Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Pages 174–175)
Making Connections
8. (a) The large mass of the bus help to reduce injury because the acceleration will be small. The bumpers and body panels
also help to absorb energy to minimize the energy that will be absorbed by passengers.
(b) We could increase the safety of buses by adding more padding around passenger compartments, seat belts, and perhaps
even air bags.
(c) School busses currently have excellent safety ratings, and the added features in part (b) are expensive to install.
9. (a) The ski jumper will acquire gravitational potential energy as he is transported to the top of the hill. This gravitational
energy will be converted to kinetic energy as the jumper slides down the hill, and then reconverted back into some
gravitational energy as he jumps from the end of the ramp. All of the energy will be converted to kinetic as he reaches
the bottom of the hill (if we ignore the loss due to friction).
(b) The law of conservation of energy is what governs the energy transformations.
(c) The main safety feature of this sport is the careful construction of the hill so that the ski jumper does not experience a
large normal force from landing. Also the protection of the head by a helmet and suits minimize injury in case of a fall.
Math Skills
10. (a) W ∝ ∆d
(b) EP ∝ x 2
1
(c) P ∝
t
(d) EK ∝ v 2
1. A compression spring is designed to be at its maximum length when there is no force, and resist being squeezed together.
An extension spring is designed to be at its minimum length when there is no force, and resist being stretched. Some
examples of compression springs are the springs in a car and a retractable ballpoint pen. Some examples of extension
springs are bungee cords and storm door springs.
2. During the bounce of the ball, most of the kinetic energy is stored as elastic potential energy to be converted back into
kinetic energy after the bounce. Some energy is “lost” (converted) to unwanted forms such as heat and sound.
3. A grandfather clock uses the gravitational potential energy to operate a pendulum with a constant period.
4. (a) The work done on each cart is the same.
(b) The work done on each box would be the same since it only depends on the size of the component of force in the
direction of motion and the displacement. For each box, these values are still the same.
(c) If F2 is not enough to overcome the frictional force, then the box will not move and no work will be done.
1. A compression spring is designed to be at its maximum length when there is no force, and resist being squeezed together.
An extension spring is designed to be at its minimum length when there is no force, and resist being stretched. Some
examples of compression springs are the springs in a car and a retractable ballpoint pen. Some examples of extension
springs are bungee cords and storm door springs.
2. During the bounce of the ball, most of the kinetic energy is stored as elastic potential energy to be converted back into
kinetic energy after the bounce. Some energy is “lost” (converted) to unwanted forms such as heat and sound.
3. A grandfather clock uses the gravitational potential energy to operate a pendulum with a constant period.
4. (a) The work done on each cart is the same.
(b) The work done on each box would be the same since it only depends on the size of the component of force in the
direction of motion and the displacement. For each box, these values are still the same.
(c) If F2 is not enough to overcome the frictional force, then the box will not move and no work will be done.
6. The shock absorber would be a spring with a large force constant to absorb lots of energy quickly, combined with a slow
air release to prevent too much bouncing. The size would be suited to fit into the length of the forks. The forces involved
would mean the choice of a strong material, such as steel, for strength.
(a) The ball on track Y will win because it converts its gravitational energy into kinetic energy more quickly, and will speed
up more quickly than the ball on track X.
(b) The total energy of the balls remains constant down the track. The energy is just transformed from one type to another.
Understanding Concepts
1. F1 will do more work than F2 because the component of F2 in the direction of motion is smaller than F1.
2. No. The force of kinetic friction is always acting opposite to the direction of motion. Since negative work is always
opposite the direction of motion, the kinetic friction will always do negative work.
3. Yes. The force of gravity can move an object toward itself, and therefore does positive work on that object.
4. m = 2.75 kg
(a) ∆d = 1.37 m
W=?
W = ( F cosθ )∆d
= (mg cos θ )∆d
= (2.75 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(cos 0°)(1.37 m)
W = 36.9 J
The work done to move the plant 1.37 m up is 36.9 J.
(b) ∆y = 1.07 m
µK = 0.549
W=?
First we must calculate the normal force acting on the potted plant:
ΣFy = ma y = 0
FN − Fg = 0
FN = Fg
= mg
= (2.75 kg)(9.80 N/kg)
FN = 26.95 N
6. The shock absorber would be a spring with a large force constant to absorb lots of energy quickly, combined with a slow
air release to prevent too much bouncing. The size would be suited to fit into the length of the forks. The forces involved
would mean the choice of a strong material, such as steel, for strength.
(a) The ball on track Y will win because it converts its gravitational energy into kinetic energy more quickly, and will speed
up more quickly than the ball on track X.
(b) The total energy of the balls remains constant down the track. The energy is just transformed from one type to another.
Understanding Concepts
1. F1 will do more work than F2 because the component of F2 in the direction of motion is smaller than F1.
2. No. The force of kinetic friction is always acting opposite to the direction of motion. Since negative work is always
opposite the direction of motion, the kinetic friction will always do negative work.
3. Yes. The force of gravity can move an object toward itself, and therefore does positive work on that object.
4. m = 2.75 kg
(a) ∆d = 1.37 m
W=?
W = ( F cosθ )∆d
= (mg cos θ )∆d
= (2.75 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(cos 0°)(1.37 m)
W = 36.9 J
The work done to move the plant 1.37 m up is 36.9 J.
(b) ∆y = 1.07 m
µK = 0.549
W=?
First we must calculate the normal force acting on the potted plant:
ΣFy = ma y = 0
FN − Fg = 0
FN = Fg
= mg
= (2.75 kg)(9.80 N/kg)
FN = 26.95 N
(b) A box being pulled up a ramp involves the parallel component of gravity doing negative work, and the perpendicular
component of gravity doing zero work.
Understanding Concepts
1. The everyday use of the word “work” is different from the usage in physics when it is referring to employment, or a duty
to perform. “Working” as a teacher involves very little physical work. The physics definition of work means the transfer
of energy to an object to move it a certain distance. Many types of employment or daily activities involve physical work.
For example, the sentence “Loading the cement bags onto the truck was a lot of work,” uses the word “work” similar to
the physics definition of work.
2. The centripetal force is always directed toward the centre of the circle, and is by definition perpendicular to the motion of
the object. The 90º angle means that work is not done on the object by the centripetal force.
3. As you push on a wall, you are exerting a force, which involves the use of energy. Even though no physical work is being
done, your muscles are still burning your body’s fuel, causing you to become tired.
4. Assuming the classroom to be 4 m tall, and the student to have a mass of 70 kg:
W = ( F cosθ )∆d
= ( mg cos θ ) ∆d
= (70 N)(9.80 N/kg)(cos 0°)(4.0 m)
W = 3.0 × 103 J
It would take about 3.0 ¯ 103 J, or 3.0 kJ of work to climb the ladder.
G
5. FA = 75 N [22° below the horizontal]
G
FT = 75 N [32° above the horizontal]
Making Connections
9. Work done by friction has the effect of heating up the environment. Most forms of energy usually end up as thermal
energy.
Understanding Concepts
1. The kinetic energy of a moving object is related to both the mass and the velocity. If the mass of the truck is large enough,
a slow moving truck can have more kinetic energy than a fast moving car.
Making Connections
9. Work done by friction has the effect of heating up the environment. Most forms of energy usually end up as thermal
energy.
Understanding Concepts
1. The kinetic energy of a moving object is related to both the mass and the velocity. If the mass of the truck is large enough,
a slow moving truck can have more kinetic energy than a fast moving car.
W = ∆EK
1 2
F ∆d = mvf (since the initial speed is zero)
2
2 F ∆d
vf2 =
m
2 F ∆d
vf =
m
2(95 N)(3.1 ×10 −1 m)
=
2.7 × 10 −1 kg
vf = 47 m/s
The final speed of the arrow is 47 m/s.
6. m = 4.55 ¯ 104 kg
vi = 1.22 ¯ 104 m/s
F = 3.85 ¯ 105 N
∆d = 2.45 ¯ 106 m
vf = ?
The total work done on the box will become kinetic energy. Since the initial speed is zero:
1
W = mvf2
2
1 2
FA cos 35.0°∆d + FK cos180°∆d = mvf
2
2∆d
2
vf = ( FA cos 35.0° + FK cos180° )
m
2 ∆d
vf = ( FA cos 35.0° + FK cos180° )
m
2(0.750 m)
= ((95.6 N)(0.81952) + (75.5 N)(−1) )
20.8 kg
vf = 0.45 m/s
The final speed of the box is 0.45 m/s.
8. W = 1.47(cos 38º ) = 1.16
The toboggan would have increased its kinetic energy by 16%.
Making Connections
10. m = 6.85 ¯ 103 kg
vA = 2.81 ¯ 103 m/s
vB = 8.38 ¯ 103 m/s
W=?
Understanding Concepts
1. The first doubling will require much less energy than the second doubling of the speed. This can clearly be shown using:
1
W = m(vf2 − vi2 )
2
W ∝ vf2 − vi2
To go from v to 2v:
W = vf2 − vi2
= (2v )2 − (v) 2
= 4v 2 − v 2
W = 3v 2
To go from 2v to 4v:
W = vf2 − vi2
= (4v )2 − (2v) 2
= 16v 2 − 4v 2
W = 11v 2
The first doubling of speed will require work proportional to 3 times the square of the original speed. The second
doubling will require work proportional to 11 times the square of the original speed.
The component of gravity along the slope is mg sin 23º. Using the work energy theorem:
1 1
mg sin 23°(cos 0°) ∆d + FK (cos180°) ∆d = mvf2 − mvi2
2 2
1 2 1
mvf = mg sin 23°(1)∆d + FK (−1) ∆d + mvi2
2 2
2 F ∆ d
vf2 = 2 g sin 23°∆d − K + vi2
m
2 FK ∆d
vf = 2 g sin 23°∆d − + vi2
m
2(72 N)(62 m)
= 2(9.8 m/s 2 )(sin 23°)(62 m) − + (3.5 m/s) 2
61 kg
vf = 18 m/s
The speed of the skier after travelling 62 m downhill is 18 m/s.
8. m = 55.2 kg
∆d = 4.18 m
µK = 0.27
vi = ?
To calculate FK:
FK = µ K FN
= (0.27)(540.96 N)
FK = 146.06 N
1 2
To calculate the energy of the car and the truck, use the equation EK = mv .
2
To convert tonnes to kilograms, multiply by 1000:
m = 1.2 t = 1.2 ¯ 103 kg (for the car)
m = 5.0 ¯ 102 t = 5.0 ¯ 105 kg (for the truck)
(b)
Making Connections
10. (a) The kinetic energy is used to permanently deform the object as energy is transformed into heat.
(b) The kinetic energy of a vehicle is transmitted (at least in part) to the occupants of the vehicle, and anything it contacts.
The high kinetic energy of a fast moving vehicle is more than sufficient to damage the human body beyond its limit,
causing death.
Understanding Concepts
1. The total work done by gravity is zero. The work on the way down is positive and is equal to the work done on the way
up, which is negative. At the end, the pen has not lost or gained gravitational potential energy. Alternatively, you could
argue that because the ∆d = 0 (25 cm – 25 cm), the work done must be equal to zero.
2. m = 62.5 kg
∆y = 346 m (using the ground as y = 0)
Eg = ?
∆Eg = mg ∆y
= (62.5 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(346 m)
∆Eg = 2.12 × 105 J
Relative to the ground, the gravitational potential energy is 2.12 ¯ 105 J.
3. m = 58.2 g = 5.82 ¯ 10–2 kg
∆y = 1.55 m
(a) ∆Eg = ?
Making Connections
10. (a) The kinetic energy is used to permanently deform the object as energy is transformed into heat.
(b) The kinetic energy of a vehicle is transmitted (at least in part) to the occupants of the vehicle, and anything it contacts.
The high kinetic energy of a fast moving vehicle is more than sufficient to damage the human body beyond its limit,
causing death.
Understanding Concepts
1. The total work done by gravity is zero. The work on the way down is positive and is equal to the work done on the way
up, which is negative. At the end, the pen has not lost or gained gravitational potential energy. Alternatively, you could
argue that because the ∆d = 0 (25 cm – 25 cm), the work done must be equal to zero.
2. m = 62.5 kg
∆y = 346 m (using the ground as y = 0)
Eg = ?
∆Eg = mg ∆y
= (62.5 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(346 m)
∆Eg = 2.12 × 105 J
Relative to the ground, the gravitational potential energy is 2.12 ¯ 105 J.
3. m = 58.2 g = 5.82 ¯ 10–2 kg
∆y = 1.55 m
(a) ∆Eg = ?
Making Connections
8. ∆Eg = 6.1 ¯ 109 J
(a) ∆y = ?
Assume 920 students in the school. Assume an average mass of 70.0 kg per student.
m = 70.0 kg ¯ 920 = 6.44 ¯ 104 kg
∆Eg = mg ∆y
∆Eg
∆y =
mg
6.1× 109 J
=
(6.44 ×10 4 kg)(9.80 N/kg)
∆y = 9.472 ×10 4 m
The energy from one barrel of oil could raise the students 9.472 ¯ 104 m above ground level.
(b) There are 158.987 L in a barrel of oil
6.1× 109 J
= 3.8 × 107 J/L
158.987 L
There are 3.8 ¯ 107 J stored in each litre of oil.
Understanding Concepts
9. (a) The Sun’s radiant energy is converted to thermal energy in the water, which is then converted into gravitational
potential energy as the water rises. The gravitational energy converts into kinetic energy as the water falls and turns the
turbine. The kinetic energy of the turbine is converted into electrical energy by the generator.
(b) A run-of-the-river generating station does not dam the water to create a large vertical drop in a short area, but rather
uses the natural drop of the land over a certain distance, and diverts part of the water to flow down this path.
Making Connections
(c) The main difference students will find is that most run-of-the-river generating stations in Canada are much smaller.
(d) (i) rainfall, rivers, and glacier/mountain snow melting
(ii) Bhutan relies heavily on its environment for exports from logging and energy.
(e) possible points: cost, limited suitable locations, low population density, long-term effects
Understanding Concepts
1. As the construction worker raises the wood, the wood’s gravitational energy increases.
2. m = 63 kg
∆y = 3.4 m
(a) On Earth, g = 9.80 N/kg
∆Eg = ?
∆Eg = mg ∆y
= (63 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(3.4 m)
∆Eg = 2.1× 103 J
The astronaut’s gravitational potential energy is 2.1 ¯ 103 J.
(b) On the Moon, g = 1.6 N/kg
∆Eg = ?
∆Eg = mg ∆y
= (63 kg)(1.6 N/kg)(3.4 m)
∆Eg = 3.4 × 102 J
The astronaut’s gravitational potential energy is 3.4 ¯ 102 J.
3. m = 125 g = 0.125 kg
∆y = 3.50 m
(a) ∆Eg = ? (of the pear relative to the ground)
Making Connections
7. (a) V = 32.8 km3 = 3.28 × 1010 m3
∆y = 23.1 m
ρ = 1.00 ¯ 103 kg/m3
∆Eg = ?
Understanding Concepts
1. The force has done negative work on the ball. The speed of the ball has decreased, which corresponds to a decrease in
kinetic energy. This can only be done with negative work.
2. If the losses of energy are the same, the only source of kinetic energy is the conversion of gravitational potential. Mass
doesn’t matter (it cancels out in the equation), so they will both acquire the same final velocity.
3. ∆y = 59.4 m
vi = 0.0 m/s
vf = ?
Making Connections
7. (a) V = 32.8 km3 = 3.28 × 1010 m3
∆y = 23.1 m
ρ = 1.00 ¯ 103 kg/m3
∆Eg = ?
Understanding Concepts
1. The force has done negative work on the ball. The speed of the ball has decreased, which corresponds to a decrease in
kinetic energy. This can only be done with negative work.
2. If the losses of energy are the same, the only source of kinetic energy is the conversion of gravitational potential. Mass
doesn’t matter (it cancels out in the equation), so they will both acquire the same final velocity.
3. ∆y = 59.4 m
vi = 0.0 m/s
vf = ?
To convert to km/h:
m 3600 s 1 km
34.1 = 123 km/h
s h 1000 m
The roller coaster reaches a maximum speed of 123 km/h at the bottom of the hill.
4. vi = v1 = 9.7 m/s
∆y = 4.2 m
vf = v2 = ?
h1 + h2 = 85.5 cm
h2 = 85.5 cm − h1
= 85.5 cm − 81.915 cm
h2 = 3.585 cm
Using the value h2 = 3.585 cm, or 0.03585 m, calculate the maximum speed:
ET1 = ET2
1 2 1
mv1 + mgy1 = mv22 + mgy2
2 2
since v1 = 0
2 gy1 = v22 + 2 gy2
v22 = 2 gy1 − 2 gy2
v2 = 2 g ( y1 − y2 )
Making Connections
9. A wrecking ball works as a pendulum that is slowly pulled back, increasing its gravitational energy. When it is released,
the gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy which is used to destroy buildings.
PRACTICE
(Page 200)
Understanding Concepts
10. (a) The energy supplied becomes sound and thermal energy through friction.
(b) The energy supplied still produces sound and thermal energy, but some is also converted into kinetic energy.
11. FK = 67 N
∆d = 3.5 m
(a) W = ?
W = ( F cos θ )∆d
= (67 N)(cos180°)(3.5 m)
W = −2.3 × 10 2 J
The amount of work done by friction is –2.3 ¯ 102 J.
(b) Eth = ?
Eth = FK ∆d
= (67 N)(3.5 m)
Eth = 2.3 ×10 2 J
The amount of thermal energy produced is 2.3 ¯ 102 J.
12. Eth = 0.620 J
FK = 0.83 N
∆d = ?
Making Connections
16. The oil circulation system is an attempt to minimize the frictional forces between the moving parts of the engine, and
thereby reduce the loss (and damage) due to the thermal energy caused by friction. The water (coolant) circulation is used
to absorb thermal energy from the engine and dissipate it rapidly into the air to prevent damage from overheating.
Understanding Concepts
1. Roller coasters are gravity rides that have an initial input of gravitational potential energy that is converted to kinetic (and
back into gravitational) energy throughout the ride. To give them this initial energy, they must be pulled up the largest hill
at the beginning.
2. m = 0.052 kg
∆y = 11 cm = 0.11 m
y=0
(a) ∆Eg = ?
∆Eg = mg ∆y
= (0.052 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(0.11 m)
∆Eg = 0.056 J
The initial gravitational potential energy of the egg’s contents is 0.056 J.
(b) ∆Eg = ?
∆Eg = mg ∆y
= (0.052 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(0.0 m)
∆Eg = 0.0 J
The final gravitational potential energy of the egg’s contents is 0.0 J.
(c) ∆Eg = 0.0 – 0.056 = –0.056 J
The change in gravitational potential energy as the egg’s contents fall is –0.056 J.
