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Book 1.indb 1 11/18/16 3:09 PM
 Ceiling Attenuation Class 28 Organization of the Industry 47
Sound Absorption Coefficient 28 Selection Criteria 48
Managing Sound 28 Specifying 48
Live and Dead 28 Inspection 48
Decibel Reduction 29 Related Materials 48
Attenuation 29 Paints and Plasters 48
Products 30 Sample Spec 3.1 49
Ceiling Systems 31 Top Coatings for Wood 50
Wall Systems 31 Other Coatings 50
Floor Systems 32 Wallcoverings 52
Other Material Solutions 32 Wallcovering Materials 52
Door Systems 33 Paper 52
Specifying 33 Facing Materials Other than Paper 53
Sample Spec 2.1 33 Other Product Characteristics 56
Installation 34 Custom Colorways
Inspection 34 for Wallcovering 56
Summary 34 Backings 56
Web Search Activities 34 Ratings Applicable to Wallcoverings 57
Personal Activities 34 Ratings for All Wallcoverings 57
Summary Questions 34 Ratings for Commercial
Vinyl Wallcoverings 57
Chapter 3: Production 57
Paints, Coatings, Sizes and Estimating 58
Estimating 58
and Wallcoverings 35
Calculating Quantities
Key Terms 35 for Cost Comparisons 58
Objectives 35 Qualifying Installers 59
Paint Materials 36 Obtaining an Estimate 60
Primers 36 Installation 61
Paint 36 Prepwork 61
Paint for Special Surfaces 36 Protection/Maintenance 61
Characteristics 37 Safety 62
Primers 37 Sustainability 62
Paint 37 Managing Budgets 62
Related Work 39 Organization of the Industry 62
Qualifying Installers 39 Selection Criteria 63
Installation 40 Specifying 63
Prepwork 40 Sample Spec 3.2 64
Typical Process 42 Inspection 65
Special Finishes 43 Related Material 65
Protection/Maintenance 46 Summary 66
Safety 46 Web Search Activities 66
Sustainability 46 Personal Activities 67
Managing Budgets 46 Summary Questions 67

extended table of contents

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 Chapter 4: Soft Goods 99
Textiles, Window Window Treatments 99
Lining 103
­Treatments, and Soft Goods 69
Qualifying Installers and Fabricators 107
Key Terms 69 Upholstery 112
Objectives 69 Bedding and Pillows 112
Material 70 Cushions 112
Components 72 Inspecting the Fabric Application 112
Fiber 72 Sustainability of Fabrics and Leather 112
Yarn 74 Upcoming Technologies for Textiles 114
Construction 76 Summary 114
Weave 76 Web Search Activities 114
Knits and Felted Fabrics 84 Personal Activities 114
Finishing 85 Summary Questions 115
Mercerizing 85
Bleaching 85 Chapter 5:
Dyeing 86
Carpeting and Area Rugs 117
Printing 86
Embossing 88 Key Terms 117
Flocking 88 Objectives 117
Calendering 88 Carpet 118
Crushing 89 Material and Characteristics 118
Glazing 89 Natural Fibers 118
Optical Brighteners 89 Synthetic Fibers 119
Soil Retardants 90 Yarn 121
Heat Setting 90 Denier and Ply 122
Flame Retardants and Construction Methods 122
Antimicrobial Finishes 90 Tufting 123
Singed 90 Weaving 123
Napping or Brushing 90 Flocking 123
Quilting 90 Fusion Bonding 124
Embroidery 91 Knitting 124
Uses and Implications for Selections 91 Needle-Punched 124
Protection and Maintenance 92 Modular Tiles 124
Backings 92 Other Processes 124
Polymerization Treatments 93 Colors and Patterns 125
Nanotechnology 93 Predyed 125
Cleaning Codes 93 Postdyed 125
Safety 93 Backing 126
Safety Codes 93 Pads 126
Managing Budgets 94 Qualifying Installers 127
Organization of the Industry 94 Installation 128
Selection Criteria 95 Checking the Seaming Diagram 128
Related Material 95 Tackless Installation 129
Leather 95 Glue-Down Installation 129

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 Meeting Adjacent Flooring Care and Maintenance 148
Materials 129 Restoration 148
Installation on Stairs 130 Safety 148
Stair Rods 130 Sustainability 148
Installation Sequence 131 Managing Budgets 148
Installation of Carpet Tiles 131 Organization of the Industry 150
Protection and Maintenance 132 Village Rugs 150
Safety 132 City Rugs 150
Allergens and Carpet 132 Vendors 150
Outgassing 133 Local Artisans 150
Sustainability 133 Dealer Services 150
Managing Client Budgets 133 Selection Criteria 150
Confirming the Estimate 133 Specifying 150
Organization of the Industry 134 Inspection 151
Selection Criteria 135 Related Products 151
Specifying 135 Summary 151
Sample Spec 5.1 136 Sample Spec 5.2 152
Inspection 137 Web Search Activities 153
Related Material 138 Personal Activities 153
Area Rugs 138 Summary Questions 153
Categorizing Area Rugs 138
Ready-Made Rugs 138 Chapter 6:
Semicustom Pile Rugs 138 Wood 155
Pieced Rugs 138
Floor Cloths 139 Key Terms 155
Rag Rugs 139 Objectives 155
Hand-Tufted 140 Solid Wood 156
Woven Rugs—Other Materials 140 Material Makeup or Content 156
Hooked Rugs 140 Characteristics 157
Braided Rugs 140 Products Commonly Made from Wood 159
Felt Rugs 140 New Flooring 160
Tapestry Rugs 140 Solid Wood Planks for Walls and Floors 160
Needlepoint Rugs 141 Parquet Blocks 160
Orientals 141 Existing Wood Flooring 160
Assessing Products 142 Flooring Accessories 161
Size 142 Architectural Trims 162
Material Quality 142 Doors 165
Determining Value 143 Staircases 166
Age 143 Fabrication 166
Wear 143 Floors 167
Design Aspects 143 Architectural Wood Trims 167
Construction Issues 144 Doors 168
Repairs 144 Stairs 169
Knot Count 145 Finishing Processes 169
Fabrication 146 Special Processes 169
Finding a Rug 148 Colorants 169

extended table of contents

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 Qualifying Installers and Suppliers 170 Installation 190
Manufacturers 170 Protection and Maintenance 191
Custom Fabricators 171 Safety 191
Carpenters 171 Sustainability 192
Installation 171 Managing Budgets 192
Floors 171 Organization of the Industry 192
Architectural Millwork Trims 172 Working with Fabricators 193
Doors 173 Selection Criteria 194
Stairs 173 Specifying 196
Protection and Maintenance 173 Inspection 196
Floors 173 Sample Spec 6.2 197
Safety 173 Related Material 198
Doors 173 Summary 198
Stairs 174 Web Search Activities 198
Sustainability 174 Personal Activities 199
Forest Stewardship Council 174 Summary Questions 199
Reclaimed Wood 175
Managing Budgets 175 Chapter 7:
Organization of the Industry 175 Resilient Flooring 201
Selection Criteria 177
Specifying 177 Key Terms 201
Inspection 178 Objectives 201
Floors 178 Material 202
Sample Spec 6.1 179 Characteristics 202
Inspection for Doors 180 Linoleum 202
Inspection for Trims 180 Cork 203
Inspection for Staircases 180 Leather 203
Related Material 180 Vinyl 205
Door Accessories 180 Rubber 206
Stair Accessories 182 Polyolefin 208
Wood Veneers 182 Parts and Accessories 209
Material Makeup or Content 182 Site Considerations 210
Characteristics 183 Moisture Control 210
Grain 183 Subflooring 210
Figuring 183 Existing Floor as Substrate 211
Color 184 Qualifying Installers 211
Veneer Grades 184 Installation 212
Parts and Accessories 184 Protection and Maintenance 213
Fabrication 184 Safety 213
Cuts 185 Sustainability 213
Patterns 186 Managing Budgets 214
Pattern Matching 187 Organization of the Industry 214
Panel Matching 187 Selection Criteria 214
Finishing Veneered Pieces 188 Specifying 214
Special Techniques 189 Sample Spec 7.1 215
Qualifying Installers 190 Inspection 216

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 Related Material 216 Inspection 232
Summary 216 Related Material 232
Web Search Activities 216 Summary 232
Personal Activities 217 Web Search Activities 232
Summary Questions 217 Personal Activities 233
Summary Questions 233
Chapter 8:
Plastic Materials 219 Chapter 9:
Glass 235
Key Terms 219
Objectives 219 Key Terms 235
Plastic 220 Objectives 235
Material Makeup or Content 220 Glass 236
Acrylic 220 Material 236
Solid Surfacing and Engineered Stone 220 Characteristics 236
Plastic Laminates 221 Properties 236
Thermally Fused Foils 222 Parts and Accessories 239
Decorative and 2D Foils 222 Fabrication 240
Rigid Thermofoils 222 Float Glass 240
Characteristics 223 Cast Glass 240
Acrylic 223 Laminated Glass 240
Solid Surfacing 223 Tempered Glass 241
High-Pressure Laminate 224 Chemically Strengthened
Low-Pressure Laminate 224 Glass 242
Parts and Accessories 224 Patterned Glass 242
Substrates 225 Wire Glass 242
Edging 225 Glass Block 242
Accessories 225 Surfaces 242
Fabrication 225 Edges 244
Bonding 225 Qualifying Installers 245
Material-Specific Considerations 226 Installation 245
High-Pressure Plastic Laminate 226 Protection and Maintenance 246
Thermofoil 226 Safety 246
Qualifying Installers 227 Sustainability 246
Acrylic 227 Managing Budgets 247
Solid Surfacing and Laminate 227 Organization of the Industry 247
Install ation 227 Selection Criteria 247
Protection and Maintenance 227 Specifying 247
Safety 228 Inspection 247
Sustainability 228 Sample Spec 9.1 248
Managing Budgets 229 Related Material 249
Organization of the Industry 229 Summary 249
Selection Criteria 230 Web Search Activities 249
Specifying 230 Personal Activities 249
Sample Spec 8.1 231 Summary Questions 250

