Chapter 10: Modern recombinant DNA Technology

MANIpulating and analizing dna molecules

A single gene can be separated from a eukaryotic genome. Thanks to bacterial enzymes known as
restriction nucleases. These enzymes cut double-stranded DNA at particular sequences. They can therefore
be used to produce a reproducible set of specific DNA fragments from any genome.
It had been observed that certain bacteria always degraded “foreign” DNA. Bacterial nucleases cleave
DNA at specific nucleotide sequences. Because these enzymes function to restrict the transfer of DNA
between strains of bacteria, they were called restriction nucleases.
Different bacterial species produce different restriction nucleases, each cutting at a different, specific
nucleotide sequence. Each enzyme cuts a particular DNA molecule at the same sites. Thus, a particular
restriction nuclease will reliably generate the same set of DNA fragments.
Gel electrophoresis
After a large DNA molecule is cleaved into smaller pieces with a restriction nuclease, the DNA fragments
can be separated from one another on the basis of their length by gel electrophoresis. A mixture of DNA
fragments is loaded at one end of a slab of agarose or polyacrylamide gel, which contains a microscopic
network of pores. When a voltage is applied across the gel, the negatively charged DNA fragments migrate.
Larger fragments will migrate more slowly. The DNA fragments become spread out across the gel according
to size.
The separated DNA bands on an agarose or polyacrylamide gel are not, by themselves, visible. To see
these bands, the DNA must be labelled or stained. One sensitive method involves exposing the gel to a
dye that fluoresces under ultraviolet (UV) light.
An even more sensitive detection method involves incorporating a radioisotope into the DNA molecules
before they are separated by electrophoresis (32P is often used). A sheet of film placed flat on top of the
agarose gel will show the position of all the DNA bands.
But it does not reveal which of those bands contains a DNA sequence of interest. To do that, a probe is
designed to bind specifically to the desired nucleotide sequence by complementary base-pairing.
Hybridization
DNA denaturation will release the two strands from each other, but does not break the covalent bonds
that link together the nucleotides within each strand. The simplest way to achieve this separation is
heating the DNA to around 90ºC. When the conditions are reversed the complementary strands will come
back together to re-form a double helix. This hybridization, or DNA renaturation, is driven by the re-
formation of the hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs.

Dna cloning in bacteria

The term DNA cloning refers to the production of many identical copies of a DNA sequence. Makes it
possible to separate a defined segment of DNA from the rest of a cell’s genome. The first step in cloning
any gene is to break the genome into smaller pieces. These fragments can then be joined to one another
using DNA ligase.
Plasmid vectors
The vectors typically used for gene cloning are relatively small, circular DNA molecules called plasmids.
Each plasmid contains a replication origin. It also has cleavage sites for common restriction nucleases, so
that the plasmid can be conveniently opened and a foreign DNA fragment inserted.
Each time the bacterial population doubles the number of copies of the recombinant DNA molecule also
doubles. The bacteria can then be split open
(lysed) and the plasmid DNA purified from the
rest of the cell contents, including the large
bacterial chromosome.
The DNA fragment can be readily recovered
by cutting it out of the plasmid DNA with the
same restriction nuclease that was used to
insert it. Together, these steps allow the amplification and purification of any segment of DNA from the
genome of any organism.

Dna cloning by pcr

The success of PCR depends on the exquisite selectivity of DNA hybridization, along with the ability of
DNA polymerase to copy a DNA template reliably, through repeated rounds of replication in vitro. To
initiate the reaction, the polymerase requires a primer — a short nucleotide sequence that provides a 3’
end from which synthesis can begin. These primers are designed by the experimenter based on the DNA
sequence of interest. Thus, PCR can only be used to clone a DNA segment for which the sequence is known
in advance.
PCR is an iterative process. At the start of each cycle, the two strands of the double-stranded DNA
template are separated and a unique primer is annealed to each. DNA polymerase is then allowed to
replicate each strand independently. In subsequent cycles, all the newly synthesized DNA molecules
produced by the polymerase serve as templates for the next round of replication.

The original template for PCR can be either DNA or RNA, so

this method can be used to obtain either a full genomic clone
(complete with introns and exons) or a cDNA copy of an mRNA.
PCR can be used to detect invading microorganisms at very
early stages of infection. PCR is also widely used in forensic
medicine.

Falta metodo Sanger???

Summary
» Ability to cut a large DNA molecule into a specific and reproducible set of DNA fragments using
restriction nucleases, each of which cuts the DNA double helix only at a particular nucleotide sequence.
» DNA fragments can be separated from one another on the basis of size by gel electrophoresis.
» DNA cloning techniques enable any DNA sequence to be selected from millions of other sequences and
produced in unlimited amounts in pure form.
» DNA fragments can be joined together in vitro by using DNA ligase to form recombinant DNA molecules
that are not found in nature.
» DNA fragments can be maintained and amplified by inserting them into a larger DNA molecule capable
of replication, such as a plasmid. This recombinant DNA molecule is then introduced into a rapidly
dividing host cell, usually a bacterium, so that the DNA is replicated at each cell division.
» The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a powerful form of DNA amplification that is carried out in
vitro using a purified DNA polymerase. PCR requires prior knowledge of the sequence to be amplified,
because two synthetic oligonucleotide primers must be synthesized that bracket the portion of DNA
to be replicated.

