Table of Contents

Rise and Fall of Regional Powers ........................................................................................................2

Characteristics of Regional Powers ..............................................................................................................3
Nature of Regional Poli�es ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Weaknesses of Regional Poli�es ...................................................................................................................................... 3

Successor states ..........................................................................................................................................4

Mughal Provinces ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
Hyderabad ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Carna�c ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Awadh .............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Bengal ............................................................................................................................................................................. 10

New States (Insurgent States)....................................................................................................................12

Rise and Fall of the Maratha Power ............................................................................................................................... 12
The Sikhs......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
The Jats ........................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Rohilkhand and Farrukhabad ......................................................................................................................................... 22

Independent Kingdoms..............................................................................................................................23
Mysore............................................................................................................................................................................ 23
Kerala .............................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Rajput States .................................................................................................................................................................. 28

Summary...................................................................................................................................................28
Timeline ....................................................................................................................................................31

Author: Vishwjeet Kawar

Protégé of PMF IAS

Suggestions / Feedback: vishwjeethistory@gmail.com | https://t.me/vishwjeetkawar

 Rise and Fall of Regional Powers

• With the decline of the Mughal Empire during the first half of the 18th century, many
independent and semi-independent states emerged, such as Bengal, Avadh, Hyderabad, Mysore,
and Maratha. In the second half of the 18th century, these states challenged British rule in India.
• These newly emerged states can be classified into three broad categories:
1. Successor States: The states which broke away from the Mughal Empire.
2. New States (Insurgent States): The new states set up by the rebels against the Mughals.
3. Independent Kingdoms: These states emerged by taking advantage of the destabilisation of
imperial control over the provinces.
  The rise of independent states (regional powers) was one of the dominant characteristics of the
18th century Indian polity.

Characteristics of Regional Powers

Nature of Regional Polities

1. Nominal supremacy of the Mughal Emperor:
 After the Battle of Panipat, the Mughal Empire had largely lost its practical authority and
influence, existing primarily as a symbolic entity. Despite its diminished power, the Mughal
Emperor still held considerable prestige as the 'king of kings'.
 Regional rulers continued to seek the emperor's approval when they wished to acquire territory,
ascend to a throne, or establish an empire. They tried to legitimise their position by
acknowledging the nominal supremacy of the Mughal Emperor.
2. Continuity of Mughal Traditions:
 Each state reorganised its administrative set-up. However, nearly all adopted the Mughal
administration (especially land revenue practices). It was natural for the successor states to
continue the old Mughal practice. Other states copied the Mughal administration methods.
3. These states established law and order and viable economic and administrative structures.
4. The politics of these states were non-communal or secular.
5. These states prevented the breakdown of internal trade and even promoted foreign trade.

Weaknesses of Regional Polities

1. Regional Character:
 During the 18th century, though some Mughal institutions had continuity, the Mughal political
system did not survive.
 These states were regional in character and function. They were strong enough to destroy
Mughal power, but none could replace the Mughals with a political system at the all-India level.
2. Constant Wars:
 The regional powers constantly fought with neighbouring states. For example, the Marathas,
ruler of Mysore, and Nizam fought against each other. Disunity among the regional powers
paved the way for the British to establish dominance over India.
3. Decentralised Political Authority:
 Many of these states have decentralised political authority, where chiefs, Jagirdars, and
Zamindars have gained economic and political influence. The provincial rulers had to manage
various local interests to maintain themselves.
 There were exceptions; for instance, in Mysore, rulers did not recognise the local chieftains.
4. Jagirdari Crisis:
 As income from agriculture declined and the number of jagirdars multiplied:
 The Jagirdari crisis intensified.
 The condition of the peasantry continued to deteriorate.
5. The regional states could not stop the economic crisis and failed to develop a system based on
sound financial, administrative, and military organisation.
6. They were backwards in science and technology and did nothing to modernise the basic industrial
and commercial structure of their states.

Successor states

• Successor states of the Mughal Empire, including Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal, were once
directly under the control of the Mughal administration. However, with the decline of the Mughal
Empire, these states broke away from it.
• By the late 17th and early 18th century:
 The governors of the various Mughal provinces asserted their independence and established
independent states.
 The governors attempted to establish their own dynastic rules.
 The relationship between the central authority (Mughal) and the provincial administration
was reduced to collecting tribute from the provincial governor.
• Successor states were characterised by two phases:
1. Autonomy: Transition from Mughal Subahs (provinces) into autonomous states.
2. Subjugation: Subordination to the British imperial system.

Mughal Provinces
• As the vast Mughal Empire was difficult to rule from Delhi, Akbar divided the Mughal Empire
into several provinces called Subahs during his administrative reform.
• The emperor appointed a governor for each Subah to administer the region, and these
governors were called "Subahdars." Thus, the emperor indirectly controlled the provincial
administration by controlling appointments.
• There were 22 Subahs during Aurangzeb's rule. Some important Subahs include:
 Golkonda (Hyderabad)
 Carnatic
 Bengal
 Avadh

The Mughal provincial administration

• The Mughal Provincial administration had two main heads:
1. Nizamat: Administration of law and order and criminal justice.
 The provincial Subadar (governor) was responsible for Nizamat function and was
referred to as the Nazim.
2. Diwani: Revenue administration.
 The Diwan was the head of revenue administration in the province.
 Diwan was also appointed by the Mughal emperor to keep control over Nazim (provincial
governor).

Imperial control over the provinces

• There were two important forms of imperial control over the province:
1. Appointment of higher provincial officials by the emperor: The emperor appointed the
higher officials of provinces, such as Diwan and Nazim. Through these appointments, they
maintained their control over provinces.
2. Payment of annual tribute to the emperor: Provincial governors regularly paid tributes
to the emperor.

System of Checks and Balances

• Diwan was appointed in the provinces mainly to keep control over the governor of the
provinces.
• During the 18th century, the governors attempted to abolish the separate office of Diwan,
indicating the creation of an independent state.

Hyderabad
Important Nizams of Hyderabad (1724-1948)
Nizams Rule Significant Events
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I 1724-48 Establishment of Hyderabad State
Nasir Jung 1748-50
Muzaffar Jung 1750-51
Salabat Jung 1751-62
 Osman Ali Khan 1911-48 Last Nizam of Hyderabad
• The state of Hyderabad was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724.

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf (1724-48)

• Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah was one of the leading nobles of the post-Aurangzeb era. He assisted
Mohammed Shah in removing the Saiyid brothers, and as a reward, he was appointed as the
Subadar (governor) of the Deccan region.
• From 1720 to 1722, he consolidated his hold over the Deccan by:
 Suppressing all opposition to his viceroy role
 Organising the administration efficiently
• Nizam-ul-Mulk became the Wazir of the Mughal Empire in 1722 and vigorously attempted to
reform the administration. Muhammad Shah consistently obstructed his efforts. So, he returned to
the Deccan to maintain his supremacy and in 1724, he founded the Hyderabad State.
• Nizam never openly declared his independence from the Central Government, but in practice, he
acted like an independent ruler. He:
 Followed a tolerant policy towards the Hindus.
 Controlled the zamindars.
 Reformed the revenue system.
 Established an orderly administration.
• Nizam’s death in 1748 marked the end of a remarkable first chapter in Hyderabad's history.
• Nizam’s successors faced tough challenges from the Marathas and the European Companies and
failed to maintain the state’s autonomy for long. His son, Nasir Jang, and grandson, Muzaffar Jang,
entered a war of succession. This made Hyderabad vulnerable to attacks from Maratha and, later,
foreign companies.
• The French under Dupleix (French governor in India) used this opportunity to fight one group
against another. Dupleix supported Muzaffar Jang, who gave them handsome monetary and
territorial rewards.

