GLOSSARY

1.Probabilities (Xác xuất)

a)Sample space (không gian mẫu): the list of all possible outcomes (tập hợp các
khả năng có thể xảy ra của một sự kiện)
Example: When we flip a coin, there are 2 possible outcomes: heads (ngửa) H or
tails (sấp) T
Outcome: is just the result of an experiment (Flip a coin, result is heads (or tails)).

Probability is the chance that an event will occur.

Example: The chance that a coin heads is 50%, than the probability of heads coin
is 0.5

Probability alwas has a scale from 0 to 1 when

+ 0 is the chance that an event not going to happen
+ 1 is the chance that an event certains to happen
+ 0.5 equally likely to happen or not happen.

Question:
a)When we flip 2 coins, what is the probability of getting at least one head?
b)If three coins are flipped, what is the probability of getting at least two tails?
c)If three coins are flipped, what is the probability of getting exactly one tail?
 b) Two type of Probability:
theoretical probability: what should happen (or what expected to happen)
!"#$%& () ("*+(#%,
P(E)=*-% %!*.&% ,/#01% ,0/+%
(The probability of an event is the number of outcomes divided by the entire
sample space)
Flip a coin:
P(heads)=1/2=0.5

empirical probability: What happened in an experiment

Example: Flip a coin 500 times: 300 times heads and 200 times tails
P(H)=300/500=0.6
P(T)=200/500=0.4

Bài tập có thể ra, dạng kẻ bảng để liệt kê (xem phần contigency table ở c)

Law of large numbers: more trials done, the closer the empirical probability is to
the theoretical probability
Example: 1000 trials, P(H)=0.6. 1 Million trials, P(H)=0.55
1 Billion trials, P(H)=0,50002

c)Probability Formula:

If the outcome of one event does not influence the outcome of the second event, then
the events are said to be independent. When drawing at random with replacement,
the draws are independent. Without replacement, the draws are dependent.

If two events A and B are independent, then the probability that both events will
occur is P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)⋅.

If two events A and B are dependent, then the probability that both events will occur
is P(A and B) = P(A) P(B f⋅ollowing A) .

If two events A and B cannot occur at the same time, then the probability that either
A or B occurs is

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Two-way contingency table is a type of table in a matrix format that displays
relationships between two or more categorical variables.

The table on below left shows 300 randomly selected voters from a large city,
categorized by age and voting preferences. The age of voters is the row variable, and
the name of parties is the column variable.

The totals are placed in the right and bottom margins of the table and thus are called
marginal frequencies (tần số biên). The total of the marginal frequencies is the grand
total, which is the size of the sample.

The frequencies in the contingency table are often expressed as percentages or

relative frequencies. The table on below right shows the contingency table expressed
as percentages of the grand total.

Example 1 □ The table below shows the results of a survey regarding Proposition
A from two regions of a large city. Four hundred registered voters were surveyed.
a) P(No Opinion for Proposition A)=35/400
b) P(A|B)=P(Voted For Proposition A in East|Voted for Proposition A)=
90/194=45/97
c) P(Voted against Proposition A and from West)=96/400