extended table of contents

xii

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 Chapter 10: Tile 270
Metals 251 Material Makeup or Content 270
Clay 270
Key Terms 251 Glass 272
Objectives 251 Stone 273
Material Makeup or Content 252 Concrete 273
Characteristics of Various Metals 252 Metal 274
Ferrous Metal 252 Composite 274
Nonferrous Metal 253 Characteristics 274
Parts and Accessories 254 Unglazed Tiles 274
Forming Metal 254 Glazed Tiles 276
Sheets 254 Visual Character 276
Plate 255 Spacing 277
Cast Forms 255 Parts and Accessories 277
Pipes and Tubes 255 Fabrication 277
Extruded 256 Layout 278
Spun 257 Qualifying Installers 278
Welding and Soldering 257 Installation 279
Weaving 258 Prior to Setting 279
Finishes 258 Setting the Tile 279
Qualifying Custom Fabricators 259 Protection and Maintenance 281
Installation 259 Safety 282
Protection and Maintenance 259 Sustainability 282
Plating 260 Managing Budgets 282
Coatings 260 Organization of the Industry 283
Problems with Coatings 261 Selection Criteria 284
Safety 262 Specifying 284
Sustainability 262 Sample Spec 11.1 285
Salvaged Metal 262 Inspection 286
Managing Budgets 263 Related Material 286
Organization of the Industry 263 Brick 286
Selection Criteria 263 Composition 286
Specifying 263 Characteristics 286
Sample Spec 10.1 264 Dimensional Brick 287
Inspecting for Quality 265 Brick Pavers 288
Related Material 266 Brick Veneers 288
Summary 266 Parts and Accessories 288
Web Search Activities 266 Fabrication 289
Summary Questions 266 Finishes 289
Qualifying Installers 290
Chapter 11: Installation 290
Tile and Brick 269 Mortar Joints 290
Horizontal Installations 291
Key Terms 269
Brick Orientations 291
Objectives 269

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 Protection and Maintenance 293 Organization of the Industry 314
Safety 293 Selection Criteria 316
Sustainability 293 Specifying 317
Managing Budgets 294 Sample Spec 12.1 318
Organization of the Industry 295 Inspection 319
Selection Criteria 295 Working with Resources 319
Specifying 295 Summary 319
Related Material 295 Web Search Activities 319
Sample Spec 11.2 296 Personal Activities 320
Summary 297 Summary Questions 320
Web Search Activities 297
Personal Activities 298 Chapter 13:
Summary Questions 298 Terrazzo, Composites,
and Concrete 321
Chapter 12:
Stone 299 Key Terms 321
Objectives 321
Key Terms 299 Terrazzo and Similar Composites 322
Objectives 299 Material 322
Characteristics 300 Aggregate 322
Identifying Stone Characteristics 301 Matrix/Binder 324
Visual and Functional Characteristics 301 Characteristics 324
Tests of Physical Characteristics 302 Parts and Accessories 325
Stone Species 302 Precast Items 325
Granite 302 Divider Strips 326
Soapstone 303 Fabrication Considerations 327
Marble 303 Substrates 327
Serpentine 304 Curing and Finishing 327
Travertine 304 Qualifying Installers 328
Slate 305 Experience 328
Limestone 305 Credentials and Training 328
Quartzite 306 References 328
Onyx 306 Installation 328
Options to Specify 307 Protection and Maintenance 329
Surface Textures 307 Safety 329
Profiles 309 Sustainability 330
Match 310 Managing Budgets 330
Grade 310 Organization of the Industry 330
Sealants 311 Selection Criteria 330
Penetrating Sealant 311 Specifying 331
Topdressings 311 Sample Spec 13.1 332
Managing Budgets 312 Related Material 333
Protection and Maintenance 312 Artificial Stone 333
Qualifying Tradespeople 313 Concrete 333
Safety 313 Material 333
Sustainability 314 Characteristics 334

extended table of contents

xiv

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 Forms 334 Products 356
Precast 334 Laminate and Engineered Flooring 356
Surfaces 334 Laminated Stone 357
Stock or Custom 336 Characteristics 359
Toppings 337 Wood Products 359
Finishes 337 Stone Veneer 360
Textures 337 Resilient Products 361
Pigment 338 Other Surfaces 361
Sealants 339 Accessories 361
Installation 341 Fabrication 361
Managing Budgets 344 Qualifying Installers 362
Qualifying Installers 344 Installation 362
Safety 344 Laminated Floor Products 362
Sustainability 345 Stone Veneer Products 363
Organization of the Industry 345 Modular Systems 363
Selection Criteria 345 Custom Installations 364
Specifying 345 Protection and Maintenance 364
Sample Spec 13.2 346 Safety 364
Inspection 347 Sustainability 364
Related Material 347 Managing Budgets 365
Grouts and Mortars 348 Organization of the Industry 366
Summary 350 Selection Criteria 366
Web Search Activities 350 Specifying 367
Personal Activities 350 Sample Spec 14.1 367
Summary Questions 351 Inspection 368
Related Material 368
Chapter 14: Summary 369
Laminated Web Search Activities 369
Summary Questions 369
Materials 353
Key Terms 353 Glossary 371
Objectives 353
Laminated Materials 354
Basic Metric Conversion Table 381
Material Makeup or Content 354 Index 383
Substrates for Laminated Products 354
Facing Materials 356

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 xvi

Book 1.indb 16 11/18/16 3:09 PM

 Preface
I
nterior design students are required to understand
many issues in their work, such as methods for best
practice, software platforms for developing and com-
municating design, strategies for researching and incor-
porating new ideas and approaches, and new materials.
This is a nuts-and-bolts subject that deserves the most
straightforward presentation. The idea behind this book
is to give the new designer a working knowledge of sur-
facing materials and a logical basis for evaluating perfor-
mance issues, selecting, and specifying. Globalization,
sustainability, and toxicity are important conversations
within the material topics and are integrated into the
chapters to help students make connections between
the material and these issues.
The format of the information is standardized
between chapters, so students can easily revisit por-
tions of the various materials chapters. Where possible,
information has been converted to tables and charts for
fast assimilation, and topics address the materials more
concisely.
Pedagogical features allow for quick introduction
to concepts and information that can be presented in
smaller chunks and do not require lengthy background
information to comprehend. These features appear as
Helpful Hints, Consideration, For the Connoisseur, Cau-
tionary Tales and New Technologies. Helpful Hints are
quick tips for managing a portion of the process. Consid-
eration further explain some nuance or expand on a spe-
cific instance. For the Connoisseur share some popularly
held valuations or preferences. Cautionary Tales provide
xvii
Book 1.indb 17
an opportunity to see the often hidden implications
for material characteristics. New Technologies highlight
important new industry products and developments.
Shop Visits engage students’ curiosity. Web Search Activi-
ties and Personal Activities for each chapter encourage
students to apply newly gained knowledge, and ending
Summary Questions test comprehension of topics dis-
cussed in the chapter. This new edition also includes a
glossary of definitions for important Key Terms that are
listed at the beginning of each chapter and bolded at
first mention within the text.
The specification format used by the industry for
the building and design industry is used in every chapter
so that students can comprehend how it is adapted to
every material that they read about. A textiles section
addresses the needs of students in programs where
textiles is not a separate course or an elective. It gives
students a working knowledge of fiber chemistry and
the various characteristics of fabrics that affect perfor-
mance. This chapter will also be a good overview for
students who intend to study fabrics in more depth in a
class devoted to fabrics alone.
Interior Design Materials
and Specifications
New for this edition is an online multimedia resource—
Interior Design Materials and Specifications .
The online is specially developed to
11/18/16 3:09 PM
 complement this book with rich media ancillaries that
students can adapt to their visual learning styles to bet-
ter master concepts and improve grades. Within the
, students will be able to
• Study smarter with self-quizzes featuring scored
results and personalized study tips
• Review concepts with flashcards of essential
vocabulary
access cards are offered free with new book
purchases and also sold separately through Bloomsbury
Fashion Central (www.BloomsburyFashionCentral
.com).
Instructor Resources
• Instructor’s Guide This updated and revised guide
offers creative approaches to classroom activi-
ties, assignments, and discussions. It explains in
Acknowledgments
I
am very grateful to the reviewers for their critique of
the second edition: Kristi D. Julian, Eastern ­Tennessee
State University; Holly Page-Sagehorn, Pittsburg
State University; Amanda Gale, Auburn University;
Diane Kitchell, Harrington College of Design; and Sara
Smereka, Henry Ford College.
Their comments became the basis for many of the
improvements that we made. Thank you, Joe Miranda,
senior development manager, who contributed mightily
to the organization, guided the process, and refined the
chapter organization for a more logical presentation.
Thanks a million to Edie Weinberg for all of her sug-
gestions and guidance for the visual information in the
acknowledgments
xviii
Book 1.indb 18
full ­detail the pedagogical approach of the text,
including the principles associated with brain-
­
based learning.
• Test Bank includes multiple choice and essay ques-
tions for every chapter.
• PowerPoint® presentations include images from
the book and provide a framework for lecture and
discussion.
• Expanded schedules, lesson plans, and class activities
assist in planning and suggest activities to rein-
force the material in the text as well as address the
Council for Interior Design Accreditation (CIDA)
expectations where the material can contribute to
fulfilling the organization’s standards.
• Connections to CIDA This matrix identifies the
connection between content in each chapter and
CIDA’s professional standards.
Instructor’s Resources may be accessed through
Bloomsbury Fashion Central (www.BloomsburyFashion
Central.com).
third edition. The beautiful new cover was designed by
Liron Gilenberg/ironicitalics.com.
Bloomsbury Publishing wishes to gratefully acknowl-
edge and thank the editorial team involved in the publica-
tion of this book:
Acquisitions Editor: Noah Schwartzberg
Development Manager: Joseph Miranda
Assistant Editor: Kiley Kudrna
Art Development Editor: Edie Weinberg
In-House Designer: Eleanor Rose
Production Manager: Claire Henry
Project Manager: Christopher Black
11/18/16 3:09 PM
 Chapter 1

Making Material
Selections

Key Terms
Air changes per hour Leadership in Energy Specify
(ACH) and Environmental Sustainable
Best practices Design (LEED) Synthesis
Carcinogens Low-E glass Third-party testing
Coefficient of friction Outgas Trombe wall
Commissioning agents Particulates Volatile organic
Critical radiant flux (CRF) Passive solar compounds
Ecosystems Sick building (VOCs)
Flammability syndrome
Green Specification

Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Learn about important material characteristics that will pertain to all
materials in your project’s design program.
• Learn how building codes and health and sustainability guidelines affect
your material choices.
• Understand how to evaluate testing data that confirms your selections
comply with requirements.
• Understand when and how to produce material costs for your clients.
• Understand the different spec formats and when they are used.
• Understand the supply chain and all the people that you will interact with
when specifying materials.
• Understand the process of selecting, specifying, and implementing your
designs.