Carnatic
Important Nawabs of Carnatic (Arcot)
Appointed by the Mughal Emperor

Nawabs Rule
Zulfiqar Khan 1692-1703
Daud Khan Panni 1703-1710
Saadatullah khan 1710-1732

Independent Nawabs

Nawabs Rule
Saadatullah khan 1710-1732
Dost Ali Khan 1732-1740
 Anwar-ud-din Khan 1744-1749

Nawabs under European Influence

Nawabs Rule
Chanda Sahib 1749-1752
Muhammad Ali Khan 1752-1795
Umdat-ul-Umara 1795-1801

Nawabs as British Protectorate

Nawabs Rule
Azim-ud-Daula 1801-19
Azam Jah 1819-25
Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan 1825-55
• The Carnatic was a part of the Mughal Deccan and came under the authority of the Nizam of
Hyderabad. Over time, the Nawab of Carnatic (Deputy Governor of Carnatic) became independent
of the Nizam and made his office hereditary.
 Nawab Saadatullah Khan made his nephew Dost Ali his successor without the approval of the
Nizam.
• After 1740, the affairs of the Carnatic deteriorated because of the repeated struggles for its
Nawabship. This allowed the European trading companies to interfere in Indian politics directly.
• Chanda Sahib, the son-in-law of Dost Ali Khan, conspired against Nawab Anwar-ud-din. Chanda
Sahib secretly concluded a treaty with the Dupleix, who defeated and killed Anwar-ud-din in a
battle at Ambur.
• After the death of Anwar-ud-din, a power struggle arose between Chanda Sahib and Muhammad
Ali, the son of Anwar-ud-din.
 In 1749, Chanda Sahib was appointed as the Nawab of Carnatic with the support of the French.
 Later, in 1752, Muhammad Ali became the Nawab of Carnatic after receiving assistance from
the British.

Muhammad Ali Khan (1752-95)

• Muhammad Ali was the Nawab of the Carnatic from 1752 until he died in 1795. He was an ally
of the British EIC. During his rule, the Carnatic region saw stronger ties with the British. This also
limited French Influence in the region.
• Muhammad Ali constructed Chepauk Palace in 1768 and moved the capital from Arcot to Chepauk
(a locality in Chennai).

Umdat ul-Umara (1795-1801)

• Umdat-ul-Umara was the Nawab of the Carnatic from 1795 to 1801. Many members of the EIC
believed that he had secretly helped Tipu Sultan (ruler of Mysore) during the Fourth Anglo-
Mysore War.
• On the fall of Tipu Sultan in 1799, the British demanded the entire administration of the kingdom
as indemnity, but he resisted the demand.

Azim-ud-Daula (1801-1819)
• After the death of Umdat ul-Umara, Azim-ud-Daula became the Nawab.
• When Azim-ud-Daula ascended the throne on 31 July 1801, Lord Wellesley compelled him to sign a
Carnatic Treaty. Accordingly, the entire military and civil administration of the Carnatic came
under the British.
• Based on the terms of the Carnatic treaty, the Nawab of Arcot ceded all his lands to British rule
and, in return, was entitled to one-fifth of the revenues of the state. The treaty reduced the Nawab
to a mere titular ruler.

Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan (1825-55)

• Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan was the last Nawab of the Carnatic, who ruled from 1825 to 1855.
He died in 1855 without any male heir (son). The British used this opportunity and annexed the
Carnatic by applying the doctrine of lapse.
 The doctrine of lapse was a policy devised by the British to annex Indian states. Under this
policy, if the ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir (son), their kingdom would
become part of the company’s territory.

Awadh
Important Nawabs of Awadh
Nawabs Rule Important Events
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk 1722-39 Establishment of Awadh
Safdar Jang 1739-54 Agreement with Peshwa
Shuja-ud-Daula 1754-75 Battle of Buxar
Saadat Ali Khan II 1798-1814 Subsidiary Alliance Treaty (1801)
Wajid Ali Shah 1847-56 Annexation of Awadh

Saadat Khan (1722-39)

• Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk was appointed Governor (Subahdar) of Avadh in 1722. He established
the autonomous kingdom of Avadh.
• Saadat Khan suppressed the lawlessness and rebellious zamindars and increased the financial
resources of his government. His administration was efficient. His troops were well-paid, well-armed,
and well-trained.
• Saadat Khan carried out a fresh revenue settlement in 1723. He improved the condition of peasants
by:
 Levying equitable land revenue.
 Protecting peasants from oppressive zamindars.
• Before Saadat Khan died in 1739, he had become virtually independent and had made the province
a hereditary possession. After his death, he was succeeded by his nephew, Safdar Jang.

Safdar Jang (1739-54)

• Safdar Jang was appointed as Nawab of Avadh in 1739. He suppressed rebellious zamindars and
made an alliance with the Maratha sardars so that his dominion was saved from their incursions.
Thus, he gave a long period of peace to the people of Avadh and Allahabad.
• Safdar Jang expanded his rule to the Gangetic plains by capturing the forts of Rohtas and Chunar,
along with the Subadari of Allahabad.
• Between 1739 and 1764, Awadh reached its peak prosperity and enjoyed the greatest autonomy.

Wazir of the Mughal Empire (1748-53)

• Safdar Jang was simultaneously appointed the Wazir of the Empire in 1748 and was granted the
province of Allahabad. As a wazir of the Empire, he made an agreement with the Peshwa in 1752
by which:
 The Peshwa would help the Mughal Empire against Ahmad Shah Abdali and protect it from
rebel groups like the Indian Pathans and Rajput Rajas.
 In return, the Peshwa was supposed to get:
 Fifty lakh rupees
 Right to collect the Chauth of the Punjab, Sindh, Multan, Rajputana and Rohilkhand.
 Governorship of Ajmer and Agra.
• Unfortunately, the agreement failed because the Peshwa switched sides to support Safdar Jang's
enemies in Delhi.

Shuja-ud-Daula
• After the death of Safdar Jang in 1753, his son, Shuja-ud-Daula, was appointed Nawab of Awadh.
He was also appointed as Wazir of the Mughal Empire in 1760.

Battle of Panipat

• In the Battle of Panipat in 1761, Shuja-ud-Daula supported Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Afghan
leader, and helped to prevent the Maratha threat from spreading into northern India.

Battle of Buxar

• Shuja-ud-Daula was defeated by the English EIC in 1764 in the Battle of Buxar. This forced him to
sign a defence alliance, which made him dependent on English EIC.

Wajid Ali Shah (1847-56)

• Wajid Ali Shah was the eleventh and last King of Awadh, ruling from 1847 to 1856.
• The British annexed Awadh in 1856, claiming to free the people from the "misgovernment" of the
Nawab.

Lucknow Culture
 • The prolonged peace and economic prosperity of the nobles under the Nawabs resulted in the
growth of a distinct Lucknow culture around the Avadh court.
• Lucknow rivalled Delhi in its patronage of arts and literature and developed as an important
centre of handicrafts.