(d) EK = ?
v=?
The kinetic energy will be equal to the loss of gravitational potential, so EK = 0.056 J.
1
EK = mv 2
2
2 EK
v=
m
2(0.056 J)
=
0.052 kg
v = 1.5 m/s
The kinetic energy is 0.056 J. The speed of the egg’s contents just before hitting the pan is 1.5 m/s.
3. ∆y = 1.2 m
vf = 9.9 m/s
vi = ?
First, determine the vertical height above the bottom of the swing:
h
cos 48° = 1
3.7 m
h1 = 3.7 m (cos 48° )
h1 = 2.476 m
Since v1 = 0:
2 gy1 = v22 + 2 gy2
v22 = 2 gy1 − 2 gy2
v2 = 2 g ( y1 − y2 )
Relating φ to h:
h
sin φ =
11.7
h = 11.7 sin φ
11.7 sin φ =
1
2
( 2
)
(55.0 kg) ( 7.19 m/s ) − (0.657 m/s ) + (41.5 N)(11.7 m)
2
Since the skateboarder starts even with the height of the centre of the circle, the total vertical drop at the bottom will be
equal to the radius of the circle.
r = y1 = ?
ET1 = ET2
1 2 1
mv1 + mgy1 = mv22 + mgy2
2 2
v12 + 2 gy1 = v22 + 2 gy2
Since v1 = 0, and y2 = 0:
2 gy1 = v22
v22
y1 =
2g
6.8 m/s 2
=
2(9.8 m/s 2 )
y1 = 2.4 m
The radius of the half-pipe is 2.4 m.
8. m = 55 g = 5.5 ¯ 10–2 kg
v1 = 1.9 m/s
∆d = 54 cm = 0.54 m
v2 = 0.0 m/s
(a) µK = ?
First, solve for FK:
ET1 = ET2
EK = Eth
1 2
mv = FK ∆d
2
mv 2
FK =
2 ∆d
(5.5 × 10−2 kg)(1.9 m/s)2
=
2(0.54 m)
FK = 0.1838 N
m = 1.2 ×103 kg
The mass of the car is 1.2 ¯ 103 kg.
(d) µK = ?
Making Connections
12. A trebuchet is very accurate. The raised mass supplies a fixed amount of gravitational potential energy. This potential
energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the projectile.
Understanding Concepts
1. The higher the spring constant, the more force is needed to stretch the spring the same amount. For this reason, spring A
would be more difficult to stretch than spring B.
2. The spring would exert a southward force on you.
3. k = 25 N/m
(a) x = 16 cm = 0.16 m
Fx = kx
= (25 N/m)(0.16 m)
Fx = 4.0 N
Making Connections
12. A trebuchet is very accurate. The raised mass supplies a fixed amount of gravitational potential energy. This potential
energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the projectile.
Understanding Concepts
1. The higher the spring constant, the more force is needed to stretch the spring the same amount. For this reason, spring A
would be more difficult to stretch than spring B.
2. The spring would exert a southward force on you.
3. k = 25 N/m
(a) x = 16 cm = 0.16 m
Fx = kx
= (25 N/m)(0.16 m)
Fx = 4.0 N
Making Connections
7. (a)
Mass (kg) Stretch (m)
1.00 0.122
2.00 0.245
3.00 0.368
4.00 0.490
5.00 0.612
6.00 0.735
7.00 0.858
8.00 0.980
(b)
(c) The mass value may not be correct if the value of g is different then where it was calibrated. The weight value would
be accurate anywhere (even on the Moon).
Understanding Concepts
8. (a) The graph shown is the force applied by the spring. Since the spring is being stretched to the right (positive x), the force
exerted by the spring will be to the left (negative). This is what is shown on the graph.
(b) The force constant is the slope of the graph. Since the equation Fx = kx relates the force exerted by the spring, we must
change the direction (i.e., the sign) of the force,
− Fx
k=
x
−(−15 N)
=
0.40 m
k = 38 N/m
The force constant of the spring is 38 N/m.
(c) x = 35 cm = 0.35 m
The energy stored is the area between the curve and the x-axis.
1
Ee = A = bh
2
1
= (0.35 m)(13 N)
2
Ee = 2.3 J
The elastic potential energy is 2.3 J.
9. k = 9.0 ¯ 103 N/m
(a) x = 1.0 cm = 0.010 m
Ee = ?
1
Ee = kx 2
2
1
= (9.0 ×103 N/m)(0.010 m)2
2
Ee = 0.45 J
The elastic potential energy stored by the spring is 0.45 J.
(b) x = –2.0 cm = –0.020 m
Ee = ?
1
Ee = kx 2
2
1
= (9.0 ×103 N/m)(−0.020 m)2
2
Ee = 1.8 J
The elastic potential energy stored in the spring is 1.8 J.
10. m = 7.8 g = 0.0078 kg
k = 3.5 ¯ 102 N/m
x = –4.5 cm = –0.045 m
(a) Ee = ?
1
Ee = kx 2
2
1
= (3.5 × 102 N/m)( −0.045 kg) 2
2
Ee = 0.35 J
The elastic potential energy of the spring is 0.35 J.
Choosing down as positive, the time for the marble to drop 0.93 m vertically is:
1
∆y = vi ∆t + a(∆t ) 2
2
Since vi = 0:
1
∆y = a ( ∆t ) 2
2
2 ∆y
∆t =
a
2(0.93 m)
=
9.8 m/s 2
∆t = 0.4357 s
Making Connections
15. m = 2.0 ¯ 102 µg = 2.0 ¯ 10–7 kg
∆y = 65 mm = 0.065 m
x = 75 cm = 0.75 m
Ee = ?
ET1 = ET2
Ee = x (∆Eg )
= x(mg ∆y )
= 0.75 m(2.0 ×10 −7 kg)(9.8 N/kg)(0.065 m)
Ee = 9.6 × 10−8 J
The initial quantity of elastic potential energy is 9.6 ¯ 10–8 J.
PRACTICE
(Pages 214–215)
Understanding Concepts
16. (a) The maximum displacement from the rest position will be at the top and bottom of the bounce.
(b) The speed is a maximum at the rest position.
(c) The speed will be zero at the top and the bottom of the bounce.
(d) The acceleration will be a maximum at the top and the bottom of the bounce.
(e) The acceleration will be zero at the rest position.
17. T = ?
f=?
(a) number of vibrations = 12
t = 48 s
total time
T=
number of complete vibrations
48
=
12
T = 4.0 s
During each cycle, the mass moves 4 amplitudes, or 4A. In 5 cycles, the mass will move:
d = 5× 4A
= 5 × 4(8.5 cm)
d = 1.7 × 10 2 cm
The mass moves 1.7 ¯ 102 cm in the first five cycles.
(b) T = ?
m
T = 2π
k
0.25 kg
= 2π
1.4 ×10 2 N/m
T = 0.27 s
The period of vibration is 0.27 s.
Making Connections
22. number of vibrations = 6.0
t = 8.0 s
(a) k = ?
PRACTICE
(Pages 217–218)
Understanding Concepts
23. (a) The speed is zero at lengths of 12 cm and 38 cm.
(b) The maximum speed will be at the rest position. The rest position will be halfway between the minimum and maximum
extensions:
12 + 38
= 25 cm
2
(c) The amplitude is 38 – 25 = 13 cm.
24. Ee = 5.64 J
m = 0.128 kg
k = 244 N/m
(a) x = ?
The maximum energy is constant, and all elastic potential at either end of the system, at the maximum amplitude.
1
Ee = kx 2
2
2 Ee
x=
k
2(5.64 J)
=
244 N/m
x = 0.215 m
The amplitude of the vibration is 0.215 m.
(b) v = ?
Approach 1: All of the energy will be kinetic as it passes through the rest position.
EK = mv 2
2 EK
v=
m
2(5.64 J)
=
0.128 kg
v = 9.39 m/s
=
(
(244 N/m) (0.215 m ) − (0.155 m )
2 2
)
0.128 kg
v = 6.51 m/s
The speed of the mass is 6.51 m/s.
25. x = 0.18 m
m = 58 g = 0.058 kg
k = 36 N/m
(a) Ee = ?
v=?
Substituting above:
k
v=x
m
= A(2π f )
v = 2π fA
Making Connections
28. (a) Tuning fork prongs have slow damping to produce a long tone.
(b) The voltmeter needle has fast damping to stabilize the reading quickly.
(c) A guitar string has slow damping to play the note as long as possible.
(d) Saloon doors have medium damping to keep the doors from swinging too much, but they still swing back and forth.
(e) The string of the bow has fast damping to prevent dangerous vibration.
Understanding Concepts
1. When the two students pull on either end of the spring, it will not stretch as much as when it is pulled by both students
while attached to the wall. When they both pull on it from the same side, the wall pulls back with equal force. When they
pull from opposite ends, the force will be half as much, and the stretch will also be half as much.
2. The elastic potential energy is the same when the spring is stretched or compressed 2.0 cm. The amount of energy stored
only depends on the magnitude of the distortion, not the direction.
3. Harmonic means that it is regularly repeated, symmetrical motion.
1
4. (a) Period is inversely proportional to the frequency, T ∝ .
f
(b) The acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement, a ∝ x .
1
(c) The period is inversely proportional to square root of the force constant, T ∝ .
k
(d) The maximum speed is directly proportional to the amplitude, v ∝ A .
5. m = 62 kg
k = 2.4 ¯ 103 N/m
x=?
ΣFy = ma = 0
6 Fx − mg = 0
6kx = mg
mg
x=
6k
(62 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
=
6(2.4 × 103 N/m)
x = 0.042 m
The compression of each spring is 0.042 m.
To calculate acceleration:
ΣFy = ma
ΣFy
a=
m
−0.962 N
=
0.289 kg
a = −3.33 m/s 2
The net force is 0.962 N [down], and the acceleration is 3.33 m/s2 [down].
(b) x = ?
ΣFy = ma = 0
Fx − mg = 0
kx = mg
mg
x=
k
(0.289 kg)(9.80 N/kg)
=
18.7 N/m
x = 0.151 m
The spring will be stretched by 0.151 m.
10. m = 64.5 kg
∆y = 48.0 m –12.5 m = 35.5 m
k = 65.5 N/m
x = 35.5 m – 10.1 m = 25.4 m.
v=?
∆Eg = Ee + EK
1 2 1 2
mg ∆y = kx + mv
2 2
mv = 2 mg ∆y − kx 2
2
2mg ∆y − kx 2
v=
m
2(64.5 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(35.5 m) − (65.5 N/m)(25.4 m) 2
=
64.5 kg
v = 6.37 m/s
The jumper’s speed at a height of 12.5 m above the water is 6.37 m/s.
11. Fx = 8.6 N
x = 9.4 cm = 0.094 m
(a) k = ?
Fx = kx
Fx
k=
x
8.6 N
=
0.094 m
k = 91 N/m
The force constant of the spring is 91 N/m.
Making Connections
17. m = 5.5 ¯ 102 kg
number of vibrations = 6.0
t = 3.5 s
k=?
Questions
(i) By graphing the stretch as a function of the applied force we can learn the relationship is linear.
(ii) The force constant of two combined springs is always less than the force constant for either spring individually.
Questions
(i) By graphing the stretch as a function of the applied force we can learn the relationship is linear.
(ii) The force constant of two combined springs is always less than the force constant for either spring individually.
Questions
(i) By graphing the stretch as a function of the applied force we can learn the relationship is linear.
(ii) The force constant of two combined springs is always less than the force constant for either spring individually.
Prediction
(c)
k1k2
(d) k total =
k1 + k2
Procedure
1 – 3. See sample data table below.
Analysis
(e)
(f)
Spring 1 Spring 2 Spring 3
rise rise rise
slope = slope = slope =
run run run
1.47 N − 0.49 N 1.47 N − 0.49 N 1.47 N − 0.49 N
= = =
0.0329 m − 0.0110 m 0.0214 m − 0.0072 m 0.0166 m − 0.0056 m
slope = 44.5 N/m slope = 69.0 N/m slope = 89.1 N/m
F = k total xtotal
= k total ( x1 + x2 )
F F
= k total +
k1 k2
1 1
F = Fktotal +
k1 k2
k +k
1 = k total 2 1
k1k2
kk
k total = 1 2
k1 + k2
Evaluation
(i) Answers will vary based on the hypothesis and predictions made.
(j) Sources of error could be improper zero for measuring, parallax, bend in support apparatus, and permanent distortion of
the spring. These can be avoided by careful calibration at lab setup, caution to avoid parallax during measurement, and
rigid apparatus for the support stand. The value of g in the area, as well as the accuracy of the stamped value of the
masses can contribute to error.
Synthesis
(k) To calculate the slope of the line and have it represent the force constant, the force had to be plotted on the vertical axis.
(l) A real spring will heat up when stretched and has an elastic limit beyond which it will not act as a Hooke’s law spring any
longer. Ideal springs do not have these limitations.
Questions
(i) The action of a real mass–spring system supports the law of conservation of energy.
(ii) The damping is slow for a real vertical mass–spring system.
Hypothesis
(a) A real vibrating spring will undergo damped harmonic motion. The presence of friction within the spring and within the
air will transform some of the kinetic and elastic potential energy into thermal energy.
(b) The damping of a real spring will likely be very slow.
Prediction
(c)
F = k total xtotal
= k total ( x1 + x2 )
F F
= k total +
k1 k2
1 1
F = Fktotal +
k1 k2
k +k
1 = k total 2 1
k1k2
kk
k total = 1 2
k1 + k2
Evaluation
(i) Answers will vary based on the hypothesis and predictions made.
(j) Sources of error could be improper zero for measuring, parallax, bend in support apparatus, and permanent distortion of
the spring. These can be avoided by careful calibration at lab setup, caution to avoid parallax during measurement, and
rigid apparatus for the support stand. The value of g in the area, as well as the accuracy of the stamped value of the
masses can contribute to error.
Synthesis
(k) To calculate the slope of the line and have it represent the force constant, the force had to be plotted on the vertical axis.
(l) A real spring will heat up when stretched and has an elastic limit beyond which it will not act as a Hooke’s law spring any
longer. Ideal springs do not have these limitations.
Questions
(i) The action of a real mass–spring system supports the law of conservation of energy.
(ii) The damping is slow for a real vertical mass–spring system.
Hypothesis
(a) A real vibrating spring will undergo damped harmonic motion. The presence of friction within the spring and within the
air will transform some of the kinetic and elastic potential energy into thermal energy.
(b) The damping of a real spring will likely be very slow.
Prediction
(c)
Procedure
1. Suspend a mass from the spring and measure the stretch (do several times to get a precise value).
mg
k=
x
(0.200 kg)(9.80 N/kg)
=
0.0126 m
k = 156 N/m
2. Using a 200.0-g mass, maximum stretch is 2.51 cm.
3. Maximum vertical displacement is 2.51 cm, 2.36 cm, 2.22 cm, 2.08 cm, 1.96 cm, 1.84 cm, 1.73 cm, 1.63 cm, 1.53 cm,
1.44 cm.
Total time for 10 cycles is 2.25 s.
Analysis
(e)
top middle bottom
0 1.26 2.51
x (cm)
2.51 1.26 0
∆y (cm)
0.0492 0.0246 0
∆Eg (J)
0 0.0124 0.0491
Ee (J)
0 0.0122 0
EK (J)
0.0492 0.0492 0.0491
ET (J)
Evaluation
(j) Answers will vary depending on the hypotheses and predictions made.
(k) The largest source of error is difficulty reading the location of a moving object with accuracy. A slow motion film, or a
spring with a lower force constant could reduce the speed.
Synthesis
(l) A stiff spring will undergo faster damping because the object will move faster. The higher speed will increase the amount
of air friction in each cycle, damping the motion more quickly.
(a) Energy will be converted into elastic potential energy and then into thermal energy, and the spring undergoes damped
harmonic motion.
(b) - capable of absorbing large quantities of energy
- small amounts of energy are absorbed quickly to provide a smooth ride
- often the spring has a changing spring constant to accomplish the above ideas
- for safety, shock absorber must be capable of damping violent motion quickly
- shock absorber must be able to damp both small and large stored energies
(c) The system uses a spring to absorb the energy, and then the shock absorber damps the motion quickly to prevent danger
bounce in the vehicle.
(d) Lower friction designs last longer because they do not produce as much heat. The heat can break down the seals and
increase the chances of warping.
(e) Answers will vary based on the resources students use.
(f) Answers will vary based on the initial hypothesis made.
Evaluation
(j) Answers will vary depending on the hypotheses and predictions made.
(k) The largest source of error is difficulty reading the location of a moving object with accuracy. A slow motion film, or a
spring with a lower force constant could reduce the speed.
Synthesis
(l) A stiff spring will undergo faster damping because the object will move faster. The higher speed will increase the amount
of air friction in each cycle, damping the motion more quickly.
(a) Energy will be converted into elastic potential energy and then into thermal energy, and the spring undergoes damped
harmonic motion.
(b) - capable of absorbing large quantities of energy
- small amounts of energy are absorbed quickly to provide a smooth ride
- often the spring has a changing spring constant to accomplish the above ideas
- for safety, shock absorber must be capable of damping violent motion quickly
- shock absorber must be able to damp both small and large stored energies
(c) The system uses a spring to absorb the energy, and then the shock absorber damps the motion quickly to prevent danger
bounce in the vehicle.
(d) Lower friction designs last longer because they do not produce as much heat. The heat can break down the seals and
increase the chances of warping.
(e) Answers will vary based on the resources students use.
(f) Answers will vary based on the initial hypothesis made.
1. Determine the spring constant by suspending a known mass (and, therefore, weight) from it and measuring the stretch.
mg
k=
x
(0.100 kg)(9.80 N/kg)
=
0.0356 m
k = 27.5 N/m
Use projectile analysis with the known launch angle and range to determine the launch speed. For this problem, use
θ = 34º and ∆dx = 2.6 m, and ∆dy = 0.0 m.
In horizontal direction:
∆d x = v x ∆t
2.6 = (v cos 34°)∆t
2.6
v ∆t = (Equation 1)
cos 34°
In vertical direction:
1
∆ d y = v yi ∆ t + a ( ∆ t ) 2
2
1
0 = (v sin 34°)∆t + (−9.8)(∆t ) 2
2
0 = ∆t (v sin 34° − 4.9∆t )
True/False
1. T
2. F The work done by gravity is zero.
3. F The work you do on the backpack is negative.
4. F The gravitational potential energy decreases in proportion to the distance fallen.
5. F This does not refute the law of conservation of energy because some energy is converted into other forms, such as heat
(thermal energy) in the ball and the floor.
