicitly, but they may help if you are stuck.
E XAM P L E : How far is a light-year?
SOL U T I O N : Let’s use the three-step process.
Step 1 Understand the problem: The question asks how far, so we are
looking for a distance. In this case, the definition of a light-year tells
us that we are looking for the distance that light can travel in 1 year.
We know that light travels at the speed of light, so we are looking for
an equation that gives us distance from speed. If you don’t remember
this equation, just think of a simpler but analogous problem, such as
6
The Scale of the Solar System One of the best ways
to develop perspective on cosmic sizes and distances is to imag-
ine our solar system shrunk down to a scale that would allow
you to walk through it. The Voyage scale model solar system
in Washington, D.C., makes such a walk possible (FIGURE 5).
The Voyage model shows the Sun and the planets, and the dis-
tances between them, at one ten-billionth of their actual sizes
and distances.
FIGURE 6a shows the Sun and planets at their correct sizes
(but not distances) on the Voyage scale. The model Sun is
about the size of a large grapefruit, Jupiter is about the size of a
marble, and Earth is about the size of the ball point in a pen.
You can immediately see some key facts about our solar
system. For example, the Sun is far larger than any of the
planets; in mass, the Sun outweighs all the planets combined
by a factor of nearly 1000. The planets also vary considerably
in size: The storm on Jupiter known as the Great Red Spot
(visible near Jupiter’s lower left in the painting) could swal-
low up the entire Earth.
The scale of the solar system is even more remarkable when
you combine the sizes shown in Figure 6a with the distances
illustrated by the map of the Voyage model in FIGURE 6b. For
example, the ball-point-size Earth is located about 15 meters
(16.5 yards) from the grapefruit-size Sun, which means you
can picture Earth’s orbit as a circle of radius 15 meters around
a grapefruit.
Math Review Video: Problem Solving Part 1
“If you drive at 50 kilometers per hour, how far will you travel in
2 hours?” You’ll realize that you simply multiply the speed by the time:
distance = speed * time. In this case, the speed is the speed of light,
or 300,000 km/s, and the time is 1 year.
Step 2 Solve the problem: From Step 1, our equation is that 1 light-
year is the speed of light times one year. To make the units
consistent, we convert 1 year to seconds by remembering that there
are 60 seconds in 1 minute, 60 minutes in 1 hour, 24 hours in 1 day,
and 365 days in 1 year. We now carry out the calculations:
1 light@year = (speed of light) * (1 yr)
km 365 days
= a300,000 b * a1 yr *
s 1 yr
24 hr 60 min 60 s
* * * b
1 day 1 hr 1 min
= 9,460,000,000,000 km (9.46 trillion km)
Step 3 Explain your result: In sentence form, our answer is “One
light-year is about 9.46 trillion kilometers.” This answer makes
sense: It has the expected units of distance (kilometers) and it is a
long way, which we expect for the distance that light can travel in a
year. We say “about” in the answer because we know it is not exact.
For example, a year is not exactly 365 days long. In fact, for most
purposes, we can approximate the answer further as “One light-year
is about 10 trillion kilometers.”
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

Perhaps the most striking feature of our solar system when

FIGURE 5 This photo shows the pedestals housing the Sun (the
gold sphere on the nearest pedestal) and the inner planets in
the Voyage scale model solar system (Washington, D.C.). The
model planets are encased in the sidewalk-facing disks visible at
about eye level on the planet pedestals. The building at the left
is the National Air and Space Museum.
we view it to scale is its emptiness. The Voyage model shows
the planets along a straight path, so we’d need to draw each
planet’s orbit around the model Sun to show the full extent
of our planetary system. Fitting all these orbits would require
an area measuring more than a kilometer on a side—an area
equivalent to more than 300 football fields arranged in a grid.
Spread over this large area, only the grapefruit-size Sun, the
planets, and a few moons would be big enough to see. The rest
of it would look virtually empty (that’s why we call it space!).
Seeing our solar system to scale also helps put space explo-
ration into perspective. The Moon, the only other world on
which humans have ever stepped (FIGURE 7), lies only about 4
centimeters (112 inches) from Earth in the Voyage model. On
this scale, the palm of your hand can cover the entire region
of the universe in which humans have so far traveled. The trip
to Mars is more than 150 times as far as the trip to the Moon,
even when Mars is on the same side of its orbit as Earth. And
while you can walk from the Sun to Pluto in a few minutes on
the Voyage scale, the New Horizons spacecraft that is making
the real journey will have been in space nearly a decade when
it flies past Pluto in July 2015.

Mercury
Venus
Earth
Jupiter Mars

Saturn

Uranus

Neptune

Pluto Sun

Eris

a The scaled sizes (but not distances) of the Sun, planets, and two largest known dwarf planets.

Venus to
Capitol
Pluto Neptune Uranus Saturn Jupiter Mars SUN
Hill
to Washington
Monument Mercury
7th Earth
St
Art and Industries Hirshhorn National Air and Space Museum
Building Museum

b Locations of the Sun and planets in the Voyage model, Washington, D.C.; the distance from the Sun to Pluto is about
600 meters (1/3 mile). Planets are lined up in the model, but in reality each planet orbits the Sun independently and a
perfect alignment never occurs.
FIGURE 6 The Voyage scale model represents the solar system at one ten-billionth of its actual size. Pluto is included in
the Voyage model, which was built before the International Astronomical Union reclassified Pluto as a dwarf planet.

