Socio-Religious Reformation Moments & DSC-9 English Notes by Saddamhusain Sir

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMATION MOMENTS & INDIAN NATIONAL MOMENTS
DEPARTMENT OF
HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY

B.A 5th Sem DSC-11
Socio-Religious Reformation Moments &

Indian National Moments
Notes Prepared By
Mr. Saddamhusain Mujawar

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,
Head, Department of History and Archaeology, Anjuaman Arts, Science and Commerce College and P.G Studies in English
and Commerce, Vijayapur.
MA., KSET., PGDip In Tourism Studies., (PhD)
RANI CHANNAMMA UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI

HISTORY and ARCHAEOLOGY SYLLABUS
B.A- V Semester
COMPULSORY PAPER-3: DSC-11
Unit –I Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th and 20th Century:

A. 1. Brahmo Samaj- Raja Ram Mohan Ray. Arya Samaj – Dayanand Saraswati Swami
Vivekanand- Ramkrishna Mission and Theosophical Society
B. 2. Aligarh Movement, Theosophical Society and Prarthana Samaja
C. 3. Adi Dharma Movement of Punjab and Namo Shudra Movement in Bengal.
Unit –II Upliftment of the Oppressed Communities
A. 4. Satya Shodhaka Samaja Moment, Mahatma Phule and Chatrapati Shahu Maharaja
B. 5. Ezwa Movement of Shri Narayan Guru Self Respect Movement of Paraiyar
Ramaswami -Nalwadi Krishna Raja Wodeyar
C. 6. Social Transformation Movement of DR.B. R Ambedkar Empowerment of Women
and Labor
Unit -III Indian National Movements:
A. 7. Indian National Movement (1885-1907) Rise of Nationalism, Ideology and
Methods of Moderates, Anti Partition and Swadeshi Movement.
B. 8. Extremist Nationalism (1905-1919) Ideology and Methods of Extremists Home
Rule Moment
C. 9. Gandhian Era – Non-Co-Operation Movement, Civil Dis Obedient Movement and
Quit India Movement
Unit-IV Partition of India and Economic Developments:
A. 10. Constitutional Development 1909 Acct, 1919 Act and 1932 Nehru Report.
B. 11. Round Table Conference. Communal Award, Poona Pact and Government of
India Act 1935
C. 12. Cabinet Mission Plan, Mount Batton Plan and Partition of India and India’s
Independence Act-1947
Unit V Map Topics:
A. Main Places of Non-Co-Operation Movement in India-

B. Main Centers of Quite India Movements
Unit –I
Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th and 20th Century:
Brahmo Samaj- Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Introduction:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the father of Modern India’s Renaissance and a tireless
social reformer who inaugurated the age of enlightenment and liberal reformist modernisation
in India. Life Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born on 22 May 1772 in an orthodox Brahman
family at Radhanagar in Bengal. Ram Mohan Roy’s early education included the study of
Persian and Arabic at Patna where he read the Quran, the works of Sufi mystic poets and the
Arabic translation of the works of Plato and Aristotle. In Benaras, he studied Sanskrit and
read Vedas and Upnishads. Returning to his village, at the age of sixteen, he wrote a rational
critique of Hindu idol worship. From 1803 to 1814, he worked for East India Company as the
personal diwan first of Woodforde and then of Digby.
In 1814, he resigned from his job and moved to Calcutta in order to devote his life to
religious, social and political reforms. In November 1930, he sailed for England to be present
there to counteract the possible nullification of the Act banning Sati. Ram Mohan Roy was
given the title of ‘Raja’ by the titular Mughal Emperor of Delhi, Akbar II whose grievances
the former was to present before the British king. In his address, entitled ‘Inaugurator of the
Modern Age in India,’ Tagore referred to Ram Mohan as ‘a luminous star in the firmament of
Indian history’.

Ideology
Ram Mohan Roy was greatly influenced by western modern thought and stressed on
rationalism and a modern scientific approach.
Ram Mohan Roy’s immediate problematic was the religious and social degeneration
of his native Bengal. He believed that religious orthodoxies have become causes of injury and
detrimental to social life and sources of trouble and bewilderment to the people, instead of
tending to the amelioration of the condition of society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy concluded that
religious reform is both social reform and political modernisation.
Ram Mohan believed that each sinner must make restitution for his sins and it is to be
done through self-purification and repentance and not through sacrifices and rituals. He
believed in social equality of all human beings and thus was a strong oppose to the caste
system. Ram Mohan was attracted to Islamic monotheism. He said that monotheism is also
the fundamental message of Vedanta. His idea of single, Unitarian god was a corrective to the
polytheism of orthodox Hinduism and Christian Trinitarians.
He believed that monotheism supported one universal model for humanity. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy believed that unless women were freed from inhuman forms of oppression like
illiteracy, child marriage, sati, purdah, Hindu society cannot progress. He characterised sati as
the violation of every humane and social feeling and as symptomatic of the moral debasement
of a race.

Contributions Religious reforms:
1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s first published work Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin (a gift to deists)
published in 1803 exposed irrational religious beliefs and corrupt practices of the
Hindus as the belief in revelations, prophets, miracles etc.
2. In 1814, he founded Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta to campaign against idolatry, caste
rigidities, meaningless rituals and other social ills.
3. He criticized the ritualism of Christianity and rejected Christ as the incarnation of
God. In Precepts of Jesus (1820), he tried to separate the moral and philosophical
message of the New Testament, which he praised, from its miracle stories.
Social reforms:
1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy conceived reformist religious associations as instruments of
social and political transformation.
2. He founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1815, the Calcutta Unitarian Association in 1821,
and the Brahmo Sabha in 1828 which later became the Brahmo Samaj.
3. He campaigned against the caste system, untouchability, superstitions and use of
intoxicants. He was well known for his pioneering thought and action on the emancipation of
women and especially on the abolition of sati and widow remarriage.
4. He attacked child marriage, illiteracy of womenand the degraded state of widows and
demanded the right of inheritance and property for women.

Brahmo Samaj
1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded Brahmo Sabha in 1828, which was later renamed as
Brahmo Samaj.
2. Its chief aim was the worship of the eternal God. It was against priesthood, rituals and
sacrifices. It focused on prayers, meditation and reading of the scriptures.
3. It believed in the unity of all religions. It was the first intellectual reform movement in
modern India. It led to the emergence of rationalism and enlightenment in India which
indirectly contributed to the nationalist movement.
4. It was the forerunner of all social, religious and political movements of modern India.
It split into two in 1866, namely Brahmo Samaj of India led by Keshub Chandra Sen
and Adi Brahmo Samaj led by Debendranath Tagore.
5. Prominent Leaders: Debendranath Tagore, Keshub Chandra Sen, Pt. Sivnath Shastri,
and Rabindranath Tagore.
Educational reforms:
1. Roy did much to disseminate the benefits of modern education to his countrymen.
2. He supported David Hare’s efforts to find the Hindu College in 1817, while Roy’s
English school taught mechanics and Voltaire’s philosophy.
3. In 1825, he established Vedanta College where courses in both Indian learning and
Western social and physical sciences were offered.
Economic and Political Reforms:

1. Civil liberties: Roy was impressed and admired the British system of constitutional
government for the civil liberties it gave to the people. He wanted to extend the
benefits of that system of government to Indian people.
2. Press freedom: Through his writings and activities, he supported the movement for
free press in India. When press censorship was relaxed by Lord Hastings in 1819,
Ram Mohan found three journals- The Brahmanical Magazine (1821); The Bengali
weekly, Samvad Kaumudi (1821); and the Persian weekly, Mirat-ul-Akbar.
3. Taxation reforms: Roy condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars and
demanded fixation of minimum rents.
4. He also demanded the abolition of taxes on tax-free lands. He called for a reduction of
export duties on Indian goods abroad and the abolition of the East India Company’s
trading rights.
5. Administrative reforms: He demanded the Indianisation of superior services and
separation of the executive from judiciary. He demanded equality between Indians
and Europeans.
6. Literary Works of Raja Ram Mohan Roy Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin
7. (1804) Vedanta Gantha (1815)
8. Translation of an abridgement of the Vedanta Sara (1816)
9. Kenopanishads (1816) Ishopanishad (1816)

10. Kathopanishad (1817) A Conference between the Advocate for, and an
Opponent of Practice of Burning Widows Alive (Bengali and English) (1818)
11. Mundaka Upanishad (1819)
12. A Defence of Hindu Theism (1820)
13. The Precepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)
14. Bengali Grammar (1826)
15. The Universal Religion (1829)
16. History of Indian Philosophy (1829)
17. Gaudiya Vyakaran (1833)
Conclusion
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the few people in his time to realise completely the
significance of modern age. He knew that the ideal of human civilization does not lie in
isolation of independence, but in the brotherhood of inter-dependence of individuals as 4/5
well as nations. His attempt was to establish Indian people in the full consciousness of their
own cultural personality, to make them comprehend the reality that was unique in their
civilisations in the spirit of sympathetic cooperation.
Arya Samaj – Dayanand Saraswati

Introduction:
Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati Jayanti is celebrated every year to mark the birth
anniversary of the Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati. This year, the day will be celebrated on
26th February. As per the traditional Hindu calendar, Dayanand Saraswati was born on the
Dashami Tithi of Phalguna Krishna Paksha. Who was Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati?
Birth:
Swami Dayanand Saraswati was born on 12th February 1824 in Tankara, Gujarat in a
Brahmin family. His parents, Lalji Tiwari and Yashodhabai were orthodox Brahmin. He was
earlier named Mool Shankar Tiwari as he was born during Mool Nakshatra. He wandered as
an ascetic for fifteen years (1845-60) in search of truth. Dayananda’s views were published in
his famous work, Satyarth Prakash (The True Exposition).
Contribution to the Society:
1. He was an Indian philosopher, social leader and founder of the Arya Samaj. Arya
Samaj is a reform movement of Vedic dharma and he was the first to give the call for
Swaraj as "India for Indian" in 1876.
2. He was a self-taught man and a great leader of India leaving a significant impact on
Indian society. During his life, he made a prominent name for himself and was known
among a wide array of Prices and the public.
3. The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by him at Mumbai (then Bombay) in
1875 and later the headquarters of the Samaj were established at Lahore.

4. His vision of India included a classless and casteless society, a united India
(religiously, socially and nationally), and an India free from foreign rule, with Aryan
religion being the common religion of all.
5. He took inspiration from the Vedas and considered them to be ‘India’s Rock of
Ages’, the infallible and the true original seed of Hinduism. He gave the slogan “Back
to the Vedas”.
6. He subscribed to the Vedic notion of chaturvarna system in which a person was not
born in any caste but was identified as a brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya or shudra
according to the occupation the person followed.
Contribution to the Education System:
1. He introduced a complete overhaul of the education system and is often considered as
one of the visionaries of modern India.
2. The DAV (Dayanand Anglo Vedic) schools came into existence in 1886 to realize the
vision of Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
3. The first DAV School was established at Lahore with Mahatma Hansarj as the
headmaster
What is Arya Samaj?
It aims to re-establish the Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, as revealed truth. He
rejected all later accretions to the Vedas as degenerate but, in his own interpretation, included
much post Vedic thought. During the 1920s and early 1930s tension grew around a number of
issues.

Muslims were angered by “music-before-mosque”, by the cow protection movement,
and by the efforts of the Arya Samaj to bring back to the Hindu fold (shuddhi) those who had
recently converted to Islam. The Arya Samaj has always had its largest following in western
and northern India. The Samaj opposes worship of Idols (images), animal sacrifice, shraddha
(rituals on behalf of ancestors), and basing caste upon birth rather than upon merit,
untouchability, child marriage, pilgrimages, priestly craft, and temple offerings.
It upholds the infallibility of the Vedas, the doctrines of karma (the accumulated
effect of past deeds) and samsara (the process of death and rebirth), the sanctity of the cow,
the importance of the samskaras (individual sacraments), the efficacy of Vedic oblations to
the fire, and programs of social reform. It has worked to further female education and
interacts marriage, has built missions, orphanages, and homes for widows, has established a
network of schools and colleges, and has undertaken famine relief and medical work.

SWAMI VIVEKANADA –RAMAKRISHNA MISSION
Introduction:
In the 19th century, national awareness among the Indians led to the formation of
several organizations aimed at restoring Hinduism such as Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj and
Ramakrishna Mission. The history of Ramakrishna Mission Movement can be traced back
with the birth of Gadadhar Chatterjee, Sri Ramakrishna’s earlier name on 18th February,
1836 in the Hoogly District of Bengal. He was born in a poor orthodox Brahmin family. He
received no formal education from a school. At the beginning of his life, he worked as one of
the priests at Dakhineswar Temple who conducted the worship of Kali, the divine Goddess.
The name Ramakrishna was given to him by Tota Puri, a devotee of Sankaracharya.
Sri Ramakrishna was beginning to attract a group of young men who came to him,
raised questions, spoke of their own doubts. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, a 19th century saint
was the founder of the Ramakrishna Order of monks and is regarded as the spiritual founder
of the Ramakrishna Movement.
The Ramakrishna Mission follows the inspiration of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa,
whose spiritual experience included Bhakti, Tantra, and Advaita Vedanta, as well as
visionary realizations in Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity and from these experiences he
claimed that all religions lead to the same divine realization.

Ramakrishna’s teachings were popularized by Keshab Chandra Sen and other
Brahmos before the larger public of Bengal through their speeches and writings.
The discovery of Sri Ramakrishna was one of the greatest gifts of the Brahmos to the
Bengali intelligence of the nineteenth century. Keshab Chandra Sen was amazed by the
simplicity and depth of Sri Ramakrishna when he first met with him on 15th March 1875.He
recorded his experience as follows: ‘We met one (a sincere Hindu devotee) not long ago, and
were charmed by the depth, penetration and simplicity of his spirit.’
He admitted further, ‘Hinduism must have in it a deep sense of beauty, truth and
goodness to inspire such men as this Keshab Chandra Sen was deeply influenced by Sri
Ramakrishna
Basic Teachings of Ramakrishna Mission
The principles of Ramakrishna Mission teachings are different from the teachings of
Hinduism. Through his own experience of the various religions that exist in the world, Sri
Ramakrishna concluded that every religion has the same ultimate goal but through different
paths . According to him, Kali (God Mother) and Brahman are two aspects of one reality (2
in 1). He had studied Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. According to him, all religions are
true. God may be known by various names but in fact one is not many. At this stage Sri
Ramakrishna is seen to have taken the basics of Islamic teachings that practice the concept of
monotheism. Sri Ramakrishna practiced meditation or asceticism. Women and gold can
hinder the spiritual development of a human being.

Both represent worldly elements in the form of lust (women) and gold
(worldly greed). Human lust can only be overcome when all women are considered the
incarnation of Kali (God Mother) and greed for the world will be overcome when all worldly
and worldly attractions are removed from the eyes of a human being.
This world is an illusion and man is deceived by the world. They forget the reality of
self and can only be overcome by leaving the world to lead to the reality of eternal truth.
Ramakrishna Mission rejects the caste system that exists in society. According to Sri
Ramakrishna, the rejection of the caste system is proof that the love of God is still bestowed
on human beings
Result and Disscussion
Worshipping God by Serving Humanity The different spiritual services of the
Ramakrishna Mission aim to serve the humanity without any discrimination of caste, creed,
race or nationality. By total uplift it means the development of body, mind, and soul. It means
the fulfilment of all physical, mental, and spiritual requirements. A person is not a lump of
flesh alone; he or she has a mind and a soul too.
Total upliftment means to fulfil the requirements of these three aspects. Furthermore,
a maternity clinic was established in southern Calcutta and in 1970 it was transformed into a
large hospital and was known as Sri Ramakrishna Seva Pratistan. Apart from that, several
medical centres have been established among them in Benares, Kankhal, Allahabad and
Veindaban in India.

A Tuberculosis Clinic in Ranchi and Vivekananda Polyclinic in Lucknow
were established in 1970 and is one of the largest polyclinics in India. Treatment at the clinic
is provided free of charge to help the underprivileged
This movement does a lot of charity work in India, among them are:
i. Assistance for famine victims (1896) in 72 districts for example in Bihar and
famine disaster in Bengal (1943). With the help of this movement, this movement
has succeeded in saving thousands of human lives.
ii. Assistance to flood victims (1899) in 78 districts such as floods in West Bengal.
iii. Medical assistance: • Plague (1899-1900) • Cholera (1913) • Smallpox (1936-
1937) • Influenza (1918-1919) • Malaria (1943)
iv. Hurricane relief
iv. Fire assistance viz. Landslides and earthquake relief such as the earthquake in
Koyna.
v. vii. Assistance of refugee victims and resettlement of refugees from Bangladesh.
Contribution Towards Education
The following are the major types of institutions started at different times during the
118 years of Ramakrishna Mission’s existence in India to actualize Swamiji’s educational
vision as described above:
i. A special school for female students in Calcutta founded by Sister Nivedita (1898).

ii. Ramakrishna Mission Vidyapith, Deo-Ghar, Bihar; schools and hostels
which are one of the earliest educational institutions established by this movement.
iii. Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya in Coimbatore, Madras; a college, school and
industrial institute.
iv. Ramakrishna Mission Boys Home. Rahara, Bengal. Started as an orphanage
(1943), it is now transformed into a school, college, social education centre and basic training
college.
v. Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Navendrapur, Bengal. It started as a dormitory for
Calcutta college students (1943). It is now a college, school, polytechnic and social training
centre.
vi. Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College in Madras. It is the best college in
southern India. A few thousand of students (children, men, and women) are being benefited
every year through a few hundred institutions belonging to the above-mentioned categories.
The main inspiration behind all of these is the educational vision of Swami Vivekananda.
One of the main characteristics of the Sri Ramakrishna Mission institutions imparting
education, which forms the very backbone of these institutions, is the active involvement and
dedicated service of a large number of the monks, devotees and other aspirants of the
Ramakrishna ord

Ramakrishna Mission Activities around the World
Apart from India, followers of the Ramakrishna Mission also exist all over the world.
In Myanmar, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, for example, this movement
focuses on communal activities and emphasises the spiritual element in their daily lives.
Meanwhile in the United States, Europe, England and France, the movement focused heavily
on intellectual and spiritual activities.
Since the time of Swami Vivekananda, the United States has been the cultural activity
centre of the Ramakrishna Mission in the west. No wonder they have the most members there
ever. There are also Ramakrishna Mission centres in Gretz, France, London, Berkeley,
Boston, Hollywood, New York, Portland, Providence, San Francisco, Seattle, St. Louis and
Buenos Aires. Followers of the Ramakrishna Mission are usually taught about the culture and
spiritual elements of Hinduism.
One interesting thing is that it is well received by the intellectual community there.
Among the famous figures that represented this movement in the United States were Swami
Pravabananda and Swami Vikhilananda. In Malaysia, followers of Ramakrishna Mission can
be found in the cities of Kuala Lumpur (Bangsar, Brickfield) and Butterworth, Penang.
They did the same activities as the followers of Ramakrishna Mission in India such as
doing charity work, helping the poor, providing dormitory facilities to students as in
Brickfield, Kuala Lumpur.