Prosperity of Awadh
• The emergence of Awadh as a regional political system was influenced by both economic and
geographic factors.
 Economically, Awadh prospered in the 18th century due to trade and agriculture.
 Geographically, Awadh was strategically located between the north bank of the Ganges and
the Himalayan mountains, with added importance due to its proximity to the imperial
power centre of Delhi.

[UPSC Prelims 2008] The ruler of which one of the following states was removed from
power by the British on the pretext of misgovernance?
(a) Awadh
(b) Jhansi
(c) French
(d) Satara

Bengal
Important Nawabs of Bengal
Nawabs of Bengal Rule Important Events
Murshid Quli Khan 1717-27 Granted agricultural loans (taccavi) to the poor
cultivators.
Sarfaraz khan 1727 (for few days)
Shuja-ud-din 1727-39
Sarfaraz khan 1739-40 (second time)
Alivardi Khan 1740-56 Peace agreement with Maratha.
Ceded Orissa to Maratha.
Siraj-ud-Daulah 1756-57 Lost the Battle of Plassey
Mir Jafar 1757-60 Granted EIC the right to free trade in Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa.
Mir Qasim 1760-63 Battle of Buxar
Mir Jafar 1763-65 (second time)
Nizam-ud-Daulah 1765-66 Signed a treaty with the British

Murshid Quli Khan

• Murshid Quli Khan was appointed Diwan of Bengal in 1700 and became Governor of Bengal in
1717. He soon freed himself from central control, though he sent regular tributes to the emperor.
• Murshid Quli Khan was the last governor of Bengal, directly appointed by the emperor. He
established the dynastic rule in Bengal and nominated his daughter's son, Sarfaraz, as his
successor.

Measures taken by Murshid Quli to Increase the Resources of the Bengal Government

1. Murshid Quli Khan reorganised the finances of Bengal by:

 Transferring large parts of jagir lands into khalisah lands (Land owned by the king).
 Introducing the system of revenue farming, which increased economic pressure on the peasants.
2. He granted agricultural loans (taccavi) to the poor cultivators to relieve their distress and enable
them to pay land revenue in time.
3. He expelled rebellious zamindars and encouraged the big zamindars who assumed the
responsibilities of revenue collection.

Shuja-ud-din
• Sarfaraz, who was nominated by Murshid Quli as his successor, was deposed by his father Shuja-ud-
din Muhammad Khan.
• Shuja-ud-din managed the affairs of the provincial government in his own way but sent regular
tribute to the Mughal Court.

Alivardi Khan
• In 1740, Alivardi Khan killed the Sarfaraz Khan, the legitimate successor of Shuja-ud-din, and
seized power.
• Two important changes during Alivardi’s rule showed the virtual end of relations between the Mughal
authority and the Bengal government.
1. Alivardi made the major appointments in the provincial administration without any reference
to the Mughal emperor.
2. There was an abrupt end in the flow of regular tribute to Delhi.

Alivardi Khan vs Maratha

• From 1742 to 1751, Alivardi faced a strong external threat from the Marathas, who attacked
Bengal three to four times.
• In 1751, Alivardi decided to make peace with the Marathas. As a part of the peace agreement:
 Alivardi agreed to pay 12 lakhs rupees to Maratha instead of the Chauth of Bengal and Bihar.
 Orissa was given to the Marathas on the condition that they would not invade Alivardi's
territory again.

Bengal under Independent Rulers

• Murshid Quli Khan, Shuja-ud-din, and Alivardi Khan made Bengal virtually independent. Under
the rule of these rulers, Bengal made unprecedented progress. These three Nawabs:
 Gave Bengal a long period of peace and orderly administration.
 Gave equal opportunities for employment to Hindus and Muslims.
 Promoted trade and industry.
  Did not permit the English and the French to fortify their factories in Calcutta and
Chandernagore.
 Upheld the sovereignty of the ruler despite the British EIC’s threats to use force to achieve their
goals.
 Maintained strict control over foreign trading companies and their servants. Compelled the
servants of the English EIC to obey the laws of the land and to pay the same customs duties as
were being paid by other merchants.

Short-sightedness of Nawabs of Bengal

1. The Nawabs of Bengal didn't effectively counter the growing use of military force or threats by
the English EIC for their demands.
2. The Nawabs of Bengal neglected to build a strong army and paid a heavy price.
 Alivardi Khan was constantly troubled by the repeated invasions of the Marathas (Balaji Baji
Rao), and in 1751, he had to cede a large part of Orissa to them.
 The absence of a strong army contributed to the defeat of Bengal in the Battle of Plassey.

New States (Insurgent States)

• The states such as Maratha, Afghan, Jat, and Punjab were the product of rebellion against Mughal
authority. Maratha, Afghan, and Jat states began as a popular movement of peasant insurgency.

Rise and Fall of the Maratha Power

• The most important challenge to the decaying Mughal power came from the Maratha Kingdom. It
alone possessed the strength to fill the political vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mughal
Empire.
• However, the Maratha sardars lacked unity, outlook, and programme, which were necessary for
founding an all-India empire. So, they failed to replace the Mughals.
• The rise of the Marathas was both:
 A regional reaction against Mughal centralisation.
 A manifestation of the upward mobility of certain classes and castes (peasant castes wanted
to achieve Kshatriya status).
• During the rule of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, the Maratha state became a dominant expansionist
state.
• During the rule of Balaji Bajirao, the Maratha power reached its zenith:
 The Marathas spread everywhere: South, East, North and Central India.
 No part of India escaped from their attacks and disruptions.
• The defeat in the third battle of Panipat in 1761 was a major setback for the Marathas. It ended the
Marathas' ambition of replacing the Mughals as the imperial power.
• After 1761, Madhav Rao recovered the lost territories and acquired new ones. However, the early
demise of the Madhav Rao in 1772 finally ended the dream of the Maratha to replace the Mughals.
Period of Peshwa Domination
• Shahu Maharaj (grandson of Shivaji) had been held as a prisoner by Aurangzeb since 1689. He was
released in 1707 following Aurangzeb's death. Shortly after, a civil war broke out between Shahu
(Satara) and his aunt Tara Bai (Kolhapur).
• Balaji Vishwanath (assistant of Shahu) convinced many Sardars that Shahu Maharaj was the real
heir of the Maratha empire and made them join hands with him. Because of the loyal and useful
service provided by Balaji Vishwanath in suppressing Shahu’s enemies, King Shahu appointed Balaji
Vishwanath his Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan/Chief Minister).
• Initially, the post of Peshwa was not hereditary. When Baji Rao, Balaji Vishwanath's son, became
Peshwa in 1720, the office became hereditary.
• Till Shahu's death in 1749, Peshwa was still under the control of the King. Thereafter, Peshwa
virtually dislodged the King from sovereign power.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20)

• In 1713, Shahu made Balaji Vishwanath his Peshwa. Balaji Vishwanath and his son, Baji Rao I, made
Peshwa the de facto ruler of the Maratha Empire.
• Balaji Vishwanath took full advantage of the internal conflicts of the Mughal officials to increase
Maratha’s power.
  He convinced Zulfiqar Khan to pay the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan.
 He signed a pact with the Saiyid brothers, who gave him:
 The Swarajya (All the territories that were once part of Shivaji's kingdom).
 Right to collect the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan.
 He helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farrukh Siyar.