7
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
FIGURE 7 This famous photograph from the first Moon landing
(Apollo 11 in July 1969) shows astronaut Buzz Aldrin, with Neil
Armstrong reflected in his visor. Armstrong was the first to step
onto the Moon’s surface, saying, “That’s one small step for a man,
one giant leap for mankind.”
Distances to the Stars If you visit the Voyage model in
Washington, D.C., you can walk the roughly 600-meter distance
from the Sun to Pluto in just a few minutes. How much farther
would you have to walk to reach the next star on this scale?
Amazingly, you would need to walk to California. If
this answer seems hard to believe, you can check it for
yourself. A light-year is about 10 trillion kilometers, which
becomes 1000 kilometers on the 1-to-10-billion scale (because
10 trillion , 10 billion = 1000). The nearest star system to our
own, a three-star system called Alpha Centauri (FIGURE 8), is
SP E C IA L TO P IC
How Many Planets Are There in Our Solar System?
Until recently, children were taught that our solar system had nine
planets. However, in 2006 astronomers voted to demote Pluto to a
dwarf planet, leaving our solar system with only eight official planets
(FIGURE 1). Why the change?
FIGURE 1 Notes left at the Voyage scale model solar system Pluto
plaque upon Pluto’s demotion to dwarf planet.
8
VIS
Omega
Centauri
(globular
cluster)
Gamma
Centauri
Centaurus
Alpha
Centauri Beta Crux
Centauri (Southern
Cross)
FIGURE 8 This photograph and diagram show the constellation
Centaurus, which is visible from tropical and southern latitudes.
Alpha Centauri’s real distance of 4.4 light-years is 4400 kilometers
on the 1-to-10-billion Voyage scale.
about 4.4 light-years away. That distance is about 4400 kilometers
(2700 miles) on the 1-to-10-billion scale, or roughly equivalent
to the distance across the United States.
The tremendous distances to the stars give us some perspec-
tive on the technological challenge of astronomy. For exam-
ple, because the largest star of the Alpha Centauri system is
roughly the same size and brightness as our Sun, viewing it in
the night sky is somewhat like being in Washington, D.C., and
seeing a very bright grapefruit in San Francisco (neglecting the
problems introduced by the curvature of Earth). It may seem
When Pluto was discovered in 1930, it was assumed to be simi-
lar to other planets. But we now know that Pluto is much smaller
than any of the first eight planets and that it shares the outer solar
system with thousands of other icy objects. Still, as long as Pluto was
the largest known of these objects, most astronomers were content
to leave the planetary status quo. Change was forced by the 2005
discovery of an object called Eris. Because Eris is slightly larger
than Pluto, astronomers could no longer avoid the question of what
objects should count as planets.
Official decisions on astronomical names and definitions rest with
the International Astronomical Union (IAU), an organization made
up of professional astronomers from around the world. The ques-
tion of Pluto’s status was voted upon during the IAU’s 2006 meeting.
The result was the new definition of “planet” that you see in the Basic
Astronomical Definitions box, and the addition of the “dwarf planet”
category to accommodate objects like Pluto and Eris.
Not all astronomers are happy with the new definitions, but for
now they seem likely to hold. Of course, some people are likely to keep
thinking of Pluto as a planet regardless of what professional astrono-
mers say, much as many people still talk of Europe and Asia as separate
continents even though both belong to the same land mass (Eurasia).
So if you’re a Pluto fan, don’t despair: It’s good to know the official clas-
sifications, but it’s better to understand the science behind them.
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
remarkable that we can see the star at all, but the blackness of
the night sky allows the naked eye to see it as a faint dot of light.
It looks much brighter through powerful telescopes, but we still
cannot see features of the star’s surface.
Now, consider the difficulty of detecting planets orbiting
nearby stars, which is equivalent to looking from Washington,
D.C., and trying to find ball points or marbles orbiting grape-
fruits in California or beyond. When you consider this chal-
lenge, it is all the more remarkable to realize that we now
have technology capable of finding such planets.
The vast distances to the stars also offer a sobering lesson
about interstellar travel. Although science fiction shows like
Star Trek and Star Wars make such travel look easy, the reality
is far different. Consider the Voyager 2 spacecraft. Launched in
1977, Voyager 2 flew by Jupiter in 1979, Saturn in 1981, Uranus
in 1986, and Neptune in 1989. It is now bound for the stars at a
speed of close to 50,000 kilometers per hour—about 100 times
as fast as a speeding bullet. But even at this speed, Voyager 2
would take about 100,000 years to reach Alpha Centauri if it
were headed in that direction (which it’s not). Convenient
interstellar travel remains well beyond our present technology.
The Size of the Milky Way Galaxy The vast separa-
tion between our solar system and Alpha Centauri is typical of
M AT H E M ATI CA L I N S I G H T 2
The Scale of Space and Time
Making a scale model usually requires nothing more than division. For
example, in a 1-to-20 architectural scale model, a building that is actu-
ally 6 meters tall will be only 6 , 20 = 0.3 meter tall. The idea is the
same for astronomical scaling, except that we usually divide by such large
numbers that it’s easier to work in scientific notation—that is, with the aid
of powers of 10.
EXAMPLE 1: How big is the Sun on a 1-to-10-billion scale?
SOLUTION:
Step 1 Understand: We are looking for the scaled size of the Sun, so
we simply need to divide its actual radius by 10 billion, or 1010. The
Sun’s radius is 695,000 km, or 6.95 * 105 km in scientific notation.
Step 2 Solve: We carry out the division:
actual radius
scaled radius =
1010
6.95 * 105 km
=
1010
= 6.95 * 10(5 - 10) km = 6.95 * 10-5 km
Notice that we used the rule that dividing powers of 10 means
subtracting their exponents.
Step 3 Explain: We have found an answer, but because most of us
don’t have a good sense of what 10−5 kilometer looks like, the answer
will be more meaningful if we convert it to units that will be easier to
interpret. In this case, because there are 1000 (103) meters in a kilometer
and 100 (102) centimeters in a meter, we convert to centimeters:
103 m 102 cm
6.95 * 10-5 km * * = 6.95 cm
1 km 1m
CO MMO N MI SCO NCEPTI O NS
Confusing Very Different Things
M ost people are familiar with the terms solar system and
galaxy, but few realize how incredibly different they are.
Our solar system is a single star system, while our galaxy is a
collection of more than 100 billion star systems—so many that
it would take thousands of years just to count them. Moreover,
if you look at the sizes in Figure 1, you’ll see that our galaxy
is about 100 million times larger in diameter than our solar
system. So be careful; numerically speaking, mixing up solar
system and galaxy is a gigantic mistake!
the separations among star systems in our region of the Milky
Way Galaxy. We therefore cannot use the 1-to-10-billion scale
for thinking about distances beyond the nearest stars, because
more distant stars would not fit on Earth with this scale. To
visualize the galaxy, let’s reduce our scale by another factor of
1 billion (making it a scale of 1 to 1019).
On this new scale, each light-year becomes 1 millimeter, and
the 100,000-light-year diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy becomes
100 meters, or about the length of a football field. Visualize a foot-
ball field with a scale model of our galaxy centered over midfield.
Our entire solar system is a microscopic dot located around the
Math Review Video: Scientific Notation, Parts 1 to 3
We’ve found that on the 1-to-10-billion scale the Sun’s radius is
about 7 centimeters, which is a diameter of about 14 centimeters—
about the size of a large grapefruit.
EXAMPLE 2: What scale allows the 100,000-light-year diameter of the
Milky Way Galaxy to fit on a 100-meter-long football field?
SOLUTION :
Step 1 Understand: We want to know how many times larger the
actual diameter of the galaxy is than 100 meters, so we’ll divide the
actual diameter by 100 meters. To carry out the division, we’ll need
both numbers in the same units. We can put the galaxy’s diameter
in meters by using the fact that a light-year is about 1013 kilometers
(see Mathematical Insight 1) and a kilometer is 103 meters; because
we are working with powers of 10, we’ll write the galaxy’s 100,000-light-
year diameter as 105 ly.
Step 2 Solve: We now convert the units and carry out the division:
1013 km 103 m
105 ly * *
galaxy diameter 1 ly 1 km
=
football field diameter 102 m
= 10(5 + 13 + 3 - 2) = 1019
Note that the answer has no units, because it simply tells us how
many times larger one thing is than the other.
Step 3 Explain: We’ve found that we need a scale of 1 to 1019 to
make the galaxy fit on a football field.
9
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
20-yard line. The 4.4-light-year separation between our solar
system and Alpha Centauri becomes just 4.4 millimeters on this
scale—smaller than the width of your little finger. If you stood
at the position of our solar system in this model, millions of star
systems would lie within reach of your arms.
Another way to put the galaxy into perspective is to consider
its number of stars—more than 100 billion. Imagine that
tonight you are having difficulty falling asleep (perhaps because
you are contemplating the scale of the universe). Instead of
counting sheep, you decide to count stars. If you are able to
count about one star each second, how long would it take you
to count 100 billion stars in the Milky Way? Clearly, the answer
is 100 billion (1011) seconds, but how long is that? Amazingly,
100 billion seconds is more than 3000 years. (You can confirm
this by dividing 100 billion by the number of seconds in 1 year.)
You would need thousands of years just to count the stars in the
Milky Way Galaxy, and this assumes you never take a break—
no sleeping, no eating, and absolutely no dying!
T HIN K A B O U T IT
Contemplate the fact that it would take more than 3000 years
just to count out loud the stars in our galaxy, and that each
star is a potential sun for a system of planets. How does this
perspective affect your thoughts about the possibilities for find-
ing life—or intelligent life—beyond Earth? Explain.
MAT H E M AT ICA L I N S I G H T 3
Order of Magnitude Estimation
In astronomy, numbers are often so large that an estimate can be useful
even if it’s good only to about the nearest power of 10. For example,
when we multiplied 100 billion stars per galaxy by 100 billion galaxies
to estimate that there are about 1022 stars in the observable universe,
we knew that the “ballpark” nature of these numbers means the actual
number of stars could easily be anywhere from about 1021 to 1023.
Estimates good to about the nearest power of 10 are called order of
magnitude estimates.
E X A M P L E : Verify the claim that the number of grains of (dry) sand
on all the beaches on Earth is comparable to the number of stars in
the observable universe.
SOL U T I O N :
Step 1 Understand: To verify the claim, we need to estimate the
number of grains of sand and see if it is close to our estimate of 1022
stars. We can estimate the total number of sand grains by dividing
the total volume of sand on Earth’s beaches by the average volume
of an individual sand grain. Volume is equal to length times width
times depth, so the total volume is the total length of sandy beach on
Earth multiplied by the typical width and depth of dry sand. That is,
total volume of beach sand
total sand grains =
average volume of 1 sand grain
beach length * beach width * beach depth
= within a factor of 10 of the estimated 1022 stars in the observable
average volume of 1 sand grain
We now need numbers to put into the equation. We can estimate the
average volume of an individual sand grain by measuring out a small
10
The Observable Universe As incredible as the
scale of our galaxy may seem, the Milky Way is only one of
roughly 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe. Just
as it would take thousands of years to count the stars in the
Milky Way, it would take thousands of years to count all the
galaxies.
Think for a moment about the total number of stars in all
these galaxies. If we assume 100 billion stars per galaxy, the
total number of stars in the observable universe is roughly
100 billion * 100 billion, or 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
(1022). How big is this number? Visit a beach. Run your hands
through the fine-grained sand. Imagine counting each tiny
grain of sand as it slips through your fingers. Then imagine
counting every grain of sand on the beach and continuing to
count every grain of dry sand on every beach on Earth (see
Mathematical Insight 3). If you could actually complete this
task, you would find that the number of grains of sand is
comparable to the number of stars in the observable universe
(FIGURE 9).
TH I NK ABO U T I T
Overall, how does visualizing Earth to scale affect your perspec-
tive on our planet and on human existence? Explain.
volume of sand, counting the number of grains in this volume, and
then dividing the volume by the number of grains. If you do this, you’ll
find that a reasonable order of magnitude estimate is one-tenth of a
cubic millimeter, or 10−10 m3, per sand grain. We can estimate beach
width and depth from experience or photos of beaches. Typical widths
are about 20 to 50 meters and typical sand depth is about 2 to 5 meters,
so we can make the numbers easy by assuming that the product of
beach width times depth is about 100 square meters, or 102 m2. The
total length of sandy beach on Earth is more difficult to estimate,
but you can look online and find that it is less than about 1 million
kilometers, or 109 m.
Step 2 Solve: We already have our equation and all the numbers we
need, so we just put them in; note that we group beach width and
depth together, since we estimated them together in Step 1:
beach length * (beach width * beach depth)
total sand grains =
average volume of 1 sand grain
109 m * 102 m2
=
10-10 m3
= 10[9 + 2 - ( - 10)] = 1021
Step 3 Explain: Our order of magnitude estimate for the total number
of grains of dry sand on all the beaches on Earth is 1021, which is
universe. Because both numbers could easily be off by a factor of 10
or more, we cannot say with certainty that one is larger than the other,
but the numbers are clearly comparable.
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
FIGURE 9 The number of stars in the observable universe is compara-
ble to the number of grains of dry sand on all the beaches on Earth.
2 THE HISTORY OF THE
UNIVERSE
Our universe is vast not only in space, but also in time. In
this section, we will briefly discuss the history of the universe
as we understand it today.
Before we begin, you may wonder how we can claim to
know anything about what the universe was like in the distant
past. We’ll devote much of the rest of this text to understand-
ing how science enables us to do this, but you already know
part of the answer: Because looking farther into space means
looking further back in time, we can actually see parts of the
universe as they were long ago, simply by looking far enough
away. In other words, our telescopes act somewhat like time
machines, enabling us to observe the history of the universe.
At great distances, we see the universe as it was long ago,
when it was much younger than it is today.
How did we come to be?
FIGURE 10 summarizes the history of the universe according
to modern science. Let’s start at the upper left of the figure,
and discuss the key events and what they mean.
The Big Bang, Expansion, and the Age of the
Universe Telescopic observations of distant galaxies show
that the entire universe is expanding, meaning that average
distances between galaxies are increasing with time. This
fact implies that galaxies must have been closer together
in the past, and if we go back far enough, we must reach
the point at which the expansion began. We call this begin-
ning the Big Bang, and scientists use the observed rate of
expansion to calculate that it occurred about 14 billion years
ago. The three cubes in the upper left portion of Figure 10 rep-
resent the expansion of a small piece of the universe through
time.
The universe as a whole has continued to expand ever
since the Big Bang, but on smaller size scales the force of
gravity has drawn matter together. Structures such as galaxies
and galaxy clusters occupy regions where gravity has won out
against the overall expansion. That is, while the universe as
a whole continues to expand, individual galaxies and galaxy
clusters (and objects within them such as stars and planets)
do not expand. This idea is also illustrated by the three cubes
in Figure 10. Notice that as the cube as a whole grew larger,
the matter within it clumped into galaxies and galaxy clus-
ters. Most galaxies, including our own Milky Way, formed
within a few billion years after the Big Bang.
Stellar Lives and Galactic Recycling Within galaxies
like the Milky Way, gravity drives the collapse of clouds of gas
and dust to form stars and planets. Stars are not living organ-
isms, but they nonetheless go through “life cycles.” A star is born
when gravity compresses the material in a cloud to the point
at which the center becomes dense enough and hot enough to
generate energy by nuclear fusion, the process in which light-
weight atomic nuclei smash together and stick (or fuse) to make
heavier nuclei. The star “lives” as long as it can shine with energy
from fusion, and “dies” when it exhausts its usable fuel.
In its final death throes, a star blows much of its content
back out into space. The most massive stars die in titanic
explosions called supernovae. The returned matter mixes with
other matter floating between the stars in the galaxy, eventu-
ally becoming part of new clouds of gas and dust from which
new generations of stars can be born. Galaxies therefore func-
tion as cosmic recycling plants, recycling material expelled
from dying stars into new generations of stars and planets.
This cycle is illustrated in the lower right of Figure 10. Our
own solar system is a product of many generations of such
recycling.
Star Stuff The recycling of stellar material is connected
to our existence in an even deeper way. By studying stars of
different ages, we have learned that the early universe con-
tained only the simplest chemical elements: hydrogen and
helium (and a trace of lithium). We and Earth are made pri-
marily of other elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and
iron. Where did these other elements come from? Evidence
shows that they were manufactured by stars, some through
the nuclear fusion that makes stars shine, and others through
nuclear reactions accompanying the explosions that end
stellar lives.
By the time our solar system formed, about 412 billion years
ago, earlier generations of stars had already converted about
2% of our galaxy’s original hydrogen and helium into heavier
elements. Therefore, the cloud that gave birth to our solar
system was made of about 98% hydrogen and helium and 2%
other elements. This 2% may sound small, but it was more than
enough to make the small rocky planets of our solar system,
including Earth. On Earth, some of these elements became the
raw ingredients of life, which ultimately blossomed into the
great diversity of life on Earth today.
In summary, most of the material from which we and
our planet are made was created inside stars that lived and
died before the birth of our Sun. As astronomer Carl Sagan
(1934–1996) said, we are “star stuff.”
11
 C O S M I C C ON T E X T F IGU RE 10 Our Cosmic Origins

Throughout this book we will see that human life is intimately

connected with the development of the universe as a whole. This
illustration presents an overview of our cosmic origins, showing
some of the crucial steps that made our existence possible.

1 Birth of the Universe: The expansion of the universe began with the hot
and dense Big Bang. The cubes show how one region of the universe has
expanded with time. The universe continues to expand, but on smaller
scales gravity has pulled matter together to make galaxies.

4 Earth and Life: By the time our solar system was born, 41/2 billion years
ago, about 2% of the original hydrogen and helium had been converted into
heavier elements. We are therefore “star stuff,” because we and our planet
are made from elements manufactured in stars that lived and died long ago.

12
2 Galaxies as Cosmic Recycling Plants: The early universe contained only
two chemical elements: hydrogen and helium. All other elements were made
by stars and recycled from one stellar generation to the next within galaxies
like our Milky Way.

Stars are born in clouds of gas

and dust; planets may form in
surrounding disks.

Massive stars explode when Stars shine with energy

they die, scattering the elements released by nuclear fusion,
they’ve produced into space. which ultimately manufactures
all elements heavier than
hydrogen and helium.

3 Life Cycles of Stars: Many generations of stars have lived and died in the
Milky Way.

13
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE IN 1 YEAR

December 30:
January 1: February: September 3: September 22: December 17: December 26: Extinction of
The Big Bang The Milky Way forms Earth forms Early life on Earth Cambrian explosion Rise of the dinosaurs the dinosaurs

S M T W T
JANUARY
F S
FEBRUARY
S M T W T F S
MARCH
S M T W T F S S M
APRIL
T W T F S
DECEMBER
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 S M T W T F S
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 24
31 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S 15 16 17 The 18 19 20 21
1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 Cambrian
explosion
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Rise of the
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 dinosaurs
23
26 27 28 29 30 31 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 30 (7:00 A.M.) 31
29
Dinosaurs
SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER extinct
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31

FIGURE 11 The cosmic calendar compresses the 14-billion-year history of the universe into 1 year,
so each month represents a little more than 1 billion years. This cosmic calendar is adapted from a
version created by Carl Sagan.