Chapter 11: Membrane structure

The structure of the plasma membrane consists of a two-ply sheet of lipid molecules into which proteins
have been inserted. To facilitate exchange, the membrane is penetrated by highly selective channels and
transporters. Other proteins in the membrane act as sensors, or receptors, that enable the cell to receive
information about changes in its environment and respond to them. When a cell grows or changes shape,
so does its membrane: it enlarges in area by adding new membrane without ever losing its continuity,
and it can deform without tearing. If the membrane is pierced, it quickly reseals.
The simplest bacteria have only a single membrane —the plasma membrane— whereas eukaryotic cells
also contain internal membranes that enclose
intracellular compartments.
Regardless of their location, all cell
membranes are composed of lipids and
proteins and share a common general
structure. The lipids are arranged in two
closely apposed sheets, forming a lipid
bilayer. This lipid bilayer serves as a permeability barrier to most water-soluble molecules. The proteins
carry out the other functions of the membrane and give different membranes their individual
characteristics.
The lipid bilayer
The most abundant lipids in cell membranes are the phospholipids. The hydrophilic heads face water on
both surfaces of the bilayer; but the hydrophobic tails are all shielded
from the water, as they lie next to one another in the interior.
The fluidity of a cell membrane—the ease with which its lipid
molecules move within the plane of the bilayer—is important for
membrane function and has to be maintained within certain limits. How
fluid a lipid bilayer depends on its phospholipid composition and, in particular, on the nature of the
hydrocarbon tails: the closer and more regular the packing of the tails, the more viscous and less fluid
the bilayer will be. Two major properties of hydrocarbon tails affect how tightly they pack in the bilayer:
their length and the number of double bonds they contain.
A shorter chain length reduces the tendency of the hydrocarbon tails to interact with one another and
therefore increases the fluidity of the bilayer.
In bacterial and yeast cells, which have to adapt to varying temperatures, both the lengths and the
unsaturation of the hydrocarbon tails in the bilayer are constantly adjusted to maintain the membrane
at a relatively constant fluidity: at higher temperatures, for example, the cell makes membrane lipids
with tails that are longer and that contain fewer double bonds.
In animal cells, membrane fluidity is modulated by the inclusion of the sterol cholesterol (it constitutes
approximately 20%). Because cholesterol molecules are short and rigid, they fill the spaces between
neighbouring phospholipid molecules left by
the kinks in their unsaturated hydrocarbon
tails. In this way, cholesterol tends to
stiffen the bilayer, making it less flexible,
as well as less permeable.
Membrane fluidity is important for many
reasons. It enables many membrane proteins
to diffuse rapidly in the plane of the bilayer and to interact with one another. It permits membrane lipids
and proteins to diffuse from sites where they are inserted into the bilayer after their synthesis to other
regions of the cell. It ensures that membrane molecules are distributed evenly between daughter cells
when a cell divides.
Membrane assembly begins in the ER
In eukaryotic cells, new phospholipids are manufactured by enzymes bound to the cytosolic surface of
the endoplasmic reticulum. Transfer of lipids from one monolayer to the other rarely occur spontaneously.
Instead, they are catalysed by enzymes called scramblases, which remove randomly selected
phospholipids from one half of the lipid bilayer and insert them in the other. As a result, newly made
phospholipids are redistributed equally between each monolayer of the ER membrane.
The Golgi membrane contains another family of phospholipid-handling enzyme, called flippases. These
enzymes remove specific phospholipids from the side of the bilayer facing the exterior space and flip them
into the monolayer that faces the cytosol.

All cell membranes have distinct “inside” and “outside” faces: the cytosolic monolayer always faces the
cytosol, while the noncytosolic monolayer is exposed to either the cell exterior.

Membrane proteins
Membrane proteins serve many functions. Some transport particular nutrients, metabolites, and ions across
the lipid bilayer. Others anchor the membrane to macromolecules on either side. Still others function as
receptors that detect chemical signals. Each type of cell membrane contains a different set of proteins.
Proteins can be associated with the lipid bilayer:
» Transmembrane -> transmembrane proteins are amphipathic. Their hydrophobic regions lie in the
interior of the bilayer. Their hydrophilic regions are exposed to the aqueous environment on either
side of the membrane.
» Monolayer associated ! helix -> proteins located in the cytosol, associated with the cytosolic half
of the lipid bilayer by an amphipathic ! helix exposed on the surface of the protein.
» Lipid-linked -> proteins outside the bilayer, attached to the membrane only by one or more
covalently attached lipid groups.
» Protein-attached -> proteins indirectly bounded to one or the other face of the membrane, held
in place only by their interactions with other membrane proteins.
Proteins directly attached to the lipid bilayer (1, 2 & 3) can bee removed only by disrupting the bilayer
with detergents. Such proteins are known as integral membrane proteins. The remaining membrane proteins
are known as peripheral membrane proteins.
All membrane proteins have a unique orientation in the lipid bilayer, which is essential for their function.
For a transmembrane receptor protein, for example, the part of the protein that receives a signal from
the environment must be on the outside of the cell. The portions of a
transmembrane protein are connected by specialized membrane-spanning
segments of the polypeptide chain. These segments are composed largely of amino
acids.
Hydrogen-bonding (peptide bonds) is maximized if the polypeptide chain forms a
regular ! helix. In these membrane-spanning ! helices, the hydrophobic side
chains are exposed on the outside of the helix, while atoms in the polypeptide
backbone form hydrogen bonds with one another on the inside of the helix.
Some transmembrane proteins cross the lipid bilayer as a # sheet that is rolled into a cylinder.
Mitochondria and some bacteria are surrounded by a double membrane, and
porins allow the passage of small nutrients, metabolites, and inorganic ions
across their outer membranes, while preventing unwanted larger molecules
from crossing.
To separate an individual protein from all other cell proteins, involves solubilizing the membrane with
agents that destroy the lipid bilayer by disrupting hydrophobic associations is needed. The most widely
used disruptive agents are detergents. These small, amphipathic, lipid-like molecules differ from
membrane phospholipids in that they have only a single hydrophobic tail. Detergent molecules are tend
to aggregate into small clusters called micelles.
When mixed in great excess with membranes, the hydrophobic
ends of detergent molecules interact with the membrane-
spanning hydrophobic regions of the transmembrane proteins,
as well as with the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid
molecules, thereby disrupting the lipid bilayer and separating
the proteins from most of the phospholipids.
Cell cortex
A cell membrane by itself is extremely thin and fragile. Most
cell membranes are therefore strengthened and supported by a framework of proteins, attached to the
membrane via transmembrane proteins.
In red blood cells, the spectrin meshwork is connected to the membrane through intracellular attachment
proteins that link the spectrin to specific transmembrane proteins. Proteins similar to spectrin and to its
associated attachment proteins are present in the cortex of most animal cells.
Movement of membrane proteins
Cells have ways of confining particular
proteins to localized areas within the
bilayer membrane, thereby creating
functionally specialized regions, or
membrane domains, on the cell or organelle surface.
The lateral mobility of plasma membrane proteins can be restricted in several ways, proteins can be
tethered to:
A. The cell cortex inside the cell
B. Extracellular matrix molecules outside the cell
C. Proteins on the surface of another cell
D. Diffusion barriers can restrict proteins to a particular
membrane domain
The asymmetric distribution of membrane proteins is maintained by a barrier formed along the line where
the cell is sealed to adjacent epithelial cells by a so-called tight junction (black bars in D).
Cell’s surface
Some of the proteins in the plasma membrane have sugars covalently attached to them, called
glycoproteins. All of the carbohydrate on the glycoproteins are located on the outside of the plasma
membrane, where it forms a sugar coating
called the carbohydrate layer or glycocalyx.
This layer of carbohydrate helps protect the
cell surface from mechanical damage.
Cell-surface carbohydrates also have an
important role in cell–cell recognition and
adhesion.
Example: in the early stages of a bacterial
infection, the carbohydrate on the surface of white blood cells called neutrophils is recognized by a
lectin on the cells lining the blood vessels at the site of infection; this recognition causes the neutrophils
to adhere to the blood vessel wall and then migrate from the bloodstream into the infected tissue, where
they help destroy the invading bacteria.