Book 1.indb 1 11/18/16 3:09 PM

 Understanding the content of this chapter will give you
a foothold on how to evaluate the material selections
that you make for your clients’ projects.
Entry-level designers are typically responsible for
researching and comparing material selections and
working with their project manager to determine the
best from among all options discovered. For this reason,
it is very important for your career that you understand
how to evaluate options so you are presenting the best
choices to the rest of your design team. There are rea-
sons provided by codes and standards as well as reasons
defined by your specific project that will indicate which
materials are the best for your job.
Understanding the content of and the difference
between codes, standards, and guidelines helps you
prioritize your criteria for making material selections.
Codes are required conditions on completed project
sites. Building safety and fire codes describe these man-
datory characteristics. Standards are consistent methods
for testing or performance measurements. The Ameri-
can National Standards Institute (ANSI), American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE), and American Society for Test-
ing and Materials (ASTM) are a few examples of orga-
nizations that develop standards you will reference.
Guidelines are a way of configuring or detailing your
designs to achieve a desired result. The Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) mandates that you incorporate
the ADA Accessibility Guidelines in your designs for
public spaces. The National Kitchen and Bath Associa-
tion (NKBA) also has guidelines for best practices when
designing kitchens and baths. There is no law mandat-
ing that you must use NKBA standards, as there is in
the case of the ADA, but when you design kitchens and
baths, your designs will be more functional if you do.
As interior designers, we cannot always satisfy all
our requirements for a material. We need to prioritize
characteristics in order of importance so we can make
the best decisions. You must satisfy those conditions
that are mandated by law and, after those mandates
are satisfied, you will also include other standards and
guidelines among your considerations.
When evaluating materials, interior designers rely
on testing and recommendations of numerous parties.
They do not perform their own material tests, but they
are still responsible for the health, safety, and welfare of
their clients. Designers must carefully scrutinize third-
party testing data and recommendations to be sure the
C h a p t e r 1 M a k i n g
Book 1.indb 2
information upon which they make important decisions
is reliable and objective.
Designs that you create will be implemented only
if they fall within budget constraints. It is something
of a juggling act to distribute project resources among
hundreds of project decisions. Completed projects not
only meet your client needs but also build your reputa-
tion. Projects that run out of money fail to satisfy your
clients’ needs, damage your reputation, and cast a bad
light on interior designers generally, so it is imperative
that you fulfill project goals while managing client bud-
gets responsibly.
Guidelines
Many influences beyond client preference guide the
designer’s selections, so it is helpful to understand the
distinctions between the various guidelines that you will
reference. While codes are always mandatory and are
considered to be the minimum standard of practice, and
rating systems are usually voluntary, guidelines are often
referenced to help designers exceed the minimum and
work toward best practices. Guidelines are frequently
referenced in code and rating system requirements. To
understand this better, consider the International Build-
ing Code (IBC). It is a guideline that was developed
as a model code, and it references standards in other
guidelines to explain performance minimums that it
requires. Individual jurisdictions may adopt parts of the
IBC for their own local codes. Your material selections
must comply with local building codes.
Building Code
Designers specify materials for surfaces and items that
are installed in spaces that are governed by building
codes and accessibility requirements as stipulated by
the ADA. Both codes and the ADA are mandatory for
your selections.
Most local codes are based on model codes like
the IBC. The IBC is the most commonly used model
code that individual jurisdictions have utilized to create
their own local building codes. It was developed by the
International Code Council (ICC), a nonprofit, non-
governmental organization.
Codes vary in stringency by location and occu-
pancy class (building use, such as lodging or mercan-
tile), increasing in stringency when risk goes up. Spaces
M at e r i a l S e l e c t i o n S
11/18/16 3:09 PM
 lightly regulated:
Private space (like a residence) in
stand-alone buildings (vs.an apartment
or condo building)
Used by able-bodied adults who are
familiar with the premises
(inhabitants stay for long duration)
Use presents no exceptional hazards
Figure 1.1 The spectrum of code stringency makes logical sense. This makes it easy to wrap your brain around the material
restrictions that will apply to your project.
where users may be unfamiliar with the building and
its exits, where vulnerable populations exist (such as
the young or infirm), and that contain high-hazard
areas (like restaurant kitchens) are subject to codes that
are stricter than for low-risk spaces like a single-family
home. Figure 1.1 illustrates the gradation.
Your career may take you into areas of design
where you will evaluate selections for their resistance to
impact and explosions and other less common hazards
that are also governed by code. For the purposes of this
general topic, we will be addressing the most typical
situations. Remember that every jurisdiction develops
its own code, so codes vary slightly from one jurisdiction
to another. You will need to follow the local code for the
project location.
Your commercial project must comply with the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The ADA
defines mandatory guidelines that must be met to
accommodate people with disabilities. These guidelines
do not vary with jurisdiction; the same requirements
apply across the nation.
Many guidelines pertaining to interior design work
govern size and configuration of spaces, but our focus
here is on finishes and items that designers specify.
Guidelines pertain to
• Fire resistance
• Slip resistance
• Ability to be cleaned or sanitized
G uidelines
Book 1.indb 3
Heavily regulated:
Public spaces shared by a variety of
people both publicly-owned (like schools)
and privately-owned (like restaurants)
Spaces that serve vulnerable populations
(like children or sick people)
Hazardous materials or processes are
contained
• Ease of use (particularly in panic situations)
• Visibility
• Air quality
Fire safety codes stipulate resistance to flame. Flame
spread ratings vary through Classes A, B, and C, with
Class A being the most stringent against flame develop-
ment and C being the least. All building and surfacing
materials are governed by codes for commercial instal-
lations, and codes also govern many residential surfaces.
Testing that proves the material you specify meets
minimum code standards should be done by third-party
organizations such as Underwriters Laboratory (UL).
Third-party testers should have no connection to the
company’s products so that they are impartial. Build-
ing code, also referred to as life/safety code, includes
items and surfaces that you specify, such as floors, walls,
ceiling surfaces, doors, stairs, ramps, and furnishings.
­Flammability is one of the biggest concerns for designers
specifying surfacing.
Test methods include the following:
Methenamine pill: The methenamine pill test tests mate-
rials’ resistance to a burning object that falls on them.
A pill is placed on the material and ignited. Seven out
of eight samples must resist burning out from the center.
Measured from center to the edge of the burn, the flame
must be extinguished in less than 8 inches.
11/18/16 3:09 PM
 Steiner tunnel test: The Steiner tunnel test involves
a 25-foot chamber and gas jets. The material is
­adhered to the top of the chamber, and gas jets
burn for 10 minutes. The distance of burn indicates
the rating from 0 to 200. Asbestos is 0; oak flooring
is 100, considered a moderate burn rate. Class A
­materials have a flame spread rating of 0 to 25;
Class B, from 26 to 75; and Class C, from 76 to 200.
Class D ranges from 200 to 500. Class D material
is not permitted even in one-family and two-family
dwellings. Class D decorative paneling has been
implicated in a number of fatal fires.
Chamber test: The chamber test is similar to the
Steiner tunnel test, but material is placed on the
floor of the chamber. The rating system has only
two classifications, B and C, so a descriptive scale is
difficult. Also, the relationship between the rating
and fire spread has not been proven.
Radiant panel test: The radiant panel test entails
placing a sample on the floor of the test chamber
and heating the sample using a gas-fired panel
mounted at an angle over it. The amount of energy
required to sustain flame in the sample is measured
and described as critical radiant flux or CRF (flux
here refers to the flow of heat energy). The greater
the energy required, the higher the number, mean-
ing more resistance to flame, so low numbers indi-
cate higher flammability. This test is usually used
for flooring materials.
ADA Requirements
In addition to regulating space planning and clearance
issues, the ADA governs product and material selec-
tion with the aim of creating environments that can be
safely used by people with disabilities. The following are
examples of how product selections that you will make
to complete your project will be governed by the ADA.
Flooring materials:
• These materials must be level and flush with sur-
rounding surfaces.
• Slip resistance must meet a coefficient of friction
greater than 0.6.
• Changes in height ¼ inch or less require no transi-
tion, but changes up to ½ inch require a beveled
C h a p t e r 1 M a k i n g
Book 1.indb 4
transition, and changes greater than ½ inch require
a ramp.
• Carpet may have a maximum pile height of ½ inch
and must be fastened along all edges.
Sustainability
Green design includes sustainable site planning, pollu-
tion prevention, restoration of urban and habitat sites,
accessibility of public or alternative transportation
options by building occupants, storm water runoff man-
agement, reduction of heat island effects, maximization
of open space, reduction of light pollution, water-use
reduction, energy conservation, recycling, conserva-
tion of materials, sustainable practices and materials,
attention to toxicity and general occupant health, and
utilization of daylight in interior spaces.
Material considerations are important, not just in
the sustainable characteristics of the materials themselves
but also in the assembly of the materials into building
components that work together to create sustainable
options. Energy-efficient windows are an example of
such a construction: two panes of specially formulated or
coated low-E glass are separated by an insulating space.
Material considerations are also part of integrated design
elements interacting with each other in the environ-
ment. For instance, dense materials assist passive solar
systems by absorbing radiant heat from the sun during
the day and releasing it at night, evening out the load
on heating systems with constructions such as a trombe
wall or dense flooring material. Building in accordance
with sustainable principles is no longer an option because
many building codes now require sustainable solutions.
The United States Green Building Council
(USGBC) has been a leader in defining sustainable
principles, having developed the Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED) system for evalu-
ating the effectiveness of building designs in achieving
sustainability. This system is separate from building
codes, and compliance with LEED standards is optional.
The LEED system awards points for meeting specified
criteria. Buildings can achieve a silver, gold, or platinum
certification depending on how many sustainable char-
acteristics are incorporated into the design.
Green, or sustainable, materials and products you
specify will have one or more of the characteristics from
Table 1.1. The more green characteristics that a product
exemplifies, the greener it is.
M at e r i a l S e l e c t i o n S
11/18/16 3:09 PM
 Table 1.1
Several characteristics contribute to a material’s sustainability. An ideal material would meet all criteria but such a material is rare.
Characteristic Meaning
Renewable More of the material can be produced.
Plant or animal based so can grow more.
Recycled content that will continue to become available.
Sustainable The time and resources needed to produce the material.
Recyclable The material can be put to some other use at the end of its
current use.
Recycled Material that would have gone to a landfill is used as an ingredient in new products.