Assignment of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

• For the efficient collection of the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan, Balaji Vishwanath
assigned separate areas to Maratha sardars.
• Balaji Vishwanath made a division of the collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi between
Shahu (King / Raja) and his sardars. Out of these collections a fixed share was to be paid to the
Raja (Sardeshmukhi + 34% of Chauth). Thus the Raja became largely dependent on his sardars
for his finances.
• This system of assignment of the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi enabled the Peshwa:
 To increase his personal power through patronage.
 To conquer the areas outside their original kingdom by sardars with their own private armies.
• In the long run, this system of assigning Chauth and Sardeshmukhi was a major source of
weakness to the Maratha Empire. Because:
 Maratha sardars kept the greater part of the collection for their expenses.
 Maratha sardars gradually became strong, autonomous, and jealous of central power. If the
central authority tried to control them too strictly, they were willing to join hands with enemies.

Baji Rao I (1720-40)

• Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720. He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Baji Rao I as Peshwa.
• Baji Rao is considered the greatest of all the Peshwas and “the greatest exponent of guerrilla
tactics after Shivaji".

Campaigns of Baji Rao

• Baji Rao waged numerous campaigns against the Mughal Empire.
• Nizam: Baji Rao met Nizam on the battlefield twice, and he defeated the Nizam both times.
1. Nizam’s defeat at Palkhed (1728): Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar granted the Maratha the
right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. Nizam was against it. After defeating the Nizam at
Palkhed near Aurangabad in 1728, the Marathas were granted the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of
the Deccan provinces.
2. Battle of Bhopal (1737): Maratha defeated the Mughal forces led by Nizam and got the territory
of Malwa.
• Portuguese: Chimaji Appa (brother of Bajirao) defeated the Portuguese and captured Bassein and
Salsette (the areas around Mumbai).
• By 1740, when Baji Rao died, the Maratha had won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of
Bundelkhand. He turned the Maratha state from the Kingdom of Maharashtra into a Maratha
empire stretching north in just twenty years.
• However, Baji Rao failed to lay a firm foundation for an empire. New territories were conquered and
occupied; however, little attention was paid to their administration.
• Unfortunately, Baji Rao was involved in conflict with the Nizam-ul-Mulk. An alliance would have
benefited both. British used the rivalry between these two leaders to their advantage.
 Learning from the mistakes of Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao himself led military campaigns.
 The Maratha families of Gaekwad, Holkar, Sindhia (Scindia), and Bhonsle became prominent
during the period of Baji Rao.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)

• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) was the Peshwa from 1740 to 1761.
• King Shahu died in 1749 and, by his will, left all management of state affairs in the Peshwa’s hands.
Now, Peshwa has become the official head of the administration and has shifted the government
to Poona, his headquarters.

Campaigns of Balaji Baji Rao

• Balaji Baji Rao extended the Empire in different directions, taking Maratha’s power to its height.
• East: Bengal was repeatedly invaded, and in 1751, the Alivardi Khan ceded Orissa to Maratha.
• South: The state of Mysore and other minor states were forced to pay tribute. In 1760, the Nizam
of Hyderabad was defeated at Udgir and was compelled to cede vast territories that yield an annual
revenue of Rs. 62 lakhs.
• North: After Nadir Shah invaded Delhi, there was a period of instability. The Marathas saw this as
an opportunity to gain power and influence, and they soon became the dominant force behind the
Mughal throne.
 In 1752, they helped Imad-ul-Mulk become the wazir, who became a puppet in their hands.
For all practical purposes, the Marathas were the rulers.

Conflict with Afghans and Mughals

• India's riches attracted Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded and plundered northern India several
times between 1748 and 1767. He invaded the Punjab in 1751. The Mughals tried to buy peace
in 1751-52 by ceding Punjab to him.
• The Mughals faced a huge threat from Abdali's invasion. They sought protection from the
Maratha, as no other power was strong enough to defend Delhi.
• In April 1752, the Emperor of India entered into a treaty with the Marathas, according to
which:
 The Marathas agreed to protect the Mughal power from enemies like the Rohillas, the Jats,
the Rajputs, and the Afghans.
 In return, the Peshwa was supposed to get:
 Fifty lakh rupees
 Right to collect the Chauth of the Punjab, Sindh, Multan, Rajputana and Rohilkhand.
 Governorship of Ajmer and Agra.
 • Raghunath Rao, brother of the Peshwa Nana Saheb, undertook the campaign of North India to
combat Abdali. In 1758, He expelled Najib-ud-Daulah from Delhi and captured Punjab.
• Najib-ud-Daulah, a Rohilla chief, requested Abdali to invade India due to his inability to
tolerate Maratha supremacy in the North.

Third Battle of Panipat

• In 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali again marched into India to settle accounts with the Maratha
power. He formed an alliance with Najib-ud-Daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-Daulah of Avadh,
both of whom had suffered at the hands of the Maratha sardars.
• The Peshwa dispatched a powerful army to the north under Sadashiv Rao Bhau (cousin brother of
Peshwa) and Vishwas Rao (son of Peshwa), the nominal commander.
• The Marathas tried to find allies among the northern powers, but nobody helped them. So, they
had to fight their enemies alone, with only limited help from Imad-ul-Mulk.
• Most rulers didn’t support the Maratha, and some even joined with Abdali. This was because:
 In the process of conquering and administering the area of the empire, the Marathas acquired
many enemies.
 The Jat and Rajput chiefs were completely alienated by their conquests.
 The Mughal nobles (except Imad-ul-Mulk) were defeated by them in the power game.
 The local rulers in the north saw the Marathas from the South as their competitors.
 The local rulers did not like the Maratha supremacy and interventions in the Delhi court.
• The forces of the Maratha and Abdali met at Panipat on 14 January 1761. Nearly 28,000 soldiers
died, including Vishwas Rao and Sadashiv Rao Bhau.
• The Maratha defeat at Panipat was a disaster for them because:
 They lost the cream of their army.
 Their political prestige suffered a big blow.
 It allowed the English EIC to consolidate its power.
• After losing the third Battle of Panipat, the Marathas' dream of ruling the entire country was
shattered. The Afghans also didn’t benefit from their win. It was not easy for Abdali to rule Delhi,
and he soon returned home.
• The Maratha opposition was so fierce that neither Abdali nor his successors ever returned to
India. They could not even hold the Punjab. In fact, the Third Battle of Panipat did not decide who
was to rule India but who was not.
• The Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao, marching north to help Sadashiv Rao Bhau, was stunned by the tragic
news of the defeat. He did not survive for long and died in June 1761.

The Broad Perspective of Marathas

• The Marathas fought at Panipat with the broad perspective that India is for Indians. They
believed an outsider like Abdali had no moral right to rule over India.
• Sadashiv Rao Bhau tried to explain to northern rulers that the Marathas were all native to the
land while Abdali was an enemy from a foreign country. However, the rulers in the North did
 not respond positively to his message and maintained a neutral stance. As a result, the Marathas
had to bear the responsibility of protecting India.

[Mains Practice – Opinions Explored] Do you think the Marathas could have replaced the
Mughals as an all-India empire if they had not been defeated in the Third Battle of Panipat?