According to, among the characteristics of Ramakrishna Mission followers in Malaysia are:
i. They will say haariwm instead of name for greetings when met each other.
ii. There are three long white marks on the forehead of the followers of
Ramakrishna Mission.
iii. Followers of Ramakrishna Mission are usually modest, polite, courteous and
humble.
iv. They do not eat meat; only eat vegetables (vegetarian) that they grow.
iv. They usually hang out with each other in their community.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Ramakrishna Mission believes in the concept of universal religion
which is heavily influenced by Christianity. They argue that all religions are true. This
movement has also contributed a lot to Indian civilization in terms of education, humanity,
literature and spirituality. Swami Vivekananda himself wanted to see India conquer the world
through the spiritual power that exists in Hinduism. One of them is Yoga.

Theosophical Society.
Introduction:
Theosophy is the knowledge that underpins all faiths when they are purged of
superstitions and accretions. It provides a philosophy that makes existence understandable
and explains that law and compassion guide the cosmos. Its teachings facilitate the disclosure
of the human being’s underlying spiritual essence, without relying on outward events. The
Theosophical Society was founded in 1875 to propagate theosophy.
The name “Theosophy” comes from the Greek word “theosophia,” which means
“God’s wisdom.” It refers to esoteric philosophical systems concerned with or seeking direct
understanding of, assumed mysteries of existence and nature, notably the essence of God. Its
core is found in its reference to secret information or wisdom that provides illumination and
redemption to the person. The theosophist tries to comprehend the cosmos’ secrets as well as
the links that link the universe, mankind, and the divine. Theosophy seeks to discover the
origins of God, mankind, and the planet. Theosophists attempt to discover a cohesive account
of the goal and genesis of the cosmos via examination of these themes.
Theosophical Society in India: Roles and Characteristics
Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott formed the Theosophical Society in New
York in 1875. It wasn’t until 1879 that this philosophy became entrenched in Indian society
and culture. It had shifted the headquarters later to Madras at Adyar. Annie Besant
popularized the movement in India.

Theosophy Was Founded on Three Tenets:
 Brotherhood throughout the world.
 Parallel religion and philosophy are studied.
 Investigations into natural laws to comprehend the mysterious mystic law
Theosophical Society and Theosophist Roles
All religions were honoured by the Theosophists. They were against transformations
and believed in soul transmigration and occult mysticism. The Theosophical Society had
been an important component in the renaissance of Hinduism in India, which also resulted in
a degree of social cohesion. To Annie Besant, “India has no future without Hinduism.”
Hinduism is the ground into which India’s roots are planted, and if she is ripped out of it, she
would wither as invincible as a tree ripped out of its spot.
Eradication Of Caste and Untouchability
Theosophists also advocated for the eradication of caste and untouchability, as well as
the ideology of assimilation. They truly sought to increase societal acceptance and inclusion
of excluded groups. They attempted to improve the lives of the socially isolated by
encouraging them to enrol in mainstream schooling. With this aim, Annie Besant established
various educational associations and advocated for the development of modern education.
Annie Besant’s contribution
In 1889, Annie Besant joined the Theosophical Society. She was a fervent believer in
the Vedas and Upanishads’ teachings. She found the Indian ground to be both freeing and
illuminating, so she adopted the nation and declared it her forever place. She was a protestor
against the common injustices of the then-Indian society, such as child marriage and the

unacceptability of widow remarriage, and she founded the Banaras Central School in
her effort to bring knowledge to every doorstep.
The current Banaras Hindu University grew out of this nucleus. In South India, a
surge of her initiatives resulted in the establishment of several schools and institutions.
She was also well-known for her powerful writing. Education, philosophy, and
economics were among the primary concerns on which she focused and worked via the
Theosophical Society. She also founded the Self Government League in 1916, comparable to
the Irish Union Movement, to propagate the idea of the Society for which she fought
tirelessly; she also produced two publications, “The New India” and “Common Weal.” The
Theosophical Movement was more popular among intellectuals than the general public, and it
made its impact in the 19th century. It became associated with the Hindu Renaissance.
Theosophical Society Characteristics
 Through thought, prayer, revelation, and other means, a particular link between a
person’s soul and God can be developed.
 The Society acknowledged Hindu ideas in reincarnation and Karma and took
inspiration from the theory of the Upanishads, Samkhya, Pranayama, and Veda
School of Thought.
 It advocated for worldwide brotherhood without regard to race, faith, gender, caste, or
colour.
 Society aspired to enquire into the mysterious laws of nature as well as the abilities
dormant in man.
 The movement sought to achieve Hindu spiritual understanding through Western
enlightenment.

 The movement resurrected and enhanced Hinduism’s old teachings and
philosophies.
 Aryan culture and religion should be studied and preached.
 The Scriptures revealed the absolute truth of the cosmos and existence.
 It was global enough to accept all religions and types of devotion.
 Aside from intellectual and spiritual debate, the Society’s literary and research
endeavours made a significant contribution to the Hindu awakening.
 Hindu scriptures have been printed and translated.
 The society promoted changes and devised educational programs to implement them.
Conclusion
We have understood Theosophical Society and other topics in the study material of
Theosophical Society.
According to theosophical authors, there is a higher spiritual reality and direct
communication with that reality can be made by intuition, meditation, revelation, or some
other condition that transcends normal human awareness. Theosophists emphasize esoteric
teachings as well.

Alighadh Movement
Introduction:
In the later years of the 19th century, the Aligarh movement was an initiative to set
up a system of Western-style scientific education in British India for the Muslim population.
The origin of the movement is from Aligarh, which is where it has derived its name from. Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan was the founder of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College and some
institutions that developed from it. The chief person leading the Aligarh
movement's objectives was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. This Muslim renaissance movement has
profound implications for the culture, society, politics, and religion of the Indian
subcontinent.
History of the Aligarh Movement
The Muslim society was deteriorating during the mutiny period after the failure of the
Revolt of 1857. The condition of the Muslim society was found to be culturally, socially, and
educationally backwards by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. This movement was initiated to
regenerate Muslim society and initiate intellectual upliftment in Muslim society.
The Aligarh movement introduced a new trend in Urdu literature. The movement’s
main purpose was imparted in the following way – the old method of writing Urdu was left
behind, and a simpler style of writing was adopted. The academic and rhetorical style of
writing was left behind. This movement was led by a major figure, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.

Aligarh Movement Objectives
The chief Aligarh Movement objectives included convincing the section of Muslim
individuals to gain the recent English language and knowledge.
The other objectives of the Aligarh movement include:
1. To promote and maintain the economic and political significance of the Muslim
community
2. To build a sense of trust between the Muslim community and the government
Outcomes of the Aligarh Movement
The political emancipation of the Muslims in India was highly attributed due to the
Aligarh Movement. Compared to the other movements of the 19th century, this movement
had more influence on the Muslim society of India. Many socio-religious movements grew in
the 19th century as a result of the Aligarh movement. During the 20th century, the influence
of this movement was visible in other regions of the Indian sub-continent other than North
India. The growth of institutes including Osmania University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Dacca
University, and Aligarh Muslim University was promoted by the annual educational
conferences that took place in different parts of the country
Role of the Aligarh Movement in Politics
Separate politics was encouraged by the Aligarh Movement even though it began as
a reform movement. This movement created a division between Muslims and Hindus. The
Indian National Movement was weakened by the sense of separation among Muslims. The
Muslim community was guided to keep a distance from the nationalistic movements. These
nationalistic movements were initiated in 1885 by the National Congress of India.

The aspirations of the Muslim community of India were voiced by some of the
graduates of Aligarh College in the Muslim League. Communalism grew in India as a result
of the Aligarh movement. Instead of positively affecting politics, it turned to promoting
communalism in India.
Impact of the Aligarh Movement on Society and Education
One of the most important reformers of Muslims, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, caused the
upliftment of Muslims by favouring modern scientific education. He was against narrow-
mindedness and fanaticism. He prompted the Muslim community to the tolerant and
broadminded. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wanted the Muslim community to create freedom of
thought and develop a critical approach that he realised would not come from religious
education alone. He wanted his community to upgrade themselves.
He wanted Muslims to adopt Western learning methods since it was the only way
toward achieving enlightenment. Throughout Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s life, the promotion of
Western education among the Muslim community was one of his chief concerns.
The Opposition to the Aligarh Movement
The conservative Ulemas were the critics of the Aligarh movement. Jamāl al-Dīn al-
Afghānī, who was a Pan-Islamist thinker, opposed the Aligarh movement. Munshi Sajjad
Hussain, Akbar Allahabadi, and Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar ridiculed this movement in the
Awadh Punch. They were against Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s idea of promoting Westernised
customs and ethics in their community. Another group of individuals who opposed the
Aligarh Movement was the Deoband school.

Conclusion
This article comprises information on the Aligarh movement led by Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan. The movement was initiated to uplift the Muslim community by indulging them in
Western education and learning methods. The above-written article begins with information
on the history and initiation of the Aligarh movement. After that, information on the
objectives, the role of the movement in politics, and the impact of the movement on society
and education are mentioned. The present work ended with the details of individuals who
opposed the initiation, working, and objectives of the Aligarh movement.
Prarthana Samaja of Ranade

Introduction:
Prarthana Samaj, or "Prayer Society" in Sanskrit, is a movement for religious and so
cial reform in Maharashtra based on previous reform movements and traditions of Maharashtr
a. The direct predecessor of the Prarthana Samaj in Mumbai was the Paramahamsa Sabha, a s
ecret society for the furtherance of liberal ideas formed in 1849 by Ram Balkrishna Jaykar an
d others in Mumbai. It was secret to avoid the wrath of the powerful and orthodox elements o
f society. Meetings were for discussion, the singing of hymns, and the sharing of a communal
meal prepared by a lowcaste cook. Members ate bread baked by Christians and drank water b
rought by Moslems at St. Martin's College.
Religious Reform
Like the parallel Brahmo Samaj of Bengal, the Prarnatha Samaj represented an Indian
response to European liberalism, including the ideals of rational or theistic belief and social r
eform. The Prarthana Samaj(ists) are followers of the great religious tradition of the Maratha
Sant Mat like Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas(the guru of Shivaji). The Brahmo Samaj found
ers examined many world religions including ancient Vedic texts which subsequently were n
ot accepted to be infallible or divine. Although the adherents of Prarthana Samaj were devote
d theists, they also did not regard the Vedas as divine or infallible. They drew their nourishme
nt from the Hindu scriptures and used the hymns of the old Marathi "poetsaints" in their pray
ers.
Their ideas trace back to the devotional poems of the Vitthalasas part of the Vaishnav
a bhakti devotional movements of the thirteenth century in southern Maharashtra. The Marath

i poets had inspired a movement of resistance to the Mughals. But, beyond religious c
oncerns, the primary focus of the Prarnatha Samaj was on social and cultural reform.
Social Reform
Prarthana Samaj critically examined the relations between contemporary social and cu
ltural systems and religious beliefs and gave priority to social reform as compared with the po
litical changes already initiated by the British government.
Their comprehensive reform movement has led tomany impressive projects of cultural
change and social reform in Western India, such as the improvement of the lot of women and
depressed classes, an end to the caste system, abolition of child marriages and infanticide, ed
ucational opportunities for women, and remarriage of widows. Its success was guided by Sir
Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, a noted Sanskrit scholar, Dr. Atmaram Pandurang, Narayan
Chandavarkar, and Justice Mahadev Govinda Ranade.
Conclusion:
Ranade emphasized that "the reformer must attempt to deal with the whole man and n
ot to carry out reform on one side only". "The social organism in India," according to Ranade,
"shows a growth which should not be ignored and cannot be forcibly suppressed." Later Prart
hana Samaj, in Pune, continued the reforms of the caste system and untouchability. Maharshi
Vithal Ramji Shinde championed the complete eradication of caste and untouchability. He fo
unded the first depressed classes mission.
Adi Dharm Movement of Punajab

Introduction:

Role of Ad-Dharm Movement in Dalits’ Lives the Ad-Dharm Movement was
an independent Dalit movement and their agenda was very clear which aimed at the creation
of a new religion or qaum like other religions. As Juergensmeyer (1988) explained, “Its main
motif was novel: the idea that untouchables constitute a qaum, a distinct religious community
similar to those of Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs and that the qaum had existed from time
immemorial. “The Ad-Dharm movement has produced many committed leaders who worked
for their community like Mangoo Ram Mangoowaila, Sant Ram B.A., Vasant Rai, Thakur
Chand, Swami Shudranand, Mangoo Ram Jaspal etc.
These leaders of the Ad-Dharm movement had effectively done their job in leading
and motivating the Dalits of Punjab. The first meeting of the Ad-Dharm movement was held
on June 11-12, 1926 Hoshiarpur in which many people from other religions participated.
Mango Ram made restless efforts to preserve its own culture, festivals, religious scriptures,
places and teachings of Gurus to provide a distinct identity to Dalits in Punjab. The leaders of
the movement claimed that Dalits are the real inhabitants of India and therefore they used the
word „Ad‟ for their identity.
The motive was to fill inspiration in Dalits and change their thinking. They appealed
to Dalits to shun their inferiority and follow the path shown by their Gurus to live a respectful
life. They condemned other religions and made efforts to establish their religion „Ad
Dharm‟. They wanted to build self-confidence in untouchables to prepare them to revolt
against the inhuman treatment by upper castes.
For the fulfilment of the ideas of the movement, the leaders of the movement
accepted Guru Ravidas Guru who was also from the Chamar caste. He played an important
role in the creation of equality and fraternity in the society. He gave a middle path between

assimilation and radical separation. It was an obvious choice as Guru Ravidas and his
teachings already existed in the consciousness of Punjabi Dalits. “His mysticism is not based
on blind faith but is the byproduct of first-hand and immediate encounter of truth and reality.
The Ad-Dharmis used his picture as their emblem and his sayings as their sacred texts.”
Further, Mangoo Ram met Sant Sarwan Dass Maharaj at Dera Sachkhand Ballan (Jalandhar).
With their concern, the Ad Prakash, a holy Granth was prepared. It contains the Bani of
Guru Ravidas and other Dalit Gurus. They also said that Guru Nam Dev, Guru Ravidas, Sant
Kabir, Swami Valmiki and all other Dalit saints are our Gurus. The satsang of Ad-Dharmis
followed a pattern like Sikhs. Like other religions, they choose symbols for their separate
identity. The sign of Har, Jai Guru Dev, Aarti and Ardass and the wearing of red clothes are
the main symbols that helped to create a distinguished identity for the followers of the
movement.
The basic idea of the movement revolved around Guru Ravidas. He was not only a
Guru but a symbol of the cultural and religious identity of the lower castes. He occupied an
important place in the Sikh holy Book „Guru Granth Sahib‟. Ad-Dharm presents a different
view of a religion that always works for people‟s welfare. It was an organization to presented
a real vision. The leadership of this movement appealed to Dalits that they should live their
life according to the principles of the Ad-Dharm movement and also follow the path shown
by their own Gurus.
Secondly, for the fulfilment of political ideas, the Ad-Dharm movement established
an Ad-Dharm Mandal. This was a political organization of this movement. It contested the
elections in 1937. Despite the Mandal swinning all but one seat, it was successful in
spreading awareness and assertion among lower castes. Alliance with the Unionist Party, Ad-

Dharm Mandal, contested the election in 1945-46 and Mangoo Ram got elected.
After independence, the Ad Dharm movement lost its effect, none of the Dalit leaders
emerged as an impressive personality.
The Ad-Dharm Mandal is the saviour of the Ad-Dharm movement and the leadership
of this movement held it strongly to protect the rights of untouchables. Many Dalit leaders
have worked for the success of the movement. The ad-Dharm Mandal report which was
published in Punjabi and Hindi by the editor of the magazine “Kaumi Odarian” claimed that
the ad-Dharm Mandal had 500 members and 55 missionaries.
They also started newspapers like Adi Danka and Ujjala to bring consciousness to the
Dalit community. Impact of the Ad-Dharm Movement and Its Relevance in Present Times
The impact of the movement was revealed through the census of 1931 as it was a great event
for Dalits in Punjab. It was an opportunity to show their strength and assert their identity.
„Mangoo Ram also expected to bring other untouchable communities into the fold of Ad-
Dharm and emerge as a viable community at the regional level. ‟ also argued that Ad-
Dharmis succeeded in making a new beginning with a new identity despite opposition from
other communities. They pressured the British government to conduct a caste-based census in
1931.
They had no faith in Hinduism and wanted to enlist themselves as Ad-Dharmis.
Therefore, the leaders of the movement convinced the British Government to list Ad-Dharm
as a separate religion. The British Government accepted this idea as they wanted to know,

how change has taken place. The members of the Ad-Dharm movement worked hard
towards this cause related to census.
They held rallies and contacted the people door to door so that they became aware of
their rights and enrolled themselves as a member of Ad-Dharm for dignity and separate
identity. Despite the reaction from other communities, the Ad-Dharm finally created history
when 418789 people considered and enlisted themselves as Ad-Dharmis. Their number was
roughly equal to Christians in Punjab. It was a massive change as the census showed the
strength of untouchables depicting hard-work of their leaders. People from every region like
Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Amritsar, Lyallpur, Lahore, Kangra, Shahpur and Gujarat etc enrolled
as Ad-Dharmis.
The signs of a great movement appeared at the beginning itself with the first meeting
where all Dalits even non-Dalit castes came together. In the first meeting in 1925, people
from all sections of Punjab attended this meeting. The participants of this meeting comprised
of Chuhras, Chamars, Ravidasisa, Sansis, Bhanjires, Ghadhilias, Burrs, Julahas, Megas,
Chambars, Kabirpanthis, Mahashas, Doms and other castes. The people from non-Dalit
castes like Christians, Sikhs, Muslims, Arya Samajis and Sanatanis also attended this
meeting. 15 It was the great movement in Dalits‟ history which made remarkable
improvements in their lives. It is also true that every sunrise has a sunset. Therefore, in the
post-independence period, the effect of the Ad Dharm movement decreased. Several reasons
became the causes of the decline of the movement.
One is the rift between Dr. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi which led to the Poona
Pact. Jhodka explained that “The beginning of the decline of the Ad-Dharm movement can
perhaps be located in the famous Poona Pact of 1932 between Mahatma Gandhi and