Down-cycling—Used products are turned into items of less
value than the original item.
Up-cycling—Used products are turned into items of
greater value than the original item.
Cradle-to-cradle—Old products turned into new versions
of themselves.
Postconsumer—The item has been used and was destined for
a landfill when it was diverted from the waste stream into a
new purpose.
Preconsumer—Scraps from production are cycled back into
the material stream at a fabricator’s place of manufacture.
Durable This refers to the physical fitness of the material for its
intended location as well as the longevity of its design.
Adaptability The item can be reused in its current form in a new
location.
Low-embodied Little energy was consumed in producing and transport-
energy ing the item. Materials that are regionally manufactured or
regionally harvested.
Sustainably The material does not require excessive maintenance for
maintained its location.
Nontoxic Compounds that are unhealthy for humans and the envi-
ronment are not used.
Biodegradable Material that will deteriorate harmlessly into safe
components.
Carbon neutral Production of the material does not increase the amount of
greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Remanufactured Material that is reworked to extend its life.
Reuse Secondhand items salvaged from other sites.
When researching how green a product is, consider
not only the product characteristics but also the manu-
facture, installation, use, maintenance, removal and
disposal. Is it green along the course of its entire life?
The life of the goods includes the following:
A D A R equirements
Book 1.indb 5
Examples
Lumber, jute, leather
Managed forestry
Used concrete can be broken and become aggregate in new
concrete work
Old carpet turned into car bumpers for parking lots
Recycled newspaper turned into solid surfacing for
countertops
Carpet fiber reclaimed and turned into new carpet fiber
Aluminum cans recycled into aluminum for storm doors
Glass trimmings from production are melted into new
batches of glass
Stone mosaics in the Pantheon
Carpet tiles moved to a new facility
Using stone from a local quarry rather than an overseas
source
Porcelain tile that can be easily maintained without the
use of noxious chemicals
Specify inert components that do not off-gas VOCs so they
do not affect indoor air quality (IAQ)
Specify plant-based materials that are not treated with toxic
chemicals and will degrade into harmless components when
exposed to living organisms if possible
Select materials that have low energy use or manufacturers
that offset carbon dioxide by, say, planting trees
Carpeting is one example of a material that can be overprinted
to refresh its appearance if it “uglies out” before it wears out
Architectural salvage and furniture have established markets
so convenient reuse of some product categories is available
• Harvesting raw material—Is the source location dev-
astated or remediated after raw material is collected?
• Manufacturing—Were environmental consider-
ations such as pollution and water and energy use
addressed in the manufacturing process?
11/18/16 3:09 PM
 • Packing and shipping—Was minimal packaging
used, and were shipping distances short?
• Preparation and installation—Was minimal site
prep required, and was it free of chemicals that
outgas?
• Use and maintenance—Can it be used without
damaging people and the environment and be
maintained without solvents?
• Removal and disposal—Can it be removed without
excessive damage and reused or recycled?
Nontoxic Materials
Sustainable design has quite naturally assumed the issue
of toxicity (the degree to which a substance is poison-
ous) within its domain, since what is bad for our systems
is often also bad for ecosystems. This materials topic
centers on volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the
chemical sensitivities of individuals, and carcinogens.
Because VOCs are volatile, they can change
states from a solid or liquid to a gas. These gasses and
particulates together affect indoor air quality (IAQ).
The solvents in paint thinner are an example of such
compounds. You would never dream of sipping these
solvents from a cup, but you are ingesting them when
you breathe the fumes of these volatile compounds after
they have changed from a liquid to a gas. Because these
compounds are organic, they can interact with our bod-
ies’ processes and mechanisms. There is a wide range of
tolerance among different people. Some people’s bodies
react dramatically to chemicals in their environment,
whereas others report no ill effects because of their bod-
ies’ current ability to achieve a healthy stasis. While
IAQ can be improved with more sophisticated venti-
lation equipment that manages how much fresh air is
provided—air changes per hour or ACH—it is much
better to specify materials that do not emit VOCs.
Sick building syndrome is another issue related to
air quality. For a variety of reasons, some buildings have
a higher incidence of illness among the people who work
or live in them. Often the culprit is mold in HVAC ducts,
but chemicals in the air are also frequently to blame.
Common Carcinogens
While the following list is not exhaustive, carcinogens
and other toxic materials often specified by interior
designers include the following:
C h a p t e r 1 M a k i n g
Book 1.indb 6
• Antimony—Found in fire-retardant finishes—is an
ingredient in halides, used in flame retardants.
• Arsenic—Found in pressure-treated lumber—is a
naturally occurring heavy metal used as a preserva-
tive. Long-term exposure to arsenic has been linked
to cancer of the bladder, lungs, skin, kidneys, nasal
passages, liver, and prostate.
• Bisphenol A (BPA)—Found in paints, coatings,
and adhesives—is responsible for reproductive
dysfunction.
• Cadmium—Found in plastics and pigments—is a
heavy metal used in pigments for red, orange, and
yellow and causes brittle bones and kidney damage.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—Found in solvents—
are a synthetic chemical that react with chemicals
high in the atmosphere, resulting in the depletion
of the earth’s protective ozone layer.
• Dioxin—Generated during the manufacture of
materials containing polyvinyl chloride (flooring,
wallcoverings, paint, plastic liners, etc.) and in
bleaching and incineration as part of the produc-
tion of materials used in interiors—is a component
of plastic released when it breaks down or is burned
in landfills. Dioxin is toxic and bioaccumulative
(not flushed from our bodies and does not break
down in the food chain) and causes endocrine
problems.
• Formaldehyde—Found in sheet building products,
textile resins, and glues—is a cancer-causing,
volatile organic compound outgassed in paints, glue
­adhesives, and laminates.
• Furans—Found in some grouting products, in the
energy derived from burning fuel, and used in the
synthesis of nylon—are bioaccumulative toxins
that are also suspected carcinogens.
• Halogenated compounds—Commonly used to make
flame retardants and in polyurethane foam for
upholstery—are persistent bioaccumulative toxic
chemicals thought to cause neurological and repro-
ductive problems and are banned by the EU.
• Lead—Found in existing paint finishes—is a toxic,
bioaccumulative heavy metal.
• Mercury—Found in electrical switches and fluo-
rescent lamps—is a toxic, bioaccumulative heavy
metal.
M at e r i a l S e l e c t i o n S
11/18/16 3:09 PM
 • Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs)—Found in stain
repellents—are thought to cause thyroid problems
and some cancers.
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)—Used in paint,
plastic, and rubber—are bioaccumulative and are
cancer-causing in humans.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)—Common plastic,
70 ­percent of which is used in building industries
and found in fabric, furniture, and finishes—is
linked to the production of dioxin in the atmo-
sphere and requires many harmful additives (heavy
metals and plasticizers like phthalates).
According to the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), volatile organic compounds are up to
ten times more concentrated in interior environments
than in the open. Another problem being encountered
comes from the synergy or interaction between two or
more different chemicals. Two chemicals that may out-
gas are not problematic by themselves, but when they
meet each other, they bond, thus forming a chemical
with different properties than the two original constitu-
ents; this third chemical can be problematic.
Protection Against Toxins
Vigilance against toxins prompts us to
1. Specify inert material that will not chemically react
or interact with organic systems; material with no
VOCs.
2. Specify material that will outgas quickly or has had
enough time to outgas sufficiently.
3. Encapsulate toxic material in a nontoxic material.
Environmental Costs
Design and building decisions are always price driven.
The value of the result is compared to the cost of acquir-
ing it. This cost is typically evaluated in terms of dollars
alone, which is incomplete for obvious reasons. When
comparing two materials, you should consider a num-
ber of factors beyond cost. For example, materials and
finishes that outgas harm not only end users but also
the fabricators who handle them, and they poison the
environment.
T hird - P arty
Book 1.indb 7
Consideration 1.1
Toxicity directly addresses the effect that the
product’s “ingredients” have on the human
body, but interestingly enough, often the things
that are bad for human beings are also bad for
ecosystems. When you avoid toxic materials for
your client’s sake, you are usually preserving the
health of the environment as well.
When calculating the full costs, consider not only
the price in dollars but also the sustainability (minimi-
zation of harm to the ecological balance of the earth)
and social impacts. Sometimes companies circumvent
high environmental safety standards and workplace
safety standards in the United States by moving manu-
facturing to places where polluters are not prosecuted
and workers are not protected by laws requiring a living
wage or safe working conditions. Companies may locate
facilities in impoverished areas where they provide jobs,
but if they do not contribute to the formation of a stable
community in the process, they may pull out of that area
to find workers who will work for lower pay, for instance,
leaving it impoverished once more. Companies com-
mitted to sustainability also build stable communities
around them; it is not enough to say they are improving
an area just because they are currently providing people
with jobs. Costs in dollars, environmental impact, and
social costs should all be part of your accounting when
you compare potential materials and products for your
projects.
Third-Party Organizations
When you are evaluating products and materials, you
will look beyond claims made by manufacturers them-
selves, searching for third-party verification of claims of
sustainability, safety, and quality. There is a distinction
among first-party organizations that have an immediate
interest in a product, secondary organizations that have
an association with a product, and third-party organiza-
tions that have no interest in a particular product. For
example, for wood flooring, a first-party agent would be
the manufacturer of the flooring. A second-party agent
would be the National Wood Association, whose mem-
bers are people in the wood flooring industry. A third-
party agent would be an organization like the Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC), an independent, nonprofit
O rgani z ations
11/18/16 3:09 PM
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
votes—he contending for district elections, and the delegates to vote
individually. South Carolina was not represented in the convention.
After the first ballot Mr. Van Buren’s vote sensibly decreased, until
finally, Mr. James K. Polk, who was a candidate for the Vice-
Presidency, was brought forward and nominated unanimously for
the chief office. Mr. Geo. M. Dallas was chosen as his colleague for
the Vice-Presidency. The nomination of these gentlemen, neither of
whom had been mentioned until late in the proceedings of the
convention, for the offices for which they were finally nominated,
was a genuine surprise to the country. No voice in favor of it had
been heard; and no visible sign in the political horizon had
announced it.
The Whig convention nominated Henry Clay, for President; and
Theodore Frelinghuysen for Vice-President.
The main issues in the election which ensued, were mainly the
party ones of Whig and Democrat, modified by the tariff and Texas
questions. It resulted in the choice of the Democratic candidates,
who received 170 electoral votes as against 105 for their opponents;
the popular majority for the Democrats being 238,284, in a total vote
of 2,834,108. Mr. Clay received a larger popular vote than had been
given at the previous election for the Whig candidate, showing that
he would have been elected had he then been the nominee of his
party; though the popular vote at this election was largely increased
over that of 1840. It is conceded that the 36 electoral votes of New