Shaping Destiny: The Role of Panipat in Empire-Shaking Conflicts

• Panipat is a historic city in Haryana. It is 90 km north of Delhi. The town witnessed three decisive
battles in Indian history in 1526, 1556, and 1761. These battles were fought at Panipat due to the
following factors:
 Invasion Routes: The northwest region, including modern-day Afghanistan, was often a
starting point for invasions. Invaders had difficulty fighting in the deserts of Rajasthan or
forested areas of north India. Hence, the flat terrain of Panipat, which lay along invasion routes,
served as a natural battleground.
 Proximity to Delhi: Panipat is close to Delhi, which is historically a significant political and
cultural centre. This proximity made it easy for the ruler of Delhi to get weapons, military aid
and food supplies.
 Military Considerations: The flat terrain around Panipat provided an ideal battlefield for
large-scale cavalry warfare, a dominant feature of military strategies in the region during those
times.
 Agricultural Richness: The fertile plains around Panipat are conducive to agriculture,
providing resources for sustaining armies. The control of this region was crucial for the
economic sustenance of any power in northern India.
Battles Year Participants Result Significance
First Battle of 1526 Babur (Timurid ruler) Babur defeated Establishment of the
Panipat and Ibrahim Lodhi Ibrahim Mughal Empire
(Sultan of Delhi).
Second Battle 1556 Akbar and Samrat Hem Akbar defeated Continuation of the
of Panipat Chandra Vikramaditya the king Hemu Mughal Empire
(Hemu)
Third Battle of 1761 Ahmad Shah Abdali Abdali defeated Ended the Marathas'
Panipat (Afghan invader) and the Marathas dream of ruling the entire
Sadashiv Rao Bhau country.
(the Marathas) Created an opportunity
for the British conquest
of India.

[UPSC Mains 2014] The Third Battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many empire-
shaking battles fought at Panipat? (2014)

Madhav Rao (1761-72)

• The 17-year-old Madhav Rao became the Peshwa in 1761. Within a short period of eleven years,
he restored the lost fortunes of the Maratha Empire.
• Madhav Rao defeated the Nizam, made successful expeditions against Haidar Ali in 1764-65 and
1769-72, compelled him to pay tribute, and reasserted control over North India.
• During the rule of the Madhav Rao, Marathas returned Emperor Shah Alam to Delhi under their
own protection. Thus, it seemed like the Maratha had regained power in the northern region.

Power struggle
• Madhav Rao died of consumption in 1772. After his death, there was a struggle for power between
Raghunath Rao (the younger brother of Balaji Baji Rao) and Narayan Rao (the younger brother of
Madhav Rao). Narayan Rao succeeded to the throne.
• Narayan Rao was killed in 1773. He was succeeded by his posthumous son, Sawai Madhav Rao
(Madhav Rao II). During the rule of Sawai Madhav Rao, the administration was in the hands of Nana
Phadnis (Phadanavis).

Nana Phadanvis
• He was a well-known administrator of the Peshwas. He restored the state affairs of the state with
the assistance of Mahadji (Maratha Sardar).
• Frustrated, Raghunath Rao approached the British and tried to capture power with their help. This
resulted in the First Anglo-Maratha War. Power struggles within the Marathas:
 Led to their defeat by the British.
 Weakened the authority of the Peshwa.

Sawai Madhav Rao (1774-95)

• Peshwa Madhava Rao died in 1772. He was succeeded by his brother Narayana Rao. Raghunath
Rao killed the Narayan Rao and became the Peshwa.
• In the meantime, the widow of the late Narayana Rao gave birth to a male child. The child, Sawai
Madhav Rao, was supported by the Maratha chiefs and became the Peshwa.
• During the rule of Sawai Madhav Rao, the administration was in the hands of Nana Phadnis
(Phadanavis).
 Maratha army defeated the Nizam at Kharda in March 1795. This was the last occasion when all
Maratha Chiefs acted in concert under the authority of Peshwa.

Semi-independent Maratha Houses

• The big Maratha sardars took advantage of weakened central authority and carved out semi-
independent states in the North. The most important were:
 Gaekwad at Baroda
 Bhonsle at Nagpur
 Holkar at Indore
 Sindhia at Gwalior
 • The Maratha Sardars established regular administration on the pattern of Mughal
administration and possessed their separate army. Their loyalty to the Peshwas became
symbolic, and they started plotting with the enemies of the Maratha Empire.

Mahadji Sindhia

• Mahadji Sindhia was a prominent Maratha ruler (Sardar) in the North. He escorted the Shah
Alam from Allahabad Fort and was a mediator in the Treaty of Salbai.
• Mahadji Sindhia organised a powerful army with the help of French officers and established
control over Emperor Shah Alam. In 1784, emperor gave him the management of Delhi and
Agra in return of monthly allowance.
• Mahadji Sindhia became the de facto ruler of Hindustan by securing the appointment of the
Peshwa as the Emperor’s Deputy (Naib-i-Munaib) from Shah Alam, with the condition that
Mahadji would act on behalf of the Peshwa.

Restoration of Power
• The Marathas overcame the great defeat at Panipat and successfully revived their supremacy in
the politics of the North. While Mahadji (Sardar) was busy restoring the Maratha supremacy in the
North, Nana managed the affairs of the South.
• After the death of Mahadji Shinde (1794) and Nana Phadanavis (1800), the Maratha power began
to decline.

Baji Rao II (1795-1818)

• Sawai Madhav Rao died in 1795 and was succeeded by the worthless Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath
Rao.
• Baji Rao II lacked leadership qualities and had many vices. He could not unite the Maratha Sardars,
and their internal strife weakened their power.
• During the reign of Baji Rao II, the Maratha's influence both in the North and South gradually
diminished, ultimately leading to their replacement by the British.

End of Maratha Rule

• The British divided the Maratha sardars through clever diplomacy and defeated the Maratha sardars
in separate battles during the second (1803-1805) and third Maratha wars (1817- 1819).
• While other Maratha states were permitted to remain subsidiary states, the house of the Peshwas
was extinguished. Thus, the Maratha dream of controlling the Mughal Empire and establishing their
own Empire over large parts of the country could not be realised.

Reasons for the end of Maratha rule

1. The Maratha Empire had the same weaknesses as the Mughal Empire. The Maratha Sardars:
 Didn’t try to develop a new economy.
 Didn’t take much interest in trade and industry.
 Failed to encourage science and technology.
 Were mainly interested in raising revenue from the helpless peasantry.
2. They lost nearly all their wise and experienced leaders towards the end of the eighteenth century.
 Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis died in 1794 and 1800, respectively. These were the last
great soldiers and statesmen who had raised the Maratha power to its height in the eighteenth
century.
3. They failed to provide good administration to areas beyond Maharashtra.

The Sikhs
• The disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the 18th century was followed by the
establishment of independent political authority in various provinces.
• In Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad, the provincial governors successfully carried out their independent
dominions. However, the development in Punjab was different.
• In Punjab, it was not the Mughal provincial governor but a group of the local people, the Sikhs,
established an independent political authority in the province.

Emergence of the Sikh State

• Baba Guru Nanak founded the religion of Sikhism in the late 15th century. Under the leadership of
Guru Gobind Singh, they became a political and military force.

Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

• Baba Guru Nanak was born in Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in Pakistan). He founded Sikhism and
was the first of the ten Sikh Gurus.
• Guru Nanak didn't mean to start a new religion. However, his followers later created their own
practices.
• Sikhs demanded independent rule and were unwilling to compromise with the Mughals. Mughals
ruthlessly suppressed the revolt as Punjab was strategically crucial.
• From 1699, Guru Gobind Singh and Aurangzeb constantly fought against each other. After the
death of Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah made peace with Guru Gobind Singh, who joined his camp as
a noble.
• After Guru Gobind Singh's death, the institution of Guruship ended, and the leadership of the
Sikhs passed to his trusted disciple Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur).
• Banda Bahadur fought against the Mughal army for eight years. He was defeated by Farrukhsiyar
in 1715 and put to death in 1716. His death gave a setback to the territorial ambitions of the Sikhs,
and their power declined.
• The foreign invasion, the Martha incursion, and internal rivalry in the provincial administration
made the situation difficult for the Mughal governors to establish independent political authority in
the Punjab. The Sikhs took full advantage of the prevailing political instability and ultimately
established an autonomous state in the Punjab.
• In the second half of the 18th century, the different Sikh groups were organised into twelve misls
(confederacies) operating in various provinces. Between 1765 and 1800, they brought the Punjab
and Jammu under their control.
 Misl (equal or alike)
• Misls were the military brotherhoods with a democratic set-up.
• They were originally based on the principle of equality, with all members having an equal voice
in deciding the affairs of a misl. Gradually, the democratic character of the misls disappeared,
and powerful feudal chiefs and zamindars dominated them.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Ranjit Singh took control of all the Sikh Misls to the West of
Sutlej and established the autonomous state of Punjab in 1801.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

• Ranjit Singh was the son of the Sukerchakia Misl Chief, Sardar Mahan Singh. Ranjit Singh was only
ten years of age when his father died in 1790, and he became the chief.
• During that time, the Sikh confederacies were fighting among themselves for supremacy. Ranjit
Singh curbed the power of the independent Sikh principalities and brought them under a single
political authority.
• Ranjit Singh was a strong, courageous soldier, efficient administrator, and skillful diplomat.
• Ranjit Singh built up a powerful, disciplined, and well-equipped army along European lines with
the help of European instructors. He had the second most powerful army in Asia (best among the
Indian rulers), with the English EIC having the most powerful army in the region.
• Ranjit Singh was secular in temperament and supported both Hindu and Muslim spiritual leaders.
People from all religions held high offices in his regime.
• In 1801, Ranjit Singh established an independent state of Punjab by bringing all the Sikh Misls
west of Sutlej and was honoured with the title ‘Maharaja”. He was famously called ‘Sher-e-Panjab’
(lion of Panjab) due to his fierce attitude.

Jean Francois Allard

• To keep his combat techniques updated, Maharaja Ranjit Singh employed a Frenchman called
Jean Francois Allard as his Army Chief.
• Allard was given the task of modernising Ranjit Singh’s army and commanding Singh’s special
regiment called Fauj-i-Khas, who were known to be fearless. Allard accomplished this along with
his colleague General Ventura who was an Italian.

Rise and Fall of the Sikh State

• After establishing his complete control over the affairs at home, Ranjit Singh launched his
expeditions against the various chiefs of the Sikh confederacies. By 1820, he conquered the
neighbouring principalities and was acknowledged as the ruler of the whole Punjab, from the Sutlej
to the Indus.
 Ranjit Singh conquered Lahore in 1799, Amritsar in 1802, Kashmir in 1819, Hazara in 1820
and Peshawar and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 1834.
• At the time of the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, the Sikh empire ranged over modern Panjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, Gilgit (now in Pakistan), Peshawar and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (now in
Pakistan).
• Till his death, Ranjit Singh ruled the Sikh state as an independent ruler. After his death, his
successors could not maintain the territorial integrity. Finally, in 1849, the British annexed it.

Golden Temple

• Maharaja Ranjit Singh visited Harmandir Sahib to seek blessings. He vowed to cover the
Gurudwara Sahib in gold, and this is the reason why the Harmandir Sahib Gurudwara is also
known as the ‘Golden Temple’.
• Interestingly, on learning about the Gurudwara’s reconstruction, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf
Jah VII Mir Osman Ali Khan, sent donations for the same purpose.

The Jats
• The Jats were an agriculturist caste who lived around Delhi, Agra, and Mathura.

Jat Revolts
• In the latter half of the 17th century, Jat peasants around Mathura revolted under the leadership
of Jat Zamindars in 1669 and 1688. These revolts shook the stability of the core area of the Mughal
Empire.
• The Jat revolt, which began as a peasant uprising, later became a predatory movement led by
zamindars. They engaged in widespread plunder, targeting both the wealthy and the
impoverished, jagirdars and peasants, Hindus and Muslims alike.
• The Jats actively participated in political intrigues at the Delhi Court, frequently switching allegiances
for their own benefit.

The Jat State

• As Mughal power declined, the Jats tried to establish an autonomous zone of their control.
• Churaman and Badan (Jat chieftains) set up the Jat state of Bharatpur. It reached its highest glory
under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763.
• Suraj Mal was an extremely able administrator and soldier. He extended his authority over a large
area, from the Ganga in the east to the Agra in the west, Chambal in the south, and Delhi in the
north.
• Despite originating as a peasant rebellion, the Jat state remained feudal, with zamindars holding
both administrative and revenue powers.
• After the death of Suraj Mal in 1763, the Jat state declined and was split up among petty zamindars,
most of whom lived by plunder.

Rohilkhand and Farrukhabad

Rohilkhand
• With the decline of the Mughal Empire, Ali Muhammad Khan (adopted son of Sardar Daud Khan
of Rohilla) set up the Rohilkhand Kingdom in 1721 at the foothills of the Himalayas between the
Ganga in the south and the Kumaon Hill in the north.
• The Rohilas (the inhabitants of Rohilkhand) constantly clashed with the Jats, the Awadh rulers, the
Marathas, and the British.
• The Kingdom of Rohilkhand continued to exist until 1774, when the Awadh defeated it. In 1774,
the British transformed it into the princely state of Rampur.

Farrukhabad
• Muhammad Khan Bangash, an Afghan, established an independent Kingdom east of Delhi around
Farrukhabad in 1714.

Independent Kingdoms

• There was a third type of state, which was neither the result of a breakaway from nor a rebellion
against Delhi. These states emerged by taking advantage of the destabilisation of imperial
control over the provinces.
• Mysore, the Rajput states, and Kerala fall in the category of Independent Kingdoms.

Mysore
• In 1399, the Mysore kingdom was founded by Yaduraya Wodeyar. Initially, Mysore was
subordinate to the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646). However, by 1612-13, the Wodeyars gained
substantial independence.
• Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II ruled Mysore from 1734 to 1766. He was reduced to a mere puppet
by his ministers Nanjaraj and Devraj, who had seized power.
• In 1761, Haidar Ali overthrew Nanjaraj and established his authority over the Mysore state.

 Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II was a monarch throughout his reign, first under Nanjaraj and
Devaraj and later under Haidar Ali.

Emergence of Haidar Ali

• Haidar Ali was born in 1721. He started his career as a junior officer in the Mysore and became its
brilliant commander.
• Haidar Ali realised that only a modern army could be the basis of a powerful state. Consequently,
with the help of French experts, he trained the troops along Western lines and established a modern
arsenal in Dindigul (City in Tamil Nadu) in 1755.
• By 1761, Haidar Ali had overthrown Nanjaraj, the real power behind the Mysore throne.