Ambedkar and the formation of Scheduled List in the Government of India Act
1935.”16 Another reason is the rift among Ad-Dharm movement leaders that led to the
establishment of two separate organisations in the 1930s: the Ad-Dharm Mandal led by
Mangoo Ram and the All-Ind Indian Ad-Dharm Mandal led by Vasant Rai.
Mangoo Ram group worked on the idea to create a new religion for untouchables
because they felt humiliated by other religions. Then Dalits started following new religious
sects like Radha Soami and Dalit Deras. The decline of the movement leads to two outcomes-
the Bahujan Samaj Party and the Dalit Deras which are working on the agenda of this
movement.
Despite these literary views, it is important to collect the responses of the present
generation among Dalits to analyse the role and legacy of the Ad-Dharm movement. During
my field trip, I met many respondents with this aim to know their views regarding this great
movement. But it is very surprising thing for me as a researcher that majority of the
respondents did not know about this movement. Some respondents expressed their views
about the movement and that it was a great movement and Mangoo Ram who awakened the
Dalits was himself inspired by Dr Ambedkar, “Dr Ambedkar inspired Mangoo Ram. He
tolerated discrimination and started the Ad Dharm movement for Dalits’ progress and to
carry forward Baba Sahib’s movement in Punjab.
It is a big contribution to unite Dalits and the role of Mangoo Ram in Dalits is
unmatched.” One respondent described the importance of this movement and the struggle of
Mangoo Ram with an illustration of a true story, “The ad-Dharm movement was started by
Mangoo Ram which is very important for Dalits. There is a very famous incident regarding
Mangoo Ram. He lifted the chair on his head in the Lahore assembly. Then Sikandra Hiyat

(CM) asked him that why he lifted the chair. He asked him to put it down. Then
Mangoo Ram asked where should he put it. He said that he had no place to put his chair,
meaning that Dalits had no land or even the right to purchase land. It was a way to show the
landlessness of Dalits.
Then Dalits, for the first time in history, succeeded in getting rights to purchase land.
After that, Dalits got land inside the red line area. It was the big contribution from Mangoo
Ram to Dalits.” Some respondents highlighted the leadership qualities of Ad-Dharm leaders
and suggested that present leadership should have learned a lesson from it, “The entire
leadership of Ad-Dharm movement was brave and had guts. They were fearless and brave-
hearted persons who struggled for rights despite their poverty. Mangoo Ram struggled a lot
for the community. There is a need for a strong base to establish a building. (Je makan bana
hove tan nee (base) di jarorat pendi hai.) This movement was a strong base for Dalit
assertion.
Conclusion:
In the concluding remarks, it can be said that the Ad-Dharm movement was great in
north India, especially in Punjab. It spread a great impact on the lives of the Dalits of Punjab
and created a new consciousness among them. Under the dynamic leadership of this
movement, Dalits organized a struggle against the caste system and discrimination. In the
present time, Dalits are more conscious socially, religiously and to some extent politically.
Namo Shudra Movement in Bengal

Introduction:

The Namasudra Movement in Bengal: The Namasudra is a non-caste caste
of India that lives in some parts of Bengal. They were known as Chandal in ancient times.
These were considered untouchables and lived outside the village. They traditionally did
agriculture and seafaring work. They lived outside the varnashrama system, hence were
considered low and degraded. In the modern era, he started a movement to protect his
existence, and honor, which is known as the Namasudra movement.
Significance: It is believed that in 1870, the Chandalas of Banganj and Faridpur in
Bengal boycotted the Hindu caste system. He rejected the invitation to the banquet given by
the head of the Chandalas and raised his voice against the caste system. Later he assumed the
honorific title ‘Namashudra’ and went on to attain the position of Brahmins in the society.
The Namasudra caste people of Bengal benefited greatly from the Bhadralok movement
going on in Bengal at that time. He gave his support to this movement. This brought him to
the attention of the Bengali gentlemen and it benefited him psychologically. Historian
Shekhar Bandyopadhyay has mentioned that the Dalits of Bengal registered their presence in
Indian society and politics by participating in the partition movement. In Bengal, the Dalit
castes named Rajvanshi and Namasudra maintained their influence on the politics of Bengal.
At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, the Namshudra caste people living in East
Bengal were forced to come to West Bengal. He founded the Namassej Samaj and through
this, he fought for his existence even after independence. The Namasudra movement in India
was social and political. He agitated for the upliftment of the lower people.
Unit –II

Upliftment of the Oppressed Communities
Satya Shodhaka Samaja Moment, Mahatma Phu
Introduction:
In the social and educational history of India, Savitribai and her husband Jyotirao
Phule have left an indelible mark. The couple fought for equality between men and women as
well as social justice. Savitribai and her husband established a girl’s school in pune at Bhide
Wada in 1848 and started its journey with seven girls. She herself becomes the head teacher
of the school. With a short span of time from 1848 to 1851, they founded 18 schools. She was
born on 3rd January 1831 in a poor family in Naigaon in Satara district limits in Maharastra.
Her father was Khandoji Nevase Patil and her mother was Laxmi. And her parents were not
educated. She was got married of at the age of nine to Jyotiba Phule. She was illiterate when
she was got married. She was made read and write by her husband. She went to Mitchell
teachers’ training school in Pune.
Pioneer of Women Education:
Savitribai Phule observes ‘The person who educates and the person who gets
education both become true human beings. Savitribai Phule was a great social reformer,
philanthropist, educationist, first Indian female teacher and a prolific poetess of Marathi. She
was regarded as the mother of Indian feminism.
She and her husband dedicated their lives for women education and for the rights of
the downtrodden. She along with her husband fought for the dignity and rights for the women
and marginalized. They established a girl’s school in pune in 1848 and started its journey
with seven students and it was the first Indian run school. Savitribai started teaching in this

school and she became the first woman teacher of India. She herself becomes the head
teacher of the school. With a short span of time from 1848 to 1851, they founded 18 schools.
They founded a girl school for the untouchable girls’ even when they had no access in
education nowhere in India. She introduced secular education as she started educating girls
from all sections of the society irrespective of caste, creed and religion.
It may be mentioned here that education for girls were considered as a sin at that
time. So, teaching by a female teacher for girl students was very difficult.
She strongly believed that only education can liberate our women from the oppressive
patriarchal structure. She waged a war against casteism and Brahminic caste culture for the
upliftment of women. She with her husband took a great task of spreading education among
all section of society when women were considered mere object to be used.
It was a punishable offence to literate girl children at that period. As Hindu religious
norms and injections were against female education people were unwilling to send their
children to school. Manu strictly prohibited it. So Phule couple conducted parent-teacher
meeting at a regular interval to encourage them for sending their children to school and up
held the benefits of education before them. She dedicated herself to spread education among
girl children and established women rights.
Wandering door to door she urged the villagers to send their children to school and
subsequently the number of students started increasing rapidly. They set up hostel for the
students.The Phule couple used to hold parents-teacher meeting to ensure the active
participation of parents so that they could understand the importance of education and sent
their girls to school to receive education. To attract and encourage students towards school

and education she adopted many measures like setting up hostel, designed the
syllabus according to the need of the students, vocational training, attendance allowance for
students. Reciting her own poems from ‘Kavyaphule’ she used to encourage her students,
like:
Go, get education,
Be self-reliant, be industrious
All get lost without knowledge
We become animal without wisdom.
Sit idly no more,
go get education…
You have got a golden chance to learn So,
learn and break the chain of slavery.
And First work is study then homely deeds …
For living self-respect go to school.
The real jewel of the men and women is education
Now go to school. And Let us go to school for study
We will not waste time now we bow to get education, and knowledge Let us break the slavery
of ignorance and poverty.
As Social Reformer:
She was the first women social reformer in India. She was a great social reformer as
well as a great teacher. Savitribai and her husband Jyotiba Phule founded Styashodhak Samaj
in September, 1873 and through this organization they undertook many social reformative

works. This organization Started registered marriage and it was first time in India that
registered marriage was initiated.
This type of marriage was performed without any priest, religious rituals and dowry.
They also called it Styashodhak marriage. As per this marriage the bridegroom had to take
oath that he would support and stand by his wife at every step of life. He had to also promise
that he would help his wife to get educated.
The Phule couple arranged their son’s marriage according to this system i.e.,
registered marriage. But the priest community and the orthodox Hindu society were deadly
against of this type of marriage. As it was against religious scriptures and Hindu customs,
except some progressive people most of the people were against this form of marriage.
At that time many girls became widows as they were married off at a very early age
with old age men. And remarriage of widows was strictly prohibited then.
Widows were forced to shave their heads. Savitribai protested against it and she
convinced the girls not to shave their heads. She also requested the barbers not to shave heads
of girl widows. She was able to convince the barbers and the barbers joined her movement.
Finally, the barbers called a strike demanding withdrawal of this bad system.
And they announced that henceforth they would not shave the heads of widows. It
was revolutionary and a big achievement for the Indian women. In 1852 she founded an
organization namely Mahila Mandal in Pune.

Under the banner of this organization, they started campaigning against child
marriage, mismatch marriage, exploitation of widows, and oppression on women. They also
campaigned for widow remarriage. She started calling meetings of women and women
cutting across caste line used to attend the meetings where they shared their problems. On
hearing their problems, she tried to boost their Morales. The Main objective of this
organization was to create awareness of women rights. This Mahila Mandal succeeded in
empowering Indian women to great extent
Setting up Infanticide Prohibition Home:
‘In 1863 she started an infanticide prohibition home for pregnant widows to provide
them a safe space to give birth without the fear of society. The Phule couple adopted the son
of Kashibai, a Brahmin widow. He was named Yashwant Rao and went on to become a
doctor.’ It is seen in the history that women were made victim of social evil system. Religious
customs, evil traditions and blind beliefs put various restrictions on women. Widow
Remarriage was strictly prohibited and child marriage was prevalent among the Hindus in the
then society. According to Phule couple, both men and women are entitled to enjoy equal
rights and it is a sin to discriminate between human beings on the basis sex.
During Savitribai Phule’s time girls were got married off at the early age. Many o
them became widow and on many occasions, they were sexually exploited. As a result,
sometimes they became pregnant and most of the cases they had to kill themselves. Phule
couple emerged as the saviour of such ill-fated women. They stop such victim women from

killing themselves or poeticising. They consoled them and give them shelter.
Savitribai herself took care of them and arranged the safe birth.
Conclusion:
Savitribai Phule succeeded in bringing a new age of thinking in India by spreading
education. Studying her life, we learn the best way for the enlightenment of human beings
from ignorance. If she would have not taken initiative in educating women, uplifting their
social position the status of Indian women would have been worse. Wandering door to door
and breaking blind beliefs she lit a enlightened revolutionary flame of education. Women in
our society were less than an animal Savitribai gave them a respectful life.
Rajashree Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaja

INTRODUCTION
Born: June 26, 1874
Place of Birth: Kagal, Kolhapur District, Central Provinces (currently Maharashtra)

Parents: Jaisinghrao Appasaheb Ghatge (Father) and Radhabai (Mother);

Anandibai (Adoptive Mother)
Spouse: Lakshmibai
Children: Rajaram III, Radhabai, Sriman Maharajkumar Shivaji and Srimati Rajkumari
Aubai
Education: Rajkumar College, Rajkot
Religious Views: Hinduism
Legacy: Social and Educational Reforms, Opposed Brahman Supremacy
Death: May 6, 1922
Place of Death: Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj also known as Rajarshi Shahu was considered a true
democrat and social reformer. First Maharaja of the princely state of Kolhapur, he was an
invaluable gem in the history of Maharashtra. Greatly influenced by the contributions of
social reformer Jyotiba Phule, Shahu Maharaj was an ideal leader and able ruler who was
associated with many progressive and path breaking activities during his rule. From his
coronation in 1894 till his demise in 1922, he worked tirelessly for the cause of the lower
caste subjects in his state. Primary education to all regardless of caste and creed was one of
his most significant priorities.
Early Life
He was born Yeshwantrao in the Ghatge family in Kagal village of the Kolhapur
district as Yeshwantrao Ghatge to Jaisingrao and Radhabai in June 26, 1874. Jaisingrao
Ghatge was the village chief, while his wife Radhabhai hailed from the royal family of

Mudhol. Young Yeshwantrao lost his mother when he was only three. His
education was supervised by his father till he was 10 years old. In that year, he was
adopted by Queen Anandibai, widow of Kingh Shivaji IV, of the princely state of
Kolhapur. Although the adoption rules of the time dictated that the child must have
Bhosale dynasty blood in his vein, Yeshwantrao’s family background presented a unique
case.
He completed his formal education at the Rajkumar College in Rajkot and took
lessons of administrative affairs from Sir Stuart Fraser, a representative of the Indian Civil
Services. He ascended the throne in 1894 after coming of age, prior to which a regency
council appointed by the British Government took care of the state affairs. During his
accession Yeshwantrao was renamed as Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj.
Chhatrapati Shahu was over five feet nine inches in height and displayed a regal and
majestic appearance. Wrestling was one of his favourite sports and he patronised the sport
throughout his rule. Wrestlers from all over the country would come to his state to
participate in wrestling competitions.
He was married to Lakshmibai Khanvilkar, daughter of a nobleman from Baroda in
1891. The couple had for children – two sons and two daughters.
Social Reforms
Chhatrapati Shahu occupied the throne of Kolhapur for 28 years, from 1894 to 1922,
and during this period he initiated numerous social reforms in his empire. His emphasis

was on education and his aim was to make education available to masses. He
introduced a number of educational programs to promote education among his subjects.
He established hostels separately for different ethnicities and religions like Panchals,
Devadnya, Nabhik, Shimpi, Dhor-Chambhar communities as well as for Muslims, Jains
and Christians. He established the Miss Clarke Boarding School for the socially
quarantined segments of the community. He introduced several scholarships for the poor
but meritorious students from backward castes.
He also initiated a compulsory free primary education for all in his state. He
established Vedic Schools that enabled students from all castes and classes to learn the
scriptures and propagate Sanskrit education among all. He also started special schools for
the village heads or ‘Patils’ to make them into better administrators.
Chhatrapati Sahu was a strong advocate of equality among all strata of the society
and refused to give the Brahmins any special status. He removed Brahmins from the post
of Royal Religious advisers when they refused to perform religious rites for non-
Brahmins. He appointed a young Maratha scholar in the post and bestowed him the title of
`Kshatra Jagadguru' (the world teacher of the Kshatriyas). This incident together with the
Shahu’s encouragement of the non-Brahmins to read and recite the Vedas led to the
Vedokta controversy in Maharashtra.
The Vedokta controversy brought a storm of protest from the elite strata of the
society; a vicious opposition of the Chhatrapati’s rule. He established the Deccan Rayat
Association in Nipani during 1916. The association sought to secure political rights for
non-Brahmins and invite their equal participation in politics. Shahuji was influenced by

the works of Jyotiba Phule, and he long patronized the Satya Shodhak Samaj,
formed by Phule. In his later life, he, however, moved towards the Arya Samaj.
Chhatrapati Shahu made great efforts to abolish the concept of caste segregation and
untouchability. He introduced (perhaps the first known) reservation system in government
jobs for untouchable castes. His Royal Decree ordering his subjects to treat every member
of the society as equal and granting the untouchables equal access to public utilities like
wells and ponds, as well as establishments like schools and hospitals. He legalised inter-
caste marriages and made a lot of efforts for the upliftment of the dalits. He discontinued
the hereditary transfer of titles and tenures of revenue collectors (Kulkarni), a caste
infamous for exploiting the masses, especially enslavement of the Mahars, a lower caste.
The Chhatrapati also worked towards betterment of the conditions of women in his
empire. He established schools to educate the women, and also spoke vociferously on the
topic of women education.
He introduced a law banning the Devadsi Pratha, the practice of offering girls to
God, which essentially led to exploitation of the girls in the hands of the Clergy. He
legalised widow remarriages in 1917 and made efforts towards stopping child marriages.
He introduced a number of projects that enabled his subjects to self-sustain in their chosen
professions.
The Shahu Chhatrapati Spinning and Weaving Mill, dedicated market places,
establishment of co-operative societies for farmers were introduced by the Chhatrapati to
alleviate his subjects from middle men in trading. He made credits available to farmers
looking to buy equipment to modernise agricultural practices and even established the

King Edward Agricultural Institute to teach the farmers to increase crop yield and
related technologies.
He initiated the Radhanagari Dam on February 18, 1907 and the project was
completed in 1935. The dam stands testament to Chhatrapati Shahu’s vision towards the
welfare of his subjects and made Kolhapur self-sufficient in water.
He was a great patron of art and culture and encouraged artists from music and fine
arts. He supported writers and researchers in their endeavours. He installed gymnasiums
and wrestling pitches and highlighted the importance of health consciousness among the
youth.
His seminal contribution in social, political, educational, agricultural and cultural
spheres earned him the title of Rajarshi, which was bestowed upon him by the Kurmi
warrior community of Kanpur.
Association with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
Chhatrapati was introduced to Bhimrao Ambedkar by artists Dattoba Pawar and
Dittoba Dalvi. The King was greatly impressed by the great intellect of young Bhimrao
and his revolutionary ideas regarding untouchability.
The two met a number of times during 1917-1921 and went over possible ways to
abolish the negatives of caste segregation. Together they organised a conference for the
betterment of the untouchables during March 21-22, 1920 and Chhatrapati made Dr.
Ambedkar the Chairman as he believed that Dr. Ambedkar was the leader who would
work for the amelioration of the segregated segments of the society. He even donated Rs.