York State gave the election to Mr. Polk. It was carried by a bare
majority; due entirely to the Gubernatorial candidacy of Mr. Silas
Wright, who had been mentioned for the vice-presidential
nomination in connection with Mr. Van Buren, but who declined it
after the sacrifice of his friend and colleague; and resigning his seat
in the Senate, became a candidate for Governor of New York. The
election being held at the same time as that for president, his name
and popularity brought to the presidential ticket more than enough
votes to make the majority that gave the electoral vote of the State to
the Democrats.
President Tyler’s annual and last message to Congress, in
December 1844, contained, (as did that of the previous year) an
elaborate paragraph on the subject of Texas and Mexico; the idea
being the annexation of the former to the Union, and the assumption
of her causes of grievance against the latter; and a treaty was pending
to accomplish these objects. The scheme for the annexation of Texas
was framed with a double aspect—one looking to the then pending
presidential election, the other to the separation of the Southern
States; and as soon as the rejection of the treaty was foreseen, and
the nominating convention had acted, the disunion aspect
manifested itself over many of the Southern States—beginning with
South Carolina. Before the end of May, a great meeting took place at
Ashley, in that State, to combine the slave States in a convention to
unite the Southern States to Texas, if Texas should not be received
into the Union; and to invite the President to convene Congress to
arrange the terms of the dissolution of the Union if the rejection of
the annexation should be persevered in. Responsive resolutions were
adopted in several States, and meetings held. The opposition
manifested, brought the movement to a stand, and suppressed the
disunion scheme for the time being—only to lie in wait for future
occasions. But it was not before the people only that this scheme for
a Southern convention with a view to the secession of the slave States
was a matter of discussion; it was the subject of debate in the Senate;
and there it was further disclosed that the design of the secessionists
was to extend the new Southern republic to the Californias.
The treaty of annexation was supported by all the power of the
administration, but failed; and it was rejected by the Senate by a two-
thirds vote against it. Following this, a joint resolution was early
brought into the House of Representatives for the admission of Texas
as a State of the Union, by legislative action; it passed the House by a
fair majority, but met with opposition in the Senate unless coupled
with a proviso for negotiation and treaty, as a condition precedent. A
bill authorizing the President and a commissioner to be appointed to
agree upon the terms and conditions of said admission, the question
of slavery within its limits, its debts, the fixing of boundaries, and the
cession of territory, was coupled or united with the resolution; and in
this shape it was finally agreed to, and became a law, with the
concurrence of the President, March 3, 1845. Texas was then in a
state of war with Mexico, though at that precise point of time an
armistice had been agreed upon, looking to a treaty of peace. The
House resolution was for an unqualified admission of the State; the
Senate amendment or bill was for negotiation; and the bill actually
passed would not have been concurred in except on the
understanding that the incoming President (whose term began
March 4, 1845, and who was favorable to negotiation) would act
under the bill, and appoint commissioners accordingly.
Contrary to all expectation, the outgoing President, on the last day
of his term, at the instigation of his Secretary of State, Mr. Calhoun,
assumed the execution of the act providing for the admission of
Texas—adopted the legislative clause—and sent out a special
messenger with instructions. The danger of this had been foreseen,
and suggested in the Senate; but close friends of Mr. Calhoun,
speaking for the administration, and replying to the suggestion,
indignantly denied it for them, and declared that they would not
have the “audacity” to so violate the spirit and intent of the act, or so
encroach upon the rights of the new President. These statements
from the friends of the Secretary and President that the plan by
negotiation would be adopted, quieted the apprehension of those
Senators opposed to legislative annexation or admission, and thus
secured their votes, without which the bill would have failed of a
majority. Thus was Texas incorporated into the Union. The
legislative proposition sent by Mr. Tyler was accepted: Texas became
incorporated with the United States, and in consequence the state of
war was established between the United States and Mexico; it only
being a question of time and chance when the armistice should end
and hostilities begin. Although Mr. Calhoun was not in favor of war
with Mexico—he believing that a money payment would settle the
differences with that country—the admission of Texas into the Union
under the legislative annexation clause of the statute, was really his
act and not that of the President’s; and he was, in consequence,
afterwards openly charged in the Senate with being the real author of
the war which followed.
The administration of President Polk opened March 4, 1845; and
on the same day, the Senate being convened for the purpose, the
cabinet ministers were nominated and confirmed. In December
following the 29th Congress was organized. The House of
Representatives, being largely Democratic, elected the Speaker, by a
vote of 120, against 70 for the Whig candidate. At this session the
“American” party—a new political organization—first made its
appearance in the National councils, having elected six members of
the House of Representatives, four from New York and two from
Pennsylvania. The President’s first annual message had for its chief
topic, the admission of Texas, then accomplished, and the
consequent dissatisfaction of Mexico; and referring to the
preparations on the part of the latter with the apparent intention of
declaring war on the United States, either by an open declaration, or
by invading Texas. The message also stated causes which would
justify this government in taking the initiative in declaring war—
mainly the non-compliance by Mexico with the terms of the treaty of
indemnity of April 11, 1839, entered into between that State and this
government relative to injuries to American citizens during the
previous eight years. He also referred to the fact of a minister having
been sent to Mexico to endeavor to bring about a settlement of the
differences between the nations, without a resort to hostilities. The
message concluded with a reference to the negotiations with Great
Britain relative to the Oregon boundary; a statement of the finances
and the public debt, showing the latter to be slightly in excess of
seventeen millions; and a recommendation for a revision of the tariff,
with a view to revenue as the object, with protection to home
industry as the incident.
At this session of Congress, the States of Florida and Iowa were
admitted into the Union; the former permitting slavery within its
borders, the latter denying it. Long before this, the free and the slave
States were equal in number, and the practice had grown up—from a
feeling of jealousy and policy to keep them evenly balanced—of
admitting one State of each character at the same time. Numerically
the free and the slave States were thus kept even: in political power a
vast inequality was going on—the increase of population being so
much greater in the northern than in the southern region.
The Ashburton treaty of 1842 omitted to define the boundary line,
and permitted, or rather did not prohibit, the joint occupation of
Oregon by British and American settlers. This had been a subject of
dispute for many years. The country on the Columbia River had been
claimed by both. Under previous treaties the American northern
boundary extended “to the latitude of 49 degrees north of the
equator, and along that parallel indefinitely to the west.” Attempts
were made in 1842 and continuing since to 1846, to settle this
boundary line, by treaty with Great Britain. It had been assumed that
we had a dividing line, made by previous treaty, along the parallel of
54 degrees 40 minutes from the sea to the Rocky mountains. The
subject so much absorbed public attention, that the Democratic
National convention of 1844 in its platform of principles declared for
that boundary line, or war as the consequence. It became known as
the 54–40 plank, and was a canon of political faith. The negotiations
between the governments were resumed in August, 1844. The
Secretary of State, Mr. Calhoun, proposed a line along the parallel of
49 degrees of north latitude to the summit of the Rocky mountains
and continuing that line thence to the Pacific Ocean; and he made
this proposition notwithstanding the fact that the Democratic party—
to which he belonged—were then in a high state of exultation for the
boundary of 54 degrees 40 minutes, and the presidential canvass, on
the Democratic side, was raging upon that cry.
The British Minister declined this proposition in the part that
carried the line to the ocean, but offered to continue it from the
summit of the mountains to the Columbia River, a distance of some
three hundred miles, and then follow the river to the ocean. This was
declined by Mr. Calhoun. The President had declared in his
inaugural address in favor of the 54–40 line. He was in a dilemma; to
maintain that position meant war with Great Britain; to recede from
it seemed impossible. The proposition for the line of 49 degrees
having been withdrawn by the American government on its non-
acceptance by the British, had appeased the Democratic storm which
had been raised against the President. Congress had come together
under the loud cry of war, in which Mr. Cass was the leader, but
followed by the body of the democracy, and backed and cheered by
the whole democratic newspaper press. Under the authority and
order of Congress notice had been served on Great Britain which was
to abrogate the joint occupation of the country by the citizens of the
two powers. It was finally resolved by the British Government to
propose the line of 49 degrees, continuing to the ocean, as originally
offered by Mr. Calhoun; and though the President was favorable to
its acceptance, he could not, consistently with his previous acts,
accept and make a treaty, on that basis. The Senate, with whom lies
the power, under the constitution, of confirming or restricting all
treaties, being favorable to it, without respect to party lines, resort
was had, as in the early practice of the Government, to the President,
asking the advice of the Senate upon the articles of a treaty before
negotiation. A message was accordingly sent to the Senate, by the
President, stating the proposition, and asking its advice, thus shifting
the responsibility upon that body, and making the issue of peace or
war depend upon its answer. The Senate advised the acceptance of
the proposition, and the treaty was concluded.
The conduct of the Whig Senators, without whose votes the advice
would not have been given nor the treaty made, was patriotic in
preferring their country to their party—in preventing a war with
Great Britain—and saving the administration from itself and its party
friends.
The second session of the 29th Congress was opened in December,
1847. The President’s message was chiefly in relation to the war with
Mexico, which had been declared by almost a unanimous vote in
Congress. Mr. Calhoun spoke against the declaration in the Senate,
but did not vote upon it. He was sincerely opposed to the war,
although his conduct had produced it. Had he remained in the
cabinet, to do which he had not concealed his wish, he would, no
doubt, have labored earnestly to have prevented it. Many members of
Congress, of the same party with the administration, were extremely
averse to the war, and had interviews with the President, to see if it
was inevitable, before it was declared. Members were under the
impression that the war could not last above three months.
The reason for these impressions was that an intrigue was laid,
with the knowledge of the Executive, for a peace, even before the war
was declared, and a special agent dispatched to bring about a return
to Mexico of its exiled President, General Santa Anna, and conclude a
treaty of peace with him, on terms favorable to the United States.
And for this purpose Congress granted an appropriation of three
millions of dollars to be placed at the disposal of the President, for
negotiating for a boundary which should give the United States
additional territory.
While this matter was pending in Congress, Mr. Wilmot of
Pennsylvania introduced and moved a proviso, “that no part of the
territory to be acquired should be open to the introduction of
slavery.” It was a proposition not necessary for the purpose of
excluding slavery, as the only territory to be acquired was that of