How do our lifetimes compare to the was born about 0.05 second ago, around 11:59:59.95 p.m. on
age of the universe? the cosmic calendar. On the scale of cosmic time, the human
We can put the 14-billion-year age of the universe into species is the youngest of infants, and a human lifetime is a
perspective by imagining this time compressed into a single mere blink of an eye.
year, so each month represents a little more than 1 billion
years. On this cosmic calendar, the Big Bang occurred at
the first instant of January 1 and the present is the stroke of TH I NK ABO U T I T
How does an understanding of the scale of time affect your
midnight on December 31 (FIGURE 11).
view of human civilization? Explain.
On this time scale, the Milky Way Galaxy probably
formed in February. Many generations of stars lived and died
in the subsequent cosmic months, enriching the galaxy with
the “star stuff ” from which we and our planet are made. 3 SPACESHIP EARTH
Our solar system and our planet did not form until early
September on this scale (412 billion years ago in real time). Wherever you are as you read this book, you probably have
By late September, life on Earth was flourishing. However, the feeling that you’re “just sitting here.” Nothing could be
for most of Earth’s history, living organisms remained rela- further from the truth. As we’ll discuss in this section, all
tively primitive and microscopic. On the scale of the cosmic of us are moving through space in so many ways that noted
calendar, recognizable animals became prominent only in inventor and philosopher R. Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983)
mid-December. Early dinosaurs appeared on the day after described us as travelers on spaceship Earth.
Christmas. Then, in a cosmic instant, the dinosaurs disap-
peared forever—probably because of the impact of an asteroid How is Earth moving through space?
or a comet. In real time the death of the dinosaurs occurred As you “sit” on spaceship Earth, you are in fact being spun in
some 65 million years ago, but on the cosmic calendar it circles as Earth rotates, you are racing around the Sun in Earth’s
was only yesterday. With the dinosaurs gone, small furry orbit, you are circling the galactic center with our Sun, and you
mammals inherited Earth. Some 60 million years later, or are careening through the cosmos in the Milky Way Galaxy.
around 9 p.m. on December 31 of the cosmic calendar, early Let’s explore each of these motions in a little more detail.
hominids (human ancestors) began to walk upright.
Perhaps the most astonishing fact about the cosmic calen- Rotation and Orbit The most basic motions of Earth
dar is that the entire history of human civilization falls into are its daily rotation (spin) and its yearly orbit (or revolution)
just the last half-minute. The ancient Egyptians built the around the Sun.
pyramids only about 11 seconds ago on this scale. About Earth rotates once each day around its axis, which is
1 second ago, Kepler and Galileo proved that Earth orbits the imaginary line connecting the North Pole to the South
the Sun rather than vice versa. The average college student Pole. Earth rotates from west to east—counterclockwise as

14
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
1 second ago:
December 31:
Kepler and Galileo
9:00 pm: 11:58 pm: 25 seconds ago: 11 seconds ago: show that Earth
Early hominids evolve Modern humans evolve Agriculture arises Pyramids built orbits the Sun Now

DECEMBER 31
Morning...
12:00 noon
1:00 pm
2:00 pm
3:00 pm
4:00 pm
5:00 pm
6:00 pm
7:00 pm
8:00 pm
9:00 pm
10:00 pm
11:00 pm
11:58 pm
11:59 pm
12:00 midnight

viewed from above the North Pole—which is why the Sun
and stars appear to rise in the east and set in the west each
day. Although the physical effects of rotation are so subtle
that our ancestors assumed the heavens revolved around us,
the rotation speed is substantial (FIGURE 12): Unless you live
very near the North or South Pole, you are whirling around
Earth’s axis at a speed of more than 1000 kilometers per hour
(600 miles per hour)—faster than most airplanes travel.
At the same time as it is rotating, Earth also orbits the Sun,
completing one orbit each year (FIGURE 13). Earth’s orbital
distance varies slightly over the course of each year, but as
we discussed earlier, the average distance is one astronomi-
cal unit (AU), which is about 150 million kilometers. Again,
even though we don’t feel this motion, the speed is impres-
sive: We are racing around the Sun at a speed in excess of
Earth rotates from . . . which means counterclockwise
west to east . . . as viewed from above the North Pole.
0 km兾hr
100,000 kilometers per hour (60,000 miles per hour), which
is faster than any spacecraft yet launched.
As you study Figure 13, notice that Earth’s orbital path
defines a flat plane that we call the ecliptic plane. Earth’s axis
is tilted by 2312° from a line perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.
This axis tilt happens to be oriented so that the axis points
almost directly at a star called Polaris, or the North Star. Keep
in mind that the idea of axis tilt makes sense only in relation
to the ecliptic plane. That is, the idea of “tilt” by itself has no
meaning in space, where there is no absolute up or down. In
space, “up” and “down” mean only “away from the center of
Earth” (or another planet) and “toward the center of Earth,”
respectively.
T HINK A B OU T I T
If there is no up or down in space, why do you think that most
globes and maps have the North Pole on top? Would it be
equally correct to have the South Pole on top or to turn a globe
sideways? Explain.

Earth’s axis remains pointed The average Earth–Sun distance

1275 km兾hr
in the same direction is 1 AU, or about 150 million km.
(toward Polaris)
throughout to Polaris
to Polaris
the year.

1670 km兾hr
23 2 °
1

1 AU

ecliptic plane
1275 km兾hr axi (not to scale!)
s

Earth takes 1 year to orbit the Sun at

an average speed of 107,000 km/hr.

FIGURE 12 As Earth rotates, your speed around Earth’s axis FIGURE 13 Earth orbits the Sun at a surprisingly high speed.
depends on your location: The closer you are to the equator, the Notice that Earth both rotates and orbits counterclockwise as
faster you travel with rotation. viewed from above the North Pole.

15
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

Notice also that Earth orbits the Sun in the same direction In 500,000 years they will be unrecognizable. If you could
that it rotates on its axis: counterclockwise as viewed from watch a time-lapse movie made over millions of years, you
above the North Pole. This is not a coincidence but a conse- would see stars racing across our sky.
quence of the way our planet was born. Strong evidence indi-
cates that Earth and the other planets were born in a spin-
ning disk of gas that surrounded our Sun when it was young, TH I NK ABO U T I T
and Earth rotates and orbits in the same direction that the Despite the chaos of motion in the local solar neighborhood
over millions and billions of years, collisions between star
disk was spinning.
systems are extremely rare. Explain why. (Hint: Consider the
sizes of star systems, such as the solar system, relative to the
Motion Within the Local Solar Neighborhood distances between them.)
Rotation and orbit are only a small part of the travels of space-
ship Earth. Our entire solar system is on a great journey with-
Galactic Rotation If you look closely at leaves floating in
in the Milky Way Galaxy. There are two major components to
a stream, their motions relative to one another might appear
this motion, both shown in FIGURE 14. Let’s begin with our
random, just like the motions of stars in the local solar neigh-
motion relative to other stars in our local solar neighborhood,
borhood. As you widen your view, you see that all the leaves are
by which we mean the region of the Sun and nearby stars.
being carried in the same general direction by the downstream
To get a sense of the size of our local solar neighborhood
current. In the same way, as we widen our view beyond the local
relative to the galaxy, imagine drawing a tiny dot on the paint-
solar neighborhood, the seemingly random motions of its stars
ing of the galaxy. Because the galaxy contains at least 100 billion
give way to a simpler and even faster motion: rotation of the
stars, even a dot that is 10,000 times smaller than the whole
Milky Way Galaxy. Our solar system, located about 27,000 light-
painting will cover a region representing more than 10 million
years from the galactic center, completes one orbit of the galaxy
stars (because 100 billion , 10,000 = 10 million). We usually
in about 230 million years. Even if you could watch from outside
think of our local solar neighborhood as a region containing
our galaxy, this motion would be unnoticeable to your naked
just a few thousand to a few million of the nearest stars.
eye. However, if you calculate the speed of our solar system as
The arrows in the box in Figure 14 indicate that stars in
we orbit the center of the galaxy, you will find that it is close to
our local solar neighborhood move essentially at random
800,000 kilometers (500,000 miles) per hour.
relative to one another. The speeds are quite fast: On average,
Careful study of the galaxy’s rotation reveals one of the great-
our Sun is moving relative to nearby stars at a speed of about
est mysteries in science. Stars at different distances from the
70,000 kilometers per hour (40,000 miles per hour), almost
galactic center orbit at different speeds, and we can learn how
three times as fast as the Space Station orbits Earth.
mass is distributed in the galaxy by measuring these speeds. Such
Given these high speeds, you might wonder why we don’t
studies indicate that the stars in the disk of the galaxy represent
see stars racing around our sky. The answer lies in their vast
only the “tip of the iceberg” compared to the mass of the entire
distances from us. You’ve probably noticed that a distant airplane
galaxy (FIGURE 15). Most of the mass of the galaxy seems to be
appears to move through your sky more slowly than one flying
located outside the visible disk (occupying the galactic halo
close overhead. Stars are so far away that even at speeds of
that surrounds and encompasses the disk), but the matter that
70,000 kilometers per hour, their motions would be notice-
makes up this mass is completely invisible to our telescopes. We
able to the naked eye only if we watched them for thousands
therefore know very little about the nature of this matter, which
of years. That is why the patterns in the constellations seem
we refer to as dark matter (because of the lack of light from
to remain fixed. Nevertheless, in 10,000 years the constel-
it). Studies of other galaxies suggest that they also are made
lations will be noticeably different from those we see today.
mostly of dark matter, which means this mysterious matter
must significantly outweigh the ordinary matter that makes up
planets and stars. We know even less about the mysterious dark
energy that seems to make up much of the total energy content
illion-year o
0-m rb of the universe.
Sun 23 i
t

How do galaxies move within

27,000 the universe?
light-years The billions of galaxies in the universe also move relative to
Stars in the local one another. Within the Local Group (see Figure 1), some
solar neighborhood
move randomly relative of the galaxies move toward us, some move away from us,
to one another at typical and at least two small galaxies (known as the Large and Small
speeds of 70,000 km/hr . . . . . . while the galaxy's rotation Magellanic Clouds) apparently orbit our Milky Way Galaxy.
carries us around the galactic Again, the speeds are enormous by earthly standards. For
center at about 800,000 km/hr.
example, the Milky Way is moving toward the Andromeda
FIGURE 14 This painting illustrates the motion of the Sun both
Galaxy at about 300,000 kilometers per hour (180,000 miles
within the local solar neighborhood and around the center of the per hour). Despite this high speed, we needn’t worry about a
galaxy. collision anytime soon. Even if the Milky Way and Andromeda

16
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

Most of the galaxy’s

light comes from stars
and gas in the galactic
disk and central bulge . . .

. . . but measurements suggest

that most of the mass lies unseen
in the spherical halo that surrounds
the entire disk.

FIGURE 15 This painting shows an edge-on view of the Milky Way Galaxy. Study of galactic rotation
shows that although most visible stars lie in the central bulge or thin disk, most of the mass lies in
the halo that surrounds and encompasses the disk. Because this mass emits no light that we have
detected, we call it dark matter.

M AT H E M ATI CA L I N S I G H T 4
Speeds of Rotation and Orbit Math Review Video: Problem Solving, Part 3

Building upon prior Mathematical Insights, we will now see how EXAMPLE 2: How fast is Earth orbiting the Sun?
simple formulas—such as the formula for the circumference of a
SOLUTION :
circle—expand the range of astronomical problems we can solve.
Step 1 Understand: We are again asked how fast and therefore need
EXAMPLE 1: How fast is a person on Earth’s equator moving with
to divide a distance by a time. In this case, the distance is the circum-
Earth’s rotation?
ference of Earth’s orbit, and the time is the 1 year that Earth takes to
SOLUTION: complete each orbit.

Step 1 Understand: The question how fast tells us we are looking for
a speed. If you remember that highway speeds are posted in miles
(or kilometers) per hour, you’ll realize that speed is a distance (such
as miles) divided by a time (such as hours). In this case, the distance is
Earth’s equatorial circumference, because that is how far a person at the
equator travels with each rotation (see Figure 12); we’ll therefore use
the formula for the circumference of a circle, C = 2 * p * radius.
The time is 24 hours, because that is how long each rotation takes.
Step 2 Solve: Earth’s average distance from the Sun is 1 AU, or about
150 million (1.5 * 108) km, so the orbit circumference is about
2 * p * 1.5 * 108 km ≈ 9.40 * 108 km. The orbital speed is this
distance divided by the time of 1 year, which we convert to hours so
that we end up with units of km/hr:
orbital circumference
orbital speed =
1 yr

Step 2 Solve: Earth’s equatorial radius is 6378 km, so its circumference 9.40 * 108 km km
= ≈ 107,000
is 2 * p * 6378 km = 40,074 km. We divide this distance by the 365 day 24 hr hr
1 yr * *
time of 24 hours: yr day
equatorial circumference
rotation speed at equator =
length of day Step 3 Explain: Earth orbits the Sun at an average speed of about
40,074 km km 107,000 km/hr (66,000 mi/hr). Most “speeding bullets” travel
= = 1670 between about 500 and 1000 km/hr, so Earth’s orbital speed is more
24 hr hr
than 100 times as fast as a speeding bullet.
Step 3 Explain: A person at the equator is moving with Earth’s
rotation at a speed of about 1670 kilometers per hour, which is a
little over 1000 miles per hour, or about twice the flying speed of a
commercial jet.