2,500 to Dr. Ambedkar when he started his newspaper ‘Mooknayak’ on January
31, 1921, and contributed morelater for the same cause. Their association lasted till the
Chhartapati’s death in 1922.
Honours
Due to his numerous altruistic efforts for the betterment of his subjects, he earned
the honorary LLD degree from Cambridge University. He also received the titles of Grand
Commander of the Order of the Star of India (G.C.S.I.) from Queen Victoria, Grand Cross
of the Royal Victorian Order (G.C.V.O.) from the Duke of Connaught and Grand
Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (G.C.I.E.) from the Imperial Darbar. He
also received the King Edward Coronation Medal in 1902.
Death
The great social reformer Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj died on May 6, 1922. He was
succeeded by his eldest son Rajaram III as the Maharaja of Kolhapur. It was unfortunate
that the reforms initiated by Chhatrapati Shahu gradually began to cease and fade for the
lack of able leadership to carry on the legacy.
Ezwa Movement of Shri Narayan Guru
Introduction:
The Shree Narayan Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement was an example
of a regional movement that arose from the conflict between the lower and upper castes.

Sree Narayana Guru Swamy (1856– 1928) founded it among the Ezhavas of Kerala,
a backward caste of toddy-tappers who were considered untouchables and were denied
education and entry into temples. During the pre-independence period, a number of
backward class movements arose. The backward classes banded together against the
Brahmanas in particular, believing that they monopolized much of the socio-economic
benefits, leaving the agricultural intermediate castes and communities in the lurch. In this
article
Evolution of SNDP Movement
 The Ezhavas were Kerala's most populous caste, accounting for 26% of the total
population.
 On Sivaratri in 1888, Narayana Guru, himself of the Ezhava caste, took a stone
from the Neyyar river and installed it as a Sivalinga at Aruvippuram.
 It was meant to demonstrate that the consecration of an idol was not limited to the
upper castes.
 With this, he launched a revolution that resulted in the abolition of many
discriminations in Kerala's society.
 As a disciple of Narayana Guru, the movement (Aruvippuram Movement) drew the
famous poet, Kumaran Asan.
 The Aruvippuram Kshetra Yogam was founded in 1889, with the intention of
growing into a large organisation to assist the Ezhavas in their material and spiritual
advancement.

 The Aruvippuram Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam
was established in 1903 under the Indian Companies Act, with Narayana Guru
serving as its permanent chairman and Kumaran Asan serving as its general secretary.
 Dr. Palpu's efforts in the formation of the SNDP must be recognized.
 He had begun the fight for social justice through movements such as the Ezhava
Memorial and the Malayali Memorial, among others.
Shree Narayan Guru Swami
 He was born in Chempazhanthy on August 22, 1856, to Madan Asan and
Kuttiyamma (a village near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala).
 He was a member of the Ezhavas Community and was known as 'Avarna.'
 Since he was a child, he has cherished solitude and spent a lot of time in deep
meditation. He went to local temples to worship and wrote devotional songs and
hymns.
 Narayan Guru himself created a Shivalinga at Aruvippuram atop Siviratri in 1888,
using a stone from the Neyyar river.
 He triggered a revolution in Kerala that resulted in the removal of many sorts of
bigotry as a result of this.
 "One Caste, One Religion, One God for All," he coined the now-famous
slogan. “Oru Jathi, Oru Matham, Oru Daivan, Manushyanu”
 He preached equality, but he did not feel that inequities should be used to carry out
conversions and thereby produce social upheaval.
 Animal sacrifices of any kind were abhorrent to him.

 Under the Indian Companies Act, the Shree Guru Narayan Dharma
Paripalana Yogam was established in 1903. He was appointed as the chairman.
 The Ezhavas' right to attend public schools, access to government services, temple
admission, road access, and political representation were all addressed by the SNDP.
Reforms under SNDP Movement
Educational Reforms
 The first task is to help the Ezhava Community, a depressed Kerala community.
 Narayana Guru (Asan) established a number of schools and institutions around Kerala
in order to provide widespread education to society.
Religious Reforms
 Sri Narayana Guru constructed a number of temples and streamlined the worship,
marriage, and death ceremonies.
 He wished to assist his neighbors in both secular and spiritual things.
 He traveled around Kerala for 15 years, assisting community members in developing
self-confidence, social awareness, and a clean environment.
Sri Narayana Guru instituted three religious reforms:
 To begin, he consecrated higher Gods in place of inferior Gods and appointed priests
from his own group of devout sanyasis.

 Second, he advised his disciples to construct additional temples in a simple
and cost-effective manner.
 Third, he made a significant modification in his mission of establishing new temples.
He never forced his followers to worship idols.
o For example, instead of an idol, he consecrated "Sivalikha," a massive brass
oil lamp (Kammukha Kshetham in Thrissur in 1920) with the phrase "Let
there be light."
o He consecrated a plain stone with the inscription "Truth, Charity, Love, and
Mercy" in another shrine at Murukkunpuzha.
Establishment of 3 types of the temple:
 There are temples where poojas, or regular worship, are performed, as well as
festivals.
 There are temples with idols, but no poojas or festivals are held.
 There are temples that are devoid of idols and images. It is self-evident that he
consecrated many types of temples to meet the people's various emotional and
spiritual requirements.
Social Reforms of SNDP Yogam
 Emphasis on Education and Sanskritization - Using two methods, contemporary
education and Sanskritization, in about 30 years, Sri Narayana Guru was able to
change the Ezhavas from an untouchable population in Kerala to a background caste
community.

 In collaboration with the Nair Service Society (NSS), he began temple
admission programs.
 He urged his community members to abandon costly practices such as "mock
marriage" (Thalikattu Sampradhayam), puberty celebration for
girls (Thirukkuli), and Puaikuli, a festival commemorating pregnancy after
marriage.
 He was against the consumption of alcoholic beverages.
 Jati Mimasa is the essence of his art (A critique of caste).
 Admission to public schools.
 Recruitment to government services.
Conclusion
Within the Hindu religion, the Shri Narayana Movement arose as a reforming and reaffirming
movement. He was in charge of a whole lifestyle change that included new religious beliefs,
rituals, and perspectives. He offered an ideology of seclusion and self-organization that
improved people's self-esteem, honor, and worth. It was a protest ideology against the
hierarchical and polluting Brahminical value system. The movement as a whole resulted in
structural changes such as increased social mobility, a shift in conventional power
distribution, and the consolidation of 'backward castes' into a vast aggregation.

Nalwadi Krishna Raja Wodeyar

OI
Introduction:

Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV was the firstborn of Maharaja Chamarajendra
Wadiyar X and Maharani Vani Vilas Sannidhana. He was born on June 4 th, 1884 in
the Mysore Palace. His early education was under the tutelage of P. Raghavendra Rao
at the Lokaranjan Palace. The yuvaraja was instructed in Western studies, Kannada,
Sanskrit, Indian and Western classical music and horse riding.
Sir Stuart Fraser of the Bombay Civil Service imparted administrative training
to the young Maharaja. These studies were supplemented by extensive tours of
Mysore through which the yuvaraja learned about the nature of the state he was to
govern.
In Fact, Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV ascended the throne in 1895 at the age of 11 years after the
death of his father. However, his mother was named state regent until 1902. On June 6 th,
1900, he married Maharani Pratapa Kumari Ammani of Kathiawar.
Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV and Rana Prathap Kumari of Kathiawar. Image courtesy Raja Ravi
Varma
Maharaja Sri Krishnaraja Wadiyar-IV – Reign (1902-1940)
Krishnaraja Wodeyar took over the reins of the Mysore state from his mother on February 8 th,
1902. He was invested as the 24 th Maharaja of Mysore by Viceroy Lord Curzon on August
8th, 1902 at the Jaganmohan Palace. He ruled over the state for 39 years which were often
described as the ‘Golden age of Mysore’.
Gandhijji once remarked that Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar – IV was a Rajarishi. He was
also compared to Emperor Ashoka by British nobility. So well-recognised was his

administration of the state that Princes from other parts of India were sent to Mysore
for their training. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar respected all religions equally and a
number of temples, mosques, and Churches were built during his reign.
Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV Image courtesy Burahnudin, M.
A Golden Age
Maharaja Sri Krishnaraja Wadiyar’s reign brought Mysore into the limelight for many
reasons. Alleviating poverty and improving rural infrastructure were his main concerns.
Public health, education and the Mysore economy also flourished during his reign.
Maharaja Krishnaraja Wadiyar- IV was the first to criminalize untouchability and ban child
marriage for girls under the age of 8 years. He also established a number of scholarships for
widowed girls and donated Rs 60 lakhs each year for spastic children. In 1915 the Mysore
Social Progress Association was formed to empower the weaker sections of the Mysore
society.
In 1918 he appointed Sir Lesley Miller to look into the backward classes and recommended
25% reservation of government jobs for non-Brahmans. In 1925, he also established the
Kadhara Sahakara Sangha to help villagers in Tagdhur. The City Improvement Trust Board
was set up under his guidance – the first association of its kind in India.
A number of educational institutions were set up under his guidance many of which are
renowned even today. The Sanskrit college in Mysore was personally funded by the
Maharaja. He also gifted Sir CV Raman 10 acres of land to set up his science institution.

In 1927, the kingdom’s total expenditure on education increased from Rs 699,000 in
1902 to Rs 4,680,000. A total of 8,000 schools were running in Mysore at the time with
515,000 pupils.
Maharaja Sri Krishnaraja Wadiyar-IV – Remarkable Achievements
Hydroelectric power project at Shivanasamudra – In 1902, Mysore became the first state
to produce hydroelectric power not only in India but in all Asia
Minto Eye Hospital – This is the world’s oldest eye hospital. It was established during the
Maharaja’s reign in 1903.
Street lights in Bangalore – On August 5th, 1905, streetlights were introduced in Bangalore.
This made Bangalore the first Asian city with street lights.
Bicameral Assembly – Under Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV’s guidance, Mysore’s
Representative Assembly was expanded. In 1907, the assembly became bicameral with the
establishment of its legislative council.
Women’s Right to Vote – Long before women in America and other parts of the world were
allowed to vote, they were given the right to do so in Mys
Chapter-6.
Social Transformation Movement of DR.B. R

Ambedkar Empowerment of Women and Labor

SOCIAL REFORMS IN INDIA: CONTRIBUTION OF DR.B.R.

AMBEDKAR
Introduction-
Most social reformers during Ambedkar’s period talked about social reforms
like abolition of Untouchability Sati, child marriage, female infanticide, imparting education
to women, emphasis on widow remarriage, use of Swadeshi, etc. instead of structural
changes. On 31 January 1920, he started a fortnightly newspaper, the Mooknayak (Leader of
the Dumb), with the help of Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur, a sympathizer of the cause for the
Upliftment of the depressed classes. The Maharaja also convened many meetings and
conferences of the ‘untouchables’ which Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar addressed. In July 1924,
Ambedkar founded the ‘Bahishkrut Hitkaraini Sabha, to fight the evil of untouchability. The
Sabha started a free school for the young and the old and ran reading rooms and libraries.
Ambedkar took the grievances of the ‘untouchables’ to court, seeking justice and equality.
“What are we having this liberty for? We are having this liberty to reform our social
system, which is fuel of inequality, discrimination and other things, which conflict with our
fundamental Rights”. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
This works focuses on the various stages through which Dalit consciousness and
movement broadened from mid19th century up to now and how various Dalit leaders,
especially Jotiba Phule, the high-caste Hindu and Ambedkar, a Dalit fought for Dalit rights.

As we know the weaker section in general and the scheduled caste in particular have
suffered from multiple deprivations and were the victims of cumulative domination since
time immemorial. With time some Dalits mustered the courage to fight back the age-long
system of exploitation. The main objective of Dalit movements was to create a counter-
culture and a separate identity for the Dalits in the society. However, they were not against
any individual caste or communal group, but against the establishment, the government but,
the society as a whole.
A favourable environment for the emergence of the protest movement of the Dalits
was created by the collective efforts of Phule, Shivram Janba Kamble, Gopal Baba
Walangkar, Kisan Fagoji Bansode and other minor leaders in Maharashtra.
The Mahar revolution movements in Maharashtra, paved the way to the attempts of
the untouchable castes to organize for social and political purposes in various parts of India,
including the Dalits of Madras, the charmers of Chhattisgarh area, the depressed classes of
the Punjab and the Namshudras of Bengal. All these movements have not only provided the
lower masses with the base for establishing self-determination, self-respect, and honour
among them but also a means for protesting against the domination of upper-caste and classes
in society. The quest of the Dalit activism is the levelling up of the status of Dalit masses and
it is the real manifestation of a new consciousness among them.
Hindu society is divided into four Varna, or classes, a convention which had its
origins in the Rig Veda, the first and most important set of hymns in Hindu scripture which
dates back to 1500-1000 B.C.1 At the top of the hierarchy are the Brahmins, or priests,
followed by the

Kshatriyas, or warriors. The Vaisyas, the farmers and artisans, constitute the
third class. At the bottom are the Shudras, the class responsible for serving the three higher
groups.
Finally, the Untouchables fall completely outside of this system. It is for this reason
that the untouchables have also been termed avarnaor no class. Jati, or caste, is a second-
factor specifying rank in the Hindu social hierarchy. Jatis are roughly determined by
occupation. Often region-specific, they are more precise than the sweeping Varna system
which is common across India and can be divided further into subcastes and sub-subcastes.
This is also the case among untouchables.
Andre Beteille defines caste as “a small and named group of persons characterized by
endogamy, hereditary membership, and a specific style of life which sometimes includes the
pursuit by tradition of a particular occupation and is usually associated with a more or less
distinct ritual status in a hierarchical system.” Jatis in the three highest varnas in the hierarchy
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas-are considered “twice-born” according to Hindu scripture,
meaning they are allowed to participate in Hindu ceremonies and are considered “purer” than
the Sudras and “polluting” untouchables. This concept of pollution versus purity governs the
interaction between members of different castes. The touch of an untouchable is considered
defiling to an upper-caste Hindu.
In southern India, where caste prejudice has been historically most severe, even the
sight of an untouchable was considered polluting. Untouchables usually handled “impure”
tasks such as work involving human waste and dead animals.
As a result, until reforms began in the 19th century, untouchables were barred from entering
temples, drawing water from upper-caste wells, and all social interaction with upper-caste
Hindus (including dining in the same room).

These social rules were strictly imposed and violators were severely punished;
some were even killed. Christian missionaries took the lead in adopting the cause of the
Depressed Classes seeking to provide welfare for them. By the 1850s, either inspired or
shamed into action by the missionaries’ example, Hindu reformers emerged.
Jyotiba Phule was one such activist, and in 1860 he called attention to the plight of
victims of caste discrimination in Maharashtra. British and other Indian leaders soon
followed suit, spurred on in part by reports of discrimination against Indians in South Africa.
Thus, in the 1880s, British officials set up scholarships, special schools, and other programs
to benefit the Depressed Classes. Forward-thinking maharajas (princes) in “native” states like
Baroda, Kolhapur, and Travancore, which were not under direct British administration,
established similar initiatives.
Dr. Ambedkar, from the Mahar caste of Maharashtra, was one beneficiary. The
Mahars had a long association with the British-organized Indian Army, in which Dr.
Ambedkar’s father and grandfather had served. One result was that Dr Ambedkar was able to
attend government primary and secondary schools. The Maharaja of Baroda, recognizing Dr
Ambedkar’s gifts for a scholarship, sponsored his study abroad, first at Columbia University
in New York, where Dr Ambedkar obtained a PhD in Economics, and later at London
University, where he earned a DSc. and entrance to the Bar from Grey’s Inn.
Dr. Ambedkar struggle for Dalit’s Rights
Dr. Ambedkar adopted various means to protect and safeguard to Dalit Human rights
in India. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar starts the movement against Dalit discrimination by creating
public opinion through his writings in several periodicals such as Mook Nayak, Bahishkrit

Bharat, Equality for peoples, which he started for the protection of Dalit rights. Dr. B.
R. Ambedkar organized the Dalit rally to assert their legal rights to take water from the
chowder tank. The chowder tank of Mahad was made a public tank in 1869.
In 1923 the Bombay legislative council passed a resolution to the effect that the
Dalit’s be allowed to use all public watering places. The Mahadmunicipality passed a
resolution on 5 January 1927 to the effect that the municipality had no objection to allowing
the Dalit’s to use the tank. Baba sahib Bhim Rao Ambedkar fought for the right of workers
and peasants.
In the late 1920 and especially in the 1930s, when he had formed his independent
labour party, he took up the cause of tenants (from both the Dalit Mahars and the caste Hindu
Kunbis) in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. With the supports of radicals then in the
Congress Socialist Party, the independent labour party organised a huge march of 20,000
peasants in Mumbai in 1938, the largest pre independence peasant mobilization in the region.
In the same year, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar joined with the communists to organise a strike
Mumbai textile worker in protest against a bill about to be introduced by the British
government to curve labor strikes. Dr. Ambedkar took the lead in condemning the bill in the
assembly and argued that the right to strike was simply another name for the right to freedom
of assembly.
Dalit’s Protection in the British Period
Baba Saheb demand for safeguards and protection of Dalit’s has a long history dating
the Montague-Chelmsford reform in the 1919 of British periods. Dr Ambedkar had been
closely involved in the struggle to give Scheduled caste and scheduled tribe people solid
statutory safeguards. He was a delegate at the Roundtable conference in London, where he
asked for a separate electorate for the Dalit’s.