Summary
» Cell membranes enable cells to create barriers that confine particular molecules to specific
compartments. They consist of a continuous double layer —a bilayer— of lipid molecules in which
proteins are embedded.
» The lipid bilayer provides the basic structure and barrier function of all cell membranes.
» Membrane lipid molecules are amphipathic, having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. This
property promotes their spontaneous assembly into bilayers when placed in water, forming closed
compartments that reseal if torn.
» The lipid bilayer is fluid, and individual lipid molecules are able to diffuse within their own monolayer.
» Membrane proteins are responsible for most of the functions of cell membranes, including the transport
of small, water-soluble molecules across the lipid bilayer.
» Transmembrane proteins extend across the lipid bilayer, usually as one or more ! helices but sometimes
as a # sheet rolled into the form of a barrel.
» Most cell membranes are supported by an attached framework of proteins. An especially important
example is the meshwork of fibrous proteins that forms the cell cortex underneath the plasma
membrane.
» Many of the proteins and some of the lipids exposed on the surface of cells have attached sugar chains,
which form a carbohydrate layer that helps protect and lubricate the cell surface, while also being
involved in specific cell–cell recognition.

Chapter 12: trasnport across cell membranes

To survive and grow, cells must be able to exchange molecules with their environment. They must import
nutrients and eliminate metabolic waste products. Their transfer depends on specialized membrane
transport proteins that span the lipid bilayer.
Cells and organelles must also allow the passage of many hydrophilic, water-soluble molecules (solutes).
These molecules cross lipid bilayers far too slowly by simple diffusion, so their passage across cell
membranes must be accelerated by specialized membrane transport proteins. The relative ease with which
a variety of solutes can cross cell membranes:
1. Small nonpolar molecules dissolve readily in lipid bilayers and
therefore rapidly diffuse across them.
2. Uncharged polar molecules also diffuse readily across a bilayer if
they are small enough. Larger uncharged polar molecules such cross
hardly at all.
3. Lipid bilayers are highly impermeable to all charged molecules,
including all inorganic ions. These molecules’ charges and their strong
electrical attraction to water molecules inhibit their entry into the
inner, hydrocarbon phase of the bilayer.

Principles of TRANSMembrane Transport

If a solute is present at a higher concentration outside the cell than inside, and an appropriate channel
or transporter is present in the plasma membrane, the solute will move into the cell by passive transport.
The movement of a solute against its concentration gradient is termed active transport, and it is carried
 out by special types of transporters called pumps, which
harness an energy source to power the transport process.
For an uncharged molecule, the direction of passive
transport is determined solely by its concentration
gradient. But for electrically charged molecules an
additional force comes into play. Most cell membranes have a voltage across them. The cytosolic side of
the plasma membrane is usually at a negative potential relative to the extracellular side, so the membrane
potential tends to pull positively charged solutes into the cell and
drive negatively charged ones out.
The net driving force, called the solute’s electrochemical gradient,
determines the direction that each solute will flow across the
membrane by passive transport.
Osmosis
Cells are mostly water and so the movement of water across cell membranes is crucially important for
living things. Because water molecules are small and uncharged, they can diffuse directly across the lipid
bilayer. However, some cells also contain specialized channel proteins called aquaporins in their plasma
membrane, which greatly facilitate this flow.
Osmosis is the movement of water down its concentration gradient — from an area of low solute
concentration (high water concentration) to an area of high solute concentration (low water concentration).