6. T
7. T
8. F Maximum speed occurs at the equilibrium position, but elastic potential energy is at a minimum at the point of
minimum extension of the spring.
9. F A long damping time would not be appropriate for a bathroom scale. It would be appropriate for a “jolly-jumper” toy.
Multiple Choice
10. (c)
11. (c)
12. (e)
13. (d)
14. (e)
15. (a)
16. (d) W = ( F cos θ )∆d
= (mg sin θ )(cos180°) L
W = − mgL sin θ
True/False
1. T
2. F The work done by gravity is zero.
3. F The work you do on the backpack is negative.
4. F The gravitational potential energy decreases in proportion to the distance fallen.
5. F This does not refute the law of conservation of energy because some energy is converted into other forms, such as heat
(thermal energy) in the ball and the floor.
6. T
7. T
8. F Maximum speed occurs at the equilibrium position, but elastic potential energy is at a minimum at the point of
minimum extension of the spring.
9. F A long damping time would not be appropriate for a bathroom scale. It would be appropriate for a “jolly-jumper” toy.
Multiple Choice
10. (c)
11. (c)
12. (e)
13. (d)
14. (e)
15. (a)
16. (d) W = ( F cos θ )∆d
= (mg sin θ )(cos180°) L
W = − mgL sin θ
Understanding Concepts
1. (a) No work is done because the force is perpendicular to the displacement.
(b) The work is negative because the student is exerting a force opposite the direction of motion.
(c) The work is negative because gravity is exerting a force opposite the direction of motion.
(d) Assuming a level roadway, the work done is zero because the force is perpendicular to the displacement.
(e) No work is done because the electrical force is perpendicular to the displacement.
(f) No work is done because the tension is perpendicular to the displacement.
2. The force must be applied perpendicular to the object for it to do no work on the object.
3. The normal force can do work on an object. For example, when you jump, you push down on the ground and the normal
force pushes up on you and accelerates you up, giving you kinetic energy.
4. (a) No work is being done on the swimmer because the balancing forces forward and backward produce no motion.
(b) Work is done on the student to speed him up, but after that, there is no work being done on the student. Once the
student reaches the speed of the current, the only force is the upward buoyant force, which is perpendicular to the
waters surface. Technically, a small amount of work is being done by gravity as they whole river/student system is
pulled closer to the earth.
5. (a) The velocity will be changing because Newton’s second law states that if a net force acts on an object, it will accelerate
(i.e., change its velocity).
(b) It is possible the speed is constant if the particle is travelling in a circle.
(c) The kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed and the mass. Since both can remain constant under these
conditions, the kinetic energy may be constant.
6. Agree. In the absence of friction (including air resistance), all of the gravitational potential energy will be converted into
kinetic energy. The mass will cancel in each term.
7. (a) Damped vibrations are useful in the suspension of a vehicle.
(b) Damped vibrations are not useful in a pendulum clock.
8. It is not possible to have a motion that is not damped. Such a device would be a perpetual motion machine that cannot
exist. The force of friction within the system cannot be avoided.
9. m = 0.425 kg
∆y = 11.8 m
(a) W = ?
W = ( F cosθ )∆d
= (mg cos θ )∆y
= (0.425 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(cos180°)(11.8 m)
W = −49.1 J
The work gravity does on the ball on the way up is –49.1 J.
(b) W = ?
W = ( F cosθ )∆d
= (mg cos θ )∆y
= (0.425 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(cos 0°)(11.8 m)
W = 49.1 J
The work gravity does on the ball on the way down is 49.1 J.
10. F = 9.3 N
W = 87 J
∆d = 11 m
θ=?
The applied force, FA, will be equal to the component of gravity down the hill, mgsin φ
WC = ( F cos θ )∆d
= (mg sin φ )(cos θ ) ∆d
27.3
= (mg sin φ )(cos θ )
sin φ
= (mg cos θ )(27.3)
= (4.81 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(cos 0°)(27.3)
WC = 1.29 × 103 J
The total work done by the child is 1.29 ¯ 103 J.
(b) From part (a), the angle doesn’t matter, therefore W = 1.29 × 103 J.
(c) The total work on the child and toboggan during the slide will be equal to the work done to take them up the hill. Using
the equation derived in part (a),
WT = (mg cos θ )(27.3)
= (25.6 kg + 4.81 kg)(9.80 N/kg)(cos 0°)(27.3)
WT = 8.14 × 103 J
The total work on the child and the toboggan is 8.14 ¯ 103 J.
12. m = 73 kg
θ = 9.3°
vi = 4.2 m/s
∆d = ?
d a
To calculate the total number of people:
2.5 × 1012
= 3 ×103 people
8 ×108
There were 3 ¯ 103 workers involved.
(a) FN = ?
FK = ?
To calculate the normal force:
ΣFy = 0
FN − FA sin 22° − mg = 0
FN = FA sin 22° + mg
= (1.5 × 102 N)(sin 22°) + (18 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
= 232.6 N
FN = 2.3 ×10 2 N
To compress it 0.300 m:
1 2
Ee = kx
2
1
= (239 N/m)( −0.300 m) 2
2
Ee = 10.8 J
The work required is 2.69 J to stretch it, and 10.8 J to compress it.
23. k = 22 N/m
m = 7.5 ¯ 10–3 kg
FK = 4.2 ¯ 10–2 N
x = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m
∆d = ?
ET1 = ET2
Ee = Eth
1 2
kx = FK ∆d
2
kx 2
∆d =
2 FK
(22 N/m)(0.035 m) 2
=
2(4.2 × 10 −2 N)
∆d = 0.32 m
The eraser will slide 0.32 m along the desk.
24. k = 75 N/m
A = 0.15 m
v = 1.7 m/s
x = 0.12 m
m=?
For SHM, all of the energy is Ee when at the maximum amplitude, A:
ET1 = ET2
Ee max = Ee + EK
1 2 1 2 1 2
kA = kx + mv
2 2 2
mv 2 = kA2 − kx 2
k ( A2 − x 2 )
m=
v2
=
(
75 N/m (0.15 m ) − (0.12 m )
2 2
)
2
(1.7 m/s)
m = 0.21 kg
The mass of the block is 0.21 kg.
kA2
v=
m
38 N/m(0.053 m) 2
=
0.42 kg
v = 0.50 m/s
The maximum speed of the mass is 0.50 m/s.
(c) x = 4.0 cm = 0.040 m
v=?
ET1 = ET2
Ee max = Ee + EK
1 2 1 2 1 2
kA = kx + mv
2 2 2
mv = kA − kx 2
2 2
k ( A2 − x 2 )
v=
m
=
(
38 N/m ( 0.053 m ) − (0.040 m )
2 2
)
0.42 kg
v = 0.33 m/s
The speed of the mass is 0.33 m/s.
(d) x = 4.0 cm = 0.040 m
ET = ?
ET = Ee + EK
1 2 1 2
= kx + mv
2 2
1 1
= (38 N/m)(0.040 m)2 + (0.42 kg)(0.33 m/s)2
2 2
ET = 0.053 J
The total energy is 0.053 J. The results are the same.
29. The tractor seat would need to have a strong spring to absorb large bumps, and a shock absorber to prevent “launching”
the driver. There would have to be smaller springs on top of that to absorb small vibrations. Damping would be important
to prevent resonance.
Making Connections
30. Roller coasters are often shut down in high winds because of the loss of energy that may occur due to increased air
resistance. Cold can cause parts to shrink and increase frictional forces beyond safe limits.
31. (a) The ball on track B will arrive first. Shortly after the start, the vertical drop of the ball on track B causes an increase in
the speed, which it will enjoy for the majority of the race. At the end, it will slow down to the same speed that the ball
on track A has just accelerated to.
(b) Racing cyclists use this in a variety of ways. The sprinters stay high on the track until ready to make a break for it,
converting all of their stored gravitational energy into kinetic. Team racers use the change to minimize the work of the
rider. When the leader is ready to give up his spot, he rides up the hill a bit, converting some of his kinetic energy into
gravitational potential energy, reducing his speed. Once the last team mate has passed, he can drop down again, gaining
the gravitational potential energy back as kinetic energy without needing to supply it from his own body power.
32. (a) v1 = 0 m/s
v2 = ?
ET1 = ET2
1 2 1
mv1 + mgy1 = mv22 + mgy2
2 2
v1 + 2 gy1 = v22 + 2 gy2
2
First we must calculate the time required for the vertical drop (vi = 0):
1
∆d = vi ∆t + a(∆t ) 2
2
1
∆d = a ( ∆t ) 2
2
2 ∆d
∆t =
a
2(−0.95 m)
=
−9.8 m/s 2
∆t = 0.44 s
We know that initial kinetic energy came from elastic potential energy, therefore:
ET1 = ET2
Ee = EK
1 2
= mv
2
1
= (5.5 × 10−4 kg)(8.4 m/s)2
2
Ee = 0.019 J
The elastic potential energy stored was 0.019 J.
As just clearing the wall, the horizontal component will be the same, and the vertical component must produce a 30º angle
to the vertical.
Determine how far the skier has dropped from the launch point:
vf2 = vi2 + 2a∆d
vf2 − vi2
∆d =
2a
=
(
(−14.35 m/s)2 − (11.71 m/s )(sin 45° )
2
)
2
2(−9.8 m/s )
∆d = −7.0 m
Therefore, the wall must be 9.0 – 7.0 = 2.0 m tall.
38. y1 = 2.5 m
v1 = 9.0 m/s
y2 = 3.0 m
v2 = ?
ET1 = ET2
1 2 1
mv1 + mgy1 = mv22 + mgy2
2 2
v12 + 2 gy1 = v22 + 2 gy2
v22 = v12 + 2 gy1 − 2 gy2
v2 = v12 + 2 g ( y1 − y2 )
Solve for the launch speed at the top of the ramp where y1 = 0:
ET1 = ET2
1 2 1
mv1 + mgy1 = mv22 + mgy2
2 2
v1 + 0 = v22 + 2 gy2
2
= (6.0)2 − 2(2.0)(5.0)
v2 = 4.0 units
1
∆ d y = v yi ∆ t + a ( ∆ t ) 2
2
1
−5.0 = (4.0sin 30°)∆t + (−2.0)(∆t )2
2
2
−5 = 2∆t − (∆t )
( ∆t ) 2 − 2 ∆t − 5 = 0
1. (a) The expression refers to once you start playing well, it is easier to keep playing well (or scoring, or winning).
(b) The physics meaning refers to a specific quantity. The everyday use of the word momentum can mean continuing to do
well and inertia.
2. (a) The momentum of car A is less than the momentum of car B.
(b) The momentum of bicycle and rider A is less than the momentum of bicycle and rider B.
(c) The momentum of the large truck A is greater than the momentum of car B.
3. (a) The phrase “follow-through” refers to continue to swing the racket/club even after contact with the ball is made.
This allows the racket/club to be in contact with the ball for a longer period of time.
(b) “Follow-through” affects the momentum (or change in it).
4. (a) One technique that could be used is to break the total area up into eight different rectangles. The height of each would
be an estimate. Each rectangle’s area could be determined and the sum would give the total area.
kg ⋅ m kg ⋅ m
(b) F ⋅ t = N ⋅ s = 2 × s =
s s
5. The car should be designed with crunch zones to absorb the energy. If elastic bumpers were used, the car would rebound
and be able to impact other objects.
Understanding Concepts
1. (a) m = 7.0 × 103 kg
G
v = 7.9 m/s
G
p=?
G G
p = mv
= (7.0 ×103 kg)(7.9 m/s)
G
p = 5.5 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s [E]
The momentum of the African elephant is 5.5 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s [E] .
1. (a) The expression refers to once you start playing well, it is easier to keep playing well (or scoring, or winning).
(b) The physics meaning refers to a specific quantity. The everyday use of the word momentum can mean continuing to do
well and inertia.
2. (a) The momentum of car A is less than the momentum of car B.
(b) The momentum of bicycle and rider A is less than the momentum of bicycle and rider B.
(c) The momentum of the large truck A is greater than the momentum of car B.
3. (a) The phrase “follow-through” refers to continue to swing the racket/club even after contact with the ball is made.
This allows the racket/club to be in contact with the ball for a longer period of time.
(b) “Follow-through” affects the momentum (or change in it).
4. (a) One technique that could be used is to break the total area up into eight different rectangles. The height of each would
be an estimate. Each rectangle’s area could be determined and the sum would give the total area.
kg ⋅ m kg ⋅ m
(b) F ⋅ t = N ⋅ s = 2 × s =
s s
5. The car should be designed with crunch zones to absorb the energy. If elastic bumpers were used, the car would rebound
and be able to impact other objects.
Understanding Concepts
1. (a) m = 7.0 × 103 kg
G
v = 7.9 m/s
G
p=?
G G
p = mv
= (7.0 ×103 kg)(7.9 m/s)
G
p = 5.5 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s [E]
The momentum of the African elephant is 5.5 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s [E] .
Understanding Concepts
5. impulse change in momentum
F ∆t = N ⋅ s ∆p = m ( ∆v )
kg ⋅ m m
= 2
×s = kg
s s
kg ⋅ m kg ⋅ m
F ∆t = ∆p =
s s
Therefore, the units of impulse and change in momentum are equivalent.
6. (a) m = 0.065 kg
viy = –3.8 m/s
piy = ?
piy = mviy
= (0.065 kg)(−3.8 m/s)
piy = −0.25 kg ⋅ m/s
The momentum of the snowball before hitting the ground is –0.25 kg⋅m/s.
(b) vfy = 0.0 m/s
pfy = ?
pfy = mvfy
= (0.065 kg)(0.0 m/s)
pfy = 0.0 kg ⋅ m/s
The momentum of the snowball after hitting the ground is 0.0 kg⋅m/s.
(c) ∆p y = pfy − piy
= 0.0 kg ⋅ m/s − (−0.25 kg ⋅ m/s)
∆p y = 0.25 kg ⋅ m/s
The change in momentum is 0.25 kg⋅m/s.
7. (a) ΣFx = 4.8 × 103 N
∆t = 3.5 s
impulse = ΣFx ∆t = ?
ΣFx ∆t = (4.8 × 103 N)(3.5 s)
ΣFx ∆t = 1.7 × 104 N ⋅ s [W]
The impulse on the truck over this time interval is 1.7 × 104 N ⋅ s [W] .
(b) pix = 5.8 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s
pfx = ?
ΣFx ∆t = ∆px
ΣFx ∆t = pfx − pix
pfx = ΣFx ∆t + pix
= 1.7 × 104 N ⋅ s + 5.8 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s
pfx = 7.5 ×104 kg ⋅ m/s [W]
The final momentum of the truck is 7.5 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s [W] .
px
cos11.1° =
p
p x = p cos11.1°
= (9.362 × 106 kg ⋅ m/s)(cos11.1°)
p x = 9.19 × 10 6 kg ⋅ m/s
py
sin11.1° =
p
p y = p sin11.1°
= (9.362 × 106 kg ⋅ m/s)(sin11.1°)
p y = 1.80 ×106 kg ⋅ m/s
The horizontal component of the plane’s momentum is 9.19 × 106 kg ⋅ m/s and the vertical component is
1.80 ×106 kg ⋅ m/s .
Making Connections
11. (a) Padded gloves increase the duration of time that the moving hand (punch) comes to rest. This causes a decrease in the
size of the force applied to the head (and the hand), reducing fractures.
(b) By “rolling with a punch,” a boxer increases the contact time, and reduces the applied force as the punch is applied.
Understanding Concepts
1. The net force on an object is the rate of change in momentum.
G ∆pG
ΣF =
∆t
2. Impulse is most useful when there is only a single net force acting on an object.
G
3. (a) ΣF = 24 N [E]
∆t = 3.2 s
G
Σ F ∆t = ?
G
ΣF ∆t = (24 N)(3.2 s)
G
ΣF ∆t = 77 N ⋅ s [E]
The impulse exerted is 77 N ⋅ s [E] .
G
(b) ΣF = 1.2 × 102 N [forward]
∆t = 9.1 ms
G
Σ F ∆t = ?
G
ΣF ∆t = (1.2 × 102 N)(9.1× 10−3 s)
G
ΣF ∆t = 1.1 N ⋅ s [forward]
The impulse exerted is 1.1 N ⋅ s [forward] .
(c) m = 12 kg
G
g = 9.8 m/s2 [down]
∆t = 3.0 s
G
Σ F ∆t = ?
G
ΣF ∆t = mg ∆t
= (12 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(3.0 s)
G
ΣF ∆t = 3.5 × 102 N ⋅ s [down]
The impulse exerted is 3.5 × 102 N ⋅ s [down] .
G
ΣF ∆t = A1 + A2 + A3
1 1.0 N + 3.7 N 3.9 N + 5.0 N
= (0.010 s)(0.81 N) + (0.020 s − 0.010 s) + (0.040 s − 0.020 s)
2 2 2
G
ΣF ∆t = 0.12 N ⋅ s [S]
The impulse exerted is 0.12 N ⋅ s [S] .
4. msystem = 41 kg + 21 kg = 62 kg
∆t = 2.0 s
ΣFx = 75 N [W]
vix = 0 m/s
vfx = ?
ΣFx ∆t = ∆px
ΣFx ∆t = mvfx − mvix
mvfx = ΣFx ∆t + mvix
ΣFx ∆t + mvix
vfx =
m
ΣFx ∆t
= + vix
m
(75 N)(2.0 s)
= + 0 m/s
(41 kg + 21 kg)
vfx = 2.4 m/s [W]
The final velocity of the cart and the child will be 2.4 m/s [W].
5. m = 1.1× 103 kg
vix = 22 m/s
vfx = 0 m/s
∆t = 1.5 s
ΣFx = ?
The average force required to stop the car is 1.6 ×104 N [W] .
6. (a) m = 0.17 kg
vix = 2.1 m/s [right]
vfx = 1.8 m/s [left]
∆p x = ?
The impulse is equal to the change in momentum, but the units are written in a different form.
ΣFx ∆t = m(vfx − vix )
= (0.17 kg)(−1.8 m/s − 2.1 m/s)
= −0.66 N ⋅ s [right]
ΣFx ∆t = 0.66 N ⋅ s [left]
The impulse given to the ball by the cushion is 0.66 N ⋅ s [left] .
7. (a) m = 0.16 kg
vfx = 11 m/s
vix = 18 m/s
∆p x = ?
∆p x = m(vfx − vix )
= (0.16 kg)(11 m/s − 18 m/s)
= −1.1 kg ⋅ m/s [forward]
∆p x = 1.1 kg ⋅ m/s [backward]
The change in momentum of the puck is 1.1 kg ⋅ m/s [backward] .
(b) ΣFx ∆t = ?