17
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

Galaxies are approaching each other head-on, it will be billions
of years before any collision begins.
When we look outside the Local Group, however, we
find two astonishing facts recognized in the 1920s by Edwin
Hubble, for whom the Hubble Space Telescope was named:
1. Virtually every galaxy outside the Local Group is moving
away from us.
2. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it appears to be
racing away.
These facts might make it sound as if we suffered from a
cosmic case of chicken pox, but there is a much more natural
explanation: The entire universe is expanding. You can under-
stand the basic idea by thinking about a raisin cake baking in
an oven.
The Raisin Cake Analogy Imagine that you make a
raisin cake in which the distance between adjacent raisins
is 1 centimeter. You place the cake into the oven, where it
expands as it bakes. After 1 hour, you remove the cake, which
has expanded so that the distance between adjacent raisins
has increased to 3 centimeters (FIGURE 16). The expansion of
the cake seems fairly obvious. But what would you see if you
lived in the cake, as we live in the universe?
Pick any raisin (it doesn’t matter which one) and call it the
Local Raisin. Figure 16 shows one possible choice, with three
nearby raisins also labeled. The accompanying table summa-
rizes what you would see if you lived within the Local Raisin.
Notice, for example, that Raisin 1 starts out at a distance
of 1 centimeter before baking and ends up at a distance of
1
1 cm
1 cm
cm Before baking: raisins
3 are all 1 cm apart.
2
1
Local Raisin
3 centimeters after baking, which means it moves a distance
of 2 centimeters away from the Local Raisin during the hour
of baking. Hence, its speed as seen from the Local Raisin is
2 centimeters per hour. Raisin 2 moves from a distance of
2 centimeters before baking to a distance of 6 centimeters
after baking, which means it moves a distance of 4 centim-
eters away from the Local Raisin during the hour. Hence, its
speed is 4 centimeters per hour, or twice the speed of Raisin
1. Generalizing, the fact that the cake is expanding means
that all the raisins are moving away from the Local Raisin,
with more distant raisins moving away faster.
TH I NK ABO U T I T
Suppose a raisin started out 10 centimeters from the Local
Raisin. How far away would it be after one hour, and how fast
would it be moving away from the Local Raisin?
Hubble’s discovery that galaxies are moving in much the
same way as the raisins in the cake, with most moving away
from us and more distant ones moving away faster, implies
that the universe is expanding much like the raisin cake. If
you now imagine the Local Raisin as representing our Local
Group of galaxies and the other raisins as representing more
distant galaxies or clusters of galaxies, you have a basic
picture of the expansion of the universe. Like the expanding
dough between the raisins in the cake, space itself is grow-
ing between galaxies. More distant galaxies move away from
us faster because they are carried along with this expansion
like the raisins in the expanding cake. Many billions of light-
years away, we see galaxies moving away from us at speeds
approaching the speed of light.
The Real Universe There’s at least one important dis-
tinction between the raisin cake and the universe: A cake
has a center and edges, but we do not think the same is true

From an outside Distances and Speeds as Seen from the Local Raisin
perspective, the cake 1
expands uniformly as hr Raisin Distance Distance After
it bakes . . . Number Before Baking Baking (1 hour later) Speed
After baking:
3 cm raisins are all 1 1 cm 3 cm 2 cm/hr
3 cm 3 cm apart.
3 cm 2 2 cm 6 cm 4 cm/hr
3
Local 2
3 3 cm 9 cm 6 cm/hr
Raisin 1
f f f f

FIGURE 16 An expanding raisin cake offers an

. . . but from the point of view of the Local Raisin,
all other raisins move farther away during baking,
with more distant raisins moving faster.
analogy to the expanding universe. Someone living in one of the
raisins inside the cake could figure out that the cake is expand-
ing by noticing that all other raisins are moving away, with more
distant raisins moving away faster. In the same way, we know that
we live in an expanding universe because all galaxies outside our
Local Group are moving away from us, with more distant ones
moving faster.

18
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
Earth rotates around its axis once each day, carrying people
in most parts of the world around the axis at more than 1000 km/hr.
Earth orbits the Sun once each year, moving at more than 100,000 km/hr.
The Solar System moves relative to nearby stars, typically at a speed of 70,000 km/hr.
The Milky Way Galaxy rotates, carrying our Sun around its center
once every 230 million years, at a speed of about 800,000 km/hr.
FIGURE 17 This figure summarizes the basic motions of Earth in the universe, along with their asso-
ciated speeds.
of the entire universe. Anyone living in any galaxy in an
expanding universe sees just what we see—other galaxies
moving away, with more distant ones moving away faster.
Because the view from each point in the universe is about
the same, no place can claim to be more “central” than any
other place.
It’s also important to realize that, unlike the case with a
raisin cake, we can’t actually see galaxies moving apart with
time—the distances are too vast for any motion to be notice-
able on the time scale of a human life. Instead, we measure
the speeds of galaxies by spreading their light into spectra and
observing what we call Doppler shifts. This illustrates how
modern astronomy depends both on careful observations and
on using current understanding of the laws of nature to explain
what we see.
Motion Summary FIGURE 17 summarizes the motions
we have discussed. As we have seen, we are never truly sitting
still. We spin around Earth’s axis at more than 1000 kilometers
per hour, while our planet orbits the Sun at more than
100,000 kilometers per hour. Our solar system moves among
the stars of the local solar neighborhood at typical speeds
of 70,000 kilometers per hour, while also orbiting the center of
the Milky Way Galaxy at a speed of about 800,000 kilometers
per hour. Our galaxy moves among the other galaxies of the
Local Group, while all other galaxies move away from us
at speeds that grow greater with distance in our expanding
universe. Spaceship Earth is carrying us on a remarkable
journey.
Our galaxy moves relative to others in the
Local Group; we are traveling toward the
Andromeda Galaxy at about 300,000 km/hr.
The universe expands. The
more distant an object, the
faster it moves away from us;
the most distant galaxies are
receding from us at speeds
close to the speed of light.
4 THE HUMAN ADVENTURE OF
ASTRONOMY
In relatively few words, we’ve laid out a fairly complete over-
view of modern scientific ideas about the universe. But our goal
in this text is not simply for you to be able to recite these ideas.
Rather, it is to help you understand the evidence that supports
them and the extraordinary story of how they developed.
How has the study of astronomy
affected human history?
Astronomy is a human adventure in the sense that it affects
everyone—even those who have never looked at the sky—
because the history of astronomy has been so deeply inter-
twined with the development of civilization. Revolutions in
astronomy have gone hand in hand with the revolutions in
science and technology that have shaped modern life.
Witness the repercussions of the Copernican revolution,
which showed us that Earth is not the center of the universe
but rather just one planet orbiting the Sun. This revolution
began when Copernicus published his idea of a Sun-centered
solar system in 1543. Three later figures—Tycho Brahe,
Johannes Kepler, and Galileo—provided the key evidence
that eventually led to wide acceptance of the Copernican idea.
The revolution culminated with Isaac Newton’s uncovering
of the laws of motion and gravity. Newton’s work, in turn,
became the foundation of physics that helped fuel the indus-
trial revolution.
19
 A MODERN VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

More recently, the development of space travel and the
computer revolution have helped fuel tremendous progress
in astronomy. We’ve sent probes to all the planets in our
solar system, and many of our most powerful observatories,
including the Hubble Space Telescope, reside in space. On
the ground, computer design and control have led to tremen-
dous growth in the size and power of telescopes.
Many of these efforts, and the achievements they spawned,
led to profound social change. The most famous example is the
fate of Galileo, whom the Vatican put under house arrest in 1633
for his claims that Earth orbits the Sun. Although the Church
soon recognized that Galileo was right, he was formally vindi-
cated only in 1992 with a statement by Pope John Paul II. In the
meantime, his case spurred great debate in religious circles and
profoundly influenced both theological and scientific thinking.
As you learn about astronomical discovery, try to keep in
mind the context of the human adventure. You will then be
learning not just about a science, but also about one of the
great forces that has shaped our modern world.
These forces will continue to play a role in our future. What
will it mean to us when we learn the nature of dark matter
and dark energy? How will our view of Earth change when
we learn whether life is common or rare in the universe? Only
time may answer these questions, but this text will give you
the foundation you need to understand how we changed
from a primitive people looking at patterns in the night sky
to a civilization capable of asking deep questions about our
existence.

The Big Picture

Putting This Chapter into Context
In this chapter, we developed a broad overview of our place
in the universe. As we consider the universe in more depth,
remember the following “big picture” ideas:
■ Earth is not the center of the universe but instead is a planet
orbiting a rather ordinary star in the Milky Way Galaxy. The
Milky Way Galaxy, in turn, is one of billions of galaxies in our
observable universe.
■ Cosmic distances are literally astronomical, but we can put
them in perspective with the aid of scale models and other scal-
ing techniques. When you think about these enormous scales,
don’t forget that every star is a sun and every planet is a unique
world.
■ We are “star stuff.” The atoms from which we are made began
as hydrogen and helium in the Big Bang and were later fused
into heavier elements by massive stars. Stellar deaths released
these atoms into space, where our galaxy recycled them into
new stars and planets. Our solar system formed from such recy-
cled matter some 412 billion years ago.
■ We are latecomers on the scale of cosmic time. The universe
was already more than half its current age when our solar sys-
tem formed, and it took billions of years more before humans
arrived on the scene.
■ All of us are being carried through the cosmos on spaceship
Earth. Although we cannot feel this motion in our everyday lives,
the associated speeds are surprisingly high. Learning about the
motions of spaceship Earth gives us a new perspective on the
cosmos and helps us understand its nature and history.

S UM M ARY O F K E Y CO NCE PTS

1 THE SCALE OF THE UNIVERSE
■ What is our place in the universe? Earth is a planet orbit-
ing the Sun. Our Sun is one of
more than 100 billion stars in the
Milky Way Galaxy. Our galaxy
is one of about 40 galaxies in the
Local Group. The Local Group
is one small part of the Local
Supercluster, which is one small
part of the universe.
■ How big is the universe? If we imagine our Sun as a large
grapefruit, Earth is a ball point
that orbits 15 meters away; the
nearest stars are thousands of
kilometers away on the same
scale. Our galaxy contains more
than 100 billion stars—so many
2 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE
■ How did we come to be? The universe began in the Big
Bang and has been expanding
ever since, except in local-
ized regions where gravity has
caused matter to collapse into
galaxies and stars. The Big Bang
essentially produced only two
chemical elements: hydrogen
and helium. The rest have been
produced by stars and recycled
within galaxies from one generation of stars to the next, which
is why we are “star stuff.”
■ How do our lifetimes compare to the age of the
universe? On a cosmic calendar that compresses the history of
JANUARY
S M T W T F S
the universe into 1 year, human
FEBRUARY
S M T W T F S

that it would take thousands of 7

1
8
2 3 4 5
9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
6 1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31

civilization is just a few seconds

18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29

1
S
2
M
DECEMBER
3
T W T
4 5 6
F
7
S

years just to count them out loud. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

SEPTEMBER
S M T W T F S
old, and a human lifetime lasts
DECEMBER
S M T W T F S
15 16 17 The
Cambrian
explosion
18 19 20 21

The observable universe contains roughly 100 billion galaxies,

22 23 24 25 26 27 28
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rise of the
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 dinosaurs
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 29 30(7:00 A.M.) 31
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30

only a fraction of a second.

22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31
Dinosaurs
extinct

and the total number of stars is comparable to the number of

grains of dry sand on all the beaches on Earth.

20
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industrious, uncomplaining, and so cultured, without learning in some degree to imitate
the virtues I admired? If nothing had come of my being at Hillstowe beyond the fact that I
derived hourly benefit from the influences around me and earned my own bread, I should
have infinite cause for thankfulness to God for having sent me there.

But, in the end, the current of my whole after life was changed, through my choosing the
home in preference to the hall as the scene of my labours.

Our winter evenings were not always like what I have described. Baby Flossy's teething
time made her fractious, and then the mother's care was given to the most helpless. She
would not have me in company with a crying child, so I was gently dismissed to my room,
Mary Baxendell's mute appeal being always answered by me with an invitation to
accompany me. Lilian always went early to bed from choice, and Margaret, the
determined, thought it infra dig to sit in the schoolroom after hours.

She was a clever, but rather hard girl, from whom her mother had little sympathy or help.
She disliked babies, openly called them little nuisances, and declined to touch one if she
could help it. But she would neither go to the nursery with the twin boys and Lilian, nor to
the schoolroom with me. She was the eldest daughter, and insisted on her privileges.

These meant sitting with her mother, though she might have to fill her ears with cotton,
whilst she pored over a book, on account of the crying baby, and having tea and bread and
butter for breakfast, whilst the rest, Mr. Barr included, took porridge and milk. Still, I had
my comfort out of Margaret. She had great abilities, was an omnivorous student, did credit
to her teacher, and obliged me to work hard to increase my stores of knowledge for her to
draw upon.

In Mary Baxendell I had a tender, sympathetic girl friend; in the three bright children,
plenty of objects of interest; in Mrs. Barr, mother and sister combined; in Dot, a precious
baby.

It was almost immediately after I went to Hillstowe that Dot announced her intention of
being "Miss Anstey's baby," and took every opportunity of stealing away from nursery to
schoolroom, and nestling in my arms. Many a lesson I gave with the little head resting on
my breast, as the child, weary with play, slept peacefully.

The second little cot in Mrs. Barr's room was vacant within a week after my arrival at
Hillstowe for, hearing the baby begin to cry, and Dot—roused suddenly—take up the
chorus, I stole into the too-populous chamber before the mother could get upstairs, and
carried off Dorothy to my own.

"Dot will stop here," said the sobbing mite. "Dot will be Miss Anstey's night baby, too." And
such she was during my stay at the vicarage.