Transporters and their functions

Transporters are responsible for the movement of most small, water-
soluble, organic molecules and some inorganic ions across cell
membranes. Each transporter is highly selective, often transferring just
one type of molecule.
An important example of a transporter that mediates passive transport is the glucose transporter. It can
adopt several conformations, in one conformation, the transporter exposes binding sites for glucose to the
exterior of the cell; in another, it exposes the
sites to the cell interior. Although passive
transporters of this type play no part in
determining the direction of transport, they are
highly selective.
Transmembrane pumps
Cells depend on transmembrane pumps, which can carry out active transport in three main ways:
1. ATP-driven pumps hydrolyze ATP to drive uphill
transport
2. Coupled pumps link the uphill transport of one
solute across a membrane to the downhill
transport of another.
3. Light-driven pumps use energy derived from
sunlight to drive uphill transport
The different forms of active transport are often linked. The ATP-driven Na+ pump has a central role in
the active transport of small molecules across the plasma membrane of animal cells. This pump uses the
energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to transport Na+ out of
the cell as it carries K+ in.
Symports
Symports that make use of the inward flow of Na+ down its
steep electrochemical gradient have an especially important
role in driving the import of other solutes into animal cells.
The electrochemical Na+ gradient drives pumps coupled to the cytoplasmic membrane in animal cells.
Because the electrochemical gradient for Na+ is steep, when
Na+ moves into the cell down its gradient, glucose is, in a
sense, “dragged” into the cell with it.
In the basal and lateral domains of the plasma membrane, the
cells have the passive glucose uniports, which release the
glucose down its concentration gradient for use by other tissues.
Example: the symport transport of glucose from intestinal epithelial cells (transport against gradient from
intestinal lumen to cytosol) is an example of active transport. The intracellular concentration of Na+ is
maintained at low levels through the sodium-potassium pump.
 Plant cells, bacteria, and fungi do not have Na+ pumps
in their plasma membrane. Instead the gradient is
created by H+ pumps, creating an acid pH in the
medium surrounding the cell. They use the energy of
ATP hydrolysis to pump H+ out of the cell.

Ion channels and the membrane

potential
Channel proteins, or channels, form
transmembrane pores that allow the passive movement of small
water-soluble molecules into or out of the cell or organelle. The
bulk of a cell’s channels facilitate the passage of select inorganic
ions.
Ion channels show ion selectivity, permitting some inorganic ions
to pass but not others. Moreover, ion channels are not
continuously open. Most ion channels are gated: a specific stimulus
triggers them to switch between a closed and an open state by
a change in their conformation. Unlike a transporter, an open ion channel does not need to undergo
conformational changes with each ion it passes.
Membrane electrochemical potential is driven by membrane permeability to specific ions.
Different types of stimuli regulate certain ion
channels:
A. Voltage-gated channel (membrane potential)
B. Ligand-gated channel (binding of some
molecule)
C. Mechanically-gated channel (mechanical
force)
Mechanically driven channels usually have cytoplasmic extensions that connect them to cytoskeletal
elements.

Summary
» The lipid bilayer of cell membranes is highly permeable to small nonpolar molecules such as oxygen
and carbon dioxide and, to a lesser extent, to very small polar molecules such as water. It is highly
impermeable to most large water-soluble molecules and to all ions.
» Transfer of nutrients, metabolites, and inorganic ions across cell membranes depends on membrane
transport proteins.
» Cell membranes contain a variety of transport proteins that function either as transporters or channels,
each responsible for the transfer of a particular type of solute.
» Channel proteins form pores across the lipid bilayer through which solutes can passively diffuse.
» Both transporters and channels can mediate passive transport, in which an uncharged solute moves
spontaneously down its concentration gradient.
» For the passive transport of a charged solute, its electrochemical gradient determines its direction of
movement, rather than its concentration alone.
» Transporters can act as pumps to mediate active transport,
in which solutes are moved uphill against their
concentration or electrochemical gradients.
» Ion channels allow inorganic ions of appropriate size and
charge to cross the membrane. Most are gated and open
transiently in response to a specific stimulus.
» The membrane potential is determined by the unequal
distribution of charged ions on the two sides of a cell
membrane; it is altered when these ions flow through open
ion channels in the membrane.

Chapter 17: cytoskeleton

The ability of eukaryotic cells to adopt a variety of shapes, organize the many components in their
interior, interact mechanically with the environment, and carry out coordinated movements depends on
the cytoskeleton—an intricate network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm. The
cytoskeleton controls the location of the organelles and provides the machinery for transport between
them. It is also responsible for the segregation of chromosomes into two daughter cells at cell division and
for pinching apart those two new cells.
The cytoskeleton is built on a framework
of three types of protein filaments:
intermediate filaments (formed by
fibrous proteins), microtubules (formed
by globular tubulin subunits), and actin
filaments (formed by globular actin
subunits).

Intermediate filaments
Intermediate filaments have great tensile strength, and their main function is to enable cells to withstand
the mechanical stress that occurs when cells are stretched. Their name derived from its diameter, between
7 and 11 nm, smaller than that of microtubules (20-25 nm), but larger than that of actin microfilaments
(5-6 nm). They are extremely insoluble, with a protein composition completely different from that found
in microfilaments and microtubules, and form a structural network that connects the nucleus and
organelles. They only exist in animal cells.
They are composed of alpha-helix proteins, which are grouped in a hierarchical way:
1. Pairs of monomers associate, in parallel, to form a dimer
2. Two dimers then line up to form a staggered, antiparallel tetramer
3. Tetramers pack together into a helical array containing 8 tetramer strands

Intermediate filaments can be grouped into four classes: (1) keratin filaments in epithelial cells; (2)
vimentin and vimentin-related filaments in
connective-tissue cells, muscle cells, and supporting
cells of the nervous system (glial cells); (3)
neurofilaments in nerve cells; and (4) nuclear
lamins, which strengthen the nuclear envelope.
Many of the intermediate filaments are further
stabilized and reinforced by accessory proteins,
such as plectin, that cross-link the filaments into bundles and link them to microtubules, to actin
filaments, and to adhesive structures in the desmosomes.
Nuclear lamina
The nuclear lamina is a complex protein mesh attached to
the inner nuclear membrane, it is also associated with
nuclear pore protein complexes. It provides mechanical support to the nucleus and nuclear envelope, in
addition to facilitating the connection of the nucleus to the cytoskeleton, it is also involved in chromatin
organization, regulation of transcription, and signalling.