ΣFx ∆t = m(vfx − vix )
= (0.16 kg)(11 m/s − 18 m/s)
= −1.1 N ⋅ s [forward]
ΣFx ∆t = 1.1 N ⋅ s [backward]
The impulse exerted by the snow on the puck is 1.1 N ⋅ s [backward] .
Choose up as positive.
∆p x = m(vfx − vix )
= (0.61 kg)(8.5 m/s − (−9.6 m/s))
∆p x = 11 kg ⋅ m/s [up]
The change in momentum of the basketball is 11 kg ⋅ m/s [up] .
(b) ∆t = 6.5 ms = 6.5 × 10−3 s
Ffloor = ?
Choose up as positive.
ΣFx ∆t = m(vfx − vix )
m(vfx − vix )
Ffloor =
∆t
(0.61 kg)(8.5 m/s − (−9.6 m/s))
=
6.5 × 10−3 s
Ffloor = 1.7 × 103 N [up]
The average force exerted on the basketball by the floor is 1.7 × 103 N [up] .
11. The force of gravity can be ignored in question 10 because it is so small compared to the force exerted by the floor
(approximately 6.0 N compared with 1700 N).
Understanding Concepts
1. The net force on the system must be zero for momentum to be conserved.
2. For the centre of mass of the system, the statement is equivalent to Newton’s first law. With no net force acting on the
system, the centre of mass of the system will not experience any change in velocity. However, the individual parts of the
system will undergo various changes in speed and direction.
3. (a) Earth will exert a downward force on the hairbrush.
(b) The hairbrush will exert an upward force on Earth.
(c) The forces in (a) and (b) are the same in magnitude.
(d) The net force of the system containing Earth and the hairbrush is zero.
(e) Momentum of this system will be conserved.
(f) Earth will move up as the hairbrush falls down.
(g) Choose up as positive.
m1 = 0.0598 kg
m2 = 5.98 × 10 24 kg
v1 y = 10 m/s [down]
v2 y = ?
p y = p ′y
0 = m1v1 y + m2 v2 y
m1v1 y
v2 y = −
m2
(0.0598 kg)(−10 m/s)
=−
5.98 × 1024 kg
v2 y = 1× 10−25 m/s [up]
Earth’s speed at this time is 1×10−25 m/s [up] .
4. m1 = 45 kg
m2 = 33 kg
v1x = 1.9 m/s [E]
v2 x = ?
Understanding Concepts
1. The net force on the system must be zero for momentum to be conserved.
2. For the centre of mass of the system, the statement is equivalent to Newton’s first law. With no net force acting on the
system, the centre of mass of the system will not experience any change in velocity. However, the individual parts of the
system will undergo various changes in speed and direction.
3. (a) Earth will exert a downward force on the hairbrush.
(b) The hairbrush will exert an upward force on Earth.
(c) The forces in (a) and (b) are the same in magnitude.
(d) The net force of the system containing Earth and the hairbrush is zero.
(e) Momentum of this system will be conserved.
(f) Earth will move up as the hairbrush falls down.
(g) Choose up as positive.
m1 = 0.0598 kg
m2 = 5.98 × 10 24 kg
v1 y = 10 m/s [down]
v2 y = ?
p y = p ′y
0 = m1v1 y + m2 v2 y
m1v1 y
v2 y = −
m2
(0.0598 kg)(−10 m/s)
=−
5.98 × 1024 kg
v2 y = 1× 10−25 m/s [up]
Earth’s speed at this time is 1×10−25 m/s [up] .
4. m1 = 45 kg
m2 = 33 kg
v1x = 1.9 m/s [E]
v2 x = ?
Making Connections
10. Assuming the astronaut has something to throw, he could throw it away from the spaceship. This would cause him to
move toward the ship.
Understanding Concepts
1. (a) F The forces are the same (Newton’s third law).
(b) F The magnitude of the changes in momenta will be equal.
(c) T
(d) F The magnitude of the changes in momenta will be equal.
2. Yes. An example would be two dynamics carts on a track that have had a spring bumper explosion.
3. (a) Momentum is conserved. There is no net external force of the system of objects.
(b) Momentum is conserved. There is no net external force of the system of objects.
(c) Momentum is not conserved. There is an external force applied by the stove on the pan.
4. It is not possible to react against the vacuum of space. A rocket ship works by pushing exhaust gasses out the back, and
the exhaust gases push back on the rocket ship. There is not involvement of the air (or not).
PRACTICE
(Page 248)
Understanding Concepts
1. All of the original kinetic energy is transformed to other forms if both objects come to rest after the collision.
2. Yes, we can conclude the collision is completely inelastic. After a “hit-and-stick” collision, no energy is stored as elastic
potential to be returned to either object at the end of the collision.
3. A head on collision is very dangerous because of the high relative velocity between the vehicles and the large (and rapid)
change in speed for each one. These large accelerations produce large forces that are capable of inflicting serious damage
on a human body.
(b)
Flexible
• absorb energy
• reduce deceleration of train (and passengers)
Rigid
• prevent car from collapsing and injuring passengers located at either end
• less likely to have debris flying about the interior (due to crumpling car)
PRACTICE
(Pages 251–252)
Understanding Concepts
8. The larger truck would have the larger momentum.
mv 2
EK =
2
m2v 2
=
2m
(mv)2
=
2m
p2
EK =
2m
p = 2mEK
Conservation of Energy
1
2
m1v12 + 12 m2 v22 = 12 m1v1′2 + 12 m2 v2′2 (but v2 = 0 and the masses are equal)
mv12 + 0 = mv1′ +2
mv2′2
v12 = v1′2 + v2′2
v2′2 = v12 − v1′2 (Equation 2)
The final velocity of the vehicles after the collision is 85.319 km/h [N] = 23.7 m/s [N].
ET′ = EK′ truck + EK′ car
1 1
= mt vt′2 + mc vc′2
2 2
1 1
= (1.3 × 104 kg)(23.7 m/s) 2 + (1.1× 103 kg)(23.7 m/s) 2
2 2
6
ET′ = 4.0 × 10 J
The decrease in kinetic energy is 4.1 × 106 – 4.1 × 106 = 1 × 105 J.
14. Choose the original direction of motion as the positive direction.
mO = 5.31 ×10−26 kg
mN = 4.65 × 10−26 kg
vO = 0
vO′ = 4.81 ×10 2 m/s
vN′ = −34.1 m/s
vN = ?
mN vN + mO vO = mN vN′ + mO vO′
mN vN + 0 = mN vN′ + mO vO′
m v′ + mO vO′
vN = N N
mN
m v′
= vN′ + O O
mN
(5.31× 10−26 kg)(4.81× 10 2 m/s)
= −34.1 m/s +
4.65 × 10 −26 kg
vN = 5.15 × 102 m/s
The initial speed of the nitrogen molecule was 5.15 × 102 m/s .
Making Connections
16. (a) The rubber bullet would have the elastic collision and the lead bullet would have the inelastic collision.
G G
(b) ∆pT = −∆pR
G G G G G G G
mT vT2 − mT vT1 = −(mR vR2 − mR vR1 ) vT1 = 0, and vR2 = −vR1
G G G
mT vT2 − 0 = mR vR1 − mR (−vR1 )
G G G G G
mT vT2 = mR vR2 + mR vR1 vR1 = vR2
G G G
mT vT2 = mR vR2 + mR vR1
G G G
pT′ = pR′ + pR
G G
∆pT = −∆pL
G G G G G
mT vT2 − mT vT1 = −mL vL2 + mL vL1 vT1 = 0
G G G
mT vT2 − 0 = mL vL2 − mL vL2
G G G
mT vT2 = mL vL1 − mL vL1
G G G
pT′ = pL − pL′
The rubber bullet transfers more momentum to the target.
(c) Rubbers bullets are preferred in crowd control because they are less likely to kill or permanently injure any of the
crowd and they impart a larger backward impulse on the crowd.
Understanding Concepts
1. (a) It is not possible for both objects to be at rest. If they were both at rest, the initial momentum of the first object would
have violated the law of conservation of t momentum.
(b) It is possible for the first object to be at rest after the collision. One example is a curling stone that strikes another and
then stops moving.
2. The does not violate the law of conservation of momentum for the system which contains the earth and the snowball.
The earth exerts a net external force on the tree/snowball system. This external force negates the conservation of
momentum for that system.
3. There momentums will only be the same if they have the same mass. The relationship between momentum and kinetic
energy is
mv 2
EK =
2
m2v 2
=
2m
(mv)2
=
2m
p2
EK =
2m
p = 2mEK
When two objects have the same kinetic energy, the object with the larger mass will always have a larger momentum.
Conservation of Energy
1
2
m1v12 + 12 m2 v22 = 12 m1v1′2 + 12 m2 v2′2 (but v2 = 0)
m1v12 2
+ 0 = m1v1′ + m2 v2′2
m1v12 − m1v1′2 = m2 v2′2
m1 (v12 − v1′2 ) = m2 v2′2 (Equation 2)
Substitute Equations 3 and 4 back into the original conservation of momentum equation:
m1v1 + 0 = m1v1′ + m2 v2′
m1v1 = m1v1′ + m2 (v1 + v1′ )
m1v1 = m1v1′ + m2 v1 + m2 v1′
m1v1′ + m2 v1′ = m1v1 − m2 v1
v1′ (m1 + m2 ) = (m1 − m2 )v1
m − m2
v1′ = 1 v1
m1 + m2
0.022 kg − 0.027 kg
= (3.5 m/s)
0.022 kg + 0.027 kg
v1′ = −0.36 m/s [forward], or 0.36 m/s [backward]
The velocity of the 22-g superball after the collision is 0.36 m/s [backward] .
m1v1 + 0 = m1v1′ + m2 v2′
m1v1 = m1 (v2′ − v1 ) + m2 v2′
m1v1 = m1v2′ − m1v1 + m2 v2′
m1v2′ + m2 v2′ = 2m1v1
v2′ (m1 + m2 ) = 2m1v1
2m1
v2′ = v1
m1 + m2
2(0.022 kg)
= (3.5 m/s)
0.022 kg + 0.027 kg
v2′ = 3.1 m/s [forward]
The velocity of the 27-g superball after the collision is 3.1 m/s [forward] .
Use conservation of energy to solve for the speed of the moving skier at the bottom of the hill.
ET = ET′
1
mg ∆y = mv12
2
v1 = 2 g ∆y
= 2(9.8 m/s 2 )(25 m)
v1 = 22.14 m/s
m2 = 72 kg
v1 = 22.14 m/s
v2 = 0
v1′ = v2′ = v′ = ? (when coupled)
m1v1 + m2 v2 = m1v1′ + m2 v2′
v2 = 0, and when coupled, v1′ = v2′ = v′
m1v1 + 0 = (m1 + m2 )v′
m1v1
v′ =
m1 + m2
(66 kg)(22.14 m/s)
=
66 kg + 72 kg
v′ = 11 m/s
The speed of the two-skier system immediately after the collision is 11 m/s.
Understanding Concepts
1.
2. (a) ms = 52 kg
mc = 26 kg
G
vs = 1.2 m/s [W]
G
vc = 1.2 m/s [S]
G
vs′ = ?
G
vc′ = ?
G G
ps + pc = 93.6 kg ⋅ m/s [S]
G G
ps′ = ms vs′
= (52 kg)(1.0 m/s)
G
ps′ = 52 kg ⋅ m/s [W]
G G
ps + pc
tan θ = G
ps′
G G
p +p
θ = tan −1 s G c
ps′
93.6
= tan −1
52
θ = 61°
G 2
So, pc′ = 1.1× 10 kg ⋅ m/s [61° S of E].
3. Diagram is not to scale. Dotted line represents the direction “after.”
A completely inelastic collision means they will stick together.
m1 = 1.4 × 103 kg
m2 = 1.3 × 103 kg
G
v1 = 45 km/h [S] = 12.5 m/s [S]
G
v2 = 39 km/h [E] = 10.83 m/s [E]
′ =?
v12
G G
p2 = m2 v2
= (1.3 ×103 kg)(10.83 m/s)
G
p1 = 1.408 ×10 4 kg ⋅ m/s
G G 2 G 2
′ =
p12 p1 + p2
G
′ = m12 v12
p12 ′
G
p′
′ = 12
v12
m12
2.246 ×104 kg ⋅ m/s
=
1.3 × 103 kg + 1.4 × 103 kg
′ = 8.3 m/s
v12
G
p
tan θ = G 1
p2
G
p
θ = tan −1 G 1
p2
1.75 × 10 4 kg ⋅ m/s
= tan −1 4
1.408 ×10 kg ⋅ m/s
θ = 51°
The final speed of the cars is 8.3 m/s [51º S of E], or 3.0 × 101 km/h [51º S of E].
(b)
0 = mvBy − mvAy
0 = vBy − vAy
vBy = vAy
vB sin 48.9° = vA sin 31.1°
sin 31.1°
vB = vA
sin 48.9°
sin 31.1°
vB = vA
sin 48.9°
sin 31.1°
= (1.72 m/s)
sin 48.9°
vB = 1.18 m/s
The velocities of the balls are 1.18 m/s at 48.9° and 1.72 m/s at 31.1°.
G
pn = 4.8 × 10−21 kg ⋅ m/s [S]
G
pe = 9.0 × 10−21 kg ⋅ m/s [E]
θ =?
pn
tan θ =
pe
p
θ = tan −1 n
pe
4.8 × 10 −21 kg ⋅ m/s
= tan −1 −21
9.0 × 10 kg ⋅ m/s
θ = 28°
The nucleus will move in the direction 28º N of W.
(b) pnucleus = ?
pnucleus = pn2 + pe2
Making Connections
7. Answers will vary depending on the type of equipment chosen. Most likely there will be some padding included in it that
will reduce the force required by increasing the time of collision.
Understanding Concepts
1.
′ = mLi vLi
pLi ′
= (1.2 ×10 −26 kg)(0.40 km/s)
′ = 4.8 × 10−27 kg ⋅ km/s
pLi
pn′ = mn vn′
= (1.7 × 10−27 kg)(2.5 km/s)
pn′ = 4.25 × 10 −27 kg ⋅ km/s
In the y-direction:
p y = p ′y
′ y − pn′ y
0 = pLi
′ sin 54° − pn′ sin θ
0 = pLi
p ′ sin 54°
sin θ = Li
pn′
p ′ sin 54°
θ = sin −1 Li
pn′
−27
(4.8 ×10 kg ⋅ km/s)(sin 54°)
= sin −1
4.25 × 10 −27 kg ⋅ km/s
θ = 66° [from original direction of motion of the neutron]
The neutron is now travelling at 66° from its original direction of motion.
3. Diagram is not to scale.
p2 = m2 v2
= m2 (1.9 kg ⋅ m/s)
p2 = 1.9 m2 kg ⋅ m/s
G 2.00 G 1.80
vA = = 4.0 cm/s [45° N of E] v′A = = 3.6 cm/s [N]
0.50 0.50
1 1
ET′ = mA vA′2 + mB vB′2
2 2
1 1
= (0.32 kg)(0.036 m/s) 2 + (0.2165 kg)(0.027 m/s)2
2 2
ET′ = 2.863 × 10−4 J
Making Connections
6. (a) Some possible points:
• The perception of a safe vehicle is a common advertising feature of most vehicles.
• The idea of protecting loved ones and yourself in a collision is socially desirable.
• Insurance companies offer better rates for vehicles with high safety performance in collisions.
(b) Some points are:
• seat belts
• roll bars (roll safety)
• bumpers
• crumple zones
• air bag
• anti-lock braking systems
• traction control (4WD, AWD, tires)
Question
Observing two objects before, during, and after a collision allows the verification of conservation of momentum and kinetic
energy theory.
Prediction
(a) For all three categories, the total momentum of the system will always be the same.
(b) Category I: The total kinetic energy before and after will be the same. During the collision there will be some loss of
kinetic energy as it is stored as some other form in the repulsive device.
Category II: The total kinetic energy before the collision will be zero. It will be a maximum at the end of the explosion,
increasing as the explosion takes place.
Category III: The total kinetic energy will be a maximum before, decreasing throughout the collision and a minimum at
the end.
Hypothesis
(c) The velocity of both carts before and after the collision (an adhesive collision would be the easiest) can be determined
using the ticker-tape timer. Using the known mass of the carts, the conservation of momentum can be used to calculate the
unknown mass.
Total p Total EK
Before the Collision After the Collision Loss
(kg⋅⋅m/s) (J)
Collision in EK
m1 v1 m2 v2 m1 v1’ m2 v2’ (%)
before after before after
(kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s)
I (a) 0.50 0.19 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.17 0.095 0.085 0.0090 0.0072 20
I (b) 1.0 0.18 0.50 0.0 1.0 0.060 0.50 0.22 0.18 0.17 0.016 0.014 12
I (c) 0.50 0.15 0.50 –0.13 0.50 –0.12 0.50 0.14 0.010 0.010 0.0098 0.0085 13
II (a) 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.50 –0.22 0.50 0.21 0.0 –0.0050 0.0 0.023 —
II (b) 1.0 0.0 0.50 0.0 1.0 –0.091 0.50 0.27 0.0 0.044 0.0 0.022 —
II (c) 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.50 –0.10 0.50 0.12 0.0 0.010 0.0 0.0061 —
III (a) 0.50 0.24 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.11 0.50 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.014 0.0060 57
III (b) 1.0 0.20 0.50 0.0 1.0 0.12 0.50 0.12 0.20 0.18 0.020 0.011 45
III (c) 0.50 0.18 0.50 –0.17 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.0050 0.0 0.015 0.0 100
IV 0.50 0.22 m2 0.0 0.50 0.088 m2 0.088 — — — — —
Analysis
(d) For each collision, the total momentum before and after was essentially the same.
(e) For Category I collisions, there was very little loss of kinetic energy during the collisions. Category II collisions did not
start with any, but received the kinetic energy from the spring bumper. Category III collisions lost a significant amount of
kinetic energy during the collisions.
(f) Category I collisions were all elastic (within experimental error). Category III collisions were all completely inelastic.
(g) During Category I collisions, there was a temporary loss of kinetic energy that reappeared after the collision.
Question
Observing two objects before, during, and after a collision allows the verification of conservation of momentum and kinetic
energy theory.
Prediction
(a) For all three categories, the total momentum of the system will always be the same.
(b) Category I: The total kinetic energy before and after will be the same. During the collision there will be some loss of
kinetic energy as it is stored as some other form in the repulsive device.
Category II: The total kinetic energy before the collision will be zero. It will be a maximum at the end of the explosion,
increasing as the explosion takes place.
Category III: The total kinetic energy will be a maximum before, decreasing throughout the collision and a minimum at
the end.
Hypothesis
(c) The velocity of both carts before and after the collision (an adhesive collision would be the easiest) can be determined
using the ticker-tape timer. Using the known mass of the carts, the conservation of momentum can be used to calculate the
unknown mass.