It is not a surprise that subsequently Ambedkar show to it that the welfare and
development of Scheduled castes &scheduled tribes were guaranteed in the 1949 constitution
of India in the form of reservation in various fields such as legislation, employment and
education etc. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was a great champion of the Dalit because he succeeded in
turning the depressed class movement into a revolutionary movement throughout India. But
today is witnessing the oppressed classes, walking on the streets of cities and villages with
confidence and poise of course, many despicable acts of discrimination and violence against
the Dalit’s still occur.
Dr. BR Ambedkar’s Satyagraha at Mahad
A young legislator of the Bombay assembly led about 4,000 Dalits to assert the right
of social outcasts to water in public places 89 years ago. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar’s march
to Chavadar water tank in the municipality of Mahad in Maharashtra’s Raigad district has
since been talked about only in limited circles in the country. Never in terms of a major civil
rights movement. “The Mahad Satyagraha (non-violent movement) is comparable to
Mahatma Gandhi’s Dandi march and Martin Luther King’s Selma march,” said Anna Bhau, a
Dalit campaigner. “It represents the collective articulation of our rights and our decision to
assert them … But in India, the word satyagraha means Gandhi.”But every Dalit in Mahad
remembers
Ambedkar’s contribution and his memory stays in images, books, flags, banners, and
even brochures of life insurance policies that carry a small picture of the marginalised
people’s icon who wrote the Constitution. Every year on March 19 and 20, Dalits from across
Maharashtra make a beeline for this dusty town and congregate at Chavadar tank.
Ambedkar converted to Buddhism on the Deekshabhoomi in Nagpur on October 14,
1956. So Buddhist monks lead the prayers; Samata Sainik Dal members, in blue caps and

cream trousers, parade around town; cultural activists alternate between speeches and
singing songs in praise of Ambedkar, popularly known as Babasaheb. Seminar halls ring with
rousing speeches on Dalit empowerment. But the epicenter of the movement cries for
attention. Chavadar is so dirty and polluted that Ambedkar disciples like Veena cannot “drink
its hazardous water, but we do dip our feet”. Dalits, called untouchables, were banned from
using water bodies and roads used by upper-caste Hindus. Ambedkar’s Mahad Satyagraha
was a fight against this age-old, discriminatory custom.
Ideas for Equitable Society
Ambedkar ideals for society are based on liberty, equality and fraternity. He fights for
his ideals to be a society till his life more. He was a one of the greatest socialists in between
other revolutionary socialists in the 20th century. The most significant is he given a justice to
crore and above backward people in India, who was disable to do anything and we can call
them oppressed. Ambedkar explained the differences between India and oppressed India and
this is the biggest contribution of him during the period of Indian Renaissance. Ambedkar
is known as a very different revolutionary socialist with the comparison of all social and
religious reformers of India. He aware of all and also untouchable people for to live with each
other‟s with honor. In the language of Gandhi, Ambedkar is a challenge to Hindu Religion,
but also, he is a challenge to contemporary social reformation and also a social reformer.
He aware the Indian society about the Religion, traditions, beliefs and misbelievers
with the caste system and untouchable situation. However, we all are ignoring that address in
this period. Buddha has been exploring his Dhamma instead of God and traditions, beliefs
and misbelievers. Buddha teaches to use for seeing our life with research attitude. He is
aware to use in search of Truth and our sorrowful life. However, right now we ignore that

address also. All Buddhists are following the tradition of Hindu religion, who called
itself, as we are Buddhist. The Buddha stressed on non-violence. Nevertheless, millions of
Buddhists are non-vegetarian.
Therefore, Osho gives honor to Buddha, but he neglected the Dhamma as a religion,
which is established by the Buddha before thousands of years ago. Osho also gives honor to
Muhammad Paigambara and Yeshu. Because, who those people explored thought on non-
violence. But millions of Christian and Muslim are nonvegetarian. Ambedkar tried to aware
of all about this kind of happiness.
Educate, Agitate, Organise
Ambedkar’s project of educating the Dalits began when he started the fortnightly
'Mook Nayak' in 1920. His mission and vision were revealed through the publications of
various magazines and journals, representations to government and related bodies for passing
of legislatives helpful to promote the education of the depressed classes.
It finally culminated in the establishment of schools, colleges, hostels and other
educational institutions under the aegis of the People's Education Society established in 1945.
However, it is demeaning to isolate his educational goals from that of his social objectives.
What he wanted to achieve was the emancipation of the depressed classes, which was
common to his varied, but inseparable projects - social and educational. Speaking on the
occasion of the foundation of the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, the organisation which
heralded his public life as the leader of the Dalits, Ambedkar declared that the motto of the
organisation would be 'Educate, Agitate and Organise.' He clarified the objectives
Ambedkar crisscrossed many pathways in his project for the emancipation of the
Dalits, focussing on the social, educational and political rights of the depressed classes. But

what concerned him politically always consumed him socially and educationally also.
His movement in its early years was concentrated on the equal rights of the Dalits within the
Hindu social order. But soon he realised that the problem of the untouchables was not a
simple social problem like that of dowry, child marriage or widow marriage. He perceived it
essentially as a political problem, the solution of which required a minority liberty and
equality of opportunity. He was also certain that this was not easy at the hands of a hostile
majority that not only believed in the denial of liberty and equal opportunity for the minority
but also conspired to enforce its policy on the minority8 It is this fundamental conviction that
provoked Ambedkar to start his movement.
Conclusion
Actually Baba Saheb Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was a great human rights leader. who I
believe must be considered the greatest Indian of the millennium, was a fighter for human
rights not only for the most oppressed section of Dalit’s but all the Indian caste opposed
groups for workers and farmers and women. Dr. Ambedkar is India’s foremost human rights
activist in the 20th century. He is an emancipator, scholar, extraordinary social reformer a
true champion of human rights. Dr. Ambedkar provides equal rights for all citizens of Indian
E.V. Ramasamy Periyar, the ‘South Indian Socrates’ who
smashed Brahminical patriarchy
Introduction:
There is no god, there is no god, there is no god at all
He who invented god is a fool

He who propagates god is a scoundrel
He who worships god is a barbarian
* E.V. Ramasamy Periyar
Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy, commonly known as “Periyar”, is now the focal point
of Dravidian parties, Communists, Dalit outfits, Tamil nationalists and feminists in Tamil
Nadu. Periyar, who died 45 years ago, on 24 December 1973, left behind a legacy that had an
astounding influence on how the state operates today.
Early life
E.V. Ramasamy was born to Venkata Naicker and Chinnathaai on 17 September 1879
in Erode district of what is now Tamil Nadu. Belonging to a rich trading family, Periyar
stopped his school education at the early age of nine to assist his father. Though he had
religious gurus who came home to teach him the shastras, the young Ramasamy was
not interested. At the age of 19, he was married to a 13-year-old girl, Nagammai.
On a pilgrimage to Kasi (Varanasi) in 1904, Periyar observed the dynamics of
Hinduism. The Hindu rituals and discrimination that he saw in the sacred place made him
conclude that Hinduism was nothing but a Brahminical exploitation.
Party Politics
In 1919, Periyar joined the Congress under the influence of his close friend C.
Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) and went on to head the Congress Committee of Madras Presidency.

But he left soon after his demand for communal representation in the party was
defeated during the Tirupur session. In the Congress,
he actively participated in movements relating to khadi, liquor prohibition and
abolition of untouchability. He was also jailed for participating in the non-cooperation
movement. In his initial days in politics, he held various positions in the Erode municipality.
Periyar’s deep dive into the radical on-ground politics started with a trade union
movement in Nagapatinam in 1925. His first encounter with Singaravelan, the pioneer of
communist ideology in the state, also happened on this occasion. He also started his Self-
Respect Movement around this time.
He went on to join the Justice Party, which eventually became the Dravida Kazhagam
(party) in 1944. When the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan came up, Periyar’s Dravida
Kazhagam also demanded for a separate Tamil country.
In 1950, he presented a vision where he said that the Dravida Kazhagam would be a
platform to lead social and religious reform. “The final agenda of this party is to destroy all
religion,” he said.
But this didn’t stop here. It also envisioned a separate Tamil country. In fact, Periyar
announced that the country’s first Independence Day would be marked as a day of sorrow for
failing to form a separate Tamil country.
Periyar was at the forefront of the protests against Hindi imposition. He believed that
Hindi was an Aryan language and making it compulsory in education was an attempt to

conquer Dravidian culture. During this time, he also gave the slogan “Tamil Nadu for
Tamilians” in a meeting in 1938.
His party never contested any election. Like many others in the party, his protege
C.N. Annadurai, who had ambitions of electoral politics, left the party to start his own
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949. Periyar also founded a newspaper, Kudi
Arasu, where he wrote to disseminate his ideas of social justice and self-respect. This became
his full-time activity until his death at the age of 97.
The Soviet effect
Perilyar was absorbed by the Bolshevik Revolution and hence decided to visit the
Soviet Union. After his trip in 1932, he wrote vastly about the socialist republic in Kudi
Arasu. Later, he also wrote a series in the name ‘Unmai’, inspired from the Bolshevik party’s
‘Pravda’, both meaning truth. He was also the first person to translate the Communist
manifesto into Tamil.
“In the socialist country, there is no God, no religion, or no belief in Shastras. No
human being considered high or low,” he wrote in an essay.
A radical feminist
Periyar had seen child marriage from close quarters in his community, and was
resistant to the idea. He once organised for his niece, who had become a child widow, to get
remarried.

Periyar was one of the few leaders who encouraged women to be active in
politics and step out into the streets. The mass movement of 1921 against the toddy shops
(Kallukadai Mariyal) and the anti-Hindi agitation of 1937 witnessed many women on the
vanguard because of him.
Conclusion:
It was a Dalit woman, Meenabal, who first addressed Ramasamy as “Periyar” at a
women’s conclave in 1938 in Chennai. Periyar was a strong proponent for women’s
education and gender equality. He insisted that women have the right to choose their life
partners and also to walk out of a failed marriage. He said that bearing a child too is,
ultimately, a woman’s choice.
Unit -III
Indian National Movements:
A. 7.
Indian National Movement (1885-1907) Rise of Nationalism, Ideology and
Methods of Moderates, Anti Partition and Swadeshi Movement.
Freedom Movements Under the Moderates-1885 to 1905

Introduction
Moderate Phase:
During its initial two decades, the Indian National Congress made moderate demands,
presenting them to the Government in the form of petitions and adhering to the legal
framework. Due to this reason, the early INC leaders were referred to as ‘Moderates’. The
efforts of the moderates led to significant legal and constitutional changes, while their
critique of government policies also served as essential political training for the public.
Leaders of the Moderate Phase such as Dadabhai Naoroji meticulously documented the
economic exploitation perpetuated by the British Government in India. As a result of the
proactive endeavours of these leaders during this phase, the government implemented crucial
constitutional and agricultural reforms.
Who were the Moderates?
The Indian National Congress
(INC) programme during 1885-1905 was very moderate. It called for moderate constitutional
reforms, economic relief, administrative reorganisation, and the protection of civil rights.
 Most leaders of this phase were staunch believers in ‘liberalism’ and ‘moderate’
politics and came to be labelled as Moderates to distinguish them from the neo-
nationalists of the early 20th century, who were referred to as the Extremists.

 Response of British Government: Right from the start, the British
authorities displayed hostility towards the growing nationalist movement and
became distrustful of the INC. British officials, starting from Dufferin downwards,
labelled the nationalist leaders as 'disloyal babus, seditious brahmins,' and
dangerous villains.
 Important Moderate Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha,
W.C. Bonnerjea, S.N. Banerjee, Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
Methods adopted during Moderate Phase
The moderate phase congressmen had implicit faith in the efficacy of peaceful and
constitutional agitation within the four walls of the law and slow, orderly political progress.
They believed in patience and reconciliation rather than violence and hostility. They adhered
to the 3P: Petition, Prayer, and Protest.
 Freedom through gradual steps: They believed that if public opinion was created
and organised and popular demands were presented to the authorities through
petitions, meetings, resolutions, and speeches, the authorities would gradually and
incrementally accommodate these demands.
 Medium of communication: The press and the platform at the annual sessions were
their agencies. Nevertheless, the press served as the sole medium for disseminating
Congress propaganda throughout the year.
 The annual session of INC:
o During these gatherings, Government policy was vigorously discussed, and
resolutions were emphatically passed. However, the most significant limitation

was that the Congress sessions lasted merely three days annually. It had no
machinery to carry on the work in the interval between the two sessions.
 Strong faith in the British Government: In the Moderate Phase, the Congress
leaders’ belief in the essential sense of justice and goodness of the British nation was
strong.
o Under the illusion that acquainting the British with the true state of affairs in
India would lead to a positive outcome, they diligently worked towards this
goal.
o In pursuit of this objective, they dispatched delegations of prominent Indians
to Britain to present the Indian viewpoint. In 1889, the British Committee of
the INC was established, and to advance its propaganda efforts, the Committee
launched its publication, India, in 1890.
Major Demands during Moderate Phase
During the Moderate phase of INC, there was practically no change in the Congress
programme. The major demands were practically the same as those formulated in the first
three or four sessions. Throughout this period, the leaders exercised caution in making their
demands, aiming to avoid provoking the government and the potential risk of having their
activities suppressed.
 The Key Demands:
 The organisation of the provincial councils
 Simultaneous examination for the I.C.S. in India and England

 The abolition or reconstitution of the Indian Council
 The separation of the Judiciary from the executive
 The repeal of the Arms Act
 The appointment of Indians to the commissioned ranks in the Army
 The reduction of military expenditure
 The introduction of Permanent Settlement to other parts of India
 The freedom of speech and expression.
 No taxation without representation: They demanded Indian control over the public
purse and raised the slogan that had earlier been raised by the Americans during their
War of Independence, 'No taxation without representation'.
 Demand of Swaraj: It was during the Moderate Phase i.e., in 1905, the Congress put
forth the demand for Swaraj or self-rule for Indians within the British Empire on the
model of the self-governing colonies like Australia or Canada. The first mention of
this demand was made by G.K. Gokhale in 1905 during a speech in Banaras, and it
was later explicitly articulated by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1906 at a gathering in
Calcutta.
 Nature of Economic Demands
o Even though their political demands were moderate, their economic demands
were radical in nature. The Indian leaders advocated basically anti-
imperialist economic policies.
The Congress voiced its opinions on all significant government measures and registered
protests against unpopular ones. Despite the repeated presentation of these demands year
after year, the Government scarcely responded to them.

Contributions of Nationalists during the Moderate Phase
 Economic critique of British Imperialism during the Moderate Phase
 The reduction in the high military expenditure of the Government of India. The
Congress made a declaration stating that British rule had resulted in poverty and
famines.
 They attributed the impoverishment of peasants and zamindars to the increased
land revenue, and food shortages were blamed on the export of grains to Europe.
 Through the Drain Theory, they effectively conveyed a powerful symbol of foreign
exploitation of India, which deeply resonated with the public.
 Numerous resolutions were passed at the INC session concerning the salt tax, the
treatment of overseas Indian labourers, and the hardships faced by forest dwellers due
to intervention by the forest administration.
 They emphasised the need for fundamental changes in the existing economic
relations between India and England.
 They strongly resisted the efforts of foreign rulers to transform India into a mere
supplier of raw materials and a market for British manufacturers.
 They expressed criticism towards the official policies concerning tariff, trade,
transport, and taxation, as these were seen as hindering rather than supporting the
growth of the indigenous industry.
 Dadabhai characterised British rule as a perpetual and steadily intensifying foreign
invasion that was gradually causing the country's destruction.
 This indicates that despite comprising an educated elite, Congress did not solely
advocate for professional groups, zamindars, or industrialists.

 Constitutional reforms and propaganda in the legislature
 Expansion of Legislative Councils: Between 1885 and 1892, their primary demand
persisted in the expansion and reform of the Legislative Councils.
 The early nationalists sought greater participation in the governance of their own
country and appealed to democratic principles, but they refrained from demanding
immediate fulfilment of their goal.
 Indian Council Act of 1892: As a result of their agitation, the British Government
was compelled to pass the Indian Councils Act of 1892. However, the nationalists
expressed complete dissatisfaction with the Act and deemed it a deception.
 Campaign for general administrative reform
 The Indianization of the administration was a part of the movement against racism,
as the majority of crucial positions during that time were dominated by white
officials.
 Protection of civil rights
 They acknowledged the utmost importance of freedom of the press and speech,
vehemently opposing any efforts to limit them. In fact, the movement to eliminate
press restrictions became an integral part of the nationalist struggle for freedom.
 Welfare activities: The Moderate Phase leaders placed significant emphasis on
promoting primary education among the masses.
 Agricultural development: They advocated for the establishment of agricultural
banks to rescue the peasants from the grip of money lenders.
Evaluation of the Nationalists during the Moderate Phase

During its early phases, the nationalist movement and the INC experienced limited
success. The government introduced very few of the reforms advocated by the nationalists.
Critics also observed that the national movement lacked widespread support among the
masses during this period.
However, the succeeding generations were determined to address these weaknesses. They
aimed to build upon the achievements of the early movement, using them as a foundation for
a more robust and vigorous national movement in the years to com
Achievements during the Moderate Phase:
 It provided political training to individuals, popularised democratic and nationalist
ideas among them, promoted a modern perspective, and revealed the detrimental
consequences of British rule.
 It created awareness among the people about the economic nature of British
imperialism.
 It formulated a unified political and economic agenda that could serve as a rallying
point for the Indian people to engage in future political struggles.
 It firmly established the principle that India should be governed in the best interests of
its own people.
 Participation: Belonging to the urban educated middle class, they exhibited broad-
mindedness and were free from narrow and sectional class interests.
 Inclusiveness: It welcomed individuals from all classes and communities, and its
program was expansive enough to encompass all interests. It could be described more
as a movement than a mere party.