I explained to Mrs. Barr that I had been acting the child-stealer, and pleaded for Dot's
nightly company.

"Let me have her. She will so comfort me, for you know, dear Mrs. Barr, I have lost all who
used to love me."

She saw I meant this, though at first she thought I only wanted to leave her hands a little
freer and was taking Dot away for her sake. It was for hers and my own too, and when she
consented, and I lay down with the sleeping darling on my breast, I felt, oh! So rich and so
thankful, though my purse held but that solitary half-crown.
In spite of past troubles, I was very happy at the vicarage. There were few visitors, but I
had the benefit of whatever society there was, and it was always of an enjoyable kind. As
the days grew long, the children and I had delightful rambles up the hill-sides to the wide
Yorkshire moors. We found warm welcome and hospitality on holiday afternoons at
farmhouses, or the dwellings of small cloth manufacturers who still employed hand-loom
weavers, though there were larger mills in the valley, turned by water-power. The
parsonage children and their governess had a general invitation, and we never seemed too
many guests, or our visits too frequent, for our large-hearted, homely neighbours.

My heart glows again as I think of them after thirty intervening years, and picture the
faces that brightened at the sight of my little troop and me. How I felt their kindness, while
I knew that it was poured on a young stranger's head, not from any merit in herself, but
out of love and gratitude to the good vicar and his wife under whose roof I dwelt!

I spent Easter at Hillstowe, for the absent boys had a holiday invitation and did not come
home, so my room was not needed. As may be supposed, I had some money anxieties.
That half-crown could not remain perpetually unbroken, and there were collections at the
church. At two months' end, I had not spent a farthing on myself, but I had only twopence
left.

I had, however, made a little venture. We took a work magazine at the vicarage, and
something in its pages inspired me to make an effort in designing. I possessed a good
many odds and ends of materials, and out of these, I fashioned a lamp-mat in shaded wool
and tinsel cord. Crochet was the fashionable work then, and I sent my mat, when finished,
to the editor of the magazine. To my delight, an answer soon came. The design was
original and pretty, and I was requested to name my terms for it. I asked a guinea, which
was promptly sent, and enriched me—in hope as well as pocket.

The mat was not my only success, and I had the happiness of spending half my earnings in
little presents for the children, though their parents protested against the expenditure; but
they saw it pleased me, and I had my way.

The Midsummer holidays were coming, and I was much exercised in my mind as to how I
should spend them. Mary Baxendell would have liked me to go home with her, but her
parents were about to join some relatives in a Scotch town, and she was to accompany
them.

It did not seem to strike my Uncle James that I might need a temporary home when I
returned the five pounds lent by him at Christmas. He took the money, acknowledged it,
expressed his pleasure that I was doing so well, announced the advent of another baby in
words that told rather of resignation than rejoicing, conveyed the united love of himself,
my aunt, and cousins, and there the matter ended.

I tried hard to muster courage to visit my old neighbourhood, and my faithful nurse sent
an ill-spelt but loving letter to beg that I would go to the lodge. There was a family of
strangers at Birch Hill—nice, kind people, who would very likely invite me to the house
when they knew I had lived there. But I decided that I was not strong enough to face the
memories that haunted every room at Birch Hill, or to see strangers in my parents' seats.
So I declined dear old Hannah's loving invite. Mrs. Goulding also intended me to be her
guest, but she had a less desirable inmate in the shape of scarlet fever amongst her
children, and was in great trouble. It really seemed that every door was closed upon Lois
Anstey.

All at once I bethought myself of a place where I could obtain accommodation. The
daughter of a farmer near Birch Hill had married a neighbour's son and gone to live in
Lincolnshire. They had taken a small farm and were doing fairly well, but, having no
children and a good-sized house, they added to their income by taking lodgers during the
summer.

It was to their house I went from Hillstowe to spend my holidays, and it was at Roundtree
Farm I passed the third of my six milestones.

CHAPTER IV.

HAD I known that Mrs. Jennings had already two lodgers at Roundtree Farm, I would not
have gone there, and I told her so.

"Bless you, miss," said she, "you might be here for months and never set eyes on them.
Mr. Winn, a broad-shouldered, handsome gentleman, does nothing but hunt bees and
butterflies and suchlike. Mr. Marsden is mad after out-a-way plants and flowers. They don't
even go a fishing, though, there's lovely trout for the catching. I wish they would, for fish
is hard to get so far from a market."

"But off they go betimes in the morning, with flytraps and tins, which carry lunch first and
no end of green rubbish after. They come home as the birds do—towards night, and they
have dinner and supper in one. Then they are busy arranging what I call 'regular trash,'
and looking as pleased as if a bluebottle was a diamond, or the green stuff good to eat.
They make a lot of litter, but it's clean dirt, as one may say, and they never torment the
live things, but have a way of putting a quick end to them. I couldn't abide to have even a
fly tormented here. They are quiet, regular, and pay well for what trouble they give, so
what could I want more? They will never annoy you, Miss Anstey."

What could I say to this? I paid little; I had come in ignorance; I had nowhere else to go!
Was I to be driven away on account of these neighbours? Not I! Mr. Winn might hunt
beetles, and Mr. Marsden gloat over his "green trash," while I would do my best to forget
the existence of the pair, and enjoy my holiday.

I did not quite succeed in keeping this resolution. I was a daughter of Mother Eve, and,
therefore, curious. My landlady was equally her daughter, and inclined to talk; so from her
I learnt that her lodgers were both "born gentlemen," though Mr. Winn had parents living
and several sisters, whilst Mr. Marsden had only a mother, who doted on him.

"By all accounts she wants him to marry, and she doesn't. She would like him to have wife
and children; but thinks she could pick a mate for him best, and all the while does not
believe there is a lady in the world good enough for this precious son of hers. No matter
what she might be, I suppose the old lady would be jealous of her. Eh, dear! It isn't the
best thing to be over-much thought of, is it, Miss Anstey?"

I told Mrs. Jennings I was no judge, for I had no one left to trouble me with too much love.
And then conscience reproached me as I thought of the dear family at Hillstowe, who had
given me so much cause for thankfulness and made me one amongst them.

"I don't think Mr. Marsden lets his mother's fidgety ways trouble him," replied Mrs.
Jennings. "When he does marry, he will choose for himself, and the right of it, too.
Meanwhile, he seems as happy as a bird, and makes the old lady happy, too, for he is a
dutiful son, if ever there was one."

While professing to care nothing about my neighbours, and to feel no interest in their
movements, I did think I should like to see them without their seeing me. When Sunday
approached, I wanted to ask if they went beetle and fern-hunting on the Sunday, but I was
too great a coward to show even this much interest, and tried to persuade myself that it
was a matter of no consequence to me. Still, I did wonder whether they and I would
occupy opposite corners in that relic of barbarism, a high, square pew, for the church at
Hailsby-le-Beck had not yet been restored, and was a marvel of internal ugliness.

But Mrs. Jennings did not leave me to wonder long.

"The gentlemen," she said, "have friends in this county, and either spend their Sundays
with them, or go home. They leave on Saturday afternoons and return on Mondays."

So my devotions were undisturbed by any occupants of the square pew, except the farmer
and his wife.

I spent a fortnight happily enough, for I had resolved to lay in as much strength as
possible, the better to fit me for my duties at Hillstowe. I wanted to give my very best to
those who were so good to me. So I borrowed a sun bonnet from Mrs. Jennings, and went
with her to the hay-field, where she said I did not play at hay-making. I gathered the
eggs, I fed the chickens, and after much effort and aching of wrists succeeded in learning
to milk a cow. I turned my hand to whatever was going, and could soon bake, make up the
butter, and do almost anything about the farm that its mistress was in the habit of putting
her hand to.

"I cannot know too much," I thought, "and if I should some day go out to Australia, such
accomplishments would be useful."

I had time besides for sketching expeditions and long rambles, sometimes with a
cottager's child for company, at others alone, except for busy and not unhappy thoughts. I
had known much sorrow, but God had been very good in answering my prayers, and giving
me friends. I thanked Him and took courage.

There was a pretty view near the stream, or "beck" as it was called, and I had made up my
mind to sketch it, supported in this resolution by the knowledge that Messrs. Winn and
Marsden never went fishing.

The water was very low, and though the bottom was pebbly, there was some good stiff
clay towards that portion of the steep banks left bare by the falling water.

I was considering which side would be the best from which to take my sketch, and wanted
to cross the beck, to find out. The only bridge was the trunk of a tree—not a very wide
one, but substantial enough. Still, a firm foot and steady head were needed to cross it. I
determined to attempt this, and got on very well until I was past the middle. Then the
ungainly bridge gave an unexpected rock, for it was only thrown across, not fastened, and
over I went into the water.

I was not at first afraid of being drowned, and my clothes would wash, but the situation
was unpleasant on account of that dreadful barrier of stiff clay, on which I could get no
footing or hold. Not a bush was within reach, I was nearly up to my waist in water, nobody
would be likely to hear me call, and any attempt at laying hold of the bank resulted in a
handful of clay, and a slipping back into my original position. I hardly knew Whether to
laugh or cry, my predicament being equally ridiculous and uncomfortable. I knew nothing
about the turns of the stream, or the height of the banks in either direction, so I started
haphazard, and began making my way through the water as cautiously as possible, fearing
now that I might step into some hole, get beyond my depth, and perhaps be drowned.

I soon became even less hopeful of extricating myself without help, for the banks grew
higher as I proceeded. With some difficulty I retraced my course, for now I was going
against the stream. I passed the treacherous bridge, and went in the opposite direction,
but seeing no better chance of escape, I gave a succession of ringing cries, which
produced no reply, then resolved on a new plan. I would scoop out the clay with my hands,
and so make steps by which to escape.

I had just discovered that I could not reach high enough to make my work a success, when
I saw a sunburnt face looking down upon me from the top of the bank, and heard a voice
saying, "Do not be frightened, I will help you. Stay where you are."

Both belonged to my fellow-lodger, Mr. Marsden, and in a very few moments he was in the
water by my side.

The circumstances admitted of scant ceremony, and I was very glad indeed to feel myself
held in his firm grasp, as he guided me through the stream.

"The bank slopes further on," he said, "and with my help you will be able to climb on to
dry ground. I am very sorry to see you in such an uncomfortable and dangerous position. I
suppose you tried to cross by that log bridge. I take blame to myself for not having
replaced a dislodged stone which usually steadies it, as I noticed that the bridge was even
less safe than usual when I crossed this morning. If I had dreamed that feminine feet
would test its firmness, I would have taken better care."

I tried to answer lightly, and even to laugh, but I was glad Mr. Marsden did not. It was bad
enough to be in such a wretched plight, and I think if I had seen an amused look on his
face, I should have changed that poor ghost of a laugh into a cry. When finally landed on
the bank, I was dripping wet from the very shoulders, my hands were mud-stained, my
feet shoeless, for I had lost my shoes in the clay, and my whole appearance was miserable
in the extreme.

Even then Mr. Marsden did not laugh. He was full of kindly pity and regrets for the
wretched object before him, and hurried me on to a cottage, where a good old woman
took me in hand, and insisted on my undressing and getting into her bed, until a change of
clothes came to me from the farm.

Shall I make a confession? Every other girl will feel that what I did was exactly what she
would have done herself, under the circumstances. I glanced towards the little square of
looking-glass which hung on the cottage wall, and rejoiced to see it reflect a clean face,
glowing with the effects of recent haste, and handsomely framed in short, natural curls,
which anticipated by many years the present fashion of fringes. I am afraid I was vain
enough to decide mentally that I looked unusually well, and to be glad of it, as well as
thankful for my escape, and to my rescuer.

It was impossible after this to ignore my neighbours entirely. They must have known that I
lodged at Roundtree Farm before that day, for, without a word from me, Mr. Marsden went
there to warn Mrs. Jennings of my position, and asked her to send me a change of clothes.
But, like good, true-hearted young men, they had guessed my wish to avoid anything like
putting myself in their way, and respected it. That evening, however, Mr. Marsden came to
inquire after me, and he repeated the attention on the following day. Still, he never
presumed upon the service he had rendered me, and though I saw both him and Mr. Winn
from time to time, it was always when the farmer or his wife were close at hand.

Both stayed at Roundtree Farm the next week end, but that had been decided on before
my immersion and rescue, so it resulted from no romantic desire to improve my
acquaintance. It is true we all walked to church together on Sunday, but Mrs. Jennings was
between me and Mr. Marsden, and Mr. Winn followed with the farmer.

We had two or three chilly evenings, after wet days, and then, somehow, we all got
together in the great, cheery farmhouse kitchen, and enjoyed the warmth and brightness,
so contrary to the gloom without.

The farmer put aside his pipe out of respect to me, and his wife grew so interested as her
lodgers discoursed about "creeping things and green stuff," while they displayed their new
treasures, that she ceased to click the knitting-needles—so rarely at rest in her busy
fingers. I listened with delighted ears, and looked at and learned much about things I had
never before cared to notice, though I had spent my life amongst such. And I could not
help seeing that often, whilst Mr. Winn talked, Mr. Marsden's eyes were turned in my
direction. I did not seem to notice this, but listened attentively to the speaker, whilst I felt
my heart beat a little more quickly.