Microtubules
Microtubules have a crucial organizing role in all eukaryotic cells. These long and relatively stiff hollow
tubes of protein can rapidly disassemble in one location and reassemble in
another. In a typical animal cell, microtubules grow out from a small
structure near the center of the cell called the centrosome. Microtubule
dynamics can be modified by drugs.
Microtubules are built from subunits, molecules of tubulin. The tubulin dimers
stack together to form the wall of the hollow cylindrical microtubule. This
tubelike structure is made of 13 parallel protofilaments.
Each protofilament has a structural polarity, with !-tubulin exposed at one
end and #-tubulin at the other, and this polarity is the same for all the
protofilaments.
Centrosome
Inside cells, microtubules grow from specialized organizing centers that control the location, number,
and orientation of the microtubules. The centrosome organizes an array of microtubules that radiates
outward through the cytoplasm. The centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles, surrounded by a matrix
of proteins.
GTP hydrolysis
Each free tubulin dimer contains one GTP molecule tightly bound to #-tubulin, which hydrolyses the GTP
to GDP shortly after the dimer is added to a growing microtubule. When polymerization is proceeding
rapidly, tubulin dimers add to the end of the microtubule faster than the GTP they carry is hydrolyzed.
As a result, the end of a rapidly growing microtubule is composed entirely
of GTP-tubulin dimers, which form a “GTP cap.”
It can also happen that the tubulin dimers at the free end of the
microtubule will hydrolyse their GTP before the next dimers are added, so
that the free ends of protofilaments are now composed of GDP-tubulin. These
GDP-bearing dimers associate less tightly, tipping the balance in favour of
disassembly.
Microtubules organize the cells’ interior. In the nerve cell, for example,
all the microtubules in the axon point in the same direction, with their
plus ends toward the axon terminals; along these oriented tracks, the cell
is able to transport organelles, membrane vesicles, and macromolecules —
either from the cell body to the axon terminals or in the opposite direction.

Motor proteins
The motor proteins that move along cytoplasmic microtubules, such as those in the axon of a nerve cell,
belong to two families: the kinesins generally move toward the plus end of a microtubule and the dyneins,
which move toward the minus end. Both kinesins and dyneins are generally dimers that have two globular
ATP-binding heads and a single tail.
The tail of a motor protein generally binds
stably to some cell component, such as a vesicle
or an organelle, and thereby determines the
type of cargo that the motor protein can
transport. Flagella propel a cell through fluid using repetitive wave-like motions.

Actin filaments
Actin filaments, polymers of the protein actin, are present in all eukaryotic cells and are essential for
many of the cell’s movements. Actin filaments interact with a large number of actin-binding proteins that
enable the filaments to serve a variety of functions in cells.
Each filament is a twisted chain of identical globular actin monomers, all of which “point” in the same
direction along the axis of the chain. Like a microtubule, therefore, an actin filament has a structural
polarity, with a plus end and a minus end.
Actin filaments rarely occur in isolation in the cell; they are generally
found in cross-linked bundles and networks, which are much stronger
than the individual filaments.
Actin filaments grow by the addition of actin monomers at the plus end.
In living cells, free actin monomers carry a tightly bound nucleoside
triphosphate, in this case ATP. The actin monomer hydrolyses its bound
ATP to ADP soon after it is incorporated into the filament.
At intermediate concentrations of free actin, actin monomers add to the
plus end at a rate faster than the bound ATP can be hydrolysed, so
the plus end grows. At the minus end, by contrast, ATP is hydrolysed faster than new monomers can be
added; because ADP-actin destabilizes the structure, the filament
loses subunits from its minus end at the same time as it adds them
to the plus end. The movement of an individual monomer through
the filament from the plus to the minus end is called treadmilling.
The treadmilling of actin filaments relies on the hydrolysis of a
bound nucleoside triphosphate to regulate the length of the polymer. Treadmilling involves a simultaneous
gain of monomers at the plus end of an actin filament and loss at the minus end: when the rates of
addition and loss are equal, the filament remains the same size.
Dynamic instability (microtubules), on the other hand, involves a rapid switch from growth to shrinkage
(or from shrinkage to growth) at only the plus end of the microtubule.
Cells contain small proteins, such as thymosin and
profilin, that bind to actin monomers (actin-
binding proteins) in the cytosol. By keeping actin
monomers in reserve until they are required, these
proteins play a crucial role in regulating actin
polymerization. When actin filaments are needed,
other actin-binding proteins such as formins and
actin-related proteins (ARPs) promote actin
polymerization.
Cortical actin
The molecular mechanisms of cell crawling entail coordinated
changes of many molecules in different regions of the cell.
Three interrelated processes are known to be essential: (1)
the cell pushes out protrusions at its “front,” or leading edge;
(2) these protrusions adhere to the surface over which the
cell is crawling; and (3) the rest of the cell drags itself
forward by traction on these anchorage points.
All three processes involve actin, but in different ways. The
first step is driven by actin polymerization (lamellipodia and
filopodia).
The actin-related proteins (ARPs) promote the formation of a web of branched actin filaments in
lamellipodia. ARPs form complexes that bind to the sides of existing actin filaments and nucleate the
formation of new filaments, which grow out at an angle to produce side branches.

Summary
» The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is supported and organized by a cytoskeleton of intermediate
filaments, microtubules, and actin filaments.
» Intermediate filaments are stable, ropelike polymers—built from fibrous protein subunits—that give
cells mechanical strength. Some intermediate filaments form the nuclear lamina that supports and
strengthens the nuclear envelope; others are distributed throughout the cytoplasm.
» Microtubules are stiff, hollow tubes formed by globular tubulin dimers. They are polarized structures,
with a slow-growing minus end and a fast-growing plus end.
» Microtubules grow out from organizing centers such as the centrosome, in which the minus ends remain
embedded.
» Kinesins and dyneins are microtubule-associated motor proteins that use the energy of ATP hydrolysis
to move unidirectionally along microtubules. They carry specific organelles, vesicles, and other types
of cargo to particular locations in the cell.
» Actin filaments are helical polymers of globular actin monomers. They are more flexible than
microtubules and are generally found in bundles or networks.
» The varied arrangements and functions of actin filaments in cells stem from the diversity of actin-
binding proteins, which can control actin polymerization, cross-link actin filaments into loose networks
or stiff bundles, attach actin filaments to membranes, or move two adjacent filaments relative to each
other.
» A concentrated network of actin filaments underneath the plasma membrane forms the bulk of the cell
cortex, which is responsible for the shape and movement of the cell surface, including the movements
involved when a cell crawls along a surface.