Total p Total EK
Before the Collision After the Collision Loss
(kg⋅⋅m/s) (J)
Collision in EK
m1 v1 m2 v2 m1 v1’ m2 v2’ (%)
before after before after
(kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s) (kg) (m/s)
I (a) 0.50 0.19 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.17 0.095 0.085 0.0090 0.0072 20
I (b) 1.0 0.18 0.50 0.0 1.0 0.060 0.50 0.22 0.18 0.17 0.016 0.014 12
I (c) 0.50 0.15 0.50 –0.13 0.50 –0.12 0.50 0.14 0.010 0.010 0.0098 0.0085 13
II (a) 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.50 –0.22 0.50 0.21 0.0 –0.0050 0.0 0.023 —
II (b) 1.0 0.0 0.50 0.0 1.0 –0.091 0.50 0.27 0.0 0.044 0.0 0.022 —
II (c) 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.50 –0.10 0.50 0.12 0.0 0.010 0.0 0.0061 —
III (a) 0.50 0.24 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.11 0.50 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.014 0.0060 57
III (b) 1.0 0.20 0.50 0.0 1.0 0.12 0.50 0.12 0.20 0.18 0.020 0.011 45
III (c) 0.50 0.18 0.50 –0.17 0.50 0.0 0.50 0.0 0.0050 0.0 0.015 0.0 100
IV 0.50 0.22 m2 0.0 0.50 0.088 m2 0.088 — — — — —
Analysis
(d) For each collision, the total momentum before and after was essentially the same.
(e) For Category I collisions, there was very little loss of kinetic energy during the collisions. Category II collisions did not
start with any, but received the kinetic energy from the spring bumper. Category III collisions lost a significant amount of
kinetic energy during the collisions.
(f) Category I collisions were all elastic (within experimental error). Category III collisions were all completely inelastic.
(g) During Category I collisions, there was a temporary loss of kinetic energy that reappeared after the collision.
Evaluation
(i) The predictions and hypothesis were correct to within experimental errors.
(j) Sources of error during the experiment include:
• There was friction between the cart and the track.
• There was friction between the tape and the timing recorder.
• It is difficult to measure the exact distance between the ticker tape timer dots because the distance is so small.
Synthesis
(k) It is important to distinguish between scalar and vector quantities because a system momentum of zero may still involve
dangerous speeds or motions.
(l) Using electronic values, the refuse bag could be tossed to a stationary astronaut. After catching the bag, the velocities and
known mass of the astronaut could be used to calculate the mass of the refuse bag.
(m) The friction pads would provide a source of external force to the system. This would increase the loss of kinetic energy
before and after the collision and change the total momentum before and after as well.
Question
The laws of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy can be verified through two-dimensional collisions.
Prediction
(a) The kinetic energy and the total momentum will be the same before and after the collisions.
(b) The change in momentum for each puck will be the same as the change in momentum of the other puck.
Hypothesis
(c) I expect that the two pucks will stick together and move along a straight path that will bisect the initial angle of collision.
(d) The change in momentum of puck A will be equal to the change in momentum of puck B. The velocities can me
measured, to the mass can be calculated.
(e) Category I and Category II
G G G G
pA + pB = pA′ + pB′
G G G G
mvA + mvB = mvA′ + mvB′
G G G G
vA + vB = vA′ + vB′
Evaluation
(i) The predictions and hypothesis were correct to within experimental errors.
(j) Sources of error during the experiment include:
• There was friction between the cart and the track.
• There was friction between the tape and the timing recorder.
• It is difficult to measure the exact distance between the ticker tape timer dots because the distance is so small.
Synthesis
(k) It is important to distinguish between scalar and vector quantities because a system momentum of zero may still involve
dangerous speeds or motions.
(l) Using electronic values, the refuse bag could be tossed to a stationary astronaut. After catching the bag, the velocities and
known mass of the astronaut could be used to calculate the mass of the refuse bag.
(m) The friction pads would provide a source of external force to the system. This would increase the loss of kinetic energy
before and after the collision and change the total momentum before and after as well.
Question
The laws of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy can be verified through two-dimensional collisions.
Prediction
(a) The kinetic energy and the total momentum will be the same before and after the collisions.
(b) The change in momentum for each puck will be the same as the change in momentum of the other puck.
Hypothesis
(c) I expect that the two pucks will stick together and move along a straight path that will bisect the initial angle of collision.
(d) The change in momentum of puck A will be equal to the change in momentum of puck B. The velocities can me
measured, to the mass can be calculated.
(e) Category I and Category II
G G G G
pA + pB = pA′ + pB′
G G G G
mvA + mvB = mvA′ + mvB′
G G G G
vA + vB = vA′ + vB′
Category IV
G G G G
pA + pB = pA′ + pB′
G G G G
mA vA + mB vB = mA vA′ + mB vB′
G G G G
mB vB − mB vB′ = mA vA′ − mA vA
G G G G
mB (vB − vB′ ) = mA (vA′ − vA )
G G
m (v ′ − v )
mB = AG A G A
(vB − vB′ )
(f) Mark off the four markers to get a known distance over a known time (the distance between each pair of dots should be
approximately the same). Measure the angles. The sum of the two velocity vectors before should be equal to the sum of
the velocity vectors after for Category I.
(g) For category II, the change in each vector should be the same magnitude and opposite direction.
(h) Category III should have the two velocity vectors before be equal to the twice the combined after velocity.
(i) For Category IV, subtract the two velocity vectors for each puck and substitute the values into the above equation.
(j) Measure each length of velocity vectors before and after. Substitute with the mass into the kinetic energy equation and
compare the total values before and after. Any lost energy went into thermal energy.
Evaluation
(l) Some possible sources of error:
• The table surface may not be flat.
• There may be some frictional or air current forces acting on the pucks.
• The air supply line to the pucks may exert some lateral forces on the pucks.
• Masses of the pucks may not be identical.
• Frequency of the spark timer may not be perfectly uniform.
Synthesis
(m) This would apply to all of the categories because all of them have the total momentum conserved.
(n) The momentum would only be conserved if you considered both pucks.
(o) It is wish to avoid dots during the impulse and collision because there is a changing speed during these interactions. The
analysis of this experiment is not designed to include a puck that is accelerating.
(p) It is better to have steel barriers because they will absorb some energy and prevent the cars from bouncing off as much as
a rubber barrier would.
True/False
1. F The impulse is the same in magnitude and is in the same direction.
2. T
3. F You have increased the amount of time the same force is applied.
4. F The total momentum before and after is the same.
5. T
6. T
7. F The kinetic energies will be different.
8. F The momentum is conserved in the snowball-earth system, even though the collision is completely inelastic.
9. T
10. F The final kinetic energy can be greater (e.g., an exploding cart system).
Category IV
G G G G
pA + pB = pA′ + pB′
G G G G
mA vA + mB vB = mA vA′ + mB vB′
G G G G
mB vB − mB vB′ = mA vA′ − mA vA
G G G G
mB (vB − vB′ ) = mA (vA′ − vA )
G G
m (v ′ − v )
mB = AG A G A
(vB − vB′ )
(f) Mark off the four markers to get a known distance over a known time (the distance between each pair of dots should be
approximately the same). Measure the angles. The sum of the two velocity vectors before should be equal to the sum of
the velocity vectors after for Category I.
(g) For category II, the change in each vector should be the same magnitude and opposite direction.
(h) Category III should have the two velocity vectors before be equal to the twice the combined after velocity.
(i) For Category IV, subtract the two velocity vectors for each puck and substitute the values into the above equation.
(j) Measure each length of velocity vectors before and after. Substitute with the mass into the kinetic energy equation and
compare the total values before and after. Any lost energy went into thermal energy.
Evaluation
(l) Some possible sources of error:
• The table surface may not be flat.
• There may be some frictional or air current forces acting on the pucks.
• The air supply line to the pucks may exert some lateral forces on the pucks.
• Masses of the pucks may not be identical.
• Frequency of the spark timer may not be perfectly uniform.
Synthesis
(m) This would apply to all of the categories because all of them have the total momentum conserved.
(n) The momentum would only be conserved if you considered both pucks.
(o) It is wish to avoid dots during the impulse and collision because there is a changing speed during these interactions. The
analysis of this experiment is not designed to include a puck that is accelerating.
(p) It is better to have steel barriers because they will absorb some energy and prevent the cars from bouncing off as much as
a rubber barrier would.
True/False
1. F The impulse is the same in magnitude and is in the same direction.
2. T
3. F You have increased the amount of time the same force is applied.
4. F The total momentum before and after is the same.
5. T
6. T
7. F The kinetic energies will be different.
8. F The momentum is conserved in the snowball-earth system, even though the collision is completely inelastic.
9. T
10. F The final kinetic energy can be greater (e.g., an exploding cart system).
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
(Pages 269–271)
Understanding Concepts
1. Impulse is the product of the force and the time. A smaller force exerted over a long period of time can impart a larger
impulse than a large force for a short time.
2. As the meteor comes to a stop, the kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy which melts the material at the impact
site.
3. This observation does not contradict the law of conservation of momentum. The momentum of the earth increases toward
the falling object. The amount of change in the earth’s velocity is so small it is imperceptible, so it appears the law of
conservation is being contradicted, but it is not.
4. The change in momentum of the ball that bounces is greater than the putty that sticks to the floor. Assuming both have the
same mass and are dropped from the same height:
mv 2
5. EK =
2
m2 v 2
=
2m
p2
EK =
2m
The momentum of the two players is the same, but the person with the larger mass will have a smaller kinetic energy. It
would be better to avoid the faster moving lighter player, p2 = m2v2.
6. A car crashing into a tree is an example. Momentum is not conserved in the tree-car system because the tree is attached to
the earth. The earth supplies a net external force to the system of objects so that momentum is not conserved.
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
(Pages 269–271)
Understanding Concepts
1. Impulse is the product of the force and the time. A smaller force exerted over a long period of time can impart a larger
impulse than a large force for a short time.
2. As the meteor comes to a stop, the kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy which melts the material at the impact
site.
3. This observation does not contradict the law of conservation of momentum. The momentum of the earth increases toward
the falling object. The amount of change in the earth’s velocity is so small it is imperceptible, so it appears the law of
conservation is being contradicted, but it is not.
4. The change in momentum of the ball that bounces is greater than the putty that sticks to the floor. Assuming both have the
same mass and are dropped from the same height:
mv 2
5. EK =
2
m2 v 2
=
2m
p2
EK =
2m
The momentum of the two players is the same, but the person with the larger mass will have a smaller kinetic energy. It
would be better to avoid the faster moving lighter player, p2 = m2v2.
6. A car crashing into a tree is an example. Momentum is not conserved in the tree-car system because the tree is attached to
the earth. The earth supplies a net external force to the system of objects so that momentum is not conserved.
m = 1.3 × 102 kg
G
v = 8.7 m/s [44° E of N]
pN = ?
pE = ?
G G
p = mv
= (1.3 ×10 2 kg)(8.7 m/s)
G
p = 1131 kg ⋅ m/s [44° E of N]
pN = p cos 44°
= (1131 kg ⋅ m/s)(cos 44°)
pN = 8.1× 102 kg ⋅ m/s
pE = p sin 44°
= (1131 kg ⋅ m/s)(sin 44°)
pE = 7.9 × 102 kg ⋅ m/s
The northward component of the boat’s momentum is 8.1× 102 kg ⋅ m/s . The eastward component is 7.9 × 102 kg ⋅ m/s .
8. Diagram is not to scale.
1 1 1 1
EKi = m1v1i2 + m2 v2i2 EKf = m1v1f2 + m2 v2f2
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1
= (2.0 kg)(24 m/s) + (4.0 kg)(0 m/s) = (2.0 kg)(−4.0 m/s)2 + (4.0 kg)(14 m/s) 2
2 2 2 2
EKi = 576 J EKf = 408 J
There is some loss of kinetic energy. This is an inelastic collision.
(c) v1i = 12 m/s
v2i = 0
v1f = −4.0 m/s
v2f = 8.0 m/s
1 1 1 1
EKi = m1v1i2 + m2 v2i2 EKf = m1v1f2 + m2 v2f2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= (2.0 kg)(12 m/s)2 + (4.0 kg)(0 m/s)2 = (2.0 kg)(−4.0 m/s)2 + (4.0 kg)(8.0 m/s) 2
2 2 2 2
EKi = 144 J EKf = 144 J
There is no loss of kinetic energy, so this collision is elastic.
15. Choose north as positive.
(b)
0 = mvBy − mvAy
0 = vBy − vAy
vBy = vAy
vB sin 46° = vA sin 33°
sin 33°
vB = vA
sin 46°
0 = pA′ y − pB′ y
0 = mA vA sin 67.8° − mB vB sin 30.0°
mB vB sin 30.0° = mA vA sin 67.8°
mB vA sin 67.8°
=
mA vB sin 30.0°
sin 67.8°
=
vB
(sin 30.0°)
vA
sin 67.8°
=
(3.30)(sin 30.0°)
mB
= 0.561
mA
The ratio of the masses of the particles is 0.561.
18. Diagrams not to scale.
Σ F ∆t = ∆p
m(v2 − v1 )
ΣF =
∆t
(0.79 kg + 0.45 kg)(0 m/s − 0.80 m/s)
=
0.1275 s
ΣF = −7.8 N
The magnitude of the friction force acting on the ball and the box is 7.8 N.
21. m1 = 1.9 × 104 kg
m2 = 1.7 × 104 kg
v1′ = 3.5 × 103 km/h
v2′ = 3.4 × 103 km/h
θ = 180.0º – 5.1º – 5.9º = 169.0º
v=?
m1 = 2.0 kg
m2 = 3.0 kg
m3 = 4.0 kg
v1 = 1.5 m/s [N]
v2 = 2.5 m/s [E]
v3 = ?
p32 = p12 + p22
(m3v3 )2 = (m1v1 )2 + (m2 v2 )2
m32 v32 = (m1v1 ) 2 + (m2 v2 )2
(m1v1 ) 2 + (m2 v2 ) 2
v3 =
m32
m1v1
tan θ =
m2 v2
(2.0 kg)(1.5 m/s)
θ = tan −1
(3.0 kg)(2.5 m/s)
θ = 22°
The final velocity of the third piece is 2.0 m/s [22º S of W].
24.
25. (a) The coefficient of restitution is a measure of how quickly an object returns to its shape after it has been compressed.
The apparatus shown could help determine the coefficient of restitution because the speed the sphere returns to its
original shape corresponds to the height the ball bounces to.
26. (a) The bed sheet spreads the force applied over a greater distance (and therefore time) than if the egg was to strike the
ground directly. The same impulse is imparted to the egg (i.e. it is brought to rest), so the force required is much
smaller.
(b) This can be used to cushion the landing of a person who was falling from a high position by reducing the average force
needed to stop them. You could test several heights with a sack of potatoes and plot the results on a graph. For a
human, you could extrapolate from the graph.
Making Connections
27. It is better for safety to have telephone poles that collapse upon impact. In this way, they absorb some energy and increase
the time of collision. Both of these reduce the force imparted to the vehicle and occupants in a collision.
28. High speed photography and spark timers both show the location of an object at fixed time intervals. High speed
photography gives more thorough information because you can see the state of the objects during each stage of the
collision.
29. Many arrester cables are connected to a water squeezer that dampens the motion and converts the kinetic energy of the
aircraft to kinetic energy of ejected water.
30. The main purpose of the ablation shield is to protect the shuttle during re-entry into the earth’s atmosphere.
Substitute Equations 3 and Equation 4 back into the original conservation of momentum equation:
m1v1 + 0 = m1v1′ + m2 v2′ m1v1 + 0 = m1v1′ + m2 v2′
m1v1 = m1v1′ + m2 (v1 + v1′ ) m1v1 = m1 (v2′ − v1 ) + m2 v2′
m1v1 = m1v1′ + m2 v1 + m2 v1′ m1v1 = m1v2′ − m1v1 + m2 v2′
m1v1′ + m2 v1′ = m1v1 − m2 v1 m1v2′ + m2 v2′ = 2m1v1
v1′ (m1 + m2 ) = (m1 − m2 )v1 v2′ (m1 + m2 ) = 2m1v1
m − m2 2m1
v1′ = 1 v1 v2′ = v1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m − m2 2m1
(b) v1′ = 1 v1 v2′ = v1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m−m 2m
= v1 = v1
m+m m+m
v1′ = 0 v2′ = v1
m − m2 2m1
(c) v1′ = 1 v1 v2′ = v1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m −0 2m1
= 1 v1 = v1
m1 + 0 m1 + 0
v1′ = v1 v2′ = 2v1
m − m2 2m1
(d) v1′ = 1 v1 v2′ = v1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2m1
0 − m2 = v1
= v1 0 + m2
0 + m2
2m
v1′ = −v1 v2′ = 1 v1
m2
32. mP = 1.0 × 103 kg
mB = 2.0 × 103 kg
vP = 50 m/s
vB = 0
∆d = ?
Distance plane will travel during collision Distance barge will travel during collision
vf2 = vi2 + 2a∆d vf2 = vi2 + 2a∆d
vf2 − vi2 vf2 − vi2
∆d = ∆d =
2a 2a
(16.67 m/s)2 − (50 m/s)2 (16.67 m/s)2 − (0 m/s)2
= =
2(−2.45 m/s 2 ) 2(1.225 m/s 2 )
∆d = 453.5 m ∆d = 113.4 m
1. (a) The force of gravity exerted by Saturn keeps the rings in their orbit around Saturn.
(b) The force of gravity exerted by Earth keeps the Hubble Space Telescope in a stable orbit around Earth. The force
exerted by the rockets of the telescope counteracts the small amount of friction of the upper atmosphere.
2. (a) The two probes would have the same minimum speed (escape speed) even though the probes have different masses.
Students will discover that the escape speed depends on the mass of Earth, not on the mass of the probe, according to
2GM E
the equation: v = .
r
(b) The minimum kinetic energy of the probe of mass 2m would be twice that of the probe of mass m. The minimum
kinetic energy of the probe is equal to the gravitational potential energy, which is proportional to the mass of the probe.
EK = − Eg
GMm
∴ EK =
r
3. Since the gravitational potential energy Eg is inversely proportional to the distance from the main body, Eg will approach
zero as the distance increases, according to the equation presented later in the chapter:
GMm
Eg = −
r
4. Students should be able to answer this question based on their study of the law of universal gravitation in Section 3.3.
5. As students have seen on page 147 of the text, a black hole is an extremely dense celestial body. The gravitational field of
a black hole is so strong that nothing, including electromagnetic radiation, can escape from its vicinity. Since light can
enter, but not escape, a black hole appears totally black. The surface of the body is called its event horizon because no
event can be observed from outside the surface. At the core of a black hole is a dense centre called a singularity. The
distance from the centre of the singularity to the event horizon is the Schwartzschild radius.