Haidar Ali’s rule (1761-82)

• Though uneducated and illiterate, Haidar Ali was an efficient administrator.
 He followed a policy of religious tolerance.
 He introduced the Mughal administrative and revenue system in Mysore.
 He extended complete control over the rebellious poligars (zamindars).
• Haidar Ali was engaged in wars with the Maratha sardars, the Nizam, and the British throughout
his rule.
 In 1769, Haidar Ali defeated the British near Madras in the First Anglo-Mysore War.
 During Madhavrao's time (Maratha Sardar), he lost some territories and paid tribute to him.
After Madhavrao's death, he regained the lost territories and captured new ones.
• Haidar Ali died in 1782 during the Second Anglo-Mysore War and was succeeded by his son Tipu.

Tipu sultan (1782-99)

• Tipu Sultan ruled Mysore from 1782 till his death in 1799. He was exceptionally brave but often
impulsive in his actions and unstable in nature.
• Tipu Sultan was a man of complex character. He introduced a new calendar, a new system of
coinage, and new scales of weights and measures.
• Tipu’s library contained books on diverse subjects such as religion, history, military science,
medicine, and mathematics.
• Tipu showed a keen interest in the French Revolution and became a member of the Jacobin Club.
He also planted the ‘Tree of Liberty’ at Seringapatam.

Foreign Relations

• Tipu Sultan sent many diplomatic missions to France, the Ottoman Empire, the Sultanate of
Oman, the Zand Dynasty (in Persia) and the Durrani Empire (Afghanistan).
• In 1788, three ambassadors sent by Tipu Sultan of Mysore arrived in Paris (France) to ask Louis XVI
(king of France) to form an alliance against British forces in India.

[UPSC Prelims 2001] Who among the following Indian rules established embassies in
foreign countries on modern lines?
a) Hyder Ali
b) Mir Qasim
c) Shah Alam II
d) Tipu Sultan
Military Might

• Haidar Ali and Tipu prioritised war and increased military capacity. They knew that they could not
defeat the British with their traditional arms. Hence, they modernised their army.
• Haidar Ali and Tipu introduced stronger organisational discipline along European lines. French
soldiers were recruited to train the infantry and the artillery.
• Tipu’s infantry was armed with muskets and bayonets manufactured in Mysore.
• After 1796, Tipu tried to develop a modern navy. To achieve this goal, he established two
dockyards and personally provided the ship models for construction.

Mysorean Rockets
• Following the invention of gunpowder, the Chinese and Europeans tested rockets using bamboo
tubes. As they lacked the range and stability required for long-range weapons, cannons soon
replaced them.
• Tipu replaced bamboo tubes with iron tubes, increasing the rocket's speed and range.
 Haider Ali deployed as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate rocket launchers.
 Although rockets were used in other parts of the world, Tipu was able to take rocket technology
to the next level.
• Iron-casing rockets were used for the first time by the Mysore army and became popular as
Mysorean rockets. Using metal casing gave the rockets higher thrust, longer range, and an enhanced
bursting intensity.
• One of the first mentions of the effective use of metal rockets was during the battle of Pollilur
(between Tipu Sultan and a British EIC) during the Second Anglo-Mysore War in 1780. The
Mysore rockets used during the battle were much more advanced than the British EIC had
previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant.
• The British accounts also describe the use of the rockets during the third and fourth wars.

[Prelims Practice] Among the options below, who was the first to use iron-casing
rockets in the world?
a) Portuguese
b) British EIC
c) Mysore army
d) Sikh army

Land Revenue

• Haidar Ali and Tipu augmented their financial resources to sustain the increased military capacity.
To maximise revenue for the state:
 They removed the intermediaries and established a direct link between the state and the
peasantry.
 They nationalised tobacco and sandalwood.
• The land was categorised and assessed differently based on its classification.
 Ijara land: It was leased on fixed rents to the peasants.
  Hissa land: The rent was assessed as a share of the produce.
 Rent was paid in the form of a portion of produce produced on watered land and in money
on dry land.
• Tipu increased the state's income by:
 Reducing the hereditary holdings of the poligars
 Preventing unlawful tax collections
 Eliminating the practice of granting jagirs.

Condition of Peasants

• Mysore flourished economically under Haidar Ali and Tipu, especially compared to its immediate
past or with the rest of the country. Mysore peasants were much more prosperous than the
peasants in British-occupied Madras.

Industrialisation

• Tipu recognised that a strong economy was essential for a strong military. He tried to start
industries in India with the help of foreign experts. He also attempted to create a trading company
similar to European companies.

Tipu: A Religious Fanatic?

• Some British historians called Tipu a religious extremist, but that's not entirely accurate.
• Despite having strong religious beliefs, Tipu was tolerant and supportive of other religions.
For instance, he donated money to repair a temple after it was damaged, and he regularly gave
gifts to various temples.

End of Independent Mysore Rule

• Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan fought four wars against the British. The basic cause of these wars
remained the same – to undermine the independent authority of Mysore rulers.
• From time to time, the Marathas, the Nawab of Carnatic and the Nizam aligned with the British to
defeat the Mysore rulers.
• Tipu Sultan died in the battle of Seringapatam in 1799, and the British took control of Mysore
territory.

Kerala
• At the beginning of the 18th century, Kerala was divided among several feudal chiefs and Rajas.
The four most important were:
1. Calicut
2. Chirakkal
3. Cochin
4. Travancore
• However, by 1763, only three major states remained: Calicut, Cochin, and Travancore. These three
states had absorbed or controlled all the smaller regions in Kerala.
Martanda Varma
• King Martanda Varma became the ruler in 1729. During his reign, the Kingdom of Travancore
gained significant prominence.
• He organised a strong army on the Western model with the help of European officers and armed
it with modern weapons. He also constructed a modern arsenal.
• He undertook many irrigation works, built roads and canals for communication, and actively
encouraged foreign trade.
• He adopted an expansionist policy and conquered small states. He defeated the Dutch and thus
ended their political power in Kerala.

Battle of Colachel

• The Battle of Colachel took place in 1741 between the Travancore kingdom and the Dutch East
India Company in Colachel (Kanyakumari district).
• Travancore forces led by King Marthanda Varma defeated the Dutch East India Company's
forces led by Admiral Eustachius De Lannoy and ended the political power of the Dutch in Kerala.
• After the victory, Dutch soldiers were imprisoned. Several European prisoners, including Eustachius
De Lannoy, accepted the offer and served Marthanda Varma.
• The battle is celebrated as the first victory of Asians over the Europeans.

Background
• The Dutch East India Company procured the spices from the smaller states of Kerala and had a
profitable spice trade in Malabar.
• Martanda Varma conquered these states and refused to honour the monopoly contracts of the
Dutch with these states. This adversely affected the Dutch trade in Malabar.
• The Dutch believed that the English influenced Marthanda Varma to act against Dutch interests.
Hence, in 1739, the Dutch command at Malabar declared war on Travancore.

Eustachius de Lannoy
• After the surrender of Eustachius De Lannoy, he trained the Travancore army in modern warfare
and arms. He served the Travancore kingdom for the two decades and was promoted to the post
of the Valia Kappitan (Senior Admiral) of the Travancore forces.