 Economic criticism: The early Congress leadership provided a distinctive and
invaluable service to the nation by presenting this formidable critique of the financial
underpinnings of the Raj.
 The British Hostility: While the political tone of the INC may have been gentle,
starting from the fourth session of the Congress, the government began to adopt a
hostile attitude towards it.
o For example, they supported and promoted the Aligarh movement as a
counter to the Congress. The British administration's stance towards Congress
turned even more hostile during Lord Curzon’s tenure.
 Evolving Congress Goals: As times evolved, the moderates began to shift their
stance. By 1905, Gokhale started advocating for self-rule as the ultimate objective,
and in 1906, Dadabhai Naoroji mentioned the term Swaraj as the Congress's goal.
 Struggles of Leadership during the Moderate Phase: The Moderates found
themselves in a challenging situation as extremist leadership emerged within the
Congress.
 Extremists' Rise in Congress: The extremists were drawing support from a young
segment of political activists. In the altered circumstances, the Extremists took centre
stage within the Congress.
Freedom Struggle from Extremities-1905 to 1919
Introduction:
In the beginning of the 20th century, a new class of national leaders emerged in India
which was different from the moderate group. They took a more aggressive stance against the

British Empire. They were typically younger and did not believe in the soft and
persuasive approach of moderate leaders.
BACKGROUND OF THE RISE OF EXTREMISM
 The failure of the moderate leaders in getting any significant results from the British
authorities.
 The limitations of the moderates were the main causes of the rise of extremism.
 The partition of Bengal in 1905 opened the eyes of the Indians to the true colours of
the British rulers.
 Lord Curzon and his disdain for anything Indian also created resentment and anger
against the foreigners.
 There was a fear among some leaders that the moderates with their westernized
notions were trying to create an India in the image of the West.
 There was a revival of national pride at that time.
 The extremist leaders were also influenced by the growth of spiritual nationalism at
that time.
 The Delhi Durbar held in 1903 when people had not fully recovered from the horrific
effects of the famine that killed lakhs of people drew widespread condemnation.
 Events happening around the world also inspired the extremist leaders. Abyssinia’s
successful repulsion of the Italian army in 1896 and Japan’s defeat of Russia in 1905
shattered the notion of European invincibility.
 Other national movements like in Persia, Egypt and Turkey also motivated the Indian
leaders.

SURAT SPLIT
 The differences between the moderates and the extremists became official in the Surat
session of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1907.
 The meeting was to take place in Nagpur that year. The extremists wanted Lala Lajpat
Rai or Bal Gangadhar Tilak to be the President. But the moderates wanted Rash
Behari Ghosh as President. There was a rule that the session’s President could not be
from the home province. Tilak’s home province was Bombay Presidency in which
Surat was also situated. So, the moderates changed the venue to Surat so that Tilak
could be excluded from the presidency.
 The moderates also wanted to drop the resolutions on swadeshi, boycott movements
and national education.
 Rash Behari Ghosh became the president in the session which was held at Surat.
 Tilak was not even allowed to speak and this angered the extremists, who wanted to
cancel the session.
 Both sides were firm on their demands and neither was willing to find a common
path.
 The moderates then held a separate meeting in which they reiterated the Congress
goal of self-government within the British Empire and to adopt only constitutional
methods to achieve their goals.
 Unfortunately, the Surat session was marred by the use of sticks and chappals by the
members on one another.
METHODS OF EXTREMIST LEADERS

 The extremist goal was ‘swaraj’. This, at that time, either meant complete
autonomy and freedom from British control, or total Indian control over the
administration but not necessarily a break away from Britain’s imperial reign.
 This was in contrast to the moderates’ demand of only an increase in the share of
Indians in the administration and military upper echelons.
 The extremist leaders involved wider sections of people in the movement. They
involved lower-middle-class people also.
 They did not stick to constitutional methods to protest and demand. They resorted to
boycotts, strikes, etc. They also burned foreign-made goods.
 They believed in confrontation rather than persuasion.
 The Swadeshi movement gathered momentum in India because of the extremists’
support. This led to the establishment of Indian banks, mills, factories, etc.
 They were strongly against British imperialistic policies in India.
 They took pride in Indian culture and history. They looked at the ancient scriptures
for inspiration and courage.
 They believed in sacrificing everything including life for the cause of the motherland.
 They opposed westernisation of Indian society by the British.
 Tilak famously said, “Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it.”
 They were very vocal in their opposition to the British rule, unlike the moderates who
had faith in British justice.
 They tried to instil self-respect and patriotism in the people by invoking past heroes
like Ashoka, Shivaji, Maharana Pratap and Rani Laxmibai.

 They did not believe in loyalty to the British Crown.
EXTREMIST LEADERS
 Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal (the first three called Lal-
Bal-Pal leading the extremist cause in Punjab, Bombay and Bengal respectively.)
 Other leaders included Aurobindo Ghosh, Rajnarayan Bose, A K Dutt, V O C Pillai.
GOERNMENT REACTION TO EXTREMISTS
 The government attacked the extremist leaders vigorously.
 Laws were passed to check their activities and influence. The following laws were
passed between 1907 and 1911: Seditious Meetings Act, 1907; Indian Newspapers
(Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908; Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908; and the
Indian Press Act, 1910.
 Tilak was sentenced and served in prison in Mandalay (Burma) for writing in support
of revolutionaries who were involved in the killing of two British women (their
original target was a British magistrate).
IMPACT OF EXTREMIST PERID – CONCLUSION PART

 Bal Gangadhar Tilak organized Ganpati and Shivaji festival to spread the
message of boycotting westernization in India. This was a major social reform and
had a larger impact on society.
 The slogan “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it” by Tilak was the talk of
society.
 British goods and national education was boycotted which brought a major change in
the economy of the country and gave way to employment and various other
opportunities for the Indians.
 There was a major reform in education across the country as the extremists worked on
establishing National universities free from government control.
Mahatma Gandhiji- Indian National Movement
Introduction:-
Freedom Movements of Mahatma Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi the “Father of the
Nation” has led almost all the freedom movements in India. The freedom movements led by
Mahatma Gandhi followed the path of non-violence to fight against British rule and get back
the freedom of India. The freedom Movements of Mahatma Gandhi included the most
famous and historic movements of all time.

The freedom movement of Mahatma Gandhi includes Champaran
Movement in 1917, Kheda Movement in 1918, Khilafat Movement in 1919, Non-cooperation
Movement in 1920, the Quit India Movement in 1942, and Civil Disobedience Movement.
Year-Wise Freedom Movements of Mahatma Gandhi
Sl.No Year Freedom movements

1. 1917 Champaran Movement
2. 1918 Kheda Movement
3. 1919 Khilafat Movement
4. 1920 Non-cooperation Movement
5. 1942 Quit India Movement
Major Freedom Movements of Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi played a significant role in the Indian freedom struggle. His
freedom movements against the British government successfully awarded India with its
freedom. All the freedom movements he led were based on only one ideology ‘Non-
Violence’. The biggest lesson he gave us during the freedom struggle was to never give up
and chose violence to make ourselves win.
1.Champaran Movement, 1917:
Indigo farmers of the Champaran district of Bihar have miserable conditions under
the Tinkathiya System. The Tinkathiya System forces the farmers or cultivators to cultivate
indigo on the best 3/20th part of their land and forces them to sell it at a cheaper price.

Due to the worsening weather conditions, farmers were unable to grow the
required quantity and pay heavy taxes. Observing all the situations of farmers, Rajkumar
Shukla decided to meet Mahatma Gandhi and ask him for help. He went to Lucknow and
invited Gandhiji. Mahatma Gandhi reached Champaran and approached the civil
disobedience movement. He launched strikes and demonstrated against the landlords in
Champaran. The government had to set up Champaran agrarian committee with Gandhi ji as
a member. Seeing all the protests and aggression of the farmers, the government decided to
accept the demands of the cultivators.
2. Kheda Movement, 1917:
Kheda Movement was a no-tax campaign that was started by Mohan Lal Pandey in 1917.
He demanded the remission of taxes due to the poor situation of crops or harvests in Kheda,
Gujarat. Mahatma Gandhi joined the movement on 22nd March 1918. Mahatma Gandhi
started the satyagraha and he was joined by Vallabhbhai Patel and Indulal Yagnik. The
demands of the farmers were later accepted by the British government.
3. Khilafat Movement, 1919:
The Khilafat Movement was started by the Ali brothers. The movement was to show
denial and protest against the unjust done with Turkey after the first world war. The protest
movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi against British rule. The movement demanded
to restore the collapsing status of the Caliph in Turkey. Soon, the All-India Conference was
held in Delhi, where Mahatma Gandhi was elected as the President.

4. Non-cooperation Movement, 1920:
Non-cooperation Movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920. The horrific
incident of Jallianwala Bagh led to the commencement of the Non-cooperation Movement.
Mahatma Gandhi convinced the people of India with the help of congress to start the Non-
cooperation Movement. The movement started peacefully and calmly which is the ideology
Mahatma Gandhi followed to get freedom in India. He then framed the concept of swaraj and
it is one of the most crucial elements in the Indian freedom struggle.
During the Non-cooperation Movement people started boycotting the products of the
British government and their establishments like schools, colleges, government offices, etc.
However, the movement was ended by Mahatma Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident
in which 23 police officers were killed.
5. Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930:
The Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930 and is
credited for paving the way for freedom in India. The movement was launched after the
observance of Independence Day in 1930. The movement commenced with the Dandi
March on 12th March 1930. Gandhi ji with 78 other members left Sabarmati Ashram on foot
and reached Dandi to break the salt law. The production of salt was considered illegal and
was controlled by the government. After this event, the civil disobedience movement was
accepted all across the country.

Unit-IV
Partition of India and Economic Developments:
A. 10. Constitutional Development 1909 Acct, 1919 Act and 1932 Neharu Report.
Indian Constitutional Developments

INDIAN COUNCIL ACT - MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS – 1909.
Introduction:
The Indian Councils Act 1909 was an act of the British Parliament that introduced a
few reforms in the legislative councils and increased the involvement of Indians limitedly in
the governance of British India. It was more commonly called the Morley-Minto Reforms
after the Secretary of State for India John Morley and the Viceroy of India, the 4th Earl of
Minto. This is about Morley-Minto Reforms.
Background

 Despite Queen Victoria’s proclamation that Indian’s would be treated
equally, very few Indians got such an opportunity as the British authorities were
hesitant to accept them as equal partners
 Lord Curzon had carried out the partition of Bengal in 1905. This lead to a massive
uprising in Bengal as a result. Following this, the British authorities understood the
need for some reforms in the governance of Indians.
 The Indian National Congress (INC) was also agitating for more reforms and self-
governance of Indians. The earlier Congress leaders were moderates but now
extremist leaders were on the rise who believed in more aggressive methods.
 INC demanded home rule for the first time in 1906.
 Gopal Krishna Gokhale met Morley in England to emphasise the need for reforms.
 Shimla Deputation: A group of elite Muslims led by Aga Khan met Lord Minto in
1906 and placed their demand for a separate electorate for the Muslims.
 John Morley was a member of the Liberal government and he wanted to make
positive changes in India’s governance.
To know more about the Governor Generals of Bengal and India, Major provisions of
the Morley-Minto reforms
 The legislative councils at the Centre and the provinces increased in size.
 Central Legislative Council – from 16 to 60 members
 Legislative Councils of Bengal, Madras, Bombay and United Provinces – 50 members
each
 Legislative Councils of Punjab, Burma and Assam – 30 members each

 The legislative councils at the centre and the provinces were to have four
categories of members as follows:
 Ex officio members: Governor-General and members of the executive council.
 Nominated official members: Government officials who were nominated by the
Governor-General.
 Nominated non-official members: nominated by the Governor-General but were not
government officials.
 Elected members: elected by different categories of Indians.
 The elected members were elected indirectly. The local bodies elected an electoral
college who would elect members of the provincial legislative councils. These
members would, in turn, elect the members of the Central legislative council.
 The elected members were from the local bodies, the chambers of commerce,
landlords, universities, traders’ communities and Muslims.
 In the provincial councils, non-official members were in a majority. However, since
some of the non- official members were nominated, in total, a non-elected majority
was there.
 Indians were given membership to the Imperial Legislative Council for the first time.
 It introduced separate electorates for the Muslims. Some constituencies were
earmarked for Muslims and only Muslims could vote their representatives.
 The members could discuss the budget and move resolutions. They could also discuss
matters of public interest.
 They could also ask supplementary questions.
 No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the princely states were
permitted.

 Lord Minto appointed (on much persuasion by Morley) Satyendra P Sinha as
the first Indian member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
 Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian
affairs.
Assessment of the Morley-Minto reforms
1. The Act introduced communal representation in Indian politics. This was intended to
stem the growing tide of nationalism in the country by dividing the people into
communal lines. The culmination of this step was seen in the partition of the country
along religious lines. The effects of differential treatment of different religious groups
can be seen to this day.
2. The act did nothing to grant colonial self-government which was the Congress’s
demand.
3. The Act did increase Indian participation in the legislative councils, especially at the
provincial levels.

INDIAN COUNCIL ACT –MONTEGO CHELMSFERD
REFORMATION ACT – 1909.
Introduction:
The Government of India Act 1919 was an act of the British Parliament that sought to
increase the participation of Indians in the administration of their country. The act was based
on the recommendations of a report by Edwin Montagu, the then Secretary of State for India,
and Lord Chelmsford, India’s Viceroy between 1916 and 1921. Hence the constitutional
reforms set forth by this act are known as Montagu-Chelmsford reforms or Mont ford
reforms.
Principle Features of Government of India Act 1919
Provincial Government
 Executive:
 Diarchy was introduced, i.e., there were two classes of administrators –
Executive councillors and ministers.

 The Governor was the executive head of the province.
 The subjects were divided into two lists – reserved and transferred.
 The governor was in charge of the reserved list along with his executive
councillors. The subjects under this list were law and order, irrigation, finance,
land revenue, etc.
 The ministers were in charge of subjects under the transferred list. The
subjects included were education, local government, health, excise, industry,
public works, religious endowments, etc.
 The ministers were responsible to the people who elected them through the
legislature.
 These ministers were nominated from among the elected members of the
legislative council.
 The executive councillors were not responsible to the legislature, unlike the
ministers.
 The Secretary of State and the Governor-General could interfere in matters
under the reserved list but this interference was restricted for the transferred
list.
Legislature:
 The size of the provincial legislative assemblies was increased. Now about
70% of the members were elected.
 There were communal and class electorates.
 Some women could also vote.

 The governor’s assent was required to pass any bill. He also had veto power
and could issue ordinances also.
Central government
 Executive:
 The chief executive authority was the Governor-General.
 There were two lists for administration – central and provincial.
 The provincial list was under the provinces while the centre took care of the
central list.
 Out of the 8 members of the Viceroy’s executive council, 3 were to be Indian
members.
 The governor-general could issue ordinances.
 He could also certify bills that were rejected by the central legislature.
Legislature:
 A bicameral legislature was set up with two houses – Legislative Assembly
(forerunner of the Lok Sabha) and the Council of State (forerunner of the
Rajya Sabha).
 Legislative Assembly (Lower House)

 Members of the Legislative Assembly:
 The nominated members were nominated by the governor-general from
Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians.
 The members had tenure of 3 years.
Council of State (Upper House)
 Only male members with tenure of 5 years.
 Members of the Council of State:
 The legislators could ask questions and also vote a part of the budget.
 Only 25% of the budget was subject to vote.
 Rest was non-votable.
 A bill had to be passed in both houses before it became a law.
 There were three measures to resolve any deadlock between both the houses – joint
committees, joint conferences and joint sittings.
 Governor-General
 The governor-general’s assent was required for any bill to become law even if
both houses have passed it.
 He could also enact a bill without the legislature’s consent.
 He could prevent a bill from becoming law if he deems it as detrimental to the
peace of the country.

 He could disallow any question, adjournment motion or debate in the house.
Who could vote?
 The franchise was restricted and there was no universal adult suffrage.
 Voters should have paid land revenue of Rs.3000 or have a property with rental value
or have taxable income.
 They should possess previous experience in the legislative council.
 They should be members of a university senate.
 They should hold certain offices in the local bodies.
 They should hold some specific titles.
 All this narrowed the number of people who could vote to an abysmal number
Indian Council
 There were to be at least 8 and a maximum of 12 members in the council.
 Half of the members should have ten years of experience in public service in India.
 Their tenure was to be 5 years.
 Their salaries were increased from £1000 to £1200.
 There were to be 3 Indian members in the Council.
Government of India Act, 1919 – Other Salient Features
 This act provided for the first time, the establishment of a public service commission
in India.

 The act also provided that after 10 years, a statutory commission would be set
up to study the working of the government. This resulted in the Simon Commission of
1927.
 It also created an office of the High Commissioner for India in London.
Merits of the Government of India Act 1919
 Diarchy introduced the concept of responsible government.
 It introduced the concept of federal structure with a unitary bias.
 There was the increased participation of Indians in the administration. They held
some portfolios like labour, health, etc.
 For the first time, elections were known to the people and it created political
consciousness among the people.
 Some Indian women also had the right to vote for the first time.
Limitations of the Government of India Act 1919
 This act extended consolidated and communal representation.
 The franchise was very limited. It did not extend to the common man.