Black holes are thought to form during the course of stellar evolution. When the nuclear fuels are exhausted in the
core of the star, the star collapses. If the mass of the core is greater than a critical value that is almost twice as great as the
mass of the Sun, the core may collapse into a black hole.
(a) The eccentricity (e1) of the first ellipse is less than the eccentricity (e2) of the second ellipse.
c 5.0 cm
e1 = 1 = = 0.33
a1 15 cm
c2 7.5 cm
e2 = = = 0.60
a2 1.5 cm
(b) The Sun is at one focus of the elliptical orbit of each planet. Earth is at one focus of the elliptical orbit of the Moon.
Understanding Concepts
1. As they are moving at a high speed in their orbits, space vehicles are attracted to Earth by the force of gravity, which
keeps them in their orbits. Also, the vehicles have small booster rockets to control the location of the orbit and to
counteract low amounts of friction in the upper atmosphere.
2. (a) G = 6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2
M E = 5.98 ×1024 kg
mMoon = 7.35 ×10 22 kg
rMoon = 3.84 × 108 m
GM E mMoon
FG =
rMoon 2
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 × 1024 kg)(7.35 × 1022 kg)
=
(3.84 ×108 m) 2
FG = 1.99 × 1020 N [toward Earth's centre]
The gravitational force exerted on the Moon by Earth is 1.99× 1020 N [toward Earth’s centre].
GM E mMoon
(b) FG =
rMoon 2
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 × 1024 kg)(7.35 × 1022 kg)
=
(3.84 ×108 m) 2
FG = 1.99 × 1020 N [toward Moon's centre]
The gravitational force exerted on Earth by the Moon is 1.99× 1020 N [toward Moon’s centre].
GM E GM E
3. Let gr represent the gravitational field strength at the desired radius r. Thus, g r = 2
and g = .
(r + rE ) rE 2
(a) r = rE
GM E
gr =
(rE + rE ) 2
GM E
=
4rE 2
g
gr =
4
g
The magnitude of the gravitational field strength (in terms of g) at 1.0 Earth radius is .
4
(b) r = 3rE
GM E
gr =
(3rE + rE ) 2
GM E
=
16rE 2
g
gr =
16
g
The magnitude of the gravitational field strength (in terms of g) at 3.0 Earth radii is .
16
Making Connections
8. (a) If Earth’s density were greater, then its mass would also be greater. Therefore, Earth’s surface gravitational field
strength would also be much greater since it is proportional to Earth’s mass.
(b) Since the surface gravitational field strength of Earth would be much greater if its density were greater, a human’s
weight would also be greater. To support the increased weight, bones would need to be very sturdy (and heavier).
Shorter, thicker bones would be more efficient at supporting the larger weight.
(c) Answers will vary. Some effects in nature could be shorter maximum heights of plants and more powerful winds.
Examples of effects on human activities include different sizes of equipment used in sports (balls, bats, rackets, etc.)
and small sizes of some transportation vehicles, especially aircrafts.
Understanding Concepts
1. The weight of a space probe decreases as the probe travels away from Earth because the gravitational field strength of
Earth, gE, decreases. However, as it approaches the Moon, the space probe experiences the gravitational field strength of
the Moon, gM. There is a location where gE and gM are equal, but in opposite directions. At this location, the weight of the
probe is zero, although the mass of the space probe does not change. Since Earth is almost 100 times more massive than
the Moon, this location is much closer to the Moon.
2. (a) Let the subscript s represent the satellite.
m = 225 kg
M E = 5.98 ×1024 kg
rs = 8.62 ×106 m
rE = 6.38 ×106 m
r = rs + rE
GM E m
FG =
r2
(6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 × 10 24 kg)(225 kg)
=
(8.62 × 106 m + 6.38 × 106 m)2
FG = 3.99 × 102 N
The magnitude and direction of the gravitational force on the satellite is 3.99 × 102 N [toward Earth’s centre].
G G
(b) ∑ F = ma
G
G F
a= G
m
3.99 × 102 N [toward Earth's centre]
=
225 kg
G 2
a = 1.77 m/s [toward Earth's centre]
The resulting acceleration of the satellite is 1.77 m/s2 [toward Earth’s centre].
g r2
= 2
g s rE
g
r = rE
gs
9.8 N/kg
= 6.38 × 106 m
4.5 N/kg
r = 9.42 × 106 m
(9.80 N/kg)(rE 2 )
=
(3.20 N/m)
r2 = 1.75rE
Making Connections
10. Based on the data in Table 1, some astronomers might argue that Pluto should not be considered to be a planet because
the gravitational field strength of Pluto is so much smaller than the other planets. On average, Pluto’s gravitational field
strength is less than one-tenth the gravitational field strength of the other planets.
Understanding Concepts
1. The Moon does not fall into Earth because it travels at a specific speed around Earth. This keeps the Moon at an
approximately constant distance from Earth’s centre called the orbital radius.
2. Since the space probe is in a circular orbit, the direction of the gravitational force is perpendicular to the direction of the
instantaneous velocity. Thus, the force of gravity does not do any work on the probe, and there is no change in the kinetic
energy (or speed) of the probe.
3. Let the subscript s represent the satellite.
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
rs = 525 km = 5.25 × 105 m
r = rE + rs
GM E
(a) vs =
r
(6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 )(5.98 × 10 24 kg)
=
(6.38 ×106 m) + (5.25 ×105 m)
vs = 7.60 × 103 m/s
The speed of the satellite is 7.60 × 103 m/s.
Making Connections
10. Based on the data in Table 1, some astronomers might argue that Pluto should not be considered to be a planet because
the gravitational field strength of Pluto is so much smaller than the other planets. On average, Pluto’s gravitational field
strength is less than one-tenth the gravitational field strength of the other planets.
Understanding Concepts
1. The Moon does not fall into Earth because it travels at a specific speed around Earth. This keeps the Moon at an
approximately constant distance from Earth’s centre called the orbital radius.
2. Since the space probe is in a circular orbit, the direction of the gravitational force is perpendicular to the direction of the
instantaneous velocity. Thus, the force of gravity does not do any work on the probe, and there is no change in the kinetic
energy (or speed) of the probe.
3. Let the subscript s represent the satellite.
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
rs = 525 km = 5.25 × 105 m
r = rE + rs
GM E
(a) vs =
r
(6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 )(5.98 × 10 24 kg)
=
(6.38 ×106 m) + (5.25 ×105 m)
vs = 7.60 × 103 m/s
The speed of the satellite is 7.60 × 103 m/s.
=
(
2π 6.38 × 106 m + 5.25 × 105 m )
3
7.60 × 10 m/s
3
T = 5.71× 10 s
1h
The period of revolution of the satellite is 5.71 × 103 s or (5.71× 103 s) = 1.59 h.
3600 s
4. Let the subscript s represent the satellite.
MMoon = 7.35 × 1022 kg
rMoon = 1.74 × 106 m
GM Moon
vs =
r
(6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 )(7.35 × 1022 kg)
=
1.74 × 106 m
vs = 1.68 × 103 m/s
The speed of the satellite is 1.68 × 103 m/s.
Making Connections
6. Recommended web sites are:
www.space.com/spacewatch/space_junk.html
http://earthwatch.unep.net/solidwaste/spacejunk.html
Students are likely to encounter the following points about the problem of space junk:
• a study done in 1999 estimated 4 million pounds of space junk in low-Earth orbit
• objects that are baseball-size and bigger may threaten the safety of astronauts in space; collisions involving even the
smallest of objects may be damaging due to the high speeds of the objects
• the U.S. Space Command agency counted the number of objects in space as of June 21, 2000 and found 2671 satellites,
90 space probes, and 6096 chunks of debris
• some objects re-enter Earth’s atmosphere, but most burn up on re-entry, or land in water or uninhabited land
• NASA calculates that if the amount of debris equal to or larger than 1 centimeter exceeds 150 000, it could make space
flight impossible
PRACTICE
(Page 283)
Understanding Concepts
7. Relative to the rest of the solar system, Earth’s frame of reference is accelerating, so the geocentric model is the
noninertial frame of reference. The heliocentric model is an inertial frame of reference if the solar system is considered to
be isolated. However, it is a noninertial frame with respect to the Milky Way Galaxy and the rest of the universe.
8. Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) made precise, comprehensive astronomical measurements of the solar system and more than 700
stars. For 20 years, he made countless naked-eye observations using large instruments he made himself. He was able to
collect data for Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and Saturn, because those were planets that he could see. The other planets
were beyond his scope of vision and the telescope was not invented until the early 17th century.
9. Using Kepler’s second law, Earth sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals. Therefore, when Earth is closest to the Sun,
it is moving fastest. Conversely, if the orbit is divided into 180° “halves,” the portion closest to the Sun will have a smaller
area, and therefore a shorter time. Since there are three fewer days between September 21 and March 21, Earth must be
closest to the Sun at that time.
r3
10. The ratio 2 is calculated for each planet in Table 1.
T
Table 1
3 2
Object Mean Period of r ∝T
Radius of Revolution
Orbit (m) of Orbit (s) r3 3 2
C= (m /s )
T2
Mercury 5.79 × 10
10
7.60 × 10
6
3.36 × 10
18
Venus 1.08 × 10
11
1.94 × 10
7
3.35 × 10
18
Earth 1.49 × 10
11
3.16 × 10
7
3.31 × 10
18
Mars 2.28 × 10
11
5.94 × 10
7
3.36 × 10
18
Jupiter 7.78 × 10
11
3.75 × 10
8
3.35 × 10
18
Saturn 1.43 × 10
12
9.30 × 10
8
3.38 × 10
18
Uranus 2.87 × 10
12
2.65 × 10
9
3.37 × 10
18
Neptune 4.50 × 10
12
5.20 × 10
9
3.37 × 10
18
Pluto 5.91 × 10
12
7.82 × 10
9
3.38 × 10
18
All proportionality constants calculated in Table 1 are within 1.5% of the average value. This verifies Kepler’s third law.
11. (a) The average value (in SI base units) of the constant of proportionality in r3 ∝ T2 is 3.36 × 1018 m3/s2.
(b) CS = 3.36 × 1018 m3/s2 (from (a))
GM S
CS =
4π 2
C 4π 2
MS = S
G
(3.36 ×1018 m3 /s 2 )4π 2
=
6.67 ×10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2
M S = 1.99 × 1030 kg
The mass of the Sun is 1.99 × 1030 kg.
In the sample diagram above, the shape of each figure is approximately that of a triangle, so the approximate areas are:
1 1
A1 = b1h1 A2 = b2 h2
2 2
1 1
= (5.0 mm)(54 mm) = (12 mm)(22 mm)
2 2
A1 = 1.3 × 10 2 mm 2 A2 = 1.3 × 10 2 mm 2
In the diagram, d2 > d1, but t2 = t1, so v2 > v1.
Making Connections
14. (a) Let the subscript C represent the central body around which another body (subscript B) revolves in an orbit of known
GM C rB3 4π 2 rB3
period and average radius. Since = , the equation for the mass of the central body is M C = .
4π 2 TB 2 GTB2
Understanding Concepts
1. According to Kepler’s first law, a comet travels in an elongated elliptical orbit. Kepler’s second law implies that the
portion of the comet’s orbit closet to the Sun will have a much smaller area than the rest of its orbit. Thus, the time spent
in this region (where the comet may be visible to observers on Earth) will be far less compared to the total orbital period.
2. Kepler’s second law states that Earth sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals. Therefore, on January 4 when Earth
is closest to the Sun, it is moving most rapidly because the distance travelled is greatest for equal time intervals. The Earth is
moving least rapidly on July 5 when it is farthest from the Sun.
3. Although the nonrotating frame of reference is placed at the centre of the Sun, the Sun is in orbit around the centre of the
Milky Way Galaxy, so it is constantly accelerating. This means it is a noninertial frame of reference within the galaxy.
4. r = 4.8 × 1011 m
MS = 1.99 × 1030 kg
GM S
CS =
4π 2
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 )(1.99 × 1030 kg)
=
4π 2
CS = 3.36 × 1018 m3 /s 2
r3
CS =
T2
r3
T2 =
CS
(4.8 × 1011 m)3
T=
3.36 × 1018 m3 /s 2
T = 1.8 ×108 s
The orbital period of the asteroid is 1.8 × 108 s.
5. Let the subscript P represent the unknown planet.
r3
CS = E 2
TE
rP 3
CS =
TP 2
rP 3 rE 3
=
TP 2 TE 2
TP = 2TE
3
rP rE 3
=
(2TE )2 TE 2
4TE 2 rE 3
rP = 3
TE 2
= 3 4rE
rP = 1.6rE
The small planet would be 1.6 times farther from the Sun than Earth.
Making Connections
10. (a) Galileo was born near Pisa, on February 15, 1564. In 1609, after learning that a telescope had been invented in
Holland, he built his own telescope of 20 times magnification. The strength of this magnification allowed Galileo to see
mountains and craters on the Moon, and to discover the four largest satellites of Jupiter.
Tycho’s work was done between 1581 and 1601, during which he made numerous naked-eye observations with
large instruments. Kepler began analyzing Tycho’s data in 1601. In 1609, Kepler published his first two laws. He
published his third law in 1619.
(b) Relating Kepler’s third law and the law of universal gravitation, we find that the mass of Jupiter is given by
4π 2 rM 2
MJ = , where rM and TM are the radius of the orbit and period of revolution, respectively, of any moon around
GTM 2
Jupiter. Thus, Galileo would need to know the values of rM and TM for at least one moon, as well as the universal
gravitation constant, G.
(c) Calculating the mass of Jupiter was not possible until the value of G was determined, which was not possible until
Kepler’s third law was formed. (As mentioned in Section 3.3, it was Cavendish who first determined that value in
1798.)
Understanding Concepts
1. ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
m = 0.0123ME
r = 3.84 × 105 km
GM E m
Eg = −
r
GM E 2 0.0123
=−
r
(6.67 ×10 )( ) (0.0123)
2
−11
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg
=−
3.84 × 108 m
28
Eg = −7.64 × 10 J
The gravitational potential energy of the Earth-Moon system is –7.64 × 1028 J.
2. (a) m = 1.0 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
r = 1.0 × 102 km = 1.0 × 105 m
Making Connections
10. (a) Galileo was born near Pisa, on February 15, 1564. In 1609, after learning that a telescope had been invented in
Holland, he built his own telescope of 20 times magnification. The strength of this magnification allowed Galileo to see
mountains and craters on the Moon, and to discover the four largest satellites of Jupiter.
Tycho’s work was done between 1581 and 1601, during which he made numerous naked-eye observations with
large instruments. Kepler began analyzing Tycho’s data in 1601. In 1609, Kepler published his first two laws. He
published his third law in 1619.
(b) Relating Kepler’s third law and the law of universal gravitation, we find that the mass of Jupiter is given by
4π 2 rM 2
MJ = , where rM and TM are the radius of the orbit and period of revolution, respectively, of any moon around
GTM 2
Jupiter. Thus, Galileo would need to know the values of rM and TM for at least one moon, as well as the universal
gravitation constant, G.
(c) Calculating the mass of Jupiter was not possible until the value of G was determined, which was not possible until
Kepler’s third law was formed. (As mentioned in Section 3.3, it was Cavendish who first determined that value in
1798.)
Understanding Concepts
1. ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
m = 0.0123ME
r = 3.84 × 105 km
GM E m
Eg = −
r
GM E 2 0.0123
=−
r
(6.67 ×10 )( ) (0.0123)
2
−11
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg
=−
3.84 × 108 m
28
Eg = −7.64 × 10 J
The gravitational potential energy of the Earth-Moon system is –7.64 × 1028 J.
2. (a) m = 1.0 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
r = 1.0 × 102 km = 1.0 × 105 m
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 10 24 kg (1.0 kg )
6
6.38 × 10 m
Eg1 = −6.25 × 107 J
In orbit,
GM E m
Eg2 = −
r + rE
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 ×10 24 kg (1.0 kg )
5 6
1.0 × 10 m + 6.38 × 10 m
7
Eg2 = −6.15 ×10 J
Since EK = ∆Eg, EK = Eg2 –Eg1 where Eg1 is the gravitational potential energy on Earth’s surface and Eg2 is the
gravitational potential energy in orbit. Thus,
1 2 GM E m GM E m
mv = − −−
2 2rE rE
1 1
v = 2GM E −
rE 2rE
1 1
(
= 2 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 ×10 24
)
kg 6
− 6
6.38 × 10 m 2(6.38 ×10 m)
v = 7.91× 103 m/s
The object must be projected with an initial velocity of 7.91 × 103 m/s.
Making Connections
5. m = 5.00 × 102 kg
r1= 2rE
r2 = 3rE
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
(a) In the satellite’s initial orbit:
GM E m
Eg1 = −
r1
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg 5.00 ×10 2 kg )
6
2(6.38 × 10 m)
10
Eg1 = −1.56 × 10 J
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg 5.00 × 10 2 kg )
6
3(6.38 ×10 m)
10
Eg2 = −1.04 × 10 J
The gravitational potential energy in the satellite’s initial orbit is −1.56 × 1010 J. The gravitational potential energy in
the satellite’s final orbit is −1.04 × 1010 J.
(b) ∆Eg = Eg2 − Eg1
= −1.04 × 1010 J − (−1.56 × 1010 J)
∆Eg = 5.2 ×109 J
The change in gravitational potential energy from the first orbit to the second orbit is 5.2 × 109 J.
(c) W = ∆Eg
W = 5.2 × 109 J
The work done in raising the satellite as it moves from the first orbit to the second orbit is 5.2 × 109 J.
Understanding Concepts
6. The escape speed of a space probe depends on the mass of Earth, not on the mass of the probe, according to the equation
2GM E
v= .
r
7. MJ = 318 ME
rJ = 10.9 rE
2GM J 2GM E
vJ = and vE =
rJ rE
2G (318M E )
vJ 10.9rE
=
vE 2GM E
rE
2G (318M E ) rE
=
10.9r
E 2GM E
318
=
10.9
vJ
= 5.40
vE
The ratio of the escape speed from Jupiter to the escape speed from Earth is 5.40:1.
8. mMoon = 7.35 × 1022 kg
r = 3.84 × 108 m (from Earth’s centre)
GM E m
(a) Eg = −
r
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg 7.35 × 1022 kg )
8
3.84 × 10 m
28
Eg = −7.63 ×10 J
The gravitational potential energy of the Moon with respect to Earth is –7.63 × 1028 J.