New Mexico and California, where slavery was already prohibited by
the Mexican laws and constitution. The proviso was therefore
nugatory, and only served to bring on a slavery agitation in the
United States. For this purpose it was seized upon by Mr. Calhoun
and declared to be an outrage upon and menace to the slaveholding
States. It occupied the attention of Congress for two sessions, and
became the subject of debate in the State Legislatures, several of
which passed disunion resolutions. It became the watchword of party
—the synonym of civil war, and the dissolution of the Union. Neither
party really had anything to fear or to hope from the adoption of the
proviso—the soil was free, and the Democrats were not in a position
to make slave territory of it, because it had just enunciated as one of
its cardinal principles, that there was “no power in Congress to
legislate upon slavery in Territories.” Never did two political parties
contend more furiously about nothing. Close observers, who had
been watching the progress of the slavery agitation since its
inauguration in Congress in 1835, knew it to be the means of keeping
up an agitation for the benefit of the political parties—the
abolitionists on one side and the disunionists or nullifiers on the
other—to accomplish their own purposes. This was the celebrated
Wilmot Proviso, which for so long a time convulsed the Union;
assisted in forcing the issue between the North and South on the
slavery question, and almost caused a dissolution of the Union. The
proviso was defeated; that chance of the nullifiers to force the issue
was lost; another had to be made, which was speedily done, by the
introduction into the Senate on the 19th February, 1847, by Mr.
Calhoun of his new slavery resolutions, declaring the Territories to
be the common property of the several States; denying the right of
Congress to prohibit slavery in a Territory, or to pass any law which
would have the effect to deprive the citizens of any slave State from
emigrating with his property (slaves) into such Territory. The
introduction of the resolutions was prefaced by an elaborate speech
by Mr. Calhoun, who demanded an immediate vote upon them. They
never came to a vote; they were evidently introduced for the mere
purpose of carrying a question to the slave States on which they
could be formed into a unit against the free States; and so began the
agitation which finally led to the abrogation of the Missouri
Compromise line, and arrayed the States of one section against those
of the other.
The Thirtieth Congress, which assembled for its first session in
December, 1847, was found, so far as respects the House of
Representatives, to be politically adverse to the administration. The
Whigs were in the majority, and elected the Speaker; Robert C.
Winthrop, of Massachusetts, being chosen. The President’s message
contained a full report of the progress of the war with Mexico; the
success of the American arms in that conflict; the victory of Cerro
Gordo, and the capture of the City of Mexico; and that negotiations
were then pending for a treaty of peace. The message concluded with
a reference to the excellent results from the independent treasury
system.
The war with Mexico was ended by the signing of a treaty of peace,
in February, 1848, by the terms of which New Mexico and Upper
California were ceded to the United States, and the lower Rio
Grande, from its mouth to El Paso, taken for the boundary of Texas.
For the territory thus acquired, the United States agreed to pay to
Mexico the sum of fifteen million dollars, in five annual installments;
and besides that, assumed the claims of American citizens against
Mexico, limited to three and a quarter million dollars, out of and on
account of which claims the war ostensibly originated. The victories
achieved by the American commanders, Generals Zachary Taylor
and Winfield Scott, during that war, won for them national
reputations, by means of which they were brought prominently
forward for the Presidential succession.
The question of the power of Congress to legislate on the subject of
slavery in the Territories, was again raised, at this session, on the bill
for the establishment of the Oregon territorial government. An
amendment was offered to insert a provision for the extension of the
Missouri compromise line to the Pacific Ocean; which line thus
extended was intended by the amendment to be permanent, and to
apply to all future territories established in the West. This
amendment was lost, but the bill was finally passed with an
amendment incorporating into it the anti-slavery clause of the
ordinance of 1787. Mr. Calhoun, in the Senate, declared that the
exclusion of slavery from any territory was a subversion of the
Union; openly proclaimed the strife between the North and South to
be ended, and the separation of the States accomplished. His speech
was an open invocation to disunion, and from that time forth, the
efforts were regular to obtain a meeting of the members from the
slave States, to unite in a call for a convention of the slave States to
redress themselves. He said: “The great strife between the North and
the South is ended. The North is determined to exclude the property
of the slaveholder, and, of course, the slaveholder himself, from its
territory. On this point there seems to be no division in the North. In
the South, he regretted to say, there was some division of sentiment.
The effect of this determination of the North was to convert all the
Southern population into slaves; and he would never consent to
entail that disgrace on his posterity. He denounced any Southern
man who would not take the same course. Gentlemen were greatly
mistaken if they supposed the Presidential question in the South
would override this more important one. The separation of the North
and the South is completed. The South has now a most solemn
obligation to perform—to herself—to the constitution—to the Union.
She is bound to come to a decision not to permit this to go on any
further, but to show that, dearly as she prizes the Union, there are
questions which she regards as of greater importance than the
Union. This is not a question of territorial government, but a
question involving the continuance of the Union.” The President, in
approving the Oregon bill, took occasion to send in a special
message, pointing out the danger to the Union from the progress of
the slavery agitation, and urged an adherence to the principles of the
ordinance of 1787—the terms of the Missouri compromise of 1820—
as also that involved and declared in the Texas case in 1845, as the
means of averting that danger.
The Presidential election of 1848 was coming on. The Democratic
convention met in Baltimore in May of that year; each State being
represented in the convention by the number of delegates equal to
the number of electoral votes it was entitled to; saving only New
York, which sent two sets of delegates, and both were excluded. The
delegates were, for the most part, members of Congress and office-
holders. The two-thirds rule, adopted by the previous convention,
was again made a law of the convention. The main question which
arose upon the formation of the platform for the campaign, was the
doctrine advanced by the Southern members of non-interference
with slavery in the States or in the Territories. The candidates of the
party were, Lewis Cass, of Michigan, for President, and General Wm.
O. Butler, of Kentucky, for Vice-President.
The Whig convention, taking advantage of the popularity of Genl.
Zachary Taylor, for his military achievements in the Mexican war,
then just ended; and his consequent availability as a candidate,
nominated him for the Presidency, over Mr. Clay, Mr. Webster and
General Scott, who were his competitors before the convention.
Millard Fillmore was selected as the Vice-presidential candidate.
A third convention was held, consisting of the disaffected
Democrats from New York who had been excluded from the
Baltimore convention. They met at Utica, New York, and nominated
Martin Van Buren for President, and Charles Francis Adams for
Vice-President. The principles of its platform, were, that Congress
should abolish slavery wherever it constitutionally had the power to
do so—[which was intended to apply to the District of Columbia]—
that it should not interfere with it in the slave States—and that it
should prohibit it in the Territories. This party became known as
“Free-soilers,” from their doctrines thus enumerated, and their party
cry of “free-soil, free-speech, free-labor, free-men.” The result of the
election, as might have been foreseen, was to lose New York State to
the Baltimore candidate, and give it to the Whigs, who were
triumphant in the reception of 163 electoral votes for their
candidates, against 127 for the democrats; and none for the free-
soilers.
The last message of President Polk, in December following, gave
him the opportunity to again urge upon Congress the necessity for
some measure to quiet the slavery agitation, and he recommended
the extension of the Missouri compromise line to the Pacific Ocean,
passing through the new Territories of California and New Mexico,
as a fair adjustment, to meet as far as possible the views of all parties.
The President referred also to the state of the finances; the excellent
condition of the public treasury; government loans, commanding a
high premium; gold and silver the established currency; and the
business interests of the country in a prosperous condition. And this
was the state of affairs, only one year after emergency from a foreign
war. It would be unfair not to give credit to the President and to
Senator Benton and others equally prominent and courageous, who
at that time had to battle against the bank theory and national paper
money currency, as strongly urged and advocated, and to prove
eventually that the money of the Constitution—gold and silver—was
the only currency to ensure a successful financial working of the
government, and prosperity to the people.
 The new President, General Zachary Taylor, was inaugurated
March 4, 1849. The Senate being convened, as usual, in extra
session, for the purpose, the Vice-President elect, Millard Fillmore,
was duly installed; and the Whig cabinet officers nominated by the
President, promptly confirmed. An additional member of the Cabinet
was appointed by this administration to preside over the new “Home
Department” since called the “Interior,” created at the previous
session of Congress.
The following December Congress met in regular session—the 31st
since the organization of the federal government. The Senate
consisted of sixty members, among whom were Mr. Webster, Mr.
Calhoun, and Mr. Clay, who had returned to public life. The House
had 230 members; and although the Whigs had a small majority, the
House was so divided on the slavery question in its various phases,
that the election for Speaker resulted in the choice of the Democratic
candidate, Mr. Cobb, of Georgia, by a majority of three votes. The
annual message of the President plainly showed that he
comprehended the dangers to the Union from a continuance of
sectional feeling on the slavery question, and he averred his
determination to stand by the Union to the full extent of his
obligations and powers. At the previous session Congress had spent
six months in endeavoring to frame a satisfactory bill providing
territorial governments for California and New Mexico, and had
adjourned finally without accomplishing it, in consequence of
inability to agree upon whether the Missouri compromise line should
be carried to the ocean, or the territories be permitted to remain as
they were—slavery prohibited under the laws of Mexico. Mr. Calhoun
brought forward, in the debate, a new doctrine—extending the
Constitution to the territory, and arguing that as that instrument
recognized the existence of slavery, the settlers in such territory
should be permitted to hold their slave property taken there, and be
protected. Mr. Webster’s answer to this was that the Constitution
was made for States, not territories; that it cannot operate anywhere,
not even in the States for which it was made, without acts of
Congress to enforce it. The proposed extension of the constitution to
territories, with a view to its transportation of slavery along with it,
was futile and nugatory without the act of Congress to vitalize slavery
under it. The early part of the year had witnessed ominous
movements—nightly meetings of large numbers of members from
the slave States, led by Mr. Calhoun, to consider the state of things
between the North and the South. They appointed committees who
prepared an address to the people. It was in this condition of things,
that President Taylor expressed his opinion, in his message, of the
remedies required. California, New Mexico and Utah, had been left
without governments. For California, he recommended that having a
sufficient population and having framed a constitution, she be
admitted as a State into the Union; and for New Mexico and Utah,
without mixing the slavery question with their territorial
governments, they be left to ripen into States, and settle the slavery
question for themselves in their State constitutions.