 The governor-general and the governors had a lot of power to undermine the
legislatures at the centre and the provinces respectively.
 Allocation of the seats for the central legislature was not based on population but the
‘importance’ of the province in the eyes of the British.
 The Rowlett Acts were passed in 1919 which severely restricted press and movement.
Despite the unanimous opposition of Indian members of the legislative council, those
bills were passed. Several Indian members resigned in protest.
Government of India Act, 1935 –
Introduction:
The Government of India Act was passed by the British Parliament in August 1935. It was
the longest act enacted by the British Parliament at that time. It was divided into two separate
acts namely, the Government of India Act 1935 and the Government of Burma Act 1935.
Government of India Act of 1935
Background
1. There was a growing demand for constitutional reforms in India by Indian leaders.

2. India’s support to Britain in the First World War also aided in British
acknowledgement of the need for the inclusion of more Indians in the administration
of their own country.
3. The Act was based on:
 Simon Commission Report
 The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences
 The White Paper published by the British government in 1933 (based on
the Third Round Table Conference)
 Report of the Joint Select Committees.
1. Simon Commission
2. First Round Table Conference
Creation of an All-India Federation
1. This federation was to consist of British India and the princely states.
2. The provinces in British India would have to join the federation but this was not
compulsory for the princely states.
3. This federation never materialised because of the lack of support from the required
number of princely states.

How Government of India Act 1935 divide powers?
1. This Act divided powers between the centre and the provinces.
2. There were three lists which gave the subjects under each government.
 Federal List (Centre)
 Provincial List (Provinces)
 Concurrent List (Both)
The Viceroy was vested with residual powers.
Provincial autonomy
1. The Act gave more autonomy to the provinces.
2. Diarchy was abolished at the provincial levels.
3. The Governor was the head of the executive.
4. There was a Council of Ministers to advise him. The ministers were responsible to the
provincial legislatures who controlled them. The legislature could also remove the
ministers.
5. However, the governors still retained special reserve powers.
6. The British authorities could still suspend a provincial government.
Diarchy at the centre
1. The subjects under the Federal List were divided into two: Reserved and Transferred.
2. The reserved subjects were controlled by the Governor-General who administered
them with the help of three counsellors appointed by him. They were not responsible

to the legislature. These subjects included defence, ecclesiastical affairs
(church-related), external affairs, press, police, taxation, justice, power resources and
tribal affairs.
3. The transferred subjects were administered by the Governor-General with his Council
of Ministers (not more than 10). The Council had to act in confidence with the
legislature. The subjects in this list included local government, forests, education,
health, etc.
4. However, the Governor-General had ‘special powers’ to interfere in the transferred
subjects also.
Bicameral Legislature
1. A bicameral federal legislature would be established.
2. The two houses were the Federal Assembly (lower house) and the Council of States
(upper house).
3. The federal assembly had a term of five years.
4. Both houses had representatives from the princely states also. The representatives of
the princely states were to be nominated by the rulers and not elected. The
representatives of British India were to be elected. Some were to be nominated by the
Governor-General.
5. Bicameral legislatures were introduced in some provinces also like Bengal, Madras,
Bombay, Bihar, Assam and the United Provinces.
Federal Court

1. A federal court was established at Delhi for the resolution of disputes between
provinces and also between the centre and the provinces.
2. It was to have 1 Chief Justice and not more than 6 judges.
Indian Council
1. The Indian Council was abolished.
2. The Secretary of State for India would instead have a team of advisors.
Reorganisation
1. Sindh was carved out of Bombay Presidency.
2. Bihar and Orissa were split.
3. Burma was severed off from India.
4. Aden was also separated from India and made into a Crown colony.
Other points
1. The British Parliament retained its supremacy over the Indian legislatures both
provincial and federal.
2. A Federal Railway Authority was set up to control Indian railways.
3. The act provided for the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India.

4. The Act also provided for the establishment of federal, provincial and joint
Public Service Commissions.
5. The Act was a milestone in the development of a responsible constitutional
government in India.
6. The Government of India Act 1935 was replaced by the Constitution of India after
independence.
7. The Indian leaders were not enthusiastic about the Act since despite granting
provincial autonomy the governors and the viceroy had considerable ‘special powers.
8. Separate communal electorates were a measure through which the British wanted to
ensure the Congress Party could never rule on its own. It was also a way to keep the
people divided
Indian Independence Act of 1947
INTRODUCTION
The Indian Independence Act, of 1947 received the royal assent and entered into force
on 18th July 1947. This Act put into action the Mountbatten Plan for the independence and
partition of India.
Background
 The Indian Independence Act, of 1947 was an act of the British Parliament that
partitioned India into two independent dominions of India and Pakistan.

 the legislation was drafted by the Labour government of Clement Attlee. It
was based on the Mountbatten Plan or the 3rd June Plan which was formulated after
the leaders of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League agreed to the
recommendations of the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten.
 Lord Mountbatten came to India with the specific task of seeing over the handing over
of the authority to Indians. But the INC and the League could not agree on the
question of partition.
 An initial plan proposed by Mountbatten known as the Dickie Bird Plan was opposed
by Nehru. According to this plan, the provinces were to be declared independent and
then allowed to join or not join the Constituent Assembly. Nehru opposed this as it
would, in his opinion, would lead to the country’s balkanisation.
 Then, Mountbatten came up with the last plan known as the 3 June Plan which was
accepted by all parties. The INC, which was opposed to any partition of the country,
finally accepted it as an inevitable process.
 As per this plan, India would be partitioned into India and Pakistan. The constitution
framed by the Constituent Assembly would not be applicable to the areas which
would go into Pakistan. These provinces would then decide on a separate constituent
assembly.
 The Legislative Assemblies of Punjab and Bengal voted for the partition according to
which these provinces were to be divided between the two dominions along religious
lines.
 The assembly of Sind was given the choice to join the Indian Constituent Assembly or
not. It decided to join Pakistan. In the North Western Frontier Province (NWFP) and

Sylhet, a referendum was to be held which would decide the country they were
to join.
 The complete legislative authority would be given to the Constituent Assemblies of
the new countries.
 The Act decided to grant independence to India and Pakistan with effect from
15th August 1947.
 The new boundaries of the dominions would be demarcated by the Boundary
Commission.
 British suzerainty over the princely states was to end. These states could decide to
join either India or Pakistan or remain independent. Over 560 states decided to merge
with India.
 The British emperor would cease to use the title ‘Emperor of India’.
 Until the new dominions’ constitutions would become effective, the heads of state
would be the respective Governor-Generals who would continue to assent laws passed
by the Constituent Assemblies in the name of the king.
 This Act received the royal assent on 18th July 1947 and entered into force.
 Pakistan became independent on 14th August and India on 15th August 1947.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was appointed Pakistan’s Governor-General and Lord
Mountbatten became India’s.

Unit-IV Partition of India and Economic

Developments:
A. 10. Constitutional Development 1909 Act, 1919 Act and 1932 Nehru Report.
B. 11. Round Table Conference. Communal Award, Poona Pact and Government of
India Act 1935
C. 12. Cabinet Mission Plan, Mount Batton Plan and Partition of India and India’s
Independence Act-1947.

Communal Award 1932: Addressing Communal Representation
in British India
Introduction:
The Communal Award was a significant development that resulted from the Third
Round Table Conference, which was held in the Communal Award 1932 during
the British rule of India. It was enacted in response to concerns about communal
representation and minority rights. The award sought to meet the needs of various religious
and social groups, but it was met with criticism and controversy. Let’s take a look at the
Communal Award and its significance.
Communal Award 1932: Divide and Rule Sparks Controversy in Indian Politics
 Establishment of Separate Electorate: The Communal Award was announced by
the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, on August 16, 1932, and established
separate electorates and reserved seats for minorities, including the depressed
classes.

 Manifestation Of Divide and Rule: This award was viewed as another
example of the British tactic of divide and rule by national leaders led by Congress.
 Demand For Depressed Class: Dr B.R. Ambedkar in the past had argued for
separate electorates for the depressed classes, and the Bengal Depressed Classes
Association had lobbied for seats reserved according to the proportion of depressed
class members to the total population.
 Gandhi’s Opposition to Separate Electorate: At the second Round Table
Conference held in London, Ambedkar again raised the issue of a separate electorate,
but Gandhi rejected his proposal and denounced the other delegates as
unrepresentative.
 Meditation by Ramsay MacDonald: Ramsay MacDonald offered to mediate on the
condition that the other members of the committee supported his decision, but the
outcome was the same.
Communal Award 1932: Diverse Electorates and Controversial Provisions in Indian
Politics
 Communities and Classes: Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-
Indians, the poor, women, and even the Marathas were to have their own electorates.
A similar structure for the poor classes was to be created over a period of 20 years.
 Community Basis for Seats: Seats in provincial legislatures were to be distributed on
a community basis.
 Double Seats: The number of seats in provincial legislatures was to be doubled.
 Extra Weightage to Muslims: Muslims were to be given weightage wherever they
were in the minority.

 Minority Status: Except in the North West Frontier Province, 3% of seats in
all provinces were to be designated for women, and the poor classes were to be
declared/assigned the status of minority.
 Double Vote System: The poor were to be given a “double vote,” one to be utilised
in distinct electorates and the other in general electorates.
 Special Seat in Bombay Province: Labourers, landowners, traders, and industrialists
were to be given seats, while the Marathas were to be given seven seats in the
province of Bombay.
 Congress Stand: The Congress was opposed to separate electorates, but was not in
favour of changing the communal award 1932 without the consent of minorities. The
effort to separate the depressed classes from the rest of the Hindus was opposed by all
nationalists.
THE THEORY OF DIVIDE AND RULE
The Theory of Divide and Rule
 The theory behind the “Divide and Rule” policy is rooted in the concept of
“divide et imperia,” a Latin term that means “divide and conquer.” Throughout
history, countless civilizations and kings have employed this method. The
colonial power seeks to weaken any potential opposition and establish itself as
the dominant authority by spreading division and developing mistrust among the
subjects of society.
 Historical Application in India: In the early 1600s, the British East India
Company developed a presence in India. They gained prominence over time,
and by the nineteenth century, they effectively ruled the majority of the Indian

subcontinent.
Gandhi’s Opposition: Communal Award, Unity Concerns, and the Poona Pact
 Attack On Unity: Gandhi saw the Communal Award 1932 as an attack on Indian
unity and nationalism.
 Untouchable to Perpetuity: He argued that separate electorates would ensure that the
untouchables remained untouchables in perpetuity.
 A Middle Way: He demanded that the depressed classes be elected through joint and
if possible, a wider electorate through the universal franchise while expressing no
objection to the demand for a larger number of reserved seats.
 Comprise In A Poona Pact: Leaders of various persuasions, including B.R.
Ambedkar, M.C. Rajah and Madan Mohan Malaviya, agreed to a compromise
contained in the Poona Pact.
Communal Award: Empowerment and Polarization in British India
 The Communal Award 1932 had a significant impact on British India’s political
landscape.
 It gave religious and marginalized communities a political platform and the
opportunity to protect their rights and interests.
 However, it also contributed to the polarization of politics along communal lines,
which has implications for India’s social fabric in the future.
Conclusion

The Third Round Table Conference’s communal award in 1932 sought to
address communal representation and minority rights in British India. While it provided
political representation for religious and marginalized communities, it was also criticized for
having the potential to worsen communal divisions. The Communal Award had a significant
impact on Indian politics and society, shaping subsequent discussions on representation and
the complexities of identity in a diverse nation.
POONA PACT-1932
Introductin:
The Poona Pact was an agreement between M K Gandhi and B R Ambedkar signed in
the Yerwada Central Jail, Poona on September 24 th, 1932 on behalf of the depressed class for
the preservation of the electoral seats in the Legislature of the British Government.
It was signed by Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes and by Madan Mohan
Malviya on behalf of Hindus and Gandhi as a means to end the fast that Gandhi was
undertaking in jail as a protest against the decision made by British Prime Minister Ramsay
MacDonald to give separate electorates to depressed classes for the election of members of
provincial legislative assemblies in British India.
Poona Pact – Important Facts
 Dr Ambedkar was in favour of a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes and this
was laid down by him in the First Round Table Conference. He was representing the
Depressed Classes in the conference.

 Gandhi was against this idea and when PM Macdonald decided to grant
communal awards to minorities and the Depressed Classes, he undertook a fast whilst
in jail in Poona.
 Due to public pressure to end the fast unto death, Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi made the
Poona Pact which laid down reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in the provincial
legislatures for which elections would be through joint electorates.
 Gandhi was against this idea because he did not want to view the untouchables as
being outside the folds of Hinduism.
 Certain seats for the provincial legislatures would be reserved for the Depressed
Classes. The number of seats was based on the total strength of the Provincial
Councils. The number of seats reserved for the provinces was 30 for Madras, 8 for
Punjab, 14 for Bombay with Sindh, 20 for the Central Provinces, 18 for Bihar and
Orissa, 30 for Bengal, 7 for Assam and 20 for the United Provinces. So, in total, there
were 147 reserved seats.
 For each of these seats, the members of the Depressed Classes who could vote would
form an electoral college. This Electoral College would elect a panel of four
candidates who belong to the Depressed Classes. These candidates would be elected
based on a single vote. Four candidates getting the highest number of votes would be
elected.
 Then these four candidates would stand in the election for the assembly along with the
general candidates where the general electorate would vote. The members of the
Depressed Classes hence got a ‘double vote’ since they could vote under the general
electorate also.

 Even in the Central Legislature, the same principle of the joint electorate and
reserved seats was to be followed.
 In the Central Legislature, 19% of the seats would be reserved for the Depressed
Classes.
 This system would continue for ten years unless a mutual agreement consents to
terminate it earlier.
 Fair representation of the Depressed Classes would be ensured by all means.
 Nobody would be discriminated against based on caste on matters regarding election
to the local bodies or in public services appointments.
 A certain sum of money from the educational grant would be allotted for the
education of the Depressed Classes in all provinces.
The varied responses to the Poona Pact are the result of different perspectives on the issue of
the representation of the Depressed Classes.
 Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi had differing views on the importance
of the rights of the Depressed Classes, with Ambedkar placing greater emphasis on
their rights compared to Gandhi’s focus on India’s political independence. While
Gandhi fought a dual battle for India’s freedom and preserving Hindu society,
Ambedkar’s activism centered around advocating for the rights of the marginalized
communities.
 The Poona Pact evoked strong reactions from different circles; even the demand was
raised for its revision both from a section of the Depressed Classes and the Hindus as
well.

 The reactions were particularly sharp in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal
where Hindus constituted 31 per cent and 44 per cent of the population respectively.
 Even the members of the Depressed Classes Federation in Bengal were not happy
with the arrangement made by the Poona Pact. Dr. Ambedkar believed that the Poona
Pact would lead to further fragmentation among the Depressed Classes, as political
parties would field their candidates, creating divisions within the community.
LORD MOUNT BATTEN PLAN
Introduction:
Lord Mountbatten (India’s last viceroy) proposed a plan in May 1947 according to
which provinces were to be declared independent successor states with the power to choose
whether to join the constituent assembly or not.
Mountbatten Plan Background
 Lord Mountbatten came to India as the last Viceroy and was assigned the task of a
speedy transfer of power by the then British Prime Minister Clement Atlee.
 In May 1947, Mountbatten came up with a plan under which he proposed that the
provinces be declared independent successor states and then be allowed to choose
whether to join the constituent assembly or not. This plan was called the ‘Dickie Bird
Plan’.

 Jawaharlal Nehru (Born on November 14, 1889) when apprised of the plan,
vehemently opposed it saying it would lead to Balkanisation of the country. Hence,
this plan was also called Plan Balkan.
 Then, the viceroy came up with another plan called the June 3 Plan. This plan was the
last plan for Indian independence. It is also called the Mountbatten Plan.
 The June 3 Plan included the principles of partition, autonomy, sovereignty to both
nations, right to make their own constitution.
 Above all, the Princely States such as Jammu and Kashmir were given a choice to
either join India or Pakistan. The consequences of these choices would affect the new
nations for decades to come.
 This plan was accepted by both the Congress and the Muslim League. By then, the
Congress had also accepted the inevitability of the partition.
 This plan was put into action by the Indian Independence Act 1947 which was
passed in the British Parliament and received the royal assent on 18 July 1947.
Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan
 British India was to be partitioned into two dominions – India and Pakistan.
 The constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly would not be applicable to the
Muslim-majority areas (as these would become Pakistan). The question of a separate
constituent assembly for the Muslim-majority areas would be decided by these
provinces.

 As per the plan, the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab met and voted
for the partition. Accordingly, it was decided to partition these two provinces along
religious lines.
 The legislative assembly of Sind would decide whether to join the Indian constituent
assembly or not. It decided to go to Pakistan.
 A referendum was to be held on NWFP (North-Western Frontier Province) to decide
which dominion to join. NWFP decided to join Pakistan while Khan Abdul Gaffar
Khan boycotted and rejected the referendum.
 The date for the transfer of power was to be August 15, 1947.
 To fix the international boundaries between the two countries, the Boundary
Commission was established chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The commission was to
demarcate Bengal and Punjab into the two new countries.
 The princely states were given the choice to either remain independent or accede to
India or Pakistan. The British suzerainty over these kingdoms was terminated.
 The British monarch would no longer use the title ‘Emperor of India’.
 After the dominions were created, the British Parliament could not enact any law in
the territories of the new dominions.
 Until the time the new constitutions came into existence, the Governor-General would
assent any law passed by the constituent assemblies of the dominions in His Majesty’s
name. The Governor-General was made a constitutional head.
On the midnight of 14th and 15th August 1947, the dominions of Pakistan and India
respectively came into existence. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the first Governor-
General of independent India and M .A. Jinnah became the Governor-General of Pakistan.