(b) EK = ET – Eg
1
EK = Eg − Eg
2
1
= − Eg
2
EK = 3.82 × 1028 J
1 2
Since EK = mv
2
2 EK
v=
m
2(3.82 × 1028 J)
=
7.35 ×10 22 kg
v = 1.02 ×103 m/s
The Moon’s kinetic energy is 3.82 × 1028 J and its speed in orbit is 1.02 × 103 m/s.
1
(c) The Moon’s binding energy to Earth is ET = Eg = 3.82 × 1028 J.
2
1 1
( )( )(
= 6.67 ×10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg 2.0 ×103 kg 6
−) 5 6
6.38 × 10 m 2(5.0 × 10 m + 6.38 × 10 m)
∆E = 6.7 ×1010 J
The total amount of energy needed to place the satellite in circular Earth orbit is 6.7 × 1010 J.
1 GM E m
10. The binding energy of the satellite is . Thus, the additional energy that would have to be supplied to the satellite
2 r + rE
would be:
1 GM E m
E=
2 r + rE
1 GM E m
=
2 (r + rE )
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 10 24 kg 2.0 ×103 kg )
5 6
2(5.0 ×10 m + 6.38 ×10 m)
10
E = 5.8 ×10 J
Therefore, 5.8 × 1010 J of additional energy would have to be supplied to the satellite to allow it to escape from Earth’s
gravitational field.
11. T = 24 h = 24 h × 3600 s/h = 8.64 × 104 s
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
GM E
CE =
4π 2
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 ×10 24 kg )
2
4π
CE = 1.01×1013 m3 /s 2
r 3 = CE T 2
r = 3 CE T 2
2π r
v=
T
2π (4.23 × 107 m)
=
8.64 × 10 4 s
v = 3.1 × 103 m/s
The satellite’s speed in orbit is 3.1 × 103 m/s.
Making Connections
14. (a) m = 65.0 kg
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
On Earth’s surface:
GM E m
E=
rE
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg (65.0 kg )
6
6.38 × 10 m
9
E = 4.06 ×10 J
The binding energy of a 65.0-kg person on Earth’s surface is 4.06 × 109 J.
Understanding Concepts
GM E m
1. Escape energy = . Therefore, the escape energy is proportional to the mass of the object. Since the mass of a
rE
1500-kg rocket is three times the mass of a 500-kg rocket, the escape energy of the 1500-kg rocket will also be three times
as great as the escape energy of the 500-kg rocket.
2. The statement, “No satellite can orbit Earth in less than about 80 min” is correct. The minimum period of orbit for a
satellite corresponds to the radius of Earth.
GM E
CE =
4π 2
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m2 / kg 2 )(5.98 × 1024 kg)
=
4π 2
13 3
CE = 1.01× 10 m
rs3
Cs =
Ts 2
rE 3
TE 2 =
CE
(6.38 ×106 m)3
TE =
(1.01× 1013 m3 / s 2 )
= (5.07 × 103 s)(1 min/60 s)
TE = 85 min
Thus, the minimum period of orbit corresponds to 85 min.
3. (a) ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
mt = 1.2 × 103 kg (mass of the tank)
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
rt = 6.38 × 106 m + 2.0 × 106 m = 8.28 × 106 m
W=?
− = 1.7 ×107 J
2 2
(v′ )2 =
(
2 1.7 × 107 J )
m
v′ =
(
2 1.72 × 107 J )
m
=
(
2 1.7 ×107 J )
3
1.2 ×10 kg
v′ = 5.4 ×103 m/s
The speed of impact at Earth’s surface is 5.4 × 103 m/s.
4. EK = 5.0 × 109 J
Eg = −6.4 × 109 J
ET = EK + Eg
= (5.0 × 109 J) + (−6.4 × 109 J)
ET = −1.4 × 109 J
The binding energy of the space vehicle is 1.4 × 109 J.
5. m = 2.00 × 103 kg
r = 4.00 × 102 km = 4.00 × 105 m
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
GM E m
(a) Eg = −
r + rE
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg 2.00 × 103 kg )( )
5 6
4.00 × 10 m + 6.38 × 10 m
11
Eg = −1.18 × 10 J
Thus, the average value of gravitational potential energy of the satellite in orbit is −1.18 × 1011 J.
(b) EK = ET – Eg
1
= Eg –Eg
2
1
= − Eg
2
EK = 5.88 × 1010 J
Thus, the average value of orbital kinetic energy is 5.88 × 1010 J.
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 10 24 kg 2.00 × 103 kg )
5 6
2.80 × 10 m + 6.38 × 10 m
11
Egp = −1.20 × 10 J
To determine the satellite’s orbital speed at perigee:
1
EK = − Egp
2
1 2 1
mv = − (−1.20 × 1011 J)
2 2
1.20 ×1011 J
v=
2.00 ×103 kg
v = 7.74 ×103 m/s
The satellite’s orbital speed at perigee is 7.74 × 103 m/s.
6. m = 5.00 × 102 kg
r = 2.00 × 102 km
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
GM E m
(a) Eg = −
r + rE
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg 5.00 × 102 kg )
5 6
2.00 × 10 m + 6.38 × 10 m
Eg = −3.03 ×1010 J
The gravitational potential energy of the satellite is −3.03 × 1010 J.
(b) EK = ET – Eg
1
= Eg –Eg
2
1
= − (−3.03 × 1010 J)
2
EK = 1.52 × 1010 J
Thus, the average value of kinetic energy of the satellite is 1.52 × 1010 J.
1
(c) binding energy = Eg = –1.52 × 1010 J
2
Thus, the binding energy of the satellite while in orbit is –1.52 × 1010 J.
(d) To launch the satellite into orbit:
∆E = ET (in orbit) – ET (on Earth)
1
= Eg2 − Eg1
2
1 GM E m GM E m
=− −−
2 ( r + rE ) rE
1 1
∆E = GM E m −
rE 2(r + rE )
1
6.38 × 106 m
=
1 1
6
− 5 6
6.38 × 10 m 2(2.00 × 10 m + 6.38 × 10 m)
ET
= 1.94
∆E
The percentage increase in launching energy required for the satellite to escape from Earth is 94%.
7. (a) MS = 1.99 × 1030 kg
rS = 6.96 × 108 m
v = ? (escape speed)
2GM S
v=
rS
1 2
Now, EK = Et = mv
2
2E
v2 = K
m
2 EK
v=
m
2(9.53 ×108 (m) J
=
m
v = 4.37 ×10 4 m/s
The escape speed is 4.37 × 104 m/s.
1 1
v = 2GM Moon −
r
Moon 2 rMoon
1 1
(
= 2 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(7.35 × 10 22
)
kg 6
− 6
1.74 × 10 m 2(1.74 × 10 m)
v = 1.68 × 103 m/s
An object projected from the Moon must have a speed of 1.68 × 103 m/s to reach an altitude equal to the Moon’s radius.
9. MS = 1.99 × 1030 kg
r = 15.4 km = 1.54 × 104 m
c = 3.00 × 108 m/s
2GM
r= 2
c
rc 2
M =
2G
(1.54 × 10 4 m)(3.00 × 108 m/s) 2
=
2(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )
M = 1.04 × 1031 kg
In terms of the Sun’s mass, the mass of the black hole is:
M 1.04 × 1031 kg
=
M S 1.99 × 1030 kg
M = 5.22 M S
Thus, the mass of the black hole is 5.22 MS.
Making Connections
12. The escape energy of an object from the Moon is much less than the escape energy of the same object from Earth. (In fact,
calculations show that the ratio of the escape energy from Earth is more than 22 times as great as that from the Moon.)
Thus, less fuel is required to send the spacecraft from the Moon to Earth than from Earth to the Moon.
Procedure
1. Changing the numerical values in the given data to megametres and gigajoules is suggested just to make data entry in a
software program easier. The results of the graphing and the analysis are not affected by this suggestion. The data are:
1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0 9.6 1.12 1.28 1.44 1.60
r (Mm)
−3.0 −1.5 −1.0 −7.5 −6.0 −5.0 −4.3 −3.8 −3.3 −3.0
Eg (GJ)
2 – 5. The four lines required on the graph are shown below.
Making Connections
12. The escape energy of an object from the Moon is much less than the escape energy of the same object from Earth. (In fact,
calculations show that the ratio of the escape energy from Earth is more than 22 times as great as that from the Moon.)
Thus, less fuel is required to send the spacecraft from the Moon to Earth than from Earth to the Moon.
Procedure
1. Changing the numerical values in the given data to megametres and gigajoules is suggested just to make data entry in a
software program easier. The results of the graphing and the analysis are not affected by this suggestion. The data are:
1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0 9.6 1.12 1.28 1.44 1.60
r (Mm)
−3.0 −1.5 −1.0 −7.5 −6.0 −5.0 −4.3 −3.8 −3.3 −3.0
Eg (GJ)
2 – 5. The four lines required on the graph are shown below.
Evaluation
(b) Answers will vary. An advantage of a spreadsheet program is that it performs calculations and plots relationships on
graphs very quickly. However, a disadvantage is that learning how to use the program for a specific application can be
more time consuming.
Synthesis
(c) Energy considerations are important in planning space missions in order to determine the amount of fuel required to
safely launch and transport the vehicles to and from the destination. The amount of fuel affects the total cost of any
mission.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 297)
Details on the diagram will vary. The figure below shows the start of the diagram. Urge students to add enough detail to help
them understand and remember as much as possible about the chapter.
True/False
1. T
2. T
3. T
Evaluation
(b) Answers will vary. An advantage of a spreadsheet program is that it performs calculations and plots relationships on
graphs very quickly. However, a disadvantage is that learning how to use the program for a specific application can be
more time consuming.
Synthesis
(c) Energy considerations are important in planning space missions in order to determine the amount of fuel required to
safely launch and transport the vehicles to and from the destination. The amount of fuel affects the total cost of any
mission.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 297)
Details on the diagram will vary. The figure below shows the start of the diagram. Urge students to add enough detail to help
them understand and remember as much as possible about the chapter.
True/False
1. T
2. T
3. T
Evaluation
(b) Answers will vary. An advantage of a spreadsheet program is that it performs calculations and plots relationships on
graphs very quickly. However, a disadvantage is that learning how to use the program for a specific application can be
more time consuming.
Synthesis
(c) Energy considerations are important in planning space missions in order to determine the amount of fuel required to
safely launch and transport the vehicles to and from the destination. The amount of fuel affects the total cost of any
mission.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
Make a Summary
(Page 297)
Details on the diagram will vary. The figure below shows the start of the diagram. Urge students to add enough detail to help
them understand and remember as much as possible about the chapter.
True/False
1. T
2. T
3. T
Multiple Choice
11. (a) g ∝ m
1
12. (d) g ∝
r
13. (c) v ∝ m
1
14. (d) v ∝
r
15. (a) area ∝ ∆t
2
16. (c) r ∝ 3 T 2 or r ∝ T 3
17. (a) r3 ∝ T2
1
18. (d) EK ∝
r
1
19. (e) Eg ∝ –
r
GM E
20. (c) Kepler’s third law allows us to determine Earth’s mass according to the equation CE = .
4π 2
1 GM GM
21. (c) Since g ∝ 2
, then r2 = 3r1. Using the equations g1 = 2 and g 2 = 2 :
r r1 3r1
GM
2
g 2 3r1
2
= = r1 = 1
g1 GM 3r1 9
2
r1
1
g2 = g1
9
22. (d) r1 = 4r2
GM S1 GM 2
v1 = and v2 =
4rS2 r2
GM E
v1 4r2
=
v2 GM E
r2
r2
=
4r2
v1 1
=
v2 4
v1 = 0.5v2
CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
(Pages 300–301)
Understanding Concepts
1. The escape energy (and thus the escape speed) from the Sun is much greater than that from Earth, so the rocket given the
speed needed to escape from Earth would not have enough speed to escape from the solar system. Space vehicles sent to
explore distant planets have a much lower binding energy by the time they reach those distant locations, and could acquire
enough energy to escape from the solar system by taking advantage of the force of gravity of the distant planet.
2. Since Earth rotates eastward, an eastward orientation of the rocket as it is being launched means that the rocket already
has a component of the required velocity before blasting off. This means that less energy will be needed to launch the
rocket eastward than would be required to launch it westward in order to achieve the same speed.
3. gU = 1.0 N/kg
MU = 8.80× 1025 kg
rU = 2.56× 107 m
CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
(Pages 300–301)
Understanding Concepts
1. The escape energy (and thus the escape speed) from the Sun is much greater than that from Earth, so the rocket given the
speed needed to escape from Earth would not have enough speed to escape from the solar system. Space vehicles sent to
explore distant planets have a much lower binding energy by the time they reach those distant locations, and could acquire
enough energy to escape from the solar system by taking advantage of the force of gravity of the distant planet.
2. Since Earth rotates eastward, an eastward orientation of the rocket as it is being launched means that the rocket already
has a component of the required velocity before blasting off. This means that less energy will be needed to launch the
rocket eastward than would be required to launch it westward in order to achieve the same speed.
3. gU = 1.0 N/kg
MU = 8.80× 1025 kg
rU = 2.56× 107 m
G GM
gE = 2 E
r
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 × 10 24 kg)
=
(3.07 × 108 m)2
G
g E = 4.23 ×10 −3 N/kg
G GM Moon
g Moon =
r2
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(7.35 × 1022 kg)
=
(2.30 × 108 m)2
G
g M = 9.26 × 10−5 N/kg
G
g T = g T,x 2 + g T,y 2
Since Mercury’s diameter is 0.38 times that of Earth’s, Mercury’s radius is also 0.38 times that of Earth. Therefore,
rM = 0.38 rE.
GM M
gM =
rM 2
GM M
gM =
(0.38rE )2
Substituting gM = 0.38 gE:
GM M
0.38 g E =
(0.38rE )
2
(0.38 g E )(0.38rE )
2
MM =
G
(0.38 ) (9.80 N/kg) ((0.38)(6.38 × 106 m) )
2
=
6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2
M M = 3.3 × 10 23 kg
Therefore, Mercury’s mass is 3.3 × 1023 kg.
7. v = 7.15 × 103 m/s
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
GM E
(a) v =
r
GM
r = 2E
v
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.98 × 1024 kg )
(7.15 ×10 )
2
3
m/s
6
r = 7.80 × 10 m
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.67 × 1026 kg )
(1.1×10 m/s )
2
4
=
(
2π 3.1 ×108 m )
4
1.1× 10 m/s
1 h 1 d
= (1.8 × 105 s)
3600 s 24 h
T = 2.1 d
The orbital period of Tethys is 2.1 d.
9. MS = 1.99 × 1030 kg
TV = 1.94 × 107 m
GM S
CS =
4π 2
r3
= CS
TV 2
TV 2 GM S
r3 =
4π 2
TV 2 GM S
r= 3
4π 2
(1.94 × 107 s) 2 (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(1.99 × 1030 kg)
= 3
4π 2
r = 1.08 × 1011 m
The average Sun-Venus distance is 1.08 × 1011 m.
10. ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
v = 9.00 km/s = 9.00 × 103 m/s
mR = 4.60 kg
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)(
N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 5.98 × 1024 kg )
(6.67 ×10 −11 2
N ⋅ m /s 2
)(5.98 ×10 24
kg )−1
(9.00 ×10 )
3 2
6
m/s
6.38 × 10 m 2
r ′ = 1.85 × 107 m
EB′ = − Eg′
GM E mR
= −−
r′
GM E mR
=
r′
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )
N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 5.98 × 10 24 kg ( 4.60 kg )
7
1.85 × 10 m
EB′ = 9.92 × 10 J 7
=
( )(
2 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 1.35 × 10 23 kg )
6
2.58 × 10 m
3
vesc = 2.64 × 10 m/s
The escape speed from Titan is 2.64 × 103 m/s.
At the surface of Titan, the rocket is at rest, so its kinetic energy is zero. Thus, its total energy is Eg and the escape
energy is the extra energy needed to give the rocket a total energy of zero.
Eg + Eesc = 0
Eesc = − Eg
GM T mR
= − −
rT
GM T mR
=
rT
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m2 /s 2 1.35 × 1023 kg 2.34 × 103 kg )
6
2.58 × 10 m
Eesc = 8.17 × 109 J
The escape energy is 8.17 × 109 J. This value can also be found by using the escape speed of the rocket in the equation
1
EK = mR (vesc ) .
2
2
12. ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 6.38 × 106 m
mR = 1.00 × 104 kg
rR = 1.00 × 1010 m
(a) Eg = ?
GM E mR
Eg = −
rR
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 5.98 × 10 24 kg 1.00 × 10 4 kg )
10
1.00 ×10 m
8
Eg = −3.99 × 10 J
The gravitational potential energy is −3.99 × 108 J.
(b) Since the total energy, EK + Eg, must be at least zero, the kinetic energy needed to escape is +3.99 × 108 J.
(c) vesc = ?
2GM E
vesc =
rR
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)(
N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 5.98 ×10 24 kg )
10
1.00 × 10 m
2
vesc = 2.82 × 10 m/s
The escape speed from this position is 2.82 × 102 m/s. The escape speed can also be found by applying the escape
2EK
energy found in (b) to the equation involving the kinetic energy, vesc = , where EK = Eesc.
m
13. MS = 1.99 × 1030 kg
ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
rE = 1.49 × 1011 m
GM S M E
Eg = −
rE
=−
(6.67 ×10 −11
)( )(
N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 1.99 × 1030 kg 5.98 × 1024 kg )
11
1.49 × 10 m
33
Eg = −5.33 × 10 J
The gravitational potential energy of the Sun-Earth system is −5.33 × 1033 J.
=
( )(
2 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 3.28 ×1023 kg )
6
2.44 × 10 m
v = 4.23 × 103 m/s, or 4.23 km/s
The escape speed from Mercury is 4.23 km/s.
(b) MMoon = 7.35 × 1022 kg
rMoon = 1.74 × 106 m
2GM Moon
v=
rMoon
=
(
2 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(7.35 ×10 22
kg )
6
1.74 × 10 m
3
v = 2.37 × 10 m/s, or 2.37 km/s
The escape speed from Earth’s Moon is 2.37 km/s.
15. (a) Mstar = 3.4 × 1030 kg
1.7 × 104 m
rstar = = 8.5 × 103 m
2
2GM star
v=
rstar
=
( )(
2 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 3.4 × 1030 kg )
3
8.5 × 10 m
8
v = 2.3 × 10 m/s
The escape speed from a neutron star is 2.3 × 108 m/s.
(b) c = 3.00 × 108 m/s
v 2.3 × 108 m/s
=
c 3.00 × 108 m/s
v
= 0.77
c
v
Thus, the percentage equals ×100% = 77% .
c
The escape speed from a neutron star is 77% the speed of light.