Chapter 15: Intracellular Compartments and Protein Transport

Membrane-enclosed organelles
Compartment Main funtion
Cytosol contains many metabolic pathways, protein synthesis the cytoskeleton
Nucleus contains main genome, DNA and RNA synthesis
Endoplasmatic synthesis of most lipids, synthesis of proteins for distribution to many organelles
reticulum (ER) and to the plasma membrane
modification, sorting, and packaging of proteins and lipids for either secretion
Golgi apparatus
or delivery to another organelle
Lysosomes intracellular degradation
Endosomes sorting of endocytosed material
Mitochondria ATP synthesis by oxidative phosphorylation
Chloroplasts ATP synthesis and carbon fixation by photosynthesis
Peroxisomes oxidation of toxic molecules

Many of the membrane-enclosed organelles are held in their relative locations in the cell by attachment
to the cytoskeleton, especially to microtubules.
The ER, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, endosomes, and lysosomes are all part of what is collectively called
the endomembrane system. The interiors of these organelles communicate extensively with one another
and with the outside of the cell by means of small vesicles that bud off from one of these organelles and
fuse with another.

Protein sorting
The synthesis of virtually all proteins in the cell begins on ribosomes in the cytosol. The fate of any
protein molecule synthesized in the cytosol depends on its amino acid sequence, which can contain a
sorting signal that directs the protein to the organelle in which it is required. Proteins are transported
into organelles by three mechanisms:
 1. Proteins moving from the cytosol into the nucleus are
transported through the nuclear pores.
2. Proteins moving from the cytosol into the ER,
mitochondria, or chloroplasts are transported across
the organelle membrane by protein translocators
located in the membrane.
3. Proteins moving onward from the ER —and from one
compartment of the endomembrane system to another—
are transported by transport vesicles.
Endoplasmatic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum serves as an entry point for proteins
destined for other organelles, as well as for the ER itself. Once
inside the ER lumen, or embedded in the ER membrane, individual proteins will not re-enter the cytosol
during their onward journey. They will instead be ferried by transport vesicles from organelle to organelle
within the endomembrane system, or to the plasma membrane.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RRE):
• Flattened sacs with ribosomes associated with the external (cytosolic) face
• Responsible for the synthesis, modification and transport of proteins destined for the rest of the
endomembrane system and the extra-cellular space
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SRE):
• More tubular shape and without associated ribosomes
• Responsible for lipid synthesis
• Contains enzymes involved in the degradation of drugs and other toxic compounds for the body (liver)
• Synthesis of steroid hormones
• Calcium sequestration
In addition to directing proteins to the ER, the signal
sequence functions to open the channel in the protein
translocator. Once the C-terminus of a soluble protein has
passed through the translocation channel, the protein will
be released into the ER lumen.

Secretory pathways
Many of the proteins that enter the ER lumen or ER membrane are converted to glycoproteins in the ER
by the covalent attachment of short branched oligosaccharide side chains composed of multiple sugars.
This process of glycosylation is carried out by
glycosylating enzymes present in the ER but not in the
cytosol.
A preformed, branched oligosaccharide containing a total
of 14 sugars is attached en bloc to all proteins that carry
the appropriate site for glycosylation.
The exit process of proteins from the ER is highly selective.
Proteins that fail to fold correctly, or proteins that do
not assemble properly, are actively retained in the ER by
binding to chaperone proteins that reside there.
Chaperones prevent misfolded proteins from aggregating, which helps steer proteins along a path toward
proper folding. If proper folding and assembly still fail, the proteins are exported to the cytosol In this
way, the ER controls the quality of the proteins that it exports to the Golgi apparatus.
Unfolded protein response
Misfolded can proteins accumulate in the ER. If the buildup is large enough, it triggers a complex program
called the unfolded protein response (UPR). This program prompts the cell to produce more ER, including
more chaperones and other proteins concerned with quality control. The UPR allows a cell to adjust the
size of its ER according to the load of proteins entering the secretory pathway.
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of a collection of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs called cisternae. Each
Golgi stack has two distinct faces: an entry, or cis, face and an exit, or trans, face. The cis face is
adjacent to the ER, while the trans face points toward the
plasma membrane. Soluble proteins and membrane enter the
cis Golgi network via transport vesicles derived from the ER.
The proteins travel through the cisternae in sequence by
means of transport vesicles. Proteins exit from the trans Golgi
network in transport vesicles destined for either the cell
surface or another organelle of the endomembrane system.
In all eukaryotic cells, a steady stream of vesicles buds from the trans Golgi network and fuses with the
plasma membrane in the process of exocytosis. The constitutive pathway also carries soluble proteins to
the cell surface to be released to the outside, a process called secretion.
Each specialized secretory cell produces large quantities of a particular product which is stored in
secretory vesicles for later release. These vesicles, which are part of the endomembrane system, bud off
from the trans Golgi network and accumulate near the plasma membrane. There they wait for the
extracellular signal that will stimulate them to fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents
to the cell exterior by exocytosis.