With a view to meet the wishes of all parties, and arrive at some
definite and permanent adjustment of the slavery question, Mr. Clay
early in the session introduced compromise resolutions which were
practically a tacking together of the several bills then on the calendar,
providing for the admission of California—the territorial government
for Utah and New Mexico—the settlement of the Texas boundary—
slavery in the District of Columbia—and for a fugitive slave law. It
was seriously and earnestly opposed by many, as being a concession
to the spirit of disunion—a capitulation under threat of secession;
and as likely to become the source of more contentions than it
proposed to quiet.
The resolutions were referred to a special committee, who
promptly reported a bill embracing the comprehensive plan of
compromise which Mr. Clay proposed. Among the resolutions
offered, was the following: “Resolved, that as slavery does not exist
by law and is not likely to be introduced into any of the territory
acquired by the United States from the Republic of Mexico, it is
inexpedient for Congress to provide by law either for its introduction
into or exclusion from any part of the said territory; and that
appropriate territorial governments ought to be established by
Congress in all of the said territory, and assigned as the boundaries
of the proposed State of California, without the adoption of any
restriction or condition on the subject of slavery.” Mr. Jefferson
Davis of Mississippi, objected that the measure gave nothing to the
South in the settlement of the question; and he required the
extension of the Missouri compromise line to the Pacific Ocean as
the least that he would be willing to take, with the specific
recognition of the right to hold slaves in the territory below that line;
and that, before such territories are admitted into the Union as
States, slaves may be taken there from any of the United States at the
option of their owner.
Mr. Clay in reply, said: “Coming from a slave State, as I do, I owe it
to myself, I owe it to truth, I owe it to the subject, to say that no
earthly power could induce me to vote for a specific measure for the
introduction of slavery where it had not before existed, either south
or north of that line.*** If the citizens of those territories choose to
establish slavery, and if they come here with constitutions
establishing slavery, I am for admitting them with such provisions in
their constitutions; but then it will be their own work, and not ours,
and their posterity will have to reproach them, and not us, for
forming constitutions allowing the institution of slavery to exist
among them.”
Mr. Seward of New York, proposed a renewal of the Wilmot
Proviso, in the following resolution: “Neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude, otherwise than by conviction for crime, shall ever be
allowed in either of said territories of Utah and New Mexico;” but his
resolution was rejected in the Senate by a vote of 23 yeas to 33 nays.
Following this, Mr. Calhoun had read for him in the Senate, by his
friend James M. Mason of Virginia, his last speech. It embodied the
points covered by the address to the people, prepared by him the
previous year; the probability of a dissolution of the Union, and
presenting a case to justify it. The tenor of the speech is shown by the
following extracts from it: “I have, Senators, believed from the first,
that the agitation of the subject of slavery would, if not prevented by
some timely and effective measure, end in disunion. Entertaining
this opinion, I have, on all proper occasions, endeavored to call the
attention of each of the two great parties which divide the country to
adopt some measure to prevent so great a disaster, but without
success. The agitation has been permitted to proceed, with almost no
attempt to resist it, until it has reached a period when it can no
longer be disguised or denied that the Union is in danger. You have
had forced upon you the greatest and gravest question that can ever
come under your consideration: How can the Union be preserved?
*** Instead of being weaker, all the elements in favor of agitation are
stronger now than they were in 1835, when it first commenced, while
all the elements of influence on the part of the South are weaker.
Unless something decisive is done, I again ask what is to stop this
agitation, before the great and final object at which it aims—the
abolition of slavery in the States—is consummated? Is it, then, not
certain that if something decisive is not now done to arrest it, the
South will be forced to choose between abolition and secession?
Indeed as events are now moving, it will not require the South to
secede to dissolve the Union.*** If the agitation goes on, nothing will
be left to hold the States together except force.” He answered the
question, How can the Union be saved? with which his speech
opened, by suggesting: “To provide for the insertion of a provision in
the constitution, by an amendment, which will restore to the South
in substance the power she possessed of protecting herself, before
the equilibrium between the sections was destroyed by the action of
the government.” He did not state of what the amendment should
consist, but later on, it was ascertained from reliable sources that his
idea was a dual executive—one President from the free, and one from
the slave States, the consent of both of whom should be required to
all acts of Congress before they become laws. This speech of Mr.
Calhoun’s, is important as explaining many of his previous actions;
and as furnishing a guide to those who ten years afterwards
attempted to carry out practically the suggestions thrown out by him.
Mr. Clay’s compromise bill was rejected. It was evident that no
compromise of any kind whatever on the subject of slavery, under
any one of its aspects separately, much less under all put together,
could possibly be made. There was no spirit of concession
manifested. The numerous measures put together in Mr. Clay’s bill
were disconnected and separated. Each measure received a separate
and independent consideration, and with a result which showed the
injustice of the attempted conjunction; for no two of them were
passed by the same vote, even of the members of the committee
which had even unanimously reported favorably upon them as a
whole.
Mr. Calhoun died in the spring of 1850; before the separate bill for
the admission of California was taken up. His death took place at
Washington, he having reached the age of 68 years. A eulogy upon
him was delivered in the Senate by his colleague, Mr. Butler, of South
Carolina. Mr. Calhoun was the first great advocate of the doctrine of
secession. He was the author of the nullification doctrine, and an
advocate of the extreme doctrine of States Rights. He was an
eloquent speaker—a man of strong intellect. His speeches were plain,
strong, concise, sometimes impassioned, and always severe. Daniel
Webster said of him, that “he had the basis, the indispensable basis
of all high characters, and that was unspotted integrity, unimpeached
honor and character!”
In July of this year an event took place which threw a gloom over
the country. The President, General Taylor, contracted a fever from
exposure to the hot sun at a celebration of Independence Day, from
which he died four days afterwards. He was a man of irreproachable
private character, undoubted patriotism, and established reputation
for judgment and firmness. His brief career showed no deficiency of
political wisdom nor want of political training. His administration
was beset with difficulties, with momentous questions pending, and
he met the crisis with firmness and determination, resolved to
maintain the Federal Union at all hazards. His first and only annual
message, the leading points of which have been stated, evinces a
spirit to do what was right among all the States. His death was a
public calamity. No man could have been more devoted to the Union
nor more opposed to the slavery agitation; and his position as a
Southern man and a slaveholder—his military reputation, and his
election by a majority of the people as well as of the States, would
have given him a power in the settlement of the pending questions of
the day which no President without these qualifications could have
possessed.
In accordance with the Constitution, the office of President thus
devolved upon the Vice-President, Mr. Millard Fillmore, who was
duly inaugurated July 10, 1850. The new cabinet, with Daniel
Webster as Secretary of State, was duly appointed and confirmed by
the Senate.
The bill for the admission of California as a State in the Union, was
called up in the Senate and sought to be amended by extending the
Missouri Compromise line through it, to the Pacific Ocean, so as to
authorize slavery in the State below that line. The amendment was
introduced and pressed by Southern friends of the late Mr. Calhoun,
and made a test question. It was lost, and the bill passed by a two-
third vote; whereupon ten Southern Senators offered a written
protest, the concluding clause of which was: “We dissent from this
bill, and solemnly protest against its passage, because in sanctioning
measures so contrary to former precedents, to obvious policy, to the
spirit and intent of the constitution of the United States, for the
purpose of excluding the slaveholding States from the territory thus
to be erected into a State, this government in effect declares that the
exclusion of slavery from the territory of the United States is an
object so high and important as to justify a disregard not only of all
the principles of sound policy, but also of the constitution itself.
Against this conclusion we must now and for ever protest, as it is
destructive of the safety and liberties of those whose rights have been
committed to our care, fatal to the peace and equality of the States
which we represent, and must lead, if persisted in, to the dissolution
of that confederacy, in which the slaveholding States have never
sought more than equality, and in which they will not be content to
remain with less.” On objection being made, followed by debate, the