I was glad that no one could catechise me as to how much I remembered of the lecture on
creeping things and winged insects, or I fear I should have disgraced myself utterly. Then,
when the early bedtime came, and we said "Good night," I could not help carrying in my
mind's eye the kind, sun-browned face of Mr. Marsden, who always opened the door to let
me pass out. He carried his fine manners with him everywhere, and in the farm kitchen
was as respectful to Mrs. Jennings and myself as if we had been duchesses.

Mr. Marsden's face being the last I saw at night, was it wonderful that I should dream of it,
both waking and sleeping, more especially as his eyes were so often turned to mine? I was
glad of this, and sorry at the same time, for I knew this happy holiday season would soon
come to an end.

I will not describe Mr. Marsden's looks. Let each reader picture her own hero, and he will
do to represent mine, so far as she is concerned.

I found out quite incidentally that Mrs. Jennings had made her male lodgers acquainted
with my story so far as she knew it, just as she had told me theirs.

One lovely night I went early to bed, leaving my lattice window open. I lay awake,
enjoying the moonlight, which came shimmering through the creeping plants that veiled
the window, and the unbroken silence that prevailed.

It was a realisation of that expressive line in Gray's Elegy—

"And all the air a solemn stillness holds."

All at once, I heard Mr. Marsden's voice, and knew that the young men must be sitting in
the rustic porch below.

"Yes, Winn," he said, "you are right in saying that this is becoming dangerous ground to
me, Miss Anstey has attracted me as no other girl ever did, and all I have heard about her
has served to increase the attraction. She is brave-hearted, of a bright, cheery
temperament, and, if I am not mistaken, essentially true, modest, and pure-minded."
"I believe she is all these," replied Mr. Winn. "The very fact of her acting as she has done
under this roof is a proof of her modesty and straightforwardness. How many girls would
have been here, alone as she is, without availing themselves of such opportunities for
flirtation as are afforded by the neighbourhood of two idlers such as you and me?"

"I hope a good many. You know my feeling about such things, and that the reverence and
love I entertain for my mother make me wish to think well of every woman."

"You may think well of Miss Anstey without making a mistake. Nevertheless, she is a very
dangerous character."

"To you, Winn?" asked Mr. Marsden, quickly; but the merry laugh of his friend reassured
him at once.

"No, my dear fellow. There is not the slightest fear of our becoming rivals, though the
young lady is in herself worth winning. But I would not advise you to try to win her,
because I fear she would not meet Mrs. Marsden's views as to a daughter-in-law."

"That is my trouble, Winn. If I stood alone, I would not hesitate. Even now I can hardly
feel that I ought to stifle the longings of my own heart, when there is nothing wrong in
connection with them. I would speak to Miss Anstey to-morrow, only I know the dear old
mother would be heart-broken if she were not at least consulted before a decisive step was
taken. She is from home just now. We shall not meet for a week, and Miss Anstey may go
from Hailsby before I can see my mother and return. I cannot say to her, 'Please, will you
stay here until I go and tell my mother that I have seen a girl I should like to make my
wife, and then, if she is willing, I will come back.'"

Mr. Winn laughed heartily. "I should think not, indeed," he said. "And if you ask my advice,
I should say, Better run away and do not come back at all."

At this moment the friends rose, left the porch, and strolled away out of hearing.

It seemed dreadfully mean to lie and hear all this; but what could I do? The house was a
quaint rambling old place, once inhabited by the owner of the estate, but now given over
to the farm. It had ins and outs, and I feel sure the two gentlemen were unaware as to
which was my room, as it lay about as far as possible from their chambers. I had never
seen them in the porch before, and could only suppose that they had been tempted to
linger by the extreme beauty of the night, and without dreaming that amid the stillness
the sound of their voices might be borne upwards to other ears.

I hated to play the listener, though what I heard made my heart throb wildly and my face
glow with gladness. Had the speakers been females, or even older men, I should have
warned them that they were within hearing. As it was, I acted like a coward. I feared that
some one might hear me speak to these young men, and place a wrong construction on
the nightly communication, for all the other inmates were in bed. So I failed to do right,
lest I should be suspected of doing wrong. Afterwards, I thought that I might have closed
the window with noise enough to warn them that some one was near, but without letting
them know who it was. I took myself to task rather severely about this, but conscience
cleared me so far. I really had not thought of the window until too late.

That fair night was the least satisfactory I spent at Roundtree Farm, so far as sleep went. I
passed the hours in a whirl of conflicting emotions. I was thankful for the good opinion of
two such men as Mr. Marsden and Mr. Winn. Their words proved that they had judged me
fairly. But my tell-tale heart was at first in a flutter of joy at the thought that the one who
had stolen into it and taken the dearest place, had also given me the same in his.
The joy, however, did not continue unalloyed. Much of it could never leave me. If I were
never to see him again, if I were to spend my future life in loneliness, there would still be
this memory; a good man thought me worthy of his love, and would have made me his
wife, if he could.

I am afraid I began to feel glad that I had not thought of closing the lattice until it was too
late.

It seems strange that after such thoughts I should have resolved not to see Mr. Marsden
again. He had called me brave. I said to myself, "I will deserve his good opinion. He shall
not have to take Mr. Winn's advice, and run away from me. I will run away from him. I will
not bring him into a contest with his mother, or sow the seeds of trouble between them. If
there is a trial to be borne, I will take the larger share. Besides, Lois Anstey is not quite
without pride, or a sense of her own value. I do care for Mr. Marsden, but even he should
seek me and take pains to win me; and into no family would I enter unless the mother
could hold out motherly arms and bid me welcome as a daughter."

Two circumstances enabled me to carry out my resolution without difficulty. Mr. Marsden
and Mr. Winn had started on one of their usual expeditions before I was down in the
morning, and the post brought me a letter from Mary Baxendell, in which she implored me
to spend the rest of my holidays at High Lea.

"We are at home," she wrote, "ten days sooner than was at first arranged. At least, my
mother and I are here, and feeling rather dull, as my father is still away. If you will come
to us, darling Miss Anstey, I shall be quite reconciled to our shortened tour. Do not trouble
to write—come."

Go I did, and on that very day. I told Mrs. Jennings that a friend wanted me, and must set
out with as little delay as possible; that I was not going straight to Hillstowe, but should be
there in due time to resume my teaching. I soon packed my belongings, which were placed
in the farmer's trap amid many regrets and hopes that I would go to Roundtree Farm next
summer. Then, having more than satisfied my kind landlady, I turned my back on Hailsby-
le-Beck, and thus passed that fourth milestone out of the six I wish specially to remember.

CHAPTER V.

MARY BAXENDELL gave me a delightful welcome. She clung round my neck, kissed me,
called me the best of darlings for coming so quickly, and then danced off to tell her mother
of my arrival.

Mrs. Baxendell, less demonstrative, was no less kind, and the remainder of my holidays
sped very happily, in spite of memories of the kitchen at Roundtree Farm, and those who
gathered round its hearth.

Stop! I must be true. Was I quite happy? Did I rejoice in the thought that Mr. Marsden
would have no means of tracing me if he wished to do so, and that under the
circumstances I should soon be forgotten? Again, I must own that my happiness was not
quite without alloy, and I wondered whether, if he cared so much for me, I had a right to
risk his as well as my own.
I was half tempted to send a line to Mrs. Jennings, "just to inform her of my arrival," I said
to myself, and then I scouted the idea. If I had written, my letter would have been for no
such purpose, but from a cowardly regret for having run away, and to give Mr. Marsden a
chance of following and finding me. In my own mind I pictured the scene at the farm,
when Mrs. Jennings delivered my farewell messages to them. I could imagine Mr.
Marsden's dismay and his friend's sympathy, which would be half congratulatory. I seemed
to hear inquiries after my destination, and Mrs. Jennings' reply that she did not know it.
Then there would be a hunt for the letter I had written when seeking accommodation; but
that would be vain, as I had myself twisted it up as a pipe-lighter for Mr. Jennings.

There was little writing done at the farm. I had really answered my own note, for I had
sent an addressed envelope, and told them just to write the word Yes' on a slip of paper if
they could take me in, and I had been obeyed to the very letter. There would not be a
scrap of writing which would guide Mr. Marsden either to High Lea or Hillstowe Vicarage. To
the latter, Mary Baxendell and I returned in company.

The girl was a sweet, sympathetic creature, to whom I spoke with much freedom on most
subjects, but, it is needless to say, not on that nearest of all to my heart. I kept it to
myself, and it was hard work, because human sympathy at such times is very precious.
Only at mornings and nights, as I knelt in my quiet room, with no sound but Dot's gentle
breathing to reach my ear, did I open my heart and pray, "Father, I do desire to be
numbered amongst those that love and serve Thee. Do Thou make all things to work
together for my good, and help me, at all cost to self, to do what is right."

We had trouble at the vicarage that autumn. Good Mr. Barr became seriously ill, and Mrs.
Barr was almost worn out with anxiety and nursing. I did my utmost to relieve her, but
there were so many things in which only a wife or an elder nurse could be of use. I grieved
to see her so overwrought. I knew what a terrible difference this illness would make on the
wrong side in the income, all too little for the brightest days. Friends were kind, and many
helps came from generous hands, but more were needed. I was afraid Mrs. Barr would
break down, and then what would become of the vicar and the children?

He began to mend at last, and then the patient wife's strength gave way to some extent. I
well remember her making a great effort to get outside Mr. Barr's room door, and then
sinking down in a faint on the landing. She had made it to save him the shock of seeing
her fall. My heart ached for them all, and for the first time I grieved over my own poverty.
Mrs. Barr said rest would put her all right again, but rest seemed as unattainable as many
other things for the mother at Hillstowe Vicarage, though she took care that nothing
should disturb her husband's quiet. "His life means the children's bread," she said. "It is of
far more consequence than mine."

To us who looked on, and mourned that we could do no more or better, it was hard to tell
which life was more precious to all concerned.

The vicar was gaining strength and talking of beginning his pastoral work again, though
the doctor protested against it, and said Mr. Barr must go away for a time first.

The vicar's doctor was not the only medical man who orders the unattainable for his
patients, and knows he is doing it. But at this time, friends came forward and presented a
well-lined purse to Mr. Barr, together with loving allusions to his past labours and hearty
wishes for his future health.

Then poor Mrs. Barr's face brightened, a temporary curate was engaged, husband and wife
went to Devonshire for a month, and returned a fortnight before Christmas, with renewed
strength and thankful hearts.
They say that troubles never come-singly, and it happens now and then that the rule holds
good with regard to blessings. A couple of years before that, the bishop had held a
confirmation at Hillstowe, and, as his custom was, had preferred the simple hospitality of
the vicar to that of a wealthy neighbour.

Mr. and Mrs. Barr had not entertained their right reverend guest with stories of difficulties
and trials, or complained of their many olive branches and few pounds per annum, or
shown him long faces.

On the contrary, they had just been their good, true selves, and had made him as
comfortable as possible, without going out of their way.

The bishop had departed with pleasant words of farewell and thanks for Mr. and Mrs. Barr's
hospitality; and there, as was thought, the matter ended.

It did not, however. The bishop remembered Hillstowe, made his calculations, and wished,
vainly for the time, that he could give Mr. Barr a better living.

Then he heard of his illness and recovery, and then, too, came the bishop's opportunity.
Immediately after the vicar's return, a letter arrived in the diocesan's own handwriting,
offering him a living, worth eight hundred a year, in another county.

There was joy and sorrow, both in-doors and out, at the news. Joy for the vicar's sake,
sorrow that he would be lost as the pastor of Hillstowe. I was nearly wild with delight. I did
not know at first that this change would mean separation from the Barrs.

So it proved, however. The beautiful little rectory to which they must remove with the new
year had been built by a childless predecessor, and would be too small to hold the troop of
juvenile Barrs, to say nothing or Mary Baxendell. Moreover, the Baxendells would not spare
Mary to go any distance from High Lea.

Until the rectory could be enlarged, it was settled that the elder girls should go to a
boarding-school, and the twin boys should attend a good day-school, which was within an
easy distance of their future home.

My occupation was gone. My pupils were about to be scattered, I was to lose the precious
little one that called herself Miss Anstey's baby, and whose curly head had so often rested
on my breast in sleep, and enriched me by her sweet presence!

I should lose the companionship of Mrs. Barr too, and more. I must begin to look round for
some other work to do, some roof beneath which there would be room for Lois Anstey.

I was very down-hearted, not because I had to work for my bread, but for fear I might not
find the work to do, and at the thought of going out again into the wide world and all
amongst strangers. It was in vain I took myself to task for selfishness. I did rejoice in the
good which had come to these dear friends, but how could I wholly forget that the
message which brought new life to them was almost like death to me?