Endocytic pathways
Eukaryotic cells are continually taking up fluid, as well as large and small molecules, by the process of
endocytosis. The material to be ingested is progressively enclosed by a small portion of the plasma
membrane, which first buds inward and then pinches off to form an intracellular endocytic vesicle. The
ingested materials, including the membrane components, are delivered to endosomes, from which they
can be recycled to the plasma membrane or sent to lysosomes for digestion.
Two main types of endocytosis are distinguished on the
basis of the size of the endocytic vesicles formed.
Pinocytosis involves the ingestion of fluid and molecules
via small pinocytic vesicles. Phagocytosis involves the
ingestion of large particles. Phagocytic cells defend us
against infection by ingesting invading microorganisms.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis provides a specific
transport pathway for vesicles and lysosomes in animal
cells.
Endosomes
Most extracellular material taken up by pinocytosis is rapidly delivered to endosomes. Two sets of
endosomes can be distinguished: the early endosomes and the late endosomes. The endosomal compartment
acts as the main sorting station in the inward endocytic pathway. The routes taken by receptors once
they have entered an endosome differ according to the type of receptor:
(1) most are returned to the same plasma membrane domain from which
they came; (2) some travel to lysosomes; and (3) some proceed to a
different domain of the plasma membrane, transferring their bound
cargo molecules from one extracellular space to another (transcytosis).
Lysosomes
Many extracellular particles and molecules ingested by cells end up
in lysosomes, which are membranous sacs of hydrolytic enzymes that
carry out the controlled intracellular digestion.
The lysosomal membrane contains transporters that
allow the final products of the digestion of
macromolecules to be transferred to the cytosol. The
membrane also contains an ATP-driven H+ pump,
which pumps H+ into the lysosome, thereby
maintaining its contents at an acidic pH.
Autophagy is used to degrade obsolete parts of the
cell. The process begins with the enclosure of the
organelle by a double membrane, creating an
autophagosome, which then fuses with a lysosome.

Summary
» The ER, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, endosomes, and lysosomes are all part of the endomembrane
system.
» Most organelle proteins are made in the cytosol and transported into the organelle where they function.
Sorting signals in the amino acid sequence guide the proteins to the correct organelle.
» Most mitochondrial and chloroplast proteins are made in the cytosol and are then transported into
the organelles by protein translocators in their membranes.
» The proteins are made by ribosomes that are directed to the ER by a signal-recognition particle (SRP)
in the cytosol that recognizes an ER signal sequence on the growing polypeptide chain.
» Exit from the ER is an important quality-control step; proteins that either fail to fold properly or fail
to assemble with their normal partners are retained in the ER by chaperone proteins, which prevent
their aggregation and help them fold.
» Excessive accumulation of misfolded proteins triggers an unfolded protein response that expands the
ER, increases its capacity to fold new proteins properly, and reduces protein synthesis.
» Protein transport from the ER to the Golgi apparatus and from the Golgi apparatus to other destinations
is mediated by transport vesicles.
» In all eukaryotic cells, transport vesicles continually bud from the trans Golgi network and fuse with
the plasma membrane; this process of constitutive exocytosis delivers proteins to the cell surface for
secretion and incorporates lipids and proteins into the plasma membrane.
» Specialized secretory cells also have a regulated exocytosis pathway, in which molecules concentrated
and stored in secretory vesicles are released from the cell by exocytosis when the cell is signaled to
secrete.
» Cells ingest fluid, molecules, and sometimes even particles by endocytosis, in which regions of plasma
membrane invaginate and pinch off to form endocytic vesicles.
» Much of the material that is endocytosed is delivered to endosomes, which mature into lysosomes, in
which the material is degraded by hydrolytic enzymes.

Chapter 13: how cells obtain energy from food

The organism’s cells harvest useful energy from the chemical-bond energy locked in sugars as the sugar
molecule is broken down and oxidized to carbon dioxide and water —a process called cell respiration.

The Breakdown and Utilization of Sugars and Fats

Much of the energy released by the breakdown of glucose is saved in the high-energy bonds of ATP and
other activated carriers.
Catabolism
The proteins, fats, and polysaccharides that
make up most of the food we eat must be
broken down into smaller molecules. This
breakdown process is called catabolism. The
process takes place in three stages.
In stage 1 (digestion) of catabolism,
enzymes convert the large polymeric
molecules in food into simpler monomeric
subunits. This stage occurs either outside
cells (in the intestine) or the lysosomes.
In stage 2 of catabolism, a chain of
reactions called glycolysis splits each
molecule of glucose into two smaller
molecules of pyruvate. It also generates two
types of activated carriers: ATP and NADH.
Then, a giant enzyme complex converts each
pyruvate molecule into CO2 plus acetyl CoA.
Stage 3 of catabolism takes place entirely in
mitochondria. Acetyl CoA enters a series of reactions called the citric acid cycle. In these reactions, the
transferred acetyl group is oxidized to CO2 with the production of large amounts of NADH. In the final
steps of catabolism that majority of the energy released by oxidation is harnessed to produce most of the
cell’s ATP.
Glycolysis
The central process in stage 2 of catabolism is the oxidative breakdown of glucose in the sequence of
reactions known as glycolysis. Glycolysis produces ATP without the involvement of oxygen. Glycolysis splits
a molecule of glucose, which has six carbon atoms, to form two molecules of pyruvate, each of which
contains three carbon atoms. At the
end of glycolysis, there is a net gain
of two molecules of ATP and two
molecules of NADH for each glucose
molecule broken down.

The complete glycolytic pathway consists of a

sequence of 10 separate reactions, each producing a
different sugar intermediate and each catalysed by
a different enzyme. Much of the energy released by
the breakdown of glucose is used to drive the
synthesis of ATP molecules from ADP and Pi (steps 7-
10, substrate-level phosphorylation).
The remainder of the energy released during
glycolysis is stored in the electrons in the NADH
molecule produced in step 6 by an oxidation reaction.
In aerobic organisms, the two formed NADH molecules
donate their electrons to the electron-transport
chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Fermentation
In anaerobic conditions, the pyruvate and NADH made
by glycolysis remain in the cytosol. The pyruvate is
converted into products that are excreted from the
cell.
The NADH gives up its electrons in the cytosol, and is converted back to the NAD+ required to maintain
the reactions of glycolysis. Such energy-yielding pathways that break down sugar in the absence of
oxygen are called fermentations.
Many bacteria and archaea can also generate ATP in the absence of oxygen by anaerobic respiration.
summary
» Food molecules are broken down in successive steps, in which
energy is captured in the form of activated carriers such as
ATP and NADH.
» In plants and animals, these catabolic reactions occur in
different cell compartments: glycolysis in the cytosol, the citric
acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, and oxidative
phosphorylation on the inner mitochondrial membrane.
» During glycolysis, the six-carbon sugar glucose is split to form
two molecules of the three-carbon sugar pyruvate, producing
small amounts of ATP and NADH.
» In the presence of oxygen, eukaryotic cells convert pyruvate
into acetyl CoA plus CO2 in the mitochondrial matrix. The citric acid cycle then converts the acetyl
group in acetyl CoA to CO2 and H2O, capturing much of the energy released as high-energy electrons
in the activated carriers NADH and FADH2.