5.06 × 107 m
16. (a) r = = 2.53 ×107 m
2
v = 24 km/s = 2.4 × 104 m/s
2GM
v=
r
rv 2
M =
2G
(2.53 ×10 m )(2.4 ×10 m )
2
7 4
=
2 (6.67 × 10 N ⋅ m /kg )
−11 2 2
M = 1.1 × 10 26 kg
The planet’s mass is 1.1 × 1026 kg.
r′ r
1 1
v′ = 2GM S − + v 2
r′ r
( )(1.99 × 10 ) 2.8 × 10
1 1
( )
2
= 2 6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 30
kg 8
− 9
5
+ 3.5 × 10 m/s
m 1.4 × 10 m
v′ = 1.7 × 105 m/s
The proton’s speed is 1.7 × 105 m/s.
(b) vesc′ = ? (escape speed at the final position)
2GM S
vesc′ =
r′
2(6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(1.99 × 1030 kg)
=
2.8 × 109 m
vesc′ = 3.1× 105 m/s
The escape speed is 3.1 × 105 m/s at the location indicated; this is greater than the speed found in (a), so the proton will
not escape.
18. When light strikes a piece of black paper, a small portion of the light is reflected. However, when light strikes a black
hole, the light is absorbed, making the black hole even blacker than black paper.
19. m = 1.1 × 1011 MS
MS = 1.99 × 1030 kg
c = 3.00 × 108 m/s
2GM
r= 2
c
2(6.67 ×10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(1.1× 1011 (1.99 × 1030 kg))
=
(3.00 × 108 m/s)2
r = 3.2 ×1014 m
The Schwartzschild radius of the black hole is 3.2 × 1014 m.
21. (a) Some students may think the problem makes sense. However, many students will realize that the (theoretical) radius of
an orbit that has a period of 65 min would be less than Earth’s radius. (Students may recall that the typical orbital
period of a satellite in low-altitude orbit is about 80 min. For example, see question 22 on page 168 of the text.)
(b) ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
T = 65 min = (65 min)(60 s/min) = 3.90 × 103 s
r=?
r 3 GM E
=
T2 4π 2
GM E 2
r3 = 2
T
4π
GM ET 2
r= 3
4π 2
(6.67 ×10 )( )( )
−11 2
3
N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 5.98 × 1024 kg 3.90 ×103 s
=
4π 2
r = 5.36 × 106 m
The theoretical radius of the orbit is 5.36 × 106 m.
(c) Earth’s radius (6.38 × 106 m) is larger than the theoretical radius found in (b), so the calculated orbit cannot exist.
(d) The skill of analyzing a situation is valuable in order to reduce the chances of wasting time on calculations that don’t
make sense and to increase the chances of being able to estimate whether or not a solution to a problem is logical.
=
( )(
− 6.38 ×106 m −1.0 × 1011 J )
(6.67 ×10 −11 2
N ⋅ m /kg 2
)(5.98 ×10 24
kg )
3
m = 1.6 × 10 kg
The rocket’s mass is 1.6 × 103 kg.
(b) The escape energy can be determined using the value of gravitational potential energy at rest (1.0 × 1011 J).
(c) The launch speed of the rocket can be calculated using the value of the initial kinetic energy EK (on Earth’s surface at
rE). From the graph EK = –12 × 1010 J = –1.2× 1011 J.
1
EK = mv 2
2
2 EK
v=
m
2(1.2 × 1011 J)
=
1.6 × 103 kg
v = 1.2 ×10 4 m/s
The launch speed is 1.2 × 104 m/s.
(d) Extrapolating from the graph, the kinetic energy EK, approaches 2.0 × 1010 J as the distance approaches infinity, where
Eg would approach zero. This can be approximated: at 5rE, the kinetic energy is 4.0 × 1010 J and Eg is –2.0 × 1010 J.
1
EK = mv 2
2
2 EK
v=
m
2(2.0 ×1010 J)
=
1.6 × 103 kg
v = 5.0 ×103 m/s
The speed is 5.0 × 103 m/s.
Making Connections
23. (a) Turning the high-speed craft around would require a fairly large amount of energy, so mission control decided to have
the craft continue on toward the Moon. The idea was to take advantage of the Moon’s gravity to act as a sort of sling-
shot to help the craft accelerate in turning around and begin its return journey at the highest speed possible.
(b) One major risk was the chance that there would not be enough electrical power available to guide the craft around the
Moon at the most crucial times.
Extension
24. Let L represent the large planet and S represent the small planet.
rL = 2rS
DL = DS (densities)
The centripetal acceleration of the satellite is caused by the force of gravity in each case. Thus, using magnitudes:
mv 2 4π 2 mr
ΣF = mac = =
r T2
GMm 4π 2 mr
=
r2 T2
3
r GM
2
=
T 4π 2
T 2 4π 2
=
r 3 GM
TL 2 4π 2
3
rL = GmL
TS2 4π 2
3
rS GmS
TL 2 rS3 mS
3
× 2
=
rL TS mL
TL 2 rL3 mS
2
= 3
×
TS rS mL
r 3 m
TL 2 = TS2 L3 S
rS mL
3 3
2 1
TL 2 = TS2
1 2
TL 2 = TS2
TL = TS
The shortest possible period is 40 min.
25. Since the radius of the path is 2.0 × 1011 m, the distance between the stars is 2(2.0 × 1011 m) = 4.0 × 1011 m,
MS = 3.0 × 1030 kg (mass of each star). The only force acting on each star is the force of gravity of the other star, which
causes the circular motion of one star around the other.
( )
3
16π 2 2.0 × 1011 m
=
(6.67 ×10 −11
)(
N ⋅ m 2 /s 2 3.0 × 1030 kg )
T = 7.9 × 107 s
The period of one complete cycle is 7.9 × 107 s.
1
26. E is the amount of energy per unit area, and that area is proportional to , where r is the distance from the Sun to the
r2
planet, so:
1
E∝
r2
k
E= 2
r
−4
E = (constant)T 3
−4
Thus, E is proportional to T 3 . (Solving for the “constant” is unnecessary.)
The three options in this task relate most directly to the principles studied in Chapters 4 and 5. Thus, a good time to discuss the
options with the students is at the start of Chapter 5. Share with the students the method of assessment you intend to use with
the task.
The first two options are research-oriented. Option 1 involves a sport, activity, or piece of equipment of the student’s own
choice. Option 2 is somewhat more complex because the students are required to identify the social issues involved before
they research and analyze them. Option 3 is a hands-on option that is an alternative to the typical egg-drop device.
Students can refer to Appendix A4, text page 767, for a summary of technological problem solving.
Analysis
As in the Unit 1 Performance Task, the answers to the Analysis questions depend on various factors, particularly the choice of
options. With any of the three options, students are urged to create their own questions and answer them, a feature that helps to
make the task more open-ended.
Evaluation
Here the students evaluate their own task. Answers will depend on the option chosen.
(Pages 304–306)
True/False
1. F One joule is one kilogram metre squared per second squared.
2. T
3. F The thermal energy will be the same if the size of the force of kinetic friction is the same.
4. F The impulse is the change in momentum.
5. T
6. F The only type of collision in which momentum is not conserved is one with a net external force.
7. F The gravitational field strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
8. F The work done on the satellite by Earth is zero.
9. F The geocentric model has Earth at the centre of the universe.
10. F The Sun is located at one focus of a planets orbit.
11. F The speed in orbit depends on the location in the elliptical orbit.
12. F A black hole has an extremely strong gravitational field.
13. T
14. F No form of electromagnetic radiation can escape.
Multiple Choice
15. (c) Assuming a mass of 75 kg, and a height of 1.8 m:
W = ∆Eg
= mg ∆y
= (75 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(1.8 m)
W = 1.3 × 103 J
The power of 10 is 103.
h
Since sin β =
L
h
L=
sin β
FA h cos φ
Therefore, W = .
sin β
19. (e) The force is always perpendicular to the motion.
1 m
20. (c) EK = m + v 2
2 5
= (0.5)(1.2m)v 2
EK = 0.6mv 2
1 m m 2
EK′ = m + + (0.80v)
2 5 5
= (0.5)(1.4m)(0.64v 2 )
= 0.448mv 2
= 0.75(0.6mv 2 )
EK′ = 0.75 EK
21. (e) All three stones have the same initial total energy, and they all lose the same amount of gravitational energy. Therefore,
they will all have the same increase in kinetic energy when they reach the water (even though they will reach the water
at different times).
22. (d)
23. (c) To conserve momentum, the same mass must have the same velocity if all of the energy was given to the billiard ball
that was stationary.
24. (a) Escape speed is defined as the speed needed to escape from the surface. The current kinetic energies of the rockets are
not relevant.
25. (c) The initial kinetic and gravitational energies are the same, giving a total energy of zero.
26. (a) Escape energy is defined as the energy needed to escape from the surface. The current kinetic energies of the rockets
are not relevant.
1
27. (d) The gravitational field is proportional to 2 .
r
3
28. (d) r ∝ M
Completion
29. (a) Galileo Galilei
(b) Johannes Kepler
(c) James Prescott Joule
(d) Tycho Brahe
(e) Robert Hooke
(f) Karl Schwartzschild
30. (a) work
(b) the force constant of a spring
(c) impulse
(d) force
(e) thermal energy
(f) the mass of Earth
31. completely inelastic; equals; completely inelastic collision
32. zero
33. a singularity; Schwartzschild radius
(Pages 307–311)
Understanding Concepts
1. One situation is a person carrying a book at a constant height across a level floor. A satellite in circular orbit or pushing
on a brick wall are two other examples.
2. The work done is transformed into another form of energy. One example is pushing a crate across a level floor. The work
done is transformed into thermal energy through friction.
3. Momentum and energy can be related as follows:
mv 2
EK =
2
m2v 2
=
2m
p2
EK =
2m
p = 2mEK
If both the baseball and the shot have the same kinetic energy, the shot will have a larger momentum because it has the
larger mass.
4. If both objects have the same kinetic energy, they both require the same amount of work done on them to stop them. If the
frictional force is the same and the work done is the same, the distance the frictional force acts is the same. Therefore, the
two toboggans will have the same stopping distance.
5. During the collision, the initial kinetic energy of the carts is stored as elastic potential energy in the spring.
6. Several common devices that can store elastic potential energy are an elastic band, a bow for shooting arrows, golf balls,
and a bungee cord.
7. Bumpers made of springs are impractical because the kinetic energy of the collision would be stored in the spring, and
then converted back into kinetic energy again. This last stage could project the car into oncoming traffic or concrete
barriers and cause further collisions.
8. One possibility is:
9. m = 1.5 ¯ 103 kg
∆d = 0.5 m
F = 3.5 ¯ 105 N
h=?
The work done is equal to the area under the graph, therefore:
1
W = bh
2
1
= (2.00 m)(10 N)
2
W = 1.0 × 101 J
The amount of work done is 1.0 ¯ 101 J.
(b) d = b = 3.00 m
EK = ?
= 2(5.0 kg)(5.0 × 10 2 J)
p = 71 kg ⋅ m/s
The momentum of the sled is 71 kg⋅m/s.
13. x1 = 0.10 m
F = 5.0 N
m = 4.5 kg
v = 2.0 m/s
x2 = ?
At minimum separation, the two velocities of the carts will be the same, therefore:
m1v1 = (m1 + m2 )v ′
m1v1
v′ =
m1 + m2
(2.4 kg)(1.5 m/s)
=
2.4 kg + 3.6 kg
v′ = 0.60 m/s [W]
The velocity of each cart will be 0.60 m/s [W].
ET = ET′
1 1 1 1
m1v12 + m2 v22 = m1v1′2 + m2 v2′2
2 2 2 2
m1v12 + 0 = m1v1′2 + m2 v2′2
m1v12 − m1v1′2 = m2 v2′2
m1 (v12 − v1′2 ) = m2 v2′2
m2 v2′2
m1 =
v12 − v1′2
m2 v2′2
m1 = (Equation 2)
(v1 + v1′ )(v1 − v1′ )
m2 = 2.0 ¯ 103 kg
G
v2 = 2.4 ¯ 101 m/s [E]
m1 = 3.6 ¯ 103 kg
G
v1 = 1.0 ¯ 101 m/s [S]
v=?
The momentum of the car and truck coupled together after the collision:
G G 2 G 2
′ = p1 + p2
p12
To calculate the final velocity of the car and truck coupled together:
G
′ = m12 v12
p12 ′
G
p′
′ = 12
v12
m12
6.0 × 104 kg ⋅ m/s
=
3.6 ×103 kg + 2.0 × 103 kg
= 10.714 m/s
′ = 11 m/s
v12
G
p
tan θ = G 1
p2
G
p1
−1
θ = tan G
p2
3.6 ×10 4 kg ⋅ m/s
= tan −1 4
4.8 ×10 kg ⋅ m/s
θ = 37°
The final speed of the cars is 11 m/s [37º S of E].
26. (a) m1 = 2.3 ¯ 104 kg
v1 = 15 m/s [51° S of W]
m2 = 1.2 ¯ 104 kg
v´ = 11 m/s [35° S of W]
Units have been omitted until the final step for clarity. Using the cosine law:
p22 = p12 + p12
′2 − 2 p1 p12
′ cos θ
m22 v22 = m12 v12 + m12
2 2
′ − 2(m1v1 )(m12 v12
v12 ′ ) cos θ
m12 v12 + m12
2
′2 − 2(m1v1 )(m12 v12
v12 ′ ) cos θ
v2 =
m22
(2.3 × 104 ) 2 (15)2 + (2.3 ×10 4 + 1.2 × 10 4 ) 2 (11) 2 − 2(2.3 × 10 4 )(15)(2.3 × 104 + 1.2 × 104 )(11) cos16°
=
(1.2 ×104 )2
= 9.0871 m/s
v2 = 9.1 m/s
sin φ sin θ
=
p1 p2
p sin θ
φ = sin −1 1
p2
m v sin θ
= sin −1 1 1
m2 v2
(2.3 × 104 kg)(15 m/s) sin16°
= sin −1 4
(1.2 × 10 kg)(9.0871 m/s)
φ = 61°
Since 61º – 35º = 26º, the initial velocity of the second truck was 9.1 m/s [26º N of W].
(b) % lost = ?
E − ET′
% lost = T × 100%
ET
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1v1 + m2 v2 − m1v1′ + m2 v2′
2 2 2 2
= × 100%
1 2 1 2
m1v1 + m2 v2
2 2
m v + m2 v2 − m1v1′ − m2 v2′2
2 2 2
= 11 × 100%
m1v12 + m2 v22
m1v12 − m1v1′2 + m2 v22 − m2 v2′2
= × 100%
m1v12 + m2 v22
m1 (v12 − v1′2 ) + m2 (v22 − v2′2 )
=
m1v12 + m2 v22
=
( 2 2
) (
(2.3 × 10 4 kg) (15 m/s ) − (11 m/s ) + (1.2 ×10 4 kg) (9.0871 m/s ) − (11 m/s )
2 2
) ×100%
4 2 4 2
(2.3 × 10 kg)(15 m/s) + (1.2 × 10 kg)(9.0871 m/s)
% lost = 31%
The percentage of the initial kinetic energy lost is 31%.
sin φ sin θ
=
p2 p′
p sin θ
φ = sin −1 2
p′
m v sin θ
= sin −1 2 2
mv′
(95 kg)(6.7 m/s) sin155°
= sin −1
(85 kg + 95 kg + 82 kg)(4.9 m/s)
φ = 12°
The final velocity of the combined players is 4.9 m/s [12º W of N]
28. We are most likely to see a comet when it is moving at its fastest speed. When a comet is within the solar system, it is at
its closest approach to the sun which means most of the comet’s energy is in the form of kinetic energy.
1 hr 1d 1a
1.9456 ×108 s × × × = 6.16 a
3600 s 24 h 365.26 d
The period of the asteroid’s orbit in Earth years is 6.16 a.
(b) v = ?
GM
v=
r
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(1.99 × 1030 kg)
=
5.03 × 1011 m
v = 1.62 ×10 4 m/s
The speed of the asteroid is 1.62 ¯ 104 m/s.
40.
Making Connections
44. (a) The jarring forces on your legs can be reduced when jogging by keeping your knees bent and allowing them to flex
with each step.
(b) By reducing the jarring, you reduce the forces applied internally in your legs. This helps prevent painful damage to
bones and tissue, such as cartilage, in the knee.
45. (a) An air bag is used to reduce injury in two primary ways. Because it is a bag, the force that stops a passenger in the car
is spread out over the entire surface of the body, not just a small area such as the points the hands contact on the
steering wheel. This reduces the pressure on the person’s body. The second way the airbag reduces injury is by slowing
the person down over a longer period of time. This increase in stopping time significantly reduces the total force
required to bring the passenger to rest.
(b) Other safety devices that used to help are:
• crumple zones in a car
• snug fit and padding of any type of helmet
• design of protective equipment (such as shin pads)
46. r = 2.7 ¯ 1020 m
365.26 d 24 h 3600 s
T = 2.0 ¯ 108 a = 2.0 ×108 a × × × = 6.312 ¯ 1015 s
1a 1d 1h
(a) M = ?
GM r 3
=
4π 2 T 2
4π 2 r 3
M =
GT 2
4π 2 (2.7 ×1020 m)3
=
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(6.312 × 1015 s)2
M = 2.9 × 1041 kg
The total mass of the stars at the hub of our galaxy is 2.9 ¯ 1041 kg.
Extension
47. m1 = 2.5 kg
v1 = 2.3 m/s
m2 = 2.0 kg
v1 ´ = ?
v2 ´ = ?
To calculate the distance the plane will travel during the landing:
vf2 = vi2 + 2aP ∆d
vf2 − vi2
∆d =
2 aP
(16.67 m/s)2 − (50 m/s)2
=
2(−2.45 m/s 2 )
∆d = 453.5 m
To calculate the distance the barge will travel during the landing:
vf2 = vi2 + 2aB ∆d
vf2 − vi2
∆d =
2aB
(16.67 m/s)2 − (0 m/s)2
=
2(1.225 m/s 2 )
∆d = 113.4 m
Therefore, the required length of the barge is 453.5 m – 113.4 m = 3.4 × 102 m.
4π 2 mC
k=
(0.901 s )2
(c)
(d) The typical elliptical orbits shown for most planets do not represent the true shape of the orbit. Most texts exaggerate
the length of the orbit for effect. Even the most elongated orbits have the Sun close to the centre of the ellipse.
52. Let the subscript X represent the planet and E represent Earth.
1
mX = ME
10
1
rX = rE
2
FgE = 6.1 ¯ 102 N
FgX = ?
Also,
GM E
gE =
rE2
GM X
gX =
rX2
1
G ME
10
= 2
1
rE
2
1
10 GM E
=
1 rE2
4
4
= (gE )
10
g X = 0.4 g E