It had been previously settled that I was to spend Christmas with the Baxendells. I had
half hoped that they might engage me as governess to Mary, but I found that Mr.
Baxendell shrank from the idea of having a governess in the house. He seemed to think it
would spoil its privacy, and prove a restraint to him and his wife.

Mrs. Baxendell would have liked to engage me. Mary pleaded for this with her father. But
though he rarely denied his pet anything, he would not yield in this matter.
"My wife and I are a Darby and Joan couple," said Mr. Baxendell. "We are quiet, too, in our
ways, and we would never condemn a young girl to the loneliness of a separate room,
because we so often find two to be company enough. Mary, our own child, hardly counts as
a third in the same sense."

I could not plead for a corner, or say that I should be contented with solitude at High Lea;
and so it was settled that music and other teachers should come from a neighbouring town
to give Mary periodical lessons and complete her education at home.

The girl displayed more temper about this matter than I had seen in her before.

"As if I should ever do a morsel of good all by myself!" she said. "It is horrid to think of
solitary lessons, and I know my teachers will get no credit out of me. I would rather have
you than a whole townful of other people. I know I shall hate the very sight of them."

She broke into a passion of tears, and I was obliged to look stern and say, "You will make
your parents feel that I have taught you badly, Mary, if you rebel against their wishes, just
because they do not agree with your own. Besides, they will not care to have me as a
Christmas guest if my presence is to stir up a spirit of opposition in their only child."

"Oh, dear! Miss Anstey," replied Mary, with a helpless gesture; "then I know not what to
do. I must not vex my father and mother, though I so badly want you to stay at High Lea."

Then, after a moment's abstraction, "I do wish my cousin Lawrence would marry you. He is
very nice, and just the right age—twenty-five."

What could I do but laugh at this absurd speech?

"You dear, foolish child," I said, "you must have made up your mind to drive me from High
Lea. If you wish to keep me for a little while, never allude again to my remaining beyond
the holidays; and, above all, never couple my name with that of Mr. Lawrence, or any
other gentleman. It would grieve me sadly; and, more than that, I should run away of my
own accord."

"I would not grieve you for the world," said the child, covering my face with kisses. Mary
Baxendell was now fifteen, and a very child in frankness and innocence, though in some
respects older than her age.

I said to her now, "A year ago, when it pleased God that I should be left fatherless, I
prayed to Him to direct me, and I did not ask in vain. I have had a great deal of happiness
during the year, and I have more friends than I possessed twelve months ago, as well as
more money in my pocket. I came to Hillstowe with just half-a-crown left. When I said
good-bye to the Barrs I had six months' salary to begin the world with again. I am
comparatively rich. If I could leave myself in God's hands immediately after my father's
death, surely I may trust Him after an enlarged experience of His faithfulness."

"Dear Miss Anstey, I know you are right," said Mary. "But you need never want for money,
you know, because my father would give me anything I might ask in that way, though he
will not have a resident governess for me. And, I had nearly forgotten, my cousin
Lawrence and my aunt are expected before dinner-time."

This announcement concerned me little, and I went leisurely on with my arrangements,

only determining that I would not go to the drawing-room until just before the gong was
sounded for dinner.

CHAPTER VI.

A FEW minutes before dinner-time, Mary Baxendell came for me, and we went down
together. In the drawing-room were her father and mother, and an extremely handsome,
stately-looking lady, in black velvet, and wearing some fine diamonds. I could not help
noticing that her hair was whiter than her face would have led me to expect, for her
complexion was fair, and the colour on her cheeks might have been envied by any girl. She
looked still more remarkable from the fact that her eyes, eyelashes, and eyebrows were
very dark.

"Aunt," said Mary Baxendell, drawing me towards this lady, and doubtless considering that
she had special vested rights in her governess, "this is Miss Anstey."

A tall young man, who was looking out at a window, and whose back was towards us as we
entered, started as Mary mentioned my name. Almost before the aunt and I had
exchanged salutations, Mary cried, "Cousin Lawrence, let me see your face, please."

The young man turned in compliance with this unceremonious request, and in the face
thus presented I saw—Mr. Marsden!

Which were playing me false? Eyes or ears? I understood how my bewilderment had been
caused when Mary continued—

"Miss Anstey, this is my cousin, Mr. Lawrence Marsden."

I had only heard him called Mr. Marsden at the farm, Mrs. Jennings not being likely to
mention his Christian name. He and his friend addressed each other as "Marsden" and
"Winn," whilst Mary Baxendell invariably spoke of him as "Cousin Lawrence," and of his
mother as "aunt."

Mary opened her eyes very wide when she saw Cousin Lawrence's face light up with
pleasure and my own flush crimson as we shook hands, and Mr. Marsden said, "Miss
Anstey and I have met before, and I am very glad to meet her again."

For myself, I hardly knew whether to be glad or sorry. I thought of the stately lady in
velvet and diamonds with some trepidation; but when I turned my eyes in her direction, I
saw that she was smiling benevolently, and that there was absolutely a gleam of half-
suppressed amusement discernible about those fine eyes of hers.

There were but the six of us, so Mrs. Marsden paired off with Mr. Baxendell, Lawrence took
his aunt, and Mary and I linked arms and went together. I was, however, fated to sit next
my acquaintance of the farm, for Mary was placed next her aunt on one side of the table,
and I was between Mr. Baxendell and Mr. Marsden.

My younger neighbour was very considerate. He made no allusion to our former meeting,
and for this I was grateful. Being such a small party, the talk was general, and I soon felt
quite at ease. I even lost my dread of Mrs. Marsden, and could hardly believe that this
lady, of whom every one seemed so fond, could possibly be the mother of whom the two
friends talked on that moonlight night in the porch at Roundtree Farm. That she doted on
her Lawrence there could be no doubt, and in my eyes he had never looked so attractive
as when paying those little tender attentions to Mrs. Marsden that every mother delights to
receive from a stalwart son.

We had yet two clear days before Christmas, and, to please Mary, Mrs. Baxendell had left
the decorations to be prepared under her superintendence.

Of course, my pupil and I worked together, and Mr. Marsden, while pleading want of skill,
offered to do his best to assist us.

"I am not sure that your best will be good enough, Lawrence," said Mary; "but we will give
you a trial."

Then he humbly suggested that he might save our fingers at the expense of his own, and
he cut holly into suitable sprigs, fetched and carried and nailed devices and twisted
wreaths until even Mary was fain to praise his willingness, if not his skill.

This was at High Lea, the church work having been done by other hands, and more of
them, mostly before we came. While the house decoration was in progress, Mr. Marsden
made frequent sly allusions to "green stuff," and brought in many of the expressions Mrs.
Jennings was accustomed to use in our hearing at the farm.

Mary innocently attacked her cousin on this subject, and said she wondered where he had
picked up such odd expressions, whereupon he demurely suggested that she should ask
her favourite referee, Miss Anstey.

"As if she would know!" replied Mary, contemptuously; and Lawrence rejoined, "Miss
Anstey is such an encyclopaedia of knowledge according to you, Mary, that I quite thought
she knew everything."

Whilst the decorations were in progress, Mrs. Marsden saw how much we three young
people were together, yet neither interfered nor frowned upon us. On the contrary, there
was that humorous expression to be seen on her face at intervals, and I caught her
exchanging looks of a highly significant character with her son.

Sometimes I fancied these looks had reference to myself, and then I felt my face grow hot,
and wondered if the mother and son could possibly be amusing themselves at my expense.
I was angry at the thought almost as soon as it was conceived, and ashamed that it could
have been allowed to enter my mind. Before Christmas Day came, however, I felt almost
ready to run away a second time from Mr. Marsden. It was so hard to be constantly in this
man's company, knowing as I did from his own lips how he once cared for me. And, alas!
Knowing that each day he was taking more complete possession of my thoughts and
affections. How was this state of things to end? Would he now be just the pleasant friend
of another brief holiday, and then go his way and let me go mine, wherever this might
lead?

I think I would rather have died than let any human friend look into my heart then, and I
kept up bravely whilst in company with others, though no more miserable coward than
myself ever moistened a pillow with nightly tears, or dreaded the coming trial of a new day
when alone.

On Christmas morning I felt better than I had hoped to do. Every one was so kind. I had
prepared some little gift for each of the family, the guests, and servants. They were simple
matters, the work of my own hands; and I was truly thankful that no person in that home
of wealth humiliated me by the bestowal of anything costly. A little purse, a letter-rack, a
paperknife, and an ink-stand were given me by the three Baxendells and Lawrence
Marsden.

Mrs. Marsden actually bent her stately head and kissed me, after thanking me for a dainty
woollen kerchief of my own work and design. Then she added, "I have something for you,
my dear, if you care to accept it. Do not estimate its value by its size, for it is rather a
ponderous article, and might be in everybody's way, if I gave it just now. You shall see it
this evening. I have found a similar article valuable, and I hope you may, too."

I thanked Mrs. Marsden for her kind intentions, and then we all went to church and knelt
together at the Lord's table. This sweet service did me more good than can be told, and
after joining in it, I was enabled to shut out determinedly all memories and thoughts that
would have interfered with the joyous celebration of Christmas in the household. I
returned to High Lea looking and feeling happy, in a renewed sense of God's great love in
Christ Jesus, and of His unchanging faithfulness.

There was much to occupy my attention. Children came for gifts, neighbours were
entertained, and it was only after they all left, that Mrs. Marsden bestowed her Christmas
gift, in this wise: she drew me into Mrs. Baxendell's boudoir, a charming little room off the
large drawing-room, and bidding me sit by her, said:

"Christmas is the time for a fireside tale, my dear, and I want you to listen patiently whilst
I tell one. It is about a mother and son who tenderly loved each other, for the husband and
father was gone, and these two were associated alike in thought and work. I suppose all
mothers look with a jealous eye at their lads, even when there are several, but when there
is but one, he is all in all to a widowed parent."

"Well, this mother's great anxiety was that her son, when he grew to man's estate, should
mate worthily, and perhaps she watched him too closely if his eyes wandered in the
direction of any girl with whom he was in company. Perhaps, too, her very eagerness for
his well-being was a little selfish, and stood in the way of his comfort. Only she did not
know this at first."
"Again and again the mother interfered, less by word than with a sort of management by
which she contrived to carry him away from neighbourhoods which she thought dangerous.
But I daresay the young man smiled as he yielded, knowing that he was heart-whole, and
that the change mattered little to him."

"You must not think that the mother wanted a rich or titled wife for her son. He had wealth
enough for both. But she dreaded the thought of his being married for the sake of it, and
not from the true love and esteem which alone can make marriage happy."

"She saw, too—more's the pity that such should ever be—that girls showed themselves
eager to attract the young man's notice, and practised little airs and graces, and threw
themselves in his way, even mothers openly lending themselves to such scheming."

"The young man saw these things too. He was not blind, and he kept aloof and never
committed himself by word or deed. He was courteous to all, but waited until he should
see the girl whom he might endow, not with his worldly goods alone, but with the richer
gift of a whole, true, pure heart—such a girl as he could reverently take to his own heart
and home, as a most precious gift from God."

"He met this girl by a strange incident, in a far-away spot and at a farmhouse. Do not
start, dear child; hear me out. He wished to tell her what was in his heart, but love for the
old mother made him determine first to speak to her, and he hoped to go back to the farm
carrying her consent and blessing along with his love story, to its object. He was half
afraid, too, for you must know that he did not quite understand the old mother with whom
he had passed his twenty-five years of life. He thought she might wish him to choose a girl
who had riches as well as worth. Whereas, what the mother wanted was a girl of this kind:
well-born and educated, pure-minded, modest, requiring to be sought before she was won,
bright in temper, unselfish in disposition, brave where courage was needed, and yet
thankful, as woman should be, to lean on a strong arm, if it pleased God to give her one in
the shape of a good husband. And the mother thought that the girl could not be all these
things unless she had the love of God in her heart, and thus shining out in her daily life."

"Money immaterial, she wanted her son to have the fortune in his wife."

"The son saw the girl I told you of, and took great pains to make himself acquainted with
her life-history, both before and after she ran away from the farm."

"For she did run away, and certain circumstances enabled him to guess why, but he knew
her whereabouts, and bided his time. Dear me! I shall not be able to finish my story," said
Mrs. Marsden—for, utterly broken down by emotion, I was sobbing audibly—"in fact, the
last chapter has still to be written, and I must offer you my Christmas gift."

Mrs. Marsden opened the door, and Lawrence entered. "Here it, or I should say 'he' is, my
dear. I do hope you will take him with a mother's blessing, and when the last chapter of
the story is completed, you must turn story-teller, and let me know it."

Mrs. Marsden kissed me affectionately, put my trembling hand in the firm grasp of her son,
left the room with less than her usual stateliness, and closed the door behind her.

"Lois, my dear, will you accept the mother's Christmas gift, and will you let me keep the
hand she has placed in mine? You are the one love of my whole heart, Lois. Can you give
me what I ask, darling, your love in return?" So spoke Lawrence.