Rama Varma
• In 1758, Martanda Varma was succeeded by Rama Varma, who was a poet, a scholar, a musician, a
renowned actor, and a man of great culture.
• Rama Varma spoke English fluently, took a keen interest in European affairs, and regularly read
newspapers and journals.
• Haidar Ali began his invasion of Kerala in 1766 and, in the end, annexed northern Kerala up to
Cochin, including the territories of the Zamorin of Calicut. However, Travancore escaped from his
invasion.
 Revival of Malayalam Literature
• The 18th century witnessed a revival in Malayalam literature. This was partly due to the support
of the rulers and chiefs of Kerala, who were great patrons of literature.
• In the second half of the 18th century, Trivandrum (capital of Travancore) became a famous
center of Sanskrit scholarship.

Rajput States
• Rajputs participated in the power struggle in the Delhi court and gained governorships from the
Mughal emperors.
• With the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, Rajputs slowly loosened their ties with Delhi and
functioned as independent states.
• All Rajput states pursued expansion by absorbing weaker neighbours, but none were large enough
to challenge the Marathas or British for supremacy.
• Jai Singh of Amber, the most well-known Rajput ruler, ruled Jaipur from 1699 to 1743.
• Most of the larger Rajput states were constantly involved in petty quarrels and civil wars. The
internal politics of these states were often characterised by the same type of corruption, intrigue,
and betrayal as prevailed at the Mughal court.

Raja Sawai Jai Singh (1699-1743)

• Raja Sawai jai Singh became the ruler of Amber in 1699 and ruled Jaipur for 44 years till 1743.
• Raja Sawai jai Singh was a man of science. He established the city of Jaipur strictly based on
scientific principles and made it a centre of science and art.
• He was a great astronomer. He erected five observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and
Mathura. He created timetables named Zij Muhammadshahi for astronomical observations.
• He was a social reformer. He attempted to introduce a law to reduce the lavish expenditure that
a Rajput had to incur on a daughter’s wedding, which often led to infanticide. He also promoted a
widow remarriage.
 Raja Sawai jai Singh translated Euclid's (Greek Mathematician) 'Elements of Geometry' into
Sanskrit and worked on trigonometry.

Summary

• With the decline of the Mughal Empire during the first half of the 18th century, many independent
and semi-independent states emerged. These states can be classified into three broad categories:
1. Successor States, such as Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal, broke away from the Mughal Empire.
2. New States were set up by the rebels against the Mughals. These states include Maratha,
Afghan, Jat, and Punjab.
3. Independent Kingdoms emerged by taking advantage of the destabilisation of imperial control
over the provinces. These states include the Mysore, the Rajput states, and Kerala.
Characteristics of Regional Powers
• The regional states accepted the nominal supremacy of the Mughal Emperor and continued the
Mughal traditions.
• These states established law and order and viable economic and administrative structures.
• The politics of these states were non-communal or secular.
• These states prevented the breakdown of internal trade and even promoted foreign trade.
• These states were regional in character and constantly fought with neighbouring states.

Successor states
• Successor states of the Mughal Empire, including Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal, were once
directly under the control of the Mughal administration. However, with the decline of the Mughal
Empire, these states broke away from it.

Hyderabad

• The state of Hyderabad was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724. After Nizam died in 1748,
his successors faced tough challenges from the Marathas and the European Companies and failed
to maintain the state’s autonomy.

Carnatic

• The Carnatic was a part of the Mughal Deccan and came under the authority of the Nizam of
Hyderabad. Over time, the Nawab of Carnatic became independent of the Nizam and made his
office hereditary.
• After 1740, the affairs of the Carnatic deteriorated because of the repeated struggles for its
Nawabship. This allowed the European trading companies to interfere in Indian politics directly.
• After the death of Nawab Anwar-ud-din, a power struggle arose between Chanda Sahib and
Muhammad Ali, the son of Anwar-ud-din. The French and the British used this opportunity to
consolidate their power in the region.
• Azim-ud-Daula, Nawab of Carnatic from 1801-19, signed a Carnatic Treaty with the British.
Accordingly, the entire military and civil administration of the Carnatic came under the British.

Awadh

• Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk, who was appointed Governor of Avadh in 1722, established the
autonomous kingdom of Avadh. After his death, he was succeeded by his nephew, Safdar Jang.
• Safdar Jang was simultaneously appointed the Wazir of the Empire in 1748 and was granted the
province of Allahabad. He expanded his rule to the Gangetic plains by capturing the forts of Rohtas
and Chunar.
• Shuja-ud-Daula was appointed as Nawab of Awadh in 1753. The Battle of Panipat and the Battle
of Buxar were fought during his rule.

Bengal
• Murshid Quli Khan was appointed Diwan of Bengal in 1700 and became Governor of Bengal in
1717. He established the dynastic rule in Bengal.
• Murshid Quli Khan, Shuja-ud-din, and Alivardi Khan made Bengal virtually independent. Under the
rule of these rulers, Bengal made unprecedented progress.

New States (Insurgent States)

• The states such as Maratha, Afghan, Jat, and Punjab were the product of rebellion against Mughal
authority.

The Maratha State

• Balaji Vishwanath was the first Peshwa of the Maratha state. During his rule, the Maratha state
became a dominant expansionist state.
• Baji Rao I succeeded Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1720. Baji Rao is considered the greatest of
all the Peshwas and “the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji".
• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) was the Peshwa from 1740 to 1761. During his rule, the Maratha
power reached its zenith.
• Till Shahu's death in 1749, Peshwa was still under the control of the King. Thereafter, Peshwa
virtually dislodged the King from sovereign power.
• The defeat in the third battle of Panipat in 1761 was a major setback for the Marathas. It ended
the Marathas' ambition of replacing the Mughals as the imperial power.
• The British divided the Maratha sardars through clever diplomacy and defeated the Maratha
sardars in separate battles during the second (1803-1805) and third Maratha wars (1817- 1819).
While other Maratha states were permitted to remain subsidiary states, the house of the Peshwas
was abolished.

The Sikhs

• In 1801, Ranjit Singh established an independent state of Punjab by bringing all the Sikh Misls
west of Sutlej. At his death in 1839, the Sikh empire ranged over modern Panjab, Himachal
Pradesh, Kashmir, Gilgit (now in Pakistan), Peshawar and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (now in Pakistan).
• After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, his successors could not maintain the territorial integrity.
Finally, in 1849, the British annexed the Punjab.

Independent Kingdoms
• Independent states such as Mysore, the Rajput states, and Kerala emerged by taking advantage
of reduced imperial control over the provinces.

Mysore

• Haidar Ali was the ruler of Mysore from 1761 to 1782. In 1769, he defeated the British near Madras
in the First Anglo-Mysore War. He died in 1782 during the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
• Tipu Sultan ruled Mysore from 1782 till his death in 1799. Tipu Sultan died in the battle of
Seringapatam during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799, and the British took control of Mysore
territory.

Kerala

• King Martanda Varma was the ruler of Kerala from 1729 to 1758. He adopted an expansionist
policy and conquered small states. He defeated the Dutch and ended their political power in
Kerala.

Rajput States

• Raja Sawai jai Singh ruled Jaipur for 44 years, from 1699 to 1743. He established the city of Jaipur
strictly based on scientific principles.
• Raja Sawai jai Singh was a social reformer. He attempted to introduce a law to reduce the lavish
expenditure that a Rajput had to incur on a daughter’s wedding, which often led to infanticide. He
also promoted a widow remarriage.

Timeline