Chapter 14: energy generation in mitochondria

Membrane-based electron-transport mechanisms are used by cells to extract energy from a wide variety
of sources, to generate large amounts of ATP from food molecules during cell respiration.
For the majority of cells, most of their ATP is produced by oxidative phosphorylation. The generation of
ATP by oxidative phosphorylation differs from the way ATP is produced during glycolysis, in that it
requires a membrane. In eukaryotic cells, oxidative phosphorylation takes place in mitochondria, and it
depends on an electron-transport process that drives the transport of protons (H+) across the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
This membrane-based process for making ATP consists of two linked stages: one sets up an electrochemical
proton gradient, the other uses that gradient to generate ATP:
1. High-energy electrons derived from the oxidation of food
molecules are transferred along a series of electron
carriers —called an electron-transport chain— embedded
in the membrane. These electron transfers release energy
that is used to pump protons.
2. Protons flow back down their electrochemical gradient
through a protein complex called ATP synthase, which
 catalyses the energy-requiring synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

Mitochondria and Oxidative Phosphorylation

Without mitochondria, eukaryotes would have to rely on the relatively inefficient process of glycolysis for
all of their ATP production. About 30 molecules of ATP are produced when mitochondria are recruited to
complete the oxidation of glucose that begins in glycolysis.
Mitochondria are remarkably adaptable and can adjust their location, shape, and number to suit the
needs of the cell.
The mitochondrial membranes, called the outer and inner
membranes, create two mitochondrial compartments: a
large internal space called the matrix and a much
narrower intermembrane space.
Citric acid cycle
Both the pyruvate produced by glycolysis and the fatty
acids derived from the breakdown of fats can enter the
mitochondrial intermembrane space through the porins in
the outer mitochondrial membrane. These fuel molecules
are then transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the matrix, where they are converted
into the crucial metabolic intermediate, acetyl CoA. The acetyl groups in acetyl CoA are then oxidized to
CO2 via the citric acid cycle. Some of the energy derived from this oxidation is saved in the form of high-
energy electrons, held by the activated carriers NADH and FADH2. These activated carriers can then
donate their high-energy electrons to the electron-transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Oxidative phosphorylation
The chemiosmotic generation of energy begins when
the activated carriers NADH and FADH2 donate their
high-energy electrons to the electron-transport chain
in the inner mitochondrial membrane, becoming
oxidized to NAD+ and FAD. The movement of these high-
energy electrons through the components of the
electron-transport chain releases energy that can
then be used to pump protons across the inner
membrane. The resulting proton gradient, in turn, is
used to drive the synthesis of ATP. The inner
mitochondrial membrane thus serves as a device that
converts the energy contained in the high-energy electrons of NADH (and FADH2) into the phosphate bond
of ATP molecules.
Respiratory enzyme complexes
Protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane by proteins in the electron-transport chain.
Each electron-transport chain contains over 40 proteins, grouped into 3 large respiratory enzyme
complexes. The three respiratory enzyme complexes, in the order in which they receive electrons, are: (1)
NADH dehydrogenase complex, (2) cytochrome c reductase complex, and (3) cytochrome c oxidase complex.
Cells are able to recover the energy released by the transfer of electrons from NADH to O2 because the
three respiratory enzyme complexes in the electron-transport chain use it to pump protons across the
inner mitochondrial membrane, from the matrix into the intermembrane space.
Proton pumping generates a voltage gradient
—or membrane potential— across the inner
membrane. It creates a steep electrochemical
proton gradient that makes it energetically
very favourable for H+ to flow back into the
mitochondrial matrix.

ATP synthase
The electrochemical proton gradient across the inner
mitochondrial membrane is used to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi. The device that makes this
possible is ATP synthase. ATP synthase can also operate in reverse — using the energy of ATP hydrolysis
to pump protons “uphill,” against their electrochemical gradient across the membrane.
The synthesis of ATP is not the only process driven by
the electrochemical proton gradient in mitochondria.
Many small, charged molecules, such as pyruvate,
ADP, and inorganic phosphate are imported into the
mitochondrial matrix from the cytosol, while others,
such as ATP, must be transported in the opposite
direction. An antiport carrier protein exploits the
voltage gradient to export ATP from the mitochondrial
matrix and to bring ADP in.
Summary
» Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and many prokaryotes generate energy by a membrane-based mechanism
known as chemiosmotic coupling, which involves using an electrochemical proton gradient to drive the
synthesis of ATP.
» Mitochondria have an inner and an outer membrane. The inner membrane encloses the mitochondrial
matrix, where the citric acid cycle produces large amounts of NADH and FADH2 from the oxidation of
acetyl CoA.
» In the inner mitochondrial membrane, high-energy electrons donated by NADH and FADH2 pass along
an electron-transport chain and eventually combine with molecular oxygen to form water.
» Much of the energy released by electron transfers along the electron-transport chain is harnessed to
pump protons (H+) out of the matrix, creating an electrochemical proton gradient. The proton pumping
is carried out by three large respiratory enzyme
complexes embedded in the inner membrane.
» The electrochemical proton gradient across the inner
mitochondrial membrane is harnessed to make ATP
when protons move back into the matrix through an
ATP synthase located in the inner membrane.