No wonder I found it difficult to reply, but I did manage once to look up in his dear, honest
face, and to tell him, though with trembling lips, that he was the one love of my life too.
And he was content. This Christmas Day was my fifth milestone.

My story has grown to a greater length than I intended, so I will finish it as briefly as
possible.

Lawrence told me that after I left the farm, he found out which room I had occupied,
through seeing it undergoing the process of scouring and scrubbing, which invariably
followed the departure of a visitor. He asked to see the room, in case he should bring
another friend to Hailsby-le-Beck, and thus took the bearings of the porch. By putting two
and two together, he judged that I must have heard the talk between him and Mr. Winn,
and that my flight was the consequence of it.

About my address at Hillstowe, he had no difficulty. People who write little, exercise their
memories more than those who do, and both Mr. and Mrs. Jennings remembered the name
of the vicarage under whose roof I lived.

Then Lawrence knew that I must be his cousin's teacher, and having talked matters over
with his mother, they joined in inquiries about my family and personal history, which
satisfied them. The result was the little plot by which we all met at High Lea, and into
which Mr. and Mrs. Baxendell had heartily entered, Mary Baxendell being the only member
of the family who knew nothing of her aunt's intended Christmas gift.

There was no question about my teaching again. When I left High Lea it was in Mrs.
Marsden's company. I stayed with her at Nethercourt during her son's absence, for a
previous arrangement took him—much against his will—to the Continent for a couple of
months.

In the summer, Lawrence and I met again at Mrs. Baxendell's, then I stayed for some
weeks, first with my friend Mrs. Goulding, and lastly with the Barrs, their rectory having
been enlarged in the meanwhile.

I was not married until the following autumn, for I wanted Lawrence and his mother to be
better acquainted with me before I became connected with them by the closest ties.
During the interval, I paid many visits, including one to my old nurse at the lodge, and
one, in Mrs. Marsden's company, to Roundtree Farm. I do not speak of Lawrence's
companionship. It goes without saying that where I was, he was also to be found as often
as possible, the maternal wing being extended over me in loving fashion. In this respect,
Mrs. Marsden anticipated the relationship, and was as a true mother to me from the day
she bestowed her Christmas gift in such a whimsical way.

She always declares that it was my running away from her son that won her heart, and
that if I had not shown Lawrence that I must be sought and wooed before I was won, he
might not have been so eager to follow.

We were married at Hillstowe Church, Mr. Barr officiating, and Dot, my erewhile baby,
acting as the very smallest of a troop of young bridesmaids, led by Mary Baxendell. Mrs.
Marsden herself gave me away, on the principle that by so doing she should give public
effect to that which she did in private, when she bestowed Lawrence upon me.

I could tell of many subsequent events—of continued friendship with the Barrs, of Mary
Baxendell's wedding, five years ago, the bridegroom being Herbert Winn, Lawrence's best
man at ours; of the fact that Lady Minshull and I have been on visiting terms for five-and-
twenty years, and that dear Mrs. Marsden still lives, and is the most indulgent and
handsomest of grandmammas and old ladies. But even these happy particulars do not
stand out with the same prominence in my life's story as those I have already told about.
And I think most girls will agree with me, that the day of days in my life was that which
gave me him who has been the beloved husband of eight-and-twenty years. I reckon that
on it, I passed my sixth milestone.

FINISHED AT CHRISTMAS.

CHAPTER I.

A LITTLE love story! This is what I am going to tell.

I hope no one who reads this plain statement of my intentions will be shocked thereat, and
close the book as though the subject ought to be tabooed in these pages.

Yet there are people, and good women amongst the number, who so little understand that
love, if it be worthy of the name, means beauty and purity, and embraces the very holiest
and best in our human nature, that they would banish the word from every story that is
written for the young. They would bid an old wife and mother like me lay down her pen
and refrain from using it on the sweetest theme that creation can furnish.

Such readers as these would link the idea of love rather with the fallen and sinful state of
humanity, forgetting that the first pair of lovers were also the first created of mankind, and
were such before sin possessed a name, much less a place in Paradise.

Would the silencing of tongues and the laying down of pens keep young hearts from
throbbing, or silence the voice which God Himself has placed in every breast and endowed
with eloquence? Far, far better for us older folk to treat the subject with tender reverence,
and manifest our loving sympathy with our young ones who are just placing girlish feet on
the enchanted ground which we trod in the far-away past.

The subject is, perhaps, the only one which has an interest for people of every nation, age,
and condition—which has in it the "touch of Nature that makes the whole world kin." It
links the queen and her humblest waiting-damsel. It joins in its mysterious bonds the
monarch who can bestow a crown, and the peasant who follows the plough and dreams of
the day when he can call a tiny thatched cottage his home, and prepare it as a fitting nest
for his village playmate who has just passed him, poising a well-filled pail upon her head.
The glimpse of her bright young face and the kindly smile of her brown eyes have put new
energy into the toiler, and he resumes his work, albeit a moment before he was watching
the lengthening shadows, and longing for the moment when he should unyoke the weary
horses and take the homeward way.

No use trying to silence Nature's voice in the breast of the young. It may speak little and
shyly. The fair cheek may flush and the head be bent, but thought will be the busier for the
very reticence of the tongue. And we old folk, what can we do? If we have nothing but
sweet memories of pure joys that were ours in the far-away past, let us at least thank God
for these, and give our sympathy to the young. Will not those who have walked in love
towards God and each other whilst on earth, look forward to a reunion which shall last
whilst eternity endures, with the dear one who has gone before for a little while?

Tell us what kind of life is looked upon as the hardest. Not one of poverty, labour, difficulty,
or even of affliction. Poverty and labour are lightened, difficulties smoothed, trials more
easily borne with love for a companion. Suffering is almost forgotten when the tender
voice of sympathy is heard and the pillow smoothed by affection's hands. Unrest is easier
to endure when kind eyes watch beside the sleepless, and become moist with tears
because the power to aid falls so far short of the will.

The loveless life is the only really hard life. He who is all Love has shown us that with it we
feel rich, but having all beside, we are poor without it.

If parents could but see this, they would realise that they are exercising one of the most
delightful of their privileges when sympathising with their children. They live again the
days of their own pure young love, in the happiness of their girls and boys.

Once an excellent lady, who was neither wife nor mother, said, "If I could have my way, I
would keep every word relating to love out of books and stories for girls."

Ah, dear lady! Then you must take many a passage out of the "Book of books," and begin
the excision with the very words of the Creator, "It is not good for man to be alone."

But having indulged in this little introductory preach, I will begin my story.

Mrs. Manning was perplexed. A glance at her comely face was sufficient to show this, for it
usually wore such a different expression from the half-puzzled, half-troubled look which
now overspread it. Surely worldly matters could not cause the perplexity, for everything
around her indicated a fair measure of prosperity, from the handsomely furnished room in
which she sat and pondered, to the dainty lace which dropped so softly over her well-
shaped wrists.

Mrs. Manning was abundantly satisfied with and thankful for her present position, though
during her fifty years of life she had experienced many trials.

Early married, and almost perfectly mated, her first great sorrow came when her
husband's death left her a widow, and with five children to care for and start in life. No
light charge for a woman to whom anxiety had hitherto been a stranger.

Still, she thought that having experienced such a trial and lived through it, no other blow
could inflict a wound worth thinking of; but she had to learn a still harder lesson.

Widows who have children must be brave for their sakes. They must dry the tears, or drive
them back and weep only at convenient seasons, and indulge in sweet memories when
present work and plans for the future do not demand all their powers. And who does not
know that there are sorrows, as well as joys, with which none may intermeddle, not even
those of our own households, much less the mere acquaintance or the stranger?

At first, no anxious thought about worldly matters entered into Mrs. Manning's mind. Her
husband had been deemed a prosperous man, and she had never been required to count
the cost of any reasonable indulgence. His illness had been too short to allow of any
conversation on business matters, and when, after his death, these were looked into, all
was in order. There was an apparently flourishing concern. There were no debts. Why
should not all go on as before?

Just because the clear head was not there to plan, the guiding hand to direct. There was
no one to step into that place and keep the well-balanced machinery going. And so the
business went down, and it became necessary to wind-up the concern in order to secure a
pittance which would just keep mother and children above absolute want.

Years of struggling followed. The widow kept a brave heart, cheered on her children, and
the two eldest being boys, these soon began to help, instead of to require assistance.

The worst of the fight was over, when an unexpected ally came forward in the shape of
Uncle Edward, her late husband's half-brother. He had always been ready to help, both
with his counsel and his purse, and perhaps the more so because the widow never sought
the latter kind of assistance.

Uncle Edward was the eldest son of a first marriage, and twenty years the senior of the
widow's late husband. Having lost those who were nearest to him, he began to look round
amongst his relatives for some who should cheer his lonely fireside, and selected his half-
brother's widow and family.

Once more, Mrs. Manning found herself the virtual mistress of a lovely home, and
surrounded by all the comforts to which she had been accustomed during her happy
married days. Her boys were getting on in the world, and had wives and homes of their
own. Her eldest daughter was also married, and though she had not made a good match,
as the world estimates marriages, she was happy in her country home, and the true
helpmeet of her husband.

Mrs. Manning had felt keenly disappointed when the Rev. Charles Peyton made his
appearance and asked for her daughter. But what could she do? The look of happy
confidence on his good, true face told her that he did not come to the mother without
being pretty well assured of what the daughter would say on the subject. When she put
him off for a little while, until she had talked with Mary herself, it was with little hope that
the consent now deferred could be finally withheld.

"It would be a great change for you, Mary. Now you have everything provided that heart
need desire. And I have always counted on you girls doing so well," said the mother, with a
sigh.

Mrs. Manning looked regretfully into Mary's face, flushed with the sweet consciousness of
being truly loved by the one whom she would have chosen from all the world.

"Shall I not be doing well, mother?" she asked, very softly. "What higher lot need a woman
desire than to be the wife of a good man—one whom she can reverence and look up to?"

"But you will be poor, Mary. And lately you have known nothing of poverty, though you can
remember those years of trial when every penny had to be counted. Ah! I thought you
would all take warning by that season of adversity! I can hardly bear to look back upon it
now."

"I can," said Mary, "and thank God for it. But for having gone through some trouble, how
should I be fitted to sympathise with others? That precious time—for it was precious,
darling mother, though to you it seems sad as you look back on it—was just my training
ground. But for it I should be frightened to share Charles's responsibilities. Mother, dear,
do not say No. Charles seems sure of Uncle Edward's consent."
"My dear child, just think how you will live on two hundred a year! How will you make ends
meet?"

"Did you ever hear a story of Uncle Edward's, about an old bachelor friend of his, who was
inclined to marry?"

"I cannot tell, Mary. Uncle Edward's stories are too frequent for me to know which of them
you are alluding to. Go on. I see by your face that the moral of it will be an argument for
marrying upon next to nothing a year."

Truly, the rippling smile that crossed the young face was suggestive enough, and Mary lost
no time in telling her story.

"He was not quite an old bachelor at the time, but verging on it, and had been very careful
and saving. I do not know how much the man had a year, but it was enough to set him
considering as to whether what was enough for a single man would suffice for a married
one. He tested the matter in this wise. He had a large pie made, and when it was placed
on the table, he divided it equally, and surveying one half, said, 'Yes; there would be
enough.' Then he cut the halves into quarters, having made the calculation that there
might in time be more than two to provide for."

"Very prudent, my dear. What was the result of the second calculation?"

"That it would still do very well; but not contented, he divided the pieces again. Ah,
mamma. How shall I tell you? He decided that such a division would not do at all. Placing
his arms round the dish, he said, 'Come all to myself,' and from that time relinquished
every thought of matrimony."

"Do you call that an argument in favour of your marriage, Mary?" asked the mother, with a
hearty laugh.

"Yes, mother; because you have not yet heard the sequel. The man lived a lonely, loveless
life; ever adding to his means, saving for those who were but far-away kinsfolk at the
best, and whose chief thought was, 'How will the old man's money be divided at last? Into
whose lap will the largest share fall, when he can hold it no longer?'"

"He is dead now. He had no kind hand to minister to him in his last days; only paid nurses.
No son or daughter to bring their little ones to make his home ring with childish laughter;
no wife to mourn for him, or look forward to a meeting in the Better Land. But there are
plenty to put on the semblance of grief, and first to squabble over, and then to scatter the
money amassed in sheer selfishness, by the man who could not bear the prospect of
sharing with others the good things that God had already given him, and determine to
work and trust Him for more."

Mrs. Manning's heart was that of a true mother, and she could not look on the sweet girl-
face without longing to make the path smooth for her child. But she had set her mind on
seeing her girls do well and marry well. She could not endure the thought of all the petty
calculations and the incessant contrivances that would be needed by the wife of a poor
rector in a country parish. She enumerated, one after another, the probable difficulties
which would beset her, and bade her think well before coming to a decision.

When did true love fail to discern a rift in the clouds, or to find at least a promise of
sunshine, however heavy the sky might look at the time? The mother's prophecy had no
terrors for Mary.