Senate refused to receive the protest, or permit it to be entered on
the Journal. The bill went to the House of Representatives, was
readily passed, and promptly approved by the President. Thus was
virtually accomplished the abrogation of the Missouri compromise
line; and the extension or non-extension of slavery was then made to
form a foundation for future political parties.
The year 1850 was prolific with disunion movements in the
Southern States. The Senators who had joined with Mr. Calhoun in
the address to the people, in 1849, united with their adherents in
establishing at Washington a newspaper entitled “The Southern
Press,” devoted to the agitation of the slavery question; to presenting
the advantages of disunion, and the organization of a confederacy of
Southern States to be called the “United States South.” Its constant
aim was to influence the South against the North, and advocated
concert of action by the States of the former section. It was aided in
its efforts by newspapers published in the South, more especially in
South Carolina and Mississippi. A disunion convention was actually
held, in Nashville, Tennessee, and invited the assembly of a Southern
Congress. Two States, South Carolina and Mississippi responded to
the appeal; passed laws to carry it into effect, and the former went so
far as to elect its quota of Representatives to the proposed new
Southern Congress. These occurrences are referred to as showing the
spirit that prevailed, and the extraordinary and unjustifiable means
used by the leaders to mislead and exasperate the people. The
assembling of a Southern “Congress” was a turning point in the
progress of disunion. Georgia refused to join; and her weight as a
great Southern State was sufficient to cause the failure of the scheme.
But the seeds of discord were sown, and had taken root, only to
spring up at a future time when circumstances should be more
favorable to the accomplishment of the object.
Although the Congress of the United States had in 1790 and again
in 1836 formally declared the policy of the government to be non-
interference with the States in respect to the matter of slavery within
the limits of the respective States, the subject continued to be
agitated in consequence of petitions to Congress to abolish slavery in
the District of Columbia, which was under the exclusive control of
the federal government; and of movements throughout the United
States to limit, and finally abolish it. The subject first made its
appearance in national politics in 1840, when a presidential ticket
was nominated by a party then formed favoring the abolition of
slavery; it had a very slight following which was increased tenfold at
the election of 1844 when the same party again put a ticket in the
field with James G. Birney of Michigan, as its candidate for the
Presidency; who received 62,140 votes. The efforts of the leaders of
that faction were continued, and persisted in to such an extent, that
when in 1848 it nominated a ticket with Gerritt Smith for President,
against the Democratic candidate, Martin Van Buren, the former
received 296,232 votes. In the presidential contest of 1852 the
abolition party again nominated a ticket, with John P. Hale as its
candidate for President, and polled 157,926 votes. This large
following was increased from time to time, until uniting with a new
party then formed, called the Republican party, which latter adopted
a platform endorsing the views and sentiments of the abolitionists,
the great and decisive battle for the principles involved, was fought
in the ensuing presidential contest of 1856; when the candidate of
the Republican party, John C. Fremont, supported by the entire
abolition party, polled 1,341,812 votes. The first national platform of
the Abolition party, upon which it went into the contest of 1840,
favored the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and
Territories; the inter-state slave trade, and a general opposition to
slavery to the full extent of constitutional power.
Following the discussion of the subject of slavery, in the Senate
and House of Representatives, brought about by the presentation of
petitions and memorials, and the passage of the resolutions in 1836
rejecting such petitions, the question was again raised by the
presentation in the House, by Mr. Slade of Vermont, on the 20th
December 1837, of two memorials praying the abolition of slavery in
the District of Columbia, and moving that they be referred to a select
committee. Great excitement prevailed in the chamber, and of the
many attempts by the Southern members an adjournment was had.
The next day a resolution was offered that thereafter all such
petitions and memorials touching the abolition of slavery should,
when presented, be laid on the table; which resolution was adopted
by a large vote. During the 24th Congress, the Senate pursued the
course of laying on the table the motion to receive all abolition
petitions; and both Houses during the 25th Congress continued the
same course of conduct; when finally on the 25th of January 1840,
the House adopted by a vote of 114 to 108, an amendment to the
rules, called the 21st Rule, which provided:—“that no petition,
memorial or resolution, or other paper, praying the abolition of
slavery in the District of Columbia, or any state or territory, or the
slave-trade between the States or territories of the United States, in
which it now exists, shall be received by this House, or entertained in
any way whatever.” This rule was afterwards, on the 3d of December,
1844, rescinded by the House, on motion of Mr. J. Quincy Adams, by
a vote of 108 to 80; and a motion to re-instate it, on the 1st of
December 1845, was rejected by a vote of 84 to 121. Within five years
afterwards—on the 17th September 1850,—the Congress of the
United States enacted a law, which was approved by the President,
abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia.
On the 25th of February, 1850, there was presented in the House
of Representatives, two petitions from citizens of Pennsylvania and
Delaware, setting forth that slavery, and the constitution which
permits it, violates the Divine law; is inconsistent with republican
principles; that its existence has brought evil upon the country; and
that no union can exist with States which tolerate that institution;
and asking that some plan be devised for the immediate, peaceful
dissolution of the Union. The House refused to receive and consider
the petitions; as did also the Senate when the same petitions were
presented the same month.
The presidential election of 1852 was the last campaign in which
the Whig party appeared in National politics. It nominated a ticket
with General Winfield Scott as its candidate for President. His
opponent on the Democratic ticket was General Franklin Pierce. A
third ticket was placed in the field by the Abolition party, with John
P. Hale as its candidate for President. The platform and declaration
of principles of the Whig party was in substance a ratification and
endorsement of the several measures embraced in Mr. Clay’s
compromise resolutions of the previous session of Congress, before
referred to; and the policy of a revenue for the economical
administration of the government, to be derived mainly from duties
on imports, and by these means to afford protection to American
industry. The main plank of the platform of the Abolition party (or
Independent Democrats, as they were called) was for the non-
extension and gradual extinction of slavery. The Democratic party
equally adhered to the compromise measure. The election resulted in
the choice of Franklin Pierce, by a popular vote of 1,601,474, and 254
electoral votes, against a popular aggregate vote of 1,542,403 (of
which the abolitionists polled 157,926) and 42 electoral votes, for the
Whig and Abolition candidates. Mr. Pierce was duly inaugurated as
President, March 4, 1853.
The first political parties in the United States, from the
establishment of the federal government and for many years
afterwards, were denominated Federalists and Democrats, or
Democratic-Republicans. The former was an anti-alien party. The
latter was made up to a large extent of naturalized foreigners;
refugees from England, Ireland and Scotland, driven from home for
hostility to the government or for attachment to France. Naturally,
aliens sought alliance with the Democratic party, which favored the
war against Great Britain. The early party contests were based on the
naturalization laws; the first of which, approved March 26, 1790,
required only two years’ residence in this country; a few years
afterwards the time was extended to five years; and in 1798 the
Federalists taking advantage of the war fever against France, and
then being in power, extended the time to fourteen years. (See Alien
and Sedition Laws of 1798). Jefferson’s election and Democratic
victory of 1800, brought the period back to five years in 1802, and
reinforced the Democratic party. The city of New York, especially,
from time to time became filled with foreigners; thus naturalized;
brought into the Democratic ranks; and crowded out native
Federalists from control of the city government, and to meet this
condition of affairs, the first attempt at a Native American
organization was made. Beginning in 1835; ending in failure in
election of Mayor in 1837, it was revived in April, 1844, when the
Native American organization carried New York city for its
Mayoralty candidate by a good majority. The success of the
movement there, caused it to spread to New Jersey and
Pennsylvania. In Philadelphia, it was desperately opposed by the
Democratic, Irish and Roman Catholic element, and so furiously,
that it resulted in riots, in which two Romish Churches were burned
and destroyed. The adherents of the American organization were not
confined to Federalists or Whigs, but largely of native Democrats;
and the Whigs openly voted with Democratic Natives in order to
secure their vote for Henry Clay for the Presidency; but when in
November, 1844, New York and Philadelphia both gave Native
majorities, and so sapped the Whig vote, that both places gave