Unit-IV
Partition of India and Economic Developments:
Introduction:
Mountbatten Plan Lord Mountbatten (India’s last viceroy) proposed a plan in May
1947 according to which provinces were to be declared independent successor states with the
power to choose whether to join the constituent assembly or not. Background • Lord
Mountbatten came to India as the last Viceroy and was assigned the task of a speedy transfer
of power by the then British Prime Minister Clement Atlee. • In May 1947, Mountbatten
came up with a plan under which he proposed that the provinces be declared independent
successor states and then be allowed to choose whether to join the constituent assembly or
not. This plan was called the ‘Dickie Bird Plan’.
• Jawaharlal Nehru, when apprised of the plan, vehemently opposed it saying it would
lead to balkanisation of the country. Hence, this plan was also called Plan Balkan.
Then, the viceroy came up with another plan called the June 3 Plan. This plan was the
last plan for Indian independence. It is also called the Mountbatten Plan. The June 3 Plan
included the principles of partition, autonomy, sovereignty to both nations, right to make their
own constitution.
• Above all, the Princely States such as Jammu and Kashmir were given a choice to
either join India or Pakistan. The consequences of these choices would affect the new nations
for decades to come. • This plan was accepted by both the Congress and the Muslim League.
By then, the Congress had also accepted the inevitability of the partition.

• This plan was put into action by the Indian Independence Act 1947 which
was passed in the British Parliament and received the royal assent on 18 July 1947.
Provisions •British India was to be partitioned into two dominions – India and Pakistan.
• The constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly would not be applicable to the
Muslim-majority areas (as these would become Pakistan). The question of a separate
constituent assembly for the Muslim-majority areas would be decided by these provinces.
• As per the plan, the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab met and voted for
the partition. Accordingly, it was decided to partition these two provinces along religious
lines. • The legislative assembly of Sind would decide whether to join the Indian constituent
assembly or not. It decided to go with Pakistan.
• A referendum was to be held on NWFP (North-Western Frontier Province) to decide
which dominion to join. NWFP decided to join Pakistan while Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan
boycotted and rejected the referendum. • The date for the transfer of power was to be August
15, 1947.
• To fix the international boundaries between the two countries, the Boundary
Commission was established chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The commission was to
demarcate Bengal and Punjab into the two new countries.
• The princely states were given the choice to either remain independent or accede to
India or Pakistan. The British suzerainty over these kingdoms was terminated. • The British
monarch would no longer use the title ‘Emperor of India’.
• After the dominions were created, the British Parliament could not enact any law in
the territories of the new dominions.
• Until the time the new constitutions came into existence, the Governor-General
would assent any law passed by the constituent assemblies of the dominions in His Majesty’s
name.
The Governor-General was made a constitutional head. This Plan, the third within
twelve months (Cabinet Mission Plan. of June, 1946; Attlee Declaration of February, 1947;
Mountbatten Plan of June, 1947), has received the assent of the leadership of the major

political organisations in India and in Britain. In India the main political leaders have
declared their acceptance of the proposals, though with heavy misgivings. Nehru on behalf of
the Congress declared: “It is with no joy in my heart that I commend these proposals.” Jinnah
on behalf of the Moslem League declared: “We cannot say or feel that we are satisfied or that
we agree with some of the matters dealt with by the plan.” Baldev Singh on behalf of the
Sikhs declared: “It would be untrue if I were to say that we are altogether happy.
The British Plan does not please everybody, not the Sikh community anyway.” On the
other hand, J.P. Narain on behalf of the Indian Socialists, and P.C. Joshi on behalf of the
Indian Communists, have sharply criticised the Plan as involving the dismemberment of
India, and as not representing a real transfer of power, and have opposed acceptance. P.C.
Joshi has declared: “The new British Plan for the dismennberment of India is a desperate
move against the freedom Movernent which stands for the complete independence of the
whole of the country ....“Mountbatten’s Plan is not a genuine ‘Quit India’ plan, but rather one
which seeks to keep in British hands as many economic and military controls as possible.”
In Britain Tory-Labour unity has been proclaimed in support of the Plan. Churchill, in
contrast to his opposition to previous proposals, has declared his approval of the general lines
of the Mountbatten Plan, and congratulated Attlee on his selection of Mountbatten as Viceroy
— praise which, according to The Times, “brought a flush of pleasure to the Prirne Minister’s
cheek.” “The two men,” observed the Manchester Guardian of Churchill and Attlee, “have
not found so much common ground since this Parliament began.” On the occasion of the
Parliamentary announcement only Gallacher pressed criticism. In the City Indian share prices
immediately rose, following the announcement, and as the Daily Herald noted, “the City gave
its blessing to the Plan.” International1y the Plan has received high praise in the American
official Press, and in the Right Wing Press of most countries.
On the other hand, Reuters has noted that “Leftwing newspapers have been
unfavourable in all countries.” Soviet comment was provided by the statement of Zhukov:
“Britain is being forced to take a page from America’s book and copy her policy in the
Philippines — to give a nominal false freedom. In other words, to clear out so as to remain.”
A commentary by Lenin on the Moscow Radio drew the conclusion: “From declarations
proclaiming the transfer of power to the Indians it is a far cry to true independence for India.

The achievement of the latter will depend first and foremost on the strength of the
national liberation movement.
British ruling circles mean to maintain their economic, political and military
positions in India, whatever her future constitutional structure may be. Among other things
they bank on the economic ties established between the British and the Indian bourgeoisie …
Irrespective of the constitutional changes in India, what really matters the actual
economic, political and military positions that British capital succeeds in maintaining in that
country. This will decide whether the long standing question of independence for India will
be settled as it was in the Philippines or whether India will become a really independent
democratic country.” On the midnight of 14th and 15th August 1947, the dominions of
Pakistan and India respectively came into existence. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the
first GovernorGeneral of independent India and M .A. Jinnah became the Governor-General
of Pakistan.
Conclusion
The Mountbatten Plan not only laid down the partition of India, but provided a
machinery for the areas affected by the Pakistan demand to choose, either through their
Legislative Assembly representatives or through the referendum, between a single
Constituent Assembly in accordance with the Cabinet Mission Plan, or a separate Constituent
Assembly for a separate State. Hence, we can say that the main purpose of the Mountbatten
Plan was the partition of India and the speedy transfer of responsibility, initially in the form
of Dominion Status, to Indian Governments for the sections of a divided India.
Unit V

Map Topics:
A. Places of Princely States in India-

1. Kashmir
2.Mysore
3.Hydrabad
4.Gwalior
5.Travancore
6. Jaipur
7.Baroda
8.Oudh
9. Kolhapur
10.Indore
B. Importance of Historical Places
1.Dandi
2. Aligarh
3. Chouri–Chaura
4.Lahore 5.Surat
6.Haripura
7. Calcutta
8. Banares
9. Champarannya
10. Belgaum.
AN OUTLINE MAP OF NON-CO-OPERATION MOVMEMNT OF INDIA


B. MAIN CENTERS OF QUITE INDIA MOVEMENTS
Indian Freedom Struggle Timeline

Year Location Event Protagonist
Sepoys of the 19th Infantry refused rifle

1857 Berhampore
practice
1857 Meerut Sepoy Mutiny
1857 Ambala Unrest at Ambala
Mangal Pandey attacked British officers and

1857 Barrackpore Mangal Pandey
was later hanged
1857 Lucknow 48th Mutiny at Lucknow
1857 Peshawar Native garrison were disarmed
2nd Cavalry mutinies, Satichaura Ghat

1857 Kanpur Massacre, Massacre of women and children in
the Bibighar
1857 Delhi Battle of Badli-ki-Serai
Rani Lakshmi Bai protested against the denial

1857 Jhansi of rights of her adopted son and led successful Rani Lakshmi Bai
defense of Jhansi against invading armies
1857 Meerut 50 Europeans killed by sepoy and crowd
Second battle of Cawnpore (Kanpur): Tatya

1857 Kanpur Tatya Tope
Tope defeated by company forces
1857 Jhelum Mutiny of native troops against British
1857 Gurdaspur Battle of Trimmu Ghat
1858 Calcutta East India Company abolished
Battle of Gwalior when Rani Lakshmi Bai

1858 Gwalior with Maratha rebels captured Gwalior from Rani Lakshmi Bai
Scindia rulers
1858 Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai died Rani Lakshmi Bai

1859 Shivpuri Tatya Tope captured and executed Tatya Tope
Queen Victoria declared as the "Empress of

1876
India"
Indian National Congress (INC) formed by AO

1885 Bombay AO Hume
Hume
1898 Lord Curzon became Viceroy
1905 Surat Swadeshi Movement started
1905 Bengal Partition of Bengal
1906 Dhaka All India Muslim League founded Aga Khan III
1908 30th April: Khudiram Bose was executed
Tilak was sentenced to six years on charges of

1908 Mandalay Bal Gangadhar Tilak
sedition
1909 Minto-Morley Reforms or Indian Councils Act
Delhi durbar held. Partition of Bengal was

1911 Delhi
cancelled
1912 Delhi Delhi established as the new capital of India
Delhi Conspiracy Case to assassinate Lord

1912 Delhi
Hardinge (Viceroy of India)
1914 The Ghadar Party was formed at San Francisco
1914 Kolkata Komargata Maru incident
1915 Mumbai Gopal Krishna Gokhale died
1916 Lucknow Lucknow Pact Signed Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Tilak founded Indian Home Rule League first

1916 Pune Bal Gangadhar Tilak
in Poona (Pune)
1916 Madras Annie Besant led Home Rule League Annie Besant

Mahatma Gandhi launched the Champaran

1917 Champaran Mahatma Gandhi
campaign in Bihar
Montagu Declaration made by Secretary of

1917
State, Edwin Samuel Montagu
1918 Champaran Champaran Agraria Law passed
1918 Kheda Kheda Satyagraha
1918 Beginning of trade union movement in India
1919 Amritsar Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
Rowlatt Act passed by Imperial Legislative

1919
Council in London
1919 Khilafat Movement started
1920 Tilak founded the Congress Democratic Party
1920 Non-Cooperation Movement started Mahatma Gandhi
1920 All India Trade Union Congress started Narayan Malhar Joshi
Gandhiji proposed a resolution that called for

1920 Calcutta Mahatma Gandhi
British to grant dominion status to India
1921 Malabar Moplah rebellion
Chauri
1922 Chauri Chaura incident
Chaura
1922 Allahabad Swaraj Party formed Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
1925 Communist Party of India was formed
Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan,

1925 Kakori Kakori Conspiracy
Chandrasekhar Azad
1925 Bardoli Bardoli Satyagraha Vallabhbhai Patel

1928 Simon Commission arrives in Bombay and an

Bombay
all-India hartal was observed
Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted by police at Lahore

1928 Lahore Lala Lajpat Rai
and later died due to injuries
Nehru Report proposed new Dominion

1928 Motilal Nehru
Constitution of India.
Lahore Session of the Indian National

1929 Lahore Pt Jawaharlal Nehru
Congress held
Freedom fighter Jatindra Nath Das fasted till

1929 Lahore death demanding for better facilities for Jatindra Nath Das
prisoners
All Parties Muslim Conference formulates the

1929 Muhammad Ali Jinnah
'Fourteen Points'
Central Legislative Assembly bomb throwing

1929 Delhi Bhagat Singh, Batukeshwar Dutt
incident
Lord Irwin announced that the Government

1929 would meet for a Round Table Conference
with Indian representatives
1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the flag of India
Purna Swaraj declaration was publicised by the

1930
Indian National Congress
Sabarmati Beginning of Civil Disobedience Movement

1930 Mahatma Gandhi
Ashram with Dandi March or the Salt March
1930 Chittagong Chittagong Armoury Raid Surya Sen
First Round Table Conference begins in

1930 London London to consider the report of the Simon
Commission
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru hanged

1931 Lahore Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru
till death
Gandhi Irwin Pack signed by Mahatma Gandhi

1931
and Lord Irwin

Mahatma Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu,

1931 Madan Mohan Malaviya, Ghanshyam
Second Round Table Conference
Das Birla, Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Mirza
Ismail, S.K. Dutta, Sir Syed Ali Imam
The Indian National Congress and its associate

1932
organisations declared illegal
1932 Gandhiji was arrested for sedition without trial Mahatma Gandhi
British Prime Minister, Ramsay Macdonald

announced the "Communal Award" to grant
1932
separate electorates to Indian minority
communities
Gandhiji began his "fast unto death" to

1932 improve status of untouchable castes that Mahatma Gandhi
lasted for six days
1932 London The Third Round Table Conference
Gandhiji fasts to focus attention on the welfare

1933 Mahatma Gandhi
of untouchables.
Gandhiji withdraws himself from active

1934 politics and dedicates himself towards Mahatma Gandhi
constructive programmes
1935 The Government of India Act 1935 passed
Indian Provincial Elections held under the

1937
Government of India Act 1935
Haripura session of the Indian National

1938 Haripura
Congress held
Subhash Chandra Bose was elected as the

1938 Subhash Chandra Bose
President of the Indian National Congress
1939 Jabalpur Tripuri Session conducted
1939 Congress ministries in the provinces resigned Subhash Chandra Bose

to protest against the war policy of the British
government. Subhash Chandra Bose resigned
from the post of the Indian National Congress'

President
The Muslim League observes 'Deliverance

1939 Day' to celebrate the resignation of the Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Congress ministries
Lahore Session held by the Muslim League for

1940 the creation of 'Independent States' for
Muslims
'August Offer 1940' made by Lord Linlithgow

1940 offered Indians' the right to create their own
Constitution
Congress Working Committee rejected the

1940 Wardha 'August Offer' and launched 'Individual
Satyagraha'
1941 Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from India Subhash Chandra Bose
Quit India Movement or August Movement

1942
started
1942 Churchill announces the Cripps Mission
Indian National Congress adopted 'Quit India'

1942 Bombay
Resolution
Gandhiji and other top Congress leaders were

1942 Mahatma Gandhi
arrested
1942 'Azad Hind Fauj' established Subhash Chandra Bose
Cellular Jail declared as the headquarter of the

1943 Port Blair
Provisional Government of India
Subhash Chandra Bose proclaims the

1943 formation of the Provisional Government of Subhash Chandra Bose
free India
Karachi session of the Muslim League adopted

1943 Karachi
the slogan 'Divide and Rule'
1944 Moirang Colonel Shaukat Malik of the Azad Hind Fauj Colonel Shaukat Ali
defeated the British in the region with

Japanese support
Simla Conference held between Viceroy

1944 Simla Archibald Wavellin and Indian political
leaders
1946 Delhi The Cabinet Mission Plan passed
1946 Delhi Constituent Assembly formed
1946 Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
1946 Delhi Cabinet Mission arrives in New Delhi
Jawaharlal Nehru takes over as Congress

1946 Lahore Jawahar Lal Nehru
President
1946 Interim Government of India formed
First session of the Constituent Assembly of

1946 Delhi
India held
British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee

1947 declared that the British government would
grant full self-government to British India
Lord Mountbatten appointed as the Viceroy of

1947 India and then became the first Governor
General of Independent India
Mountbatten Plan was made for the partition

of India into fully sovereign dominions - India
1947
and Pakistan with effect from 15th August
1947 under the Indian Independence Act 1947


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Socio-Religious Reformation Moments &amp; DSC-9 English Notes by Saddamhusain Sir

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SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMATION MOMENTS & INDIAN NATIONAL MOMENTS

HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY

Socio-Religious Reformation Moments &

Mr. Saddamhusain Mujawar

MA., KSET., PGDip In Tourism Studies., (PhD)

RANI CHANNAMMA UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI

Unit –I Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th and 20th Century:

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

B. Main Centers of Quite India Movements

Brahmo Samaj- Raja Ram Mohan Roy

personal diwan first of Woodforde and then of Digby.

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

rationalism and a modern scientific approach.

religious reform is both social reform and political modernisation.

polytheism of orthodox Hinduism and Christian Trinitarians.

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

Contributions Religious reforms:

Hindus as the belief in revelations, prophets, miracles etc.

2. In 1814, he founded Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta to campaign against idolatry, caste

rigidities, meaningless rituals and other social ills.

3. He criticized the ritualism of Christianity and rejected Christ as the incarnation of

1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy conceived reformist religious associations as instruments of

social and political transformation.

3. He campaigned against the caste system, untouchability, superstitions and use of

women and especially on the abolition of sati and widow remarriage.

demanded the right of inheritance and property for women.

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

sacrifices. It focused on prayers, meditation and reading of the scriptures.

indirectly contributed to the nationalist movement.

and Adi Brahmo Samaj led by Debendranath Tagore.

and Rabindranath Tagore.

English school taught mechanics and Voltaire’s philosophy.

Western social and physical sciences were offered.

Economic and Political Reforms:

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

benefits of that system of government to Indian people.

weekly, Samvad Kaumudi (1821); and the Persian weekly, Mirat-ul-Akbar.

3. Taxation reforms: Roy condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars and

demanded fixation of minimum rents.

5. Administrative reforms: He demanded the Indianisation of superior services and

separation of the executive from judiciary. He demanded equality between Indians

6. Literary Works of Raja Ram Mohan Roy Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin

7. (1804) Vedanta Gantha (1815)

8. Translation of an abridgement of the Vedanta Sara (1816)

9. Kenopanishads (1816) Ishopanishad (1816)

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

10. Kathopanishad (1817) A Conference between the Advocate for, and an

Opponent of Practice of Burning Widows Alive (Bengali and English) (1818)

11. Mundaka Upanishad (1819)

12. A Defence of Hindu Theism (1820)

14. Bengali Grammar (1826)

15. The Universal Religion (1829)

16. History of Indian Philosophy (1829)

17. Gaudiya Vyakaran (1833)

isolation of independence, but in the brotherhood of inter-dependence of individuals as 4/5

civilisations in the spirit of sympathetic cooperation.

Arya Samaj – Dayanand Saraswati

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

his famous work, Satyarth Prakash (The True Exposition).

Contribution to the Society:

Swaraj as "India for Indian" in 1876.

among a wide array of Prices and the public.

Notes Prepared by –Mr.Saddamhusain Mujawar,

religion being the common religion of all.

Socio-Religious Reformation Moments & DSC-9 English Notes by Saddamhusain Sir

Socio-Religious Reformation Moments & DSC-9 English Notes by Saddamhusain Sir